# Determinants of the choice of water supply strategies in informal settlements in the town of Koudougou, Burkina Faso

Nadège Compaore-Bambara, Sawadogo Tewendé Antoine Marie, Yameogo Joseph

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Nadège Compaore-Bambara, Sawadogo Tewendé Antoine Marie, Yameogo Joseph. Determinants of the choice of water supply strategies in informal settlements in the town of Koudougou, Burkina Faso. World News of Natural Sciences (WNOFNS), 2025, 61 (2), pp.215-236. hal-05146895

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World News of Natural Sciences

An International Scientific Journal

WNOFNS 61(2) (2025) 215-236

EISSN 2543-5426

# Determinants of the choice of water supply strategies in informal settlements in the town of Koudougou, Burkina Faso

Nadège Compaore/Bambara<fnref n="1" />, Tewendé Antoine Marie Sawadogo<fnref n="1" />,*,
Joseph Yameogo<fnref n="2" />

*E-mail address: sawtewantmar@gmail.com

## ABSTRACT

The main objective of the study was to analyse the influence of socio-demographic factors on the choice of water supply strategies in the undeveloped areas of Koudougou. To this end, a survey was conducted among 335 households in the undeveloped areas of Koudougou. Secondary data were collected through a literature review. The survey data were processed using descriptive statistics and regression using SPSS Statistics 25 software. The results show that in the informal areas of the city of Koudougou, two strategies, namely the private strategy and the community strategy, are promoted by the citizens of these informal areas. The study also revealed that socio-demographic factors such as gender, education level, occupation and household size influence the choice of drinking water supply in the informal settlements of Koudougou. Men have a strong preference for boreholes and hand pumps, while women choose sources closer to home, such as wells and standpipes. Socio-professional category and level of education are also important determinants of the choice of water supply strategies in the informal areas of Koudougou. Except for gender, the same factors influence the choice of private water supply strategies. The results highlight the importance of an integrated approach, taking into account gender and socio-demographic factors, to ensure equitable water supply adapted to the needs of the population in the informal areas.

**Keywords:** Determinant factors, strategy choice, water supply, informal settlement, city of Koudougou, Burkina Faso

<footnote n="1">¹ Department of Geography, Norbert Zongo University, Koudougou, Burkina Faso</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Department of Geography, Ziniaré University Center / Joseph Ki-Zerbo University, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso</footnote>
# 1. INTRODUCTION

According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2023), more than 2.2 billion people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water. Yet, limited access to potable water reduces life opportunities and significantly impacts public health. As noted by Watkins (2006), the use of unimproved water sources and inadequate sanitation is the second leading cause of child mortality globally. This situation is particularly alarming in sub-Saharan Africa, where nearly 60% of the urban population lives in informal settlements, often without adequate access to safe water. In Burkina Faso, the National Economic and Social Development Plan 2021-2025 (PNDES-II, 2021) identifies access to drinking water as one of the country's major challenges, especially in rapidly expanding informal areas. Despite efforts by the government and its partners, the issue remains persistent, particularly in unplanned neighborhoods where infrastructure is severely lacking. In the informal settlements of Koudougou, the capital of the Centre-West region, informal urbanization driven by rapid demographic growth coexists with an acute infrastructure deficit. The informal nature of these areas creates a unique dynamic in which the state often appears reluctant to intervene meaningfully. This lack of formal intervention results in a void that directly affects the availability of essential services, particularly access to potable water. Consequently, various adaptive water supply strategies have emerged in these informal zones, with populations often forced to rely on unsafe water sources, exposing them to serious health risks and reinforcing socio-economic inequalities (Akpabio et al., 2021; Kimani-Murage & Ngindu, 2007; Yameogo et al., 2022). Furthermore, the choice of water supply strategies is generally influenced by sociodemographic factors. However, very few studies have focused on this issue. This research aims to fill that gap. The central hypothesis underpinning this study is that sociodemographic characteristics significantly influence the choice of drinking water supply strategies in the informal areas of Koudougou. The objective of this study is therefore to analyze the extent to which sociodemographic factors shape household decisions regarding water supply in the unplanned settlements of Koudougou.

# 2. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

## 2.1. Literature Review

Access to safe drinking water remains a central development challenge in cities of developing countries, where spatial and social disparities in water supply persist, particularly in informal settlements or unplanned areas. In these zones, insecure land tenure often hinders public service interventions, compelling residents to develop alternative strategies, whether individual or community-based (Angoua et al., 2018; Yameogo et al., 2022). Yet, despite the diversity of these local initiatives, the literature still lacks comprehensive cross-analyses that rigorously articulate sociodemographic determinants with a detailed typology of water supply modes. Several studies have shown that gender, education level, income, and household size significantly influence the choice of drinking water sources (Agbadi et al., 2019; Armah et al., 2018; Morakinyo et al., 2015). Female-headed households tend to favor “improved” sources such as boreholes and private connections, although some researchers have observed the opposite in certain cultural contexts (Simelane et al., 2020). Similarly, a higher level of education facilitates access to such sources, as educated household heads are often better
informed about health issues and possess the necessary resources (Briand et al., 2009). Moreover, socioeconomic status not only conditions access to water but also determines the contractual form adopted: wealthier households often subscribe to formal connections, while low-income families rely on occasional purchases (Schleich & Hillenbrand, 2009; Sukami et al., 2021). Other factors, such as distance to water points, land tenure status, or support from local NGOs, also play a role, though they are less consistently analyzed.

Several academic works have proposed classifications of water supply modes based on these determinants. Morakinyo et al. (2015), for instance, distinguish private supply, relying on individual wells and boreholes often accessible to households with sufficient financial means, from community supply, involving standpipes or boreholes collectively managed by local committees (Agbadi et al., 2019; Simelane et al., 2020). Additionally, Schleich & Hillenbrand (2009) emphasize the importance of the informal sector, where water vendors, through sachets or tanker trucks, meet the needs of the most vulnerable or those living far from official water points.

The diversity of water sources mobilized in informal neighborhoods has contrasting effects on public health and the environment, as highlighted in the literature. Indeed, several studies point to the health risks associated with certain forms of supply. According to Nanfack et al. (2014), the absence of adequate sanitation facilities and the unsanitary conditions surrounding water points are believed to be the main causes of poor water quality. Uncovered wells, for example, promote the transmission of waterborne diseases such as amoebic dysentery or diarrhea, while poorly maintained boreholes may foster bacterial proliferation (Kimani-Murage & Ngindu, 2007; Ngounou et al., 2007). These observations are supported by empirical data from similar urban contexts in Africa. In Ngaoundéré, for example, nearly 40% of residents suffer from amoebic dysentery, 12.5% from diarrhea, and 8.8% from typhoid, all diseases closely linked to the use of wells and hand pumps (Kouye, 2020). In Bafoussam, correlations have been established between contaminated water consumption and increased cases of malaria, as well as skin and respiratory infections (Donfack et al., 2020). In Burkina Faso, Rouamba et al. (2016) note that in Ouagadougou, unsanitary conditions around water points lead to a rise in malaria and diarrheal infections.

Finally, the issue of water governance arises with urgency, revealing a tension between community resilience and institutional frameworks. It appears that community management committees often ensure infrastructure maintenance and strengthen local solidarity (Simelane et al., 2020; Yameogo et al., 2022). However, these initiatives remain vulnerable without adequate institutional support and a clear regulatory framework (Sukami et al., 2021). In medium-sized cities like Koudougou, the limited capacity of local authorities to regulate the informal sector further increases the population's reliance on community-based and informal solutions.

In light of existing research, two major gaps emerge. On the one hand, few studies comprehensively cross household sociodemographic attributes with a detailed typology of water supply strategies. On the other hand, rapidly urbanizing secondary cities, such as Koudougou, remain largely underrepresented in the literature. This study thus seeks to fill these gaps by analyzing the link between household characteristics and water supply modes in Koudougou's informal neighborhoods. In practical terms, the findings may inform the implementation of targeted subsidies, the strengthening of community water management committees, and the development of public-private partnerships, all aimed at improving access to safe drinking water and reducing health risks in these informal urban areas.
## 2. 2. Method and study area

### 2. 2. 1. The Study Area

The urban agglomeration of Koudougou spans a radius of 15 kilometers and includes 10 districts (referred to as *secteurs*). It is bounded to the north by the villages of Toèga, Lattou, and Nayalgué; to the east by the villages of Doulou and Villy; to the south by the villages of Kolgorgogo, Sigoguen, and Péyiri; and to the west by the Sanguié Province. The city is crossed by the railway line that connects Bobo-Dioulasso to the capital, Ouagadougou, as well as by National Roads No. 13 (towards Yako), No. 14 (towards Dédougou), and No. 21 (towards Réo, Toma, and Tougan). The map below shows the location of the city of Koudougou.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Informal Settlements (Non-Lotted Zones) in the City of Koudougou.</figcaption></figure>

Due to rapid urban growth, the urban area of Koudougou is surrounded by informal settlements, referred to in this study as "non-lotted zones." These non-lotted zones are characterized by informal and unplanned land occupation. Housing, commercial activities, and social interactions coexist without any strict spatial organization. Indeed, these areas are not developed and, as such, lack proper spatial planning. Non-lotted zones typically lack adequate infrastructure for drinking water supply. The potable water distribution networks—such as
pipelines and household connections provided by the national water utility (ONEA)—are either limited or nonexistent in these areas.

## 2. 2. 2. Research Methodology

The research methodology involved the collection of both secondary and primary data, as well as the processing and analysis of the collected information.

### Secondary data

The secondary data collection involved gathering information from scientific research works found in the libraries of Norbert Zongo University, Joseph Ki-Zerbo University, and mainly from internet sources. This allowed for the exploitation of existing information and its use to better understand issues related to water supply in informal settlements.

### Primary data

Primary data were obtained through household surveys using questionnaires, geographic surveys, interviews, and direct observation.

* Questionnaire surveys

These were administered to the head of household in the informal settlements, or to their spouse, or another person with equivalent knowledge of the household's situation. The questionnaire was designed to collect sociodemographic and economic data on the surveyed households.

To determine the number of respondents, Cochran's formula (1963) was used as follows:

$$n_0 = \frac{Z^2 P (1-P)}{e^2} \qquad (1)$$

where:

n₀ = the target sample size.

Z = the confidence level set at 95%, corresponding to a Z-value of 1.96.

e = the margin of error, estimated at 5%, or 0.05.

P = the assumed proportion of the population with the relevant characteristics, estimated at 62% according to WHO and UNICEF (2014).

By applying this sampling formula, we estimated a target population of 362.03 households to be surveyed in all the informal settlements of Koudougou. Based on this, data were effectively collected from 335 households, distributed across the various informal settlements (see Table 1).

For analytical purposes, the study area was subdivided into three (03) categories based on population density:

**Zone 1** : informal settlements with high population density;

**Zone 2** : informal settlements with medium population density;

**Zone 3** : informal settlements with low population density.
The coverage rate achieved was 92.54%, which is considered satisfactory to ensure the representativeness of the results. This assessment is supported by the redundancy observed in the responses, reflecting a degree of data saturation, thereby reinforcing the validity of the collected information.

<table><caption>**Table 1.** Distribution of Surveyed Households by Informal Settlement Zones in Koudougou.</caption><thead><tr><td>Informal Settlement Zone</td><td>Number of Respondents</td><td>Percentage (%)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ZONE 1</td><td>159</td><td>47,46</td></tr><tr><td>ZONE 2</td><td>95</td><td>28,35</td></tr><tr><td>ZONE 3</td><td>81</td><td>24,17</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field survey, August–December 2023.

## ➤ Analysis of Collected Data

### • Descriptive Statistics

The processing of survey data was carried out using descriptive statistical methods, namely: citation frequencies, sum, and average. The formulas used are presented below :

Citation Frequency ($F_c$)

$$F_c = \frac{\text{Number of citations by respondents}}{\text{Total number of respondents}} \times 100 \qquad (2)$$

Sum (S)

$$S = \sum_{i=1}^{n} x_{i} = x_{1} + x_{2} + \cdots + x_{n} \qquad (3)$$

Average (M)

$$M = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} x_{i} \qquad (4)$$

These calculations were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 25, which allowed for the presentation of results in the form of tables, diagrams, and histograms. The QGIS 3.26 software was used for creating the maps.

### • Multinomial Logistic Regression

Multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze the factors influencing the choice of water sources in the informal settlements. This model allows for evaluating the effect of explanatory variables on a categorical dependent variable. This type of regression has previously been used by Agbadi et al. (2019), Briand et al. (2009), and Simelane et al. (2020)
in similar studies on the determinants of water source selection, which justifies its use in this study.

In our model, we have:

**Dependent variable:** the type of water source used by households (well, borehole, standpipe, sachet water, etc.)

**Explanatory variables** (see Table 2): Gender of the household head; Occupation of the household head; Educational level; Household size.

<caption>**Table 2** below presents the independent variables and their respective categories.</caption>

<table><caption>**Table 2.** Independent Variables and Their Description.</caption><thead><tr><td>Independent Variable</td><td>Description</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Gender</td><td>Dichotomous variable: 1 if female, 2 if male</td></tr><tr><td>Occupation</td><td>Continuous variable representing the respondent's occupation</td></tr><tr><td>Educational Level</td><td>Continuous variable representing the level of education</td></tr><tr><td>Household Size</td><td>Continuous variable representing the number of people in the household</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: The authors, october 2023.

As for the dependent variable, we retained “water source used vs. not used.” Thus, the multinomial logistic regression model can be written as follows:

In the dependent variable, the accepted modalities are:

1 = water source not used,

2 = water source used (borehole, well, hand pump, standpipe).

Let Pj (j = 1, 2, 3, 4) be the probabilities that a resident in an informal area adopts each water supply strategy. Assuming that j = 1 is the reference category, the multinomial logistic regression is estimated as a linear function of Xki for the individual i, as follows (Ubisi et al., 2017):

$$ \ln(p_j / p_1) = \log(p_j / p_1) = \beta_{0j} + \beta_{1j}X_{1i} + \dots + \beta_{kj}X_{ki} + \mu_{ji} \quad (5) $$

where: j = 2, 3, 4 and i = 1, 2, ..., n (urban residents);

Ln = logarithm (or log);

P1 = probability that the resident belongs to the reference category (strategy not adopted);

P2 = probability that the resident chooses the borehole as a water source;

P3 = probability that the resident chooses the well as a water source;

P4 = probability that the resident chooses the hand pump as a water source;

P5 = probability that the resident chooses the standpipe as a water source.
## 3. RESULTS

### 3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Surveyed Population

In this section, we present the sociodemographic profiles of the residents of the informal settlements in Koudougou to better understand their needs and constraints regarding water supply strategies. Beyond a simple description of proportions, we highlight contextual factors, methodological implications, and some additional interpretative insights.

#### 3.1.1. Sample Distribution by Gender

Table 3 below shows the distribution of surveyed individuals by gender in each zone. It highlights the overall male predominance as well as local variations between zones.

<table><caption>**Table 3.** Gender Characteristics of the Surveyed Population.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">ZONE</th><th colspan="2">Gender</th></tr><tr><th>Female (%)</th><th>Male (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>47,79</td><td>52,20</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>61,05</td><td>38,94</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>7,4</td><td>92,59</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>41,79</td><td>58,20</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field survey, August–December 2023

In the informal settlement areas of Koudougou, men appear to be slightly more numerous among the surveyed individuals (58.20%), while women represent 41.79%. However, this trend varies by neighborhood: in Zone 2, women are more numerous (61.05%), probably because they are more often at home managing domestic tasks, whereas in Zone 3, almost exclusively men respond (92.59%).

This reflects both a lower availability of women at the time of interviews and cultural norms that prioritize the head of the household. Many households in informal zones maintain patriarchal structures where the head of the family primarily answers the surveyors. When questions concern domestic management (including water), some women feel uncomfortable responding without the permission or even the presence of their husband or patriarch (Rouamba et al., 2016). Since our survey did not include a protocol ensuring the presence or systematic questioning of a person from each gender, there may be a risk of bias that distorts the understanding of internal household dynamics, particularly concerning water management. Indeed, numerous studies show that women are often the main persons responsible for the daily supply and management of water resources (Angoua et al., 2018; Yameogo et al., 2022).

Therefore, when the majority of respondents are male, some essential aspects might be underestimated, such as constraints related to water transportation or hygiene practices within the household. To mitigate this bias, it seems relevant in future surveys to specifically target a
female member of each household or to conduct interviews at times when women are more likely to be present.

### 3. 1. 2. Education Level of the Surveyed Population

Table 4 shows the distribution of the education levels of the respondents. It highlights the proportion of people with no education, primary, secondary, and higher education in each of the three zones.

<table><caption>**Table 4.** Characteristics of Surveyed Individuals by Education Level.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">ZONE</th><th colspan="4">Education Level</th></tr><tr><th>None</th><th>Primary</th><th>Secondary</th><th>Higher</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>14,5%</td><td>25,2%</td><td>24,5%</td><td>35,8%</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>15,8%</td><td>35,8%</td><td>18,9%</td><td>29,5%</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>28,4%</td><td>24,7%</td><td>21,0%</td><td>25,9%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>18,2%</td><td>28,1%</td><td>22,1%</td><td>31,6%</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field survey, August–December 2023

Regarding education level, nearly 82% of respondents have attended school at least, and more than one-third (31.6%) have reached a higher education level, whether it be a university, technical, or professional diploma. However, the distribution is not uniform: Zone 1 has the highest proportion of “higher education” respondents (35.8%), while Zone 3 has the largest share of people with no education (28.4%). It is well documented that education directly influences hygiene behavior and water treatment practices. Previous studies such as those by Rouamba et al. (2016) and Yameogo et al. (2022) emphasize that higher education levels often correlate with purification practices (filtration, boiling) and greater attention to hygiene. Therefore, when a significant portion of the population is illiterate, it is important to prioritize visual or oral materials to disseminate good practices.

### 3. 1. 3. Socio-professional Characteristics of the Sample

Table 5 details the socio-professional composition of the respondents, distinguishing farmers, traders, students, liberal professionals, and salaried workers according to the zone.

Regarding professional activities, the majority of households (46.9%) depend on informal trade, reflecting the economic nature of these neighborhoods where formal employment remains rare. By contrast, salaried workers represent a quarter of the sample (24.5%), while farmers are more present in zone 3 (21%) and nearly absent in zone 1. The dominance of informal trade reflects the economic character of these areas, where formal land is inaccessible due to high prices (Rouamba et al., 2016). Thus, incomes, often irregular for traders and farmers, may drive water supply strategies toward less costly options such as traditional wells, whereas salaried workers, benefiting from more financial stability, are more likely to regularly purchase bottled water or obtain water from a collective borehole.
<table><caption>**Table 5.** Professional Characteristics of Surveyed Individuals.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">ZONE</th><th colspan="5">Profession</th></tr><tr><th>Farmer</th><th>Trader</th><th>Student</th><th>Liberal Professional</th><th>Salaried Worker</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>8,8%</td><td>44,7%</td><td>0,6%</td><td>17,6%</td><td>28,3%</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>10,5%</td><td>52,6%</td><td>1,1%</td><td>15,8%</td><td>20,0%</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>21,0%</td><td>44,4%</td><td>0%</td><td>12,3%</td><td>22,2%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>12,2%</td><td>46,9%</td><td>0,6%</td><td>15,8%</td><td>24,5%</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field survey, August–December 2023

**3. 1. 4. Household Size of Respondents**

The following table illustrates the distribution of household sizes, grouping households by range in each zone.

<table><caption>**Table 6.** Household Size.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">ZONE</th><th colspan="6">Household Size</th></tr><tr><th>Less than 3</th><th>4 to 6</th><th>7 to 9</th><th>10 to 12</th><th>13 to 15</th><th>More than 15</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>25,2%</td><td>49,7%</td><td>21,4%</td><td>1,9%</td><td>1,3%</td><td>0,6%</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>21,1%</td><td>47,4%</td><td>14,7%</td><td>4,2%</td><td>7,4%</td><td>5,3%</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>21,0%</td><td>55,6%</td><td>18,5%</td><td>2,5%</td><td>0,0%</td><td>2,5%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>23,0%</td><td>50,4%</td><td>18,8%</td><td>2,7%</td><td>2,7%</td><td>2,4%</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field survey, August–December 2023

Household sizes are generally large: half of the households include 4 to 6 people (50.4%), and nearly 19% consist of 7 to 9 people. The average household size is 5.76 persons, with a median of 5. A few very large households (up to 40 individuals) skew the distribution upward, placing significant pressure on water resources. In such cases, water transport, often handled by women or teenagers, reduces the time available for income-generating or educational activities, and the cost of water supply becomes a major burden for these economically vulnerable families. Large households tend to opt for low-cost or free water sources (e.g., traditional wells, community boreholes) instead of regularly purchasing bottled or sachet water. Conversely, smaller households may afford more expensive sources (like sachet water or water sold by the bucket). In some cases, very large households live in shared or precarious housing,
where residential, commercial, and artisanal activities coexist. This raises risks to water quality, particularly due to shared storage tanks and poor hygiene conditions.

In conclusion, the sociodemographic breakdown (gender, level of education, occupation, household size) reveals a heterogeneous population, characterized by a strong presence of traders, a high average household size, and gender disparities that vary by zone. These data go beyond a simple profile: they shed light on household decision-making processes, economic leeway, and adaptive strategies in response to water-related constraints.

**3. 2. The Diversity of Drinking Water Supply Strategies in Informal Settlements**

Access to drinking water in the informal settlements of Koudougou revolves around community-based and private strategies, which reflect the institutional, economic, and social constraints faced by residents. In the absence of formal infrastructure, inhabitants deploy various solutions to meet their needs, oscillating between collective facilities supported by public or non-governmental actors and individual systems that depend on household financial capacity.

**3. 2. 1. Community-Based Supply Strategies**

Community-based drinking water supply strategies refer to the set of plans and actions implemented at the community level to ensure access to water. These strategies are designed to meet the drinking water needs of multiple households or individuals living in the same area or neighborhood. In Koudougou's informal settlements, community water supply strategies primarily take the form of standpipes, boreholes, hand pumps, and traditional wells, each shaped by different scales of operation and funding mechanisms.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

Fountain bollards

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** Main Community Water Sources.
Source: Field survey, August–December 2023.</figcaption></figure>
The fountain bollards are often installed by municipal services in collaboration with the National Office for Water and Sanitation (ONEA). They offer a relatively affordable access to potable water, with the filling of three 20-liter jerrycans costing about 25 FCFA. Thus, when respondents mention using fountain bollard, which Figure 1 shows as one of the main community-based sources, they refer to a solution considered both affordable and reliable, even if it sometimes requires walking several hundred meters, as fountain bollards are generally located at the edge of formal neighborhoods.

## ➤ Community Boreholes

Furthermore, community boreholes play a predominant role in local water supply. These boreholes, often located within compounds owned by associations or local cooperatives, serve both domestic consumption and the commercial sale of water, as illustrated in Photo 1. Similar to observations made by Rouamba et al. (2016) in other informal neighborhoods in Burkina Faso, the management of these boreholes is generally entrusted to a residents' committee responsible for organizing the supply, collecting contributions, and ensuring maintenance.

This results in a form of local governance which, while fostering solidarity, can sometimes suffer from limited resources for the long-term upkeep of the facilities.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Photo 1.** A community borehole in zone 2.
Source: Field survey, August–December 2023.</figcaption></figure>
As for manual pumps, illustrated in Photo 2, their distribution often relies on associative structures, partner projects, or public social institutions such as schools and health centers. The installation of a manual pump frequently involves collective financing, where each household contributes an initial payment and then participates in maintenance costs. Although the cost is generally low (about 25 FCFA for three 20-liter containers) and often free, this mode of water supply requires a significant physical effort, as each user operates the system by hand or foot power. Beyond the economic aspect, it is necessary to consider the energetic and social dimension. Vulnerable groups (elderly people, children) often depend on the help of a neighbour or relative to draw water, which increases intra-neighborhood dependency and underscores the need for ongoing local solidarity (Yameogo et al., 2022).

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Photo 2.** A community manual pump in Zone 1.
Source: Field survey, August–December 2023.</figcaption></figure>

On the other hand, traditional wells, although few in number, persist as an alternative when boreholes and pumps are unavailable. Access to these wells is often unrestricted, but the water quality can vary depending on their depth and maintenance. In many areas, households regularly compare the turbidity or taste of well water to other sources, a practice that influences
the choice of this source, which is often considered non-potable. Consequently, traditional wells, while remaining a backup solution, do not always represent a sustainable option, especially since their availability depends on the season. During the dry season, some wells dry up, forcing residents to travel longer distances.

### 3. 2. 2. Private Water Supply Strategies

Alongside these collective initiatives, a private logic is gradually developing, where households that have the means dig their own wells or invest in motorized boreholes.

#### Private Wells

Private wells, although shallow, offer the advantage of being accessible without recurring costs, which appeals to many families with fluctuating incomes. However, their vulnerability during dry periods sometimes limits their yield, forcing owners to turn to public standpipes and other community sources. In practice, private wells prove to be the most financially accessible solution for many households, as their digging and maintenance require a lower initial cost compared to a motorized borehole. Moreover, they are generally installed within the living quarters themselves, thus saving considerable time for families, especially those with irregular or modest incomes. However, although private wells are widespread, their depth is often insufficient to guarantee a year-round water supply, making them vulnerable to seasonal variations.

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3.** Private Water Supply Sources.
Source: Field survey, August–December 2023.</figcaption></figure>

#### Private Boreholes

Private boreholes, which are more expensive to install and maintain, are typically used by households with stable incomes or by groups of neighbors willing to pool costs. Once operational, they ensure a continuous water supply, reduce the time spent transporting water, and in some cases allow the resale of part of the production, thereby strengthening a form of
economic solidarity within the neighborhood. Photo 3 below shows a private borehole located
on a property in Zone 1.

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Photo 3.** A Private borehole.
Source: Field survey, August–December 2023.</figcaption></figure>

In conclusion, these strategies, both community-based and private, are interconnected and sometimes overlap. When one fails or becomes overloaded, for example, a manual pump breaks down or a public water tap is overwhelmed at the end of the day, residents immediately turn to private wells or boreholes, even if this involves a higher cost. Conversely, when a household's financial situation worsens, it may give up its private borehole and return to using community infrastructure. Ultimately, this complex supply landscape reveals the complementarity of collective and private approaches, while highlighting that the choice of strategy primarily depends on the household's sociodemographic characteristics. It is precisely this question of determinants that will be the focus of the following analysis, through a multinomial logistic regression aimed at determining the influence level of each sociodemographic factor on the choice of drinking water supply strategies.

**3. 3. Sociodemographic Determinants of the Choice of Community-Based Drinking Water Supply Strategies**

A multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze the relationships between the different variables presented in Table 7 below.
<table><caption>**Table 7.** Influence of socio-economic characteristics on the choice of drinking water supply strategies in the non-housed areas of the town of Koudougou.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Socio-demographic strategies</th><th rowspan="2">B</th><th rowspan="2">Standard error</th><th rowspan="2">Wald</th><th rowspan="2">ddl</th><th rowspan="2">Sig.</th><th rowspan="2">Exp(B)</th><th colspan="2">95% confidence interval for Exp(B)</th></tr><tr><th>Lower terminal</th><th>Upper terminal</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="15">Fountain bollard</td><td>Constant</td><td>,822</td><td>,471</td><td>3,039</td><td>1</td><td>,081</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>[gender = Female]</td><td>-,114</td><td>,462</td><td>,061</td><td>1</td><td>,805</td><td>,892</td><td>,361</td><td>2,205</td></tr><tr><td>[gender = Male]</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = Farmer]</td><td>-1,202</td><td>,862</td><td>1,946</td><td>1</td><td>,163</td><td>,301</td><td>,056</td><td>1,627</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = retailer]</td><td>-,442</td><td>,593</td><td>,557</td><td>1</td><td>,456</td><td>,643</td><td>,201</td><td>2,054</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = student]</td><td>-,587</td><td>1,556</td><td>,142</td><td>1</td><td>,706</td><td>,556</td><td>,026</td><td>11,740</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = liberal profession]</td><td>-,306</td><td>,843</td><td>,131</td><td>1</td><td>,717</td><td>,737</td><td>,141</td><td>3,847</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = Employee]</td><td>0b</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Study level = No]</td><td>,616</td><td>,785</td><td>,616</td><td>1</td><td>,433</td><td>1,851</td><td>,397</td><td>8,624</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = Primary]</td><td>-,577</td><td>,591</td><td>,950</td><td>1</td><td>,330</td><td>,562</td><td>,176</td><td>1,791</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = Secondary]</td><td>-,121</td><td>,584</td><td>,043</td><td>1</td><td>,836</td><td>,886</td><td>,282</td><td>2,784</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = superior]</td><td>0b</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="15">Drilling</td><td>Constant</td><td>2,078</td><td>,417</td><td>24,882</td><td>1</td><td>,000</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>[gender = Female]</td><td>-1,123</td><td>,391</td><td>8,260</td><td>1</td><td>,004**</td><td>,325</td><td>,151</td><td>,700</td></tr><tr><td>[gender = Male]</td><td>0b</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = Farmer]</td><td>-1,585</td><td>,708</td><td>5,011</td><td>1</td><td>,025**</td><td>,205</td><td>,051</td><td>,821</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession= retailer]</td><td>-,311</td><td>,519</td><td>,359</td><td>1</td><td>,549</td><td>,733</td><td>,265</td><td>2,026</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = student]</td><td>-,760</td><td>1,349</td><td>,318</td><td>1</td><td>,573</td><td>,468</td><td>,033</td><td>6,575</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = liberal profession]</td><td>-,052</td><td>,715</td><td>,005</td><td>1</td><td>,942</td><td>,949</td><td>,234</td><td>3,854</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = Employee]</td><td>0b</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Study level =No]</td><td>1,419</td><td>,686</td><td>4,283</td><td>1</td><td>,323</td><td>4,132</td><td>1,078</td><td>15,841</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = Primary]</td><td>-,272</td><td>,501</td><td>,294</td><td>1</td><td>,587</td><td>,762</td><td>,285</td><td>2,035</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = Secondary]</td><td>,498</td><td>,504</td><td>,976</td><td>1</td><td>,038**</td><td>1,646</td><td>,613</td><td>4,421</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = superior]</td><td>0b</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td></td><td>Constant</td><td>,148</td><td>,554</td><td>,071</td><td>1</td><td>,789</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>[gender = Female]</td><td>-1,309</td><td>,530</td><td>6,096</td><td>1</td><td><strong>,014**</strong></td><td>,270</td><td>,096</td><td>,763</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>[gender = Male]</td><td>0b</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>[Profession = Farmer]</td><td>-1,657</td><td>,970</td><td>2,915</td><td>1</td><td><strong>,088*</strong></td><td>,191</td><td>,028</td><td>1,278</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>[Profession = retailer]</td><td>-,649</td><td>,757</td><td>,736</td><td>1</td><td>,391</td><td>,523</td><td>,119</td><td>2,302</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Manual pump</td><td>[Profession = student]</td><td>-18,405</td><td>,000</td><td>.</td><td>1</td><td>.</td><td>1,016E-8</td><td>1,016E-8</td><td>1,016E-8</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = liberal profession]</td><td>,012</td><td>,950</td><td>,000</td><td>1</td><td>,990</td><td>1,012</td><td>,157</td><td>6,507</td></tr><tr><td>[Profession = Employee]</td><td>0b</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>[Study level = No]</td><td>2,089</td><td>,925</td><td>5,098</td><td>1</td><td><strong>,024**</strong></td><td>8,080</td><td>1,317</td><td>49,559</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = Primary]</td><td>,816</td><td>,760</td><td>1,152</td><td>1</td><td>,283</td><td>2,260</td><td>,510</td><td>10,019</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = Secondary]</td><td>,614</td><td>,744</td><td>,682</td><td>1</td><td>,409</td><td>1,848</td><td>,430</td><td>7,946</td></tr><tr><td>[study level = superior]</td><td>0b</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td><td>.</td></tr></table>

Source: Field survey results, October-December 2023.

According to the data in Table 7, the choice of community water supply strategies in informal settlements is influenced by gender, occupation, and education level. Gender has a significant impact on the choice of boreholes as a drinking water supply strategy (p-value = 0.004), as do occupation (p-value = 0.025) and education level (p-value = 0.038). Women tend to use boreholes rather than manual pumps (p-value = -0.014) as water supply strategies compared to men. The physical effort required to operate the manual pump partly explains this tendency among women. Indeed, manual pumps are generally a last resort when boreholes or public taps are broken or located farther from households.

The influence of occupation is significant at the 10% level on the choice of community water supply strategies. Farmers are less likely to use boreholes and manual pumps compared to other strategies. This trend can be attributed to the relatively temporary residence of farmers in informal settlements, as they often migrate to rural areas during the rainy season. Their preference for rural water sources such as wells and rainwater could explain this behaviour.

The influence of education level on the choice of water supply strategies is highly significant. The higher the education level of the household head, the more likely the household is to use boreholes. Conversely, when the education level is low, manual pumps are more frequently used by urban residents in the informal settlements of Koudougou.

# 4. DISCUSSION OF STUDY RESULTS

## 4.1. Typologies of Drinking Water Supply Strategies in Informal Settlements

The results of this study highlight the diversity of water supply strategies in the informal settlements of Koudougou. Residents rely on various water sources such as boreholes, wells, standpipes, and manual pumps to meet their daily needs. This multiplicity of water sources is a
common characteristic of precarious urban areas in Africa, as confirmed by several studies. For instance, Yameogo et al. (2022) in Boromo (Burkina Faso), Angoua et al. (2018) in Côte d'Ivoire, Babette et al. (2020) in southern Douala (Cameroon), (Dombor & Djebe, 2019) in Abéché (Chad), and Kambiré & Ymba (2017) in Gagnoa (Côte d'Ivoire) observed similar findings. These authors note that many households in informal urban neighborhoods combine multiple water sources due to various factors such as water quality, cost, distance, and availability.

In informal settlements, having an on-premises water source, particularly a private borehole, is the ideal condition for better access to potable water with lower health risks. However, the installation of such facilities depends on several factors, notably the level of education and especially income (Compaore et al., 2025). In Koudougou, approximately 13% of households adopt these more convenient and secure water supply strategies. This trend aligns with the findings of Armah et al. (2018), who showed that in Sub-Saharan Africa, wealthy urban households are more likely to use improved water sources compared to poorer households.

Similarly, Briand et al. (2009) in Dakar (Senegal) demonstrated that households with higher education and income levels have a higher probability of having a private water connection at home. This link between income level and access to private water supply is also found in Congo, where higher income facilitates household connection to the LCDE (La Congolaise Des Eaux) network (Sukami et al., 2021). However, in Ouagadougou, income level does not necessarily influence private water source ownership due to a connection system established by the authorities in informal settlements that allows households to have private connections at home (Compaoré, 2017). Similarly, in Gobelet, an underprivileged neighborhood in the commune of Cocody in Côte d'Ivoire, residents have established an informal water supply network to access water (Koukougnon, 2015). However, this strategy is not without health risks.

## 4. 2. Determinants of the Choice of Community Water Supply Strategies

Several sociodemographic factors influence the choice of community water supply strategies in the informal settlements of Koudougou. Men tend to prefer boreholes and manual pumps, while women favor water sources that are closer and more accessible, such as standpipes or wells. These findings are consistent with previous studies. In Pointe-Noire, Congo, gender is indeed an important determinant of potable water supply modes. Among women, the probability of choosing the LCDE network connection increases by 10% more than among men Sukami et al. (2021). According to Armah et al. (2018), “Female-headed households were 17.6% more likely to have access to improved water sources compared to male-headed households”. Other studies conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa have shown that female-headed households are more likely to have access to a potable water source (Agbadi et al., 2019; Armah et al., 2018; Morakinyo et al., 2015). However, a study in Eswatini by Simelane et al. (2020) found that female-headed households were less likely to have access to potable water than male-headed ones.

Our study also shows that the level of education is a determining factor in the choice of water sources. Households headed by individuals with primary, secondary, or no formal education are more likely to choose boreholes as a community strategy compared to those with higher education levels. Conversely, for private strategies, the less educated the head of household, the less likely the household is to choose boreholes. Educated individuals are generally more aware of the conditions necessary to ensure their well-being and may have easier
access to resources that help create a healthy environment around them. According to Agbadi
et al. (2019), household heads with a certain level of education are able to mobilize their
resources to provide their households with improved water and sanitation facilities. These
findings are consistent with the results of similar studies conducted in Ghana (Adams et al.,
2016; Mahama et al., 2014), Nigeria (Abubakar, 2017; Morakinyo et al., 2015), and India
(Puguh & Sri, 2013). In contrast, Simelane et al. (2020) did not find a significant relationship
between access to potable water and education level in Eswatini. Angoua et al. (2018) add that
education level is not a critical factor for the success of water supply and sanitation
improvement actions.

Furthermore, the analysis of professions reveals that farmers and traders do not show a
significant preference for a particular water source compared to other occupational categories.
This indicates that farmer households favor easily accessible sources. These results align with
the findings of Sanou et al. (2023), who observed that faced with the drying up of nearby wells
and lack of transportation means to access other sources, farmers in Soum resort to water from
the dam as a temporary solution. A gender-sensitive approach, considering other
sociodemographic characteristics, can help ensure more equitable and adapted potable water
supply solutions tailored to the needs of local populations.

5. CONCLUSION

The study highlights the influence of sociodemographic factors on the choice of potable water supply strategies in the informal settlements of Koudougou. Men tend to prefer boreholes and manual pumps, while women favor nearby and easily accessible sources such as standpipes and wells. Education level, profession, gender, and household size also affect these choices, underscoring the need for an integrated and gender-sensitive approach to ensure equitable and adapted potable water supply solutions that meet the needs of local populations.

Furthermore, our study reveals that having a water source at home depends on household heads' income level, profession, and education. Policies aimed at improving access to potable water in informal settlements must therefore take these sociodemographic factors into account to ensure better resource distribution and greater social equity.

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