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# Lapidary craftsmanship in the Antilles during the Ceramic Period, a renewed and updated analysis

Alain Queffelec, Pierrick Fouéré, Ludovic Bellot-Gurlet, Benoît Bérard, Jean-Baptiste Caverne, Christian Stouvenot, Loup Bernard

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## ► To cite this version:

Alain Queffelec, Pierrick Fouéré, Ludovic Bellot-Gurlet, Benoît Bérard, Jean-Baptiste Caverne, et al. "Lapidary craftsmanship in the Antilles during the Ceramic Period, a renewed and updated analysis." 2022. hal-04089847

HAL Id: hal-04089847

https://hal.science/hal-04089847

Preprint submitted on 5 May 2023

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Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Lapidary craftsmanship in the Antilles during the Ceramic Period, a
renewed and updated analysis.

Artisanat lapidaire dans les Antilles durant la période Céramique, mise à jour et renouveau

La artesanía lapidaria en las Antillas durante el periodo cerámico,
actualización y resurgimiento

Queffelec Alain¹*, Fouéré Pierrick²,³, Bellot-Gurlet Ludovic⁴, Bérard Benoît⁵, Caverne Jean-Baptiste², Stouvenot Christian⁶,⁵, Loup Bernard⁷

1. UMR5199 PACEA, CNRS, Univ. Bordeaux, Ministère de la Culture

2. INRAP Grand-Sud-Ouest et Outre Mer

3. UMR5608 TRACES, CNRS, Univ. Toulouse Jean Jaurès

4. UMR8233 MONARIS, Sorbonne Université, CNRS

5. UMR8096 ARCHAM, Univ. des Antilles, CNRS, Univ. Panthéon Sorbonne, Ministère de la culture

6. DAC Guadeloupe, Ministère de la Culture

7. UMR7044 ARCHIMEDE, CNRS, Univ. Strasbourg

Very diverse lapidary artwork, both in style and raw materials, is one of the recognized specialty of Amerindian crafting during the Saladoid period in the Antilles area, and is thought to be less numerous and diverse in the following periods. These gemstones are very often referred to as “exotic” since they are not coming from the island where they have been discovered by archaeological excavations. Our recent work updates the previous data by studying newly excavated sites as well as refining ancient mineral characterizations. Exhaustive results for the French islands, combined to a literature-based database, allowed for the creation of an improved and renewed vision of the distribution of these numerous artifacts. Such an important database finally allows us to study the patterns in the lapidary production of the Ceramic Age in the Caribbean, both in terms of chronology and typology. This study lays the foundation for further work in the region, and present online tools developed with the aim of creating new collaborations on this subject.

Les parures en pierre, très diverses, tant par le style que par les matières premières, constituent l'une des spécialités reconnues de l'artisanat amérindien de la période saladoïde dans la zone des Antilles, et sont réputées moins nombreuses et diversifiées aux périodes suivantes. Ces pierres précieuses sont très souvent qualifiées d' “exotiques” car elles ne proviennent généralement pas de l'île où elles ont été découvertes. Notre travail récent met à jour les données précédentes en étudiant les sites nouvellement fouillés ainsi qu'en affinant les caractérisations minérales anciennes. Des résultats exhaustifs pour les îles françaises, combinés à une base de données bibliographique, ont permis de créer une vision enrichie et renouvelée de la distribution

<footnote>* corresponding author</footnote>
de ces nombreux artefacts. Cette importante base de données nous permet enfin d'étudier les schémas de la production lapidaire de l'âge Céramique dans la Caraïbe, tant en termes de chronologie que de typologie. Cette étude jette les bases de travaux à venir dans la région, et présente des outils en ligne, développés dans le but de créer de nouvelles collaborations sur ce sujet.

Las obras de arte lapidarias muy diversas, tanto en estilo como en materias primas, son una de las especialidades reconocidas de la artesanía amerindia durante el periodo saladoide en la zona de las Antillas, y se supone que son menos numerosas y diversas en los periodos siguientes. Estas piedras preciosas se califican muy a menudo de “exóticas”, ya que no proceden de la isla donde han sido descubiertas por las excavaciones arqueológicas. Nuestro reciente trabajo actualiza los datos anteriores mediante el estudio de los nuevos yacimientos excavados, así como el perfeccionamiento de las caracterizaciones minerales obsoletas. Los resultados exhaustivos para las islas francesas, combinados con una base de datos basada en la literatura, han permitido crear una visión mejorada y renovada de la distribución de estos numerosos artefactos. Esta importante base de datos nos permite finalmente estudiar los patrones de la producción lapidaria de la Edad de la Cerámica en el Caribe, tanto en términos de cronología como de tipología. Este estudio sienta las bases para futuros trabajos en la región, y presenta herramientas en línea desarrolladas con el objetivo de crear nuevas colaboraciones en este tema.

## Introduction

If the study of ceramic production is at the foundation of Caribbean archaeology and the production of shell tools and ornaments exceeds in quantity the production of these same objects made of stone during the Ceramic period, it must be noted that the study of lithic raw materials has also been included since the 1990s as one of the approaches that allows us to understand questions of territory and interactions between groups (Knippenberg, 2007; Rodriguez and Rivera, 1991; Rodriguez Ramos, 2010; Watters, 1997).

Within these stone material productions, ornamental objects such as beads and pendants have been the subject of a relatively large number of work (Boomert, 1987; Cody, 1993; Crock and Bartone, 1998; Harrington, 1924; Murphy et al., 2000; Narganes Storde, 1999, 1995; Rodriguez, 1991; Roobol and Lee, 1976). However, the Caribbean islands form a fragmented, varied environment, both in terms of geology and geography, but also in terms of our knowledge of Amerindian lapidary production. In order to consolidate our knowledge about this part of the archaeological record, and to integrate into the archaeological corpus the lapidary productions found in the sites of the French Caribbean islands, recent data have been produced for the lapidary artifacts coming from several archaeological sites such as Gare Maritime (Queffelec et al., 2018), Vivé, Morel and Anse à la Gourde (Queffelec et al., 2020a). These data incorporate mineralogical characterizations and comprehensive iconographic documentation, and supplement to a pioneering work on Antigua (Murphy et al., 2000) and recent work published for Pearls and several Dominican Republic sites (Falci et al., 2020b, 2020a). Combining these robust data and extensive bibliographic research, it has been possible to create an integrated database for Ceramic age lapidary ornaments in the Antilles that will allow for a better understanding of the geographical, temporal and cultural dynamics associated with these particular material productions in the future.
## Results

Recent work in the French islands of the Antilles has made it possible to inventory, document and characterize the entire production of stone ornaments from the Ceramic period. This includes the Early Ceramic sites of Gare Maritime, Vivé, Morel and Hope Estate, as well as the Late Ceramic site of Anse à la Gourde (Queffelec et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2018). In addition to these sites, which have yielded several dozen objects and have been published elsewhere, many sites that yielded smaller numbers of artifacts have also been studied (Figures 1-5). This further highlighted the diversity of materials and types of artefacts produced, particularly in Early Ceramics: beads, pendants, bead-pendants, made of carnelian, diorite, amethyst, serpentine, calcite and other gems. All these objects were subjected to mineralogical characterization, mainly by Raman spectroscopy, but also by other methods when necessary. These analytical approaches have been particularly important in clarifying the mineralogical natures of the rocks used by the Amerindians. This is illustrated, for example, by the demonstration of the use of sudoite, a mineral of the chlorite family, for the production of several objects found in several archaeological sites. This material, unknown in the world as a gemstone, was thus the subject of a particular study in order to confirm this gemological attribution (Queffelec et al., 2021a).
GUADELOUPE

Anse Vinaigri

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Limestone

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GD-16-002

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GD-16-003

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Anse Ste-Marguerite

Amethyst

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GD-08-001

Serpentine

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GD-08-003

Chalcedony

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

GD-08-002

Butel

Diorite

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

GD-10-001

Figure 1. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Guadeloupe (Anse Vinaigri, Anse Ste Marguerite and Butel)
GUADELOUPE

Anse à la Barque

Volcanic rock

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GD-06-001

Anse-Bertrand
surface
collection

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GD-07-001

0

5 cm

<caption>Figure 2. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Guadeloupe (Anse à la Barque and Anse Bertrand)</caption>
GUADELOUPE

Ilet Gosier

Clinozoisite

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GD-12-001

Grand Carbet

Carnelian

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GD-11-001

Les Mineurs

Carnelian

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

GD-13-001

Cathédrale Basse-Terre

Sudoite

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GD-09-001

Allée Dumanoir

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

GD-05-002

Amethyst

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>

GD-05-001

Figure 3. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Guadeloupe (Ilet Gosier, Grand Carbet, Les Mineurs, Cathédrale Basse-Terre, Allée Dumanoir)
GUADELOUPE

Cocoyer

Nephrite

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Stade José Bade

Diorite

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MG-03-001

Anorthite

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /></figure>

MG-03-002

Volcanic rock

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /></figure>

MG-03-003

Variscite

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

MG-03-004

Cadet 2

Anorthite

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>

MG-02-001

Morne Cybèle

Diorite

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /></figure>

LD-01-001

Petite Rivière

Calcite

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>

Anorthite

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>

Figure 4. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Marie-Galante (Cocoyer, Stade José Bade, Cadet 2) and La Désirade (Morne Cybèle, Petite Rivière)
MARTINIQUE

Anse Trabaud

Diorite

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /></figure>

MA-01-001

Serpentine

<figure><img src="image_31.png" /></figure>

MA-01-002

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>

Rue Pory-Papy

Metadiorite

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /></figure>

MA-06-001

Macabou

Quartzite

<figure><img src="image_34.png" /></figure>

MA-04-001

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /></figure>

Le Diamant

Volcanic rock

<figure><img src="image_36.png" /></figure>

MA-05-001

Rue Perrinon-Doume

Diorite

<figure><img src="image_37.png" /></figure>

MA-07-001

<figure><img src="image_38.png" /></figure>

Figure 5. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Martinique (Anse Trabaud, Rue Pory-Papy, Macabou, Le Diamant, Rue Perrinon-Doume)
All these first-hand data and data from an intensive bibliographic search were integrated into a database. The structure of this database is based on 4 tables (islands, sites, beads, sources) and has been published in a dedicated article (Queffelec et al., 2021b) following recommendation by Peer Community In Archaeology (Marwick, 2021). The coding system in the database (also used in Figures 1 to 5) is constructed as follows. It starts with two letters corresponding to the island on which it was found, followed by a two-digit number corresponding to the number of the site on that island, and finally a three- or four-digit number representing the number of the object in that site. Thus, object GD-02-003 corresponds to the third object (003) studied from Morel (02), an archaeological site located in Guadeloupe (GD). In order to disseminate this information to all interested researchers, online tools were used. This database is available online in English and French as a spreadsheet (https://osf.io/qbnkm and https://osf.io/zpwt8 respectively), and in the form of a Filemaker online database (Figure 6) accessible at this address: https://fm02.db.huma-num.fr/fmi/webd/PACEA_PAAF (clic on « se connecter en tant qu'invité » below the blue button and use the quick search bar for example). The geographical distribution of these lapidary artifacts can also be viewed on the online geographic information system (GIS) platform ArkeoGIS (Figure 7) (https://arkeogis.org/en/), and it can be interrogated on OPENARCHAEO (http://openarchaeo.huma-num.fr/explorateur/home). Users must register first to access this geographical application, since it is controlled in order to prevent archaeological looting. We hope to disseminate this work, share it with the scientific community and, if possible, bring together colleagues with other primary data at their disposal.

<figure><img src="image_39.png" /><figcaption>Figure 6. Screenshot of one of the entries in the online database ( artifact MA-02-037).</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_40.png" /><figcaption>Figure 7. Screenshot of the geographical distribution of lapidary artifacts on the ArkeoGIS platform.</figcaption></figure>

This work has so far identified 8103 artifacts from 95 sites (Table 1), spread over the entire Caribbean arc (Figure 8). Concerning the sites located on the French islands, some of which unpublished, it has been possible to identify 21 of them in the Guadeloupe - Marie-Galante - La Désirade archipelago, 7 in Martinique, and 5 in Saint-Martin (Figure 9). Despite some difficulties in attributing a specific archaeological period of the Ceramic age for some artifacts or even some sites, the distribution of the number of sites and objects for each period shows an extremely marked preference for the Early Ceramic and, to a lesser extent, the Middle Ceramic period (Figure 10). It is interesting to compare this pattern with the number of known archaeological sites in the Caribbean Arc, which increases between the Early and Late Ceramic periods (Curet, 2005; Hofman, 2013; Keegan and Hofman, 2017), what reinforce the fact that there is a high concentration of site and artifacts in the earlier period.
<table><caption>Table 1. List of archaeological sites currently included in the database.</caption><thead><tr><td>Island</td><td>Site</td><td>Period</td><td>Culture</td><td>Number of artifacts</td><td>Reference</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Anguilla</td><td>Whitehead's Bluff</td><td>Archaic</td><td>Casimiroïde / Ortoiroïde</td><td>2</td><td>Crock_2019</td></tr><tr><td>Antigua</td><td>Elliot's (PH-03)</td><td>(Middle?) Ceramic</td><td>Middle Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>64</td><td>Murphy-etal_2000</td></tr><tr><td>Antigua</td><td>Mill Reef (PH-01)</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td>Mamoran Troumassoid (Mill Reef)</td><td>2</td><td>Hoffman_1970</td></tr><tr><td>Antigua</td><td>Royall's (JO-11)</td><td>(Middle?) Ceramic</td><td>Middle Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>199</td><td>Murphy-etal_2000</td></tr><tr><td>Antigua</td><td>Doig's (PA-15)</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Early/Middle Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>43</td><td>Gent&deMille_2003</td></tr><tr><td>Antigua</td><td>Winthorpe Bay</td><td>(Middle?) Ceramic</td><td>Middle/Late Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>deMille-etal_1999</td></tr><tr><td>Aruba</td><td>Tanki Flip</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td>Dabajuroid</td><td>2</td><td>Rostain_1995</td></tr><tr><td>Barbuda</td><td>Seaview</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Early/Middle Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>18</td><td>Kendall-etal_2011</td></tr><tr><td>Bahamas</td><td>Minnis-Ward</td><td>Late/Final Ceramic</td><td>Lucayan</td><td>1</td><td>Blick-etal_2010</td></tr><tr><td>Bonaire</td><td>Wanapa</td><td>Ceramic</td><td></td><td>3</td><td>Haviser_1990</td></tr><tr><td>Carriacou</td><td>Grand Bay</td><td>(Middle?) Ceramic</td><td>Late Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>17</td><td>Sutty_1990</td></tr><tr><td>Curacao</td><td>De Savaan</td><td>Ceramic</td><td></td><td>4</td><td>Haviser_1990</td></tr><tr><td>Dominique</td><td>Soufrière</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Early Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Bérard_2009</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Gare maritime</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Huecan Saladoid</td><td>59</td><td>Romon-etal_2013</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Morel</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid/huecan</td><td>61</td><td>Delpuech-etal_1996</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Anse à la Gourde</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid</td><td>28</td><td>Delpuech-etal_1997</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>24 rue Schoelcher</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Early Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Etrich_2003a</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Allée Dumanoir</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Early/Middle Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>2</td><td>Etrich_2003b</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Anse à la Barque</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>1</td><td>Turpin_2015</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Anse Bertrand</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>2</td><td>Turpin_2015</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Anse Ste Marguerite</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>4</td><td>Delpuech_2007</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Cathédrale</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>6</td><td>Bonnissent&Romon_2004</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Butel</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Grand Carbet</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Early Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>ToledoIMur_2003</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Ilet Gosier</td><td>Late/Final Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid</td><td>1</td><td>Romon-etal_2003</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Les Mineurs</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Plage de Roseau</td><td>Contact</td><td>Cayo</td><td>2</td><td>LeLay_2013</td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>Anse Vinaigri</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Guadeloupe</td><td>La Ramée</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>3</td><td>Casagrande_2013</td></tr><tr><td>Grenada</td><td>Pearls</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1412</td><td>Murphy-etal_2000</td></tr><tr><td>Grenada</td><td>Grand Anse Beach</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>3</td><td>Cody_1993</td></tr><tr><td>Grenada</td><td>Caliviny Island</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>3</td><td>Bullen&Bullen_1968</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Grand Turk</td><td>Governor's Beach (GT2)</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Ostionoid meillacan</td><td>5</td><td>Carlson_1995</td></tr><tr><td>Hispaniola</td><td>El Flaco</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Chican, Meillacan, Ostionan Ostionoid</td><td>91</td><td>Falci-etal_2020</td></tr><tr><td>Hispaniola</td><td>La Luperona</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Meillacan Ostionoid</td><td>6</td><td>Falci-etal_2020</td></tr><tr><td>Hispaniola</td><td>El Carril</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Meillacan Ostionoid</td><td>10</td><td>Falci-etal_2020</td></tr><tr><td>Hispaniola</td><td>El Cabo</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Ostionan, Chican Ostionoid</td><td>37</td><td>Falci-etal_2020</td></tr><tr><td>Hispaniola</td><td>Playa Grande</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Ostionan, Meillacan et Chican Ostionoid</td><td>17</td><td>Falci-etal_2020</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>C12 Logie Green</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>C7 Harmony Hall</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>3</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>C8 Wallman Town</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>E2 Fort Charles</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>E5 Alligator Pond</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>K13 Bellevue</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>6</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>Y19 Pepper</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>Runaway Bay</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>S12 Naggo Head</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>2</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>S8 Marlie Mount</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>T1 New Forest</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>Y19 Coleraine</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>Jamaica</td><td>Y21 Fort Haldane</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Roobol&Lee_1976</td></tr><tr><td>La Désirade</td><td>Morne Cybèle 1</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Suazan Troumassoid</td><td>1</td><td>Hofman_1995</td></tr><tr><td>La Désirade</td><td>Petite Rivière</td><td>Late/Final Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid</td><td>4</td><td>deWaal_2006</td></tr><tr><td>Martinique</td><td>Anse Trabaud</td><td>Late/Final Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid</td><td>2</td><td>Mattioni_1983</td></tr><tr><td>Martinique</td><td>Vivé</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Early Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>40</td><td>Mattioni_1979</td></tr><tr><td>Martinique</td><td>Moulin l'Etang</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Early Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Bérard_2004</td></tr><tr><td>Martinique</td><td>Macabou</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Suazan Troumassoid</td><td>1</td><td>Allaire_1977</td></tr><tr><td>Martinique</td><td>Diamant</td><td>(Middle?) Ceramic</td><td>Middle Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Vidal_1995</td></tr><tr><td>Martinique</td><td>Pory-Papy</td><td>(Middle?) Ceramic/final</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid - Troumassoid</td><td>3</td><td>Argant_2017</td></tr><tr><td>Martinique</td><td>Perrinon-Doume</td><td>(Middle?) Ceramic/final</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid - Troumassoid</td><td>1</td><td>Honoré_2017</td></tr><tr><td>Marie Galante</td><td>Cocoyer St Charles</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Early Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Stouvenot_1999</td></tr><tr><td>Marie Galante</td><td>Grotte Cadet 2</td><td>Late/Final Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid</td><td>1</td><td>Courtaud-etal_2005</td></tr><tr><td>Marie Galante</td><td>Stade J. Bade</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid</td><td>4</td><td>Serrand-etal_2016</td></tr><tr><td>Marie Galante</td><td>Taliseronde</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Early/Middle Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Durand&Petitjean- Roget_1991</td></tr><tr><td>Montserrat</td><td>Trants</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>602</td><td>Crock&Bartone_1998</td></tr><tr><td>Nevis</td><td>Hichmans</td><td>Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid - Post- Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Wilson_1989</td></tr><tr><td>Puerto Rico</td><td>Hacienda Grande</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Huecan Saladoid</td><td>16</td><td>Crock&Bartone_1998</td></tr><tr><td>Puerto Rico</td><td>Tecla</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Huecan Saladoid</td><td>72</td><td>Narganes-Storde_1999</td></tr><tr><td>Puerto Rico</td><td>Punta Candelero</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Huecan Saladoid</td><td>592</td><td>Rodriguez_1991</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>Puerto Rico</td><td>Punta Mameyes</td><td>Early/Late Ceramic</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid - Ostionoid elenan</td><td>4</td><td>Ortiz-Montanez-etal_2019</td></tr><tr><td>Puerto Rico</td><td>Ponce 29 (PO-29)</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td>Ostionoid</td><td>1</td><td>Espenshade_2014</td></tr><tr><td>Sainte Croix</td><td>Prosperity</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>26</td><td>Hardy_2009</td></tr><tr><td>Sainte Croix</td><td>Cane Bay</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td>Ostionoid</td><td>2</td><td>Hardy_2008</td></tr><tr><td>Sainte Croix</td><td>Jolly Hill</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td>Early Ostionoid</td><td>2</td><td>Hardy_2008</td></tr><tr><td>Sainte Croix</td><td>O30. Krause</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid/huécan</td><td>9</td><td>Toftgaard_2019</td></tr><tr><td>Sainte Croix</td><td>O18. Spratt Hall</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid/huécan</td><td>2</td><td>Toftgaard_2019</td></tr><tr><td>Sint Eustatius</td><td>Golden Rock</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>81</td><td>Versteeg_1999</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Lucia</td><td>Layoutte</td><td>Final Ceramic</td><td>Suazan Troumassoid</td><td>1</td><td>Hofman_2012</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Martin</td><td>Baie Orientale 2</td><td>Late/Final Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid marmoran (Mill Reef)</td><td>100</td><td>Bonnissent_2008</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Martin</td><td>Hope Estate</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid/huécan</td><td>115</td><td>Bonnissent_2008</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Martin</td><td>Grand Case BK77</td><td>Late/Final Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid marmoran (Marmora Bay)</td><td>12</td><td>Sellier-etal_2020</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Martin</td><td>Grand Case BK78</td><td>Late/Final Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid</td><td>3</td><td>Baillif-Ducros-etal_2019</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Martin</td><td>Baie Orientale 1</td><td>Archaic</td><td></td><td>1</td><td>Bonnissent-etal_2013</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Thomas</td><td>Tutu</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>6</td><td>Righter_2003</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Thomas</td><td>Main Street</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid</td><td>15</td><td>Carlson_2019</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Vincent</td><td>Arnos Vale</td><td>(Middle?) Ceramic</td><td>Middle Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Cody_1993</td></tr><tr><td>Saint Vincent</td><td>Escape</td><td>Ceramic (moyen?)</td><td>Saladoid (late?)</td><td>5</td><td>Moravetz&Callaghan_2011</td></tr><tr><td>Tobago</td><td>Lovers Retreat (TOB-69)</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td>Troumassoid</td><td>4</td><td>Harris_1980</td></tr><tr><td>Tobago</td><td>Milford 1 (TOB-03)</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>1</td><td>Mones_2007</td></tr><tr><td>Tobago</td><td>Golden Grove (TOB-13)</td><td>Late Ceramic</td><td></td><td>271</td><td>Mones_2007</td></tr><tr><td>Tobago</td><td>Friendship (TOB-15)</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Barrancoïde</td><td>7</td><td>Mones_2007</td></tr><tr><td>Trinidad</td><td>Atagual</td><td>Early/Middle Ceramic</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1</td><td>Boomert_1987</td></tr><tr><td>Trinidad</td><td>St. Bernard</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>1</td><td>Boomert_1987</td></tr><tr><td>Trinidad</td><td>Erin Bay</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>Undetermined</td><td>1</td><td>Fewkes_1914</td></tr><tr><td>Vieques</td><td>Sorcé</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Cedrosan Saladoid</td><td>1054</td><td>Narganes-Storde_1999</td></tr><tr><td>Vieques</td><td>Sorcé La Hueca</td><td>Early Ceramic</td><td>Saladoid huecan</td><td>2877</td><td>Narganes-Storde_1995</td></tr></table>
<figure><img src="image_41.png" /><figcaption>Figure 8. Location of the sites registered currently in the database, with the spot size relative to the number of artifacts inventoried.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_42.png" /><figcaption>Figure 9. Distribution of the archaeological sites documented in the database for the archipelago of Guadeloupe (A), Saint-Martin (B) and Martinique (C)</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_43.png" /><figcaption>Figure 10. Distribution of the number of sites (A) and artifacts (B) in the regional database by archaeological period.</figcaption></figure>

We also note that the distribution of objects per site is not at all homogeneous and that only a few sites form the majority of the corpus inventoried, when the vast majority of the sites have yielded less than 10 artifacts (Figure 11). Only 5 sites really stand out as having provided more than 500 objects each: Sorcé - La Hueca, Pearls, Sorcé, Trants and Punta Candelero, three of which are located in Puerto Rico/Vieques.
<figure><img src="image_44.png" /><figcaption>Figure 11. Distribution of the number of artifacts per site with an insert, in Log scale, of the sites having delivered at least 10 artifacts.</figcaption></figure>

Beads dominate the inventory to a large extent (Figure 12), being twice as numerous as pendants, followed to a lesser extent by fragments of raw material (which correspond to any fragment of rock most probably intended for lapidary production but not yet having reached the preform stage). This relative scarcity of initial elements and waste from the chaîne opératoire, although it may be a real archaeological fact, could also be linked to the lack of recording/mentioning of these objects at the various stages of archaeological research, from excavation (absence of sieving) to publication (no mention of raw materials). Only five sites account for 88% of the objects classified as raw material, but it should be noted that the absence of a count of raw material shards in the very rich sites of Puerto Rico and Vieques, although indicated as being present “in large quantities” (Narganes Storde, 1995), obliterates a certainly not insignificant part of the archaeological record because they cannot be included in our database. The more rarely identified object types include unperforated plates, bead-pendants, which are mostly longitudinally and transversely perforated cylinders, a few unidentified objects (often because they are still preforms), and, finally, labrets, which are rather thin and long objects, but whose attribution as a labret remains speculative.
<figure><img src="image_45.png" /><figcaption>Figure 12. Distribution of the number of artifacts inventoried by major types.</figcaption></figure>

Among the different types of beads, the most numerous are the discoid kind, followed by cylindrical ones (Figure 13). Plano-convex beads were found in similar numbers to barrel-shaped beads, the other types being much rarer. In view of the collections studied in detail on the French Caribbean islands, this third position of plano-convex beads is surprising. However, it should be noted that their number is mainly driven by a few sites such as Sorcé - La Hueca which accounts for 72% of their numbers, while barrel-shaped beads are more evenly distributed although the Pearls site accounts for 56% of the total.

<figure><img src="image_46.png" /><figcaption>Figure 13. Distribution of the number of beads for each of the subtype.</figcaption></figure>

The lapidary production of pendants in the Ceramic period is largely dominated by zoomorphic forms (91% of the corpus) among which frogs are widely prevalent (Figure 14). Geometric pendants of various shapes are the second most common type. Other forms are very rare and not very diverse.
<figure><img src="image_47.png" /><figcaption>Figure 14. Distribution of the number of pendants for each subtype. The contribution of frogs to zoomorphic pendants is shown as a superimposed pattern (black dots).</figcaption></figure>

It must also be noted that, although this database certainly lists a very large proportion of the archaeological sites of the Ceramic period that have yielded stone ornaments, there is still considerable room for improvement in the data it contains. Another current limitation to be highlighted is that the distribution of the raw materials used clearly indicates the predominance of the indeterminate in the database: they represent almost half of the corpus! This lack of knowledge further underlines the need for additional studies including precise raw material identification to increase the strength of our interpretations of diffusion networks in the future, especially in the richer sites that have not been subject to such work. When focusing on the different raw materials identified so far, the corpus is largely dominated by diorite and serpentine, followed quite far behind by rock crystal and then by a group formed by calcite, carnelian, jadeite, turquoise and amethyst (Figure 15). As this database is largely based on an inventory drawn from the literature, these proportions of material differ from those that can be established solely from the set of sites located in the French islands where the raw materials have been systematically analyzed (Queffelec et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2018). In particular, the work carried out on these sites did not identify a single jadeite bead or pendant, and it is very likely that several of the green materials that we were able to identify through Raman spectroscopy (paragonite, sudoite, clinochlore for example) could be found in the “jadeite category” of several authors who did not carry out these mineralogical analyses.
<figure><img src="image_48.png" /><figcaption>Figure 15. Distribution of the number of artifacts by raw material with an insert, in Log scale, of the raw materials used to produce at least 10 artifacts.</figcaption></figure>

## Discussion et conclusion

By combining the analytical characterization and comprehensive documentation of Ceramic period lapidary production in the French islands of the Antilles with an intensive review of the scientific literature on the subject for the other islands, the establishment of a database of lapidary production at the scale of the islands of the Antilles allows for the robust validation of ideas that have already been established for a long time by archaeologists of the Caribbean area. It is now possible to attest and quantify that the Early Ceramic and Early/Middle Ceramic periods provided far more lapidary artifacts than the more recent periods, as already observed by several authors (Bérard, 2013; Hofman et al., 2014, 2007; Knippenberg, 2007; Rodríguez Ramos et al., 2013). Beyond this first chronological approach, such an inventory also makes it possible to highlight other information in terms of typology and raw materials used: beads are twice as numerous as pendants, discoid beads largely dominate over cylindrical beads, pendants are more than 90% zoomorphic and 85% of them represent frogs. Finally, this work has also highlighted the very important work that remains to be done on these objects, both in terms of mineralogical characterization (almost half of the beads are not determined at this level) and detailed typological documentation. Further studies of these data are planned in order to compare more precisely the distribution of types, raw materials, and combinations of these two parameters, in time and space. For this, diversity analyses, ordering by means of seriations, comparisons thanks to correspondence analysis comparisons, and network analyses will be performed. Such documentation could also allow stylistic studies on pendants, by making a large number of photographs accessible to the greatest number of people, although on this point too, much work remains to be done.

Our proposal to use open online tools will hopefully encourage Caribbean archaeologists to participate in making the database even more exhaustive. It is indeed always possible to add new data and this database will be updated regularly, in particular during future studies of archaeological series from sites located outside the French islands of the archipelago.
Acknowledgments

The authors of this article wish to thank all the archaeologists who conducted the fieldwork and therefore permitted this type of study to exist. We also thank all the people who made it possible for us to access the archaeological artifacts in museums and curation centers: Susana Guimaraes, Katarina Jacobson, and Jean-Luc Bernos (Musée Edgar Clerc), Thierry Dorival (DAC Martinique), Gwenola Robert (DAC Guadeloupe), François Petit (owner of Hope Estate), Peggy Deroze and Claudia Daribo (Musée d'Archéologie et de Préhistoire de Martinique). The study of the archaeological artifacts would not have been possible without the help of Christian Stouvenot et Gwenola Robert (DAC Guadeloupe), Susana Guimaraes, Katarina Jacobson (Musée Edgar Clerc), Thierry Dorival (DAC Martinique), et François Petit (owner of Hope Estate). We also would like to thank Philippe Jullien and Jean-Philippe Droux for their help with the integration of the database in ArkeoGIS. This work was carried out within the framework of the Programme Collectif de Recherche Parures Amérindiennes dans les Antilles Françaises, funded by the Ministry of Culture (DAC Guadeloupe and DAC Martinique) and the Region of Guadeloupe. This work benefited from the environment of the GPR Human Past.
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## List of figures

Figure 1. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Guadeloupe (Anse Vinaigri, Anse Ste Marguerite and Butel)

Figure 2. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Guadeloupe (Anse à la Barque and Anse Bertrandl)

Figure 3. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Guadeloupe (Ilet Gosier, Grand Carbet, Les Mineurs, Cathédrale Basse-Terre, Allée Dumanoir)

Figure 4. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Marie-Galante (Cocoyer, Stade José Bade, Cadet 2) and La Désirade (Morne Cybèle, Petite Rivière)

Figure 5. Photos and technical drawings of lapidary artifacts from diverse archaeological sites in Martinique (Anse Trabaud, Rue Pory-Papy, Macabou, Le Diamant, Rue Perrinon-Doume)

Figure 6. Screenshot of one of the entries in the online database ( artifact MA-02-037).

Figure 7. Screenshot of the geographical distribution of lapidary artifacts on the ArkeoGIS platform.

Figure 8. Location of the sites registered currently in the database, with the spot size relative to the number of artifacts inventoried.

Figure 9. Distribution of the archaeological sites documented in the database for the archipelago of Guadeloupe (A), Saint-Martin (B) and Martinique (C)

Figure 10. Distribution of the number of sites (A) and artifacts (B) in the regional database by archaeological period.

Figure 11. Distribution of the number of artifacts per site with an insert, in Log scale, of the sites having delivered at least 10 artifacts.

Figure 12. Distribution of the number of artifacts inventoried by major types.

Figure 13. Distribution of the number of beads for each of the subtype.

Figure 14. Distribution of the number of pendants for each subtype. The contribution of frogs to zoomorphic pendants is shown as a superimposed pattern (black dots).

Figure 15. Distribution of the number of artifacts by raw material with an insert, in Log scale, of the raw materials used to produce at least 10 artifacts.

## List of tables

Table 1. List of archaeological sites currently included in the database.