# Pulses: As food and feed for nutritional security.

Kumari Sunita, Ajeet Kumar

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Kumari Sunita, Ajeet Kumar. Pulses: As food and feed for nutritional security.. A. Kumar, N. Kumar, G. Kumar, G. Kumari, L. Rana, S.K. Sahoo. Agrobios Research, 1 (1), pp.145-156, 2022, 978-93-94380-08-0. hal-04881444

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# 10. Pulses: As Food and Feed for Nutritional Security

KUMARI SUNITA, AJEET KUMAR AND USHA SINGH

Pulses usually grown in a pod are defined as an edible seed of legumes that can be used for human consumption. The word “pulses” is originated from Latin word puls meaning thick soup or potage. They comprise annual or perennial leguminous crops with edible seeds that are used for both food and feed. According to FAO (2015) the term “pulses” is limited to crops harvested solely for dry grains, thereby excluding the crops used for oil extraction and clover (different species belonging to the genus *Trifolium* L and *alfalfa*). Likewise, legumes species are not considered as pulses when they are harvested as vegetables e.g., green peas, green beans etc.

Man needs a wide range of nutrients to perform various functions in the body. These nutrients (carbohydrates, protein, fat, mineral and vitamins) are chemical substances which are present in the food we eat daily. The foods containing these nutrients are categorized in different food groups. Depending upon the relative concentration of these nutrients in food the food can be categorized as protein rich, carbohydrate rich and fat rich etc. Pulses are rich sources of protein in our Indian diet (Table 10.1).

In a vegetarian diet or diet containing low amount of animal food they are an important source of protein. Most pulses grown in India include chick pea, lentil, black gram, green gram, pea, grass pea, broad beans etc. As pulses are also good source of fibre and protein, they are a low glycemic index food and contain a number of bio-active components that may be important for health and wellbeing. Pulses are also good source of B vitamins that contribute significantly to the intake of vitamin B by the community. Like cereals pulses do not contain any vitamin A and C but germination of legumes contains some vitamin C.
<table><caption>TABLE 10.1: Nutritional composition of pulses</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Chemical Constituent's proportion</th><th colspan="3">Pigeon pea</th><th colspan="2">Cow pea</th></tr><tr><th>Cotyledon</th><th>Seed coat</th><th>Cotyledon</th><th>Seed coat</th><th>Embryo</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Moisture Content (%)</td><td>17.9</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Dry matter (%)</td><td>-</td><td>92.20</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Protein (%)</td><td>22.30</td><td>8.40</td><td>26.7</td><td>10.7</td><td>44.1</td></tr><tr><td>Carbohydrates (%)</td><td>57.2</td><td>41.90</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Ash (%)</td><td>3.60</td><td>-</td><td>3.15</td><td>3.17</td><td>4.38</td></tr><tr><td>Crude Fibre (%)</td><td>-</td><td>35.10</td><td>0.3</td><td>25.8</td><td>1.6</td></tr><tr><td>Ether extract (%)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>2.3</td><td>0.9</td><td>9.8</td></tr><tr><td>N-Free extract (%)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>67.6</td><td>59.4</td><td>40.1</td></tr><tr><td>Phosphorus (mg/100g)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>496</td><td>89</td><td>829</td></tr><tr><td>Calcium (mg/100gm)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>165</td><td>853</td><td>368</td></tr><tr><td>Iron (mg/100)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>6.1</td><td>11.6</td><td>20.7</td></tr></tbody></table>

Adapted from Patil and Mangaraj, 2013

The protein of pulses is deficient in methionine and tryptophan but rich in lysine amino acid. Hence, they can supplement protein of cereals and quality of protein from a mixture of cereals and pulses is superior to that of either one. Pulses with their higher content of total fat contribute along with cereals to meet essential fatty acid requirements of adults. The low-cost balanced diet for a sedentary person should contain at least 40 gm pulses daily. Pulses are unique in that they have varied nutrition profile. Pulses besides being rich source of protein, fiber, B vitamins they are relatively low in energy, fat, sodium, making them a relatively nutrient dense food source. Pulses being low glycemic index food have an important role in helping to regulate blood sugar and lipid level in both diabetic and healthy individual. (Rizkalla et al, 2002). Incorporating pulses with cereals or daily diet may be helpful in preventing the development of coronary heart disease and regulating body weight, also a risk factor for diabetes. Wong et al. (2009) stated that pulses may reduce the risk of overweight or obesity, possibly by imposing satiety and lowering energy intake.

## 1. PULSES AS SOURCE OF MICRONUTRIENTS

Pulses are better source of micronutrients in particular iron and zinc and some B vitamin in comparison to cereal crops. The iron content of dry pea seed was found to range from 45-58 mg/kg compared to wheat (6.7mg/kg in wheat flour) and 10 mg/kg in Broccoli and 16 mg/kg in spinach. Iron content of red meat is 18-36 mg/kg and fortified cereals should contain at least 16.5 mg/kg.
Zinc content in pea varieties range from 39-63 mg/kg depending upon genotype and location. Pulses are also rich in B vitamin especially thiamine ($B_1$) and folate ($B_9$). As a source of iron and other micro nutrients pulses have the potential to be useful in combating malnutrition. Prevalence of iron deficiency anemia is in about 50% of population, Zinc deficiency is in 17.3% of population worldwide. Iron deficiency affects haemoglobin level causing anemia, fatigue, work output and pregnancy output and immunity. Zinc deficiency also affects the immune function and physical growth. Folate deficiency is another prevalent micronutrient deficiency. This nutrient is essential for DNA synthesis as it is the source of carbon for demethylation and deficiency of this vitamin can lead to macrocytic anemia and complication in pregnancy (Irwin *et al*., 2016).

## A. Anti-Nutrients in Pulses

Anti-nutrients are compounds which can severely affects the bioavailability of nutrients in plant foods (Hursell and Egli, 2010). Even though pulses are nutrient rich the presence of anti-nutrients in sufficient quantity can reduce nutrient's bio availability and diminish nutritional value. Anti-nutritional compounds can be defined as molecules that disrupt the presence of digestion typically when consumed in raw state (Domoney, 1999). For pulses these includes phytates, oxalates, goitreogens etc.

### i. Phytates

It is the major storage form of phosphorus representing 50-85% of total plant phosphorus in seeds. Ruminants are able to break down phytate through the presence of phytase in their poly gastric digestive system. Phytase is hexa phosphate of inositol. It is widely distributed in seeds. Phytate acts as a source of bound phosphorus for seeds during germination. These phytate bind iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium. In presence of calcium and magnesium it forms insoluble complexes with iron and thus makes iron unavailable. On germination of grains the phytate content reduces due to enzymatic breakdown of phytate. Improved availability of iron in germinated grains can be partially attributed to a reduction in phytate content.

### ii. Trypsin Inhibitor

Another anti nutritional factor present in pulses is trypsin inhibitors. These are proteins widely distributed in legumes. They generally inhibit the activity of trypsin in the gut and interfere with digestibility of dietary protein and reduce their utilization, they are heat labile and autoclaving at 120°C for 15-30 minutes inactivates almost all trypsin inhibitors. Although the presence
of trypsin inhibitors has been demonstrated in many legumes those present in soya beans, kidney beans are most important for nutritional point of view. Heat treatment to rest of the dhals inactivates this and improves considerably the utilization of protein content of these foods.

### iii. Tannins

Tannins are condensed poly phenolic compounds which are widely distributed in plant kingdom especially in seed coat in high amount of most legumes. Tannins bind with iron irreversibly and interfere with iron absorption. Tannins are also known to bind protein and reduce their bioavailability.

### iv. Oxalates

Oxalic acid, a dicarboxylic acid or its salts are widely distributed in plant foods. These oxalates are mainly present in green leafy vegetables but in some pulses, it is present as such as in horse gram and khesari dal. Oxalates are known to bind with calcium and interfere its absorption by forming insoluble salts. Dietary oxalates can be absorbed and contributes increased excretion of oxalates in urine. High oxalate excretion may predispose to oxalates crystals leading urinary stones.

## B. Anti-Thyroid Substances

Goitrogen are substances present in plant foods interfere with iodine uptake by thyroid gland and may contribute to development of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD). These are thiocyanate, isothiocyanate and their derivatives. Soyabean and other legumes such as lentils and common beans also contain goitrogen and block uptake of iodine by thyroid gland. Excessive intake of these foods in face of marginal intake of iodine from food and water may leads to precipitation of goiter.

## C. Other Toxic Compounds

Some pulses such as *Lathyrus sativus* (Khesari dal) and *Vicia Faba* contain toxic substances. Amino acid (Beta Oxyle Amino Alanine) which is present in khesari dal is considered to be responsible for disease lathyrism. The disease favism accompanied with hemolysis is caused by the consumption of *vicia faba* (Broad Beans). Some of these foods rendered safe by appropriate treatment. The toxic amino acid from khesari dal can be removed by steeping the seeds in water and discarding the steeped water by parboiling as done of rice.
## D. Bio-Active Compounds

Bio active compounds are present in small amount in foods and they do not have effect on human metabolism. The negative influence of these bio active compounds has already been discussed as anti-nutritional factors of pulses. Most of the bio active compounds are concentrated in pulse husk which constitute 8-16% of the grain. Aleurone rich fractions are good source of bioactive compounds which can be used in various nutraceuticals and as functional ingredients in processed foods.

## 2. PULSE PROCESSING

Pulses are consumed in the form of dal (split cotyledons) produced by milling of whole pulses. The split pulses are obtained by de hulling of pulses, a unit operation in pulse processing during which considerable amount of losses occur. Pulse grain is composed of husk, germ and cotyledon which generally range from 8-16%, 1-3%, and 80-90% respectively. The proportion of these varies in different pulses. The composition of different pulses is given in table 10.2.

<table><caption>TABLE 10.2: Seed composition of different pulses (%)</caption><thead><tr><th>Pulses</th><th>Seed coat (husk)</th><th>Cotyledon (endosperm)</th><th>Germ (embryo)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Pigeon pea</td><td>15.50</td><td>83.00</td><td>1.50</td></tr><tr><td>Lentil</td><td>8.05</td><td>89.97</td><td>1.72</td></tr><tr><td>Mung bean</td><td>12.09</td><td>85.61</td><td>2.30</td></tr><tr><td>Cowpea</td><td>10.64</td><td>87.23</td><td>2.13</td></tr><tr><td>Kidney bean</td><td>9.7</td><td>90.3</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Black Gram</td><td>12.5</td><td>87.5</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Chick Pea</td><td>12.5</td><td>87.5</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Horse gram</td><td>12.5</td><td>87.5</td><td>-</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Adapted from Patil and Mangaraj, 2013.

Compared to whole seeds the soft cotyledons have better cooking quality, digestibility, palatability, storability and reduced amount of toxic substances and anti-nutrients. Cotyledons produced after processing have improved appearance& texture. All these leads to better consumer acceptance.

The final yield of dals produced after milling ranges from 62-75% in traditional chakki and 84-86% in improved method of processing. The whole production process experiences fairly large quantitative and qualitative losses at each stage in post-harvest operation. Major amount of losses and byproduct emergence occur at milling or dehulling stage. In this stage the
byproducts usually find their application as animal feed. In this stage the by-products viz husk, germ, broken, powder of endosperm coated with husk are obtained in substantial quantity. Overall post-harvest losses vary from 25-50 %. The losses occur at different stages of post-harvest operation as: Harvesting 1-3%, Handling 1-7%, Threshing 0.5-5.5%, Drying 1-5%, transportation - 5-10%, Storage - 5-10%, Milling -15-20% (Lal and Varma, 2007)

## A. Uses of By-Products of Milling

The principal byproducts of milling are; Brokens 6-13%, Mixture of germ and powder-7-12% and husk (4-14%), (Gupta and Goswami, 2019).

### i. Husk

Husk or seed coat is the outermost seed coat which is composed of many layers like waxy cuticle, epidermis, hypodermis, and parenchyma on the interior. The husk content of pulses may range between 8-16%.

### ii. Germ

Germ is a metabolically active part of grain which germinates under presence of favorable conditions to form shoot and root. Germ is rich source of essential nutrients like vitamin E and folic acid phosphorus, thiamine, zinc and magnesium.

### iii. Chunni

It is a mixture of cotyledons and husk fraction. The brokens and powder from cotyledon are rich in protein and dietary fibre. The nutrients of pulses are distributed unevenly among different components of seeds.

The by-products of pulse milling like husk powder and small brokens are usually sold as cattle feed and husk of lentil can be used in poultry feed.

## B. Pulse Processing and Uses

The processing of pulses as flours and as fractions (Protein, starch and fiber). Pulse flour commonly known as besan is used in a variety of traditional foods and sweets. The products of pulse milling are pulse broken can be used in papad industry, extruded products and has multiple uses in snack food industry. Other uses are as fiber source and as here bioactive compounds

### i. Fibre Source

In pulses along with seed coat aleurone layer is rich in dietary fibre and protein. Dietary fibre reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Insoluble dietary fibre aids in digestion by regulating water absorption and lower down
cholesterol by regulating intestinal absorption. The fibre content is as given in the table below:

<table><caption>TABLE 10.3: Dietary fibre (Total, Soluble and Insoluble fractions) content of main pulse species (% dry weight)</caption><thead><tr><td>Species</td><td>Total</td><td>Soluble</td><td>Insoluble</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Common Beans</td><td>21.6</td><td>1.2</td><td>20.4</td></tr><tr><td>Faba beans</td><td>21.1</td><td>1.6</td><td>19.5</td></tr><tr><td>Lentil</td><td>14.9</td><td>1.2</td><td>13.7</td></tr><tr><td>Chick Pea</td><td>14.0</td><td>1.3</td><td>12.7</td></tr><tr><td>Pea</td><td>15.7</td><td>1.3</td><td>14.4</td></tr><tr><td>Soyabeans</td><td>11.9</td><td>0.9</td><td>11.0</td></tr></tbody></table>

Adapted from Pulse foods (Eds B. K. Tiwary et al., 2014) page no 394

## ii. Bioactive Compounds

Although some of the bioactive compounds are anti-nutritional factor because of their ability to reduce protein digestibility and mineral bioavailability but have some positive effect as well (Singh and Basu, 2012). These include enzyme inhibitors. Lectins, phytates, oxalates, phenolic compounds, saponins and alkaloids. Most of the bio active components have potential as nutraceuticals.

## iii. Pulses as Prebiotic Agents

A prebiotic is a non-digestible food ingredient capable of selectively stimulating the growth of beneficial bacteria in colon especially *Bifidobacterium*. Functional effects linked with prebiotic include improvement in glycemic control, modulation of lipid metabolism, hypo cholesterolemic effects, anti-cancer properties, anti-inflammatory and other immune effects. Due to their high soluble fibre content pulses absorbs water to become a vicious substance that is readily fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract. Fermentation in colon produces short chain fatty acids that are responsible for these physiological effects.

# 3. PULSES IN DISEASE PREVENTION

The consumption of pulses has been linked to range of health outcome including reduced risk of diabetes, cardio vascular disease and certain cancer and may have an important role in weight management.

## A. Diabetes Prevention

Global burden of diabetes in 2017 was 476 million and it is increasing with an increasing rate. The incidence of Type 2 diabetes has been reported to be
lower is Asian counties as compared with Western countries which has been
attributed to higher intake of fermented soy foods. Although the mechanism
of action is yet to be confirmed it is thought that dietary phytoestrogen and
soy peptides may go some way towards preventing or delaying diabetes type
2 (Kwon et al., 2010)

Pulses are also a food with very low glycemic index values. There is accumulating evidence that incorporation of pulses into daily diet may be fundamental role in helping to improve glycemic control and metabolic parameter and be used as a part of prevention and treatment strategy for medical condition.

B. Cardio Vascular Health

CHD and habit of eating pulses have been studied widely as pulses are relatively low in fat, cholesterol free and good source of dietary fibre and phytosterols which have cholesterol lowering activity. Finley et al. (2007) undertook a study to establish whether the consumption of pulses influence CVD, 80 subjects of 18-55 years half of them were healthy and half with metabolic syndrome were randomized to eat either pulse free diet or diet inclusive of pulses, daily for 12-week period, Study findings suggest that cholesterol level lowered among those eating pulses.

C. Cancer Prevention

Pulses contain a range of bio-active constituents and are a low GI food both of which may play a role in reducing tumor risk. Hsu et al (2010) suggested that soya isoflavones may have anti carcinogenic properties and reduced prostate cancer risk. Both genistein and daidzein present in soya bean have found to induce cell death (apoptosis) in cells that may be carcinogenic.

D. Obesity Management

Although few studies have been investigated the role of pulses in weight management programs it has been suggested that this low glycemic index may induce greater weight loss (Thomas *et al.* 2009).

E. Osteoporosis

The problem of osteoporosis is increasing in our country. Soy isoflavones are thought to preserve bone mineral density in post-menopausal women and reducing the risk of osteoporosis (Cassidy et al., 2006). Although there is lack of human studies. Animal studies have shown that consumption of hull extract from pulses (400 mg for 3 months) significantly helped to improve bone mineral density in mice. It is possible that the antioxidant found in bean
hull may help to reduce level of oxidative stress, which is associated with bone resorption and reduced bone density (Cao *et al.*, 2010).

## F. Enzyme Inhibitors

Enzyme inhibition include protease inhibition and amylase inhibition. Protease inhibition exhibits anti carcinogenic activities. Amylase inhibitors show anti-diabetic activities as it lowers down blood glucose level by lowering down release of glucose from starch during intestinal absorption. (Martin *et al.*, 2002).

## G. Phenolic Compounds

Phenolic compounds include flavonoids, flavones, isoflavones etc. Flavonoids are monomers of tannins. These have anti mutagenic properties.

### i. Lectins

These are a protein that combined to sugars present in cell wall of red blood cells and hence poses toxic effects. Lectins decreases blood glucose levels. (Martin *et al.*, 2002).

### ii. Saponins

Saponins are terpenoids or steroids glycosides. They exhibit anti carcinogenic properties.

### iii. Alkaloids

Alkaloids are heterocyclic rings which contain a nitrogen atom in the ring and act as protein acceptor in aqueous solution.

## H. Intake Trends of Pulses in India

Pulses production in India has increased from 10.4 MT in 1981-83 to 17.5 MT in 2011-13 mainly due to increase in area. India is world's largest producer of pulses and accounts for 25 percent of production and 34 percent of area. Globally average share of pulses is only 5% of total production of the total protein consumption but their contribution in several developing countries range between 10-40% (Joshi and Parthsarathi Rao, 2016).

## I. Pulses as Animal Feed

The nutritional attributes of pulses for humans are undisputable. Besides they also contribute indirectly to food security as pulses also provide valuable by-products for animal feeding contributing to food security. There is also considerable potential to use crop by-products as source of dry fodder for
livestock. These by-products are good animal feed and play an important role in feed-food security nexus. Pulse by-products are also used to fill feed gaps during period of acute shortage of other feed resources and used as adjuncts to natural pastures and planted forages. The potential of pulses and their byproducts as animal feed is governed by mainly two factors:

1. The contribution of nutrients to the diet and

2. Presence of anti-nutritional factors in the diet.

Feeding of by-products of pulses in livestock production provides important economic, social and environmental benefits by saving grains used for feeding for animals. It also encourages the return of the manure to farmland thereby sparing use of chemical fertilizers. Pulse cultivation also fixes atmospheric nitrogen and increase soil nitrogen fertilizers.

The General Assembly of United Nations declared year 2016 as international year of Pulses. Awareness was created on Pulses byproducts as animal feed. The co-products covered are plant residue, chunnies and husks. Chunni is a mixture of seed coat and endosperm fraction. Husk is only seed coat and these are obtained during processing of pulses for human consumption. Pulse have long been used in the livestock feed sector although to a limited extent compared with corn, wheat etc. However higher value market opportunity is in feed sector of pet foods and aquaculture.

## J. Aquaculture

Aquaculture is world's fastest growing source of food with growth rates of 8%. Fish meal and fish oil are the two primary component of aqua feed. However, the production of fishmeal has been capped by decreasing ocean stocks and will not be able to keep pace with expansion of "farmed" fish. In order for industry to continue its rapid growth new protein sources are required. Certain pulses such as pea have been proven very digestible for aquaculture species. Other pulses crop such as faba bean that have a higher content of protein may offer another ingredient option into the market.

## i. Pet Food

Today, most new pet foods are released are those with functional health attributes. The gluten free attributes of pulses allow them to fit well into the diets of reduced allergens as many pets are sensitive to the diet they consume. Pulses have been found to have prebiotic benefit in people and he same can extend into pet food diet. Whole pulses flour will fit the category of natural products for pet food.
## 4. CONCLUSION

India is the biggest producer of pulses in the world and contributed to 25% of world production. Twenty seven percent of world consumption of pulses is in India. Pulses the major source of protein in Indian diet are milled to obtain split dal. The by-product possesses various nutrients like protein, dietary and other functional components which exhibit immense health benefit and could be potentially utilized in processed food. As consumptions of pulses may help to improve glycemic control and be used as part of prevention and treatment strategy for management of life style diseases and to be improve bone mineral density. The by-products of pulse milling industries may be utilized for food industries such as extruded products (from pulse broken) biscuits, papad etc. for improving nutritional profile. These could also be utilized for solid substrate for microorganism, for production of enzymes like tannase, lactase, peroxidase and also as substrate for production of single cell protein.

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