# Destination memory: Memory associated with social interactions

Mohamad El Haj

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Mohamad El Haj. Destination memory: Memory associated with social interactions. Frontiers in Psychology, 2023, 13, 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1061275. [PDF] [Full Article]

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Sichuan University of Science and
Engineering, China
Serena Mastroberardino,
Sapienza University of Rome,
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Mohamad El Haj
✉ el.haj@hotmail.fr

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CITATION

El Haj M (2023) Destination memory: Memory associated with social interactions. *Front. Psychol.* 13:1061275. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1061275

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Destination memory: Memory
associated with social
interactions

Mohamad El Haj¹,²,³*

¹Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL-EA 4638), Nantes Université, Université d'Angers, Nantes, France, ²CHU Nantes, Clinical Gerontology Department, Nantes, France, ³Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France

Within the field of memory research, studies on destination memory (e.g., the ability to remember to whom information was previously told) show how it is closely associated with social cognition. The present review thus summarizes the literature on destination memory and demonstrates how it involves social interaction. It offers a comprehensive picture of the many factors that may influence destination memory and distinguishes factors related to the recipient (e.g., familiarity, emotional states, and distinctiveness/attractiveness) and sender of information (e.g., the sender's extroversion) in social communications. It suggests that destination memory involves the ability of the sender to infer the cognitive/affective state of the recipient and to attribute the output message to a recipient-related stereotype. Extrovert senders may also easily remember the destination as they typically value social communication, public sharing and processing of social information. Destination memory also involves features such as familiarity, age, emotional state, distinctiveness, and attractiveness of the recipient. By offering a comprehensive framework of how destination memory functions in everyday life interactions, the present review shows how destination memory is intimately associated with communicative efficacy and social interactions.

KEYWORDS

communication, destination memory, memory, social cognition, episodic memory

**1. Introduction**

Imagine yourself in the following situations: on a lunch break, you are telling your colleagues about your last conference abroad, and then realize that you have already told them about it; or you are telling a joke to a friend who does not laugh as he has already heard that joke from you. These embarrassing situations illustrate failures of destination memory. Destination memory, or the ability to remember to whom information was previously told (Gopie and Macleod, 2009; Gopie et al., 2010), is intimately associated with social communication. Destination memory influences communicative efficacy and social interactions. Failures of destination memory result in redundancy, i.e., the tendency to repeat the same information to the same recipient, which hinders social communication especially in patients with amnesia.
Research has identified the cognitive processes linking this
memory system to episodic memory and the social cognition
processes that shape destination memory. Studies have assessed
both the function and dysfunction of destination memory,
especially in patients with amnesia. The present review examines
the relationship between destination memory, episodic memory,
and social cognition. It offers a comprehensive picture of the many
factors that may influence destination memory, with a distinction
between factors that are related to the recipient (e.g., familiarity,
emotional states, distinctiveness/attractiveness) and those that are
related to the sender of information (e.g., the sender's extroversion)
during social communications. However, to comply with the
objective of this review, the next section places destination
memory in the context of the episodic memory system.

## 2. Destination memory: A component of episodic memory?

One of the early preoccupations of research on destination
memory was its status compared to that of episodic memory (El
Haj et al., 2013, 2015b), probably since rooting destination
memory into a wider memory system would establish the
cognitive foundation of its study. In this attempt, research
identified three main cognitive mechanisms that are involved in
both destination memory and episodic memory: context recall,
binding, and subjective reliving. Regarding context recall, episodic
memory is typically defined as the ability to remember
information about the context in which a unique episode took
place (Tulving, 2002). This context recall was also found to
be involved in destination memory, a link assessed in a study
asking participants to tell information (e.g., Madrid is the capital
of Spain) to either colored or black and white photographs of
celebrities (e.g., Barack Obama; El Haj and Allain, 2014). In a
subsequent recognition test, participants had to decide whether
they had told that information to these faces or not. Participants
were also asked to remember the context of encoding, particularly
whether the photographs were presented in color or in black and
white. Analysis demonstrated that destination memory was
predicted by context recall.

As stated above, destination memory relies on the ability to
remember the context in which information was previously told.
It involves binding, i.e., the ability to associate an event with its
context of acquisition (Mitchell et al., 2000a; Parra et al., 2010;
Shimamura, 2010; Kessels and Kopelman, 2012; El Haj, 2016;
Johnson and Jefferson, 2018). This hypothesis was proposed in a
study in which patients with amnesia (i.e., patients with
Korsakoff's syndrome) and control participants were assessed in
a destination memory task and a binding task (El Haj et al.,
2016b). In the binding task, participants were asked to remember
the location of letters that were exposed in various grids, and to
decide in a later recognition test whether the letters appeared in
the same location as before. Results showed that destination
memory performances were predicted by binding. Similar

findings were reported by studies on normal aging (El Haj and
Allain, 2014) and schizophrenia (El Haj et al., 2017), mirroring
research demonstrating how deficits in associative processes (i.e.,
binding) hinder episodic memory in general (Chalfonte et al.,
1996; Mitchell et al., 2000b; Naveh-Benjamin et al., 2003; Provyn
et al., 2007). Destination memory requires the ability to associate
an event (i.e., the output message) with its context of acquisition
(i.e., to whom) to form an integrated episode. Binding may thus
underlie the relationship between destination memory and
episodic memory by facilitating the successful association between
output information and its appropriate recipient.

This association probably contributes to the uniqueness of the
destination episode and to our ability to mentally travel along a
time continuum to re-experience the encoding event (i.e., to
subjectively re-experience that moment when we told that piece
of information to that person). The involvement of the subjective
experience in destination memory was highlighted in a study in
which patients with amnesia (i.e., Alzheimer's disease) and control
participants were asked to tell information to photographs of
celebrities (El Haj et al., 2014b). In a subsequent recognition test,
participants had to decide whether they had previously told that
fact to that face. In addition to this typical destination memory
task, participants were asked whether they could mentally project
themselves in time to remember the fact-face pairs. Results
showed significant positive correlations between destination
memory and mental time travel. Similar findings were reported
by a study on patients with Huntington's disease (El Haj
et al., 2016a).

Altogether, destination memory can be embedded into the
episodic memory system (El Haj et al., 2014a; El Haj and Miller,
2018a,b; Wasserman et al., 2020). Like episodic memory,
destination memory allows the reconstruction of the context in
which an event has occurred (here, to whom information was
previously told). This context reconstruction contributes to the
uniqueness of an encoded event (i.e., that moment when I told
that piece of information to that person) and to the ability to travel
along a time continuum to re-experience that event. Although
destination memory can be embedded into the larger episodic
memory system, it can be also embedded into a social cognition
framework, as explained in the following section explains.

## 3. Destination memory: The social memory

While destination memory may be considered as a component
of the episodic system, it is special as it involves social interaction.
The relationship between destination memory and social
cognition has been shown in the literature. Although this literature
has demonstrated how destination memory can be influenced by
several social factors (e.g., familiarity, emotion, distinctiveness/
attractiveness), it has not attempted to describe the relationship
between these processes or to classify them. To bridge this gap, the
present review offers a comprehensive picture of the multitude of
factors that may influence destination memory. Since destination
memory involves both the recipient of the information and its
sender, this research suggests a basic distinction between
recipient-related (e.g., familiarity, emotional states, distinctiveness/
attractiveness) and sender-related factors (e.g., extroversion). As
explained below, destination memory may be studied by focusing
on features related to the recipient such as familiarity, age, and
emotional states, distinctiveness, and attractiveness of the
recipient. It may also be studied by analyzing features related to
the sender, such as his/her ability to infer the mental state of the
recipient, the stereotypes attributed by the sender to the
destination, as well as his/her extroversion and the effect of self-
related information.

## 3.1. How the recipient's characteristics influence destination memory

In everyday life, we tend to communicate with familiar rather
than with unfamiliar people. This familiarity issue was investigated
in a study in which participants were asked to tell information to
photographs of famous faces or to unfamiliar faces (El Haj et al.,
2015d). In a subsequent recognition test, participants were asked
to decide whether they had previously told that piece of
information to that face. Results demonstrated higher destination
memory for familiar than for unfamiliar faces. Although
familiarity can be considered as a main feature facilitating
destination memory, other basic features of the interlocutors may
also influence destination memory, such as their age. A study has
assessed whether older adults might show better destination
memory for older interlocutors than for younger ones (El Haj
et al., 2018a). Older and younger adults were asked to tell
information to older and younger destinations. In a subsequent
recognition test, they were asked to remember whether they had
previously told the information to an older or younger destination.
Results demonstrated higher memory for older than for younger
destinations in older adults and the opposite pattern was observed
in younger adults. These findings suggest how the age of the
recipient can play a crucial role in our ability to remember to
whom information was previously told. While the recipient's age
can influence retrieval, his/her gender does not necessarily have
the same effect, as shown by a study on gender differences in
destination memory (El Haj et al., 2020). Female and male
participants were asked to tell information to pictures depicting
female and male faces. In a subsequent recognition test,
participants had to decide to whom they had told the information.
While analysis demonstrated better destination memory
(regardless of the destination's gender) in female participants than
in male participants, both female and male participants
demonstrated similar memory for female and male destinations.
The gender of the recipient thus seems to play no significant role
in retention.

So far, our research has shown how destination memory can
be influenced by the familiarity and age of the recipient. Other

characteristics of the recipient such as his/her emotional states,
distinctiveness, and attractiveness may also have an impact. A
study investigated whether the receiver's emotional states may
enhance destination memory in normal aging (El Haj et al.,
2015a). Older and younger adults were asked to tell neutral
information to neutral, positive or negative destinations. Results
demonstrated higher memory for negative than for positive
destinations, and higher memory for positive than for neutral
destinations in older adults. However, the younger adults
demonstrated similar memory for both neutral and emotional
destinations. Unlike younger adults, older adults therefore place
higher emphasis on emotional faces than on neutral ones,
exhibiting better memory for emotional than for neutral
destinations. Similar findings were reported in a study
demonstrating higher memory for emotional than for neutral
destinations in older adults, but not in patients with Alzheimer's
disease (El Haj et al., 2015e).

Like emotional states, the recipient's distinctiveness can
influence destination memory. A study investigated whether the
existence of distinctive features of the recipient (e.g., tattoos)
might improve destination memory. It showed higher destination
memory for recipients with distinctive features compared to those
with none (Barros et al., 2021). These findings highlight how,
when remembering to whom information was previously told,
we may easily attribute the information to its appropriate recipient
when the latter has a distinctive feature. The same can be said of
attractiveness. In another study, participants were asked to tell
information to attractive faces, to unattractive ones or to neither-
attractive-nor-unattractive faces (El Haj and Ndobo, 2021).
Results demonstrated higher memory for attractive than for
neither-attractive-nor-unattractive recipients, and higher memory
for unattractive than for neither-attractive-nor-unattractive
recipients. Both attractive and unattractive recipients thus
influence destination memory, probably because both types are
distinctive. This assumption was supported by the U-shaped
model of Ellis et al. (1973), which accounts for the relationship
between facial recognition and attractiveness. According to this
model, faces of average attractiveness are the least distinctive and
consequently more difficult to remember than very attractive or
very unattractive faces, which are more distinctive and therefore
provide more cues for retrieval.

Altogether, this section has shown how destination memory
can be influenced by recipient-related features, such as familiarity,
age, emotional states, distinctiveness and attractiveness. However,
destination memory can also be influenced by features related to
the sender, as discussed in the next section.

## 3.2. How the sender's characteristics influence destination memory

In addition to the recipient's features, destination memory can
also be influenced by characteristics related to the sender, such as
his/her ability to infer the mental state of the recipient (i.e., theory
of mind), the stereotypes he/she attributes to the recipient, as well as his/her extroversion and the effect of self-related information. To begin with the theory of mind or the ability to process the cognitive and affective attributes of others (Shamay-Tsoory and Aharon-Peretz, 2007), destination memory can be related to this theory, as individuals adjust the content of our output messages to recipients by observing and evaluating their feedback. In a study on the relationship between destination memory and theory of mind (El Haj et al., 2016c), participants were asked to remember to whom information had been told previously. In addition to the typical destination memory test, participants performed theory of mind tests. Results demonstrated that destination memory was predicted by performances in theory of mind tests. Another study extended these findings to amnesia by demonstrating that decline in destination memory in patients with Alzheimer's disease was predicted by decline in theory of mind (El Haj et al., 2015c). The relationship between destination memory and theory of mind may be attributed to the fact that theory of mind allows deep processing and efficient association between information and its recipient (Haj et al., 2019). Theory of mind may even mediate the ability to deceive when telling information to a given recipient. This assumption is supported by research demonstrating that when deceiving a given destination, the ability to infer and monitor the cognitive states, thoughts and intentions of the recipient allows a better association between information and destination (El Haj et al., 2018b).

In addition to the ability of the sender to infer the cognitive and affective states of the recipient, destination memory can also be influenced by stereotypes attributed by the sender to the recipient. The effect of stereotypes on destination memory was investigated in a study in which participants were asked to tell facts related to medicine and mechanics to the image of a physician and to that of a mechanic (El Haj, 2017). Results demonstrated higher destination memory for consistent facts (e.g., facts concerning mechanics that were told to the mechanic) than for inconsistent facts (e.g., facts concerning mechanics that were told to the physician). These findings demonstrate how a sender may rely on stereotypical information attributed to the recipient when deciding to whom facts have been told previously.

The sender's personality may also influence destination memory, especially if he/she is an extrovert. In a study on extroversion, participants performed a typical destination memory test and were asked to answer a questionnaire regarding extroversion (e.g., "I see myself as someone who is talkative/has an assertive personality") (El Haj et al., 2021). Results demonstrated a significant positive correlation between extroversion and destination memory. According to this study, extroverts demonstrate high destination memory as they typically value social communication, public sharing and processing of social information.

The self may also influence destination memory. This effect was investigated in a study in which younger adults and older adults were asked to tell self-related information (e.g., "I like Chinese food") and semantic information (e.g., "the moon is smaller than the sun") to pictures of celebrities (El Haj et al., 2022).

Results demonstrated higher destination memory for self-related information than for semantic information in both older adults and younger adults. These findings demonstrate high destination retention for self-related information, in other words, how individual may draw on self-related information to improve memory and social interactions in everyday life.

In brief, beyond the recipient's influence, destination memory can be influenced by features related to the sender, especially by theory of mind which mediates his/her ability to process and retain the destination.

## 4. Discussion

In our daily lives, we constantly send information to friends, colleagues, family members and even to strangers. The ability to associate specific information with an interlocutor (i.e., destination memory) is essential for communicative efficacy and daily interactions with others. As demonstrated in this review, destination memory involves both the recipient of the information and its sender, as it can be influenced by factors related to both. As sketched in Figure 1, destination memory relies on the sender's ability to infer the cognitive/affective state of the recipient and to attribute the output message to a stereotype related to the recipient. Extrovert senders may also retain the destination more easily, as they typically value social communication, public sharing and processing of social information. The self-value of the information may also influence destination memory. Destination memory also relies on features related to the recipient, such as familiarity, age, emotional states, distinctiveness and attractiveness.

In addition to synthesizing the literature about destination memory into a comprehensive framework and offering a “user guide” about how it works in everyday life interactions, the present review aims at providing directions for future studies. So far, research has mainly assessed destination memory using laboratory designs involving associations between information and pictures depicting faces. While this laboratory-based research is essential to control for the studied variables, one caveat is that it does not capture destination memory faithfully enough to mirror how it occurs in everyday life. Future research may could build on a study by Fischer et al. (2015), who offered a laboratory design that mimicked everyday life situations. Participants were asked to complete phrases in dyads and later remember to whom these sentences had been told. Future studies may also benefit from progress in virtual reality to create better controlled social environments allowing enhanced assessment of destination memory. Ideally, virtual reality designs could be coupled with behavioral/neurological assessments of factors that may influence destination memory, as highlighted in this review. Especially that little is known about the physiological and neuroanatomical correlates of destination memory. While promising, research on this topic stills is in its infancy (Mugikura et al., 2016; Iliadou et al., 2019; Li and Nie, 2021; Kladi et al., 2022). Another suggestion for future research is assessing a core, but neglected,
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 1</figcaption></figure>

How we retain destination during a conversation When sending a message, the sender can associate the information with the mental/affective state of the sender or with stereotypes related to the recipient. The sender's extroversion, and the self, may also facilitate retention. For better retention, the sender may also rely on the recipient's characteristics.

sender's characteristics, namely, whether some people would
demonstrate highly superior destination memory. This suggestion
is based on research focusing on individual differences that fall at
some extremes of the "remembering" dimension, such as the
differences between highly superior autobiographical memory
and severely deficient autobiographical memory (Parker et al.,
2006; Palombo et al., 2015, 2018; Santangelo et al., 2018, 2020).

Future research could also attempt to situate destination
memory in a wider framework. It would be interesting to
understand how it may improve communication and cooperation
between senders and recipients. Destination memory can
be beneficial for senders as it enables them to retain the context in
which a message was encoded (e.g., not only to whom the message
was relayed, but also the cognitive/affective state of the recipient
during the communication). Such retention may help the sender
establish communication with others and even be assertive about
the occurrence of a given event (e.g., "I am sure that I asked that
colleague about the data because he was very excited to assist me
with it"). It would thus be interesting to assess how destination
memory guides our interactions and our memory of them. In
doing so, the recipient's feedback should be carefully observed.
During communication, we observe and evaluate the recipient's
feedback to adjust the content of the output message. This
feedback may also serve as a salient cue during destination
retrieval. However, this feedback has been surprisingly neglected
in research on destination memory.

In conclusion, the study of destination memory paves the way for
research on how memory might be intimately associated with social

cognition. Owing to its social nature, destination memory improves
social interaction with our environment. Thanks to it, we are able to
attribute information to its appropriate recipient, avoiding the sharing
of information with an inappropriate person or the development of
inaccurate expectations of people with whom we interact.

Author contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor to this work
and has reviewed and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

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