ated with QGP formation. These signatures are observed
in events with large charged-particle multiplicity den-
sities and include the enhancement of strange-particle
yields, positive values of anisotropic flow determined
from multi-particle correlations, a mass ordering of
anisotropic flow coefficients as a function of trans-
verse momentum in light-flavour hadrons, and enhanced
baryon-to-meson ratios at intermediate-transverse momen-
tum. In p-Pb collisions, another such feature is that
ψ(2S) suppression in the backward-rapidity region
(Pb-going) is larger with respect to the ground state,
which is an observation typically associated to final-
state interactions between the weakly-bound c¯c and a
strongly-interacting medium. At first sight, the ability
of the hydrodynamic framework to describe many of the
observed features even at low multiplicities suggests that
there is no apparent limit of QGP formation. However,
models based on a microscopic description of the sys-
tem, including even those that do not require a presence
of an equilibrated, collectively-expanding medium, can
also explain these features and are therefore able to pro-
vide an alternative interpretation of our measurements,
challenging the idea of creation of a small QGP droplet.
This seems to be further supported by the fact that no
significant jet quenching has been observed within the
sensitivity of the measurements. However, such absence
could also be caused by the small spatial extent of a pos-
sible QGP system. The wealth of experimental measure-
ments collected until now suggests a smooth evolution
of collective effects with particle multiplicity, with fur-
ther theoretical investigation being required to clarify
up to which extent and in which conditions heavy-ion
phenomenology and a microscopic description are both
able to provide predictions that are consistent with data.

8. *What is the nature of the initial state of heavy-ion collisions?*

Our vector meson photoproduction measurements in
Ultra Peripheral Collisions and electroweak boson stud-
ies have provided unique constraints on the gluon par-
ton distribution function for nuclei. They show clear
evidence that the partonic structure of nuclei is differ-
ent compared to free protons, with nuclear shadowing
effects increasing with decreasing longitudinal momen-
tum fractions x. Using photoproduction measurements
in p-Pb collisions, we have probed the gluon densities
also in the proton down to x ~ 10⁻⁵ and found no
clear indication of gluon-saturation effects. Advance-
ments in initial-state models that map the spatial dis-
tribution of nuclear matter in heavy-ion collisions have
been extremely successful in describing multiplicity and
flow measurements sensitive to small- and large-scale
structures of the nucleus and the nuclear overlap. Such an
observation has key and beneficial implications for the

extraction of QGP properties. These properties depend
on the accuracy of such modelling, with η/s being a
prime example. Our measurements in both small and
large systems have also shed light on the structure of
the nuclear matter at high-energy, with indications of
nucleon substructure playing an important role. A key
question in this regard is whether gluon saturation in the
nuclei is a requirement for this success, as competitive
descriptions can often be achieved with and without it.

9. *What is the nature of hadron–hadron interactions?*

Collisions at the LHC produce an abundance of short-
lived hadrons, with such an abundance being far beyond
previous experimental investigations. Our measure-
ments have studied their properties and interactions
with other hadrons at unprecedented levels of accuracy.
We have also specifically measured antimatter nuclear
states, which has enabled us to investigate the antimatter
properties. These include the first measurements of anti-
helium cross sections of interaction with matter, which
promise to shed light on the transparency of the interstel-
lar medium in view of Dark Matter searches. For pp and
p–Pb collisions, we have observed for the first time that
the p–Ξ, Λ–Ξ and p–Ω interactions are attractive in the
strong sector, which is consistent with expectations from
Lattice QCD. Although attractive, no bound states for
these interactions have been found. Other investigated
interactions, such as p–K, p–Λ, p–φ and p–Σ, have chal-
lenged Effective Field Theory descriptions. Such obser-
vations have implications for the equation of state of
the core of neutron stars, where nucleon-hyperon inter-
actions may play a significant role. Our studies on the
formation of light nuclei from pp to heavy-ion colli-
sions have explored a tension between the coalescence
and the statistical hadronisation approaches for differ-
ent sizes of the particle-emitting source. Nonetheless it
is remarkable that statistical hadronisation models can
describe deuteron yields in central heavy-ion collisions,
given that the binding energy is approximately 70 times
smaller than the medium temperature. On the other hand,
the measurement of hypertriton (³₂ΛH) yields in p–Pb
collisions shows the limits of the statistical approach
for small colliding systems and is better described by
coalescence models. Our hypertriton lifetime and bind-
ing energy measurements (Λ separation energy) are the
most accurate to date and provide stringent constraints
for the understanding of the feeble strong interaction that
binds hypernuclei. Finally, our studies of matter versus
antimatter hadronic interactions have revealed no differ-
ence as of yet in the strong sector.

10. Can ALICE elucidate specific aspects of perturbative QCD and of related "long distance" QCD interactions?

ALICE measurements of high-Q² processes in pp col-
lisions have provided new insights into the perturba-
tive regime of QCD and, via QCD factorisation, to non-perturbative long distance objects such as fragmentation functions. The importance of high-order perturbative contributions to high-$Q^2$ processes have been demonstrated by ALICE measurements of inclusive jet production and jet substructure, both of which can be calculated in pQCD without non-perturbative fragmentation functions. These measurements provide state-of-the-art tests of the extent to which pQCD can describe low-energy jets, which is crucial as a baseline for interpreting past and future jet quenching measurements. The fragmentation process itself has been studied in detail with a wide range of ALICE measurements of identified particles, including neutral mesons, charm hadrons, and quarkonia. Such identified particle measurements can be described by pQCD in combination with fragmentation functions, allowing the opportunity to constrain fragmentation functions. Precise measurements of charm hadron production, including cross section measurements of several charmed baryons for the first time, have allowed ALICE to compute the total charm cross section and to measure charm fragmentation fractions – demonstrating the non-universality of charm fragmentation in pp collisions compared to ee and ep collisions. By studying jets containing $D^0$ mesons in pp collisions, ALICE has reported the first direct observation of the dead-cone effect in QCD, consisting in a suppression of the gluons radiated by a massive quark (charm, in this case) in a forward cone around its flight direction.

These observations have demonstrated that much has been learnt over the past period of LHC data taking. This has been done in conjunction with other LHC experiments, and with the continuation of the RHIC programme – where huge advances in luminosities and centre-of-mass energy coverage have been achieved. Our studies of high-density QCD have continued to explore emergent behaviour in many-body interactions at highest possible temperatures in the laboratory. These include the hydrodynamic description, that has been tested with unprecedented accuracy in heavy-ion collisions at the LHC, which offer an environment far beyond the usual application in fluid dynamics. Comprehensive efforts at global fitting for precise determination of QGP properties and dynamics are now underway, utilising the powerful approach of Bayesian Inference for rigorous theory-to-experiment comparison. Such analyses have gone through a few iterations in the soft sector, and are starting in the hard-probes sector. We have demonstrated that QGP transitions to thermally and chemically equilibrated hadron yields, with the most extensive set of measurements achieved. QGP-like signatures were discovered in high-multiplicity pp and p-Pb collisions, which probe the thresholds of QGP formation. Such findings have ignited a debate of whether pp and

p-Pb collisions at LHC and RHIC energies create the smallest possible QGP droplets. We have also discovered thermalisation effects for charm quarks in the QGP, and these demonstrate microscopically how equilibrium can occur on extremely small time scales via the strong interaction. The discovery of strong regeneration effects in the charmonium sector represents an unambiguous signal for deconfinement of quarks and gluons. Finally, we have investigated two-body interactions to an unprecedented precision, and discovered how rarely-produced hadrons interact, whose behaviour has broad implications for understanding various features of the Universe. However, many open questions remain. The next chapter of this article is dedicated to addressing these questions in the future ALICE programme.

## 9 Outlook: ALICE detector and physics for the next two decades

### 9.1 ALICE upgrades and data-taking campaigns for the LHC Runs 3 and 4

#### 9.1.1 Major ALICE2 detector upgrade

The ALICE Collaboration has prepared a major upgrade of the experimental apparatus that was installed during the LHC Long Shutdown 2 (2019–2021) and will operate during Runs 3 (2022–2025) and 4 (2029–2032). After successful commissioning with injection-energy beams, the upgraded ALICE apparatus has started to record Run 3 proton-proton collisions at $\sqrt{s} = 13.6$ TeV in July 2022. The detector upgrade, indicated as ‘ALICE2’, was guided by the requirements detailed in Ref. [166]. Track reconstruction performance is improved, in terms of spatial precision and efficiency, in particular for low-momentum particles, in order to select more effectively the decay vertices of heavy-flavour mesons and baryons, and to separate prompt and non-prompt charmonium states. The sustainable interaction rate is increased up to 50 kHz for Pb-Pb collisions in continuous readout mode (all collisions are collected), that provides full recording efficiency for low-momentum processes. This increase enables recording of a sample of minimum-bias collisions corresponding to the full integrated luminosity of about $13 \text{ nb}^{-1}$ that the LHC can deliver during Runs 3 and 4. This sample will be larger by two orders of magnitude than the minimum-bias Run 2 sample. The charged-hadron, electron, muon, photon and jet identification capabilities of the apparatus, which are crucial for the selection of heavy-flavour, quarkonium, light nuclei and dilepton signals at low-momentum, is preserved.

The ALICE upgrade, described in detail in Ref. [166] and in an upcoming extended review [167], entails the following main changes to the apparatus. The ITS has been replaced
with the ITS 2 [1412], made of seven layers equipped with Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS). The innermost layer has a radius of 23 mm, in comparison with 39 mm of the ITS. The hit resolution of the detector is of about 5 µm and the material budget of each three innermost layers is reduced from the value of 1.15% (ITS) to 0.35% (ITS 2) of the radiation length. These features provide an improvement by a factor of about three for the track impact parameter resolution in the transverse plane and by a factor of about six in the longitudinal direction. A new Muon Forward Tracker (MFT) [1413] has been installed, made of five double-sided detection disks instrumented with similar MAPS as those used in the ITS 2 and it provides precise tracking and secondary vertex reconstruction for muon tracks in $-3.6 < \eta < -2.5$. The TPC readout chambers have been replaced with Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM) chambers [1414] and the readout systems of the TOF detector and Muon Spectrometer have been upgraded [1415] to enable continuous readout of Pb-Pb events at an interaction rate up to 50 kHz while keeping the same momentum measurement and particle identification performance for charged hadrons, electrons and muons as in Runs 1-2. The forward trigger detectors have been replaced with a new Fast Interaction Trigger detector (FIT) [1415] based on Cherenkov radiators and scintillator tiles at forward rapidity around the beam pipe. A new integrated Online-Offline system (O²) has been deployed for data readout, compression and processing on a large GPU-CPU computing facility located at the experimental site [1416].

### 9.1.2 Proposed upgrades for Run 4

Two additional upgrades are in preparation for the Long Shutdown 3 (2026-2028), with the goal of further enhancing the physics reach of the experiment in Run 4: a new inner barrel for the Inner Tracking System (ITS 3 project) and a forward calorimeter optimised for photon detection in the range $3.4 < \eta < 5.8$ (FoCal project). Both the upgrade projects have been endorsed by the ALICE Collaboration and are described in Refs. [1417,1418].

The ITS 3 upgrade [1417] consists in the replacement of the three innermost layers of the ITS 2 with three truly-cylindrical layers made with curved large-area MAPS sensors [1419]. Each of the three new layers will have a thickness as low as 0.02-0.04% of the radiation length. The new layers will be positioned at smaller radii, with the innermost layer having a radius of 18 mm; a new beam pipe with reduced radius (16 mm) and thickness is also part of the upgrade. The ITS 3 track impact parameter resolution is better than that of the ITS 2 by a factor of two in both the transverse and longitudinal directions up to a transverse momentum of 5 GeV/c, reaching down to about 12 µm at $p_T = 1$ GeV/c and 3 µm at $p_T = 10$ GeV/c. The tracking efficiency at very low-

transverse momentum is also improved. The projected tracking performance and reduced material budget will strongly enhance the low-mass dielectron, heavy-flavour meson and baryon production measurements.

The FoCal upgrade [1418] consists of an electromagnetic calorimeter with high readout granularity for optimal separation of direct-photon showers from those of neutral pions at forward pseudorapidity ($3.4 < \eta < 5.8$), coupled to a hadronic calorimeter for additional hadron rejection. The required granularity is achieved using a combination of MAPS silicon pixel readout planes and standard silicon pad readout planes. The main physics goal of the FoCal is the study of gluon parton distribution functions in the lead nucleus at Bjorken $x$ values down to $10^{-6}$ using the nuclear modification factor $R_{pPb}$ of forward direct photons with transverse momentum $2 < p_T < 20$ GeV/c in p-Pb collisions at $\sqrt{s_{NN}} = 8.8$ TeV. This kinematic domain is not accessible with other present and planned experiments and it extends to lower $x$ values with respect to the coverage of the Electron-Ion Collider [1420]. The gluon densities at $x < 10^{-4}$ are expected to be sensitive to possible nonlinear QCD evolution or saturation effects. The FoCal physics programme also includes forward di-hadron correlations, jet production, as well as measurements in ultra-peripheral p-Pb and Pb-Pb collisions.

### 9.1.3 Target data samples and integrated luminosities for LHC Runs 3 and 4

The future ALICE and LHC physics programme for high-density QCD with small and large colliding systems is extensively discussed in the HL-LHC Physics Yellow Report [139]. The ALICE target samples and integrated luminosities are the following: Pb-Pb collisions at $\sqrt{s_{NN}} = 5.3$ TeV: $L_{int} = 13$ nb$^{-1}$; p-Pb collisions at $\sqrt{s_{NN}} = 8.5$ TeV: $L_{int} \approx 0.5$ pb$^{-1}$; pp reference samples at the same centre-of-mass energies as the Pb-Pb and p-Pb samples: $L_{int} \approx 6$ pb$^{-1}$ for each energy; pp collisions at top LHC energy $\sqrt{s} = 13.6$ TeV: $L_{int} = 200$ pb$^{-1}$; $^{16}$O-$^{16}$O collisions at $\sqrt{s_{NN}} = 6.8$ TeV (few days in Run 3 with $L_{int} \approx 0.5-1$ nb$^{-1}$).

The Pb-Pb and p-Pb samples will represent an increase by factors of 50-100 and 1000, respectively, in comparison to the samples collected with a minimum-bias trigger during Run 2. A sample of Pb-Pb collisions, corresponding to an integrated luminosity of about 3 nb$^{-1}$, will be collected with the low-field setting of 0.2 T for the ALICE solenoid magnet in order to optimise the performance for low-mass dielectron measurements. The top-energy pp programme is motivated by studies of high-density QCD effects in high-multiplicity collisions, that complement the p-Pb and O-O programmes, as well as by perturbative QCD and hadronic physics studies to which ALICE can uniquely contribute [902]. All pp
collisions will be inspected in the $O^2$ computing farm and a selection based on event multiplicity or on the presence of specific signals (strange and heavy-flavour hadron decays, quarkonia, light nuclei, jets and photons) will be applied to record about 1/1000 of the collisions. The target integrated luminosity for such studies will be collected mostly in Run 3.

## 9.2 ALICE 3 detector proposal for the LHC Run 5 and beyond

For the LHC Runs 5 and 6, a completely new setup, named ‘ALICE 3’, is proposed [168], to enable new measurements in the heavy-flavour sector – with focus on low-$p_T$, including measurements of multi-charm baryon production and femtoscopic studies of the interaction potentials between heavy mesons – as well as precise multi-differential measurements of dielectron emission to probe the mechanism of chiral-symmetry restoration and to study the time-evolution of the QGP temperature.

The proposed detector consists of a tracking system with unique pointing resolution over a large pseudorapidity range ($-4 < \eta < +4$), complemented by multiple sub-detector systems for particle identification, including silicon time-of-flight layers, a ring-imaging Cherenkov detector with high-resolution readout, a muon identification system and an electromagnetic calorimeter. Unprecedented pointing resolution of 10 $\mu$m at $p_T = 200$ MeV/c at midrapidity in both the transverse and longitudinal directions can be achieved by using thinned silicon sensors with minimal supporting material, similarly to the ITS 3 proposal, and by placing the first layers as close as possible to the interaction point, on a retractable structure to leave sufficient aperture for the beams at injection energy. The pointing resolution at midrapidity is projected to be about three times better than that of the ITS 3. In the baseline scenario, the tracking system is placed in a superconducting solenoid with a field of $B = 2$ T to reach a momentum resolution of 1–2% over a broad pseudorapidity range. Other options for the magnet are under study. The particle identification systems enable high-purity separation of electrons from $p_T$ as low as 50 MeV/c and up to about 1.5 GeV/c, and of hadrons over a broad momentum range. The muon system is optimised for muon identification down to $p_T \approx 1.5$ GeV/c, so that $J/\psi$ can be measured with transverse momentum down to zero. This provides access to decays of different $\chi_c$ states via their decays to $J/\psi\gamma$ and to the exotic $\chi_{c1}(3872)$ in the $J/\psi\pi^+\pi^-$ channel.

The programme aims to collect an integrated luminosity of about 35 nb$^{-1}$ with Pb–Pb collisions and 18 fb$^{-1}$ with pp collisions at top LHC energy. The potential to further increase the luminosity for ion running in the LHC by using smaller ions (e.g. $^{84}$Kr or $^{128}$Xe), as well as further runs with

small collision systems to explore the approach to thermal equilibrium, are being explored.

## 9.3 Physics prospects with the ALICE 2 and ALICE 3 detectors

In the following, the expected advances in addressing the physics questions in the next two decades are illustrated with specific examples from the ALICE 2 and ALICE 3 programmes.

### 1. What are the thermodynamic properties of the QGP at the LHC?

A major advance in this sector will concern the determination of the QGP temperature and its time evolution. The average temperature of the QGP phase will be determined with an accuracy of about 20% in Run 3 by measuring thermal radiation with dielectron pairs (virtual photons) in the invariant-mass range 1–2 GeV/c$^2$. Unlike the effective temperature from the real direct photon spectrum, the temperature obtained from dilepton invariant mass is not affected by the blue shift induced by radial flow. A temperature measurement with dileptons was not possible in Run 2. A dedicated data-taking period with a reduced magnetic field of 0.2 T will increase the acceptance for low-$p_T$ dielectrons and the new Inner Tracking System (ITS 2) will strongly reduce the background from photon conversions and charm decays. The further upgrade of the inner tracker (ITS 3) with even lower material thickness will bring the accuracy to about 10% in Run 4.

The ALICE 3 detector is specifically designed for ultimate performance for dielectron measurements and will provide novel access to the time-evolution of the temperature of the QGP using differential measurements of dielectrons as function of both transverse momentum and invariant mass, with the higher (lower) mass ranges expected to be dominated by higher (lower) temperature radiation emitted at earlier (later) time. The measurement of the elliptic and higher-harmonic flow coefficients of thermal dielectrons is expected to give access to thermal radiation from the early pre-hydrodynamic QGP phase [1421]. This will also provide independent constraints on the transport coefficients of the QGP fluid: the shear viscosity $\eta$ and the bulk viscosity $\zeta$ as a function of time and therefore of temperature [1422, 1423]. In addition, thermal radiation of real photons will be measured via conversions in the tracking system and with the electromagnetic calorimeter. The enhanced low-$p_T$ capabilities of both these systems enable a precise determination of the decay-photon background leading to a reduction of the systematic uncertainties.

In addition, the ALICE 3 acceptance and performance
will allow us to address the characteristics of the QGP phase transition at vanishing baryochemical potential. The partial restoration of QCD chiral symmetry is, together with colour deconfinement, one of the fundamental effects that are theoretically associated to the QGP phase transition. Chiral symmetry is expected to lead to a modification of the dilepton spectrum in the light-vector-meson mass range. Indications of chiral-symmetry restoration were found at SPS energies via measurements of a broadened $\rho^0$-meson mass spectrum by the CERES [1424] and, with higher precision, NA60 [1425] experiments. At variance, measurements at high-energy and vanishing baryochemical potential currently have too large uncertainties to allow a concluding experimental study [209, 1426, 1427]. The vertexing and rate capabilities of the ALICE3 detector will be essential for a high precision measurement of the medium modification of the dilepton spectrum at the LHC over a large mass range, in particular in the region around the mass of the $\rho^0$ and $a_1$ mesons. In this mass range, the chiral mixing between the $\rho^0$ and its chiral partner $a_1$ is expected to increase the dielectron yield by about 15%. Such effect is below the expected accuracy of dielectron measurements with ALICE2, while it is within the projected experimental sensitivity of ALICE3.

Phase transitions in strongly-interacting matter can be addressed via measurements of fluctuations of conserved charges in heavy-ion collisions [378, 1428, 1429]. These measurements provide information on critical behaviour near the phase boundary between QGP and hadronic matter. The fluctuations, assessed via cumulants of various orders of a given net-charge (e.g. baryon number using protons), can be directly related to generalised susceptibilities, which are derivatives of the pressure with respect to the chemical potentials corresponding to the conserved charges and are computed in lattice QCD. Critical fluctuations due to the vicinity of the cross-over line to a second-order phase transition of $\mathcal{O}(4)$ universality at vanishing u, d quark masses are expected to strongly modify the sixth and higher order cumulants of the net-baryon distribution [1430]. The target integrated luminosity for ALICE2 in Runs 3-4 is expected to be sufficient for observing a possible deviation from unity of the sixth-order cumulant [1431]. However, only the much larger acceptance of ALICE3 (8 units of pseudorapidity, instead of 1.8 of ALICE1 and 2) will enable a high-precision measurement and could also give access to lower-order cumulants in the strangeness and charm sectors.

## 2. What are the hydrodynamic and transport properties of the QGP?

A major advance is planned for the determination of the

heavy-quark transport parameters of the QGP, in particular the spatial diffusion coefficient $D_s$. As discussed in Sect. 2.7, unlike the bulk and shear viscosities, the diffusion coefficient can be calculated from first principles in the perturbative QCD and lattice QCD approaches. These approaches are enabled by the large scale given by the masses of charm and beauty quarks.

The ALICE2 upgrade has been designed with precise heavy-flavour measurements as one of the main physics motivations. Nuclear modification factors and azimuthal anisotropy coefficients of several charm-hadron species will be used together with detailed model calculations, for example using Bayesian parameter estimation frameworks [1432], to evaluate the charm-quark spatial diffusion coefficient $D_s$ with about a factor two better accuracy than the present determinations. Precise measurements of charm-strange mesons ($D_s^+$) and charm baryons ($\Lambda_c^+$) are crucial to constrain the hadronisation mechanisms in nucleus-nucleus collisions for the majority of charm quarks, that have momentum lower than 10 GeV/c. This is necessary to remove the large theoretical uncertainty from hadronisation in the estimate of the diffusion coefficient. The ITS3 upgrade will further improve the precision on $\Lambda_c$ production measurements in Run 4 by a factor of about four in comparison to Run 3.

The ALICE2 measurements of non-prompt D and $J/\psi$ mesons and fully-reconstructed B meson decays from 3 GeV/c in transverse momentum will enable estimates of the diffusion coefficient for beauty quarks. A precise determination of this transport parameter of the QGP will only be enabled by the large acceptance and high pointing resolution of ALICE3, as well as the expected recorded integrated luminosity in Runs 5 and 6. The comparison with first-principle calculations will also become sharper, because the three-fold larger mass of beauty quarks with respect to charm makes the determination of their $D_s$ much more accurate in lattice-QCD. Moreover, the relaxation time of beauty quarks is expected to be about three times larger than for charm quarks (ratio of masses): this aspect will provide additional insight on the temperature-dependence of heavy-quark diffusion in the QGP.

## 3. How does the QGP affect the formation of hadrons?

In Runs 3 and 4, precise measurements of $D_s^+$ and $\Lambda_c^+$ yields over a broad momentum range and the first measurement of $\Lambda_c^+$ elliptic flow will provide strong constraints for the understanding of hadronisation and recombination mechanisms. The ITS3 upgrade for Run 4 will enable a first measurement of baryon-to-meson ratios in the beauty sector in Pb-Pb collisions and a precise measurement of beauty + strange hadronisation dynamics using non-prompt $D_s^+$ yields and elliptic flow.
A first, unique, access to the sector of multi-charm baryons (double charm and, possibly, triple charm) is among the main physics goals of the ALICE3 experiment. The reconstruction of $\Xi_{cc}$ and $\Omega_{cc}$ cascade chains will be enabled by the unprecedented tracking resolution at the level of a few micrometres, coupled to innovative analysis techniques like strange baryon tracking in the innermost detector layers with radii of a few centimetres. Access to these states allows for a comprehensive study of charm hadronisation from the QGP, including “pure-recombination” hadrons, for which the production probability in string fragmentation is very strongly suppressed by the large charm mass and the conservation of the charm quantum number in the strong interaction [434,1433,1434]. In addition, the large rapidity acceptance of the ALICE3 detector enables studying the dependence of the formation of single- and double-charm baryons on the charm quark rapidity density $dN_{c\bar{c}}/dy$.

### 4. How does the QGP affect the propagation of energetic partons?

The ALICE2 detector in Runs 3 and 4 will record a fifty-fold larger sample of moderate-$p_T$ jets ($\approx 30–100$ GeV/c). In conjunction with the excellent tracking performance provided by the ITS2 (and ITS3 in Run 4), this enables the extension of the studies of the medium-induced modification of internal structure of jets to charm and beauty tagged jets (i.e. tagged parton colour charge and mass) and photon-jet correlations (tagged initial energy of the parton). The large sample of moderate-$p_T$ jets will furthermore be used for a high precision search of angular broadening and large-angle Molière-like deflection with jets that recoil against a high-$p_T$ hadron or a photon. This study will provide insight into the existence and nature of scattering centres in the QGP, covering a range of resolution scales (jet energy) and QGP temperatures (related to centre-of-mass energy) that is complementary to studies planned by the sPHENIX Collaboration at RHIC [138].

The reconstruction of D mesons in the ALICE3 detector with unprecedented large acceptance of eight units of rapidity and large signal-to-background ratio down to almost zero $p_T$ will enable the first precise studies of D-$\bar{D}$ azimuthal correlations. This observable provides a direct insight on the interaction mechanisms of charm quarks in the QGP, namely on the contributions of collisional (elastic) and radiative (inelastic) processes [621,1435]. Collisional processes are predicted to be dominant for the interaction of low-momentum charm quarks and are considered to be at the origin of the sizeable elliptic flow of hadrons with open and hidden charm. The azimuthal correlation of initially back-to-back charm-anticharm pairs is predicted to be completely washed out by collisional interactions, in analogy to Brownian motion [621].

### 5. How does deconfinement in the QGP affect the QCD force?

The ALICE2 measurements of charmonium and bottomonium production will benefit from integrated luminosities increased by factors about 15 and 50 at forward and central rapidity, respectively, and from the higher mass resolution and prompt/non-prompt charmonium separation provided by the MFT at forward rapidity. The high precision ratio of the total $\psi(2S)$ and $J/\psi$ yields is expected to be decisive for the comparison with different models of charmonium formation from deconfined charm and anticharm quarks. This measurement will be possible for the first time also at central rapidity: the rapidity dependence is an important element to discriminate underlying binding mechanisms, because the charm quark density depends on rapidity. At the same time, the charm-quark density will be measured in Pb-Pb collisions using charm mesons and baryons ($\Lambda_c$ and, possibly, $\Xi_c$) at central rapidity and will thus not be a large uncertainty source in models any longer. A high precision $J/\psi$ elliptic flow measurement will provide complementary information on the degree of thermalisation of the deconfined charm quarks in the QGP.

High precision measurements of photoproduction of low-$p_T$ $J/\psi$ mesons in hadronic Pb-Pb collisions will be carried out with ALICE2. They will enable studies of possible modification of these states, which are non-relativistic, in interactions with the medium. In addition, they can be used for an independent estimate of the reaction plane [993].

The ALICE3 design includes both muon detection chambers and electromagnetic calorimetry with acceptance down to low photon energies. These features are instrumental to the measurements in Pb-Pb collisions of P-wave charmonium states ($\chi_{c1,2}$ in the $J/\psi(\to \mu\mu) + \gamma$ channel), which are expected to have different dissociation and recombination dynamics because their binding energy and spatial extent lies in-between those of ground and excited vector states, and because the non-zero orbital angular momentum $L=1$ alters the structure of their wave function. In addition, these measurements will provide for the first time an experimental assessment of the role of feed-down to the S-wave states (in particular $J/\psi$ and $\psi(2S)$).

### 6. Can the QGP lead to discovery of novel QCD effects?

The search for the Chiral Magnetic Effect induced by parity violation in the strong interaction will be carried out with improved sensitivity using the fifty-fold larger data sample that the ALICE2 detector will record in Runs 3 and 4. The search for CME-induced charge separation along the direction of the magnetic field pro-
duced by the spectator protons in non-central collisions will reach a sensitivity to a CME fraction as small as 1% (at 95% CL) [1431]. It is also important to establish direct evidence for the strong magnetic field, which is a key ingredient for the CME, and to determine its strength, which will help significantly constrain theoretical predictions on the magnitude of the CME signal. Measurements of the pseudorapidity-odd component of directed flow will be sensitive to a difference of $5 \times 10^{-5}$ between positively and negatively charged particles, that are mainly sensitive to the field value in the late stages of the collisions, and $2 \times 10^{-3}$ for D and $\bar{D}$ mesons that contain positively and negatively charged charm quarks and are sensitive to the field value in the early stages [1431].

### 7. What are the limits of QGP formation?

The discovery of collective patterns and strangeness enhancement in particle production in pp and p-Pb collisions with the LHC Run 1 and 2 data questions the view of nucleus-nucleus as the only colliding system in which the QGP can form. This question motivated the decision to pursue increased luminosity goals with pp and p-Pb collisions to carry out a programme of high precision studies of rare probes at high-multiplicity in Runs 3 and 4 [902]. The ten-fold increase of the sample of high-multiplicity pp collisions with respect to Run 2 will open the possibility to study several observables in small and large systems at the same multiplicity. The large integrated luminosity will enable precise measurements of heavy-quark and quarkonium collective flow and a quantitative comparison between pp, p-Pb and Pb-Pb collisions to clarify the origin of the collectivity in small systems and the role of the initial-state of the collisions. The analysis of hadron-jet correlations will allow us to either observe energy loss in small systems for the first time or to put a stringent limit on it (two orders of magnitude smaller than the measured energy loss in central Pb-Pb collisions [902]). The complementarity of the pp and p-Pb programmes resides in the possibility to separately study the effect of multiplicity and of system size (larger in p-Pb than in pp). In addition, a short $^{16}$O-$^{16}$O run in Run 3 will enable a search for the onset of parton energy loss effects in a system with nucleus-nucleus geometry and with multiplicities similar to those reached in p-Pb collisions [1436].

The large pseudorapidity acceptance of the ALICE3 tracking detectors enables low-bias studies of high-multiplicity pp collisions as a function of global event topology (distribution and dispersion of event activity over eight $\eta$ units, in addition to full azimuth). Furthermore, any future measurement campaigns with lighter ions that may be warranted by the results of Runs 3 and 4 (for instance by oxygen-oxygen studies) will

strongly benefit from the much higher rate capability of the ALICE3 detector with respect to ALICE2.

### 8. What is the nature of the initial state of heavy-ion collisions?

A major advance in the study of the initial state will be achieved in Run 3 with the study of the small Bjorken-$x$ region below $10^{-4}$ where parton phase-space saturation could set in, using quarkonia produced in the photon-lead interactions that occur in ultra-peripheral lead-lead collisions. In particular, the measurements of the $J/\psi$, $\psi(2S)$ and $\Upsilon(1S)$ photoproduction at central and forward rapidity will allow ALICE2 to study the $Q^2$-dependence of the nuclear shadowing in a wide range of Bjorken-$x$ from $10^{-5}$ to $3 \times 10^{-2}$. Measurements of both coherent and incoherent production contributions, and of the $p_T$ dependence, for these quarkonium states will also provide sensitivity to the variation of the shadowing effect in the transverse area of the nucleus. The production of open charm $D-\bar{D}$ pairs in ultra-peripheral collisions, for which theoretical calculations have smaller uncertainties, are also expected to come into experimental reach. For Run 4, the proposed dedicated high-granularity forward calorimeter (FoCal) will enable measurements of forward photon production at $3.5 < y < 5.8$ and $p_T > 2$ GeV/c in p-Pb collisions to constrain the gluon densities in the Pb nucleus at very low Bjorken-$x$ ($> 10^{-6}$) with unprecedented precision. In addition, FoCal measurements of azimuthal correlations of forward $\pi^0$ will allow us to search for effects of gluon saturation as predicted in the framework of the Colour Glass Condensate.

### 9. What is the nature of hadron-hadron interactions?

The large pp and p-Pb samples of Run 3 will allow us to extend the measurements of hyperon-hyperon interactions to states with higher strangeness content, up to the case of $\Omega-\Omega$ [902]. Precise measurements of deuteron-hyperon correlation functions will provide constraints to the wave function and production mechanisms of hypernuclei, complementary to direct measurements of hypertriton production in small and large systems. It is also planned to carry out extensive studies of the three-body interaction potential for protons and $\Lambda$ baryons and of the strong interaction between charm mesons and nucleons.

With the large acceptance and signal-to-background ratio for D mesons in ALICE3, the measurement of the momentum correlation function between pairs of D mesons (or $D-\bar{D}$) will provide information on the nature and wave function of exotic hadrons with two charm quarks, such as the $\chi_{c1}(3872)$ and the $T_{cc}$, and address the question on their tetraquark or $D-D$ molecular structure. The ALICE3 high rate capabilities will also provide access to rare nuclear states, such as light
nuclei with $A = 6$, hypernuclei with $A = 4, 5$. The rate capabilities, combined with the excellent heavy-flavour performance, could possibly give access to the yet undiscovered charm-nuclei [434,1437], in which a nucleon is replaced by a charmed baryon, like c-deuteron ($n\Lambda_c^+$) bound state decaying to, e.g., $d + K^- + \pi^+$ or $d + K_S^0$).

10. *Can ALICE elucidate specific aspects of perturbative QCD and of related "long distance" QCD interactions?*
As a follow up of the recent observation of the dead-cone effect for charm quarks [1277], the large pp sample of Run 3 will enable the first direct measurement of this effect also for beauty quarks, using low-$p_T$ jets that contain a fully-reconstructed B meson [902]. This will provide a direct test of the expected quark-mass dependence of the reduction of gluon radiation at small angles. In addition, the studies of charm quark hadronisation in pp collisions will be extended with precise measurements of baryons with charm and strangeness ($\Xi_c$ and $\Omega_c$), which at present elude a consistent description by string fragmentation models, even when baryon junction effects are included. In the next LHC runs, ALICE will study quarkonium production in pp collisions with high precision also at central rapidity, and with prompt and non-prompt component separation also at forward rapidity [902]. Other and more differential studies will be possible: the production of the $\chi_c$ meson, the associated production of quarkonium with charged particles, to study long-range correlation over up to 5 units in rapidity, and the associated production of $J/\psi$ with a photon or a D meson, to provide a novel insight on the partonic structure of the proton.

**Acknowledgements** The ALICE Collaboration would like to thank all its engineers and technicians for their invaluable contributions to the construction of the experiment and the CERN accelerator teams for the outstanding performance of the LHC complex. The ALICE Collaboration gratefully acknowledges the resources and support provided by all Grid centres and the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (WLCG) collaboration. The ALICE Collaboration acknowledges the following funding agencies for their support in building and running the ALICE detector: A. I. Alikhanyan National Science Laboratory (Yerevan Physics Institute) Foundation (ANSL), State Committee of Science and World Federation of Scientists (WFS), Armenia; Austrian Academy of Sciences, Austrian Science Fund (FWF): [M 2467-N36] and Nationalstiftung für Forschung, Technologie und Entwicklung, Austria; Ministry of Communications and High Technologies, National Nuclear Research Center, Azerbaijan; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos (Finep), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Brazil; Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science, within the National Roadmap for Research Infrastructures 2020-2027 (object CERN), Bulgaria; Ministry of Education of China (MOEC), Ministry of Science & Technology of China (MSTC) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), China; Ministry of Science and Education and Croatian Science Foundation, Croatia; Centro de Aplicaciones Tecnológicas y Desarrollo Nuclear (CEADEN), Cubaenergía, Cuba; Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the

Czech Republic, Czech Republic; The Danish Council for Independent Research | Natural Sciences, the VILLUM FONDEN and Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), Denmark; Helsinki Institute of Physics (HIP), Finland; Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA) and Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules (IN2P3) and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), France; Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) and GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH, Germany; General Secretariat for Research and Technology, Ministry of Education, Research and Religions, Greece; National Research, Development and Innovation Office, Hungary; Department of Atomic Energy Government of India (DAE), Department of Science and Technology, Government of India (DST), University Grants Commission, Government of India (UGC) and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India; National Research and Innovation Agency - BRIN, Indonesia; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Italy; Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) KAKENHI, Japan; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia (CONACYT) y Tecnología, through Fondo de Cooperación Internacional en Ciencia y Tecnología (FONCICYT) and Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal Académico (DGAPA), Mexico; Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO), Netherlands; The Research Council of Norway, Norway; Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South (COMSATS), Pakistan; Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Peru; Ministry of Education and Science, National Science Centre and WUT ID-UB, Poland; Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information and National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF), Republic of Korea; Ministry of Education and Scientific Research, Institute of Atomic Physics, Ministry of Research and Innovation and Institute of Atomic Physics and Universitatea Nationala de Stiinta si Tehnologie Politehnică Bucuresti, Romania; Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, Slovakia; National Research Foundation of South Africa, South Africa; Swedish Research Council (VR) and Knut & Alice Wallenberg Foundation (KAW), Sweden; European Organization for Nuclear Research, Switzerland; Suranaree University of Technology (SUT), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) and National Science, Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF via PMU-B B05F650021), Thailand; Turkish Energy, Nuclear and Mineral Research Agency (TENMAK), Turkey; National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Ukraine; Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), United Kingdom; National Science Foundation of the United States of America (NSF) and United States Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Physics (DOE NP), United States of America. In addition, individual groups or members have received support from: Marie Skłodowska Curie, European Research Council, Strong 2020 - Horizon 2020 (grant nos. 950692, 824093, 896850), European Union; Academy of Finland (Center of Excellence in Quark Matter) (grant nos. 346327, 346328), Finland; Programa de Apoyos para la Superación del Personal Académico, UNAM, Mexico.

**Data Availability Statement** Data will be made available on reasonable request. [Author's comment: The data associated to the measurements reported in this manuscript are available in the HEPData repository. The links can be found in the articles in which the results were originally published.]

**Code Availability Statement** My manuscript has no associated code/software. [Author's comment: The code/software used for the data reconstruction and analysis is publicly available on the github repository, at the links https://github.com/alisw/AliRoot and https://github.com/alisw/AliPhysics/.]

**Open Access** This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Funded by SCOAP³.

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