<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Review

# Energy Efficiency in the Building Sector in Burkina Faso: Literature Review, SWOT Analysis, and Recommendations

Bazam Amonet Ouoba Nebie 1,2,* ID, Abdou Lawane 1 ID, Césaire Hema 1 ID and Monica Siroux 2 ID

**Abstract:** In Burkina Faso, increasing access to electricity requires the optimized management of energy consumption in buildings and the implementation of regional and national regulations. These regulations have been implemented to promote energy efficiency in the building sector. However, they do not yet seem to have produced the expected results. Conducting a study could help identify the shortcomings related to energy efficiency and guide future research toward sustainable solutions. To date, no such study has been carried out. Therefore, this research aims to analyze the causes of these shortcomings, understand the gaps in the literature, and identify prospects for implementing energy efficiency policy in buildings in Burkina Faso. The methodology consisted of systematically analyzing the scientific literature on current regulations and previous scientific studies on energy efficiency in Burkina Faso. A SWOT analysis of energy efficiency programs in buildings in Burkina Faso was then carried out, and recommendations were proposed. The results show that the obstacles to the emergence of a genuine energy efficiency program in buildings are the inadequacies of the texts and regulations in force, the lack of standards, and the focus of scientific studies on building materials to the detriment of residents' consumption habits. This study, therefore, sets out guidelines for future research and policies, while providing recommendations for improving the energy efficiency of buildings in Burkina Faso.

**Keywords:** building; energy efficiency; regulations; SWOT analysis; Burkina Faso; recommendation

## 1. Introduction

The issue of energy consumption in buildings has become a global concern. With a share of around 40% of global energy consumption [1], the building sector ranks among the most energy-intensive, overtaking industry, transport, and agriculture. This sector is also responsible for the annual production of 8.8 Gt of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide [2]. In 2021, according to data from the International Energy Agency [3], global energy consumption for buildings has grown by 4% per year. According to forecasts, Africa's energy demand in 2040 will be three times higher than in 2015 [4]. In sub-Saharan Africa, annual demand will increase by an average of 8% compared with an almost stable supply, creating an energy deficit [5].

The consideration of energy efficiency can help address the energy challenge in Africa. Indeed, according to the International Energy Agency, the world would have consumed approximately 12% more energy in 2017 and would have spent an additional USD 2.2 billion without the various energy efficiency measures implemented since 2000 [6,7]. Energy

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

### check for updates

Academic Editor: Rajendra Singh

Adhikari

Received: 17 April 2025

Revised: 17 May 2025

Accepted: 20 May 2025

Published: 22 May 2025

**Citation:** Ouoba Nebie, B.A.; Lawane, A.; Hema, C.; Siroux, M. Energy Efficiency in the Building Sector in Burkina Faso: Literature Review, SWOT Analysis, and Recommendations. *Energies* **2025**, *18*, 2689. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112689

**Copyright:** © 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

<footnote n="1">¹ Laboratoire Eco-Matériaux et Habitats Durables (LEMHaD), Institut International d'Ingénierie de l'Eau et de l'Environnement (2iE), 1, Rue de la Science, Ouagadougou 01 BP 594, Burkina Faso</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² INSA Strasbourg ICube, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France</footnote>

<footnote>* Correspondence: amonet.nebie@2ie-edu.org</footnote>
efficiency thus involves using a smaller amount of energy to provide the same level of service or thermal comfort [8].

Burkina Faso, a West African country with an estimated total population of around 22 million [9], had a low national electrification rate of 26.29% in 2023, with around 15 million people without access to electricity [10]. Additionally, the electrification rate in urban areas was 87% compared to only 7% in rural areas in 2023, indicating that cities are the primary consumers of the electricity produced [10]. This high level of energy consumption in cities is explained by the growing needs of shops, offices, and residences, which continue to increase every year [11]. Moreover, the building sector was responsible for 72% of national energy consumption in 2023 [12]. Between 2018 and 2021, the annual growth in overall electricity demand in Burkina Faso was estimated at 8.36% [13]. The energy intensity of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) zone is one of the highest in the world. This intensity is estimated at 0.56 ktoe/USD million, 5 times higher than the European Union's [14]. To control this energy consumption, Burkina Faso set up its national action plan for energy efficiency (PANEE) and its national action plan for renewable energies (PANER) in 2015 [15,16]. The objectives of PANEE are to reduce Burkina Faso's energy intensity to 0.15 ktoe/USD million by 2030, increase the rate of efficient lighting to 100% by 2030, construct 90% of new public and private buildings with energy efficiency measures by 2030, and renovate 50% of existing buildings with energy efficiency measures to make them less energy-intensive by 2030 [15]. Priority actions of PANEE included the adoption of the passed Energy Management Law and the creation of the National Agency for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ANEREE) in 2017 [15]. However, according to Tete et al. (2022) [17], in Burkina Faso, energy efficiency in general did not improve from 2010 to 2019. Very few studies have addressed the assessment of energy efficiency in buildings in Burkina Faso, and no specific thermal regulations for buildings exist yet. Against this backdrop, it is crucial to take stock of the situation in order to lay the foundations for improvement in this area.

The key questions raised in this study are the following: What is the current state of energy efficiency regulations for buildings in Burkina Faso? What existing work and scientific advances have been made on this topic in the country?

Research findings are not often considered in the drafting of regulations and their implementation. This study aims to conduct a cross-analysis of regulations and scientific studies to highlight shortcomings and areas for improvement, with a view to better considering energy efficiency in buildings in Burkina Faso.

With this in mind, the main objective of this research is to provide an in-depth review of the energy efficiency of buildings in Burkina Faso. The specific objectives of this study are, firstly, to present a global overview of regulations and review relevant publications concerning residential and non-residential buildings in Burkina Faso. Secondly, this study aims to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats facing Burkina Faso as it moves towards low-energy buildings. The study follows a structured methodology to identify, analyze, and synthesize the relevant literature related to the topic. It therefore began with the collection of key documents relating to energy efficiency in Burkina Faso, a SWOT analysis, and recommendations. To this end, an in-depth analysis of 26 scientific articles and 16 regulatory texts was conducted.

The recommendations of this study could help the various national institutions better understand the perspective of low-energy buildings in Burkina Faso.

This document is organized into five parts. The first part presents the climatic energy context of Burkina Faso and architectural trends, the second part presents the methodology used to conduct the research, the third part presents the results of the literature review, the
fourth part evaluates the SWOT analysis of the energy efficiency sector in buildings, and
the last part proposes recommendations.

## 2. Climate, Energy, and Architectural Trends in Buildings in Burkina Faso

2.1. Climate Context

Burkina Faso, a West African country about 1000 km from the sea, lies at 13° north latitude and 2° west longitude [18]. The landlocked country enjoys a diverse climate divided into three main zones: an arid zone in the north, a savannah zone in the south, and a Sudano-Sahelian zone in the center, with average temperatures generally varying between 22.6 °C and 35.5 °C [19]. Average annual rainfall is between 600 and 900 mm and lasts 3 to 4 months [18]. During the dry season, the country is exposed to the “harmattan”, a hot, dry wind that blows for several months. Figure 1 gives an overview of Burkina Faso’s climatic profile.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Climate zones according to the Köppen–Geiger classification and isohyets (mm/year) in Burkina Faso [20].</figcaption></figure>

The northeast of the country is characterized by a wind regime measured at 80 m above ground level, with wind speeds varying between 7 m/s and 8 m/s, while in the other regions, the wind speed remains generally low [21]. However, Burkina Faso has an average global horizontal irradiation of around 5 kWh/m²/day over its entire territory, i.e., an annual average of over 3000 h of sunshine [22]. Burkina Faso's photovoltaic solar potential is estimated at 95.9 GW [22]. Table 1 summarizes meteorological data. In addition, an estimate of the cooling degree days for the city of Ouagadougou was made based on formulas found in the literature using a reference temperature of 24 °C (the reference
temperature used to size air conditioning systems in Burkina Faso) [19,23]. Table 2 shows these estimated values.

<table><caption>**Table 1.** Weather data summary of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Source: Climate Consultant (developed by UCLA Energy Design Tools Group, © Regents of the University of California) [24] and Weather Forecasting & Climate [25].</caption><thead><tr><th>Monthly Means</th><th>January</th><th>February</th><th>March</th><th>April</th><th>May</th><th>June</th><th>July</th><th>August</th><th>September</th><th>October</th><th>November</th><th>December</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Global horizontal radiation, (average daily total) Wh/m²</td><td>5916</td><td>6555</td><td>6932</td><td>6413</td><td>6039</td><td>5547</td><td>4893</td><td>4859</td><td>5121</td><td>5302</td><td>5812</td><td>5679</td></tr><tr><td>Direct normal radiation (average daily total) Wh/m²</td><td>6497</td><td>6811</td><td>6517</td><td>4768</td><td>4416</td><td>3558</td><td>2361</td><td>2168</td><td>2717</td><td>3812</td><td>6055</td><td>6479</td></tr><tr><td>Diffuse radiation (average daily total) Wh/m²</td><td>829</td><td>1983</td><td>2220</td><td>2810</td><td>2658</td><td>2746</td><td>3037</td><td>3136</td><td>2991</td><td>2459</td><td>1867</td><td>1683</td></tr><tr><td>Relative humidity (average monthly) %</td><td>20</td><td>26</td><td>23</td><td>27</td><td>49</td><td>63</td><td>74</td><td>80</td><td>77</td><td>57</td><td>35</td><td>25</td></tr><tr><td>Wind speed (average monthly) m/s</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>High temperature (average monthly) °C</td><td>32.2</td><td>36.3</td><td>38.4</td><td>39.1</td><td>37.3</td><td>34.3</td><td>31.8</td><td>30.9</td><td>32</td><td>35.4</td><td>35.9</td><td>33.6</td></tr><tr><td>Low temperature (average monthly) °C</td><td>16.1</td><td>19.1</td><td>23</td><td>25.7</td><td>25.5</td><td>23.9</td><td>22.4</td><td>21.9</td><td>21.9</td><td>22.5</td><td>19.2</td><td>16.7</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>**Table 2.** Monthly estimate of cooling degree days in the city of Ouagadougou.</caption><thead><tr><th>Monthly Means</th><th>January</th><th>February</th><th>March</th><th>April</th><th>May</th><th>June</th><th>July</th><th>August</th><th>September</th><th>October</th><th>November</th><th>December</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Temperature (average monthly) °C</td><td>24.2</td><td>2.7</td><td>30.7</td><td>32.4</td><td>31.4</td><td>29.1</td><td>27.1</td><td>26.4</td><td>27</td><td>29</td><td>27.6</td><td>25.2</td></tr><tr><td>CDD (average monthly) °C</td><td>4.7</td><td>103.6</td><td>207.7</td><td>252</td><td>229.4</td><td>153</td><td>96.1</td><td>74.4</td><td>88.5</td><td>153.5</td><td>106.5</td><td>35.7</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 2.2. Energy Context

Burkina Faso's energy context is marked by the high use of biomass and fossil fuels compared to other energy sources. Figure 2 provides an overview of the country's energy balance for 2018.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** Sankey diagram of Burkina Faso's energy balance (in ktoe) for 2018 [26].</figcaption></figure>
In 2018, according to the Sankey diagram, biomass and petroleum products accounted for 73% and 25% of total energy consumption in Burkina Faso, respectively. Biomass is the main source of energy for cooking in households. This heavy use contributes to deforestation and environmental degradation. With this in mind, Arevalo [27] conducted a study in 2016 on the state of firewood and the possibilities for improving the sector in Burkina Faso. This study examined the various challenges related to the governance, production, and use of wood fuels in Burkina Faso, based on a literature review and interviews with local experts. One of the conclusions of this study was to implement an improved management system in forest management units to avoid forest degradation. To solve this problem of high biomass consumption, several initiatives such as improved stoves and solar cookers have been in vogue in recent years. Access to modern energy services such as electricity and gas for cooking has also improved. Between 2010 and 2019, the percentage of households using liquefied petroleum gas for cooking rose from 7% to 12% [12]. However, much remains to be carried out to improve this sector, even if the country has been subsidizing the gas price for several years to promote the use of this resource. One of the biggest obstacles to the use of butane gas, especially in urban households, is the availability of LPG. With this in mind, proposals were made to build pipelines linking Burkina Faso to neighboring countries to ensure a secure gas supply. In recent years, with the help of technical and financial partners, the government has promoted and continues to develop biofuels and biogas (produced from households and animal waste) [28]. Burkina Faso has therefore set itself the target of increasing urban LPG penetration by 68% by 2030 [29].

The country is also highly dependent on fossil fuels imported from other countries. In 2022, over 1926 ktoe of petroleum products was imported, part of which was used in thermal power plants for electricity generation. With no oil reserves, the country is affected by fluctuations in world oil prices.

In addition to thermal power plants, Burkina Faso has four hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity of around 32 MW [30].

The country has seen strong growth in the installation of solar photovoltaic power plants and systems, from an installed capacity of 199 kWp in 2016 to 64,708 kWp in 2022 [30]. However, despite its high potential, production related to renewable energies, particularly solar energy, is very low. Also, with the installation of a photovoltaic solar panel assembly plant in Burkina Faso in 2020, the country could see a more significant increase in the installation of solar systems.

Created on 14 April 1995, the National Electricity Company of Burkina Faso (SON-ABEL) is responsible for producing, transmitting, and distributing electricity in Burkina Faso. To improve the rural electrification rate, which is currently around 5%, the Ministry of Energy established the Burkinabe Rural Electrification Agency in 2017. This agency receives assistance from several partners, including the World Bank and non-governmental organizations. To date, at least six electrification projects are being piloted. Since 2017, the electricity production sector has also been liberalized, encouraging participation in electricity production by private electricity cooperatives and public-private partnerships [31]. However, infrastructure remains limited, and national electricity production is still very low. This situation keeps Burkina Faso among the countries with very high electricity prices. The average cost of electricity was 125.51 XOF/kWh, or 0.191 EUR/kWh in 2022, despite subsidies for petroleum products provided by the government of Burkina Faso [22,32].

Figure 3 illustrates the evolution of national electricity production by energy source and electricity imports from 2010 to 2022. It is essentially made up of thermal power plants and a few photovoltaic and hydroelectric solar power plants.
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3.** National electricity production by energy source and annual imports from 2010 to 2022 [12].</figcaption></figure>

National production rose from 671.2 GWh in 2013 to 1506.1 GWh in 2022. More than 80% of the electricity produced was of fossil fuel origin in 2022 [32]. In 2023, six photovoltaic power stations were installed and were in operation, the largest of which, illustrated in Figure 4, has a capacity of 33.7 MWp and has been in operation since 2017, covering an area of 60 hectares [33]. Several other solar photovoltaic or hybrid diesel/photovoltaic power plants or mini-grid plants are also in operation (Figure 5). The total installed photovoltaic capacity was 159.9 MWp in 2023 [10]. In 2022, the total installed solar photovoltaic capacity represented 8% of the total capacity of power plants installed in Burkina Faso [32]. In recent years, the government has increasingly encouraged private companies to exploit this energy source. In addition, a vast campaign to install mini photovoltaic solar power plants connected to several public buildings and socio-community centers (maternity wards, schools, health centers, etc.) began in 2018. The aim is to reduce the state's annual electricity bills to several million euros a year [34]. Unfortunately, surveys have not yet been carried out to see the real impact of these installations on electricity bills.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4.** Partial aerial image of the Zagtouli power plant [33].</figcaption></figure>

A large proportion of the electricity consumed comes from interconnections with neighboring countries such as Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Togo. This has risen from 495.2 GWh in 2010 to 1492.2 GWh in 2022, an increase of over 300% in 12 years [12]. In 2022, interconnections accounted for 59.79% of total national electricity consumption [32]. Table 3 shows the actual values for national annual electricity production and the total annual quantity of electricity from interconnections from 2018 to 2022. This high level of dependence on neighboring countries creates problems for the country's energy security, often leading to
power cuts. Indeed, the average electricity interruption frequency index (SAIFI) was 82, and the average interruption duration index (SAIDI) was 77 h in 2022 [32].

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5.** Image of a solar photovoltaic mini-grid [35].</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>**Table 3.** Annual electricity produced and imported from 2018 to 2022 in GWh in Burkina Faso [30].</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Source</th><th>2018</th><th>2019</th><th>2020</th><th>2021</th><th>2022</th><th>Total in 2022</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">SONABEL generation (GWh)</td><td>Fossil-fired thermal</td><td>875.2</td><td>588.1</td><td>402.5</td><td>686.4</td><td>565.6</td><td rowspan="3">705.4</td></tr><tr><td>Hydroelectric</td><td>91.4</td><td>105.3</td><td>112.4</td><td>127.5</td><td>82.4</td></tr><tr><td>Solar photovoltaic</td><td>54.1</td><td>58.8</td><td>62.4</td><td>63.6</td><td>57.4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Private generation (GWh)</td><td>Biogas</td><td>0.1</td><td>149.6</td><td>125.7</td><td>134.3</td><td>291.2</td><td rowspan="3">308</td></tr><tr><td>Electricity cooperatives</td><td>32</td><td>30.4</td><td>5</td><td>3.3</td><td>10.1</td></tr><tr><td>Solar photovoltaic</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>6.8</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Imports (GWh)</td><td>Côte d'Ivoire</td><td>560.9</td><td>505.5</td><td>488.9</td><td>411.6</td><td>280.1</td><td rowspan="3">1492</td></tr><tr><td>Ghana</td><td>276.3</td><td>576.4</td><td>990.5</td><td>961</td><td>1204.2</td></tr><tr><td>Togo</td><td>5.2</td><td>5.4</td><td>6.4</td><td>7.4</td><td>7.8</td></tr></tbody></table>

Among the various sectors, the residential sector is the biggest consumer of final energy [12]. However, for the period 2010 to 2022, the residential sector fell from 79% to around 47% of total annual consumption [12]. This decline could be explained by the development of other sectors of activity, particularly trade and transport. The non-residential sector, comprising commercial and public buildings, rose from 5% to 24.40% of final energy consumption between 2010 and 2022. In short, the residential and non-residential building sector is the largest energy-consuming sector in Burkina Faso, as shown in Figure 6. This finding aligns with other countries in the sub-region [36]. It should be emphasized that energy consumption is the sum of all energy sources. If we reduce energy consumption to that of electricity alone, we see that the industrial sector is the leading consumer, followed by the residential sector, commerce, and public buildings [12]. This reason is explained by the low electricity access rate among the population, which was less than 25.25% in 2022.

In 2019, a drop in household wood energy consumption was observed, which could explain the residential sector's decline in total energy consumption. The strategy to improve energy efficiency in Burkina Faso is justified in terms of final energy consumption.

Although Burkina Faso's energy supply has increased in recent years, it is still one of the countries in sub-Saharan Africa with the lowest rate of access to electricity. Figure 7 provides an overview of the evolution of the electricity access rate in Burkina Faso from 2010 to 2022.
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 6.** Burkina Faso energy consumption by sector from 2010 to 2022 [12].</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7.** Evolution of the rate of access to energy services from 2010 to 2022 in Burkina Faso [12].</figcaption></figure>

Most solar photovoltaic power plants and systems installed in public buildings do not have storage in cities. However, battery storage systems are often necessary in rural areas, particularly for health centers and schools, even though they require a higher initial investment [37]. To address this issue, several international support projects for off-grid solar photovoltaic energy, including mini solar photovoltaic plants with storage batteries, have been developed and are being implemented in Burkina Faso [31]. One example is the Yeleen project (component 2), financed by the African Development Bank with technical assistance from the Burkinabe Rural Electrification Agency, which supports the installation of 100 mini solar photovoltaic networks by private developers for a total installed capacity of 11.4 MWp [31]. Public risk mitigation measures with a better cost-benefit ratio have also been proposed to promote investment in these mini solar photovoltaic grids [31].

Therefore, improving Burkina Faso's energy situation requires increasing energy production by building more power plants, improving energy production and distribution infrastructure (which will minimize production and distribution losses), and promoting energy efficiency. Energy efficiency in buildings is, therefore, a sustainable strategy for reducing energy consumption.

## 2.3. *Architectural Trends in Burkina Faso*

In Burkina Faso, around 70% of the population lives in rural areas [38]. This clearly explains why adobe is the main construction material for building envelopes, with a rate of 53% according to surveys by Burkina Faso's National Institute of Statistics and
Demography [39]. In rural areas, around 68.4% of households live in buildings constructed with this material, compared with just 20.4% in towns [24]. In urban areas, cement-based materials predominate, at 52% [40]. Envelopes generally consist of a cement outer and inner cladding of around 2 cm, over hollow concrete block walls of 15 to 20 cm [24]. For aesthetic reasons, a coat of paint is generally applied to the inside and outside of buildings. Yet, concrete walls are responsible for 34% of a building's energy consumption [24]. As far as roofing is concerned, 80.3% of dwellings are made of sheet metal, compared with 8.6% and 6.8%, respectively, of earth and thatch [39].

For the specific case of offices or public buildings, Offerle et al. [41] noted that the trend for several years has been to build one- to four-storey structures with large bay windows, inspired by Western buildings. This style of construction emphasizes aesthetics to the detriment of energy efficiency. Breeze-block, which is the material most commonly used in the country's urban areas, and large windows, which are not suited to the very hot climate [24], contribute to the high use of air conditioning in urban buildings. Indeed, air conditioning is responsible for over 60% of electrical energy consumption in office buildings in Burkina Faso [19]. In the residential sector, it accounts for 33.6% of electricity consumption, followed by refrigeration, which accounts for 16.7% of consumption [13].

Fluorescent and LED lamps are the most commonly used, while incandescent lamps are used less and less in the residential and non-residential sectors.

All kinds of household appliances have flooded the market, from used to new equipment. This often leaves users with little choice but to select appliances without necessarily considering their energy performance.

## 3. Methodology

This study began by collecting key documents relating to energy efficiency in Burkina Faso. The study follows a structured methodology to identify, analyze, and synthesize the relevant literature related to the topic. Figure 8 explains the methodological approach used.

### 3.1. *Data Collection*

The method used to identify and select references was based on the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Item for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) guidelines [42]. This method, applied to our case study, will enable us to see a future trend in energy efficiency in buildings in Burkina Faso. This search was also conducted without considering the impact factor, language, or accessibility of the documents. Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Science Direct databases were used. The Boolean operator was also used in the search engines—"and" with the aim of linking fields of interest and "or" to group words or expressions with the same meaning [43]. The following coding was therefore used in the search engines: (Energy efficiency (or energy optimization or energy management)) and (buildings) and (Burkina Faso (or hot, dry tropical climate or West Africa)). The literature was selected from the years 2014 to 2024. The total number of articles generated as of 28 October 2024 was 4615 articles in the three search engines used, including 4480 from Google Scholar, 101 from Web of Science, and 34 from Science Direct. However, for Google Scholar, 3407 of the articles found were deleted before selection, and 1173 articles in English were actually downloaded, in addition to the 101 from Web of Science and 34 from Science Direct. The reasons for this were often due to access restriction (paywalls, inaccessible PDF versions, or deleted files and web pages), leading to the automatic removal of duplicates and articles deemed ineligible [44].

After this stage, 254 duplicates were removed, reducing the number of articles to 1054. In addition, 15 additional documents consisting of laws, decrees, reports, and guidelines related to energy efficiency in Burkina Faso and 10 other relevant articles dealing with
the context of energy efficiency in Burkina Faso were added. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are summarized in Table 4. In total, 26 scientific studies and 15 regulatory texts were ultimately selected. However, to better structure our analyses, we consulted specific articles concerning neighboring countries with socioeconomic and climatic conditions similar to those of Burkina Faso. The various stages of selection are presented in Figure 8.

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8.** Methodological approach.</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>**Table 4.** Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study.</caption><thead><tr><td>Inclusion</td><td>Exclusion</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. Studies related to Burkina Faso</td><td>1. Studies not related to Burkina Faso</td></tr><tr><td>2. Studies related to the issue of electrical equipment used in the building</td><td>2. Studies not related to buildings</td></tr><tr><td>3. Studies related to low-energy buildings and construction technologies</td><td>3. Studies not related to energy efficiency in the building</td></tr><tr><td>4. Studies related to the energy management system in the building</td><td>4. Studies published outside the period 2014–2024</td></tr><tr><td>5. Articles related to regulatory and policy aspects of energy efficiency</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6. Studies related to renewable energy production systems in buildings</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

## 3.2. SWOT Analysis Approach

SWOT analysis was conceived in the 1950s at Harvard Business School by two eminent professors who used the method to analyze organizational strategies in relation to their environment [45]. SWOT's methodology is a strategic analysis tool that assesses the strengths and weaknesses of a given organization, territory, or sector while taking into account its external environment [46]. It is also commonly used in sustainable development planning. The SWOT approach aims to capitalize on the potential of strengths and opportunities while highlighting weaknesses and threats. Several examples illustrate successful applications of this analysis in the field of energy planning [47,48]. The two components of this analysis make it possible to describe, on the one hand, internal indicators through strengths and weaknesses, and, on the other, external indicators through opportunities and threats arising from the environment [47].

Markovska et al. [47] used this tool to analyze the national energy sector in Macedonia. Attia et al. [49] also used the SWOT approach to assess the Polish residential building energy efficiency sector. This approach enabled them to obtain conclusive results to fill the knowledge gap on energy efficiency in the Polish residential stock with proposals for improvements. Dawodu and Cheshmehzangi (2017) [50] also used SWOT analysis to evaluate passive cooling systems to reduce energy consumption. Zhang et al. (2018) [51] used SWOT analysis to draw up a strategic plan for promoting energy efficiency in rural buildings in China. The analysis of previous studies, therefore, proves that the SWOT method is very well suited to the evaluation of energy efficiency in Burkina Faso. The SWOT approach leads to the following recommendations: capitalize on existing strengths, remedy identified weaknesses, exploit current opportunities, and mitigate the effects of potential threats. In this study, the analysis was based on documents and reports from Burkinabe and West African institutions only. We did not use primary data from focus groups with experts. However, this analysis remains valid, but further studies could reinforce the results obtained. This method has enabled us to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats facing energy efficiency in the buildings sector in Burkina Faso.

# 4. Results and Discussion

## 4.1. Current State of Energy Efficiency and Low-Energy Building Regulations in Burkina Faso

To address the issue of energy efficiency in buildings, two directives have been put in place for UEMOA countries [52,53]. These texts provide guidelines to enable the various countries to implement their thermal regulations in the same way as the European directive on energy efficiency.

The first directive concerns the energy labeling of certain electrical appliances [52]. It provides specifications for the efficiency classes of lamps, domestic air conditioners refrigerators, or freezers in the countries concerned, such as Burkina Faso. This equipment is grouped into several classes according to their energy efficiency level in Table 5. The more stars an electrical appliance has, the more energy-efficient it is.
<table><caption>**Table 5.** Energy efficiency classes for electrical equipment [52].</caption><thead><tr><th>Electrical Equipment</th><th>5 Stars</th><th>4 Stars</th><th>3 Stars</th><th>2 Stars</th><th>1 Star</th><th>0 Stars</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="4">Lamps</td><td>Incandescent Lamp (P &lt; 100 W)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>57.5 &lt; η</td><td>η &lt; 57.5</td></tr><tr><td>Halogen lamp (P = 80 W)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>η &gt; 85</td><td>61 &lt; η ≤ 85</td><td>24 &lt; η ≤ 61</td><td>η ≤ 24</td></tr><tr><td>Compact fluorescent lamp (P ≥ 25 W)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>η &gt; 118</td><td>84 &lt; η ≤ 118</td><td>60 &lt; η ≤ 84</td><td>η ≤ 60</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent lamp (P = 70 W)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>η &gt; 135</td><td>90 &lt; η ≤ 135</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Air conditioner</td><td>Window air conditioners (Qc ≤ 12,000 W)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>COP &gt; 3.30</td><td>3.1 &lt; COP ≤ 3.30</td><td>2.9 &lt; COP ≤ 3.10</td><td>COP ≤ 2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Split air conditioners (Qc ≤ 4500 W)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>COP &gt; 3.60</td><td>3.4 &lt; COP ≤ 3.60</td><td>3.2 &lt; COP ≤ 3.40</td><td>COP ≤ 3.2</td></tr><tr><td>Split air conditioners (4500 W &lt; Qc ≤ 7100 W)</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>COP &gt; 3.50</td><td>3.3 &lt; COP ≤ 3.50</td><td>3.1 &lt; COP ≤ 3.30</td><td>COP ≤ 3.1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Refrigerator</td><td>Types 1, 2, 3, 4</td><td>EEI ≤ 50%</td><td>50% &lt; EEI ≤ 60%</td><td>60% &lt; EEI ≤ 70%</td><td>70% &lt; EEI ≤ 80%</td><td>80% &lt; EEI</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Types 5 and 6</td><td>EEI ≤ 40%</td><td>40% &lt; EEI ≤ 50%</td><td>50% &lt; EEI ≤ 60%</td><td>60% &lt; EEI ≤ 70%</td><td>70% &lt; EEI</td><td>-</td></tr></tbody></table>

Legend: P, electrical power in watts; η, luminous efficacy (in lumens per watt); Qc, air conditioner capacity; COP, energy efficiency ratio: the ratio between the cooling and electrical capacity of the air conditioner; EEI, energy efficiency index: a ratio of the appliance's daily consumption in kWh/day determined during performance tests to its basic consumption in kWh/day.

As for the second directive, it provides guidance mainly on minimum thermal standards for the building envelope, energy performance for lighting and air conditioning, and procedures for verifying compliance with envelope and electrical equipment requirements [53]. The buildings covered by the second directive are new residential buildings with a minimum surface area of 100 m² and commercial and public buildings with a minimum surface area of 500 m². However, a certain number of buildings are not covered by the directive. These include existing buildings, industrial and craft buildings, warehouses, non-residential agricultural buildings, greenhouses, places of worship, and buildings on the heritage preservation list. The fact that already-constructed buildings are not taken into account therefore limits its scope of action.

To this end, the directive takes into account the climatic zoning of the eight UEMOA countries, including Burkina Faso, to propose several values for key parameters [53]. According to this zoning, Burkina Faso falls into the “arid Sahelian climate” and “hot semi-arid climate” zones.

Three methods have therefore been proposed to member countries for assessing the performance of residential and non-residential buildings:

* The descriptive approach, which sets minimum or maximum technical specifications for the envelope. Tables 6 and 7 provide the requirements for the building envelope and glazing in Burkina Faso.

<table><caption>**Table 6.** Values to be respected for the building envelope Zone [53].</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="5">Maximum U-Value (W/m² K)</th><th rowspan="2">FS Max</th><th rowspan="2">WWR Max (%)</th></tr><tr><th colspan="5">Glass Walls (Windows, Doors, or Patio Doors)</th></tr><tr><th>Climate Zone</th><th>Roof</th><th>Exterior Walls</th><th>Single Glazing</th><th>Double Glazing</th><th></th><th>Medium</th><th>South East West</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1B</td><td>0.8</td><td>1.1</td><td>6.2</td><td>-</td><td rowspan="2">0.82</td><td>18</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>2B</td><td>0.8</td><td>1.1</td><td>6.2</td><td>-</td><td>18</td><td>22</td></tr></tbody></table>

Caption: FS max, maximum ratio between solar energy transmitted inside the building and energy received by the wall; WWR max, maximum ratio between the total surface area occupied by openings (doors and windows) and the surface area of the building's façades; U, steady-state heat flow rate per square meter of surface area and per degree of temperature difference between the environments on either side of the wall.
<table><caption>**Table 7.** Maximum U-values for bare glazing (W/m² K) [53].</caption><thead><tr><th>Glazing Type</th><th>Air Space Thickness (mm)</th><th>Type of Joinery</th><th>Vertical Wall</th><th>Horizontal Wall</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Single glazing</td><td>-</td><td>Wood</td><td>5</td><td>6.2</td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>Metal</td><td>5.8</td><td>6.8</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Double glazing with air gap</td><td rowspan="2">5–7</td><td>Wood</td><td>3.3</td><td>3.5</td></tr><tr><td>Metal</td><td>4</td><td>4.3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">8–9</td><td>Wood</td><td>3.1</td><td>3.3</td></tr><tr><td>Metal</td><td>3.9</td><td>4.2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">10–11</td><td>Wood</td><td>3</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td>Metal</td><td>3.8</td><td>4.1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">12–13</td><td>Wood</td><td>2.9</td><td>3.1</td></tr><tr><td>Metal</td><td>3.7</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Double window</td><td>More than 30</td><td>Wood</td><td>2.6</td><td>2.7</td></tr><tr><td>More than 30</td><td>Metal</td><td>3</td><td>3.2</td></tr></tbody></table>

However, it should be noted that some of the thermal transmittance coefficient (U) values proposed in one directive [53] differ significantly from the references recognized in the technical literature. For example, according to standard NF EN ISO 10077-1 (July 2017) [54], the maximum value for single glazing is approximately 5.8 W/(m²·K), whereas the directive specifies 6.2 W/(m²·K). Similarly, a maximum value of 3.0 W/(m²·K) is proposed for standard untreated double glazing. In comparison, the directive again mentions 6.2 W/(m²·K), which is inconsistent with the generally accepted performance for this type of glazing. Due to the apparent discrepancy, the value of 6.2 W/(m²·K) for double glazing has not been included in Table 6, as it appears to be technically incorrect. This may be a clerical error in the drafting of the directive.

Therefore, it is recommended that these values be reviewed and corrected, based on reliable international standards and the specific climatic and economic realities of the West African context, in order to propose more representative and technically justifiable values.

* The compromise approach proposes the calculation of the equivalent thermal transmittance and the equivalent opening-to-wall ratio of the building. However, in the case of electrical equipment, the calculation methods must be based on the calculation proposed in the previous approach. Table 8 provides an overview of the coefficients used in Burkina Faso.

* The performance-based approach consists of carrying out software-based energy simulations of the building and comparing the values obtained with a reference or model building while complying with the requirements laid down in the directive.

<table><caption>**Table 8.** Maximum U-eq coefficient and maximum WWR-eq for Burkina Faso [53].</caption><thead><tr><th>Climate Zone</th><th>U-Eq Max (W/m² K)</th><th>WWR-Eq Max</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1B</td><td>1.72</td><td>13.7</td></tr><tr><td>2B</td><td>1.72</td><td>13.7</td></tr></tbody></table>

Legend: U-eq max, maximum steady-state equivalent heat flow rate per square meter of surface area and per degree of temperature difference between the environments on either side of the wall; WWR-eq max, maximum equivalent ratio between total surface area occupied by openings (doors and windows) and surface area of building façades.

However, according to the Köppen–Geiger classification, Burkina Faso's climate is subdivided into three zones. Although Burkina Faso would like to draw inspiration from the two directives to put in place its thermal regulations, it would be important to make
certain readjustments to take into account all the country's climatic realities. In addition, the values of specific coefficients should be adjusted to make them more relevant for consideration. These include, for example, the thermal transmittance values for openings, which may be challenging to achieve.

Burkina Faso's energy intensity is among the highest among UEMOA countries. This value has been the highest since 2019 [12]. Energy intensity indicates the ratio between a country's energy consumption and gross domestic product. However, political will through the implementation of strong measures could reduce this within a few years.

At the national level, the Ministry of Energy, Mines and Quarries (MEMC) is the umbrella body responsible for implementing energy efficiency in Burkina Faso. The Ministry of Urban Planning, Land Affairs, and Housing is responsible for housing construction in Burkina Faso and for providing adequate housing for the population. This is clearly stated in Burkina Faso's 2006 Urban Planning and Construction Code [55]. It states that the Ministry in charge of urban planning and construction is responsible for coordinating, organizing, managing, and controlling the urban planning and construction sector throughout the country [55]. Several national regulations govern the construction and energy efficiency sectors in Burkina Faso. These include the following:

* The law on the general regulation of the energy sector [56];

* The decree laying down energy efficiency standards and requirements for appliances and equipment and the procedures for implementing their energy efficiency [57];

* The decree setting energy consumption thresholds, the frequency of energy audits, the procedures for carrying out energy audits, and the approval of auditors [58];

* Decrees on the various requirements for energy audits in Burkina Faso [59–61];

* The law of 18 May 2006, on the town planning and construction code in Burkina Faso [55].

The General Energy Regulations Act sets out the terms and conditions for promoting renewable energy, energy consumption, and energy efficiency. It monitors the conformity and quality of energy infrastructures, equipment, and products. In particular, this legislation is responsible for promoting renewable energies, improving energy efficiency, managing energy consumption, and ensuring the conformity of energy infrastructures and products. It stipulates that all buildings, whether new or renovated, must comply with energy performance standards to ensure an optimal energy balance. However, although energy performance rules are mentioned, the law does not specify the detailed criteria that must be applied.

According to current legislation in Burkina Faso, all electrical equipment such as lighting, household appliances, and thermal comfort equipment should be labeled and classified according to their energy efficiency [57]. These labels must provide information on energy performance, classification, or energy performance scale. Any appliance that does not meet the set energy standards must not be sold in the country. So far, however, the country is struggling to implement these various regulations.

ANEREE is the entity responsible for implementing the energy policy of the Ministry of Energy. Its mission is to control, regulate, and promote the development of the renewable energies and energy efficiency market. It is also responsible for drawing up a national strategy to promote energy efficiency, but to date, this strategy has not yet been fully implemented. The flagship initiatives in the field of energy efficiency in buildings are those requiring all industrial buildings (with an energy consumption of over 100,000 kWh or over 100,000 L of fuel consumed) to carry out energy audits to improve their energy performance.

ANEREE uses standards specifying the requirements for building energy audits, particularly NF EN 16247-2, NF EN 16247-3, and NF EN 16247-4 from July 2014 [62].
Current national and regional legislation focuses on construction materials and electrical equipment (air conditioning, lighting, ventilation, etc.). However, this partial approach does not fully address the issue of energy efficiency in buildings as defined in international standards such as ISO 50001 (energy management) or ISO 52000 (global energy performance of buildings) [63]. An approach that includes not only passive and active characteristics but also aspects related to occupant behavior, automatic management, regulatory aspects, and overall energy performance indicators (overall energy balance or energy performance index) could be beneficial in Burkina Faso and in the sub-regional context of the UEMOA.

Based on national regulatory texts, Table 9 gives an overview of existing building regulations in Burkina Faso.

<table><caption>**Table 9.** Aspects covered by energy efficiency regulations in Burkina Faso.</caption><thead><tr><td>Parameters</td><td>Concerned</td><td>Institution in Charge of the Application</td><td>Building Concerned</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. Orientation</td><td>No</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>2. Building materials</td><td>No</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>3. Opening (thermal properties)</td><td>No</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>4. Building thermal performance index</td><td>No</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>5. HVAC</td><td>Yes</td><td>-</td><td>All buildings</td></tr><tr><td>6. Lamps</td><td>Yes</td><td>-</td><td>All buildings</td></tr><tr><td>7. Household appliances</td><td>Yes</td><td>-</td><td>Household</td></tr><tr><td>8. Exemption for solar equipment and materials</td><td>Yes</td><td>Customs</td><td>All buildings</td></tr><tr><td>9. Promotion of solar installations</td><td>Yes</td><td>ANEREE</td><td>All buildings</td></tr><tr><td>10. Energy audit every 5 years</td><td>Yes</td><td>ANEREE</td><td>100,000 kWh or more than 100,000 L</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 4.2. Technological and Architectural Proposals for Energy Efficiency in Buildings in Burkina Faso

### 4.2.1. Materials for Building Construction

Several studies highlight that one of the main causes of high energy consumption in buildings is the use of unsuitable construction materials for Burkina Faso's hot and dry tropical climate [64,65]. To reduce energy consumption in these buildings in a sustainable way, one strategy would be to improve the thermal performance of the building envelope to reduce heat gain. Compressed earth blocks are becoming increasingly popular in construction, although the percentage of buildings constructed with this material remains very low. Compressed earth blocks originate from adobe blocks. These types of bricks are obtained by compressing earth mixed with cement using a press in order to improve their mechanical quality. Several studies have already examined the use of these materials in residential buildings [66,67]. Burkina Faso is increasingly turning to using available laterite materials (2/3 of the territory) [68], which are better suited to its climate. Several compressed earth brick manufacturing companies already exist and are increasingly promoting more sustainable and bioclimatic construction. In addition, research laboratories specializing in construction materials based on compressed earth blocks and cut laterite bricks have published several articles on this subject [65,66,69–71].

Ouedraogo et al. (2024) [72] showed that compressed earth bricks were better in terms of thermal comfort than cinder blocks, as they halved the number of hours of thermal discomfort in residential buildings. Compressed earth bricks and various types of additives such as bio-based materials are also alternatives for reducing energy consumption while improving thermal comfort in residential buildings, according to Neya et al. (2023) [67]. Passive cooling would reduce building energy consumption by 30% per year in Burkina Faso [24]. According to Zoure and Genovese [73], bioclimatic approaches that incorporate
natural lighting and ventilation systems will be highly advantageous in improving energy efficiency and thermal comfort in office buildings. The best option was proposed for a south-north orientation for an H-shaped building with blue-tinted glazing and a wall/window ratio of 30% for a building in Ouagadougou. Building orientation is therefore one of the key factors in energy consumption. Building orientation is consequently one of the key factors in energy consumption.

Most studies have focused on the Sudano-Sahelian zone, which is located in the center of the country, and no comparative studies have been carried out between the country's different climatic zones to see the various design approaches adapted to each zone. However, a study by Ouedraogo et al. (2021) [74] showed that, depending on the country's climatic zone, the average annual thermal discomfort index was 82.7%, 74.7%, and 76.6%, respectively, for Dori (Sahelian zone), Ouagadougou (Sudano-Sahelian zone), and Bobo Dioulasso (Soudanian zone), which represent the three climatic zones. These results confirm Genovese and Zoure's (2023) [75] study on the need to propose a specific bioclimatic approach for each climatic zone. A comparative study and proposals for design approaches adapted to each zone could provide solutions for the different design approaches.

### 4.2.2. Insulation Materials

A significant portion of a home's solar gains in a tropical climate, estimated at around 60%, comes from the roof [76]. Therefore, improving roof insulation is a significant lever for reducing these gains and, ultimately, reducing energy consumption for air conditioning. Several studies have compared the effectiveness of different insulation materials under conditions in Ouagadougou:

* In an office building in Ouagadougou, simulations carried out with four types of insulation (straw, glass wool, hemp wool, and reeds) showed that hemp wool offered the best thermal performance, resulting in a 25.8% reduction in energy consumption for air conditioning [77].

* Another study, focused on using a straw-lime mixture in construction, showed a significant reduction in indoor temperatures and a noticeable improvement in thermal comfort for occupants [78].

However, the development of these solutions faces several obstacles. First, there is a lack of appropriate national standards. To date, no building code has defined technical standards for the use of insulation. This barrier was also highlighted by Nikyema and Blouin in 2020 during a survey to understand the barriers to green construction in Burkina Faso [79]. Finally, there are issues of aesthetics and durability, as studies have generally shown that insulation is more effective when placed outside the building [65]. This is not aesthetically pleasing and increases the exposure of materials to the elements, leading to premature aging and additional maintenance costs.

### 4.2.3. Electrical Appliances

Electrical equipment is also responsible for energy consumption [80,81]. A survey conducted among urban households in Burkina Faso indicates a high prevalence of ownership of essential appliances, including televisions, lighting systems, fans, refrigerators, and laptops [82]. Unfortunately, some of these appliances are inefficient and contribute to increased energy consumption in residential buildings. This survey among 387 households in the city of Ouagadougou showed that air conditioning accounts for 40% of domestic electricity consumption, followed by cooking and refrigeration at 23% [13]. These electrical appliances, therefore, play key roles in energy efficiency in Burkina Faso. Furthermore, Hema et al. (2023) [19] showed in their study that the temperature of 24 °C set for the design
of air conditioners was not suitable for the context of Burkina Faso (as it was considered a little cold), thus contributing to energy overconsumption. Therefore, air conditioning is the largest energy consumption source among electrical equipment, particularly in buildings. A field study conducted in Ghana showed that 85% of air conditioners installed in the country had performance coefficients in the lowest category (1 star) [7]. Promoting energy-efficient air conditioners (labels ≥ A or 4–5 stars according to international standards) is a significant avenue for reducing this consumption [7]. Furthermore, in a similar climate context, a study conducted in Botswana highlighted that inappropriate use (setpoint temperature too low, electrical equipment left on when not in use, etc.) was responsible for significant overconsumption in offices [83]. To address this, the implementation of a building energy management system (BEMS) would make it possible to control and optimize the operation of air conditioners, provide feedback, and integrate air conditioning into a more comprehensive energy management approach by ISO 50001.

### 4.3. Social and Economic Implications of Energy Efficiency in Buildings

The behavior of occupants concerning energy use or the means proposed to reduce energy consumption is also a very important factor for energy efficiency in Burkina Faso. A study by Zoungrana et al. [84] in 2021 highlighted certain perceptions linked to the use of compressed earth bricks in construction. This material was seen as a material for poor people, and they did not want to use it in the construction of their homes. Others thought they were too “red” to use.

However, to bring about a lasting change in users' perceptions, it is necessary to simultaneously address thermal, acoustic, and visual comfort aspects to promote the use of local building materials. In this regard, architect Francis Kéré perfectly illustrates how the judicious integration of wood, raw earth, and stabilized brick can improve occupants' quality of life while addressing climate and economic challenges [85]. Nevertheless, to refine our understanding of the preferences and needs of end users in Burkina Faso, qualitative and quantitative sociological studies are essential. These will enable us to gather direct testimonials, identify priority satisfaction criteria, and adapt construction solutions to local cultural and social realities.

Table A1 in Appendix A gives an overview of the different aspects covered in some of the scientific articles found in the literature.

## 4.4. SWOT Analysis of the Energy Efficiency Sector in Burkina Faso

### 4.4.1. Strengths

The building construction sector in Burkina Faso is growing. This is a good opportunity to take into account energy efficiency and performance measures in buildings in Burkina Faso. Indeed, it has been shown that the proper consideration of energy efficiency in building starts in the design phase [86].

The availability of building materials suited to Burkina Faso's climate is also a great asset. Several studies have shown that compressed earth bricks and cut laterite blocks are more suitable than cement blocks, which not only pollute a lot but also lack thermal inertia. In addition to polluting less, these types of earth bricks were also the least expensive compared with conventional ones [87]. In recent years, the construction sector in Burkina Faso has seen an increase in the use of these materials.

The growing awareness of energy efficiency in the media about saving energy and using more efficient electrical equipment is also a good opportunity for promotion. The establishment of ANEREE in 2017 effectively increased this awareness. Moreover, in 2016, Burkina Faso's Ministry of Energy, through its department in charge of promoting energy efficiency, distributed energy-efficient lamps free of charge to several households in the
country and carried out several awareness-raising campaigns. For the same period, several public buildings were also sensitized, with posters urging occupants to always switch off their electrical equipment when they leave their offices. Indeed, between 2006 and 2011, the energy management unit installed 32,800 energy-saving lamps, 964 efficient air conditioners, and 7100 m² of reflective film in several public buildings [88].

Mandatory energy audits of buildings that have consumed more than 100,000 kWh/year of electricity or more than 100,000 L of fuel per year [58] by ANEREE are a good opportunity to reduce energy consumption in Burkina Faso. For the moment, only industrial buildings are subject to this obligation. An energy audit of public buildings and a consideration of the various measures to reduce energy consumption would be a good opportunity to reduce energy consumption.

The abundance of sunshine throughout the country is a great asset for the promotion of renewable energies and the use of natural lighting in buildings. By 2022, Burkina Faso will be the country with the third-largest installed capacity of solar photovoltaic power plants, with a total capacity of 64.1 MW, behind Senegal (273.1 MW) and Ghana (113.2 MW) [89]. Solar water heaters are also increasingly being installed in households and public institutions. A total of 477 of these devices were installed in 2022 [89]. In residential buildings, the advantages of using solar photovoltaic systems locally mean lower electricity bills and access to electricity for isolated systems.

### 4.4.2. Weaknesses

The lack of thermal regulations or an energy efficiency strategy is the main problem facing the country. If we take this aspect into account, we will be in a better position to take energy sobriety into account. In urban areas, many residential and non-residential buildings are built without taking energy performance into account.

One of the main barriers to promoting energy efficiency is the socio-economic situation in Burkina Faso. This aspect affects most West African countries [81]. With a gross per capita income of USD 850 a year [89], the financial conditions of the population lead them to buy low-cost electrical equipment, which is also a high consumer of electricity.

Added to this are the difficulties caused by the flooding of the market for second-hand electrical equipment (refrigerators, irons, stoves, etc.), which generally has no energy label.

Over 80% of Burkina Faso's electricity is generated from fossil fuels, with the obsolescence of several thermal power plants, which are no longer efficient [90]. On top of this, the country is highly dependent on imported electricity from other neighboring countries, which accounted for over 49% of the energy mix in 2022 [12]. However, despite these weaknesses, several opportunities could be capitalized on to improve Burkina Faso's energy efficiency sector.

### 4.4.3. Opportunities

Promoting energy efficiency in the West African sub-region is a major opportunity for Burkina Faso. The country is one of the stakeholders of ECOWAS with the Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (CEREEC) in the implementation of the energy efficiency policy in 2013 [14] and the two directives in 2020. Indeed, one of CEREEC's objectives is to support regional and national energy policies. One of the center's objectives is to free up 2000 MW of electric power generation capacity through energy efficiency measures to reduce the need for additional power plant investments while mitigating the various environmental impacts [89]. Also, CEREEC set itself the goal of establishing regional labels and the development of low-energy building codes at its eleventh meeting with the various energy ministers of the member states in 2016 [89]. The adoption of these texts could help promote energy efficiency in buildings.
Given the impacts of climate change and the global drive to reduce carbon footprints in the construction sector, several regional and international energy efficiency initiatives could greatly benefit Burkina Faso. Senegal, moreover, signed a Franco-Senegalese ministerial agreement on low-carbon buildings in 2016 with the French Agency for the Environment and Energy Management (ADEME) [89]. Despite these various opportunities, several factors could hinder energy efficiency in buildings.

#### 4.4.4. Threats

In recent years, Burkina Faso, as with other Sahelian countries, has been faced with a very difficult security situation, which has led to a large number of internally displaced persons. This difficult situation has led the country to prioritize these actions for the return of peace. This strategy could slow down the implementation of thermal regulations and the energy efficiency strategy. Indeed, energy efficiency programs could be canceled, and funding could be redirected to secure national territory. As a result, some unsecured areas of the country may not have access to support for installing solar photovoltaic systems. In addition, the various investments in energy efficiency at the national and international levels could slow down.

Occupant behavior, especially in public buildings, could be considered a great factor to take into account. Indeed, Masoso et al. [83] showed in their study that occupant behavior can be a source of high energy consumption, especially in office buildings such as commercial buildings. In at least five energy audits carried out in the hot climates of Botswana and South Africa, they found that 56% of the energy consumed in these buildings was used during non-working hours.

The lack of qualified professionals to control the quality of electrical equipment could also be a significant risk to promoting energy efficiency in construction. Generally speaking, customs officers are those in charge of customs clearance and are in direct contact with traders to successfully control certain equipment upon entering the country.

The technical challenges encountered in the use of solar photovoltaic systems in residential buildings are often the flooding of the market with poor-quality solar systems that do not meet international standards. Also, extreme heat conditions during certain periods of the year and dust that requires regular maintenance are sometimes causes of lower production yields [65].

Table 10 summarizes the identified strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to energy efficiency in the building sector.

<table><caption>**Table 10.** SWOT plan for energy efficiency in Burkina Faso.</caption><thead><tr><td>Strengths</td><td>Weaknesses</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><ul><li>Growing construction sector.</li><li>Availability of local building materials.</li><li>Implementation of thermal regulations.</li><li>Growing awareness of energy efficiency.</li><li>Abundant sunshine for natural lighting and renewable energy production.</li><li>Implementing an energy efficiency strategy.</li><li>Partner financing.</li><li>Energy audits are increasingly used in industrial buildings.</li><li>Installation of reflective coatings at openings.</li><li>The availability of regional directives obliges the country to implement the national energy efficiency directive.</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>The absence of thermal regulations or an energy efficiency strategy in Burkina Faso.</li><li>Financial problems with the purchase of quality electrical equipment.</li><li>Regulatory aspects: lack of controls on electrical equipment on the market.</li><li>The current building architecture is not adapted to the climatic context.</li><li>Lack of legislation on the energy performance of buildings.</li><li>No carbon tax.</li><li>Lack of a control structure for imported electrical equipment.</li><li>High use of fossil fuels.</li><li>High dependence on imported electricity.</li><li>Long, complex, and costly processes</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 10. *Cont.*</caption><thead><tr><td>Opportunities</td><td>Threats</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><ul><li>Regional incentives for energy efficiency.</li><li>Opportunities to obtain financial, tax, or customs benefits for energy efficiency initiatives.</li><li>Incentive programs for local populations</li><li>More comfortable living and working conditions.</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Insecure situation in the country.</li><li>Occupants' energy use behavior.</li><li>Lack of professionals for equipment quality control.</li><li>Technical challenges linked to the use of photovoltaic solar equipment</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>

### 4.5. Recommendations

The analysis of existing regulations shows that there is a clear need to introduce regulations with codes and standards tailored to the construction sector in Burkina Faso. Their implementation could play a key role in setting minimum requirements for good design in line with international standards. They will enable several aspects related to energy efficiency in buildings in Burkina Faso to be considered. However, energy codes specify how buildings must be constructed or executed and are generally written in mandatory language. In this case, the state or local authority adopts and enforces energy codes for their jurisdictions. In contrast, energy standards describe ways to construct buildings to save energy cost-effectively without being mandatory [91].

One possibility for the country would be to introduce an energy efficiency handbook, a technical document that could be used by building professionals and public policy-makers, and which would serve as a regulatory text for the construction sector. This type of document would take into account different climate zones and energy efficiency for low-energy or bioclimatic buildings right from the design stage. The handbook has the advantage of being simpler and better adapted to the context of resource-constrained countries such as Burkina Faso. India's SP41 handbook is a case in point [92]. This detailed handbook could support Burkina Faso's building code.

An energy efficiency code could be a very interesting possibility for the Burkina Faso context, as Nigeria, one of the West African countries, has presently set the example by adopting its first code in 2017 [93]. Burkina Faso could draw inspiration from their code. The implementation of this code could fill gaps related to construction and energy efficiency in buildings. It would first harmonize and strengthen the various construction practices related to energy efficiency. The implementation of this code should bring together the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Housing, and the research community in order to take all the necessary parameters into account. This code would enable sustainable structuring with the support of international standards adapted to the context of Burkina Faso. It is suggested that collaboration with experts from other disciplines, such as economics, sociology, and environmental sciences, be pursued to provide a more comprehensive perspective and solutions. Interdisciplinary collaboration can help to better address the complex issue of energy efficiency.

The introduction of thermal regulations could be a very interesting possibility in the Burkina Faso context. This document could set mandatory regulatory standards for improving the energy performance of residential, office, industrial, and hotel buildings. The 2020 French environmental regulation, which takes into account energy and environmental requirements, is more comprehensive [94]. It could serve as an example for the implementation of a first version adapted to Burkina Faso.

Burkina Faso's national building and housing code, adopted in 2006, needs to be revised to take account of new international standards adapted to the country's climatic context. It could incorporate several building codes or labels for low-energy buildings, near-zero-energy buildings, etc. [95].
It should be noted that in order to establish codes and standards that take energy efficiency into account in a sustainable manner, the government will need to set up a multidisciplinary team comprising not only energy and building specialists but also experts from other disciplines, such as economics, sociology, and environmental sciences, in order to provide a more comprehensive perspective and solutions. Interdisciplinary collaboration can help to better address the complex issue of energy efficiency. As a result, the measures that are taken will be more easily applicable in the context of Burkina Faso.

**5. Conclusions**

In this study, an overview of the energy efficiency sector in buildings in Burkina Faso has been presented. In addition to this overview, a number of studies carried out in the West African context also enabled us to better situate the country's energy efficiency sector. To complete this study, the authors proceeded in several stages. First, the climatic and energy contexts and architectural trends were presented to gain a better understanding of the country's general situation. Next, bibliographical data were collected on energy efficiency regulations for buildings in Burkina Faso, and the literature on scientific articles on the subject has been reviewed. This literature review enabled a comprehensive analysis to be carried out, which made it possible to present the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and risks associated with energy efficiency in buildings in Burkina Faso. The study shows that energy efficiency in the building sector seems to have made several advances in recent years, with the various regulatory texts and scientific studies related to this topic. Although progress has been made, the energy context in Burkina Faso remains improvable. Biomass is still the main source of energy production, while the rate of access to electricity remains low, at less than 30% at the national level. It is therefore necessary to increase electricity production while diversifying its various sources. Paradoxically, the architectural trends of buildings, particularly in urban areas, which account for the largest share of energy consumption, are not adapted to the requirements of energy efficiency. Some national regulations aim to promote energy efficiency, but their application is essentially limited to industries, with the objective of raising awareness of the rational use of energy. The lack of mandatory standards for construction and energy consumption hinders the control of the sector and limits progress toward better energy performance. Existing scientific studies have mainly focused on passive strategies with the aim of sustainably reducing the energy consumption of buildings. For future studies, it would be worthwhile to simultaneously consider passive and active strategies that would enable better results to be achieved. However, to successfully implement energy efficiency, it is necessary to survey key individuals to ensure that it is holistically taken into account. Energy and building specialists will need to be surveyed to consider several aspects related to energy efficiency. Therefore, future research should include field surveys to measure the energy consumption of buildings on-site and interviews with residents. The data collected could provide real results for taking energy efficiency into account. Also, to take into account all the specific characteristics of the country, it is recommended that surveys be conducted in all climate zones of Burkina Faso. These data will provide information on the actual energy consumption of households, for example, according to each climate zone.

The recommendations arising from this work emphasize the need to adopt a new building code incorporating more economical and energy-efficient construction parameters. It is crucial to take into account the building envelope, the efficiency of electrical equipment, and the optimization of energy management systems. In the context of climate change, it would also be relevant to integrate the life cycle analysis of materials and the decarbonization of the building sector.
As Burkina Faso is already engaged in the development of renewable energies, it would be advisable to include in this new code obligations to integrate solar photovoltaics from the design stage of new buildings. Such an approach would make it possible to anticipate environmental requirements from the initial phase of the project and to define standards adapted to the country's climatic conditions. The need to raise public awareness of better energy consumption habits in buildings is also very important. This article could lay the groundwork for future participatory studies and provide strategic recommendations to enhance energy efficiency in buildings in Burkina Faso.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, B.A.O.N. and M.S.; methodology, B.A.O.N., A.L., C.H. and M.S.; validation, B.A.O.N., A.L., C.H. and M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, B.A.O.N.; writing—review and editing, A.L., C.H. and M.S.; project administration, M.S.; supervision, A.L. and M.S.; funding acquisition, B.A.O.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This work was financially supported by the Regional Scholarship for Innovation Funds (RSIF), which is a Partnership for Skill in the Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology (PASET) flagship program.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

## Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

<table><tr><td>ANEREE</td><td>National Agency for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (Burkina Faso)</td></tr><tr><td>ECOWAS</td><td>Economic Community of West African States</td></tr><tr><td>MEMC</td><td>Ministry of Energy, Mines and Quarries (Burkina Faso)</td></tr><tr><td>nZEB</td><td>Nearly Zero-Energy Building</td></tr><tr><td>NZEB</td><td>Net-Zero-Energy Building</td></tr><tr><td>PANEE</td><td>Burkina Faso's national energy efficiency action plan</td></tr><tr><td>PANER</td><td>Burkina Faso's national renewable energy action plan</td></tr><tr><td>SONABEL</td><td>Burkina Faso National Electricity Company</td></tr><tr><td>SWOT</td><td>Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats</td></tr><tr><td>UEMOA</td><td>West African Economic and Monetary Union</td></tr><tr><td>SIE_UEMOA</td><td>Energy Information System of West African Economic and Monetary Union</td></tr></table>

## Nomenclature

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

<table><thead><tr><th>Category</th><th>Symbol</th><th>Description</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Energy units</td><td>kWh</td><td>Kilowatt-hour: a unit of energy</td></tr><tr><td>Energy units</td><td>GWh</td><td>Gigawatt-hour: one billion watt-hours</td></tr><tr><td>Energy units</td><td>TWh</td><td>Terawatt-hour: one trillion watt-hours</td></tr><tr><td>Power units</td><td>MW<sub>p</sub></td><td>Megawatt-peak: peak power capacity</td></tr><tr><td>Currency</td><td>XOF</td><td>CFA franc: the official currency of Burkina Faso</td></tr><tr><td>Wall and opening parameters</td><td>WWR-eq max</td><td>Maximum equivalent ratio between total surface area of openings (doors + windows) and façade surface area</td></tr><tr><td>Wall and opening parameters</td><td>WWR max</td><td>Maximum ratio between total surface area of openings and façade surface area</td></tr><tr><td>Thermal flux and conductance</td><td>U</td><td>Steady-state heat flux rate (W/m<sup>2</sup>·K)</td></tr><tr><td>Thermal flux and conductance</td><td>U_glazing</td><td>Thermal transmittance coefficient of glazing (W/m<sup>2</sup>·K)</td></tr><tr><td>Thermal flux and conductance</td><td>U-eq max</td><td>Maximum steady-state equivalent heat flux</td></tr><tr><td>Lighting parameters</td><td>η</td><td>Luminous efficacy (lumens per watt)</td></tr><tr><td>Electrical and cooling quantities</td><td>P</td><td>Electrical power (W)</td></tr><tr><td>Electrical and cooling quantities</td><td>Qc</td><td>Air conditioner cooling capacity</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Energy efficiency indices</td><td>COP</td><td>Coefficient of performance: ratio of cooling capacity to electrical power input</td></tr><tr><td>Energy efficiency indices</td><td>EEI</td><td>Energy efficiency index: ratio of an appliance's daily consumption (kWh/day) to its baseline consumption (kWh/day)</td></tr></table>

## Appendix A

<table><caption>**Table A1.** Overview of the different aspects covered in some of the scientific articles found in the literature.</caption><thead><tr><td>Reference</td><td>Building Type</td><td>Study Area</td><td>Building Technologies</td><td>Electrical Appliances</td><td>Thermal Comfort</td><td>Energy Sources</td><td>Regulatory Standards</td><td>Social and Economic Issues</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Zoure and Genovese (2022) [24]</td><td>Offices</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hema et al. [19]</td><td>Offices</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Zoure et al. (2023) [77]</td><td>Offices</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Zoure et al. (2023) [73]</td><td>Offices</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Camara et al. (2020) [96]</td><td>Residential</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Oumarou et al. (2020) [97]</td><td>Residential</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Compaore et al. (2017) [66]</td><td>Residential</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Neya et al. (2022) [67]</td><td>Residential</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Oumarou et al. (2021) [98]</td><td>Residential</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tete et al. (2023) [13]</td><td>Residential</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tete et al. (2024) [82]</td><td>Residential</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Salvalai et al. (2020) [99]</td><td>Residential</td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ouedraogo et al. (2021) [74]</td><td></td><td>Ouagadougou</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

## References

1. Omrany, H.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Raahemifar, K.; Tookey, J. Application of passive wall systems for improving the energy efficiency in buildings: A comprehensive review. *Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.* **2016**, *62*, 1252–1269. [CrossRef]

2. Zhang, L.; Li, Y.; Stephenson, R.; Ashuri, B. Valuation of energy efficient certificates in buildings. *Energy Build* **2018**, *158*, 1226–1240. [CrossRef]

3. IEA. Energy Efficiency 2022. 2022. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2022 (accessed on 27 November 2023).

4. Ouedraogo, N.S. Africa energy future: Alternative scenarios and their implications for sustainable development strategies. *Energy Policy* **2017**, *106*, 457–471. [CrossRef]

5. UN-Habitat. UNEP-SBCI Symposium 25–26 November 2013 Paris Global Action towards Resource Efficiency and Climate Mitigation in the Building Sector Paris Global Action towards Resource Efficiency and Climate Mitigation in the Building Sector Promoting Energy Efficiency; UN-Habitat: Paris, France, 2013.

6. OECD/IEA. Energy Efficiency 2018: Analysis and Outlooks to 2040; OECD/IEA: Paris, France, 2018. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2018 (accessed on 6 December 2024).

7. Opoku, R.; Edwin, I.A.; Agyarko, K.A. Energy efficiency and cost saving opportunities in public and commercial buildings in developing countries—The case of air-conditioners in Ghana. *J. Clean. Prod.* **2019**, *230*, 937–944. [CrossRef]

8. Khojaste-Sarakhsi, M.; Ghodsypour, S.H.; Ghomi, S.M.T.F.; Dashtaki-Hesari, H. Energy efficiency of Iran buildings: A SWOT-ANP approach. *Int. J. Energy Sect. Manag.* **2019**, *13*, 726–746. [CrossRef]

9. INSD. Tableau de Bord Démographique; INSD: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2022.

10. Direction Générale des Etudes et des Statistiques Sectorielles. *Annuaire Statistique* 2023 du Ministère de l'Énergie, des Mines et des Carrières; Direction Générale des Etudes et des Statistiques Sectorielles: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2024.
11. Mohammed, B.U.; Wiysahnyuy, Y.S.; Ashraf, N.; Mempouo, B.; Mengata, G.M. Pathways for efficient transition into net zero energy buildings (nZEB) in Sub-Sahara Africa. Case study: Cameroon, Senegal, and Côte d'Ivoire. *Energy Build* **2023**, *296*, 11. [CrossRef]

12. SIE-UEMOA. Burkina Faso Energy Consumption Data Collected by the UEMOA Energy Information System from 2010 to 2022. Available online: https://sie.uemoa.int/rapport/rapports/3 (accessed on 18 September 2024).

13. Tete, K.H.S.; Soro, Y.M.; Sidibé, S.S.; Jones, R.V. Urban domestic electricity consumption in relation to households’ lifestyles and energy behaviours in Burkina Faso: Findings from a large-scale, city-wide household survey. *Energy Build* **2023**, *285*, 18. [CrossRef]

14. ECREEE. *Energy Efficiency Policy of the Ecowas*; ECREEE: Praia, Cape Verde, 2013.

15. MME. *Plan d'Actions National d'Efficacité Energétique (PANEE)*; MME: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2015.

16. MME. *Plan d'Actions National des Energies Renouvelables (PANER)*; MME: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2015.

17. Tete, K.H.; Soro, Y.; Sidibé, S.; Jones, R.V. Assessing energy security within the electricity sector in the West African economic and monetary union: Inter-country performances and trends analysis with policy implications. *Energy Policy* **2022**, *173*, 113336. [CrossRef]

18. Ouedraogo, B.I.; Levermore, G.J.; Parkinson, J.B. Future energy demand for public buildings in the context of climate change for Burkina Faso. *Build. Environ.* **2012**, *49*, 270–282. [CrossRef]

19. Hema, C.; Ouédraogo, A.L.S.-N.; Bationo, G.B.; Kabore, M.; Nshimiyimana, P.; Messan, A. A field study on thermal acceptability and energy consumption of mixed-mode offices building located in the hot-dry climate of Burkina Faso. *Sci. Technol. Built Environ.* **2024**, *30*, 184–193. [CrossRef]

20. Naba, C.; Ishidaira, H.; Magome, J.; Souma, K. Exploring the Potential of Soil and Water Conservation Measures for Climate Resilience in Burkina Faso. *Sustainability* **2024**, *16*, 7995. [CrossRef]

21. Landry, M.; Ouedraogo, Y.; Gagnon, Y.; Ouedraogo, A. On the wind resource mapping of Burkina Faso. *Int. J. Green Energy* **2016**, *14*, 150–156. [CrossRef]

22. IRENA. *Renewables Readiness Assessment: Burkina Faso*; IRENA: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2023; Available online: https://www.irena.org/ (accessed on 16 December 2024).

23. Mourshed, M. Relationship between annual mean temperature and degree-days. *Energy Build* **2012**, *54*, 418–425. [CrossRef]

24. Zoure, A.N.; Genovese, P.V. Development of Bioclimatic Passive Designs for Office Building in Burkina Faso. *Sustainability* **2022**, *14*, 4332. [CrossRef]

25. Weather Atlas and Weather Forecasting & Climate. Average Maximum and Minimum Temperatures in Ouagadougou. Available online: https://www.weather-atlas.com/ (accessed on 7 May 2025).

26. Institut de la Francophonie pour le Développement Durable (IFDD). *Rapport 2019: Chiffres Clés sur L'énergie au Burkina Faso et dans L'espace UEMOA*; Institut de la Francophonie pour le Développement Durable (IFDD): Québec, QC, Canada, 2019.

27. Arevalo, J. Improving woodfuel governance in Burkina Faso: The experts’ assessment. *Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.* **2016**, *57*, 1398–1408. [CrossRef]

28. SE4ALL. Evaluation Rapide et Analyse d'Écart: Burkina Faso. 2014. Available online: https://www.seforall.org/sites/default/files/Burkina_Faso_RAGA_FR_Released.pdf (accessed on 29 September 2022).

29. IEA. Energy System of Burkina Faso. Available online: https://www.iea.org/countries/burkina-faso (accessed on 7 May 2025).

30. MEMC. *Annuaire Statistique de 2022*; MEMC: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2023. Available online: http://cns.bf/spip.php?id_rubrique=105&page=publdetails (accessed on 30 September 2024).

31. UNDP. Burkina Faso: Atténuation des Risques des Investissements dans les Energies Renouvelables. 2023. Available online: https://africaminigrids.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/DREI-Burkina-Faso-Resultats-complets-Mars-2023_1.pdf (accessed on 15 February 2025).

32. SONABEL Burkina Faso. *Rapport D'activités 2022*; SONABEL Burkina Faso: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2022. Available online: https://www.sonabel.bf/ (accessed on 7 May 2025).

33. Badza, K.; Soro, Y.M.; Sawadogo, M. Life cycle assessment of a 33.7 MW solar photovoltaic power plant in the context of a developing country. *Sustain. Environ. Res.* **2023**, *33*, 38. [CrossRef]

34. DGAIE. *Annuaire Statistique des Affaires Immobilieres et de L'équipement de l'Etat 2021*; DGAIE: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2022. Available online: http://cns.bf/spip.php?page=recherche&recherche=dgaie (accessed on 7 May 2025).

35. ABER (Burkinabe Rural Electrification Agency). Overview of Mini Power Plants and Solar Photovoltaic Power Plant Systems Installed in Rural Areas of Burkina Faso. Available online: https://www.aber.bf (accessed on 16 January 2025).

36. Gyamfi, S.; Diawuo, F.A.; Kumi, E.N.; Sika, F.; Modjinou, M. The energy efficiency situation in Ghana. *Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.* **2018**, *82*, 1415–1423. [CrossRef]

37. Abid, H.; Thakur, J.; Khatiwada, D.; Bauner, D. Energy storage integration with solar PV for increased electricity access: A case study of Burkina Faso. *Energy* **2021**, *230*, 120656. [CrossRef]
38. Rincón, L.; Carrobé, A.; Martorell, I.; Medrano, M. Improving thermal comfort of earthen dwellings in sub-Saharan Africa with passive design. *J. Build. Eng.* **2019**, *24*, 100732. [CrossRef]

39. INSD. Cinquième Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitation du Burkina Faso: Synthèse des Résultats Définitifs; INSD: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2022.

40. Moussa, H.S.; Nshimiyimana, P.; Hema, C.; Zoungrana, O.; Messan, A.; Courard, L. Comparative Study of Thermal Comfort Induced from Masonry Made of Stabilized Compressed Earth Block vs. Conventional Cementitious Material. *J. Miner. Mater. Charact. Eng.* **2019**, *7*, 385–403. [CrossRef]

41. Offerle, B.; Jonsson, P.; Eliasson, I.; Grimmond, C.S.B. Urban Modification of the Surface Energy Balance in the West African Sahel: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. *J. Clim.* **2005**, *18*, 3983–3995. [CrossRef]

42. Gedda, M. Traduction française des lignes directrices PRISMA pour l'écriture et la lecture des revues systématiques et des méta-analyses. *Kinésithérapie Rev.* **2015**, *15*, 39–44. [CrossRef]

43. Hafez, F.S.; Sa'Di, B.; Safa-Gamal, M.; Taufiq-Yap, Y.; Alrifaey, M.; Seyedmahmoudian, M.; Stojcevski, A.; Horan, B.; Mekhilef, S. Energy Efficiency in Sustainable Buildings: A Systematic Review with Taxonomy, Challenges, Motivations, Methodological Aspects, Recommendations, and Pathways for Future Research. *Energy Strat. Rev.* **2022**, *45*, 101013. [CrossRef]

44. Beel, J.; Gipp, B.; Eilde, E. Academic Search Engine Optimization (ASEO): Optimizing Scholarly Literature for Google Scholar & Co. *J. Sch. Publ.* **2010**, *41*, 176–190. [CrossRef]

45. Benzaghta, M.A.; Elwalda, A.; Mousa, M.; Erkan, I.; Rahman, M. SWOT analysis applications: An integrative literature review. *J. Glob. Bus. Insights* **2021**, *6*, 55–73. [CrossRef]

46. Fertel, C.; Bahn, O.; Vaillancourt, K.; Waaub, J.-P. Canadian energy and climate policies: A SWOT analysis in search of federal/provincial coherence. *Energy Policy* **2013**, *63*, 1139–1150. [CrossRef]

47. Markovska, N.; Taseska, V.; Pop-Jordanov, J. SWOT analyses of the national energy sector for sustainable energy development. *Energy* **2009**, *34*, 752–756. [CrossRef]

48. Silva, B.V.F.; Holm-Nielsen, J.B.; Sadrizadeh, S.; Teles, M.P.R.; Kiani-Moghaddam, M.; Arabkoohsar, A. Sustainable, green, or smart? Pathways for energy-efficient healthcare buildings. *Sustain. Cities Soc.* **2023**, *100*, 105013. [CrossRef]

49. Attia, S.; Kosiński, P.; Wójcik, R.; Węglarz, A.; Koc, D.; Laurent, O. Energy efficiency in the polish residential building stock: A literature review. *J. Build. Eng.* **2022**, *45*, 103461. [CrossRef]

50. Dawodu, A.; Cheshmehzangi, A. Passive Cooling Energy Systems SWOT Analyses for Energy-use Reductions at Three Spatial Levels. *Energy Procedia* **2017**, *105*, 3411–3418. [CrossRef]

51. Zhang, L.; Guo, S.; Wu, Z.; Alsaedi, A.; Hayat, T. SWOT Analysis for the Promotion of Energy Efficiency in Rural Buildings: A Case Study of China. *Energies* **2018**, *11*, 851. [CrossRef]

52. UEMOA. Directive n° 04/2020/cm/uemoa portant étiquetage énergétique des lampes électriques et des appareils électroménagers neufs dans les états membres de l'UEMOA. 2020. Available online: https://rise.esmap.org/data/files/library/niger/Renewable%20Energy/Niger_Electrical%20Appliances%20Standards_Directive%20NA%CC%82%C2%B004_2020_CM_UEMOA_2020.pdf (accessed on 25 August 2022).

53. UEMOA. Directive n° 05/2020cm/uemoa fixant des mesures d'efficacité énergétique dans la construction de bâtiments dans les états membres de l'UEMOA. 2020. Available online: https://rise.esmap.org/data/files/library/niger/Energy%20Efficiency/Niger_%20Energy%20Efficiency%20in%20Buildings%20Construction_Directive%20NA%CC%82%C2%B005_2020_CM_UEMOA_2020.pdf (accessed on 25 August 2022).

54. NF EN ISO 10077-1; Thermal Performance of Windows, Doors and Shutters—Calculation of Thermal Transmittance—Part 1: General. AFNOR: Paris, France, 2017.

55. Ministère de l'Urbanisme et de l'Habitat. Loi n° 017-2006/AN du 18 mai 2006 portant Code de l'urbanisme et de la construction au Burkina Faso. 2006. Available online: https://www.mhu.gov.bf (accessed on 8 April 2024).

56. MEMC. Loi N°014-2017/AN Portant Règlementation Générale du Secteur de L'Energie; Ministère de l'Energie du Burkina Faso: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2017.

57. MEMC. Décret N°2017-1014/PRES/PM/ME/MCIA/MINEFID Portant Fixation des Normes et Exigences D'efficacité Energétique S'appliquant Aux Appareils et Equipements Ainsi Que Leurs Modalités de Mise en Œuvre; Ministère de l'Energie des Mines et des Carrières: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2017.

58. MEMC. Décret N°2017-2015/PRES/PM/ME/MINEFID/MCIA Portant Fixation des Seuils de Consommation Energétique, la Périodicité de L'audit Energétique, les Modalités D'exercice de L'audit Energétique et D'agrément des Auditeurs; Ministère de l'Energie du Burkina Faso: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2017.

59. MEMC. ARRETE N°2018-7094/ME/SG/DGEE Portant Conditions et Modalités de Délivrance, de Suspension et de Retrait de L'agrément Technique D'exercice de L'audit Energetique; Ministère de l'Energie du Burkina Faso: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2018.

60. MEMC. Arrêté N°2018-18/070/ME/MCIA Portant Adoption D'un Cahier des Charges Applicable Aux Audits Energétique au Burkina Faso; Ministère de l'Energie des Mines et des Carrières: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2018.
61. MEMC. *Arrêté N°2018-095/ME/SG/DGEE Portant Détermination des Niveaux D'extension ou de Modifications Exigeant un Nouvel Audit Energétique*; Ministère de l'Energie des Mines et des Carrières: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2018; pp. 1-3.

62. ANEREE. Energy Efficiency Legislation in Burkina Faso. Available online: https://www.energie-mines.gov.bf/le-ministere/les-structures/details?tx_news_pi1?action=detail&tx_news_pi1[controller]=News&tx_news_pi1[news]=30&cHash=3929756efa8666e0db73ac42eb6ae0a5 (accessed on 7 May 2025).

63. ISO. Systèmes de Management de L'énergie. Available online: https://afim.asso.fr/media/1351/afnor_081111.pdf (accessed on 7 May 2025).

64. Adeyemo, A.A.; Amusan, O.T. Modelling and multi-objective optimization of hybrid energy storage solution for photovoltaic powered off-grid net zero energy building. *J. Energy Storage* **2022**, *55*, 105273. [CrossRef]

65. Hema, C.; Messan, A.; Lawane, A.; Soro, D.; Nshimiyimana, P.; van Moeseke, G. Improving the thermal comfort in hot region through the design of walls made of compressed earth blocks: An experimental investigation. *J. Build. Eng.* **2021**, *38*, 102148. [CrossRef]

66. Compaore, A.; Ouedraogo, B.; Guengane, H.; Malbila, E.; Bathiebo, D.J. Role of Local Building Materials on the Energy Behaviour of Habitats in Ouagadougou. *Int. J. Appl. Sci.* **2017**, *8*, 63–72. [CrossRef]

67. Neya, I.; Yamegueu, D.; Messan, A.; Coulibaly, Y.; Ouedraogo, A.L.S.-N.; Ayite, Y.M.X.D. Effect of cement and geopolymer stabilization on the thermal comfort: Case study of an earthen building in Burkina Faso. *Int. J. Build. Pathol. Adapt.* **2025**, *43*, 283–301. [CrossRef]

68. Lawane, A.; Vinai, R.; Pantet, A.; Thomassin, J.-H.; Messan, A. hygrothermal features of laterite dimension stones for sub-saharan residential building construction. *J. Mater. Civ. Eng.* **2014**, *26*, 05014002. [CrossRef]

69. Nshimiyimana, P.; Sore, S.O.; Zi, M.; Messan, A. Influence of rubber aggregates from the recycled tires on the physico-mechanical and durability properties of compressed earth blocks. *World J. Adv. Res. Rev.* **2024**, *24*, 2303–2309. [CrossRef]

70. Hema, M.C. Optimisation des Propriétés Thermiques des Parois dans les Habitations en Briques de Terre Comprimée au Burkina Faso. Ph.D. Thesis, Institut International d'Ingénierie de l'Eau et de l'Environnement et Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Brussels, 2020.

71. Nshimiyimana, P.; Moussa, H.S.; Messan, A.; Courard, L. Effect of production and curing conditions on the performance of stabilized compressed earth blocks: Kaolinite vs. quartz-rich earthen material. *MRS Adv.* **2020**, *5*, 1277–1283. [CrossRef]

72. Ouedraogo, A.L.S.; Hema, C.; N'guiro, S.M.; Nshimiyimana, P.; Messan, A. Optimisation of Thermal Comfort of Building in a Hot and Dry Tropical Climate: A Comparative Approach between Compressed Earth/Concrete Block Envelopes. *J. Miner. Mater. Charact. Eng.* **2024**, *12*, 1–16. [CrossRef]

73. Zoure, A.N.; Genovese, P.V. Implementing natural ventilation and daylighting strategies for thermal comfort and energy efficiency in office buildings in Burkina Faso. *Energy Rep.* **2023**, *9*, 3319–3342. [CrossRef]

74. Ouedraogo, A.L.S.N.; Messan, A.; Yamegueu, D.; Coulibaly, Y. A model for thermal comfort assessment of naturally ventilated housing in the hot and dry tropical climate. *Int. J. Build. Pathol. Adapt.* **2021**, *40*, 183–201. [CrossRef]

75. Genovese, P.V.; Zoure, A.N. Architecture trends and challenges in sub-Saharan Africa's construction industry: A theoretical guideline of a bioclimatic architecture evolution based on the multi-scale approach and circular economy. *Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.* **2023**, *184*, 113593. [CrossRef]

76. Montrose, G. Maîtrise de l'Energie dans les Bâtiments en Climat Tropical Humide: Étude des Matériaux Biosourcés d'Origine Végétale pour l'Efficacité Énergétique et le Confort Thermique. Ph.D. Thesis, Université des Antilles, Pointe-à-Pitre, France, 2021.

77. Zoure, A.N.; Genovese, P.V. Comparative Study of the Impact of Bio-Sourced and Recycled Insulation Materials on Energy Efficiency in Office Buildings in Burkina Faso. *Sustainability* **2023**, *15*, 1466. [CrossRef]

78. Neya, I. *Bâtiment et Bioclimatisme en Afrique Subsaharienne: Outil d'Aide à la Conception*; Institut International de l'Eau et de l'Environnement: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2020.

79. Nikyema, G.A.; Blouin, V.Y. Barriers to the adoption of green building materials and technologies in developing countries: The case of Burkina Faso. *IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci.* **2020**, *410*, 11. [CrossRef]

80. Diawuo, F.A.; Pina, A.; Baptista, P.C.; Silva, C.A. Energy efficiency deployment: A pathway to sustainable electrification in Ghana. *J. Clean. Prod.* **2018**, *186*, 544–557. [CrossRef]

81. Agyarko, K.A.; Opoku, R.; Van Buskirk, R. Removing barriers and promoting demand-side energy efficiency in households in Sub-Saharan Africa: A case study in Ghana. *Energy Policy* **2020**, *137*, 111149. [CrossRef]

82. Tete, K.H.S.; Soro, Y.M.; Nadingar, D.A.; Jones, R.V. Ownership, Patterns of Use and Electricity Consumption of Domestic Appliances in Urban Households of the West African Monetary and Economic Union: A Case Study of Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso. *Energies* **2024**, *17*, 3656. [CrossRef]

83. Masoso, O.T.; Grobler, L.J. The dark side of occupants' behaviour on building energy use. *Energy Build.* **2010**, *42*, 173–177. [CrossRef]
84. Zoungrana, O.; Bologo, M.; Messan, A.; Nshimiyimana, P.; Pirotte, G. The Paradox around the Social Representations of Compressed Earth Block Building Material in Burkina Faso: The Material for the Poor or the Luxury Material? *Open J. Soc. Sci.* **2021**, *09*, 50–65. [CrossRef]

85. Matysek-Imielińska, M. Francis Kéré: A Spokesperson of African Architecture? Modernism and Decolonization. *Przegląd Socjol. Jakościowej* **2024**, *20*, 122–141. [CrossRef]

86. Frossard, M. Optimisation Robuste Multicritère Pour L'écoconception de Bâtiments Zéro-Energie. Ph.D. Thesis, Université Paris Sciences et lettres, Paris, France, 2020.

87. Adegun, O.B.; Adedeji, Y.M.D. Review of economic and environmental benefits of earthen materials for housing in Africa. *Front. Arch. Res.* **2017**, *6*, 519–528. [CrossRef]

88. Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All). *Rapport de Base du Burkina Faso dans le Cadre du Processus et la Stratégie du Développement*; Sustainable Energy for All: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2014.

89. ECREEE/CEDEAO. *Rapport Regional*; ECREEE/CEDEAO: Praia, Cape Verde, 2022.

90. MEMC. *Annuaire Statistique* 2022; MEMC: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 2023.

91. Iwaro, J.; Mwasha, A. A review of building energy regulation and policy for energy conservation in developing countries. *Energy Policy* **2010**, *38*, 7744–7755. [CrossRef]

92. Chandel, S.S.; Sharma, A.; Marwaha, B.M. Review of energy efficiency initiatives and regulations for residential buildings in India. *Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.* **2016**, *54*, 1443–1458. [CrossRef]

93. Federal Ministry of Power Works and Housing. *National Building Energy Efficiency Code*; Federal Ministry of Power Works and Housing: Abuja, Nigeria, 2017.

94. Ministère de la Transition écologique. *Guide RE2020: Réglementation Énergétique et Environnementale Française*; Ministère de la Transition écologique: Paris, France, 2020.

95. Williams, J.; Mitchell, R.; Raicic, V.; Vellei, M.; Mustard, G.; Wismayer, A.; Yin, X.; Davey, S.; Shakil, M.; Yang, Y.; et al. Less is more: A review of low energy standards and the urgent need for an international universal zero energy standard. *J. Build. Eng.* **2016**, *6*, 65–74. [CrossRef]

96. Camara, Y.; Chesneau, X.; Camara, S.; Kanté, C. Modeling and thermal simulation of a bioclimatic habitat integrating phase-change material for a typical climate of Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso. *Int. J. Innov. Sci. Eng. Technol.* **2020**, *7*, 198–210.

97. Fati, A.O.; Latif, B.A.; Souleymane, O.; Thierry, S.M.; Lewamy, M.; Joseph, B.D. The Impact of Local Materials on the Improvement of the Thermal Comfort in Building. *Curr. J. Appl. Sci. Technol.* **2020**, *39*, 22–35. [CrossRef]

98. Oumarou, F.A.; Ouedraogo, A.; Ky, S.M.T.; Bhandari, R.; Konfe, A.; Konate, R.; Adamou, R.; Bathiebo, D.J.; Kam, S. Effect of the Orientation on the Comfort of a Building Made with Compressed Earth Block. *Smart Grid Renew. Energy* **2021**, *12*, 99–112. [CrossRef]

99. Salvalai, G.; Sesana, M.M.; Brutti, D.; Imperadori, M. Design and performance analysis of a lightweight flexible nZEB. *Sustainability* **2020**, *12*, 5986. [CrossRef]

**Disclaimer/Publisher's Note:** The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.