(IA-SCWG) that would include space agency executives as well as scientists, whose selection could be decided after consultation with and advice from SSB and ESSC, as well as similar bodies world-wide when they existed, e.g. SRC-JSC (Japan). Modelled on the successful IACG but extending its participation to scientists, the idea was that the necessary input to the IA-SCWG would be grassroots rather than top-down, enabling a better ensuing coordination at agency level that was reflective of the scientific consensus. This recommendation for coordination was not adopted by the agencies at the time nor since, but its need and obvious relevance to a better use of resources was advocated several times since 2000, including in a recent workshop jointly organized on 25 August 2022 by COSPAR and the Chinese Space Science Centre of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

International coordination is complicated by the fact that Heliophysics as a scientific division currently exists only at NASA, within the Science Mission Directorate (SMD), where the division of space science into studies of physical domains is both scientifically rational and administratively effective. Yet this administrative approach is not universally applied. At the National Science Foundation (NSF), Heliophysics is split between the Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences and the Division of Astronomical Sciences. Within ESA, Heliophysics is part of the Science Directorate (D-SCI), joint with Astrophysics and Planetary Sciences. In addition, nature does not provide a clean boundary defining where one domain ends and another begins. At NASA, that region of the Earth's (or other planet's) atmosphere that is clearly dominated by planetary effects, such as the Troposphere, is included within Earth (or Planetary) Science. Everything above, such as the mesosphere, thermosphere, and ionosphere, is included within Heliophysics. Solar effects generally dominate this middle and upper atmospheric region, but again, there is no hard boundary between the Earth and heliosphere. Energetic particles and electromagnetic fields from above, and gravity waves from below all interpenetrate the interface region between the physical domains of Heliophysics and Earth (or Planetary) Science. Understanding this interface region, therefore, involves both disciplines.

Today, inter-agency interactions are most frequently carried out on an opportunity-based and a case-by-case basis (e.g., Solar-C, Solar Orbiter) and are complicated by the internal structure, budgeting and priorities of the agencies themselves (for example NASA Heliophysics interacting separately with the various directorates within ESA and JAXA). However, a dedicated large-scale, worldwide endorsed scientific effort under an ISTPNext program, with unified strategic science goals and objectives, when accompanied by interagency agreements, could enhance both the science return and facilitate interagency cooperation. It is worth exploring whether an IACG type group, perhaps modeled after the proposed IA-SCWG, should be reconstituted to correct deficiencies in the current system.

## 5. Recommendations and conclusions

Heliophysics in the space age began with the launches of primitive Geiger counters in the near-Earth space environment. It is now flying sophisticated sensors deep into the solar atmosphere. The field has expanded into the study of both fundamental plasma physics in the natural plasma laboratory of our cosmic backyard and the space weather that impacts our technological society. Heliophysics research and model development underpins the protection of vital technological infrastructure and humanity's journey into space.

Yet, the field is far from reaching its limits. The discoveries of large numbers of planetary systems in our Galaxy are casting Sun-Planet relations — the core of Heliophysics — into the center of Star-Exoplanet research. As the only truly accessible system that harbors life, the Sun-Earth system is the natural laboratory to test and validate research on exoplanet habitability. Closer to home, the increasing instability of (even short-term) climate patterns raises the importance of ‘tipping points’ within the highly nonlinear system of the terrestrial atmosphere. This in turns point to an increasing societal need for deeper understanding of the effects of fluctuating solar inputs into our atmosphere. The developments in Astrophysics and Earth science along with Heliophysics’ own successes in the space age are pointing the direction of the field into the nexus of the future space age. Heliophysics is a science of connections. Heliophysics can, and should, become the connecting point among Astrophysics, Planetary, and Earth sciences. ISTPNext, or a similarly structured approach, could lead us there. As a start, the next phase of space exploration should be the era of Mesoscales and the S-IH and Geospace and systems-of-systems, focused on the cross-scale and cross-regional coupling that occurs between the two spatial and temporal extremes.

With the US Decadal Survey, the evolution of the ESA directorate of science Voyage 2050 program via F- and M-class competitions, and JAXA's medium mission competitions all occurring in the near-term, in addition to active programs among other national agencies such as the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), the next decade provides an opportunity to take the first steps toward addressing mesoscale, system-of-systems dynamics while simultaneously establishing an ISTPNext program. If missions stemming from these competitions and activities recognize a common scientific priority, there is a very good chance of coordinating them organically under the umbrella of an internationally coordinated strategic science program. However, such an approach should be considered as a bare minimum and would only be marginally better than the current (wholly inadequate) coordination approach. It would be far better to make investments of the type listed above so that the missions selected and recommended over the decade + could achieve ground-breaking science across the overall
system-of-systems, extending discoveries beyond their narrower design space. Heliophysics should articulate a strong strategic science vision for the discipline, and the common System-of-Systems at mesoscales theme can be used to unify Heliophysics across discipline and national boundaries.

GDC + DYNAMIC is a test-case for what a different approach may look like. It could be used as a strategic focal point mission for ITM science, a true community “Great” observatory that pulls in not only space-based missions from other agencies but tightly integrates the worldwide ground-based and modeling communities under a common scientific objective. With GDC + DYNAMIC not launching until the early 2030s, there is some time to put the pieces in place to ensure that it becomes an ITM ‘Great Observatory’ with broad worldwide community involvement, answering questions beyond those for which it was designed because of this synergy. GDC, however, is a mission, not a program. It has specific science questions it is designed to answer, and other agencies may decide to leverage it for their own aims. Or they may not. To obtain the type of investment that is needed to answer the mesoscale system-of-system science questions the community has identified requires a large, sustained, worldwide effort as outlined in this paper. We need a program — an ISTPNext — with grand ambitions, world-wide scientific buy-in on a set of strategic science goals, and interagency agreements, to enable the sustained, large investment required to address the science questions of our era, and drive our field towards more amazing discoveries.

Findings:

1. All the major systems within Heliophysics, ITM, SIH, Mag, operate as a system of systems;

2. Mesoscales are critically under measured;

3. Both space- and ground-based assets could benefit from tighter coordination;

4. The lack of an international coordinating body for research priorities and coordination has led to a fractured Heliophysics landscape.

We require both a new intentional, forward-thinking coordination mechanism and a new worldwide effort that should include the following initiatives:

* Resolve the mesoscales, simultaneously, across the Sun-Geospace System of Systems;

* Monitor the Heliophysics state variables;

* Invest in next-generation numerical modeling;

* Organize the ground-based community and integrate directly and early into flight programs;

* Embrace and utilize 'big data' and ML/AI techniques;

* Establish unified data formats, metadata, accessibility and discovery via cloud-based computing, and code repositories;

All these activities and initiatives would be globally coordinated and working in concert to study Geospace and the inner Heliosphere holistically, each as a system, at the scale sizes — mesoscales — that we now know are driving the overall dynamics. Only thus we will overcome the current roadblocks and thrust Heliophysics science into its prominent role as the ‘essential’ systems science for discovery and society service.

Humanity has now extended from the physical domain of our birthplace, the Earth, to the neighboring domain of the Heliosphere. Space-based commercial and government infrastructure has grown so explosively in the past half-century that space is increasingly crowded. Furthermore, humans have been living continuously in the heliosphere for the past three decades, and this human presence will only increase. Now that we have moved into this physical domain, our requirements on its study have changed to the point that this study is truly a new science discipline. We are no longer simply observing some domain beyond our reach, we now must gain that level of understanding required to develop and inhabit a new environment. The past decades have brought us to this point now, where we must understand the cross-scale and cross-regional coupling within the Heliophysics domain. Such a large effort requires a unified and coordinated scientific discipline and scientific program, if we are to continue our progress from the domain of our birth, Earth, to the domain of the stars.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

L. Kepko was funded by the NASA competed Internal Scientist Funding Model (ISFM). A. Vourlidas was funded by NASA grants 80NSSC22K0970, 80NSSC22K1028, and Parker Solar Probe/WISPR phase-E funds. CHM acknowledges grants PICT-2020-SERIEA-03214 and PIP 11220200100985. CHM is a Senior Researcher at Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET). MP thanks the Academy of Finland project numbers 339327, 335554, 347795, 345701. The work of DC is supported by the Department of Space, Government of India. Work at Laboratoire d'astrophysique de Bordeaux
system-of-systems, extending discoveries beyond their narrower design space. Heliophysics should articulate a strong strategic science vision for the discipline, and the common System-of-Systems at mesoscales theme can be used to unify Heliophysics across discipline and national boundaries.

GDC + DYNAMIC is a test-case for what a different approach may look like. It could be used as a strategic focal point mission for ITM science, a true community “Great” observatory that pulls in not only space-based missions from other agencies but tightly integrates the worldwide ground-based and modeling communities under a common scientific objective. With GDC + DYNAMIC not launching until the early 2030s, there is some time to put the pieces in place to ensure that it becomes an ITM ‘Great Observatory’ with broad worldwide community involvement, answering questions beyond those for which it was designed because of this synergy. GDC, however, is a mission, not a program. It has specific science questions it is designed to answer, and other agencies may decide to leverage it for their own aims. Or they may not. To obtain the type of investment that is needed to answer the mesoscale system-of-system science questions the community has identified requires a large, sustained, worldwide effort as outlined in this paper. We need a program — an ISTPNext — with grand ambitions, world-wide scientific buy-in on a set of strategic science goals, and interagency agreements, to enable the sustained, large investment required to address the science questions of our era, and drive our field towards more amazing discoveries.

Findings:

1. All the major systems within Heliophysics, ITM, SIH, Mag, operate as a system of systems;

2. Mesoscales are critically under measured;

3. Both space- and ground-based assets could benefit from tighter coordination;

4. The lack of an international coordinating body for research priorities and coordination has led to a fractured Heliophysics landscape.

We require both a new intentional, forward-thinking coordination mechanism and a new worldwide effort that should include the following initiatives:

* Resolve the mesoscales, simultaneously, across the Sun-Geospace System of Systems;

* Monitor the Heliophysics state variables;

* Invest in next-generation numerical modeling;

* Organize the ground-based community and integrate directly and early into flight programs;

* Embrace and utilize 'big data' and ML/AI techniques;

* Establish unified data formats, metadata, accessibility and discovery via cloud-based computing, and code repositories;

All these activities and initiatives would be globally coordinated and working in concert to study Geospace and the inner Heliosphere holistically, each as a system, at the scale sizes — mesoscales — that we now know are driving the overall dynamics. Only thus we will overcome the current roadblocks and thrust Heliophysics science into its prominent role as the ‘essential’ systems science for discovery and society service.

Humanity has now extended from the physical domain of our birthplace, the Earth, to the neighboring domain of the Heliosphere. Space-based commercial and government infrastructure has grown so explosively in the past half-century that space is increasingly crowded. Furthermore, humans have been living continuously in the heliosphere for the past three decades, and this human presence will only increase. Now that we have moved into this physical domain, our requirements on its study have changed to the point that this study is truly a new science discipline. We are no longer simply observing some domain beyond our reach, we now must gain that level of understanding required to develop and inhabit a new environment. The past decades have brought us to this point now, where we must understand the cross-scale and cross-regional coupling within the Heliophysics domain. Such a large effort requires a unified and coordinated scientific discipline and scientific program, if we are to continue our progress from the domain of our birth, Earth, to the domain of the stars.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

L. Kepko was funded by the NASA competed Internal Scientist Funding Model (ISFM). A. Vourlidas was funded by NASA grants 80NSSC22K0970, 80NSSC22K1028, and Parker Solar Probe/WISPR phase-E funds. CHM acknowledges grants PICT-2020-SERIEA-03214 and PIP 11220200100985. CHM is a Senior Researcher at Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET). MP thanks the Academy of Finland project numbers 339327, 335554, 347795, 345701. The work of DC is supported by the Department of Space, Government of India. Work at Laboratoire d'astrophysique de Bordeaux
was performed with the support of CNRS, CNES and the University of Bordeaux.

## Appendix A. Appendix

AE - Atmospheric Explorers

AI - Artificial Intelligence

AIA - Atmospheric Imaging Assembly

AMPTE - Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers

BBF - Bursty Bulk Flow

CEDAR - Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions

COSPAR - Committee on Space Research

CME - Coronal Mass Ejection

DE - Dynamics Explorer

DKIST - Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope

DSCOVR - Deep Space Climate Observatory

DYNAMIC - Dynamical Neutral Atmosphere Ionosphere Coupling

EIS - Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer

ENA - Energetic Neutral Atom

ESA - European Space Agency

ESF - European Science Foundation

ESSC - European Space Sciences Committee

FAIR - Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable

FTE - Flux Transfer Event

GDC - Geospace Dynamics Observatory

GEM - Geospace Environment Modeling

GOES - Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

GGS - Global Geospace Science

HSO - Heliophysics System Observatory

IA-SCWG - Inter-Agency Scientific Collaboration Working Group IACG - InterAgency Consultative Group

IAGA - International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy// IASTP - InterAgency Solar-Terrestrial Physics

IGY - International Geophysical Year

IMF - Interplanetary Magnetic Field

IMP - Interplanetary Monitoring Platform

IRIS - Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

ISAS - Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

ISEE - International Sun Earth Explorer

ISRO - Indian Space Research Organisation

ISTP - International Solar Terrestrial Physics

ITM - Ionosphere-Thermosphere-Mesosphere

IUGG - International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics

JAXA - Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

JSC - Science Council of Japan

KASI - Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute

MHD - MagnetoHydroDynamics

MIDEX - Medium-class Explorers

ML - Machine Learning

MMS - Magnetospheric Multiscale

NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASEM - National Academies of Science, Engineering and Math

NOAA - National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

NSF - National Science Foundation

OSTP - Office of Science and Technology Policy

PIC - Particle-In-Cell

PSP - Parker Solar Probe

SCOSTEP - Scientific Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics

Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics

SDO - Solar Dynamics Observatory

SHINE - Solar, Heliospheric, and INterplanetary Environment

SIH - Solar-Inner Heliosphere

SMEX - Small EXplorers

SMILE - Solar wind Magnetosphere Ionosphere Link Explorer

SMM - Solar Maximum Mission

SO or SolO - Solar Orbiter

SOHO - Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

SRC - Science Research Committee (Japan)

SSB - Space Studies Board

STEREO - Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory

SUVI - Solar Ultraviolet Imager

SWFO-L1 - Space Weather Follow On - Lagrange 1

THEMIS - Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms

WDC - World Data Center

WHPI - Whole Heliosphere and Planetary Interactions

WISPR - Wide-field Imager for Parker Solar Probe

## References

Acuña, M.H., Ogilvie, K.W., Baker, D.N., et al., 1995. The global geospace science program and its investigations. Space Sci. Rev. 71 (1–4), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00751323.

Appleton, E.V., Barnett, M.A.F., 1925. On some direct evidence for downward atmospheric reflection of electric rays. Proc. Roy. Soc. London Ser. A, 109(752), 621–641. doi:10.1098/rspa.1925.0149.

Baker, D., Carovillano, R., 1997. IASTP and solar-terrestrial physics. Adv. Space Res. 20 (4–5), 531–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0273-1177 (97)00436-5.

Bale, S.D., Badman, S.T., Bonnell, J.W., et al., 2019. Highly structured slow solar wind emerging from an equatorial coronal hole. Nature, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1818-7.

Berghmans, D., Auchère, F., Long, D.M., et al., 2021. Extreme-UV quiet Sun brightenings observed by the Solar Orbiter/EUI. Astron. Astro-
was performed with the support of CNRS, CNES and the University of Bordeaux.

## Appendix A. Appendix

AE - Atmospheric Explorers

AI - Artificial Intelligence

AIA - Atmospheric Imaging Assembly

AMPTE - Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers

BBF - Bursty Bulk Flow

CEDAR - Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions

COSPAR - Committee on Space Research

CME - Coronal Mass Ejection

DE - Dynamics Explorer

DKIST - Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope

DSCOVR - Deep Space Climate Observatory

DYNAMIC - Dynamical Neutral Atmosphere Ionosphere Coupling

EIS - Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer

ENA - Energetic Neutral Atom

ESA - European Space Agency

ESF - European Science Foundation

ESSC - European Space Sciences Committee

FAIR - Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable

FTE - Flux Transfer Event

GDC - Geospace Dynamics Observatory

GEM - Geospace Environment Modeling

GOES - Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

GGS - Global Geospace Science

HSO - Heliophysics System Observatory

IA-SCWG - Inter-Agency Scientific Collaboration Working Group IACG - InterAgency Consultative Group

IAGA - International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy// IASTP - InterAgency Solar-Terrestrial Physics

IGY - International Geophysical Year

IMF - Interplanetary Magnetic Field

IMP - Interplanetary Monitoring Platform

IRIS - Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

ISAS - Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

ISEE - International Sun Earth Explorer

ISRO - Indian Space Research Organisation

ISTP - International Solar Terrestrial Physics

ITM - Ionosphere-Thermosphere-Mesosphere

IUGG - International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics

JAXA - Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

JSC - Science Council of Japan

KASI - Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute

MHD - MagnetoHydroDynamics

MIDEX - Medium-class Explorers

ML - Machine Learning

MMS - Magnetospheric Multiscale

NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASEM - National Academies of Science, Engineering and Math

NOAA - National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

NSF - National Science Foundation

OSTP - Office of Science and Technology Policy

PIC - Particle-In-Cell

PSP - Parker Solar Probe

SCOSTEP - Scientific Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics

Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Physics

SDO - Solar Dynamics Observatory

SHINE - Solar, Heliospheric, and INterplanetary Environment

SIH - Solar-Inner Heliosphere

SMEX - Small EXplorers

SMILE - Solar wind Magnetosphere Ionosphere Link Explorer

SMM - Solar Maximum Mission

SO or SolO - Solar Orbiter

SOHO - Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

SRC - Science Research Committee (Japan)

SSB - Space Studies Board

STEREO - Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory

SUVI - Solar Ultraviolet Imager

SWFO-L1 - Space Weather Follow On - Lagrange 1

THEMIS - Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms

WDC - World Data Center

WHPI - Whole Heliosphere and Planetary Interactions

WISPR - Wide-field Imager for Parker Solar Probe

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Vourlidas, A., Carley, E.P., Vilmer, N., 2020. Radio observations of coronal mass ejections: Space weather aspects. Front. Astron. Space Sci. 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2020.00043, URL: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspas.2020.00043/full?utm_source=Email_to_authors&utm_medium=Email&utm_content=TI_11.5el_author&utm_ campaign=Email_publication&field=&journalName=Frontiers_in_Astronomy_and_Space_Sciences&id=553982.

Wedemeyer-Böhm, S., Lagg, A., Nordlund, A., 2009. Coupling from the Photosphere to the Chromosphere and the Corona. Space Sci. Rev. 144 (1-4), 317-350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-008-9447-8, arXiv:0809.0987.

Zhang, H., Zong, Q., Connor, H., et al., 2022. Dayside transient phenomena and their impact on the magnetosphere and ionosphere. Space Sci. Rev. 218 (5), 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-021-00865-0.