Ricciardulli, L., and F. J. Wentz, 2015: A scatterometer geophysical model function for climate-quality winds: QuikSCAT Ku-2011. *J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol.*, **32**, 1829–1846, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-15-0008.1.

—, and A. Manaster, 2021: Intercalibration of ASCAT scatterometer winds from MetOp-A, -B, and -C, for a stable climate data record. *Remote Sens.*, **13**, 3678, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13183678.

Richardson, A. D., 2019: Tracking seasonal rhythms of plants in diverse ecosystems with digital camera imagery. *New Phytol.*, **222**, 1742–1750, https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15591.

—, and J. O'Keefe, 2009: Phenological differences between understory and overstory. *Phenology of Ecosystem Processes*, A. Noormets, Eds., Springer, 87–117, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0026-5_4.

Rieger, L. A., W. J. Randel, A. E. Bourassa, and S. Solomon, 2021: Stratospheric temperature and ozone anomalies associated with the 2020 Australian New Year fires. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **48**, e2021GL095898, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095898.

Rigby, M., and Coauthors, 2019: Increase in CFC-11 emissions from eastern China based on atmospheric observations. *Nature*, **569**, 546–550, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1193-4.

Rodell, M., J. S. Famiglietti, D. N. Wiese, J. T. Reager, H. K. Beaudoing, and M.-H. Lo, 2018: Emerging trends in global freshwater availability. *Nature*, **557**, 651–659, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0123-1.

Roderick, M. L., L. D. Rotstayn, G. D. Farquhar, and M. T. Hobbins, 2007: On the attribution of changing pan evaporation. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **34**, L17403, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031166.

Rohde, R. A., and Z. Hausfather, 2020: The Berkeley Earth land/ocean temperature record. *Earth Syst. Sci. Data*, **12**, 3469–3479, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3469-2020.

Romps, D. M., J. T. Seeley, D. Vollaro, and J. Molinari, 2014: Projected increase in lightning strikes in the United States due to global warming. *Science*, **346**, 851–854, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1259100.

Rosenfeld, D., U. Lohmann, G. B. Raga, C. D. O'Dowd, M. Kulmata, A. Reissell, and M. O. Andreae, 2008: Flood or drought: How do aerosols affect precipitation? *Science*, **321**, 1309–1313, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1160606.

Rudlosky, S., and K. Virts, 2021: Dual geostationary lightning mapper observations. *Mon. Wea. Rev.*, **149**, 979–998, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-20-0242.1.

—, S. Goodman, K. Calhoun, C. Schultz, A. Back, B. Kuligowski, S. Stevenson, and C. Gravelle, 2020: Geostationary Lightning Mapper value assessment. NOAA Tech. Rep. NESDIS 153, 46 pp., https://doi.org/10.25923/2616-3v73.

Ryley, T., S. Baumeister, and L. Coulter, 2020: Climate change influences on aviation: A literature review. *Transp. Policy*, **92**, 55–64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.04.010.

Safaei Pirooz, A. A., R. G. Flay, L. Minola, C. Azorin-Molina, and D. Chen, 2020: Effects of sensor response and moving average filter duration on maximum wind gust measurements. *J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.*, **206**, 104354, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2020.104354.

Said, R. K., U. S. Inan, and K. L. Cummins, 2010: Long-range lightning geolocation using a VLF radio atmospheric waveform bank. *J. Geophys. Res.*, **115**, D23108, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD013863.

Sánchez-Lugo, A., C. Morice, J. P. Nicolas, and A. Argüez, 2021: Global surface temperature [in "State of the Climate in 2020"). *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **102** (8), S26–S28, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-21-0098.1.

Santer, B. D., and Coauthors, 2008: Consistency of modelled and observed temperature trends in the tropical troposphere. *Int. J. Climatol.*, **28**, 1703–1722, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1756.

—, and Coauthors, 2021: Using climate model simulations to constrain observations. *J. Climate*, **34**, 6281–6301, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0768.1.

Satheesh, S. K., S. Suresh Babu, B. Padmakumari, G. Pandithurai, and V. K. Soni, 2017: Variability of atmospheric aerosols over India. *Observed Climate Variability and Change over the Indian Region*, M. N. Rajeevan and S. Nayak, Eds., Springer, 221–248, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2531-0_13.

Sátori, G., V. Mushtak, and E. Williams, 2009: Schumann resonance signatures of global lightning activity. *Lightning: Principles, Instruments and Applications: Review of Modern Lightning Research*, H.-D Betz, U. Schumann, and P. Laroche, Eds., Springer, 347–386, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9079-0_16.

Saunois, M., and Coauthors, 2020: The global methane budget 2000–2017. *Earth Syst. Sci. Data*, **12**, 1561–1623, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-1561-2020.

Scaife, A. A., and Coauthors, 2014: Skilful long range prediction of European and North American winters. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **41**, 2514–2519, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL059637.

Schaaf, C. B., and Coauthors, 2002: First operational BRDF, albedo nadir reflectance products from MODIS. *Remote Sens. Environ.*, **83**, 135–148, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00091-3.

Schaefer, H., and Coauthors, 2016; A 21st-century shift from fossil-fuel to biogenic methane emissions indicated by 13CH4. *Science*, **352** (6281), 80–84, https://doi/10.1126/science.aad2705.

Schamm, K., M. Ziese, A. Becker, P. Finger, A. Meyer-Christoffer, B. Rudolf, and U. Schneider, 2013: GPCC First Guess Daily Product at 1.0°: Near Real-Time First Guess Daily Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges Based on SYNOP Data. Global Precipitation Climatology Centre, accessed 18 January 2021, https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GCPC/FG_D_100.

Schneider, U., A. Becker, P. Finger, R. Elke, and M. Ziese, 2020: GPCC Monitoring Product: Near Real-Time Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges based on SYNOP and CLIMAT Data, Global Precipitation Climatology Centre Global Precipitation Climatology Centre, accessed 7 February 2022, https://doi.org/10.5676/DWD_GCPC/MP_M_V2020_100.

Schumann, U., and H. Huntrieser, 2007: The global lightning-induced nitrogen oxides source. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **7**, 3823–3907, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-3823-2007.

Schwietzke, S., and Coauthors, 2016: Upward revision of global fossil fuel methane emissions based on isotope database. *Nature*, **538**, 88–91, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature19797.

Seneviratne, S. I., T. Corti, E. L. Davin, M. Hirschi, E. B. Jaeger, I. Lehner, B. Orłowsky, and A. J. Teuling, 2010: Investigating soil moisture–climate interactions in a changing climate: A review. *Earth-Sci. Rev.*, **99**, 125–161, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.02.004.

Seyednasrollah, B., A. M. Young, K. Hufkens, T. Milliman, M. A. Friedl, S. Frolking, and A. D. Richardson, 2019: Tracking vegetation phenology across diverse biomes using Version 2.0 of the PhenoCam Dataset. *Sci. Data*, **6**, 261, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-019-0270-8.

Sharma, S., and R. I. Woolway, 2021: Lake ice [in "State of the Climate in 2020"). *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **102** (8), S48–S51, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-21-0098.1.

—, and Coauthors, 2021: Loss of ice cover, shifting phenology, and more extreme events in Northern Hemisphere lakes. *J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci.*, **126**, e2021JG006348, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JG006348.

Shi, L., and J. J. Bates, 2011: Three decades of intersatellite-calibrated high-resolution infrared radiation sounder upper tropospheric water vapor. *J. Geophys. Res.*, **116**, D04108, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014847.

Simmons, A. J., P. Berrisford, D. P. Dee, H. Hersbach, S. Hirahara, and J. N. Thepaut, 2017: A reassessment of temperature variations and trends from global re-analyses and monthly surface climatological datasets. *Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc.*, **143**, 101–119, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2949.

—, and Coauthors, 2021: Low frequency variability and trends in surface air temperature and humidity from ERA5 and other datasets. ECMWF Tech. Memo. 881, 97 pp., https://doi.org/10.21957/ly5vbtbfd.

Sindelarova, K., and Coauthors, 2014: Global data set of biogenic VOC emissions calculated by the MEGAN model over the last 30 years. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **14**, 9317–9341, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-9317-2014.
SMHI, 2021: August 2021 - Rainy month with torrential rain over Gävle. 15 November, accessed 9 February 2022, www.smhi.se/klimat/klimatet-dadoch-nu/manadens-vader-och-vatten-sverige/manadens-vader-i-sverige/augusti-2021-meteorologi-1.173428#:~:text=Augustiv%C3%A4dret%20blev%20en%20skarp%20kontrast,kraftigt%20regn%20och%20lokala%20C3%B6versv%C3%A4mningar.

Smith, S. L., H. B. O'Neill, K. Isaksen, J. Noetzli, and V. E. Romanovsky, 2022: The changing thermal state of permafrost. *Nat. Rev. Earth Environ.*, **3**, 10–23, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00240-1.

Sofieva, V. F., and Coauthors, 2021: Measurement report: regional trends of stratospheric ozone evaluated using the MERGED GRIDded Dataset of Ozone Profiles (MEGRIDOP). *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **21**, 6707–6720, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-6707-2021.

Sommer, U., Z. M. Gliwicz, W. Lampert, and A. Duncan, 1986: The PEG-model of seasonal succession of planktonic events in fresh waters. *Arch. Hydrobiol.*, **106** (4), 433–471.

Song, X.-P., M. C. Hansen, S. V. Stehman, P. V. Potapov, A. Tyukavina, E. F. Vermote, and J. R. Townshend, 2018: Global land change from 1982 to 2016. *Nature*, **560**, 639–643, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0411-9.

SPARC/IO3C/GAW, 2019: SPARC/IO3C/GAW report on long-term ozone trends and uncertainties in the stratosphere. I. Petropavlovskikh et al., Eds., SPARC Rep. 9, WCRP-17/2018, GAW Rep. 241, 99 pp., https://doi.org/10.17874/f899e57a20b.

Spencer, R. W., J. R. Christy, and W. D. Braswell, 2017: UAH Version 6 global satellite temperature products: Methodology and results. *Asia-Pac. J. Atmos. Sci.*, **53**, 121–130, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-017-0010-y.

Stackhouse, P. W., T. Wong, D. P. Kratz, P. Sawaengphokhai, A. C. Wiber, S. K. Gupta, and N. G. Loeb, 2016: Earth radiation budget at top-of-atmosphere [in "State of the Climate in 2015"). *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **97** (8), S41–S43, https://doi.org/10.1175/2016BAMSstateoftheClimate.1.

Staub, B., C. Lambiel, and R. Delaloye, 2016: Rock glacier creep as a thermally-driven phenomenon: A decade of inter-annual observation from the Swiss Alps. XI Int. Conf. on Permafrost, Potsdam, Germany, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, 96–97, https://doi.org/10.2312/GFZ.LIS.2016.001.

Stein, O., M. G. Schultz, I. Bouarar, H. Clark, V. Huijnen, A. Gaudel, M. George, and C. Clerbaux, 2014: On the wintertime low bias of Northern Hemisphere carbon monoxide found in global model simulations. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **14**, 9295–9316, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-9295-2014.

Steinbrecht, W., and Coauthors, 2017: An update on ozone profile trends for the period 2000 to 2016. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **17**, 10675–10690, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-10675-2017.

—, and Coauthors, 2021: COVID-19 crisis reduces free tropospheric ozone across the Northern Hemisphere. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **48**, e2020GL091987, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL091987.

Steiner, A. K., and Coauthors, 2020: Observed temperature changes in the troposphere and stratosphere from 1979 to 2018. *J. Climate*, **33**, 8165–8194, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0998.1.

Stocker, M., F. Ladstädter, and A. K. Steiner, 2021: Observing the climate impact of large wildfires on stratospheric temperature. *Sci. Rep.*, **11**, 22994, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02335-7.

Stolz, D., S. Rutledge, and J. Pierce, 2015: Simultaneous influences of thermodynamics and aerosols on deep convection and lightning in the tropics. *J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.*, **120**, 6207–6231, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD023033.

Streletskiy, D., J. Noetzli, S. L. Smith, G. Vieira, P. Schoeneich, F. Hrbacek, and A. M. Irrgang, 2021: Strategy and Implementation Plan 2021–2024 for the Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost (GTN-P). International Permafrost Association, 44 pp., https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.6075468.

Stroeve, J., J. E. Box, Z. Wang, C. Schaaf, and A. Barrett, 2013: Re-evaluation of MODIS MCD43 Greenland albedo accuracy and trends. *Remote Sens. Environ.*, **138**, 199–214, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.07.023.

Susskind, J., G. Molnar, L. Iredell, and N. G. Loeb, 2012: Interannual variability of outgoing longwave radiation as observed by AIRS and CERES. *J. Geophys. Res.*, **117**, D23107, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JD017997.

Szelag, M. E., V. F. Sofieva, D. Degenstein, C. Roth, S. Davis, and L. Froidevaux, 2020: Seasonal stratospheric ozone trends over 2000–2018 derived from several merged data sets. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **20**, 7035–7047, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-7035-2020.

Szopa, S., and Coauthors, 2021: Short-lived climate forcers. *Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis*, V. Masson-Delmotte et al., Eds., Cambridge University Press, 817–922, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.008.

Tapley, B. D., S. Bettadpur, J. C. Ries, P. F. Thompson, and M. M. Watkins, 2004: GRACE measurements of mass variability in the Earth system. *Science*, **305**, 503–505, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1099192.

Tarasick, D. W., and Coauthors, 2019: Tropospheric Ozone Assessment Report: Tropospheric ozone from 1877 to 2016, observed levels, trends and uncertainties. *Elem. Sci. Anthropocene*, **7**, 39, https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.376.

Teng, W.-H., C.-Y. Huang, S.-P. Ho, Y.-H. Kuo, and X.-J. Zhou, 2013: Characteristics of global precipitable water in ENSO events revealed by COSMIC measurements. *J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.*, **118**, 8411–8425, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50371.

Teubner, I. E., and Coauthors, 2019: A carbon sink-driven approach to estimate gross primary production from microwave satellite observations. *Remote Sens. Environ.*, **229**, 100–113, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.04.022.

Thompson, R. L., and Coauthors, 2019: Acceleration of global N₂O emissions seenfrom two decades of atmospheric inversion. *Nat. Climate Change*, **9**, 993–998, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0613-7.

Thornton, J. A., K. S. Virts, R. H. Holzworth, and T. P. Mitchell, 2017: Lightning enhancement over major oceanic shipping lanes. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **44**, 9102–9111, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074982.

Torralba, V., F. J. Doblas-Reyes, and N. Gonzalez-Revirievogol, 2017: Uncertainty in recent near-surface wind speed trends: A global reanalysis intercomparison. *Environ. Res. Lett.*, **12**, 114019, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa8a58.

Trepte, Q. Z., P. Minnis, C. R. Trepte, S. Sun-Mack, and R. Brown, 2010: Improved cloud detection in CERES Edition 3 algorithm and comparison with the CALIPSO Vertical Feature Mask. *13th Conf. on Atmospheric Radiation and Cloud Physics*, Portland, OR, Amer. Meteor. Soc., JP1.32, https://ams.confex.com/ams/13CldPhy13AtRad/webprogram/Paper171785.html.

UN Environment Programme, 2021: Global Methane Assessment: Benefits and Costs of Mitigating Methane Emissions. United Nations Environment Programme and Climate and Clean Air Coalition Rep., 172 pp., www.unep.org/resources/report/global-methane-assessment-benefits-and-costs-mitigating-methane-emissions.

van der A, R. J., M. A. F. Allaart, and H. J. Eskes, 2015: Extended and refined multi sensor reanalysis of total ozone for the period 1970–2012. *Atmos. Meas. Tech.*, **8**, 3021–3035., https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-3021-2015.

van der Schalie, R., and Coauthors, 2017: The merging of radiative transfer-based surface soil moisture data from SMOS and AMSR-E. *Remote Sens. Environ.*, **189**, 180–193, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.11.026.

—, and Coauthors, 2021: Soil moisture [in "State of the Climate in 2020"). *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **102** (8), S67–S68, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-21-0098.1.

van der Schrier, G., J. Barichivich, K. R. Briffa, and P. D. Jones, 2013: A scPDSI-based global dataset of dry and wet spells for 1901–2009. *J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.*, **118**, 4025–4048, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50355.

van der Werf, G. R., and Coauthors, 2017: Global fire emissions estimates during 1997–2016. *Earth Syst. Sci. Data*, **9**, 697–720, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-9-697-2017.

van Dijk, A. I. J. M., and Coauthors, 2015: Rainfall interception and the coupled surface water and energy balance. *Agric. For. Meteor.*, **214–215**, 402–415, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2015.09.006.

Virts, K. S., and S. J. Goodman, 2020: Prolific lightning and thunderstorm Initiation over the lake Victoria basin in East Africa. *Mon. Wea. Rev.*, **148**, 1971–1985, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-19-0260.1.
—, J. M. Wallace, M. L. Hutchins, and R. H. Holzworth, 2013: Highlights of a new ground-based, hourly global lightning climatology. *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **94**, 1381–1391, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00082.1.

Vivero, S., X. Bodin, D. Farías-Barahona, S. MacDonell, N. Schaffer, B. A. Robson, and C. Lambiel, 2021: Combination of aerial, satellite, and UAV photogrammetry for quantifying rock glacier kinematics in the Dry Andes of Chile (30°S) since the 1950s. *Front. Remote Sens.*, **2**, 784015, https://doi.org/10.3389/frsen.2021.784015.

Vreugdenhil, M., S. Hahn, T. Melzer, B. Bauer-Marschallinger, C. Reimer, W. Dorigo, and W. Wagner, 2017: Assessing vegetation dynamics over mainland Australia with Metop ASCAT. *IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens.*, **10**, 2240–2248, https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2016.2618838.

Wagner, W., and Coauthors, 2013: The ASCAT Soil Moisture Product: A review of its specifications, validation results, and emerging applications. *Meteor. Z.*, **22**, 5–33, https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2013/0399.

Wang, Q., Z. Li, J. Guo, C. Zhao, and M. Cribb, 2018: The climate impact of aerosols on the lightning flash rate: Is it detectable from long-term measurements? *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **18**, 12797–12816, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-12797-2018.

Wang, X., and Coauthors, 2021: High-resolution mapping of ice cover changes in over 33,000 lakes across the North Temperate Zone. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **48**, e2021GL095614, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095614.

Wargan, K., C. Orbe, S. Pawson, J. R. Ziemke, L. D. Oman, M. A. Olsen, L. Coy, and K. E. Knowland, 2018: Recent decline in extratropical lower stratospheric ozone attributed to circulation changes. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **45**, 5166–5176, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL077406.

Weatherhead, E. C., and Coauthors, 1998: Factors affecting the detection of trends: Statistical considerations and applications to environmental data. *J. Geophys. Res.*, **103**, 17 149–17 161, https://doi.org/10.1029/98JD00995.

Weber, M., S. Dikty, J. P. Burrows, H. Garny, M. Dameris, A. Kubin, J. Abalichin, and U. Langematz, 2011: The Brewer-Dobson circulation and total ozone from seasonal to decadal time scales. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **11**, 11 221–11 235, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-11221-2011.

Weber, M., and Coauthors, 2022: Global total ozone recovery trends attributed to ozone-depleting substance (ODS) changes derived from five merged ozone datasets. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **22**, 6843–6859, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-6843-2022.

Weir, B., and Coauthors, 2021: Regional impacts of COVID-19 on carbon dioxide detected worldwide from space. *Sci. Adv.*, **7**, eabf9415, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abf9415.

Wells, N., S. Goddard, and M. J. Hayes, 2004: A self-calibrating palmer drought severity index. *J. Climate*, **17**, 2335–2351, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<2335:ASPDSI>2.0.CO;2.

Wentz, F. J., 1997: A well calibrated ocean algorithm for Special Sensor Microwave/Imager. *J. Geophys. Res.*, **102**, 8703–8718, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JC01751.

—, 2015: A 17-year climate record of environmental parameters derived from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) microwave imager. *J. Climate*, **28**, 6882–6902, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0155.1.

—, L. Ricciardulli, K. Hilburn, and C. Mears, 2007: How much more rain will global warming bring? *Science*, **317**, 233–235, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1140746.

WGMS, 2021: Global Glacier Change Bulletin No. 4 (2018-2019). M. Zemp et al., Eds., ISC(WDS)/IUGG(IACS)/UNEP/UNESCO/WMO, World Glacier Monitoring Service, 278 pp., https://wgms.ch/downloads/WGMS_GGCB_04.pdf.

Wielicki, B. A., B. R. Barkstrom, E. F. Harrison, R. B. Lee III, G. L. Smith, and J. E. Cooper, 1996: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES): An Earth observing system experiment. *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **77**, 853–868, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<0853:CATERE>2.0.CO;2.

—, and Coauthors, 1998: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES): Algorithm overview. *IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens.*, **36**, 1127–1141, https://doi.org/10.1109/36.701020.

Wiese, D. N., F. W. Landerer, and M. M. Watkins, 2016: Quantifying and reducing leakage errors in the JPL RLO5M GRACE mascon solution. *Water Resour. Res.*, **52**, 7490–7502, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR019344.

Wild, B., I. Teubner, L. Moesinger, R. Zotta, M. Forkel, R. van der Schalie, S. Sitch, and W. Dorigo, 2022: VODCA2GPP – A new global, long-term (1988–2020) gross primary production dataset from microwave remote sensing. *Earth Syst. Sci. Data*, **14**, 1063–1085, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1063-2022.

Willett, K. M., C. N. Williams Jr., R. J. H. Dunn, P. W. Thorne, S. Bell, M. de Podesta, P. D. Jones, and D. E. Parker, 2013: HadISDH: An updated land surface specific humidity product for climate monitoring. *Climate Past*, **9**, 657–677, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-657-2013.

—, R. J. H. Dunn, P. W. Thorne, S. Bell, M. de Podesta, D. E. Parker, P. D. Jones, and C. N. Williams Jr., 2014: HadISDH land surface multi-variable humidity and temperature record for climate monitoring. *Climate Past*, **10**, 1983–2006, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-10-1983-2014.

—, —, J. Kennedy, and D. Berry, 2020: Development of the HadISDH marine humidity climate monitoring dataset. *Earth Syst. Sci. Data*, **12**, 2853–2880, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2853-2020.

Williams, E. R., 1992: The Schumann resonance: A global tropical thermometer, *Science*, **256**, 1184–1187, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.256.5060.1184.

—, 1994: Global circuit response to seasonal variations in global surface air temperature. *Mon. Wea. Rev.*, **122**, 1917–1929, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122%3C1917:GCRTSV%3E2.0.CO;2.

—, 2009: The global electrical circuit: A review. *Atmos. Res.*, **91**, 140–152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.05.018.

—, 2020: Lightning and climate change. Fundamentals and Modelling, Vol. 1, *Lightning Interaction with Power Systems*, A. Piantini, Ed., CRC Press, 1–46, https://doi.org/10.1049/PBPO172F_ch1.

—, and S. Stanfield, 2002: The physical origin of the land-ocean contrast in lightning activity. *C. R. Phys.*, **3**, 1277–1292, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1631-0705(02)01407-X.

—, and Coauthors, 2002: Contrasting convective regimes over the Amazon: Implications for cloud electrification. *J. Geophys. Res.*, **107**, 8082, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD000380.

—, A. Guha, R. Boldi, H. Christian, and D. Buechler, 2019: Global lightning activity and the hiatus in global warming. *J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys.*, **189**, 27–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2019.03.011.

—, and Coauthors, 2021: Evolution of global lightning in the transition from cold to warm phase preceding two super El Niño events. *J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.*, **126**, e2020JD033526, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD033526.

WMO, 2018: Scientific assessment of ozone depletion, 2018. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project Rep. 58, 588 pp., https://csl.noaa.gov/assessments/ozone/2018.

—, 2019a: Lightning for climate. GCOS-227, 56 pp., https://library.wmo.int/doc_num.php?explnum_id=6262.

—, 2019b: Vision for the WMO Integrated Global Observing System in 2040. WMO-1243, 38 pp., https://library.wmo.int/doc_num.php?explnum_id=10278.

—, 2021a: GAW data: Volume IV-Greenhouse and related gases. WMO WDCGG Data Summary, WDCGG 45, 97 pp. https://gaw.kishou.go.jp/static/publications/summary/sum45/sum45.pdf.

—, 2021b: Provisional report on the state of the global climate 2021. Provisional Rep., 47 pp., accessed 9 February 2022, https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/WMO%20Provisional%20Report%20on%20the%20State%20of%20the%20Global%20Climate%202021.pdf.

—, 2022: State of the Global Climate 2021. WMO-1290, 54 pp., https://library.wmo.int/doc_num.php?explnum_id=11178.

Wohland, J., N.-E. Omrani, D. Witthaut, and N.-S. Keenlyside, 2019: Inconsistent wind speed trends in current twentieth century reanalyses. *J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.*, **124**, 1931–1940, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD030083.
Wood, K. M., P. J. Klotzbach, J. M. Collins, L.-P. Caron, R. E. Truchelut, and C. J. Schreck, 2020: Factors affecting the 2019 Atlantic hurricane season and the role of the Indian Ocean Dipole. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **47**, e2020GL087781, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL087781.

Woolway, R. I., and C. J. Merchant, 2018: Intralake heterogeneity of thermal responses to climate change: A study of large Northern Hemisphere lakes. *J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.*, **123**, 3087–3098, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027661.

—, and Coauthors, 2017: Lake surface temperature [in "State of the Climate in 2016"). *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **98** (8), S13–S14, https://doi.org/10.1175/2017BAMSStateoftheClimate.1.

—, and Coauthors, 2018: Lake surface temperature [in "State of the Climate in 2017"). *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **99** (8), S13–S15, https://doi.org/10.1175/2018BAMSStateoftheClimate.1.

Worden, H. M., and Coauthors, 2013: Decadal record of satellite carbon monoxide observations. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **13**, 837–850, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-837-2013.

Yamazaki, D., S. Kanae, H. Kim, and T. Oki, 2011: A physically based description of floodplain inundation dynamics in a global river routing model. *Water Resour. Res.*, **47**, W04501, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009726.

Yeh, S.-W., and Coauthors, 2018: ENSO atmospheric teleconnections and their response to greenhouse gas forcing. *Rev. Geophys.*, **56**, 185–206, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017RG000568

Yin, Y., F. Chevallier, P. Ciais, G. Broquet, A. Fortems-Cheiney, I. Pison, and M. Sauvois, 2015: Decadal trends in global CO emissions as seen by MOPITT. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **15**, 13433–13451, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-13433-2015.

Yosef, Y., E. Aguilar, and P. Alpert, 2021: Is it possible to fit extreme climate change indices together seamlessly in the era of accelerated warming? *Int. J. Climatol.*, **41** (S1), E952–E963, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.6740.

Young, I., and A. Ribal, 2019: Multiplatform evaluation of global trends in wind speed and wave height. *Science*, **364**, 548–552, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav9527.

Yu, B., X. Zhang, G. Li, and W. Yu, 2022: Interhemispheric asymmetry of climate change projections of boreal winter surface winds in CanESM5 large ensemble simulations. *Climatic Change*, **170**, 23, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-022-03313-2.

Yu, P., and Coauthors, 2021: Persistent stratospheric warming due to 2019–2020 Australian wildfire smoke. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **48**, e2021GL092609, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL092609.

Yulaeva, E., and J. M. Wallace, 1994: The signature of ENSO in global temperature and precipitation fields derived from the microwave sounding unit. *J. Climate*, **7**, 1719–1736, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<1719:TSOEIG>2.0.CO;2.

Zeng, Z., and Coauthors, 2019: A reversal in global terrestrial stilling and its implications for wind energy production. *Nat. Climate Change*, **9**, 979–985, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0622-6.

Zha, J., and Coauthors, 2021: Projected changes in global terrestrial near-surface wind speed in 1.5° C–4.0° C global warming levels. *Environ. Res. Lett.*, **16**, 114016, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac2fdd.

Zhang, G., and Coauthors, 2021: Uneven warming likely contributed to declining near-surface wind speeds in northern China between 1961 and 2016. *J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.*, **126**, e2020JD033637, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD033637.

Zhang, H.-M., and Coauthors, 2019: Updated temperature data give a sharper view of climate trends. *Eos*, **100**, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019EO128229.

Zhang, X., L. Alexander, G. C. Hegerl, P. Jones, A. Klein Tank, T. C. Peterson, B. Trewin, and F. W. Zwiers, 2011: Indices for monitoring changes in extremes based on daily temperature and precipitation data. *Wiley Interdiscip. Rev.: Climate Change*, **2**, 851–870, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.147.

Zhang, Y., J. M. Wallace, and D. S. Battisti, 1997: ENSO-like interdecadal variability: 1900-93. *J. Climate*, **10**, 1004–1020, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1997)010<1004:ELIV>2.0.CO;2.

Zhang, Y.-Q., and Coauthors, 2016: Multi-decadal trends in global terrestrial evapotranspiration and its components. *Sci. Rep.*, **5**, 19124, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep19124.

Zhang, Y., O. R. Cooper, A. Gaudel, A. M. Thompson, P. Nédélec, S.-Y. Ogino, and J. J. West, 2016: Tropospheric ozone change from 1980 to 2010 dominated by equatorward redistribution of emissions. *Nat. Geosci.*, **9**, 875–879, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2827.

—, and Coauthors, 2021: Contributions of world regions to the global tropospheric ozone burden change from 1980 to 2010. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **48**, e2020GL089184, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089184.

Zhao, L., and Coauthors, 2020: Changing climate and the permafrost environment on the Qinghai–Tibet (Xizang) Plateau. *Permafrost Periglacial Processes*, **31**, 396–405, https://doi.org/10.1002/pppp.2056.

—, and Coauthors, 2021: A synthesis dataset of permafrost thermal state for the Qinghai–Tibet (Xizang) Plateau, China. *Earth Syst. Sci. Data*, **13**, 4207–4218, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4207-2021.

Zhou, L., and Coauthors, 2021: A continuous decline of global seasonal wind speed range over land since 1980. *J. Climate*, **34**, 9443–9461, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-21-0112.1.

Ziemke, J. R., and Coauthors, 2019: Trends in global tropospheric ozone inferred from a composite record of TOMS/OMI/MLS/OMPS satellite measurements and the MERRA-2 GMI simulation. *Atmos. Chem. Phys.*, **19**, 3257–3269, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-3257-2019.

Zipser, E. J., D. J. Cecil, C. Liu, S. W. Nesbitt, and D. P. Yorty, 2006: Where are the most intense thunderstorms on Earth? *Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.*, **87**, 1057–1072, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-87-8-1057.

Zou, C.-Z., and W. Wang, 2011: Intersatellite calibration of AMSU-A observations for weather and climate applications. *J. Geophys. Res.*, **116**, D23113, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016205.

—, H. Xu, X. Hao, and Q. Fu, 2021: Post-millennium atmospheric temperature trends observed from satellites in stable orbits. *Geophys. Res. Lett.*, **48**, e2021GL093291, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL093291.