a statistical predictor of the $R_{21}$ ratio that should be generally useful (Equation (7), Section 3.5, Figure 11).

6. The ratio of CO-to-mid-IR emission depends on the integrated properties of a galaxy (Section 3.4, Figures 9 and 10, Table 3). $I_{CO}/I_{MIR}$ weakly correlates with stellar mass ($M_*$) and anticorrelates with specific star formation rate (SFR/$M_*$). The stellar mass trend agrees with results showing higher SFR-per-CO in low-mass galaxies, and has the sense expected if more mid-IR emission emerges from atomic or CO-dark molecular gas in low-mass, low-metallicity galaxies. The specific SFR trend is consistent with recent results that link starburst and quenching to the rate of star formation per unit molecular gas (rather than only the gas supply).

7. We compare the first mid-IR mapping results from PHANGS–JWST to CO (2–1) mapping from PHANGS–ALMA to make an initial placement of JWST data into these relations (Table 4, Figures 12 and 13). As a sample, the PHANGS–JWST targets do a reasonable job of reflecting the larger population of previously mapped galaxies (Figure 12). Bearing in mind that our initial JWST data cover only four galaxies and spans a limited range of intensities, we show good agreement between the slopes relating CO (2–1) to F770W, F1000W, or F1130W in the first four PHANGS–JWST galaxies and that relating CO (2–1) to 8 µm in our larger data set (Table 4). Similarly, the CO (2–1) to F2100W relationship seen combining PHANGS–ALMA with JWST resembles the CO (2–1) to 24 µm relationship seen for the larger sample. The slope relating CO (2–1) to the PAH-tracing bands (F770W, F1130W, and likely F1000W) is ~1.2–1.4, implying more mid-IR relative to CO at low intensities. This offers some support for the idea that the mid-IR emission, especially the PAH emission, emerges from a mixture of phases that include non-CO-emitting gas, and that mid-IR JWST observations have potential applications to trace multiple phases of the ISM.

Finally, we remark that given the heterogeneity of our data and the breadth of targets studied, the overall strength of the correlation between mid-IR and CO emission is notable. Though not perfectly linear, the correlation appears to be among the strongest in extragalactic astronomy. This likely reflects that both mid-IR and CO emission act partially as gas tracers and partially as SFR tracers to a greater extent than generally appreciated. Our goal is that this study helps frame the detailed exploration of mid-IR emission from galaxies enabled by the revolutionary sensitivity and resolution of the JWST and the powerful synergy of JWST and ALMA.

We thank the anonymous referee for a timely and constructive report that improved the Letter.

This work builds on the hard work of a number of scientific teams and we gratefully acknowledge all of the teams with data sets cited in Sections 1 and 2 for making their data and products public. The work was specifically carried out in the context of the PHANGS and EDGE collaborations.

A.K.L. gratefully acknowledges support by grant Nos. 1653300 and 2205628 from the National Science Foundation, by award JWST-GO-02107.009-A, and by a Humboldt Research Award from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. A.D.B. acknowledges support by NSF-AST2108140 and

award JWST-GO-02107.008-A. K.S. acknowledges support by JWST-GO-02107.006-A and National Science Foundation grant No. 2108081. E.R. acknowledges the support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), funding reference number RGPIN-2022-03499. J.M. D.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement No. 714907). COOL Research DAO is a Decentralized Autonomous Organization supporting research in astrophysics aimed at uncovering our cosmic origins. M.C. gratefully acknowledges funding from the DFG through an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant No. CH2137/1-1). J.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) through the DFG Sachbeihilfe (grant No. KR4801/2-1). E.J.W. acknowledges the funding provided by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation)—Project-ID 138713538—SFB 881 (“The Milky Way System,” subproject P1). F.B. would like to acknowledge funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 726384/Empire). M. B. acknowledges support from FONDECYT regular grant No. 1211000 and by the ANID BASAL project FB210003. R.S.K. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council via the ERC Synergy Grant “ECOGAL” (project ID 855130), from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via the Collaborative Research Center “The Milky Way System” (SFB 881—funding ID 138713538—subprojects A1, B1, B2, and B8) and from the Heidelberg Cluster of Excellence (EXC 2181-390900948) “STRUCTURES,” funded by the German Excellence Strategy. R.S.K. also thanks the German Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action for funding project “MAINN” (funding ID 50002206). K.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant No. KR4598/2-1; PI: Kreckel). D.C. acknowledges support by the German *Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft*, DFG project number SFB956A. J. C. acknowledges support from ERC starting grant #851622 DustOrigin. R.C.L. acknowledges support provided by a NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship under award AST-2102625. E.W.K. acknowledges support from the Smithsonian Institution as a Submillimeter Array (SMA) Fellow and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). M.Q. acknowledges support from the Spanish grant PID2019-106027GA-C44, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033. J.S. acknowledges support from NSERC through a Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics (CITA) National Fellowship. The research of CDW is supported by grants from NSERC and the Canada Research Chairs program. M.R. wishes to acknowledge support from ANID(CHILE) through FONDECYT grant No. 1190684 and partial support from ANID Basal FB210003. E.S. and T.G.W. acknowledge funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 694343). J.Pe. acknowledges support by the DAOISM grant ANR-21-CE31-0010 and by the Programme National “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP, co-funded by CEA and CNES.
a statistical predictor of the $R_{21}$ ratio that should be generally useful (Equation (7), Section 3.5, Figure 11).

6. The ratio of CO-to-mid-IR emission depends on the integrated properties of a galaxy (Section 3.4, Figures 9 and 10, Table 3). $I_{CO}/I_{MIR}$ weakly correlates with stellar mass ($M_*$) and anticorrelates with specific star formation rate (SFR/$M_*$). The stellar mass trend agrees with results showing higher SFR-per-CO in low-mass galaxies, and has the sense expected if more mid-IR emission emerges from atomic or CO-dark molecular gas in low-mass, low-metallicity galaxies. The specific SFR trend is consistent with recent results that link starburst and quenching to the rate of star formation per unit molecular gas (rather than only the gas supply).

7. We compare the first mid-IR mapping results from PHANGS–JWST to CO (2–1) mapping from PHANGS–ALMA to make an initial placement of JWST data into these relations (Table 4, Figures 12 and 13). As a sample, the PHANGS–JWST targets do a reasonable job of reflecting the larger population of previously mapped galaxies (Figure 12). Bearing in mind that our initial JWST data cover only four galaxies and spans a limited range of intensities, we show good agreement between the slopes relating CO (2–1) to F770W, F1000W, or F1130W in the first four PHANGS–JWST galaxies and that relating CO (2–1) to 8 µm in our larger data set (Table 4). Similarly, the CO (2–1) to F2100W relationship seen combining PHANGS–ALMA with JWST resembles the CO (2–1) to 24 µm relationship seen for the larger sample. The slope relating CO (2–1) to the PAH-tracing bands (F770W, F1130W, and likely F1000W) is ~1.2–1.4, implying more mid-IR relative to CO at low intensities. This offers some support for the idea that the mid-IR emission, especially the PAH emission, emerges from a mixture of phases that include non-CO-emitting gas, and that mid-IR JWST observations have potential applications to trace multiple phases of the ISM.

Finally, we remark that given the heterogeneity of our data and the breadth of targets studied, the overall strength of the correlation between mid-IR and CO emission is notable. Though not perfectly linear, the correlation appears to be among the strongest in extragalactic astronomy. This likely reflects that both mid-IR and CO emission act partially as gas tracers and partially as SFR tracers to a greater extent than generally appreciated. Our goal is that this study helps frame the detailed exploration of mid-IR emission from galaxies enabled by the revolutionary sensitivity and resolution of the JWST and the powerful synergy of JWST and ALMA.

We thank the anonymous referee for a timely and constructive report that improved the Letter.

This work builds on the hard work of a number of scientific teams and we gratefully acknowledge all of the teams with data sets cited in Sections 1 and 2 for making their data and products public. The work was specifically carried out in the context of the PHANGS and EDGE collaborations.

A.K.L. gratefully acknowledges support by grant Nos. 1653300 and 2205628 from the National Science Foundation, by award JWST-GO-02107.009-A, and by a Humboldt Research Award from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. A.D.B. acknowledges support by NSF-AST2108140 and

award JWST-GO-02107.008-A. K.S. acknowledges support by JWST-GO-02107.006-A and National Science Foundation grant No. 2108081. E.R. acknowledges the support of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), funding reference number RGPIN-2022-03499. J.M. D.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement No. 714907). COOL Research DAO is a Decentralized Autonomous Organization supporting research in astrophysics aimed at uncovering our cosmic origins. M.C. gratefully acknowledges funding from the DFG through an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant No. CH2137/1-1). J.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) through the DFG Sachbeihilfe (grant No. KR4801/2-1). E.J.W. acknowledges the funding provided by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation)—Project-ID 138713538—SFB 881 (“The Milky Way System,” subproject P1). F.B. would like to acknowledge funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 726384/Empire). M. B. acknowledges support from FONDECYT regular grant No. 1211000 and by the ANID BASAL project FB210003. R.S.K. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council via the ERC Synergy Grant “ECOGAL” (project ID 855130), from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) via the Collaborative Research Center “The Milky Way System” (SFB 881—funding ID 138713538—subprojects A1, B1, B2, and B8) and from the Heidelberg Cluster of Excellence (EXC 2181-390900948) “STRUCTURES,” funded by the German Excellence Strategy. R.S.K. also thanks the German Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action for funding project “MAINN” (funding ID 50002206). K.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant No. KR4598/2-1; PI: Kreckel). D.C. acknowledges support by the German *Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft*, DFG project number SFB956A. J. C. acknowledges support from ERC starting grant #851622 DustOrigin. R.C.L. acknowledges support provided by a NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship under award AST-2102625. E.W.K. acknowledges support from the Smithsonian Institution as a Submillimeter Array (SMA) Fellow and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). M.Q. acknowledges support from the Spanish grant PID2019-106027GA-C44, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033. J.S. acknowledges support from NSERC through a Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics (CITA) National Fellowship. The research of CDW is supported by grants from NSERC and the Canada Research Chairs program. M.R. wishes to acknowledge support from ANID(CHILE) through FONDECYT grant No. 1190684 and partial support from ANID Basal FB210003. E.S. and T.G.W. acknowledge funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No. 694343). J.Pe. acknowledges support by the DAOISM grant ANR-21-CE31-0010 and by the Programme National “Physique et Chimie du Milieu Interstellaire” (PCMI) of CNRS/INSU with INC/INP, co-funded by CEA and CNES.
This work uses the $z=0$ Multiwavelength Galaxy Synthesis, DOI:10.26131/IRSA6 (Sandstrom 2019).

This work is based in part on observations made with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope. The data were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-03127 for JWST. These observations are associated with program 2017. The specific observations analyzed can be accessed via 10.17909/9bdf-jn24.

This Letter makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2012.1.00650.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00803.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.01161.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00121.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00782.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00925.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00956.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2016.1.00386.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.00392.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.00766.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.00886.L, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2018.1.01321.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2018.1.01651.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2018.A.00062.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2019.1.01235.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2019.1.00763.L, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2019.2.00129.S, ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

**Facilities:** ALMA, APEX, IRAM:30 m, FCRAO, CARMA, ARO:12 m, ARO:SMT, No:45 m, BIMA, WISE, Spitzer (IRAC, MIPS), JWST (MIRI).

**Software:** astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013, 2018, 2022).

## ORCID iDs

Adam K. Leroy https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2545-1700

Alberto D. Bolatto https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5480-5686

Karin Sandstrom https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4378-8534

Erik Rosolowsky https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5204-2259

Ashley. T. Barnes https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0410-4504

F. Bigiel https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0166-9745

Médéric Boquien https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0946-6176

Jakob S. den Brok https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8760-6157

Yixian Cao https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5301-1326

Jérémy Chastenet https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5235-5589

Mélanie Chevance https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5635-5180

I-Da Chiang (江宜達) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2551-7148

Ryan Chown https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8241-7704

Dario Colombo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6498-2945

Sara L. Ellison https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1768-1899

Eric Emsellem https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6155-7166

Kathryn Grasha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3247-5321

Jonathan D. Henshaw https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9656-7682

Annie Hughes https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9181-1161

Ralf S. Klessen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0560-3172

Eric W. Koch https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9605-780X

Jaeyeon Kim https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0432-6847

Kathryn Kreckel https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6551-3091

J. M. Diederik Kruijssen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8804-0212

Kirsten L. Larson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3917-6460

Janice C. Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2278-9407

Rebecca C. Levy https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2508-2586

Lihwai Lin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7218-7407

Daizhong Liu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9773-7479

Sharon E. Meidt https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6118-4048

Jérôme Pety https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3061-6546

Miguel Querejeta https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0472-1011

Toshiki Saito https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9016-2641

Samir Salim https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2342-7501

Eva Schinnerer https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3933-7677

Mattia C. Sormani https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6113-6241

Jiayi Sun https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0378-4667

David A. Thilker https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8528-7340

Antonio Usero https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1242-505X

Stuart N. Vogel https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8765-7915

Elizabeth J. Watkins https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7365-5791

Cory M. Whitcomb https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-4452

Thomas G. Williams https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0012-1242

Christine D. Wilson https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5817-0991

## References

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This work uses the $z=0$ Multiwavelength Galaxy Synthesis, DOI:10.26131/IRSA6 (Sandstrom 2019).

This work is based in part on observations made with the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope. The data were obtained from the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-03127 for JWST. These observations are associated with program 2017. The specific observations analyzed can be accessed via 10.17909/9bdf-jn24.

This Letter makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2012.1.00650.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.00803.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2013.1.01161.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00121.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00782.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00925.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2015.1.00956.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2016.1.00386.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.00392.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.00766.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2017.1.00886.L, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2018.1.01321.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2018.1.01651.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2018.A.00062.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2019.1.01235.S, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2019.1.00763.L, ADS/JAO.ALMA#2019.2.00129.S, ALMA is a partnership of ESO (representing its member states), NSF (USA), and NINS (Japan), together with NRC (Canada), NSC and ASIAA (Taiwan), and KASI (Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, AUI/NRAO, and NAOJ. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

**Facilities:** ALMA, APEX, IRAM:30 m, FCRAO, CARMA, ARO:12 m, ARO:SMT, No:45 m, BIMA, WISE, Spitzer (IRAC, MIPS), JWST (MIRI).

**Software:** astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013, 2018, 2022).

## ORCID iDs

Adam K. Leroy https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2545-1700

Alberto D. Bolatto https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5480-5686

Karin Sandstrom https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4378-8534

Erik Rosolowsky https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5204-2259

Ashley. T. Barnes https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0410-4504

F. Bigiel https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0166-9745

Médéric Boquien https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0946-6176

Jakob S. den Brok https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8760-6157

Yixian Cao https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5301-1326

Jérémy Chastenet https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5235-5589

Mélanie Chevance https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5635-5180

I-Da Chiang (江宜達) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2551-7148

Ryan Chown https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8241-7704

Dario Colombo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6498-2945

Sara L. Ellison https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1768-1899

Eric Emsellem https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6155-7166

Kathryn Grasha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3247-5321

Jonathan D. Henshaw https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9656-7682

Annie Hughes https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9181-1161

Ralf S. Klessen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0560-3172

Eric W. Koch https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9605-780X

Jaeyeon Kim https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0432-6847

Kathryn Kreckel https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6551-3091

J. M. Diederik Kruijssen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8804-0212

Kirsten L. Larson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3917-6460

Janice C. Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2278-9407

Rebecca C. Levy https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2508-2586

Lihwai Lin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7218-7407

Daizhong Liu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9773-7479

Sharon E. Meidt https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6118-4048

Jérôme Pety https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3061-6546

Miguel Querejeta https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0472-1011

Toshiki Saito https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9016-2641

Samir Salim https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2342-7501

Eva Schinnerer https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3933-7677

Mattia C. Sormani https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6113-6241

Jiayi Sun https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0378-4667

David A. Thilker https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8528-7340

Antonio Usero https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1242-505X

Stuart N. Vogel https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8765-7915

Elizabeth J. Watkins https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7365-5791

Cory M. Whitcomb https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-4452

Thomas G. Williams https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0012-1242

Christine D. Wilson https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5817-0991

## References

Alatalo, K., Davis, T. A., Bureau, M., et al. 2013, MNRAS, 432, 1796

Aniano, G., Draine, B. T., Gordon, K. D., & Sandstrom, K. 2011, PASP, 123, 1218

Astropy Collaboration, Price-Whelan, A. M., Lim, P. L., et al. 2022, ApJ, 935, 167

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