# Remote sensing for environmental monitoring and remediation of areas degraded by mining activities in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Call for action

Innocent Mufungizi

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Innocent Mufungizi. Remote sensing for environmental monitoring and remediation of areas degraded by mining activities in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Call for action. 2024. hal-04579073

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# Remote sensing for environmental monitoring and remediation of areas degraded by mining activities in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Call for action

Innocent MUFUNGIZI

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technologies, University of Kinshasa, Kinshasa, B.P. 190 Kinshasa XI, DR Congo

Pedology and Geochemistry Laboratory, University of Kinshasa, B.P. 190 Kinshasa XI, DR Congo

LeGeolog Research Team, Kinshasa, DR Congo

Geographical Institute of Congo, Kinshasa, DR Congo

**Corresponding author:** innocent.mufungizi.unikin.ac.cd

## KEYWORDS

Environmental degradation, Mining, Biodiversity, Pollution, Remediation engineering.

## ABSTRACT

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) is a country with strong potential in mineral raw materials; therefore, it is qualified as a “Geological Scandal.” It is the world's leading producer of cobalt, and in 2022 it will be among the five major copper producers in the world. Although the mining sector plays a major role in economic growth, the country does not fully benefit from these resources due to the uncontrolled exploitation of raw materials, fraud, mining smuggling, and the lack of means for local processing of minerals. natural resources. DR Congo was classified by the World Bank as one of the five poorest countries in the world in 2022, despite the potential it presents. Given the great importance of critical minerals in the energy transition, the demand for raw materials is increasingly high. The DR Congo receives more requests for mining titles for the exploitation of resources. Unfortunately, these resources are non-renewable, and their exploitation destroys the environment. New technologies based on spatial analysis and remote sensing applied in the mining sector are capable of monitoring operating activities to combat the anarchic exploitation of resources and also control the waste evacuated by mining companies during the mining phases of exploration and especially during the hydrometallurgical treatment of ores. Areas damaged by these activities can be remediated using new remediation engineering techniques and tools. Remote sensing would also be involved in the acquisition of data that is difficult to access based on gaps in environmental reports. For the application of these techniques, the Ministry of Mines of DR Congo will have to act through its technical services and other services of the Ministry of Scientific Research and Technological Development, such as the national remote sensing center, the national geological service, and the geographical institute of Congo.
# Remote sensing for environmental monitoring and remediation of areas degraded by mining activities in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Call for action

Innocent MUFUNGIZI

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technologies, University of Kinshasa, Kinshasa, B.P. 190 Kinshasa XI, DR Congo

Pedology and Geochemistry Laboratory, University of Kinshasa, B.P. 190 Kinshasa XI, DR Congo

LeGeolog Research Team, Kinshasa, DR Congo

Geographical Institute of Congo, Kinshasa, DR Congo

**Corresponding author:** innocent.mufungizi.unikin.ac.cd

## KEYWORDS

Environmental degradation, Mining, Biodiversity, Pollution, Remediation engineering.

## ABSTRACT

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) is a country with strong potential in mineral raw materials; therefore, it is qualified as a “Geological Scandal.” It is the world's leading producer of cobalt, and in 2022 it will be among the five major copper producers in the world. Although the mining sector plays a major role in economic growth, the country does not fully benefit from these resources due to the uncontrolled exploitation of raw materials, fraud, mining smuggling, and the lack of means for local processing of minerals. natural resources. DR Congo was classified by the World Bank as one of the five poorest countries in the world in 2022, despite the potential it presents. Given the great importance of critical minerals in the energy transition, the demand for raw materials is increasingly high. The DR Congo receives more requests for mining titles for the exploitation of resources. Unfortunately, these resources are non-renewable, and their exploitation destroys the environment. New technologies based on spatial analysis and remote sensing applied in the mining sector are capable of monitoring operating activities to combat the anarchic exploitation of resources and also control the waste evacuated by mining companies during the mining phases of exploration and especially during the hydrometallurgical treatment of ores. Areas damaged by these activities can be remediated using new remediation engineering techniques and tools. Remote sensing would also be involved in the acquisition of data that is difficult to access based on gaps in environmental reports. For the application of these techniques, the Ministry of Mines of DR Congo will have to act through its technical services and other services of the Ministry of Scientific Research and Technological Development, such as the national remote sensing center, the national geological service, and the geographical institute of Congo.
# 1. INTRODUCTION

The country known as the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) has been called a "Geological Scandal" and is thought to have untapped natural resources worth over $24 billion (Directorate General of the Treasury, 2019). More than 90% of the nation's exports are made up of copper, zinc, and cobalt (Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, 2022). With an increase from 35,500 to 144,936 tons between 2009 and 2022, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is by far the world's top producer of cobalt and retained its place in 2024 with a production of 140 thousand tons (Mines.cd, 2024). It was ranked in 2023 third globally in terms of copper output, with 2,200,000 tons produced in 2022 (Statista, 2023). The DR Congo is now the second-largest producer of copper in the world, behind Peru. Peru's Ministry of Mines and Energy reported 2.76 million tons of copper output in 2023, while the Democratic Republic of the Congo produced about 2.84 million tons, according to a Reuters article (Mines.cd, 2024).

The geological environment of the DR Congo is in higher demand than ever after a strong demand for raw materials owing to their significance in the energy transition. Investors utilize a variety of remote sensing-based techniques to pinpoint regions with mineral potential, including those for the aforementioned minerals as well as gold, diamonds, and other mineral deposits with substantial economic value. The extractive industries transparency initiative study states that the mining industry accounted for the majority of the DR Congo's economic growth in 2021, with the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declining by 1.7% when the mining industry was excluded. This indicates that the economy is less diversified. Due to the increased demand for mining raw materials, there is an alarming incidence of unchecked resource exploitation, unlawful exploitation, and fraud in the mining industry (Annan, 2000; Mazalto, 2008). The DR Congo claims that the Apple company uses minerals that are obtained from Congolese mines, where "many human rights are violated," in its goods. These minerals are "illegally exploited." Involved in the transportation sector are Tesla, Boeing, and Lockheed Martin, an air defense business (France 24, 2024; RFI, 2024). Because of this fraud, there is little oversight over the mining industry, which

prevents the Congolese economy from fully benefiting from its exploited resources.

This study aims to evaluate recent techniques based on spatial analysis and remote sensing in recent research work to propose sustainable solutions in order to mitigate and avoid the risks that these activities present to the environment, fight against uncontrolled exploitation of resources for sustainable exploitation of resources, and ensure the sustainable development of the DR Congo.

# 2. METHODS

The significance of the mining context in the DR Congo, as well as the abundance of published papers on the topic, drove the research question for this study. The inquiry of how remote sensing and spatial analysis may be valuable instruments for tracking mining operations and restoring places that have been harmed by them served as the impetus for this study. We used the scientific search engine Google Scholar using a few key terms (Environmental degradation, Mining, Biodiversity, Pollution, Remediation engineering) to find relevant literature in order to meet the study's goals. The found works were chosen based on their significance and connection to the research topic. Additionally, we gathered data on the DR Congo's geology on the United State Geological Survey (USGS) on the Science-base website. The scale of this global data is 1:5000,000, and they offer multiple extensions compared to the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) format (Persits and al., 1997), which was taken into consideration for this research. The DR Congo's geological map was created by processing the latter using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools. Lastly, we made use of information from the mining cadastre (CAMI), which offers the portfolios of mining titles for the same time period as well as the yearly reports from 2016 to 2022 presented in Table 1 (CAMI, 2016–2022).
# 1. INTRODUCTION

The country known as the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) has been called a "Geological Scandal" and is thought to have untapped natural resources worth over $24 billion (Directorate General of the Treasury, 2019). More than 90% of the nation's exports are made up of copper, zinc, and cobalt (Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, 2022). With an increase from 35,500 to 144,936 tons between 2009 and 2022, the Democratic Republic of the Congo is by far the world's top producer of cobalt and retained its place in 2024 with a production of 140 thousand tons (Mines.cd, 2024). It was ranked in 2023 third globally in terms of copper output, with 2,200,000 tons produced in 2022 (Statista, 2023). The DR Congo is now the second-largest producer of copper in the world, behind Peru. Peru's Ministry of Mines and Energy reported 2.76 million tons of copper output in 2023, while the Democratic Republic of the Congo produced about 2.84 million tons, according to a Reuters article (Mines.cd, 2024).

The geological environment of the DR Congo is in higher demand than ever after a strong demand for raw materials owing to their significance in the energy transition. Investors utilize a variety of remote sensing-based techniques to pinpoint regions with mineral potential, including those for the aforementioned minerals as well as gold, diamonds, and other mineral deposits with substantial economic value. The extractive industries transparency initiative study states that the mining industry accounted for the majority of the DR Congo's economic growth in 2021, with the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declining by 1.7% when the mining industry was excluded. This indicates that the economy is less diversified. Due to the increased demand for mining raw materials, there is an alarming incidence of unchecked resource exploitation, unlawful exploitation, and fraud in the mining industry (Annan, 2000; Mazalto, 2008). The DR Congo claims that the Apple company uses minerals that are obtained from Congolese mines, where "many human rights are violated," in its goods. These minerals are "illegally exploited." Involved in the transportation sector are Tesla, Boeing, and Lockheed Martin, an air defense business (France 24, 2024; RFI, 2024). Because of this fraud, there is little oversight over the mining industry, which

prevents the Congolese economy from fully benefiting from its exploited resources.

This study aims to evaluate recent techniques based on spatial analysis and remote sensing in recent research work to propose sustainable solutions in order to mitigate and avoid the risks that these activities present to the environment, fight against uncontrolled exploitation of resources for sustainable exploitation of resources, and ensure the sustainable development of the DR Congo.

# 2. METHODS

The significance of the mining context in the DR Congo, as well as the abundance of published papers on the topic, drove the research question for this study. The inquiry of how remote sensing and spatial analysis may be valuable instruments for tracking mining operations and restoring places that have been harmed by them served as the impetus for this study. We used the scientific search engine Google Scholar using a few key terms (Environmental degradation, Mining, Biodiversity, Pollution, Remediation engineering) to find relevant literature in order to meet the study's goals. The found works were chosen based on their significance and connection to the research topic. Additionally, we gathered data on the DR Congo's geology on the United State Geological Survey (USGS) on the Science-base website. The scale of this global data is 1:5000,000, and they offer multiple extensions compared to the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) format (Persits and al., 1997), which was taken into consideration for this research. The DR Congo's geological map was created by processing the latter using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools. Lastly, we made use of information from the mining cadastre (CAMI), which offers the portfolios of mining titles for the same time period as well as the yearly reports from 2016 to 2022 presented in Table 1 (CAMI, 2016–2022).
<table><caption>**Table 1.** Presentation of the data used</caption><thead><tr><td>Type</td><td>Description</td><td>Source</td><td>Reference</td><td>Link</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Geologic al data</td><td>Data containing geology, oil and gas fields and geological provinces of Africa</td><td>USGS</td><td>(Persits et al., 1997)</td><td>https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/60doff26d34e86b938aab404</td></tr><tr><td>Reports</td><td>Annual report from 2009 to 2022</td><td>CAMI</td><td>(CAMI, 2009-2022)</td><td>https://cami.cd/rapports/</td></tr><tr><td>Statistics</td><td>Mining and Quarry Rights Portfolio from 2018 to 2022</td><td>CAMI</td><td>(CAMI, 2018-2022)</td><td>https://cami.cd/statistiques/</td></tr><tr><td>Statistics</td><td>Register of Mining and Quarry Rights from 2018 to 2023</td><td>CAMI</td><td>(CAMI, 2018-2023)</td><td>https://cami.cd/statistiques/</td></tr><tr><td>Reports</td><td>Relaxed report ITIE-DRC 2018-2019 1st semester 2020 adopts</td><td>ITIE-RDC</td><td>(ITIE, 2020)</td><td>https://www.itierdc.net/publications/rapports-itie-rdc-2000/rapport-itie-rdc-2018-1er-sem-2020/</td></tr><tr><td>Reports</td><td>Report ITIE - RDC 2020-2021</td><td>ITIE-RDC</td><td>(ITIE, 2022)</td><td>https://www.itierdc.net/raports_itie/</td></tr><tr><td>Statistics</td><td>Main copper producing countries in the world from 2013 to 2022</td><td>USGS, Statista</td><td>(Statista, 2023; USGS, 2023)</td><td>https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2023<br>https://fr.statista.com/statistiques/565205/production-de-cuivre-dans-les-principaux-pays/</td></tr><tr><td>Statistics</td><td>Main cobalt producing countries in the world from 2013 to 2022</td><td>Statista</td><td>(Statista, 2023)</td><td>https://fr.statista.com/statistiques/565284/cobalt-production-miniere-part-pays-principaux/#:~:text=Cette%20statistique%20présente%20ala%20production,de%20144.00%20tonnes%20en%202022.</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3. MAIN TEXT

Copper, tin, alkaline and basic magmas, precious minerals, iron, manganese, and mineral fuels are among the various groupings that comprise the mineralization of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Figure 1). Copper, cobalt, uranium, zinc, lead, cadmium, and germanium are the elements that define deposits in the copper-cobaltiferous belt. The country's eastern tin reserves include beryl, monazite, wolframite, columbo-tantalite, and tin. Gold, platinum, and silver precambrian belt deposits can be found in the Archean craton as well as the Kibalian and Burundian orogenic cycles. (Lutandula et al., 2019; Somarin, 2019; Oyediran et al., 2020; Bampole et al., 2020; Bird, 2016; Mbo et al., 2023; Beukes et al., 2016) Manganese is present in a variety of mineral associations.

These mineral raw materials are critical minerals and play a very large role in the energy transition

(Sarah et al., 2018; Shuronjit et al., 2022). Copper is commonly used in renewable energy technology due to its conductivity. More than 31 million tons of copper were used in 2021, making over 70% of all the minerals needed for the energy transition that were consumed (IEA, 2023). Due to its growing application in low-carbon technologies, especially in lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for electric or hybrid vehicles, as well as wind turbine magnets, cobalt is becoming more and more visible (Slack et al., 2016). On land, there are reserves of 25 million tons of cobalt. The majority of these minerals are found in the "Copper Belt," a mining region that includes a sizable portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Katanga province. As of 2022, production in the region amounted to 120,000 tons out of a total of 170,000 tons worldwide (Figure 2B), with 3,500,000 tons on a world total reserve of 7,600,000 tons (Figure 2A) (USGS, 2022).
<table><caption>**Table 1.** Presentation of the data used</caption><thead><tr><td>Type</td><td>Description</td><td>Source</td><td>Reference</td><td>Link</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Geologic al data</td><td>Data containing geology, oil and gas fields and geological provinces of Africa</td><td>USGS</td><td>(Persits et al., 1997)</td><td>https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/60doff26d34e86b938aab404</td></tr><tr><td>Reports</td><td>Annual report from 2009 to 2022</td><td>CAMI</td><td>(CAMI, 2009-2022)</td><td>https://cami.cd/rapports/</td></tr><tr><td>Statistics</td><td>Mining and Quarry Rights Portfolio from 2018 to 2022</td><td>CAMI</td><td>(CAMI, 2018-2022)</td><td>https://cami.cd/statistiques/</td></tr><tr><td>Statistics</td><td>Register of Mining and Quarry Rights from 2018 to 2023</td><td>CAMI</td><td>(CAMI, 2018-2023)</td><td>https://cami.cd/statistiques/</td></tr><tr><td>Reports</td><td>Relaxed report ITIE-DRC 2018-2019 1st semester 2020 adopts</td><td>ITIE-RDC</td><td>(ITIE, 2020)</td><td>https://www.itierdc.net/publications/rapports-itie-rdc-2000/rapport-itie-rdc-2018-1er-sem-2020/</td></tr><tr><td>Reports</td><td>Report ITIE – RDC 2020-2021</td><td>ITIE-RDC</td><td>(ITIE, 2022)</td><td>https://www.itierdc.net/raports_itie/</td></tr><tr><td>Statistics</td><td>Main copper producing countries in the world from 2013 to 2022</td><td>USGS, Statista</td><td>(Statista, 2023; USGS, 2023)</td><td>https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2023<br>https://fr.statista.com/statistiques/565205/production-de-cuivre-dans-les-principaux-pays/</td></tr><tr><td>Statistics</td><td>Main cobalt producing countries in the world from 2013 to 2022</td><td>Statista</td><td>(Statista, 2023)</td><td>https://fr.statista.com/statistiques/565284/cobalt-production-miniere-part-pays-principaux/#:~:text=Cette%20statistique%20présente%20ala%20production,de%20144.00%20tonnes%20en%202022.</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3. MAIN TEXT

Copper, tin, alkaline and basic magmas, precious minerals, iron, manganese, and mineral fuels are among the various groupings that comprise the mineralization of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Figure 1). Copper, cobalt, uranium, zinc, lead, cadmium, and germanium are the elements that define deposits in the copper-cobaltiferous belt. The country's eastern tin reserves include beryl, monazite, wolframite, columbo-tantalite, and tin. Gold, platinum, and silver precambrian belt deposits can be found in the Archean craton as well as the Kibalian and Burundian orogenic cycles. (Lutandula et al., 2019; Somarin, 2019; Oyediran et al., 2020; Bampole et al., 2020; Bird, 2016; Mbo et al., 2023; Beukes et al., 2016) Manganese is present in a variety of mineral associations.

These mineral raw materials are critical minerals and play a very large role in the energy transition

(Sarah et al., 2018; Shuronjit et al., 2022). Copper is commonly used in renewable energy technology due to its conductivity. More than 31 million tons of copper were used in 2021, making over 70% of all the minerals needed for the energy transition that were consumed (IEA, 2023). Due to its growing application in low-carbon technologies, especially in lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for electric or hybrid vehicles, as well as wind turbine magnets, cobalt is becoming more and more visible (Slack et al., 2016). On land, there are reserves of 25 million tons of cobalt. The majority of these minerals are found in the "Copper Belt," a mining region that includes a sizable portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Katanga province. As of 2022, production in the region amounted to 120,000 tons out of a total of 170,000 tons worldwide (Figure 2B), with 3,500,000 tons on a world total reserve of 7,600,000 tons (Figure 2A) (USGS, 2022).
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Geological map of the DR Congo with locations of areas of exploitation of mineral raw materials.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Global cobalt reserves in tons (A) and global cobalt production in 2021 in tons (B) (USGS, 2022).</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Geological map of the DR Congo with locations of areas of exploitation of mineral raw materials.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2:** Global cobalt reserves in tons (A) and global cobalt production in 2021 in tons (B) (USGS, 2022).</figcaption></figure>
This reserve is the basis of the strong demand for mining titles recorded by the Mining Cadastre (CAMI), a technical service of the Ministry of Mines of DR Congo. Mining titles are classified as follows: Research Permit (PR); Discharge Exploitation Permit (PER); Small Mine Exploitation Permit (PEPM); Exploitation Permit (PE); Careers in Public Utilities (CUP); Research

Authorizations for Quarry Products (ARPC); and Permanent Quarry Exploitation Authorizations (AECP). Research permits are the most requested in 2021, followed by operating permits (Figure 3) (CAMI, 2022).

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3:** 2D Pie Chart presenting the proportion of mining titles according to classifications (CAMI, 2022).</figcaption></figure>

Due to the high demand of critical minerals, there is a high demand for mining squares and operation permissions. The DR Congo's national territory was covered by mining titles on average 10.39% of the time between 2016 and 2022 (CAMI, 2016–2022). The Congolese government began by launching the mining project (PROMINES) in 2010 with the aim of creating a strong institutional framework to enhance the sector's management for the benefit of social and economic development in light of these findings, which support the idea that mineral resources are non-renewable (Desrousseaux, 1980; Venayen, 2017; Geenen and Custers, 2010, Kabulo et al., 2023). Following this, the FOMIN, or Mining Fund for Future Generations, was created (Prime Minister-DRC, 2019). Despite all of these efforts, the economic situation of the Democratic

Republic of the Congo remains unchanged. It is uncertain if the most recent remote sensing and spatial analytic technologies should be utilized to assure sustainable and controlled exploitation of natural resources, as none of these initiatives have yielded the expected results.

The technology industry's high demand for mineral raw materials leads to environmental problems such as deforestation and biodiversity loss during exploration and mining phases, soil and landscape degradation during massive deforestation that causes landslides, erosion, and soil subsidence, pollution of surface and groundwater during hydrometallurgical processing of ores with the release of heavy minerals, acid residues, and various chemicals into tributaries, and dust pollution from rock
This reserve is the basis of the strong demand for mining titles recorded by the Mining Cadastre (CAMI), a technical service of the Ministry of Mines of DR Congo. Mining titles are classified as follows: Research Permit (PR); Discharge Exploitation Permit (PER); Small Mine Exploitation Permit (PEPM); Exploitation Permit (PE); Careers in Public Utilities (CUP); Research

Authorizations for Quarry Products (ARPC); and Permanent Quarry Exploitation Authorizations (AECP). Research permits are the most requested in 2021, followed by operating permits (Figure 3) (CAMI, 2022).

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3:** 2D Pie Chart presenting the proportion of mining titles according to classifications (CAMI, 2022).</figcaption></figure>

Due to the high demand of critical minerals, there is a high demand for mining squares and operation permissions. The DR Congo's national territory was covered by mining titles on average 10.39% of the time between 2016 and 2022 (CAMI, 2016–2022). The Congolese government began by launching the mining project (PROMINES) in 2010 with the aim of creating a strong institutional framework to enhance the sector's management for the benefit of social and economic development in light of these findings, which support the idea that mineral resources are non-renewable (Desrousseaux, 1980; Venayen, 2017; Geenen and Custers, 2010, Kabulo et al., 2023). Following this, the FOMIN, or Mining Fund for Future Generations, was created (Prime Minister-DRC, 2019). Despite all of these efforts, the economic situation of the Democratic

Republic of the Congo remains unchanged. It is uncertain if the most recent remote sensing and spatial analytic technologies should be utilized to assure sustainable and controlled exploitation of natural resources, as none of these initiatives have yielded the expected results.

The technology industry's high demand for mineral raw materials leads to environmental problems such as deforestation and biodiversity loss during exploration and mining phases, soil and landscape degradation during massive deforestation that causes landslides, erosion, and soil subsidence, pollution of surface and groundwater during hydrometallurgical processing of ores with the release of heavy minerals, acid residues, and various chemicals into tributaries, and dust pollution from rock
fragmentation, movement, and machinery
circulation (Promines, 2014). The United Nations
Environment Program claimed that industrial
and artisanal mineral mining was causing
environmental deterioration that same year, with
a focus on heavy metals and other harmful
compounds that were contaminating streams and
landscapes (UNEP, 2014; Ruppen et al., 2023).
Due to accessibility issues in some places, the
majority of environmental reports which contain
information on solid discharges, air pollutants
from mining industries, and the volume and
quality of liquid effluents are incomplete.
However, by utilizing new geospatial
technologies based on remote sensing to manage
emergencies and disasters, remediate and repair
damaged land, and monitor and enforce
environmental regulations using monitoring
techniques (Chugg et al., 2021), these extremely
concerning issues can be lessened and
occasionally avoided (Abdalla and Li, 2010).

When fluids containing residual chemical
elements contaminate tributaries, the analysis of
multiple spectral characteristics can be used for
quantitative pH mapping in the mining
environment (Kopačková, 2014; Kopačková and
Hladíková, 2014). Through these publications,
the scientists provided the first demonstration of
a method for quantitatively modeling pH in a
mining environment using image spectroscopy.
The study's findings show that hyperspectral
remote sensing is a useful technique for
monitoring the environment that can be used by
the mining industry in the DR Congo. After that,
they presented a method for mapping the relative
abundances of water released from mining plants
using hyperspectral image data and linear
spectral unmixing (LSU), which was restricted to
a 5 m spatial resolution for HyMap data.
According to these studies, these methods could
be used to classify mine water into basic groups.
This is useful in the case of the DR Congo, where
mine drainage problems are evident in both
artisanal and industrial mines, causing acid mine
drainage (AMD) (Otamonga and Poté, 2020;
Kebede, 2017; Muedi et al., 2022; Maheshe and
Beak, 2018; Wei and Viadero, 2007; Larsson et
al., 2018).

Alternatively, studies on the horizontal and
vertical variability of soil properties in an area
contaminated by trace elements can be
conducted (Burgos et al., 2008; Kanso et al.,
2018; Huang et al., 2022). It is feasible to

anticipate soil contamination (Gao et al., 2022)
and quantitatively assess the impacts of mining
activities on vegetation by identifying the factors
of control using data gathered remotely, given
that certain operators do not make certain data
public (Sun et al., 2022).

Several studies have highlighted the priority that
should be given to the use of native vegetation on
mining sites. Indeed, its high biomass, rapid
growth, and ability to adapt to adverse
environmental conditions make it a better
indicator of restoration success (Zamora-
Ledezma et al., 2021; Mourinha et al., 2022;
Diarra et al., 2022; Radu et al., 2023). The
author, Bandyopadhyay (2022), showed the need
to use an innovative genomic approach to heavy
metal remediation practices to develop new
remediation concepts in mining areas with
enhanced application of marker detection. This
work highlighted important climatic factors
including soil clay content and plant age in arid
regions, rainfall and plant age in semi-arid
regions, normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI) and plant age in subhumid regions. The
majority of the DR Congo maintains a tropical
climate due to its proximity to the equator.
According to the Köppen Geiger climate
classification, the center portion of the Congo
Basin has a tropical rainforest climate (type Af)
(Peel et al., 2007). Along the margins of the
Congo Basin, the climate shifts to a tropical
monsoon climate. As a result, the DR Congo has
tropical weather in its north and south
(Whatstheweatherlike, 2023) and equatorial
weather in its center (Belgium.be, 2023). This
means that when managing water resources and
restoring ecosystems in areas damaged by mining
operations, the use of the methods and
technology discussed in this study can be done in
mining areas located in humid tropical climates.
Through significant advancements in
remediation engineering strategies based on bi-
based photocatalysts (Hassan et al., 2022),
remediation methods and techniques based on
sulfate radicals (Xie et al., 2023), and mapping of
natural habitats and their conservation (Corbane
et al., 2015), remote sensing can contribute to the
conservation of nature and the persistence of
biological diversity in the DR Congo.

4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

This work reviews the latest research with the aim
of identifying new spatial analysis and remote
fragmentation, movement, and machinery
circulation (Promines, 2014). The United Nations
Environment Program claimed that industrial
and artisanal mineral mining was causing
environmental deterioration that same year, with
a focus on heavy metals and other harmful
compounds that were contaminating streams and
landscapes (UNEP, 2014; Ruppen et al., 2023).
Due to accessibility issues in some places, the
majority of environmental reports which contain
information on solid discharges, air pollutants
from mining industries, and the volume and
quality of liquid effluents are incomplete.
However, by utilizing new geospatial
technologies based on remote sensing to manage
emergencies and disasters, remediate and repair
damaged land, and monitor and enforce
environmental regulations using monitoring
techniques (Chugg et al., 2021), these extremely
concerning issues can be lessened and
occasionally avoided (Abdalla and Li, 2010).

When fluids containing residual chemical
elements contaminate tributaries, the analysis of
multiple spectral characteristics can be used for
quantitative pH mapping in the mining
environment (Kopačková, 2014; Kopačková and
Hladíková, 2014). Through these publications,
the scientists provided the first demonstration of
a method for quantitatively modeling pH in a
mining environment using image spectroscopy.
The study's findings show that hyperspectral
remote sensing is a useful technique for
monitoring the environment that can be used by
the mining industry in the DR Congo. After that,
they presented a method for mapping the relative
abundances of water released from mining plants
using hyperspectral image data and linear
spectral unmixing (LSU), which was restricted to
a 5 m spatial resolution for HyMap data.
According to these studies, these methods could
be used to classify mine water into basic groups.
This is useful in the case of the DR Congo, where
mine drainage problems are evident in both
artisanal and industrial mines, causing acid mine
drainage (AMD) (Otamonga and Poté, 2020;
Kebede, 2017; Muedi et al., 2022; Maheshe and
Beak, 2018; Wei and Viadero, 2007; Larsson et
al., 2018).

Alternatively, studies on the horizontal and
vertical variability of soil properties in an area
contaminated by trace elements can be
conducted (Burgos et al., 2008; Kanso et al.,
2018; Huang et al., 2022). It is feasible to

anticipate soil contamination (Gao et al., 2022)
and quantitatively assess the impacts of mining
activities on vegetation by identifying the factors
of control using data gathered remotely, given
that certain operators do not make certain data
public (Sun et al., 2022).

Several studies have highlighted the priority that
should be given to the use of native vegetation on
mining sites. Indeed, its high biomass, rapid
growth, and ability to adapt to adverse
environmental conditions make it a better
indicator of restoration success (Zamora-
Ledezma et al., 2021; Mourinha et al., 2022;
Diarra et al., 2022; Radu et al., 2023). The
author, Bandyopadhyay (2022), showed the need
to use an innovative genomic approach to heavy
metal remediation practices to develop new
remediation concepts in mining areas with
enhanced application of marker detection. This
work highlighted important climatic factors
including soil clay content and plant age in arid
regions, rainfall and plant age in semi-arid
regions, normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI) and plant age in subhumid regions. The
majority of the DR Congo maintains a tropical
climate due to its proximity to the equator.
According to the Köppen Geiger climate
classification, the center portion of the Congo
Basin has a tropical rainforest climate (type Af)
(Peel et al., 2007). Along the margins of the
Congo Basin, the climate shifts to a tropical
monsoon climate. As a result, the DR Congo has
tropical weather in its north and south
(Whatstheweatherlike, 2023) and equatorial
weather in its center (Belgium.be, 2023). This
means that when managing water resources and
restoring ecosystems in areas damaged by mining
operations, the use of the methods and
technology discussed in this study can be done in
mining areas located in humid tropical climates.
Through significant advancements in
remediation engineering strategies based on bi-
based photocatalysts (Hassan et al., 2022),
remediation methods and techniques based on
sulfate radicals (Xie et al., 2023), and mapping of
natural habitats and their conservation (Corbane
et al., 2015), remote sensing can contribute to the
conservation of nature and the persistence of
biological diversity in the DR Congo.

4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

This work reviews the latest research with the aim
of identifying new spatial analysis and remote
sensing technologies to monitor mining activities by evaluating the contamination of soils, tributaries, water and air, but also highlighting the latest engineering technologies for remediation of areas degraded by mining activities. The demand for mining titles is strong in the DR Congo, a large proportion of which are research permits and operating permits. Given that these resources are non-renewable, the Ministry of Mines should encourage the application for mining titles in the exploitation permit class for the reasonable and sustainable exploitation of natural mineral resources to achieve sustainable development. The research encountered obstacles to the extent that gathering environmental data on pollution in the mining industry for integrated processing became challenging. Furthermore, it would be preferable to provide absolute values rather than rates and to make disclosures more meaningful by providing details about negative consequences in line with the open data principles, giving specifics on the mining site, and providing clarity regarding the parameters applied. In terms of the nation's economic context, future research can start with monitoring certain contaminants, the spatiotemporal variation of land cover, and external dynamics phenomena using databases like Google Engine, which are accessible to indigenous researchers. After that, the research can concentrate on remediation-based techniques. Impact analyses based on the Geographic Information System for the geographical distribution of air and water pollutants in the mining region can be performed in the specific scenario of air contamination. The National Remote Sensing Center is the structural pilot of remote sensing research in the DR Congo but it should involve not only the Ministry of the Environment, Agriculture, and Public Health but also the technical services of the Ministry of Scientific Research and the Ministry of Mines, such as the Geographical Institute of Congo (IGC), the national geological service, the mining cadastre (CAMI), the technical cell for coordination and mining planning (CTCPM), and other appropriate services for multidisciplinary studies to take into account these and other methods in recent research to monitor, regulate, and remedy these problems.

## Declarations

**Conflicts of Interests:** The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

**Funding:** The authors declare that they did not receive any financial support for this work.

**Acknowledgment:** Not applicable.

**Authors' contributions:** Innocent MUFUNGIZI: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data Curation, Writing-original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition

**Ethics approval:** Not applicable.

**Consent for publication:** Not applicable.

**Availability of data and materials:** Not applicable.

## REFERENCES

1. B. Chugg, B. Anderson, S. Eicher, S. Lee, D. E. Ho. (2021). Enhancing environmental enforcement with near real-time monitoring: Likelihood-based detection of structural expansion of intensive livestock farms. International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and Geoinformation 103 (2021) 102463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2021.102463

2. B. Gao, A. Stein, J. Wang. (2022). A two-point machine learning method for the spatial prediction of soil pollution. International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and Geoinformation 108 (2022) 102742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2022.102742

3. Bampole, D.L., Mulaba-Bafubiandi, AF. Mesophilic bioleaching performance of copper, cobalt and nickel with emphasis on complex orebodies of the Democratic Republic of Congo: a review of dynamic interactions between solids loading, microbiota activity and growth. Energ. Ecol. Environ. 5, 61-83 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-019-00142-5

4. Bandyopadhyay. Plant-assisted metal remediation in mine-degraded land: a scientometric review. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 8085-8112 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03396-x
sensing technologies to monitor mining activities by evaluating the contamination of soils, tributaries, water and air, but also highlighting the latest engineering technologies for remediation of areas degraded by mining activities. The demand for mining titles is strong in the DR Congo, a large proportion of which are research permits and operating permits. Given that these resources are non-renewable, the Ministry of Mines should encourage the application for mining titles in the exploitation permit class for the reasonable and sustainable exploitation of natural mineral resources to achieve sustainable development. The research encountered obstacles to the extent that gathering environmental data on pollution in the mining industry for integrated processing became challenging. Furthermore, it would be preferable to provide absolute values rather than rates and to make disclosures more meaningful by providing details about negative consequences in line with the open data principles, giving specifics on the mining site, and providing clarity regarding the parameters applied. In terms of the nation's economic context, future research can start with monitoring certain contaminants, the spatiotemporal variation of land cover, and external dynamics phenomena using databases like Google Engine, which are accessible to indigenous researchers. After that, the research can concentrate on remediation-based techniques. Impact analyses based on the Geographic Information System for the geographical distribution of air and water pollutants in the mining region can be performed in the specific scenario of air contamination. The National Remote Sensing Center is the structural pilot of remote sensing research in the DR Congo but it should involve not only the Ministry of the Environment, Agriculture, and Public Health but also the technical services of the Ministry of Scientific Research and the Ministry of Mines, such as the Geographical Institute of Congo (IGC), the national geological service, the mining cadastre (CAMI), the technical cell for coordination and mining planning (CTCPM), and other appropriate services for multidisciplinary studies to take into account these and other methods in recent research to monitor, regulate, and remedy these problems.

## Declarations

**Conflicts of Interests:** The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

**Funding:** The authors declare that they did not receive any financial support for this work.

**Acknowledgment:** Not applicable.

**Authors' contributions:** Innocent MUFUNGIZI: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data Curation, Writing-original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition

**Ethics approval:** Not applicable.

**Consent for publication:** Not applicable.

**Availability of data and materials:** Not applicable.

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2. B. Gao, A. Stein, J. Wang. (2022). A two-point machine learning method for the spatial prediction of soil pollution. International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and Geoinformation 108 (2022) 102742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2022.102742

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4. Bandyopadhyay. Plant-assisted metal remediation in mine-degraded land: a scientometric review. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 8085-8112 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03396-x
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Amuchastegui, C. Avery, S. Laine. (2009). Selecting and conserving lands for biodiversity: The role of remote sensing. Remote Sensing of Environment. Volume 113, Issue 7, 15 July 2009, Pages 1370-1381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.06.020

37. J. Xie, C. Yang, X. Li, S. Wu, Y. Lin. (2023). Generation and engineering applications of sulfate radicals in environmental remediation. Chemosphere. Volume 339, October 2023, 139659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139659

38. Jean-Paul Otamonga, John W. Poté, Abandoned mines and artisanal and small-scale mining in Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC): Survey and agenda for future research, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 208, 2020, 106394, ISSN 0375-6742, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106394.

39. Kabulo, J., Hubert, T., Mufungizi, I., Bongeli, R., & Diakondua, R. (2023). Local Transformation of Natural Resources for the Socio-Economic Development of DR Congo: Assets, challenges and perspectives. FORUM GEOSCIENCES SIXTH EDITION (FGSC), Kinshasa. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10501050

40. Kanso, T.; Tedoldi, D.; Gromaire, M.-C.; Ramier, D.; Saad, M.; Chebbo, G. Horizontal and Vertical Variability of Soil Hydraulic Properties in Roadside Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)—Nature and Implications for Hydrological Performance Evaluation. Water 2018, 10, 987. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10080987

41. Kebede K. Kefeni, Titus A.M. Msagati, Bhekie B. Mamba, Acid mine drainage: Prevention, treatment options, and resource recovery: A review, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 151, 2017, Pages 475-493, ISSN 0959-6526, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.082.

42. Kofi A. Annan. (2000). Report of the Group of Experts on the illegal exploitation of natural resources and

other wealth of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Available at: https://www.droitcongolais.info/EN/fil es/Exploitations-illegales-des- ressources-de-la-RDC.pdf

43. Kopačková, V.; Hladíková, L. Applying Spectral Unmixing to Determine Surface Water Parameters in a Mining Environment. Remote Sens. 2014, 6, 11204-11224. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61111204

44. Maheshe, Patrick Beak, Kitae. Acid Mine Drainage Problem in Democratic Republic of Congo. (Chonbuk National University, Korea), AB (Chonbuk National University, Korea) EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts, 2018, April 01, 2018, 45. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018 EGUGA.20...45M

45. Marie Mazalto. (2008). Reform of the mining sector in the Democratic Republic of Congo: governance issues and prospects for reconstruction. Contemporary Africa. https://doi.org/10.3917/afco.227.0053

46. Mbo, L., Osomba, D., Nkula, V., Keyila, K. and Tshiende, A. (2023) Geochemical Signature and Metalogeny of BIFs and Associated Iron Ore of Zatua Hills, Haut-Uele Province (DR Congo). Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 11, 201-217. doi: 10.4236/gep.2023.1110014.

47. Michel Lutandula Shengo, Meschac-Bill Kime, Matanda Pascal Mambwe, Trésor Kilwa Nyembo, A review of the beneficiation of copper-cobalt-bearing minerals in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Journal of Sustainable Mining, Volume 18, Issue 4, 2019, Pages 226-246, ISSN 2300-3960, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsm.2019.08.001.

48. Mikael Larsson, Ataollah Nosrati, Simarpreet Kaur, Jochen Wagner, Ulf Baus, Magnus Nydén. Copper removal from acid mine drainage-polluted water using glutaraldehydepolyethyleneimine modified diatomaceous earth particles. Heliyon 4 (2018) e00520. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018. e00520
Amuchastegui, C. Avery, S. Laine. (2009). Selecting and conserving lands for biodiversity: The role of remote sensing. Remote Sensing of Environment. Volume 113, Issue 7, 15 July 2009, Pages 1370-1381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.06.020

37. J. Xie, C. Yang, X. Li, S. Wu, Y. Lin. (2023). Generation and engineering applications of sulfate radicals in environmental remediation. Chemosphere. Volume 339, October 2023, 139659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139659

38. Jean-Paul Otamonga, John W. Poté, Abandoned mines and artisanal and small-scale mining in Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC): Survey and agenda for future research, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Volume 208, 2020, 106394, ISSN 0375-6742, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106394.

39. Kabulo, J., Hubert, T., Mufungizi, I., Bongeli, R., & Diakondua, R. (2023). Local Transformation of Natural Resources for the Socio-Economic Development of DR Congo: Assets, challenges and perspectives. FORUM GEOSCIENCES SIXTH EDITION (FGSC), Kinshasa. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10501050

40. Kanso, T.; Tedoldi, D.; Gromaire, M.-C.; Ramier, D.; Saad, M.; Chebbo, G. Horizontal and Vertical Variability of Soil Hydraulic Properties in Roadside Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)—Nature and Implications for Hydrological Performance Evaluation. Water 2018, 10, 987. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10080987

41. Kebede K. Kefeni, Titus A.M. Msagati, Bhekie B. Mamba, Acid mine drainage: Prevention, treatment options, and resource recovery: A review, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 151, 2017, Pages 475-493, ISSN 0959-6526, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.082.

42. Kofi A. Annan. (2000). Report of the Group of Experts on the illegal exploitation of natural resources and

other wealth of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Available at: https://www.droitcongolais.info/EN/filles/Exploitations-illegales-des-ressources-de-la-RDC.pdf

43. Kopačková, V.; Hladíková, L. Applying Spectral Unmixing to Determine Surface Water Parameters in a Mining Environment. Remote Sens. 2014, 6, 11204-11224. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61111204

44. Maheshe, Patrick Beak, Kitae. Acid Mine Drainage Problem in Democratic Republic of Congo. (Chonbuk National University, Korea), AB (Chonbuk National University, Korea) EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts, 2018, April 01, 2018, 45. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018EGUGA.20...45M

45. Marie Mazalto. (2008). Reform of the mining sector in the Democratic Republic of Congo: governance issues and prospects for reconstruction. Contemporary Africa. https://doi.org/10.3917/afco.227.0053

46. Mbo, L., Osomba, D., Nkula, V., Keyila, K. and Tshiende, A. (2023) Geochemical Signature and Metalogeny of BIFs and Associated Iron Ore of Zatua Hills, Haut-Uele Province (DR Congo). Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 11, 201-217. doi: 10.4236/gep.2023.1110014.

47. Michel Lutandula Shengo, Meschac-Bill Kime, Matanda Pascal Mambwe, Trésor Kilwa Nyembo, A review of the beneficiation of copper-cobalt-bearing minerals in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Journal of Sustainable Mining, Volume 18, Issue 4, 2019, Pages 226-246, ISSN 2300-3960, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsm.2019.08.001.

48. Mikael Larsson, Ataollah Nosrati, Simarpreet Kaur, Jochen Wagner, Ulf Baus, Magnus Nydén. Copper removal from acid mine drainage-polluted water using glutaraldehydepolyethyleneimine modified diatomaceous earth particles. Heliyon 4 (2018) e00520. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018. e00520
49. Mourinha, C.; Palma, P.; Alexandre, C.; Cruz, N.; Rodrigues, S.M.; Alvarenga, P. Potentially Toxic Elements' Contamination of Soils Affected by Mining Activities in the Portuguese Sector of the Iberian Pyrite Belt and Optional Remediation Actions: A Review. *Environments* 2022, 9, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments010011

50. Muedi, K.L.; Masindi, V.; Maree, J.P.; Haneklaus, N.; Brink, H.G. Effective Adsorption of Congo Red from Aqueous Solution Using Fe/Al Di-Metal Nanostructured Composite Synthesised from Fe(III) and Al(III) Recovered from Real Acid Mine Drainage. *Nanomaterials* 2022, 12, 776. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano012050776

51. P. Burgos, E. Madejón, Al. Pérez-de-Mora, F. Cabrera. (2008). Horizontal and vertical variability of soil properties in a trace element contaminated area. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. Volume 10, Issue 1, February 2008, Pages 11-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2007.04.001

52. Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., and McMahon, T. A.: Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1633–1644, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007, 2007.

53. Persits, F.M., Ahlbrandt, T.S., Tuttle, M.L., Charpentier, R.R., Brownfield, M.E., and Takahashi, K.I., 1997, Maps showing geology, oil and gas fields and geological provinces of Africa: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-470-A, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr97470A.

54. Primature-RDC, 2019. Décret n° 19/47... du 25 nov. 2919 portant statut, organisation et fonctionnement d'un établissement public dénommé Fonds Minier pour les générations futures, « FOMIN » en sigle. Lien : https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/cng212811.pdf

55. Promines. (2014). Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment of the Mining Sector in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Available at:

https://congomines.org/system/attachments/assets/000/000/511/original/Promines-2014-Rapport-devaluation-du-secteur-minier-en-RDC.pdf?1430929026#:~:text=a%20un>e%20incidence%20majeure%20sur%20a%20déforestation.&text=aggravés%20par%20le%20fait%20que,certaines%20aires%20protégées%20du%20pays.&text=sols%20et%20du%20paysage%20par, est%20très%20important%20en%20RD C.

56. R. Abdalla, J. Li. (2010). Towards effective application of geospatial technologies for disaster management. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. Volume 12, Issue 6, December 2010, Pages 405-407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2010.09.003

57. Radu, V.M.; Vîjdea, A.M.; Ivanov, A.A.; Alexe, V.E.; Dincă, G.; Cetean, V.M.; Filiuță, A.E. Research on the Closure and Remediation Processes of Mining Areas in Romania and Approaches to the Strategy for Heavy Metal Pollution Remediation. *Sustainability* 2023, 15, 15293. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115293

58. RFI, 2024. La RDC accuse Apple d'utiliser des minerais « exploités illégalement ». Available online at: https://www.rfi.fr/fr/économie/20240425-la-rdc-accuse-apple-d-utiliser-des-minerais-exploitées-illégalement

59. Sarah M. Hayes, Erin A. McCullough, Critical minerals: A review of elemental trends in comprehensive criticality studies, Resources Policy, Volume 59, 2018, Pages 192-199, ISSN 0301-4207, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2018.06.015.

60. Shuronjit Kumar Sarker, Nawshad Haque, Muhammed Bhuiyan, Warren Bruckard, Biplob Kumar Pramanik, Recovery of strategically important critical minerals from mine tailings, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, Volume 10, Issue 3, 2022, 107622, ISSN 2213-3437, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.107622.

61. Slack, N., Brandon-Jones, A., & Johnston, R. (2016). *Operations*
49. Mourinha, C.; Palma, P.; Alexandre, C.; Cruz, N.; Rodrigues, S.M.; Alvarenga, P. Potentially Toxic Elements' Contamination of Soils Affected by Mining Activities in the Portuguese Sector of the Iberian Pyrite Belt and Optional Remediation Actions: A Review. *Environments* 2022, 9, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments010011

50. Muedi, K.L.; Masindi, V.; Maree, J.P.; Haneklaus, N.; Brink, H.G. Effective Adsorption of Congo Red from Aqueous Solution Using Fe/Al Di-Metal Nanostructured Composite Synthesised from Fe(III) and Al(III) Recovered from Real Acid Mine Drainage. *Nanomaterials* 2022, 12, 776. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano012050776

51. P. Burgos, E. Madejón, Al. Pérez-de-Mora, F. Cabrera. (2008). Horizontal and vertical variability of soil properties in a trace element contaminated area. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. Volume 10, Issue 1, February 2008, Pages 11-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2007.04.001

52. Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., and McMahon, T. A.: Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1633–1644, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007, 2007.

53. Persits, F.M., Ahlbrandt, T.S., Tuttle, M.L., Charpentier, R.R., Brownfield, M.E., and Takahashi, K.I., 1997, Maps showing geology, oil and gas fields and geological provinces of Africa: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-470-A, https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr97470A.

54. Primature-RDC, 2019. Décret n° 19/47... du 25 nov. 2919 portant statut, organisation et fonctionnement d'un établissement public dénommé Fonds Minier pour les générations futures, « FOMIN » en sigle. Lien : https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/cng212811.pdf

55. Promines. (2014). Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment of the Mining Sector in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Available at:

https://congomines.org/system/attachments/assets/000/000/511/original/Promines-2014-Rapport-devaluation-du-secteur-minier-en-RDC.pdf?1430929026#:~:text=a%20un>e%20incidence%20majeure%20sur%20a%20déforestation.&text=aggravés%20par%20le%20fait%20que,certaines%20aires%20protégées%20du%20pays.&text=sols%20et%20du%20paysage%20par, est%20très%20important%20en%20RD C.

56. R. Abdalla, J. Li. (2010). Towards effective application of geospatial technologies for disaster management. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. Volume 12, Issue 6, December 2010, Pages 405-407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2010.09.003

57. Radu, V.M.; Vîjdea, A.M.; Ivanov, A.A.; Alexe, V.E.; Dincă, G.; Cetean, V.M.; Filiuță, A.E. Research on the Closure and Remediation Processes of Mining Areas in Romania and Approaches to the Strategy for Heavy Metal Pollution Remediation. *Sustainability* 2023, 15, 15293. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115293

58. RFI, 2024. La RDC accuse Apple d'utiliser des minerais « exploités illégalement ». Available online at: https://www.rfi.fr/fr/économie/20240425-la-rdc-accuse-apple-d-utiliser-des-minerais-exploitées-illégalement

59. Sarah M. Hayes, Erin A. McCullough, Critical minerals: A review of elemental trends in comprehensive criticality studies, Resources Policy, Volume 59, 2018, Pages 192-199, ISSN 0301-4207, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2018.06.015.

60. Shuronjit Kumar Sarker, Nawshad Haque, Muhammed Bhuiyan, Warren Bruckard, Biplob Kumar Pramanik, Recovery of strategically important critical minerals from mine tailings, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, Volume 10, Issue 3, 2022, 107622, ISSN 2213-3437, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.107622.

61. Slack, N., Brandon-Jones, A., & Johnston, R. (2016). *Operations*
*Management, 8th edition.* (8th ed.)
Pearson. https://www.pearson.com.au/products/S-Z-Slack/S-Z-Slack-Nigel-et-al/Operations-Management/9781292098678?R=9781292098678

62. Somarin AK. Geochemical Fingerprinting of Conflict Minerals Using Handheld XRF: An Example for Coltan, Cassiterite, and Wolframite Ores from Democratic Republic of the Congo, Africa. *Minerals*. 2019; 9(9):564. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9090564

63. Statista. (2023). Main copper producing countries in the world from 2013 to 2022. Available at: https://fr.statista.com/statistiques/565205/production-de-cuivre-dans-les-principaux-pays/

64. Tasha Venayen, F., 2017. Rapport d'audit comptable et financier pour la période allant du 01 janvier au 31 décembre 2016 du Projet d'Appui au Secteur Minier (PROMINES), World Bank Group. United States of America. Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=fr&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Rapport+d'audit+comptable+et+financier+pour+la+période+allant+du+01+janvier+au+31+décembre+2016+du+Projet+d'Appui+au+Secteur+Minier+&btnG=

65. United Nations Environment Program. (2014). Study presented during the environmental workshop organized by the Congolese Ministry of the Environment, Kinshasa, October 11, 2014.

66. USGS (2022) Cobalt. Available online at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-cobalt.pdf

67. USGS, 2023. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023. https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2023

68. V. Kopačková. (2014). Using multiple spectral feature analysis for quantitative pH mapping in a mining environment. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. Volume 28, May 2014, Pages 28-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2013.10.08

69. Whatstheweatherlike, 2023. Congo-Kinshasa climate info | what's the weather like in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Available online at: www whatstheweatherlike org

70. X. Sun, L. Yuan, M. Liu, S. Liang, D. Li, L. Liu. (2022). Quantitative estimation for the impact of mining activities on vegetation phenology and identifying its controlling factors from Sentinel-2 time series. International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and Geoinformation 111 (2022) 102814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2022.102814

71. Xinchao Wei and Roger C. Viadero. Adsorption and Precoat Filtration Studies of Synthetic Dye Removal by Acid Mine Drainage Sludge, Journal of Environmental Engineering, 133, 6, 633-640, 2007, doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2007)133:6(633)

72. Yanan Huang, Bingbing Li, Asim Biswas, Zhi Li, Factors dominating the horizontal and vertical variability of soil water vary with climate and plant type in loess deposits, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 811, 2022, 152172, ISSN 0048-9697, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152172.
*Management, 8th edition.* (8th ed.)
Pearson. https://www.pearson.com.au/products/S-Z-Slack/S-Z-Slack-Nigel-et-al/Operations-Management/9781292098678?R=9781292098678

62. Somarin AK. Geochemical Fingerprinting of Conflict Minerals Using Handheld XRF: An Example for Coltan, Cassiterite, and Wolframite Ores from Democratic Republic of the Congo, Africa. *Minerals*. 2019; 9(9):564. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9090564

63. Statista. (2023). Main copper producing countries in the world from 2013 to 2022. Available at: https://fr.statista.com/statistiques/565205/production-de-cuivre-dans-les-principaux-pays/

64. Tasha Venayen, F., 2017. Rapport d'audit comptable et financier pour la période allant du 01 janvier au 31 décembre 2016 du Projet d'Appui au Secteur Minier (PROMINES), World Bank Group. United States of America. Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=fr&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Rapport+d'audit+comptable+et+financier+pour+la+période+allant+du+01+janvier+au+31+décembre+2016+du+Projet+d'Appui+au+Secteur+Minier+&btnG=

65. United Nations Environment Program. (2014). Study presented during the environmental workshop organized by the Congolese Ministry of the Environment, Kinshasa, October 11, 2014.

66. USGS (2022) Cobalt. Available online at: https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-cobalt.pdf

67. USGS, 2023. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023. https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2023

68. V. Kopačková. (2014). Using multiple spectral feature analysis for quantitative pH mapping in a mining environment. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. Volume 28, May 2014, Pages 28-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2013.10.008

69. Whatstheweatherlike, 2023. Congo-Kinshasa climate info | what's the weather like in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Available online at: www whatstheweatherlike org

70. X. Sun, L. Yuan, M. Liu, S. Liang, D. Li, L. Liu. (2022). Quantitative estimation for the impact of mining activities on vegetation phenology and identifying its controlling factors from Sentinel-2 time series. International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and Geoinformation 111 (2022) 102814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2022.102814

71. Xinchao Wei and Roger C. Viadero. Adsorption and Precoat Filtration Studies of Synthetic Dye Removal by Acid Mine Drainage Sludge, Journal of Environmental Engineering, 133, 6, 633-640, 2007, doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2007)133:6(633)

72. Yanan Huang, Bingbing Li, Asim Biswas, Zhi Li, Factors dominating the horizontal and vertical variability of soil water vary with climate and plant type in loess deposits, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 811, 2022, 152172, ISSN 0048-9697, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152172.