# Fostering intercultural competence through an asynchronous virtual exchange in secondary-level foreign language classes

Lindy Robinson<fnref n="1" /> and Marni Manegre<fnref n="2" />

## Abstract

Intercultural competence (IC) has long been recognized as an important learning objective in foreign language education. This study investigates whether an asynchronous virtual exchange (VE) may be used as a tool to develop IC in secondary-level students. Two Spanish foreign language classes in Western Canada were linked with two English foreign language classes in Spain, using a virtual platform. The students conducted a six-week VE with four assignments based on Deardorff's (2006a) IC framework. Using a quasi-experimental research design, students' perceived IC growth was measured. The results revealed a significant association between students' VE engagement and their perceived increase in IC. Additionally, the analysis found evidence that learners rated the VE activities as highly interesting, valuable to their learning, and recommendable. This adds to the corpus of research that supports the use of VEs as effective and accessible techniques for fostering intercultural learning.

**Keywords:** telecollaboration, computer-mediated communication, intercultural competence, IC dimensions, virtual exchange.

<footnote n="1">1. Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain, lindy.robinson@alumni.urv.cat, https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1708-1336</footnote>

<footnote n="2">2. Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain, marnilynne.manegre@urv.cat, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6021-521X</footnote>
# 1. Introduction

Foreign language learning requires more than acquiring communicative competence, which is the ability to communicate in linguistic, sociolinguistic, and pragmatically-appropriate ways (Council of Europe, 2001). In today's increasingly globalized society, language learners must also develop the capacity to connect and form relationships with individuals from diverse cultures. This is known as intercultural competence (IC). The value of teaching IC in foreign and second language classrooms has long been recognized (Altuğ et al., 2019). Further, engaging faculty members in intercultural discussions or intergroup dialogues leads to students reporting that their teachers are more culturally receptive than in cases where teachers lack such exposure (Howard & Schmidt, 2023). Opportunities for IC development in language classes are frequently lacking at both the post-secondary and secondary levels.

At the post-secondary level, researchers and language educators have looked to VE as a means to fill this void. VE has garnered particular attention following the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced some universities to replace their international mobility programs with virtual alternatives (Zayim-Kurtay, 2025). Recent efforts to pursue “internationalization at home” (Ruiz & Cirugeda, 2024, p. 3) has further intensified post-secondary interest in VEs. Reflecting this interest, a substantial body of research has emerged on VE use in higher education, a large portion of which has leveraged VEs for IC development in language education.

In contrast, there is a paucity of research exploring VE use at the secondary level (Wigham & Clavel-Arroitia, 2025), particularly for IC development in language education. In an effort to help fill this gap, the current study was developed. This study involves the design, execution, and assessment of a six-week asynchronous VE involving secondary-level students from Catalonia and Western Canada. The primary goal of this study is to establish if an entirely asynchronous VE fosters perceived IC development in secondary-level foreign language students and if participants view it as helpful to their learning, engaging, and recommendable. This study's findings not only support the gap in the existing body of research on VEs and IC development but have important pedagogical implications. Further, the telecollaborative methodology developed for this project could be replicated or adapted by foreign language teachers working with secondary-level students.

The literature review to follow focuses on the curricular evolution of IC in language education, prominent intercultural theories and frameworks, the theoretical foundations of VEs, VE use in language education, and recent VE and IC research studies. Thereafter, the research context and method are presented. The results are then reviewed and discussed in relation to existing literature and their pedagogical implications.
## 2. Literature review

### 2.1. Intercultural theories and frameworks

There are several definitions and frameworks of IC. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning has one of the most frequently referenced definitions. It defines IC as "the ability to interact effectively with people from cultures that we recognize as being different from our own" (Guilherme, 2000, p. 297). Byram (1997) and Deardorff (2006a) developed the two most well-known and robust theories. These theories were created to provide a more expansive understanding of the notion of IC and to serve as a springboard for measuring IC in learners.

Byram's original framework was developed in 1997 and has since played an important role in shaping curriculum and instructional materials around the globe (Hoff, 2020). Byram's model states that intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is comprised of five major factors: knowledge of oneself and others; skills of interpreting and relating; skills of discovering and interacting; critical awareness; and attitudes of relativizing the self and valuing the other (Hoff, 2020). According to Byram (1997), these factors may collectively aid an intercultural learner with not only communicating information but also creating relationships based on respect and mutual understanding.

Deardorff created her own IC model in 2006, focusing on the question, "What does it mean to interact successfully with those from different cultures?" (Deardorff, 2006b, p. 1). Deardorff's (2006a) approach, like Byram's (1997) model, is made up of knowledge (cultural self-awareness, culture-specific knowledge), skills (observing, listening, assessing, analysing, interpreting, and relating), and attitudes (respect, openness, curiosity, and discovery) (Deardorff, 2006b, p. 254). Deardorff contends that when combined, these factors result in internal outcomes such as flexibility, adaptability, and empathy. She further postulates that the above-specified attitudes, knowledge, and skills conjoined with internal outcomes ultimately manifest in external ways—in one's behaviour and communication with people of other cultures.

The current study's VE activities and IC evaluation metrics are based on Deardorff's IC theory. This theory was chosen for three main reasons. To begin with, it is solidly based on other studies. Deardorff's study is the outcome of a collaboration with prominent intercultural academics who came to an agreement on the concept of IC and the parts that comprise it. Deardorff's model is, therefore, "the first grounded research-based framework, or model, of intercultural competence" (Deardorff, 2006b, p. 1). Second, it is one of the most comprehensive IC theories, particularly because it includes both internal and external IC outcomes. Third, it was created in part to serve as a roadmap
for educators to employ IC development in instructional methods (Deardorff, 2006b) and so lends
itself to the development of practical telecollaborative projects.

## 2.2. VE and language learning

VE, also commonly known as telecollaboration, refers to the use of virtual communication tools to link learners all over the world for collaborative and educational purposes (O'Dowd, 2018). When employed in foreign language scenarios, VEs are intended to achieve two primary goals: to increase students' foreign language abilities and to foster the growth of students' IC (Belz, 2003; Gruber & Karnovska, 2023; O'Dowd, 2012; Yeh & Heng, 2023). Language skill development through VE has the potential to be more meaningful, practical, and genuine than standard classroom-based projects, which are sometimes artificially manufactured. Through VEs, students can listen to individuals speaking the language and engage in authentic conversations.

Another advantage of VEs is that students achieve pragmatic awareness (Chun, 2011; Cunningham, 2014; Cunningham & Vyatkina, 2012; Kinginger & Belz, 2005; Rafieyan et al., 2014). In many cases, language learners are linked with similar-aged native speakers of the language they are studying, who may model both linguistically and pragmatically appropriate forms of the colloquial language. In standard classroom education, exposing students to pragmatically rich knowledge might be difficult.

Additionally, VEs allow students to improve their digital fluency when they are encouraged to move outside of their comfort zones and engage with others on a digital platform. This not only improves their digital skills but also allows students to reflect on their beliefs related to language instruction and develop their global citizenship competencies (Hauck, 2023; Jager et al., 2019; Orsini-Jones et al., 2019; Reljanovic Glimäng & Sauro, 2024).

## 2.3. Recent VEs and IC research studies

Over the past two decades, researchers have studied the impact of various types of telecollaborative projects on participants' IC development. Most of these studies were conducted at the post-secondary level (Parks et al., 2024). Some have examined asynchronous VEs that employ technology such as email, e-forums, blogs, wiki space, Facebook, and TwinSpace (e.g., Elola & Oskoz, 2008; Jin, 2015; Liaw, 2006; Müller-Hartmann, 2000; Schenker, 2012; Vallés, 2017; Vinagre, 2014). Other research has explored exclusively synchronous VE models using videoconferencing platforms like Adobe Connect and Zoom (e.g., Lenkaitis et al., 2019; Puranen & Vurdien, 2016). There have also been studies that have investigated VEs with an amalgamation of synchronous and asynchronous components (e.g.,
Gómez Garciá et al., 2020; Jauregi et al, 2013; Lee, 2020; O'Dowd & Eberbach, 2004; Taşkıran, 2019; Thomé-Williams, 2016). All these studies mentioned have shown that, regardless of the technology used or the synchronization of the VE, university participants displayed IC development, or at the very least, growth in elements of their IC.

Although most studies have concentrated on the tertiary level of education, there is a small, albeit growing, body of research which has explored the use of VEs in secondary-level contexts. Müller-Hartmann's (2000) email-based VE involving high school students from Germany, the United States, and Canada was one of the first. In this project, students read and conversed about an English novel or play. It was reported that the VE helped students establish positive views toward their exchange partners, understand their own and their partners' cultural identities, and develop their interpretation abilities, all of which correspond with IC. Due to the advanced language proficiency requirements needed to undertake a VE of this nature, this model may not be ideal for all secondary-level language students.

The Telecollaboration for Intercultural Language Acquisition (TILA) project (Jauregi et al., 2013) was the second major VE study involving secondary-level students. The project's main objectives were to (1) enrich secondary-level foreign language education programs with VEs, (2) provide support and instruction to teachers to foster the seamless integration of VEs in their instructional practices, and (3) study how VEs influence secondary-level students' intercultural understanding and motivation (Jauregi et al., 2013). The pilot VEs employed in this study were found to contribute to students' communicative competence and their intercultural awareness (Juaregi, 2015). Similar to the Müller-Hartmann study, the participants in the TILA project were required to possess an intermediate to advanced proficiency level to participate in synchronous conversational discussions.

While there have been more recent studies aimed at VE use in secondary contexts, they are focused on understanding the needs and experiences of teachers involved in VE projects rather than students' linguistic or IC development. For example, Parks et al.'s (2025) action research project examined a high school teacher's experience developing and implementing an ESL-FSL exchange. Similarly, Wigham and Clavel-Arroitia's (2025) study explored the needs and challenges of secondary and primary school teachers associated with conducting VEs. There has also been a burgeoning interest in VE use for pre-service elementary and secondary language teachers (e.g., Kopish & Öztürk, 2024; Rets et al., 2023; Üzüm et al., 2020).

The current study helps fill the dearth of research focused on VE as a means to foster IC development in secondary-level foreign language learners. It differs from most previous telecollaborative studies in the following five respects: (1) it involves the execution of a short-term (six-week) asynchronous
VE as opposed to a long-term project; (2) it utilizes an education-based platform that has not previously been used in a telecollaborative study—Seesaw; (3) it includes tasks requiring students to create content using an array of asynchronous modalities (e.g., written presentations, weblinks, and visuals; recorded videos; and comments in the form of audio recordings or written messages; (4) it incorporates culture-based exercises based on Deardorff's (2006a) IC theory, with the explicit goal of encouraging IC growth in participants; and (5) it assesses not only professed IC development but also students' perceptions of the project. This VE model is suitable for language learners of all proficiency levels.

The research questions for this study are as follows:

1. To what degree do secondary-level students perceive growth in their IC following a short-term asynchronous VE?

2. To what extent are any perceptual changes in IC demonstrated by students from the two different locations comparable?

3. To what degree do students find this type of asynchronous telecollaboration engaging and advantageous to their learning process?

4. How likely are students to recommend this type of project to other foreign language students?

# 3. Method

## 3.1. Participants

The sample of this study (N = 78) was a convenience sample that consisted of four classes of secondary students at two private schools, one in Western Canada (N = 25) and one in Catalonia, Spain (N = 53). The students in Western Canada were studying Spanish as a foreign language; one class in the ninth grade contained nine students, and the other class in the tenth grade contained sixteen students. The Canadian students were between the ages of 14 and 16 years, native speakers of English, and had a lower intermediate level of Spanish, except one bilingual Spanish-English student.

The students from Catalonia were in two classes in the ninth grade (3º ESO in Spain) with an age range of 14 to 15 years. The students were bilingual in Catalan/Spanish and had an intermediate
level of English proficiency, with their levels ranging from A2 to B2 on the CEFR scale, as reported
by their teacher.

**3.2. Materials**

**3.2.1. <u>Technological needs</u>**

Seesaw is an education-based platform created in 2013 and designed to allow teachers to create digital classrooms for their students (see Appendix A). Students can draw on multimodal tools within the platform, such as drawing functions, a voice recorder, a camera, and a note generator. Students can use this platform to actively produce assignments or projects. Additionally, it can be employed to create a digital portfolio to showcase specific tasks. To date, it appears this platform has not been used for telecollaboration projects, but it includes commenting features, making it ideal for use in this study.

Two virtual classrooms were created for this study, one for each pair of Western Canadian-Catalan classes (see Appendix A). The students were given a class code to access the platform using their devices. Once on the platform, the students could participate in the telecollaboration tasks. A setting was applied so that the teachers approved the content to be posted for added student protection.

**3.2.2. VE tasks**

Four tasks were designed for this study, based on Deardorff's IC theory (see Appendix B). They involved the exchange of cultural knowledge and experiences related to topics such as traditions, celebrations, entertainment, notable cultural destinations, sports, gastronomy, and daily life. Two of the tasks encompassed the production of video presentations, while the other two required the creation of multimedia presentations. The students worked in groups within their respective classes to complete the tasks. Once finished, students reviewed the tasks completed by their partner class and discussed and commented on the associated presentations.

**3.2.3. <u>Data collection instruments</u>**

The data were collected from this study using pre- and post-intervention questionnaires (see Robinson & Manegre, 2025). The questionnaires were issued digitally using Microsoft Forms, and they contained various questions asking for responses using Likert scales, checkboxes, multiple-choice options, and one open-ended question on the post-questionnaire. These questions were designed to measure the students' IC development and gather their perceptions about the project.
The questionnaire data were coded and subsequently analysed using JASP statistical software. Section A of the questionnaires included 20 Likert-style questions (ranging from 1, strongly disagree, to 5, strongly agree), evenly divided into four subsections. Each subsection was used to evaluate a specific dimension of IC (attitudes, knowledge, skills, and internal outcomes). These IC dimensions were derived from Deardorff's (2006a) IC model. Each student received a score, out of 25, on each dimension of their IC. Moreover, each student was given an overall pre- and post-VE IC score out of 100 (obtained from combining the four IC dimension scores). The second section of the questionnaires, Section B, contained a checklist and multiple-choice questions designed to provide supplementary data on the changes in IC from the pre- to post-questionnaire, with a focus on students' abilities to competently interact with students from their partner region. Each checklist response was weighted based on the level of IC, with higher scores relating to the greatest levels of IC. The final section, Section C, appeared only on the post-questionnaire, and the questions focused on students' retrospective views of the VE. This section contained Likert-style questions, multiple-choice questions, and one long-answer question designed to measure students' perceptions on the extent to which the project was beneficial to their learning, engaging, and recommendable.

### 3.2.4. Questionnaire reliability

The total scores of the pre-questionnaire from the students in both Canada and Spain were analysed together using Cronbach's alpha as a reliability or validation measure. Overall, there was high agreement between the items on the questionnaire with a Cronbach's alpha estimate of 0.801, which indicates that the students in both countries responded similarly to the pre-questionnaire at the onset of the study.

Further, the Shapiro-Wilk test was used to test whether the pre-questionnaire responses followed a normal distribution pattern. When looking at the partnering schools separately, both sets of students show a normal distribution of responses (Spain, *p* = 0.540; Canada, *p* = 0.066). The distribution is normal when analysing the data from the students' responses at both schools together (*p* = 0.668). Thus, the data for the pre- and post-questionnaires from the students at both participating schools were analysed together to compare the responses using inferential statistics for the overall changes in IC. However, to compare the responses between the two locations, repeated measures ANOVAs were used, as all participants were measured with the same set of tools for each aspect of IC.

## 3.3. Procedure

The telecollaboration was conducted in a classroom environment during regular class times for all participating students. It lasted from late March 2022 through early May 2022. Throughout the
project, the researcher was present in the Catalan pupils' classes. Prior to the start of the project, permission was received from the administrators and instructors of the participating schools, as well as from all participating students and their guardians. A pre-questionnaire was subsequently distributed via Microsoft Forms to both Catalan and Canadian participants in their respective first languages.

The students then completed four telecollaborative activities over a six-week period. The students worked in small groups in their classrooms to create written and spoken presentations in their target languages. Students created task material utilizing Seesaw's multimodal features, as well as other forms of presentation-generating software (e.g., Google Slides, PowerPoint, Canva) and the camera functions on their phones. Seesaw was then used to distribute the content. The teachers acted as moderators, reviewing all student content before sharing it with other students on Seesaw. Once shared, students discussed their partner class's submissions on Seesaw using written or voice messages. The students were encouraged to communicate with the other class using the target language. Following the six-week telecollaboration, the students completed the post-questionnaire.

# 4. Results

## 4.1. Analysis of changes in IC from Section A

### 4.1.1. *Changes in overall perceived IC growth from Section A*

A series of paired samples *t*-tests and a repeated measures ANOVA were conducted to analyse the changes in students' overall IC scores (out of 100 points) from the pre-questionnaire to the post-questionnaire. The results of the paired samples *t*-test showed that the students' overall scores in their perceived IC increased from the pre-telecollaboration assessment (*M* = 78.1, *SD* = 8.9) to the post-telecollaboration assessment (*M* = 82.1, *SD* = 9.5); *t*(72) = -3.81, *p* < .001, with a medium effect size for Cohen's *d* (*d* = 0.45).

### 4.1.2. *Changes in perceived IC growth comparing the students' location from Section A*

The repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to compare the students' growth in their perceived IC and the associated region, as all the participating students completed the same tasks. The ANOVA confirmed that the changes in students' mean pre- and post-IC assessment scores were statistically significant: *F*(1,19) = 15.69, *p* = < .001 with a large effect size (*η*² = 0.10). Second, the findings suggested that the location or nationality was not an influential factor in affecting students' overall pre- and
post-IC assessment scores: *F*(1,19) = 0.853, *p* = .367, with a small effect size (*η*² = 0.03). When comparing the location and the assessment scores together, as expected, the results are not significant, *F*(1,19) = 8.10, *p* = 0.594, with an extremely small effect size (*η*² = 0.003). It was previously noted that the participants from both locations responded similarly to the pre-questionnaire based on Cronbach's alpha results. The results of the ANOVA show no difference between the students at the participating schools by location.

The specific dimensions of IC were also analysed for changes pre- to post-telecollaboration. With respect to the *attitudes* dimension, which measured the degree to which students perceived themselves as open towards, curious about, and respectful of people of other cultures, the participating students collectively demonstrated significant growth in their scores from the pre-questionnaire (*M* = 19.6; *SD* = 3.3) to the post-questionnaire (*M* = 20.7; *SD* = 2.8); *t*(72) = -3.56, *p* = <.001, with a medium effect size for Cohen's *d* (*d* = 0.42).

Regarding the *knowledge* dimension, which assessed students' perceptions of their cultural self-awareness and culture-specific knowledge, the students also revealed a significant increase in their scores from the pre-questionnaire (*M* = 17.9; *SD* = 2.5) to their scores on the post-questionnaire (*M* = 19.1; *SD* = 3.0); *t*(72) = -3.18, *p* = .002 with a small-to-medium effect for Cohen's *d* (*d* = 0.37).

With respect to the *skill* dimension, which is the students' ability to listen to, observe, interpret, analyse, evaluate, and relate to people from other cultures, the students displayed slight, albeit not statistically significant, growth from their pre-questionnaire mean scores (*M* = 20.4, *SD* = 2.6) to their post-questionnaire mean scores (*M* = 20.9, *SD* = 2.9); *t*(71) = -1.40, *p* = 0.166 with a very small effect for Cohen's *d* (*d* = 0.05). One student's post-IC knowledge data were omitted as the student answered "non-applicable" to all Likert statements in this subsection.

Finally, the analysis of the last subsection, the *internal outcomes*, was conducted. This dimension concerns students' perceptions of their flexibility, adaptability, and empathy in interactions with people of other cultures. In this subsection, students exhibited modest, yet statistically significant, growth in their scores from the pre-questionnaire (*M* = 20.9, *SD* = 3.1) to their scores on the post-questionnaire (*M* = 21.3, *SD* = 2.7), *t*(69) = -2.089, *p* = 0.040, with a small effect size for Cohen's *d* (*d* = 0.03). Three students' post-questionnaire scores were not factored into the calculation as they answered *non-applicable* to all Likert scale statements in the internal outcome subsection.
**4.2. Analysis of changes in IC from section B**

4.2.1. *Changes in overall perceived IC growth from Section B*

Like the analysis for Section A, a series of t-tests were conducted to determine the changes in each IC dimension using the combined data from both schools. The first part focused on student attitudes and asked students how they felt about the idea of interacting with students from their partner region/country. The analysis shows that the growth for the first dimension was not statistically significant (M = 2.4, SD = 1.1) compared to the post-telecollaboration (M = 2.7, SD = 1.1); t(72) = -1.81, p = .075, with a small effect for Cohen's d (d = 0.30).

The second part, also centred on attitudes, asked students what they would like to learn about their partner region/country's culture from a predetermined list of topics. This part presumes that the more aspects of the partner country students indicate they are interested in learning about, the more open and curious they are about the other culture. The students' mean scores declined from the pre-questionnaire (M = 5.9, SD = 2.9) to the post-questionnaire (M = 4.6, SD = 2.7); t(72) = 4.31, p < .001. This decline was statistically significant, which could, as later discussed, relate to students having already learned about many of the topics through the VE.

The third part, focused on knowledge, asked students to select a multiple-choice response that best describes their knowledge of the culture of students in their partner school (Canadian versus Catalan/Spanish). The students' mean scores increased from the pre-questionnaire (M = 0.5, SD = 0.4) to the post-questionnaire (M = 1.0, SD = 0.3); t(72) = -8.34, p < .001. This growth was statistically significant with a high effect for Cohen's d (d = 0.75).

The fourth part, which also focused on knowledge, asked students to select a multiple-choice response that best described their knowledge of the similarities and differences between the cultures of their partner students and their own. The students' mean scores rose from the pre-questionnaire (M = 0.8, SD = 0.5) to the post-questionnaire (M = 1.2, SD = 0.4); t(72) = -4.34, p < .001. This rise was statistically significant.

The fifth part, focused on IC skills, asked students to identify which skills from a list they think are important to use when interacting with the students from their partner school. There was a statistically significant decline in the number of skills selected from students' pre-questionnaire scores (M = 5.0, SD = 2.2) to their post-questionnaire scores (M = 3.9, SD = 1.9), t(72) = 5.23, p < .001, with a medium-to-high effect for Cohen's d (d = 0.63).
## 4.3. Student perceptions of the project

### 4.3.1. Benefit to learning

The students were asked to complete six Likert scale statements, each weighted out of five, regarding their perceptions of the benefit to learning from participating in this telecollaboration. The mean response for this category was 24.21, which suggests the students, on average, agreed that this project was beneficial for their learning (30 represents strongly agree, 24 represents agree, 18 represents neutral, 12 represents disagree, and 6 represents strongly disagree).

The results show that students, on average, agreed that the project (1) was useful to learn about another culture (M = 4.3, SD = 0.7), (2) beneficial in helping them know how to interact with people of another culture (M = 4.3, SD = 0.7), (3) helpful in opening their mind to learning from people of another culture (M = 4.2, SD = 0.7), (4) useful in improving their target language skills (M = 4.0, SD = 0.8), and (5) beneficial overall to their learning (M = 4.0, SD = 0.9). Students were on average slightly less likely to agree that the project helped make them more aware of their own culture (M = 3.9, SD = 0.7).

### 4.3.2. Student engagement

This section comprised six Likert scale statements, each weighted out of five. The students' mean score was 24.97. This reveals that students generally agreed that the telecollaboration was engaging. The students, on average, agreed that they (1) were eager to participate in the project when they learned about it (M = 4.1, SD = 0.8), (2) found the project activities interesting and enjoyable (M = 4.2, SD = 0.8), (3) appraised the project as more interesting than their usual class projects and assignments (M = 4.4, SD = 0.7), (4) participated a lot in the project (M = 4.2, SD = 0.7), (5) always put their best effort into the project (M = 4.2, SD = 0.7), and (6) overall greatly enjoyed the project (M = 4.3, SD = 0.7).

### 4.3.3. Willingness to recommend the project

This section included three questions, each weighted out of five. A score of 15 indicated students would highly recommend the project, whereas a score of 3 suggested they would not recommend it at all. As evidenced by their mean score of 13, students would strongly recommend the project to other students and to their teacher to repeat again.

The students all agreed that (1) they would recommend the project to other students studying their target language (M = 4.4, SD = 0.6), (2) projects like this are valuable for all students studying a foreign language (M = 4.3, SD = 0.6), and (3) they would recommend that their teacher do a project like this again in their class sometime (M = 4.4, SD = 0.7).
The last question on the post-questionnaire asked students if they had any suggestions to improve the project. Numerous students from both schools provided positive feedback on the telecollaboration, suggesting it was an enjoyable experience for them and stating they did not have recommendations to improve it.

## 5. Discussion

One of the main objectives of this study was to determine the degree to which a short-term asynchronous VE may assist secondary-level foreign language students in enhancing their IC. This was based on the previous research, which showed that language learners, both at the secondary and the tertiary levels, progressed in their IC when participating in various types of VEs (e.g., Gómez Garciá et al., 2020; Hansel et al., 2021; Juaregi et al., 2015; Müller-Hartmann, 2000; Reader, 2024). The model used in the present study differed from previous ones, most notably in its theoretical framework, use of the Seesaw educational platform, and multimodality. Due to its short nature and asynchronous characteristics, it was designed to for seamless integration within classroom instructional hours.

The results of both the paired samples t tests and the repeated measures ANOVA show that the participating students had increased overall IC scores from the pre-questionnaire to the post-questionnaire following the six-week asynchronous VE. This indicates that short-term asynchronous VEs can be useful in fostering perceived IC development in secondary-level language learners. The results of students' specific pre- and post-dimensions of IC, however, provide a more nuanced portrayal of students' IC development. The following is an evaluation of the changes the students demonstrated in each IC dimension before and after telecollaboration.

The participants collectively had the most significant increase in the attitudes dimension of their Section A IC evaluation. From the pre-assessment to the post-assessment, the students' scores in this dimension improved by 1.18 points. This revealed that participants were more open to, inquiring about, and appreciative of those from diverse cultures after the VE than before.

The second greatest growth occurred in the knowledge dimension. Following the telecollaboration, students perceived themselves as more culturally self-aware and educated about various cultures. The answers to the two knowledge-related questions in Part B of the questionnaire offered further evidence to support this finding. Indeed, students' multiple-choice responses revealed that their
awareness of the culture of students at their partner school rose considerably from pre-VE to post-
VE.

The students showed no significant difference in the improvement of the skills dimension of IC from the onset to the end of the study. The skills dimension includes listening to, observing, altering communication with, and relating to people of other cultures. Asynchronous telecollaborations are likely less favourable to the development of the skills dimension than their synchronous equivalents, which explains the lack of increase. In asynchronous communication, students are not faced with the challenges of maintaining a real-time discussion, which requires patience, the capacity to adapt one's communication style, and the ability to overcome misconceptions. As a result, several qualities listed in their IC assessment's skills section, such as patience, did not completely apply to them.

Regarding the internal outcome dimension of IC, the students exhibited a modest change in their ability to be flexible, adaptable, and empathetic to people from other cultures. While modest, this change was found to be significant. The addition of a synchronous component to the telecollaboration might foster better progress in the internal outcomes of participating students. For example, interacting with one another in real time requires students to demonstrate greater flexibility, adaptability, and empathy than asynchronous modes of communication. Nonetheless, it is promising that students reported progress in this IC dimension while using completely asynchronous VE.

These results corroborate the findings of Reader's (2024) asynchronous video-based study carried
out at the primary level, involving Grade 6 students. Through deductive coding of VE data, Reader
demonstrated how 18 of 30 ICC objectives identified by Byram (2021) were addressed in the VE. As
in the present study, Reader (2024) found that the most common IC element fostered was attitudes.
She reported numerous instances of students demonstrating curiosity about their VE partners' lives,
as well as "perspective switching" (p. 13), revealing their openness towards others' views of the
world. The IC outcome with the second highest frequency in her participants data was knowledge
which further align with the findings from the current study. Both studies showed evidence of
growth in participants' knowledge of one another's countries, including cultural knowledge. Another
similarity between the two studies were the skill dimensions. In the present study, students' skill
dimension was comparatively underdeveloped. In Reader's (2024) research, it was also found that
the skill dimension was less frequently addressed, especially "skills of interpreting and relating" (p.
17). This was likely attributed to the asynchronous modality of both studies. The similarity between
the two asynchronous studies is promising, as it suggests short-term, asynchronous VE models
premised on an IC framework can yield similar potential development in participants' IC.
The second research question asked whether there were any differences in general IC from the students in the different locations (Western Canada and Catalonia, respectively). The results of the repeated measures ANOVA show that both groups increased in perceived IC from the onset to the conclusion of this study. There was no significant difference in the overall IC changes per group. It is encouraging that all students, regardless of their region/country of origin, demonstrated comparable levels of overall perceived IC progress as a result of the VE. No research studies to date have examined differences in IC development in VE participants by location.

When conducting VE projects, it is critical to examine how well they are accepted by students. The third research question asked to what degree the students find this type of asynchronous VE engaging and advantageous to their learning process. The descriptive analysis of students' responses to different Likert scale statements in Section C of the questionnaire revealed that, on average, students agreed that VE was both beneficial to their learning and engaging.

Another crucial measure of the importance that secondary-level language students place on short-term asynchronous VEs is students' propensity to endorse the initiative. The final research question asked whether the students would likely recommend this type of project to other foreign language students. The students strongly agreed that they would recommend this type of project for both learning about other cultures and for foreign language learning.

Students' engagement with the VE substantiates other studies conducted at the post-secondary level. Participants in Hagley's (2022) mixed synchronicity VE reported the project was beneficial to their learning of English and contributed to their motivation to learn English further. A majority of students, as in the current study, reported their desire to participate in a VE in the future. Juaregi and Bañados (2008) study involving a mixed synchronicity VE also demonstrated benefits to students' motivation and perceived language and cultural learning outcomes. As few VE studies include metrics which explicitly evaluate student engagement and enjoyment, especially at the secondary level, the current study helps fill this gap.

To summarize, the decision on whether to implement short-term asynchronous VEs in secondary-level foreign language classrooms to foster learners' IC development must take into account (1) the extent to which they are effective in developing students' IC, and (2) the degree to which students accept them. This study found evidence that asynchronous VEs can be useful in encouraging overall IC development in secondary-level participants. The attraction of this teaching tool to secondary language learners was also clear. The research's findings have also shown particular ways in which the telecollaboration model employed in the study might be enhanced for future usage.
## 6. Conclusion

This study expanded on prior research that investigated the effectiveness of VEs in promoting IC development in foreign language learners. While other research predominantly included tertiary-level participants, this one concentrated on secondary-level students. It investigated a short-term asynchronous approach of telecollaboration centered on the fulfilment of culture-based activities, using Deardorff's (2006a) IC model as a springboard. Students shared presentations, videos, and written and voice-recorded commentary using the virtual platform Seesaw. This platform was unusual because it capitalized on students' talents to create and distribute original material.

The findings of this study provide preliminary evidence that short-term asynchronous VEs can help secondary-level language learners improve their overall IC. This adds to the corpus of knowledge on VEs and IC development in language learners. Furthermore, the current study demonstrates that such VEs are viewed by secondary-level learners as useful for learning, engaging, and recommendable. This is a pronounced development for secondary-level language instructors who may want to incorporate short-term asynchronous VEs into their pedagogical toolkits.

While most IC dimensions were evidently growing, the inclusion of synchronous components in this study's asynchronous VE model should further enhance students' IC development. These might be introduced if time zone variations allow and the synchronous aspects are acceptable for the language levels of the students. It may also be beneficial to extend the duration of future VEs of this type, as most participants noted in the post-questionnaire that the six-week timeframe was short. It is hoped that the study's findings and recommendations will be useful to educators and will assist in defining the direction of future VE research.

## 7. Limitations of the study

The study faced four main limitations. Time was the most significant, as spring breaks, holidays, and exams reduced available class time, preventing completion of all planned telecollaborative tasks and requiring the researcher to minimize the project's impact on teachers' curricular commitments. The narrow range of grade levels—primarily Grade 9 students in Catalonia and Grades 9–10 in Western Canada—also limited the generalizability of the findings, as broader participation from Grades 7–12 would offer a more representative sample. Additionally, the unequal number of students between regions restricted pairing options and may have affected results drawn from the smaller Western Canadian group. Finally, the use of self-report Likert questionnaires introduced the possibility of
response bias, as participants' answers could have been influenced by item phrasing or by expectations about how they were "supposed" to respond

## 8. Ethical statement

This study was completed with ethics approval from the participating university and school boards. The participants had volunteered to participate in the activities and were aware of their right to withdraw. The personal information of the participants has been kept anonymous in accordance with data protection regulations. Additionally, the authors declare no competing interests.

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Journal of Virtual Exchange 2025
Edited by Carolin Fuchs and Müge Satar

Publication date: 2025/12/12

Journal of Virtual Exchange (JVE) is an online, open-access, peer-reviewed journal aimed at practitioners and researchers in the field known variously as virtual exchange, telecollaboration, or online intercultural exchange. It is the official journal of UNICollaboration, the international academic organisation dedicated to supporting and promoting telecollaboration and virtual exchange in higher-level education.

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# Appendix A
## Examples of Posts in Seesaw's Virtual Platform

<caption>### Figure 1</caption>

*Example Post by a Canadian Group of Students in Seesaw*

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

*Note*. This figure shows a Canadian group's presentation posted in the Seesaw virtual platform.
<caption>Figure 2</caption>

*Example Post by a Catalan Group of Students in Seesaw*

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

*Note*. This figure shows a Catalan group's list of questions posted in the Seesaw virtual platform.
<caption>Figure 3</caption>

Example Post by a Canadian Group of Students in Seesaw

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

*Note.* This figure shows a Canadian group's presentation posted in the Seesaw virtual platform.
<caption>Figure 4</caption>

*Example Post by a Catalan Group of Students in Seesaw*

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

*Note*. This figure shows a Catalan group's presentation posted in the Seesaw virtual platform, along with commentary by the Canadian students.
# Appendix B

## Weekly Telecollaboration Tasks

*(Inspired by Deardorff's (2006a) Intercultural Competence Model)*

**Task Outcomes:** The outcomes for each weekly task were based on Deardorff's (2006a) intercultural competence model.

### Task #1: Introductions

**General Outcomes:** Students will get to know one another.

**Intercultural Competence Outcomes:** Students will be encouraged to (1) be open to intercultural learning and curious about their telecollaboration partner students (*attitudes*), (2) demonstrate listening and interpreting skills when watching other's videos (*skills*), and (3) display adaptability and flexibility in determining how to respond to the introduction posts appropriately (*internal outcomes*).

**Task:** In small groups (within their classes), students create a short video using Seesaw screen recorder or their phones to introduce themselves. They state their names, where they are from (they may not originally be from the region where they currently live), at least one interesting fact about themselves, and, if they wish, the duration of time they have been studying their target language. In their videos, students speak in their target languages (i.e., in English for the students in Spain and in Spanish for the Canadian students). Students then upload their videos to Seesaw. Thereafter, students watch their partner class's videos. Then, in their groups, students write a comment in their target language on at least one group's video introduction from the partner class. Their comment can be written or in the form of a voice recording (Seesaw contains both comment features).

### Task #2: My Culture

**General Outcomes:** Students will learn about one another's cultures.

**Intercultural Competence Outcomes:** Students will be encouraged to (1) demonstrate respect, openness, and curiosity about learning about the other country/culture (*attitudes*), (2) exhibit listening, interpreting, analytical, and evaluation skills when viewing students' presentations
(skills), and (3) learn culture-specific information about the other country/culture and develop greater cultural self-awareness in producing their own presentations (knowledge).

**Task:** In groups of four to five (within their classes), students create short presentations on different aspects of their culture. Prior to commencing the task, as a class, students come up with specific topics they want to address, and then groups sign up for the topics (to avoid redundancy). Example topics include basic information about the country, key information about the region (Alberta or Catalonia), food, sports, special celebrations, music, art, and history. Students create the presentations in their target language and do so using a presentation software of their choice (e.g., PowerPoint, Google Slides, Canva, etc.). The presentations need not include an audio component; they can simply be presentations to read. Students then upload their presentations on Seesaw and watch their partner class's videos. In their groups, students then comment on at least one presentation from the partner class in their target language (the comment could be written or in the form of a voice recording). In their comments, students can identify elements of the presentation they found particularly interesting or surprising or ask a follow-up question.

## Task #3: Important Places

**General Outcomes:** Culture is often influenced by geographical locations and reflected in important sites (e.g., historical, traditional, touristic, etc.). Students, therefore, will learn about significant places in one another's countries.

**Intercultural Competence Outcomes:** Students will be encouraged to (1) demonstrate respect (valuing one another's cultures), openness (to learning and withholding judgment), and curiosity and discovery (learning about new places) (*attitudes*), (2) demonstrate listening skills, observation skills (observing what the others show in their presentation), and relating skills (identifying similarities in the places shown with places in the home country) (*skills*), and (3) develop greater cultural self-awareness (reflecting on places that are important to one's own country/culture) and understanding and knowing about places important to the partner class's country/culture (*knowledge*).
**Task:** In their usual groups (within their respective classes), students choose one significant place in their region or country. Students must “sign up” for places so each presentation is unique. Students must prepare a short presentation about their chosen place in their target language and identify why it is important to their country/culture (e.g., it could be a historical site, a capital city, a popular tourist destination, etc.). Students then upload their presentations to Seesaw and watch the presentations from the other class. Each group must then comment on another group’s project from the partner class in their target language. In their comments, students can identify elements of the presentation they found particularly interesting or surprising or ask a follow-up question.

**Task #4: Discovering Cultural Similarities and Differences**

**General Outcomes:** Students will understand similarities and differences between one another's cultures. Students will find common ground and learn from cultural differences.

**Intercultural Competence Outcomes:** Students will be encouraged to (1) demonstrate respect (valuing one another's cultures), openness (to learning and withholding judgment), and curiosity about learning about the other country/culture (*attitudes*), (2) demonstrate listening skills (listening to one another's ideas when working together), interpreting skills (strive to understand what one another is saying), evaluation skills (evaluating similarities & differences), and relating skills (finding common ground in one another's cultures) (*skills*), and (3) learn culture-specific information about the other country/culture and develop greater cultural self-awareness (*knowledge*).

**Task:** Students are encouraged to imagine that students from their partner school are moving to their city and that they are tasked with sharing important information about what life is like in their city (e.g., school routines, mealtimes, typical leisure activities, popular sayings, milestones (when they can obtain their driver's license, move out from home), popular fashion, typical ways of greeting people and saying goodbye, etc.). Students must select at least two pieces of information to share with them via a video. Additionally, students must also think of at least two questions they have for their partner class about their culture/daily life and ask these in their video. After
recording their video on Seesaw video recorder or their phones, they must upload them to Seesaw.
Thereafter, they must watch the videos of the partner class and answer the questions they have via
written or audio comments.

<caption>Figure 5</caption>

*Example Slide Used to Introduce a Task to Students*

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

*Note*. This figure shows an example PowerPoint slide used to introduce students to their weekly task.
<caption>Figure 6</caption>

*Example Slide Used to Introduce a Task to Students*

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

*Note.* This figure shows an example PowerPoint slide used to introduce students to their weekly task.