The internationalization of SMEs has been the object of numerous studies in International Business (i.e. Omokaro-Romanus *et al.,* 2018; Adomako *et al.,*2020; Schmidt & Hansen, 2017; Ibeh *et al.*, 2012; etc. ). Researchers have widely debated the topic and addressed issues such as determining which factors contribute to and influence internationalization, examining the different ways and means of entering foreign markets, as well as considering the consequences that such a strategy may have on these enterprises. As regards the factors likely to drive internationalization efforts, research has generally pointed to an economic justification for the decision. However, some research has emphasized the importance psychological characteristics and the personality traits of the director in the strategic decision-making process (Miller and Toulouse, 1986). Indeed, the crucial role played by the directors’ cognitive and psychological orientations in the decision-making process regarding international expansion has become a focus of research interest in itself (see Francioni *et al.*, 2015; Oesterle *et al*., 2016; Laufs *et al.*, 2016; Maitland & Sammartino, 2015).”

In Entrepreneurship literature, the same line of inquiry has been taken up. The importance of the entrepreneur’s psychological characteristics in influencing the internationalization of an enterprise and, more broadly, the entrepreneurial process, has been highlighted by authors. Among the entrepreneur’s psychological factors often singled out is entrepreneurial passion (Drnovsek *et al*., 2016). It is defined as “consciously accessible intense positive feelings experienced by engagement in entrepreneurial activities associated with roles that are meaningful and salient to the self-identity of the entrepreneur” (Cardon *et al*., 2009, p.517). This approach of passion rules out any aggregated measure of passion as a specific personality trait and supports a disaggregated vision based on identity theory (Cardon *et al*., 2013). According to authors, the passion exhibited by entrepreneurs is one of the most significant and indispensable aspects of the entrepreneurial process (Hu *et al.,* 2022). More specifically, it was found that impassioned entrepreneurs showed greater motivation, commitment, and a higher propensity for new venture performance compared to others (Cardon & Mueller, 2016; Baum & Locke, 2004). Entrepreneurial passion, though intangible, can thus be powerful and even essential for companies seeking to create something new for society (Chen *et al*., 2009). The effect of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial intention, process, and outcome, has been widely recognized since then (see Cardon *et al.,* 2009; 2017; Lee & Herrmann, 2021; Newman *et al.,* 2021 for an extensive survey of existing literature). For example, when recent literature on entrepreneurial passion is subjected to closer scrutiny, we note that an emphasis is placed on passion’s influence on the individuals’ sense of self-motivation and their level of energy (Cova & Guercini, 2016; Brännback *et al.*, 2006), the entrepreneurs’ persistence and tenacity to achieve their business enterprise’s stated goals and their perseverance in the face of obstacles or challenges (Adomako & Ahsan, 2022; Mueller *et al.*, 2017; Cardon & Mueller, 2016; Bierly *et al*.*,* 2000; Cardon *et al*., 2013 ). It also appears to enable the entrepreneur’s alertness and his ability to recognize business opportunities more easily (Laaksonen *et al.,*2011; Campos, 2017). Passion has also been determined to be a strong indicator of entrepreneurs’ ability to persuade investors (venture capitalists and business angels) to fund new and growing ventures by influencing their decisions (Chen *et al*., 2009; Mitteness *et al.,*2012; Cardon & Mueller, 2016; Murnieks *et al.,*2016). Furthermore, research has highlighted the impact of entrepreneurial passion on the other business stakeholders, such as employees (Breugst *et al.,*2012), or on the entrepreneurial passion of the team (Zhu & Wei, 2020). Lastly, research has drawn on the concept of passion to explain certain aspects of business performance on the part of entrepreneurial ventures and established SMEs, such as company survival (Stenholm & Renko, 2016), growth (Cardon *et al.,*2017; Drnovsek *et al*., 2016; Adomako & Ahsan, 2022), profit (Adomako *et al.,*2023) and radical innovation (Bierly *et al.,*2000; Strese *et al.*, 2018; Luu & Nguyen, 2021). The negative effects of the diversity of passion among the individual team members in relation to their overall performance were also addressed by De mol *et al.* (2020). It appears that entrepreneurial passion can explain the differences in behavior between entrepreneurs. It can, for example, explain why certain entrepreneurs do not necessarily succeed in all phases of the entrepreneurial process (Gharbi & Boudabbous, 2014), or it makes it possible to identify what distinguishes “habitual entrepreneurs” from “serial entrepreneurs” (Thorgren & Wincent, 2013).

In general, a review of International Business and Entrepreneurship literature reveals a relationship between, on the one hand, the entrepreneur’s or the director’s psychological characteristics and internationalization and, on the other hand, between passion and the entrepreneurial process. However, it must be acknowledged that this literature is still at an exploratory stage (Chen *et al.*, 2009; Strese *et al*., 2018; Adomako *et al.*, 2020). Research remains to be done into understanding the interface between individual traits, such as passion, and organizational outcomes (Strese *et al*., 2018; Lee & Herrmann, 2021). Indeed, despite the significant contributions made by scholars over the last few years to advance our understanding of entrepreneurial passion several issues are not addressed. The consequences of passion in the entrepreneurial internationalization process have been under-studied if not entirely ignored, in developed and developing countries alike. To our knowledge, only the study by Adomako *et al.* (2020) actually draws a correlation between entrepreneurial passion and internationalization among SMEs. However these authors, considered one African business context (Ghana) and only one dimension of passion precisely passion for growth or for developing in addressing that relationship. This prevents any generalization attempt. Indeed, as Cardon and his colleagues (2009) have sustained it, entrepreneurial passion can be addressed by considering at least three distinct entrepreneurial role identities: inventor, founder, and developer. At present, it is difficult to know if entrepreneurial passion is a key determining fact behind internationalization. More specifically, research aimed at understanding the potential advantages of passion in the development of small businesses remains inconsistent because it is focused largely on business growth measured in terms of sales growth, profitability and increase in the number of employees (Baum & Locke, 2004; Drnovsek *et al*., 2016; Adomako & Ahsan, 2022). However, according to these measures, company growth might appear to be nationally driven. Researchers seem to have attempted, above all, to assess the impact of passion on the company’s business activities without looking beyond the company’s domestic market (Adomako *et al.,*2020). All of these observations tend to support the idea that additional research is needed to enrich literature addressing the link between entrepreneurial passion and internationalization. This article is intended to serve exactly that purpose. Consequently, our study addresses the following question: *What influence does entrepreneurial passion exert on the internationalization of* *SMEs?*

Our study relies on previous scientific literature focusing on passion (Cardon *et al.*, 2009) and will explore the interaction between entrepreneurial passion and internationalization of SMEs in developing countries, while looking at four practical cases studies examples found in Sub-Saharan Africa (Mali, Ivory-Coast, and Senegal). Our study contributes to the current debate on this topic in several ways. Firstly, by considering entrepreneurial passion as a psychological trait of the entrepreneurs, we enrich current literature on International Business dealing with factors that drive SME internationalization and those linked to the leaders’ psychological traits (as in the case of research by Adomako *et al*., 2017; 2020; Lai *et al*., 2017; Oesterle *et al*., 2016). By doing so we also enrich International Entrepreneurship literature. This research stream is at the junction of International Business and Entrepreneurship literatures and draws on the notion that internationalization is an entrepreneurial behavior driven by individual related factors among others. Secondly, our study contributes to the existing literature by considering the Sub-Saharan Africa study setting. Indeed, relative to studies on developed countries, scant scholarly attention has been focused on entrepreneurship in emerging countries, particularly in the case of countries on the African continent. Moreover, the vast majority of entrepreneurship literature devoted to examples from developed countries calls into question the very principle of generalizing theories and findings from earlier research. The circumstances inherent to the Sub-Saharan context are far too different from those found in developed countries, in terms of political systems, economic structures, and culture perspectives, not to mention financial and infrastructural resources. The institutional gaps (i.e. corruption, lack of funding, regulatory uncertainties) that characterize these contexts make them very specific and are likely to significantly affect the internationalization process experienced by African SMEs. Therefore studying the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and internationalization of SMEs in African contexts will certainly bring out interesting insights and would represent a significant contribution to the extant literature on the subject. Indeed, as stated by Lee & Herrmann (2021) conducting empirical research on entrepreneurial passion in various cultural contexts would bring fruitful directions for the literature. Thirdly, it should also be noted, on a methodological note, that a preponderance of studies on entrepreneurial passion have been quantitative in nature (see the survey by Cardon *et al.,*2009, 2017; Newman *et al.,*2021). Detailed and in-depth qualitative research is therefore much needed. A qualitative analysis will give better insight into the how entrepreneurial passion is exhibited and is defined by SMEs directors, thereby providing a much greater congruence between managerial theory and practice. As emphasized by Newman *et al.* (2021) after conducting an extensive survey of literature on passion, current research uses a broad array of definitions and various measurements of entrepreneurial passion and come to no consensus as to the best way to use these disparate approaches. An enhanced conceptualization and measurement of entrepreneurial passion is needed, and a qualitative analysis could be a means to that end. In that perspective, we have decided to conduct a qualitative assessment of our research question. This would enable us, in the end, to propose explanatory variables regarding entrepreneurial passion exhibited by African entrepreneurs. We believe that, ultimately, the findings of this study pertain not only to SMEs operating in Africa but also to SMEs in other developing countries. Also, these findings might persuade African SMEs to recruit individuals possessing the right personality traits, allowing these business ventures to take advantage of business opportunities as they arise.

As studies on entrepreneurial passion and venture internationalization are rare, we have decided, for the purposes of our present research, to rely on past work, as a means of supplementing our understanding of the topic at hand. This article will therefore present, first of all, a summary of findings from existing literature regarding the key factors driving SMEs’ internationalization, notably entrepreneurial passion in the African context. Then, we will discuss the methodology we employed in carrying out our research. And, to conclude, we will present the results that we observed and the insights that they offer.
# SMEs internationalization and entrepreneurial passion: A survey
				of existing literature

## SMES internationalization: Specific features and influencing factors

Internationalization is the approach that an organization takes to engage in business activities abroad in order to become a major player (Omokaro-Romanus *et al.,*2018). This can encompass activities such as export, import, relocation, subcontracting, licenses, direct investment, or all types of strategic alliances. As regards the factors likely to drive internationalization efforts, research has generally pointed to two major perspectives: objective and subjective (Adomako *et al.,*2020). The first stems to the economic justification for the decision. The second one pertains to managerial motives derived from psychological characteristics and the personality traits of the director. Concerning these managerial factors, Aharoni (1966) made a pioneering study stressing managers’ influence on international business strategies adopted by enterprises in developed countries. Expanding on the concept of bounded rationality, Hambrick & Mason (1984) and Hambrick (2007) developed, in turn, the Upper Echelons Theory and affirmed that a company’s strategic decisions are influenced by managers’ demographic and cognitive background factors. They explain, in this way, how certain of the managers’ demographic factors, such as international experience, age or seniority in an organization, affect the company’s global growth. This model was bolstered, sometime later, by a number of authors (i.e. Carpenter *et al.,* 2004) while taking into account more cognitive and psychological variables, such as, for example, values and goal preferences of top management teams. Felin & Foss (2005, p. 441) emphasize that “*to fully explicate organizational anything whether identity, learning, knowledge or capabilities – one must fundamentally begin with and understand the individuals that compose the whole, …”* Along the same lines, Gavetti (2012) stresses the need to understand the behavior of strategic leaders, such as CEOs and their pursuit of cognitively distant strategies, which entail a high level of risk, as in the case with internationalization. Hence, internationalization cannot be explained solely based on objective motivating factors (e.g. an economic justification) as was long the case in international business literature (Schotter & Beamish, 2013). Subjective managerial factors, such as the manager’s personality, must also be considered.

Nonetheless, to this day, studies on the impact of managers’ cognitive attributes on internationalization remain scarce compared to those on company-related factors (Adomako et al, 2020). Indeed, despite calls for more in-depth research into the role played by top executives’ personality in the internationalization process and attempts to address the issue (Oesterle *et al.,*2016; Francioni *et al.,*2015; Laufs *et al.,*2016; Maitland & Sammartino, 2015), the subject still remains largely misunderstood with fragmented and context specific results. This prevents any attempt into the generalization of the subjective determinants of internationalization. Through the present article, we offer our response to this important issue raised by entrepreneurial and international business specialists by analyzing the impact of an entrepreneur’s personality trait, particularly his passion, on his enterprise’s internationalization effort.

## Entrepreneurial passion

Drawing on psychological literature on emotions and sentiments while integrating approaches rooted in research and practice in the field of entrepreneurship, Cardon and his colleagues offer a conceptual definition of entrepreneurial passion. That definition can be summed up in this way: any consciously accessible intense positive feelings experienced by engagement in entrepreneurial activities. More specifically, entrepreneurial passion stimulates the entrepreneurs’ cognitive and behavioral potential and encourages them to engage in entrepreneurial activities with great enthusiasm. It reinforces the entrepreneurs’ capacity to process information related to decision-making, which helps them to overcome difficulties encountered in the entrepreneurial process as quickly as possible (Cardon *et al*., 2009). That definition echoes that proposed by Vallerand *et al.* (2003), who define entrepreneurial passion as a kind of passion that entrepreneurs experience when they participate in or think about activities related to entrepreneurship. Relying on studies by Cardon *et al.* (2009, 2013), we have chosen to concentrate on the idea that entrepreneurial passion refers, overall, to the positive emotional experience of high self-esteem felt by entrepreneurs engaging in entrepreneurial activities.

Upon reviewing literature on entrepreneurial passion, we have also been able to identify that a variety of activities relevant to the entrepreneurial context were taken into consideration when explaining passion. Cardon *et al*. (2009) identified three main activities to which entrepreneurial passion can be attached. These activities, which are deemed to be salient to the self-identity of the entrepreneur, are as follows: inventor identity or entrepreneurial passion for exploring new activities; founder identity or entrepreneurs’ passion for creating new ventures; and, lastly, developer identity or entrepreneurs’ passion for nurturing the growth of new ventures. Entrepreneurs who are passionate about inventing (i.e. inventors) enjoy activities related to developing new ideas, new products, or innovative solutions (Strese *et al.*, 2018). They always seek to identify, invent, explore, and take advantage of opportunities on the market. For these entrepreneurs, the ability to develop creative and disruptive ideas on the market is a central and determinant characteristic of their self-identity. They are also especially motivated by opportunity recognition, which relies on their skill for efficient and creative problem solving. Entrepreneurs who exhibit a passion for creation (i.e. founders) concentrate on creating ventures in order to launch new products or services. Entrepreneurs with a founder identity enjoy the venture creation process to the point that they become serial entrepreneurs while leaving day-to-day operational tasks to other business managers (Strese *et al.*, 2018). These entrepreneurs focus on taking advantage of venture-creation opportunities and are eager to secure the resources necessary to achieve that end. Lastly, entrepreneurs with a developer identity (i.e. developers) are passionate about growing and expanding their venture once it has been created. Their goal is to develop their venture and make sure that it thrives and survives over time. In that perspective, they are motivated to continually gather and mobilize new resources such as the capital and human resources needed for their project (Cardon *et al.*, 2013). These individuals often present organizational management and communication strategies that differ from those of their peers (Strese *et al.*, 2018). However, in more recent studies, Cardon and his colleagues (2017) argue that the state of knowledge on the sources of entrepreneurial passion is somewhat limited and focuses mainly on activities predetermined by scholars rather than those described by the entrepreneurs themselves. In that light, and in the context of making a qualitative assessment, they have expanded the scope of the sources of entrepreneurial passion to include six major sources: passion for growth, passion for inventing, passion for people, passion for the product or service, passion for competition and passion for a social cause. Overall, according to these authors, entrepreneurs can feel a passion for a range of activities. That suggests that researchers limiting their analysis to a single source of passion might potentially ignore other sources of passion that motivate entrepreneurs.

For the purposes of this study, our basic assumption is that entrepreneurs probably have many rather than a single source of passion and so, in deciding on a phenomenological approach, we have opted to let those factors be derived from field work. We have thus decided to adopt a more flexible approach regarding the sources of entrepreneurial passion in the African business landscape, but also regarding its impact on the internationalization efforts of SMEs. Indeed, as emphasized previously, the state of scholarly literature on the definition of entrepreneurial passion as well as the role it plays in internationalization is still at an exploratory stage.

## Entrepreneurial passion and SMEs’ internationalization in an African
				context

Internationalization is a complex process that entails taking into account numerous dynamic factors such as the foreign market landscape, knowledge and understanding about tastes and preferences of international consumers, as well as identifying and fighting political, economic, and social challenges at local and international levels. All of these factors render the internationalization process all the more challenging.

As regards developing markets, more specifically African countries, the challenges are even more restrictive due to institutional gaps. Generally speaking, institutional gaps “refers to the absence of the institutions that facilitate economic activity, as well as the absence of an associated set of rewards and sanctions to enforce those rules, norms and belief systems” (Tracey & Phillips, 2011, p.31). African businesses face a number of institutional gaps or fundamental environmental constraints such as corruption, infrastructure-related impediments, weak marketing and distribution channels, ineffective investment promotion policies, the lack of funding and technological resources, excessive bureaucracy, regulatory uncertainties, and daunting market risks (Schmidt & Hansen, 2017). On the African sub-regional level, matters are complicated by the delicate relationships between certain countries, persistent social stereotypes, and low levels of trust (Ngwu *et al.*, 2015). Facing the competition posed by Western international businesses has also proved to be a major challenge for African enterprises, whether on a national or industry sector basis (Adeleye *et al.,* 2018). In addition, mistrust of African products has persisted among African consumers, who show a preference for foreign products and Western brands. Beyond these systemic problems, businesses in emerging countries also face the wide-reaching risks associated with internationalization, such as information asymmetry, political risk, a lack of knowledge about consumer tastes and preferences, and the high cost of monitoring competition in home and host countries (Agnihotri & Bhattacharya, 2019). Taken together, these structural and local contextual factors make the challenges faced by enterprises in developing countries, and particularly those in Africa, highly country-specific and different compared to challenges facing enterprises in developed countries (Ibeh *et al.,*2012). That means that internationalizing these enterprises is a more complex and risky strategy, which requires greater managerial boldness, higher levels of self-confidence and a higher appetite for risk (Chittoor *et al*., 2015). In other words, highly risk-seeking decision-makers will be more likely to pursue the internationalization of their ventures than those who are more risk-averse.

It would also appear that risk-seeking capacity is far more pronounced among passionate entrepreneurs. For example, a developer or an entrepreneur passionate with the growth of his business will tend to mobilize all the resources needed to meet that objective (Cardon *et al.*, 2009; 2013; 2017). He will focus on activities such as improving sales or customer base, recruiting new employees, finding outside funding to help develop his business operations and gaining access to new markets. Adomako and his colleagues (2020) while considering the Ghanaian context show that passion is positively related to firms’ degree of internationalization that is to say the intensity of their international venturing activities. Specifically, entrepreneurs with passion for developing will concentrate on activities that involve expanding the business and this includes international expansion. Globally, they will show tenacity, dynamism, and deep engagement in the pursuit of business growth. According to the Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), individuals strive toward goals when they understand the process for achieving these goals and when their identity reflects this process (Adomako *et al.*, 2020). In this way, entrepreneurs motivated to expand their business venture commit to the challenge of satisfying their needs and achieving their own goals.

In conclusion, in the context of developing countries and institutional gaps, considering the leaders’ characteristics traits to explain companies’ strategic decision-making processes and overall corporate strategy is thus of great importance particularly for African SMEs. A passionate entrepreneur can be a real asset for his business when it is involved in the pursuit of internationalization:

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1 — Research Model</figcaption></figure>
# Methodology

## Data collection

The multiple case study (Miles & Huberman, 2003) was chosen as a qualitative research design. This methodological choice is guided by the incompleteness of the existing research on entrepreneurial passion and by our objective of gaining more insight into its relationship with internationalization of Sub-Saharan African SMEs (Yin, 2003; Eisenhardt, 1989).

We used a targeted sampling (Patton, 1990, p.169) to select our cases studies which considering our topic are entrepreneurs. A targeted sampling process entailed contacting individuals well versed in the research topic and examining the data sources that might produce the most informative and insightful cases. In that perspective, letters of request to participate in our research were sent by mail and via LinkedIn to a hundred of SMEs run by entrepreneurs from different countries in Sub-Saharan Africa that is to say countries of the African continent that are not considered part of North Africa. SMEs in Sub-Saharan Africa are identified as companies with annual workforce between 10 and 300 employees (World Bank). The SMEs registered in our survey frame are generally at least three years old, have internationalization activities, have attained a certain degree of business viability, and are in the process of expanding. Out of the hundred SMEs contacted, 5 agreed to participate in the study but only 4 were finally considered in our final sample because we observed through our exchanges that one company hasn’t yet completed an international process. According to Eisenhardt (1989), 4 to 10 cases is an ideal number when utilizing a multi-case study approach. The four SMEs in our sample have different sizes and belong to different sectors of activity ranging from laboratory equipment, energy, construction, and public works to digital marketing. They are as well from different countries: Mali, Senegal, and Ivory-Coast. This introduces some variety into the sample (Miles & Huberman, 2003). In addition, these companies export their products and services in various geographical areas located in Africa (see Table 1). The export consists of either a direct sale to customers (i.e. one-off contracts, response to public tenders, subsidiary) or an indirect one via distributors or dealers. However, given our selection process, no representativeness of the SMEs surveyed is claimed, and generalization of findings to other samples will be limited.

The interviews lasted, from 45 to 60 min each and were conducted during the period of February to March 2021. They were semi-structured. The entrepreneurs were asked to tell their stories “From the time they created or took over the helm of their enterprises, up until today” and discuss their career paths before creating their enterprises. Besides, instead of presenting definitions of passion as outlined in scholarly literature, and rather than yielding to presumptions, we have followed the example of Cardon*et al.* (2017) and very openly asked entrepreneurs to tell us what drove their passion, and let their experiences guide our findings. We sought to gain a sense of how the entrepreneur saw his opportunities, sources of inspiration, passions, business creation process, stages of business growth and the keys to his success (Hammond *et al*., 1991). In the course of these interviews, the entrepreneur was encouraged to “provide a careful and authentic description of ordinary conscious experience” (Cope, 2005, p.167), regardless of the level of detail that he wished to share, which gave the researcher concrete contexts of their experiences, because they had been described by the entrepreneurs themselves (Thompson *et al*., 1989).

To supplement the initial data collection, we subsequently sent the interviewees a check sheet to be filled out online. The check sheet contained an outline of the major themes set out in the semi-structured interviews that is to say questions and affirmations on entrepreneurial passion, internationalization, and context specific factors. The aim was not only to have them provide any additional information that might enrich the data already collected but, above all, to let them make any necessary corrections.

## Data analysis

To evaluate the data collected, we have used an inductive framework, relying on a phenomenological approach that consists in distinguishing common themes running through the interviews (Mitchell, 1997). The themes related to what the entrepreneurs found to be most passion-inducing in terms of their entrepreneurial experience, their internationalization efforts, the impact factors, and the connection between these factors and the venture’s business activity. Rather than adapt the data to existing frameworks, we let the categories emerge organically from the entrepreneurs’ stories and verbal accounts. Therefore, we sought to identify “*coherent and essential examples, themes and patterns in existing data…which are examples of the same underlying idea, subject, or concept*” (Patton, 1987, p. 149). We have made groupings and comparisons of statements that cut across themes and run throughout different stories. Using that approach, we do not count the number of words but make a holistic evaluation of what the surveyed entrepreneurs describe and feel (Cardon *et al.*, 2017).

In analyzing entrepreneurial passion and identifying its underlying variables, we have relied on the conceptual definition provided by Cardon *et al*. (2009) to guide our study. Accordingly, we focused on specific words such as “passion,” “love,” “excitement,” “vision” and “who or what I am” (identity), as well as the related context and the sub-text. We noted, nonetheless, that entrepreneurs employed the term “passion” or “motivation,” spontaneously in their oral accounts and explained what drove their passion or motivated them the most in their entrepreneurial efforts. We then drew up summaries for each emergent theme category by delving directly into the data.

Next, to ensure the reliability of our constructs, and as part of a confirmatory analysis of the results obtained from our initial study, we proceeded to use the Nvivo software, a reference in the thematic analysis of transcriptions’ contents. As part of that process, we performed a second data coding sequence and thematic analysis on our data, while continuing to follow a phenomenological approach. Using Nvivo allowed us to formulate more complete matrixes (e.g. cross-correlation matrixes and cross tabulations) highlighting the relative importance of each factor for each case studied, displaying comparative patterns in our data, and linking the variables among them (see from table 2 to 5).

Finally, we compared existing classifications regarding the study variables (e.g. entrepreneurial passion) to the categories that emerged from our data (Eisenhardt, 1989), to help develop and broaden the theory “*with a stronger credibility and a more in-depth conceptual understanding*”(Cope, 2005, p. 179) flowing from the lived experiences of the entrepreneurs who were interviewed.

<table><caption>Table 1 — Characteristics of the research sample and profile of the participants</caption><tr><td>Case 1Case 2Case 3Case 4Company profileBusiness ActivityProvision of
						laboratory equipment and suppliesEnergy, Electricity and Hydroelectric
						PowerConstruction and public works – design, engineering, installation, and
						maintenanceConsulting in digital marketing Number of Employees17150250 +
						approx. 50-day laborers, depending on contractor’s needs12Date of enterprise
						creation2013199419572012Age of enterprise8 years24 years64 years9
						yearsNationalityMaliMaliIvory CoastSenegalInitial Countries of destination
						for exportsIvory CoastIvory Coast, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau -GabonCountries in
						which the enterprise currently offers its products/services Ivory Coast,
						Mali, Liberia, Guinea, Senegal, Togo, Benin, Niger, Gambia, Mauritania,
						Cameroun, GabonIvory Coast, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, sporadic business
						dealings based on replies to calls for tenders in almost all countries of
						the sub-region (i.e. Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Niger)Dozens of West
						African countries, extending to Central Africa (i.e. Niger, Burkina Faso,
						Cameroun, Togo, Senegal, etc.)Ivory Coast and limited-time operations while
						offering services remotely to international clients located in almost all of
						the WAEMU countries (i.e. Niger, Burkina, Mali, etc., Central Africa)Types
						of activities internationalized by the enterprise and mode of entrySale of
						laboratory equipment, installation, maintenance, and training via direct
						exporting.Same activities as provided locally via direct exporting (i.e.
						one-off contracts, response to calls for tenders, subsidiary in
						Ivory‑Coast).Same activities as provided locally via direct exporting
						(direct sales to customers, subsidiary in Niger) or indirect exporting
						(intermediaries, dealers).Same activities as provided locally - sometimes
						offering adapted to suit the local context – via direct exporting (direct
						sales to customers, subsidiary in Ivory‑Coast)Profile of the
						entrepreneur/directorCompany Manager’s profileAge: 47 years oldPersonal
						Background: an offspring of the diaspora, holds dual nationality.Enterprise
						creator.Personality Traits: Pan‑Africanist and patriot.Professional
						Background: work experience at a European international company.Age: 60
						years oldPersonal Background: Enterprise creator.Personality Traits: Man of
						action and avid networker,Ambitious and committed to helping people improve
						their lives.Professional Background: worked in a sub-regional institution
						before creating his own enterprise.Age: approx. 50Personal Background: took
						over as head of enterprise 17 years ago, an offspring of the
						diaspora.Vice-president of Ivoirian consortium of public works
						businesses.Personality Traits: Man of action and avid networker; aims to
						create value and be useful to society. His objective is to contribute to the
						professional development of his co-workers and colleagues.Professional
						Background: worked at European and African international companies. Held
						several managerial positions.Age: 34 years oldPersonal Background: Immersed
						in various multicultural environments, dual nationality.Freelance business
						as consultant in his area of specialization.Enterprise creator.Personality
						Traits: Man of action, motivated to contribute to the development of his
						co-workers, colleagues, local businesses and to serve as an example.
						Pan-Africanist.Professional Background: initial working experience in
						business company.</td></tr></table>
# Presentation of the key findings

## The determinant of entrepreneurial passion in an African context

Our data analysis revealed six main sources of passion on the part of the entrepreneurs who figured in our sample set, as shown in Tables**2 and 3.

The factor that was most frequently cited as the object of passion is achieving **development or growth of the enterprise**by acquiring more market shares. All of our respondents mentioned this point and the sub-variable of this source of passion accounted for the most frequently mentioned coded category, at 26.09%. For all the entrepreneurs who participated in the study, growth is important and is considered to be an obvious goal, or at least a natural focus. The passion for growth is manifested in the desire to pursue internationalization of local business activities in the countries situated in the sub-region, whether that entails the creation of subsidiaries and/or representative offices.

The second-most cited source of passion, and whose sub-variables accounts for the most frequently mentioned coded category is “**Pan-Africanism** and **patriotism**” (e.g. 17.39% encoding reference for participation in the development of the continent). These factors are significant sources of motivation, even main drivers of business activity for the African managers surveyed. Almost all have a heartfelt desire to make their enterprise useful to their African continent by striving for business growth. That line of thinking, which embraced the whole continent through the development of the local country and other countries in the sub-region, is quite striking (e.g. direct quotes mention the intention to “*have an impact on the development of African businesses*” or to succeed in creating “*the United States of Africa*”). A strong motivation to reduce dependance on the West was also highlighted. The entrepreneur passion for his country, his motherland and, more generally, for his continent, Africa, is thus clearly articulated.

Having**a social mission** was also mentioned as a significant source of passion. That was reflected in managers’ desire to play a useful role for the enterprises and their countries’ population and the continent as a whole, as well as for their co-workers and employees. The passion **for innovation** was also evoked by a majority of our respondents; however, it is mentioned more modestly compared to previously cited sources of passion (mentions of this coded category stands at 8.7%).

We also found that, to a lesser degree, interviewees expressed a **passion for the business creation process**and **for people or human relations**.

<table><caption>Table 2 — Analysis of entrepreneurial sources of passion based on case study examples — NB1: Most entrepreneurs mentioned several sources of passion. — * This table also allows us to identify, for each case studied, the relative importance of each source of passion in relation to other sources, based on the percentage frequency of mentions under a coded category.</caption><tr><td>InnovationDevelop and export new ideas or innovative
						solutions.5.88%16.67%0%11.11%Case 1: “I like activities related to the
						development of new ideas, new products, or innovative solutions…”.Case 2:
						“…I always seek to identify, invent, explore and seize opportunities in the
						market”.Case 4: “Another thing that motivates me, personally, is that, in
						our field, what we make, we import. We import methodologies and standards,
						and what I would like to do is create methodologies locally that could be
						replicated elsewhere.”“We do things in terms of innovation but, for me, it
						is not enough… I would like to get funding to do research on digital
						marketing practices and methodologies.”Social MissionRender a service to the
						community(Be useful to businesses, co-workers, colleagues, and
						populations)11,76%0%20%11.11%Case 1: “Here, I have managed to realize my
						dreams materially and I also render an important service to the
						community.“We do a very useful work, monitoring food and drugs,
						strengthening of the technical capacities of laboratories, States,
						industries… So, that’s a real source of satisfaction. Not only do we do very
						important work for the general population, at the same time we realize our
						dreams.”“We also give ourselves the possibility to have an impact on
						millions of people and that will allow us to contribute to something even
						nicer for the continent.”Case 3: “Creating jobs, creating value. That’s
						value creation in its broadest sense, which is my main motivation. I find
						that rewarding. Seeing people that you yourself have trained, people who
						came to your business as entry-level engineers and who today are experts in
						their field, etc. That is all very rewarding.”Case 4: “What I am really
						passionate about is helping people to grow. That’s my great passion. When I
						work with a co-worker, a client, by the end of a month, a year, what I want
						them to say to me is that he underwent a positive growth in one aspect or
						another. And that is what I am passionate about, and whatever I do in life,
						I try to make that contribution.”“There is also the fact of contributing to
						inspiring young African generations so that they can say, hey, there are
						people who have created business from scratch. That started in one country
						and today they are in different countries. I am going to see how they did it
						and I am also going to try to do the same thing. That truly is what I would
						say is our deepest aspiration.” Serve as an example0%0%0%11.11%Patriotism
						and Pan-AfricanismParticipate in the development of the
						continent17.65%16.67%0%22.22%Case 1: “Africa has enormous riches in every
						sector”“The fact that I wanted to set up business in Africa, no matter the
						country, and given my origins, it’s a good thing for Africa because today
						highly qualified Africans, the elites, are outside Africa. Many of them got
						merit scholarships and stayed over there after they finished their studies,
						which is truly a loss for Africa.”“I really encourage people, especially the
						young who are highly qualified in those countries where there are good
						educational opportunities, to come back and let their country benefit from
						their knowledge and experience. Otherwise, there will just be another form
						of dependency. We see many Chinese and Indians occupying key sectors in
						Africa but, honestly, it is very unfortunate for us, and in a few years,
						there will be very dire consequences. We will be dependent and that will be
						just another form of colonialization, although we really have the talent to
						master many things.”“When I look around all these countries, there are
						really plenty of things to be done and to be developed, and it is up to us
						to do it. I gave it a try and I ended up contributing quite a lot. I started
						with one, single person and now there are twenty or so of us working in the
						enterprise.”“We have really boosted the technical capacity of laboratories,
						States, industries. We help them very much. We reduce their dependency on
						foreign sources. …”Case 2: “My passion is moving forward and to do what best
						serves my continent.”Case 4: “What interests me, personally, about the
						footprint of Africa is that I firmly believe in the United States of Africa.
						I tell myself that, sometimes, to be able to influence certain decisions,
						you have to reach a certain level of potential influence… as I said just
						before, I consider Africa to be the real continent. I would like to have an
						Africa-wide presence in a long-term perspective.”“Personally, that is
						something of my watchword and I would be very happy if, in a few years, many
						more people in Africa share that mindset. Because, in fact, it is in our
						best interest, and borders are a human creation and, when it really comes
						down to it, they don’t exist”. Participate in the development of the county
						(Be useful and help the home country to develop)35.29%0%0%0%Reduce African
						enterprises’ dependency on foreigners/foreign sources (the
						West)11.76%0%0%5.56%Human RelationsEncounters/interactions
						with people0%0%20%5.56%Case 3: “We are involved in a very human-oriented
						field where we meet a lot of people, human contact is very high, human
						relations are very important, and that’s something that I feel passionate
						about.”“As for me, I am vice-president of an Ivorian consortium of public
						works businesses…”Case 4: “Our ambition is to have customers everywhere, to
						work with organizations, coworkers, that communicate well, succeed in their
						mission, and have an impact on millions of people. By leaving Senegal, we
						also give ourselves the opportunity to work with more organization of this
						kind and to see even more missions of this type which can have an impact on
						millions of people”.Total*100%100%100%100%</td></tr></table>

<table><caption>Table 3 — Summary of variables according to percentage frequency of mentions under a coded category* — * Proportion of the number of mentions under the various coded category, out of the total data set.</caption><tr><td>Sources of passionSub-variable % Frequency of mentions under a coded
						category *Growth and DevelopmentAcquisition of more market shares(Market
						coverage across the entire African continent, creation of an ecosystem,
						regional business model, become the market reference and have a
						continent-wide impact)26.09%Patriotism and Pan-AfricanismParticipate in the
						development of the continent17.39%Participate in the development of the
						county(Be useful and help the home country to develop)13.04%Reduce African
						enterprises’ dependency on foreigners/foreign sources (the West)6.52%Social
						missionRender a service to the community(Be useful to businesses,
						co-workers, colleagues, and populations)10.87%Serve as an
						example4.35%InnovationDevelop and export new ideas or innovative
						solutions8.7%CreationValue Creation 4.35%Create as an ongoing
						process4.35%Human RelationsEncounters/interactions with
						people4.35%Total100%</td></tr></table>

## The relationship between entrepreneurial passion and
				internationalization

To demonstrate the existence of a relationship between entrepreneurial passion and internationalization, we used Nvivo to construct a cross-correlation matrix involving sources of entrepreneurial passion and the main international motivations cited by enterprises that were surveyed. Relationships between the following sources of passion (social mission, growth and “patriotism and Pan-Africanism”) and internationalization were identified.

It flows from our findings that one of the reasons that incites African SMEs’ entrepreneurs to internationalize is their desire to have a significant regional impact. That translates into setting an objective to contribute to the development of the continent and be useful to other organizations, as well as to the general population. Another motivation for internationalization identified in our findings is the prospect of becoming a reference in the minds of individuals (need for recognition – for example, on the part of the entrepreneur in Case**4, the objective is to inspire future generations and serve as an example). A recurrent idea throughout the respondents’ statements is that the development of Africa will not be possible until enterprises have achieved extensive territorial coverage across the continent. This entails that the development of Africa pertains on an economic integration among African countries through the mobilization of economic growth engines such as international expansion of companies and job creation. It is also interesting to note, on this point, that the connection between passion for the country and the continent **–**Pan-Africanism and patriotism and growth of these SMEs **–**comes almost naturally for different interviewees.

<table><caption>Table 4 — Entrepreneurial passion in relation to internationalization — * Number of coding references highlighting the link between entrepreneurial passion variables and internationalization motives.</caption><tr><td>Internationalization MotivesEntrepreneurial PassionA: Have a significant
						regional impact B: GrowthC: Return on Investment and Accumulation of
						Experience D: Serve as an exampleCreation1: Value Creation00002: Create as
						an ongoing process0000Growth and Development3: Acquisition of more market
						shares5*500Innovation4: Develop and export new ideas or innovative
						solutions0000Social mission 5: Be useful to businesses, co-workers,
						colleagues, and populations10006: Serve as an example0001Patriotism and
						Pan‑Africanism7: Participate in the development of the continent21008:
						Participate in the development of the country00009: Reduce African
						enterprises’ dependency on foreigners/foreign sources (the West)0000Human
						relations10: Encounters/interactions with people0000</td></tr></table>

## Institutional gaps, internationalization, and entrepreneurial passion

As emphasized in the literature review, the African context is characterized by considerable institutional gaps. Overall, national preferences, political instability, corruption, administrative slowness on the part of state institutions, prolonged payment periods and the failure to effectively implement free-trade agreements and regulations were cited. Factors such as the low number of private business enterprises are also highlighted within certain business areas, especially the industrial sector (e.g. laboratory equipment, energy). That means that, for large-scale contracts, the main client continues to be the State, with all the constraints that implies (administrative slowness, delays in payment). As for the other institutional gaps identified in this study, see Table****5 in which we categorize gaps by case studied, business area and country of origin.

As regards the connection between institutional gaps and internationalization, two clear positions emerged from our results. Some of our respondents contend that no relationships exist (i.e. Cases 3 and 4). In their view, institutional gaps have absolutely no bearing on their internationalization efforts, due to the availability of certain state support measures. That is the case with common-market-related customs benefits arising from WAEMU/ECOWAS (West African Economic and Monetary Union/ Commission of the Economic Community of West African States), and the existence of state institutions and local state agencies for the promotion and financing of exports even if these supports, as they currently stand, could be made more accessible, reliable, and more extensive. The lack of link underlined by these entrepreneurs could also be attributed to the nature of their company business activities. In that regard, the sector in which the enterprise operates plays an important role in determining the impact that institutional gaps may have. For instance, a digital company (Case****4) that does not ship any products would not necessarily face institutional challenges involving significant customs tariffs. However, it would appear that some institutional gaps can give rise to supplemental costs when certain business enterprises internationalize. That is the case, notably, with the entrepreneur in Case****1, who stressed that he had to bear costs related to replacing components destroyed or damaged during transit because the roadways are generally in poor condition. Corruption and exorbitant customs fees are also highlighted as obstacles to internationalization. On the latter point, respondents’ statements should, nevertheless, be considered with prudence. Indeed, we noted a certain lack of understanding regarding customs standards on the part of certain entrepreneurs who deem the payment of customs tariffs upon import and export as abnormal or as a double payment of custom taxes for the same product. The entrepreneurs’ and customs agents’ lack of understanding of regulatory standards can thus constitute a constraint to internationalization by African SMEs.

Our evaluation shows that although these institutional gaps can, in some instances, serve as a constraint to internationalization by African SMEs, they do not necessarily hamper such efforts altogether. The existence of certain institutional constraints does not dampen the will of passionate entrepreneurs to pursue internationalization. Their motivation to develop the continent and achieve growth for their business venture mitigates the impact of these barriers. In some cases, institutional gaps can even be motivating factors for pursuing international efforts. For example, the entrepreneur in Case****1 considers the obstacle relating to the limited available customer base (local demand limited to the State) as a motivating factor for targeting other countries and markets. For the entrepreneur in Case****2, institutional gaps prompt SMEs to internationalize and, to that end, target countries with less complicated regulatory standards and requirements (e.g. Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso).
# Discussion of the results

The objective of this exploratory study is to improve the knowledge on the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and internationalization of SMEs in developing countries contexts, notably in Africa. In that perspective, we placed particular importance on identifying, first of all, the sources of entrepreneurial passion. Indeed, to our knowledge there is no study having explore these sources considering the African context. Figure 2 presents a summary of our results.

Most studies on entrepreneurial passion have focused largely, if not entirely, on analyzing passion directed toward “activities” notably those pertaining to inventing, founding, developing, etc. (see for example, Cardon *et al*., 2009; 2013; 2017; Murnieks *et al*., 2012; Drnovsek *et al*., 2016; Baum & Locke, 2004; Vallerand *et al*., 2003; etc. ). Certain researchers have also suggested that entrepreneurs might be passionate about a specific object of study or about their enterprise itself (Chen *et al*., 2009, for an overview, see Cardon *et al.*, 2017, Newman *et al.*, 2021; Lee & Herrmann, 2021). Recently, Cardon and his colleagues (2017) stressed the importance of moving beyond this approach, which has proved limiting regarding the definition of entrepreneurial passion. With that in mind, they relied on a qualitative analysis to identify six major sources of passion (a passion for growth, passion for people, passion for the product or service, passion for inventing, passion for competition and passion for a social cause).

In our present study, we have been able to confirm certain sources of passion identified in the recent research undertaken by Cardon *et al.* (2017), especially passion related to growth, passion for people (which we have classified as passion for human relations), passion for inventing and passion for social causes. As underlined by Cardon *et al.* (2017), the sources of passion relating to people and social causes are important aspects of entrepreneurship; however, experiences arising from these types of passion are noticeably absent from existing literature. Our findings thus serve to substantiate and to enrich research on the subject. We found nothing to indicate a sense of passion for the business enterprise itself (Chen *et al*., 2009). We also have not identified anything in relation to passion for a product or service or competition. Our findings show that entrepreneurs may exhibit a passion for several objects. Hence, in the same vein as Cardon *et al.* (2017), we must emphasize that existing research, which limits respondents to talking about a single source of passion, potentially leads to ignoring other sources of passion expressed among these entrepreneurs. Our study has also made it possible to identify a source of passion that was not emphasized in previous research. Namely: passion for the country and the continent/Africa, which we have described as “patriotism and Pan-Africanism”. To be sure, there is reason to wonder whether this source of passion is specific to the African context. However that may be, it constitutes a considerable theoretical contribution attributable to this study.

Furthermore, it is important to stress that, in the African context, the sole study devoted to analyzing the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and internationalization, takes into account Ghanaian entrepreneurs’ passion for development/growth (Adomako *et al.,*2020). Our research corroborates the existence of a link between these variables. In any event, based on our findings, we are able to identify still other links, notably, between passion for the country and the continent and internationalization. The entrepreneur’s motivation to help and develop his continent incites him to move out of his local market so as to expand his business venture beyond national borders. It is that Pan-Africanist ambition that stimulates the director of the SME to internationalize. Overall, even if literature refers to the relationship between passion and internationalization, the way that relationship is created and determined lacks clarity. Our research shows that this relationship involves other passion- and personality-related factors such as Pan-Africanism, or in certain cases, the prospect of fulfilling a social mission (being useful to enterprises, to the population, serving as an example). These findings constitute interesting and significant theoretical contributions to literature on the subject because they call attention to factors that were not highlighted in previous research. Our study also extends and reinforces the study of Adomako *et al.*(2020) by illustrating the scope of the proposed ideas in the context of another countries (Ivory-Coast, Senegal, and Mali).

<table><caption>Table 5 — Summary of institutional gaps affecting SMEs in an African context — *Total number of mentions under coded categories explaining institutional gaps in Africa.</caption><tr><td>VariablesCountry of origin = Mali (n=2) Country of origin = Ivory Coast
						(n= 1) Country of origin = Senegal (n= 1) Total
						(n=4)Case 1Case 2Case 3Case 4Business Sector =Energy, Electricity and
						Hydroelectric Power (n=1)Business Sector = Provision of laboratory equipment
						and supplies (n=1)Business Sector = Construction and public works – design,
						engineering, installation and maintenance (n=1)Business Sector = Consulting
						in digital marketing (n=1)Institutional gaps at the home-country levelLack
						of stronger support on the part of state institutions 00202Significant
						tariffs levied on both imports and exports02002Prolonged payment periods on
						public markets 04004Cumbersome bureaucracy and administrative
						slowness12115Lack of available information on the business environment and
						regulatory procedures00022Public administrative authorities’ distrust toward
						the private sector20002Reluctance of banks to grant credit11002Low local
						production rate of industrial goods01001Condition of roads01001Lack of
						communication and follow-up between institutions20002Local market
						size01012Competition from small local retailers01001Lack of private
						customers02002Institutional gaps at the host-country levelRegulatory and
						contractual requirements02013Failure to effectively implement free-trade
						agreements and regulations13004Political instability and
						insecurity40004National preference (mistrust, cultural
						difference)260210Institutional gaps at the regional levelLack of
						harmonization and administrative and fiscal specificities among economic
						zone member states (e.g. ECOWAS)10012Disparities in trade laws between
						certain WAEMU countries00101Corruption21025Total162741057*</td></tr></table>

Lastly, it should be noted that the entrepreneurs in our research sample do not define passion for developing in terms of the breadth of their product or service offering (depending on whether the offerings are more numerous or more recent) as other authors have done (Baum & Locke, 2004; Drnovsek *et al.,*2016). Our findings corroborate the “passion for development” approach cited by Cardon *et al.*(2013), which places emphasis on growth in terms of the customer base and employees rather than on delivering an expanded product or service offering.

As for the potential impacts the institutional gaps, characteristics of African contexts, might have on the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and internationalization, our findings confirm, first, those advanced by Adomako *et al.* (2019) while enrichening them. Our observations allow us to conclude that certain local institutional gaps favor SME internationalization efforts. That is the case, for example, with the reality of the insufficiency of customers, which often translates into the lack of private enterprises within the national territory or, more generally, the existence of rigid regulatory obstacles. We can thus emphasize, consistently with Adomako *et al.* (2019), that the greater the institutional gaps in African countries of origin, the stronger the passionate entrepreneur’s hope to track down international opportunities, with international expansion being viewed as an escape route from domestic restrictions. Moreover, our findings allow us to stress that the existence of institutional gaps does not generally undermine passionate entrepreneurs’ personal will or their motivation to pursue internationalization. Their motivations for developing their continent and pursuing the growth of their business ventures were so great, they mitigated the impact that any eventual institutional gaps might have had. Overall, a developer or an entrepreneur passionate with growth will tend to do everything in his power to develop his business, regardless of the context and risks entailed, because he identifies with, and finds motivation in, the very process he wishes to carry out (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Cardon *et al.*, 2009; Adomako *et al.*, 2020). It is also worth pointing out that passionate entrepreneurs from emerging markets have an extraordinary risk-seeking behavior compared to the ordinary entrepreneur. And so, contrary to what entrepreneurial literature has long suggested, institutional gaps that characterize African markets do not necessarily act as major hindrance to SME internationalization efforts. That is, our observations run counter to long-standing thinking that a difficult domestic institutional market is generally detrimental to African ventures and creates a barrier to their internationalization (Schmidt & Hansen, 2017; Ibeh *et al*, 2012).

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2 — Entrepreneurial passion and internationalization of SMEs in a sub-Saharan Africa context</figcaption></figure>
# Conclusion

The discussion of our results come along with different theoretical contributions. As a summary, those theoretical findings may be seen as enriching not only literature on entrepreneurial passion, in general, but also literature on SMEs in Africa and in developing countries. Entrepreneurship in developing countries remains extremely under-studied, particularly with regard to countries on the African continent. Our study leads us to emphasize that entrepreneurs in Africa can be driven by a passion oriented toward a variety of objects or activities, beyond sources linked to the entrepreneurial activities that a number of authors have long cited (i.e. passion for the country and the continent or “patriotism and Pan-Africanism”, passion for human relations, etc.). Besides, based on our findings, it is apparent to us that the relationship between entrepreneurial passion and SME internationalization in Sub-Saharan Africa goes beyond a single source of passion such as, for example, passion for development as it was considered by Adomako *et al.*(2020) in their study. Other sources of passion come into play as well. There is the entrepreneur’s passion for developing his country and his continent, as well as the perception that he is guided by a social mission. In the end, we point to the fact that institutional gaps are not necessarily barriers to SME internationalization, when a passionate entrepreneur is determined to overcome the constraints that stand in his way. What is more, these institutional gaps can, in certain cases, even be a driver behind internationalization for these enterprises. All and all, we can sustain that our research is an important extension of International Business and Entrepreneurship literatures particularly of International Entrepreneurship one because past studies failed to pay attention to the link between entrepreneurial passion and small firms’ international expansion activities in developing countries particularly African ones.

Our findings also present interesting managerial insights. From a practical viewpoint, we believe that an SMEs should take into account a candidate’s personality and individual behavioral traits when attempting to locate an appropriate successor or to fill a top position. Indeed, the alignment, for example, of a passionate personality with the business venture’s objectives can promote their achievement. Furthermore, the conclusions that emerge from our research can help guide investors in understanding the factors that facilitate SME internationalization, bearing in mind that entrepreneurs passionate about developing their business ventures, their countries and continent, and who have a social mission perspective, are more likely to launch their ventures on international markets. It is also important to emphasize the importance of digital technology for enterprises, above all, for SMEs operating in countries where considerable institutional gaps relating to communications and technological tools exist. Digital technology is a vital tool that African SMEs must adopt to optimize their internal activities as well as their activities with outside business actors and partners.

It should be borne in mind, however, that this study is based on a small research sample, consisting of 4 SMEs (i.e. 4 entrepreneurs) selected from 3 West African countries (Ivory-Coast, Senegal, and Mali). While our findings enrich the theory on entrepreneurial passion and internationalization among African Sub-Saharan SMEs, we cannot make any claims as to the general application of our findings to all of Africa. Future research should open the scope of the issues we have raised and lead to exploring them with various other SMEs and entrepreneurs in the African sub-region, so as to broaden literature in this particular area. A confirmatory quantitative methodology based on these initial findings might also open avenues for future research.

## Références

I., Amankwah-Amoah, J., Boso, N., Esposito, M. (2018). Africa’s                Competitiveness in the Global Economy: Past, Present and Future. In: Adeleye, I.,                Esposito, M. (eds) Africa’s *Competitiveness in the Global Economy*. AIB                Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67014-0_1

S.,                Opoku, R.A., Frimpong, K., (2017). The moderating influence of competitive intensity                on the relationship between CEOs’ regulatory foci and SME internationalization.                *Journal of International Management,*23(3), 268–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2017.02.001

S.,                Amankwah-Amoah, J., Dankwah, G.O., Danso, A., Donbesuur, F., (2019). Institutional                voids, international learning effort and internationalization of emerging market new                ventures. *Journal of international Management,* 25, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2019.04.001

S.,                Amankwah-Amoah, J., & Chu, I. (2020). Entrepreneurs’ passion, home country’s                institutional voids and small firm internationalization. *Research in                International Business and Finance*, 53, 101-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2019.101178

S. &                Ahsan, M. (2022). Entrepreneurial passion and SMEs’ performance: Moderating effects                of financial resource availability and resource flexibility. *Journal of Business                Research*, 144, 122-135, ISSN 0148-2963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.02.002

S.,                Mole, K. F., Franklin, R. J., & Murnieks, C. Y. (2023). Entrepreneurial passion                and venture profit: Examining the moderating effects of political connections and                environmental dynamism in an emerging market. *International Small Business                Journal,* 41(2), 204-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/02662426221085182

Y.,                Tihanyi, L., & Connelly, B. L. (2011). Managerial decision-making in                international business: A forty-five-year retrospective. *Journal of World                Business,*46(2), 135-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2010.05.001

A.                & Bhattacharya S. (2019). CEO Narcissism and Internationalization by Indian                Firms. *Management International Review*, 59, 889-918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-019-00404-8

J.R., &                Locke, E.A. (2004). The relationship of entrepreneurial traits, skill, and                motivation to subsequent venture growth. *Journal of Applied Psychology*,                89(4), 587–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.587

P. E., E.                H. Kessler, and E. W. Christensen (2000). Organizational Learning, Knowledge, and                Wisdom. *Journal of Organizational Change Manage**ment,*13(6),                595–618. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534810010378605

Brännback, M.,                Carsrud, A., Elfving, J., Krueger, N.K. (2006). Sex, [drugs], and. entrepreneurial                passion? An exploratory study. *Paper Presented at the Babson College                Entrepreneurship Research Conference*. Bloomington, IN. http://digitalknowledge.babson.edu/fer/vol26/iss6/5

Breugst, N.,                Domurath, A., Patzelt, H., & Klaukien, A. (2012). Perceptions of entrepreneurial                passion and employees’ commitment to entrepreneurial ventures. *Entrepreneurship,                Theory & Practice*, 36(1), 171-192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.0049

H.                (2017). Impact of entrepreneurial passion on entrepreneurial orientation with the                mediating role of entrepreneurial alertness for technology-based firms in Mexico.                *Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development*,*24*(2),                353-374. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-10-2016-0166

M.S.,                Wincent, J., Singh, J., & Drnovsek, M. (2009). The nature and experience of                entrepreneurial passion. *Academy of Management Review*, 34(3), 511–532. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2009.40633190

M. S., D.                A. Gregoire, C. E. Stevens, and P. C. Patel (2013). Measuring Entrepreneurial                Passion: Conceptual Foundations and Scale Validation. *Journal of Business                Venturing,* 28(3), 373–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.03.003

M. &                Mueller, S. (2016). Passion is contagious, to customers, partners, employees, and                investors. *Entreprendre & Innover,* vol. 29(2), p. 60-63. https://doi.org/10.3917/entin.029.0060

M.S.,                Glauser, M., Murnieks, C.Y. (2017). Passion for what? Expanding the domains of                entrepreneurial passion. *Journal of Business Venturing Insights*, 8, 24–32.                https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2017.05.004

M. A.,                Geletkanycz, M. A., & Sanders, W. G. (2004). Upper echelons research revisited:                Ante- cedents, elements, and consequences of top management team composition.                *Journal of Management,*30(6), 749–778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jm.2004.06.001

X.P., Yao,                X., & Kotha, S. (2009). Entrepreneur passion and preparedness in business plan                presentations: A persuasion analysis of venture capitalists’ funding decisions.                *Academy of Management Journal*, 52(1), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.36462018

R.,                Aulakh, P. S., & Ray, S. (2015). What drives overseas acquisitions by Indian                firms? A behavioral risk-taking perspective. *Management International Review,*55(2), 255–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-015-0238-7

J., (2005).                Researching entrepreneurship through phenomenological inquiry: Philosophical and                methodological issues. *International Small Business Journal*, 23, 163-189.                https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242605050511

B. &                Guercini, S. (2016). Passion et entrepreneuriat: vers un entrepreneur tribal?”,                *Revue de l’Entrepreneuriat*, vol. 15(2), 7-34. https://doi.org/10.3917/entre.152.0015

E. L., &                Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: self-determination in                personality. *Journal of Research in Personality,*19, 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(85)90023-6

Mol, E., Cardon,                M. S., de Jong, B., Khapova, S. N., & Elfring, T. (2020). Entrepreneurial                passion diversity in new venture teams: An empirical examination of short and                long-term performance implications. *Journal of Business Venturing*, 35(4),                1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2019.105965

M.,                Cardon, M.S., Patel, P.C. (2016). Direct and indirect effects of passion on growing                technology ventures. *Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal*, 10(2), 194–213. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1213

K.M.,                (1989), “Building Theories from Case Study Research”, Academy of Management Review,                14 (4), p. 532-550. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1213

T., &                Foss, N. J. (2005). Strategic organization: A field in search of micro-foundations.                *Strategic Organization,*3(4), 441–455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476127005055796

B.,                Musso, F., Cioppi, M. (2015). Decision-maker characteristics and international                decisions for SMEs. *Management Decision*, 53(10), 2226–2249. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-03-2015-0094

G. (2012).                Perspective-Toward a behavioral theory of strategy. *Organization Science,*                23(1), 267–285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1110.0644

Gharbi, M., &                Boudabbous, S. (2014). La dynamique de la passion dans le processus entrepreneurial.                *12ème Congrès International Francophone en Entrepreneuriat et PME,*Agadir, Maroc.

D. C.                (2007). Upper echelons theory: An update. *Academy of Management Review,*32(2), 334–343. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.2307/20159303

D. C.,                & Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its                top managers. *Academy of Management Review,*9(2), 193–206. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.2307/258434

Hammond, M.,                Howarth, J., Keat, R. (1991). *Understanding Phenomenology*. Basil Blackwell.                Oxford, England.

Hu W., Xu Y., Zhao                F. and Chen Y. (2022). Entrepreneurial Passion and Entrepreneurial Success -The Role                of Psychological Capital and Entrepreneurial Policy Support. *Frontiers in                Psychology*, 13(792066), 10 p. https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2022.792066

K., Wilson,                J., & Chizema, A. (2012). The internationalization of African firms 1995–2011:                Review and implications. *Thunderbird International Business Review*, 54(4),                411-427. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.21473

L.,                Ainamo, A., Karjalainen, T. M. (2011). Entrepreneurial passion: an explorative case                study of four metal music ventures. *Journal of Research in Marketing and                Entrepreneurship*, 13(1), 18-36. https://doi.org/10.1108/14715201111147923

J.H., Lin,                W.C., Chen, L.Y. (2017). The influence of CEO overconfidence on ownership choice in                foreign market entry decisions. *International Business**Review,*                26(4), 774–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2017.01.006

K, Bembom,                M, & Schwens, C (2016). CEO characteristics and SME foreign market entry mode                choice. *International Marketing Review*, 33(2), 246–275. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMR-08-2014-0288

Y., &                Herrmann, P. (2021). Entrepreneurial Passion: A Systematic Review and Research                Opportunities. *Journal of Small Business Strategy,*31(3), 122–147. https://doi.org/10.53703/001c.29740

E. and                Sammartino, A. (2015). Managerial cognition and internationalization. *Journal of                International Business Studies*, 46(7), 733‑760. https://libjournals.mtsu.edu/index.php/jsbs/article/view/1678

D.,                Toulouse, J.M. (1986). Chief executive personality and corporate strategy and                structure in small firms. *Management Science,* 32(11), 1389–1409.https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.32.11.1389

R.K.                (1997). Oral history and expert scripts: demystifying the entrepreneurial                experience. *Journal of Management History,* 2, 50–67. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552529610127696

C.,                Sudek, R., & Cardon, M. (2012). Angel investor characteristics that determine                whether perceived passion leads to higher evaluations of funding potential.                *Journal of Business Venturing*, 27, 592–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2011.11.003

B. A.,                Wolfe, M. T., & Syed, I. (2017). Passion and grit: An exploration of the                pathways leading to venture success. *Journal of Business Venturing*, 32(3),                260–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2017.02.001

C.Y.,                Cardon, M., Sudek, R., White, D., & Brooks, W.T. (2016). Drawn to the fire: The                role of passion, tenacity and inspirational leadership in angel investing.                *Journal of Business Venturing*, 31, p.468–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2016.05.002

A.,                Obschonka M., Moeller J. & Chandan G. G. (2021). Entrepreneurial Passion: A                Review, Synthesis, and Agenda for Future Research, *Applied Psychology: an                International Review*, 0(0), 1–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12236

F.,                Adeleye, I., & Ogbechie, C. (2015). Africa-to-Africa internationalization:                Rhetoric, reality, and risks of intra-African regional expansion. In S. Nwankwo                & K. Ibeh (Eds.), *The Routledge companion to business in Africa*(p.                9–31). London, England and New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203093146

M.J.,                Elosge, C., Elosge, L. (2016). Me, myself and I: the role of CEO narcissism in                internationalization decisions. *Int. Bus. Rev,* 25(5), 1114–1123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2016.02.001

Patton, M.Q.                (1990). *Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods*. Sage, London.

Patton, M.Q.                (1987). *How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluative Research*. Sage,                London.

R. (2012). What is really different about emerging market                multinationals? *Global Strategy Journal,*2(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/gsj.1025

Schmidt A. et                Hansen Michael W. (2017). Internationalization Strategies of African Firms. A Survey                of 210 Food Processing Firms from Tanzania, Kenya and Zambia. *Special CBDS                Working Paper Series, Working Paper based on Excellent Student Thesis*, 1,                Copenhagen Business School, 43p.

A., &                Beamish, P. W. (2013). The hassle factor: An explanation for managerial locational                shunning.*Journal of International Business Studies*, 44, 521–544 https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2013.7

R.W.                (1997). Entrepreneurship: Reflections on a subversive activity. *Journal of                Business Venturing*, 12, 341-346. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(97)00008-6

P. and                Renko, M. (2016). Passionate bricoleurs and new venture survival. *Journal of                Business Venturing*, 31(5), 595-611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2016.05.004

S., Keller,                M., Flatten, T.C., Brettel, M. (2018). CEOs’ passion for inventing and radical                innovations in SMEs: the moderating effect of shared vision*. J. Small Bus.                Manag*., 56(3), p.435–452. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12264

C.J.,                Locander, W.B., Pollio, H.R. (1989). Putting consumer experience back into consumer                research: the philosophy and method of existential- phenomenology. *Journal of                Consumer Research*, 16, 133–146. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1086/209203

S.,                Wincent, J. (2013). Passion and habitual entrepreneurship. *Int. Small Bus.                J.,* 33, 216–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242613487085

P.,                Phillips, N., (2011). Entrepreneurship in emerging markets. *Management                International Review,* 51(1), p.23–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11575-010-0066-8

R.J.,                Blanchard, C., Mageau, G., Koestner, R., Ratelle, C., Leonard, M., Gagne, M.,                Marsolais, J. (2003). Les passions de l’âme: on obsessive and harmonious passion.                *J. Pers. Soc. Psychol*., 85(4), 756–767. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.756

Zhu X., & Wei                B. T. (2020). The Influence of Entrepreneurial Passion on Team Passion-The Dual                Mediating Role of Passion Imitation and Value Consistency.*Revista Argentina de                Clínica Psicológica*, 29(3), 1143-1158. DOI:                10.24205/03276716.2020.943