# Challenges to reconstruct chert availability in tectonically highly modified environments: Examples from the Dead Sea Transform (Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Wadi Hammeh, Greater Petra Region)

Christophe Delage, Hannah Parow-Souchon, Christoph Purschwitz

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Christophe Delage, Hannah Parow-Souchon, Christoph Purschwitz. Challenges to reconstruct chert availability in tectonically highly modified environments: Examples from the Dead Sea Transform (Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Wadi Hammeh, Greater Petra Region). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2020, 32, pp.102384. 10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102384. hal-03352128

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Challenges to Reconstruct Chert Availability in Highly Modified Tectonically Environments: Examples from the Dead Sea Transform (Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Wadi Hammeh, Greater Petra Region).

Christophe DELAGE, Hannah PAROW-SOUCHON, and Christoph PURSCHWITZ

ABSTRACT

In the Near East, more particularly in the Southern Levant, the Rift Depression, also called the Dead Sea Transform (DST), reveals unique natural phenomena that have deeply marked the landscape, notably its topographic and hydrographic features, since the Miocene, about 5 million years ago (Mya).

In this paper, we present four geo-archaeological case studies associated with the Central Jordan Valley (i.e. Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Wadi al-Hammeh and the Greater Petra Region). These examples intend to illustrate the importance of taking the context and development of the geological substratum into account for the reconstruction of prehistoric lithic procurement strategies. Chert features and availability have been profoundly impacted by these diverse and complex processes. Continental and marine erosion, associated with plate tectonics and lateral plate displacements, have altered silicifications in their primary matrix and have also resulted in the accumulation of secondary deposits rich in chert nodules.

Prehistoric peoples throughout the Pleistocene have extensively exploited these various sources. At Acheulian Gesher Benot Ya'aqov the presence of a non-local chert provided the opportunity to focus on and better understand the battered chert only available south of the Sea of Galilee, in the Central Jordan Valley (Case Study #1). The Natufian inhabitants of Wadi Hammeh 27 mainly exploited a yellow chert collected in secondary outcrops of limited geographical distribution that have vanished with the Holocene erosion (Case Study #2). In the Petra Region the lithic analysis of Neolithic assemblages was challenged by the presence of cherts of supposedly non-local origin. Lithic analysts working in the Dead Sea Rift should be aware that the chert spectrum of "the other side" of the depression might be different and that knowledge on local or regional chert availability cannot be simply transferred (Case Study #3). In Wadi Sabra lateral and vertical displacements as well as tilting processes affected primary chert-bearing formations resulting in heavily fissured and cracked cherts which were not very suitable for knapping. In contrast the tectonically unaffected outcrops in the highlands show no internal damage of the material. This difference is clearly mirrored in the procurement behaviour of the Upper Pleistocene groups occupying the wadi (Case Study #4).

KEYWORDS

Near East; Dead Sea Transform; chert availability; secondary sources; chert alterations

INTRODUCTION
The study of the origin of lithic raw materials follows a complex methodological procedure with various stages, within which the knowledge of the regional geological context holds a central place (Inizan et al., 1999; Luedtke, 1992; Séronie-Vivien and Séronie-Vivien, 1987). The siliceous rocks still embedded in their original sedimentary matrix must be the primary source for characterizing the cherts themselves and the availability of a given territory. Yet, some lithic specialists have shown that we should never neglect to take into consideration cherts in secondary context of deposition since they may have played at certain times and in certain places a significant role in the prehistoric strategies of lithic acquisition. In the simplest scheme, these secondary cherts may be located in riverbeds, fluvial terraces, slope deposits or conglomerates, etc. Various erosional processes, such as water, wind, thermal differences (i.e. frost, heat), are at the origin of the natural transport of these materials and of these secondary deposits.

In this article, we present some case studies (i.e. Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Wadi Hammeh, Greater Petra Region) to illustrate this complex situation (Figure 1) (1).
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1- Map of the Southern Levant, with the location of the sites mentioned in the text.</figcaption></figure>
# The Jordan Valley

## Gesher Benot Ya'aqov

The site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (hereafter GBY) is currently located in northern Israel on the west bank of the Jordan River, just south of the Hula Basin.

The Quaternary deposits were discovered in the early 1930s (Hooijer, 1959, 1960; Picard, 1965; Stekelis, 1960; Tchernov, 1973). Additional exposures of the Benot Ya'aqov Formation were documented in the late 1980s (Goren-Inbar and Belitzky, 1989). Following these discoveries a large-scale multidisciplinary research project was initiated under the direction of Na'ama Goren-Inbar. These recent excavations (1989–1991, 1995–1997) identified numerous superimposed archaeological horizons dated to the Lower and Middle Pleistocene (ca. 800,000 BP; Oxygen Isotope Stages 18–20) within a 34-meter sequence of alternating layers of sand, clay and cocina shells (Belitzky et al., 1991; Goren-Inbar et al., 1992, 1994, 2000, 2002).

Overall, a rich and diverse collection of faunal, botanical and lithic remains has been uncovered during these excavations. One of the striking features of this Middle Pleistocene site is the exceptional state of preservation of organic remains (seeds, fruits, wood...) and shells (Ashkenazi et al., 2010; Mienis and Ashkenazi 2006), due to the waterlogged nature of the site. Appropriate techniques were implemented to the recovery in the field and to the conservation and analysis in the laboratory of these remains (Goren-Inbar et al., 2002; Werker, 2006; Werker and Goren-Inbar, 2001). The diverse nature of all the categories of remains was a true challenge to the scientists working at the site. They required the implementation of rigorous and tedious analytical (archeological and experimental) procedures. Particularly the spatial clustering of burnt micro-artefacts and plant materials was interpreted as "invisible hearths" (or latent features). A clear spatial distribution of other remains (fish bones, crabs, lithics...) was associated with these remnants of hearths shedding light on differentiated activity areas (stone knapping, tool use, floral and faunal processing and consumption) and a "formalized conceptualization of a living space" at GBY.

At the location of GBY, in the Lower-Middle Pleistocene, for some 100,000 years, we may document the repeated presence of early hominins who set up ephemeral campsites along the shores of the paleo-Lake Hula.

Finally, but not the least, research carried out at the site has documented and argued for early human behaviors and cognitive abilities far more advanced than previously thought for the Middle Pleistocene. These early hominins had a profound knowledge of their diverse environment. Furthermore they exploited a wide range of biotic resources, from large terrestrial mammals (including elephants) to aquatic (fish, crabs) and plant resources (seeds, fruits). They had reached an evolutionary cognitive stage witnessing the manufacture of complex and efficient tools (large cutting and chopping tools, handaxes), the production and use of fire, and the organization of their living space and territory. All research design about early hominin behavior at GBY is now framed within this very specific evolutionary context.

The research on lithic (chert) procurement and transport at GBY is ultimately part of this debate, but, before putting forth some interpretive hypotheses related to the unique presence of non-local cherts (type 02) at GBY in the Middle Pleistocene the geological and geomorphological challenges of the
Pleistocene landscape required to be sorted out and understood. This is the purpose of the detailed analysis exposed below.

## Wadi Hammeh 27

The Late Epipalaeolithic (early Natufian phase) site of Wadi Hammeh 27 (hereafter WH27) was initially discovered by Phillip Macumber in the early 1980s. A first series of excavations was carried out under the supervision of Phillip Edwards from 1983 to 1990. This research documented the presence of an early village on the shore of Lake Lisan (Edwards, 2001). Several phases of architecture and human burials were superimposed associated with a huge collection of lithic artefacts, abundant faunal remains, bone tools, organic remains, groundstone artefacts, art items, and human remains (see papers in Edwards, 2013 ed.).

In 2014, Phillip Edwards, with John Webb and Louise Shewan, initiated another research phase, i.e. the *Ice Age Villagers of the Levant* project. This project was aimed at reconstructing the mobility patterns of these early Natufians. The field seasons (2014–2016) focused mainly on the acquisition of new data related to rock (basalt, chert) availability to further address their sourcing. A sampling of soils and plants was also undertaken to establish an Isotope Map of the region (Edwards et al., 2018a, 2018b).

The preliminary results on chert avalability exposed below are part of this recent research phase.

## The Greater Petra Region

### Upper Palaeolithic

The Southern Levantine Greater Petra Region is located 70 km south of the Dead Sea on the eastern slope of the Rift Valley. It comprises an area of approximately 40 km by 50 km with the ancient Nabatean capital of Petra as its center. It is characterized by very diverse small-scale landscapes rich in biotic and abiotic resources, including abundant chert sources.

One of such micro-habitats within the Greater Petra Region is the Wadi Sabra about 8 km south-west of Petra. The Wadi Sabra is part of the belt of wadis connecting the Jordanian highland escarpment to the Wadi Araba. It preserves around 50 sites ranging from early Middle Palaeolithic to Nabatean and Roman times, including a number of Upper Palaeolithic *in situ* and surface occurrences (Schyle and Richter (eds.), 2015), three of which are discussed in this study. The oldest of these is the Ahmarian *in situ* site of Ansab 1 (Schyle, 2015a), located in the Lower Wadi Sabra at the confluence of the Wadi Sabra with the smaller tributary Wadi al-Ansab. The site is preserved at the top of a ~20m high sediment remnant protected at its back by a large chert-bearing limestone ridge. The site of Sabra 4 Palmview 1 (S4PV1/PV1; Schyle, 2015b) is located in the Upper Wadi Sabra at the margin of a large sediment remnant filling a wide basin in the local geology. The erosional channel of the current wadi course opens up site-bearing strata leading to the recovery of several later Upper Palaeolithic assemblages.

Palmview 1 is a surface site, collected from a terrace in the sediment remnant. The material is exceptionally fresh, unpatinated, and has not been transported very far, although a certain part of the small fraction material is lost (ibid.). The lithic assemblage is characterized by bladelet production from carinated burins as well as by pyramidal blade production. It can best be described under the Arqov-Divshon term, characterizing the "Aurignacoid" inventories from the Southern Levant (Parow-Souchon, in press). Sabra 3
South (Schyle and Uerpmann, 1988; Parow-Souchon, in press), located a little upstream from the Palmview sites, is preserved in a small spur of sediment. The preservation of the material is spatially restricted, but the archaeological horizon is intact and *in situ*. The lithic assemblage is fresh, although heavily patinated, and dominated by backed and truncated microliths without signs of the microburin concept. It can thus be grouped into the Kebaran taxon. The current stratigraphic position of the sediment remnant, however, suggests a pre-LGM date for this site (Parow-Souchon, in press).

## Neolithic

The middle PPNB (ca. 10,300/10,200-9,500 cal BP) sites of Shkârat Msaied and Beidha are small, and measure between 1,000 and 2,000 m² (Byrd, 2005; Jensen et al., 2005; Hermansen et al., 2006; Kinzel, 2013). The architecture of the late 11th millennium cal BP is characterized by small circular buildings (Shkârat Msaied, Beidha A), while in the early 10th millennium semi-rectangular to rectangular layouts are adopted (Beidha B and C) (Byrd, 2005; Kinzel, 2013). Subsistence is dominated by hunting, although initial herding is also in evidence (Bangsgaard, 2004, 2008; Jensen et al., 2005). Numerous sickle blades (more than 20% of the formal toolkit) and abundant grinding tools indicate the intensive use of plants and cereals (Harpelund, 2011; Mortensen, 1970; Purschwitz, 2017; Wright, 1992). The site occupation might be seasonal, as indicated by systematically blocked entrances, and the deposition of comprehensive tool inventories on roofs and inside the houses at Beidha A and Shkârat Msaied. The most favorable season of occupation would be during spring and early summer. A seasonal migration between the lower Wadi Araba in winter and the higher Jordanian Plateau in summer has been suggested (Bangsgaard, 2004, 59-64, 2008; Jensen et al., 2005, 131-132; Kinzel, 2013, 46; Purschwitz, 2017).

The transition between middle PPNB and late PPNB in the Greater Petra Region is marked by significant social changes related to increasing sedentariness and crowding. The late PPNB sites of Ba'ja, Basta, al-Basît, or 'Ain Jammam are seen as permanently-occupied "mega-sites" (Bienert et al., 2004 [eds.] and contributions therein; Gebel et al., 2006; Nissen et al., 2004). These large villages often are founded on slopes. They provide evidence of an extremely compact, often multi-story and rectangular architecture, without open spaces or alleys between individual buildings (Kinzel, 2013; Gebel, 2006). "Mega-sites" such as Basta, 'Ain Jamman and probably al-Basît spread over more than 5 ha, and are assumed to have hosted a population of hundreds to several thousands of inhabitants (e.g. Birch-Chapman, 2017; Bienert et al., 2004 [eds.]; Gebel et al., 2006, 215; Kuijt, 2000; Nissen et al., 2004, 16). The subsistence of these complex communities is characterized by agriculture, sheep/goat herding (still supplemented by hunting), and the beginnings of craft specialization (Gebel, 2010; Gebel et al., 1997; Purschwitz, 2017, 2019c). Differences in burial practices and the occurrence of prestige goods may indicate the beginnings of vertical stratification and increasing social inequality (Benz et al., 2019; cf. Gebel et al., 2017).

Lithic production during the PPNB period is hallmarked by bidirectional blade technology (Barzilai, 2010; Borrell, 2017; Quintero, 2010). Bidirectional blade technology is characterized by a very complex *chaîne opératoire*, which requires high production skills and continuous practice. Generally, high-quality
raw materials are used (Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz 2020; Purschwitz
2017, 2019b, 2019c).

The lithic raw material economy shows a broad spectrum for the use of chert
raw materials (FRMG 1–11 with some subgroups; Purschwitz 2013, 2019a;
see also Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz 2020). Two raw material surveys
were conducted, which demonstrated that most chert groups can be found in
Campanian or Eocene limestones, with the closest sources often within a 5h
catchment area around the sites (Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz 2020;
Purschwitz 2013, 2017, 2019a). However, there are some chert raw materials
which appear to be “alien” to the chert spectrum of the Greater Petra Region.
Most of these “alien” cherts occur in low numbers and may be best explained
through exchange networks. There are two chert groups among the “alien”
cherts, which make up to 35% of the chert count of the Neolithic sites (Parow-
Souchon and Purschwitz, 2020; Purschwitz, 2017, 2019c). Their abundance
and full representation among the major *chaînes opératoires* indicate both on-
site production and direct procurement. Taken into account the effects and
impacts which the Dead Sea Transform Fault System has continued to have
on the geomorphology of the southern Levant and the availability of chert
sources we suggest checking to see if the Eastern Negev is the origin of the
“alien” Greater Petra Region cherts.

THE DEAD SEA TRANSFORM FAULT SYSTEM (DSTFS)

In the Near East, the Dead Sea Transform (hereafter DST; Garfunkel et al., 2014; Horowitz et al., 2001) shows that natural phenomena may alter the availability of cherts in the region. Since the Miocene, about 5 million years ago (Mya), specific tectonic and geomorphological phenomena have deeply marked the landscape, notably its topographic and hydrographic features.

Miocene & Pliocene

In the Miocene, and up to the Pliocene, more than 2 Mya ago, the topographic
setting of Northern Israel revealed major differences with the contemporary
landscape. Specific deposits in some valleys (e.g. Amud, Beit-Hakerem)
suggest to geologists that the continental hydrographic network flowed quietly
from east to west, from the Arabian-Nubian Shield to the Mediterranean Sea
(Kafri and Heimann, 1994; Matmon et al., 1999). In the course of the
Pliocene, the topographic structures of this region were set up following
intense tectonic activities (Hurwitz et al., 2002; Kashai and Croker, 1987;
Schattner, 2010; Schattner and Weinberger, 2008). These telluric movements
acted vertically on the relief, significantly modifying the topographic and
geological structure of northern Israel, affecting older sediments of the
Cretaceous and Eocene. The sea retreated to the west; the shoreline of the
Mediterranean Sea was then fluctuating between the position it now holds and
the foothills of the Galilee. This mountainous massif then underwent its most
impressive uprising, according to Kafri and Ecker (1964). This block took then
its current form, definitely emerging from the waters. The Galilee was then
divided into two slopes, one towards the West and the Mediterranean Sea,
the other towards the East and the Middle East Rift Depression. The coastal
plain of Zevulun became separated from the valleys of the interior and the
Qishon Graben was gradually collapsing due to the weight of the sedimentary
deposits. At the same time, the Mount Carmel Block rose in the Southwest.
The elevation of these massifs was followed by volcanic eruptions in the
Lower Galilee (17.5–5.5 Mya) and, between 2.9 and 1.6 Mya, in the Eastern Galilee and the Golan Heights (see Freund, 1970; Kafri, 1972: 8; Kafri and Ecker, 1964: 9-10; Kafri and Heimann, 1994: 104, 108-109; Levy, 1983: 10; Mart, 1991; Matmon et al., 2003; Weinstein and Garfunkel, 2014). The area now known as the Dead Sea Transform was beginning to undergo profound geomorphological remodeling. In the North, the Hula Basin began to gradually develop around 4 Mya (Ben-Avraham et al., 1996, 2014; Glikson, 1966; Heimann and Ron, 1993; Heimann et al., 2009; Picard, 1965; Rybakov et al., 2003; Schattner and Weinberger, 2008; Sneh, 1996). At the time, it was already surrounded by mountains in the West (Naftali), in the North (Mount Hermon) and in the East (basaltic plateau of the Golan Heights), for a difference in elevation that could rise to about 800m. The tectonic activity, which was intense throughout the Dead Sea Transform, produced vertical faults in the East and West. By contrast, the configuration in the South was more problematic at the time: was the Hula Basin already closed and hosting a small lake? Or do we have an open valley where the Jordan river was gently flowing? This latter option seems unlikely. At that time, the Hula Basin could already present a closed configuration. A borehole (Notera 3) in the center of the basin encountered a sediment fill over a distance of about 4km without reaching the underlying Eocene and Cretaceous rocks (Horowitz, 1973). To obtain such deposits, the valley had to be blocked for already some time, perhaps as early as the Pliocene. Leo Picard (1965) suggested that a basaltic flow from the Golan Heights filled in the Korazim fault and created a kind of "dam" in the South (called the Korazim Block or Plateau). Despite this natural obstruction, the waters of the Jordan river managed to dig in these volcanic deposits, flow along the Jordan Fault, and continue their course toward the Kinneret Basin to the point of creating a deep throat (Jordan River Gorge) between the Korazim Block and the Golan Block. The significant elevation discrepancy that can be observed currently between the Hula Basin (at an altitude of +70m above sea level) and the Sea of Galilee (also known as the Kinneret-Beit-She'an Basin) (at an altitude of -210m below sea level), would date back to that time, partly caused and stabilized by the elevation and deformation of the Korazim Plateau (Belitzky, 2002: 379; Eppelbaum et al., 2007; Glikson, 1966; Heimann and Ron, 1993; Heimann et al., 2009; Picard, 1965; Schattner and Weinberger, 2008) (Figure 3).

Later on the DST south of the Sea of Galilee has undergone profound geomorphological and topographic changes associated with a very specific hydrographic context. Long before the emerging of the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea in the Holocene, the DST was already constituted of different basins (Hula, Kinneret, Dead Sea, Gulf of Aqaba) following each other in steps over more than 200 kilometers long. These basins were soon occupied by freshwater paleo-lakes (Bandel et al., 2016; Horowitz et al., 2001). The oldest lake from the Pliocene, also known as the Sedom Lagoon, occupied the Kinneret basin and was no longer connected to the Hula basin (Charrach, 2018). Even though it is still debated some scholars argue that the Sedom Lagoon has been occasionally in contact with the Mediterranean Sea during major marine transgressions (Stein, 2001, 272, 274, 2014, 284-287; Torfstein et al., 2009, 2605). Subsequently, other paleo-lakes followed one another: those associated with the Erq el-Ahmar and 'Ubeidiyah formations, around 1.4-0.9 Mya (Almogi-Labin et al., 1995; Braun et al., 1991; Ron and Levi, 2001; Rosenthal et al., 1989; Tchernov, 1975), were followed by Lake Amora, between 740,000 and 140,000 BP (Coianiz et al., 2019; Stein, 2001: 274;
Torfstein et al., 2009), by Lake Samra between 135,000 and 75,000 BP (Kaufman et al., 1992; Stein 2001: 274; Waldmann et al., 2009), and by Lake Lisan between 70,000 and 14,000 BP (Bartov et al., 2002; Coianiz et al., 2019; Kaufman et al., 1992; Lev et al., 2014, 2019; Miebach et al., 2019; Rohling, 2013; Schramm et al., 2000; Stein, 2001, 2014; Stein et al., 1997; Torfstein, 2019; Torfstein et al., 2013a, 2013b).

The major climatic changes of this long period have had a significant impact on the surface water level of these palaeo-lakes (fluctuating over more than a hundred meters in depth), but they have also been able to act on the erosion of the surrounding lands, as well as to carry huge masses of (carbonate and siliceous) materials (Davis et al., 2009; Haase-Schramm et al., 2004; Machlus et al., 2000; Stein, 2001; Torfstein et al., 2013b). The mass of lithic materials in secondary position (notably in terraces and conglomerates) in the region attest to these specific climatic and geomorphological conditions, very different from those in the present landscape.

## Pleistocene & Holocene

During the late Pleistocene and the Holocene the Rift Valley approaches the landscape we know today and is thus more easily imaginable than for older periods. The major difference to today's landscape is the presence of the already mentioned palaeo-lakes, of which mainly Lake Lisan (ca. 70-14,000 BP) is relevant for the timeframes discussed in this study.

Lake Lisan was a large freshwater lake, filling the complete Rift Valley from the current Lake Kinneret (or Sea of Galilee) almost 300km southwards to about 60km south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea (Abu Ghazleh and Kempe, 2009; Klinger et al., 2003; Lev et al., 2019; Litt et al., 2012; Miebach et al., 2019; Torfstein, 2019; Torfstein et al., 2013b). Its water level fluctuated heavily in accordance with climatic events of currently still discussed origin (e.g. Torfstein et al., 2013b; Rohling, 2013, Stockhecke et al., 2016). Either a reduction of evaporation during glacial climates (Stockhecke et al., 2016), an increase in freshwater influx via precipitation and surface runoff from the drainages (Torfstein et al., 2013b; Rohling, 2013), or a combination of both factors, is assumed to have caused the formation of the lake and to have determined its water level. Major climatic events such as Heinrich and Dansgaard-Oeschger events can be correlated to major lake level drops and rises (Torfstein, 2019; Torfstein et al. 2013b). Lake Lisan thus can also serve as a proxy record to estimate the effects of climatic changes on the Pleistocene landscape and living conditions in the southern Levant. To the Pleistocene inhabitants it primarily offered a freshwater source, including aquatic resources and vegetation and thus a favourable place for occupation, but also provided a major hindrance for east-west movements along a large section of the Rift Valley (e.g. Edwards, 2001).

Tectonically, the Pleistocene Rift Valley is characterised by two major movement directions: The drift of the Sinai microplate southwards causes a lateral displacement – from the terminal Oligocene (~27 ma) until today – of about 107 km, splitting up geological entities on both sides of the rift (Barjous, 2003, 50f; Bertrams, 2013, 12; Garfunkel 1981, 83; Haberland et al., 2007). Currently the north-south displacement is estimated to be about 0.35-0.75 cm/a (Barjous and Mikbel, 1990, 50; Garfunkel, 1981), though different values have been provided, ranging between 0.13 cm/a and 1 cm/a including temporal variety (Barjous and Mikbel, 1990, 50). Assuming a continuous development in the past, the displacement would have been about 14–30 m less in the Upper Palaeolithic (at 40,000 BP) and 35–75 m less in the
Neolithic (at 10,000 BP), thus essentially offering the same situation as today. These north-south movements can be characterised as a strike-slip fault system, moving along the central Araba fault and causing secondary breaks along both sides of it forming a large deformed belt around the central fault. On the Jordanian side, thus in the Greater Petra region, these processes manifest mainly in fault lines oriented either roughly N-S or NE-SW forming thus a mosaic of disconnected, relatively small geological blocks moving independently upwards and downwards heavily complicating the geology of the area (Barjous, 2003, 50f).

Furthermore the rifting causes a vertical displacement uplifting the Jordanian highlands by ~0.07 mm/a and subsiding the depression of the Wadi Araba by ~0.5 mm/a (Bertrams, 2013, 12; Zilberman et al., 2005). This displacement results in the Greater Petra region also in a large step in the local topography along the so-called Al-Quwayra fault, another major strike-slip fault system secondary to the Araba fault (Barjous, 2003, 52). It consists of a series of sub-parallel and intersecting segments with a lateral displacement of about 40km and a vertical displacement of about 2.2km. Up to 5 individual faults form a 2-5km broad deformed belt around the major fault. The Al-Quwayra fault zone ranges from Saudi Arabia to the Finan/Faynan area north of the Wadi Sabra and is oriented directly northwards to about 5°N (Bandel and Salameh, 2013, 29; Barjous, 2003, 52f). In the Wadi Sabra this fault line allows for the formation of a currently ~75m high (mostly dry) waterfall currently providing a major hindrance to east-west movements along the wadi course. Again calculating with a continuous subsidence of the Wadi Araba/uplifting of the highlands the increase in elevation difference can be estimated to be around 22.8 m since the Pleistocene and 5.7 m since the Holocene. However especially the vertical displacement can be assumed to have occurred in isolated events resulting in sudden changes in elevation along the fault lines (pers. comm., Rafiq Azzam). Such earthquakes are difficult to date and the precise topography during specific times is hardly reconstructable. In terms of the geological history the current landscape of the Rift Valley provides a reasonable estimate for the understanding of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene palaeo-landscapes and only slight modifications have to be taken into account for the estimation of the availability of different chert sources.

## CASE STUDY #1: THE BATTERED CHERTS OF THE CENTRAL JORDAN VALLEY

An analysis of the lithic (sedimentary/chert) assemblage from GBY documented the presence of 18 rock types exploited by the hominin occupants (Delage, 2007a). A comparison of these types with the geological cherts collected during a detailed geo-archaeological survey around the site allowed to reliably assess their source area. Thus all - but one - of these types were originating from the local environment, essentially from secondary contexts of deposition (i.e. river beds, conglomerates). Indeed, on all artifacts whose original surface is present and could be observed, the cortex is slightly to strongly eroded. No artefacts appear to carry fresh cortex, easily identifiable in the area especially when the chert nodules come from chalky sediments, which would mean that they were directly collected in primary deposits.
The so-called Type 02 also indicated that it came from secondary contexts of deposition, but it yielded quite different morphological features. The most discriminating trait of Type 02 is the fact that the original cortex has been totally eroded and is now replaced by a "neocortex", of a very battered appearance (Figure 2a). The inner, siliceous, part reveals a certain variety of colors and textures, which can nevertheless be reduced to two subgroups: The first variant reveals color variations ranging from brown (5YR 5/2) to gray (5YR 4/1); the texture is non-homogeneous and opaque, associated with a fine to coarse grain. The second variant is a dark brown to black chert with a slightly translucent texture. Both variants yield a multitude of tiny white dots spread over the matrix (Figure 2b).

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2- Macroscopic (naked-eye) features of the Central Jordan Valley Battered Chert (i.e. Gesher Benot Ya'aqov chert type 02).</figcaption></figure>

In addition to GBY, this chert type is also present in small quantities in various archaeological lithic assemblages of this region, notably at Hayonim cave and terrace, and at 'Eynan (Delage, 2001, 2012). However, detailed geoarchaeological surveys of northern Israel (Galilee, Golan Heights) have not encountered this type of siliceous rock in natural geological context in the region. On the other hand, at the Neolithic preceramic and ceramic site of Munhata (or Horvat Minha), located south of the Sea of Galilee, this chert type was present in large quantities (Delage, 2007b). A review of the specialized literature also reveals that these rocks were used from the Oldowan at 'Ubeidiyeh to the Neolithic (e.g. Gesher, Sha'ar ha-Golan, etc.), through the early Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II, on the shores of the Sea of Galilee (e.g. Nadel et al., 2002, 42, Fig. 2). Many sources of this material have been identified in this region, both in surface sediments and in Quaternary conglomerates. The source, or one possible source, of this material thus corresponds to this area, namely the Central Jordan Valley, south of the Sea of Galilee (Delage, 2007a, Fig. 2).
So far, the observations put forth relate only to the current context of availability of these battered cherts. But what about the Middle Pleistocene, ca. 800,000 years ago, at the time of the GBY hominin inhabitants? What were the features of the local landscape? Should we take into account possible changes in the topography, the climate and the environment during the last 800,000 years that would have led to a modern landscape completely different from that of the Middle Pleistocene, as it was documented in East Africa (e.g. Blumenschine and Peters, 1998; Campisano et al., 2017; DeMenocal, 1995; Potts et al., 1999; Rogers et al., 1994; de la Torre and Mora, 2005)? In this regard, while many areas outside the Middle Eastern Rift Valley appear to have suffered little from tectonic activity, the Jordan Valley, as already exposed above, is a case of complex geology for scientists attempting to reconstruct the events that have shaped its present topography (Garfunkel et al., 2014). Various methodologies (e.g. geological and geomorphological observations; radiometric dates; paleomagnetic, geophysical, seismic measurements; etc.) have been applied to solve this difficult problem. A particularly abundant literature on the subject reflects all these efforts. There are thus many studies on the location and role of faults in the setting up of these landscapes, as well as on the ever-changing evolution of these tectonic processes (see previous section).

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3- Schematic cross-sections of the Dead Sea Transform in northern Israel, from the Hula Basin (north) to the Sea of Galilee (south): 1. General map with location of the three cross-sections; 2. Cross-section A-A' (modified from Belitzy 2002, fig. 7 and Horowitz 1979, fig. 5-91); 3. Cross-section B-B' (modified Weinstein 1983, fig. 4); 4. Cross-section C-C' (modified from</figcaption></figure>
Previous studies on the development of the DSTFS allow us to conclude sufficiently clearly and explicitly that the Middle Pleistocene landscape was already closer to the present one than to that of the Pliocene. In particular, it allows us to answer the question concerning the geographical distribution of lithic Type 02 at the time of GBY. Despite all the geomorphological and tectonic disturbances that have affected the Jordan Valley in the recent millions of years, this type of siliceous rock was already present exclusively in the Kinneret basin and further south. Due to the differences in elevation between the Hula basin and the Kinneret basin which were present well before the Pleistocene, no secondary deposit of the Hula Basin (slope deposits, conglomerates, river beds, alluvium) could contain Type 02 chert. In other words, whatever the Pleistocene topographic and geomorphological context, no natural phenomenon can account for their move upstream (in elevation and against the current) towards the Hula Basin, notably by climbing the difficult passage of the Jordan River Gorge and the Korazim Block (Belitzky, 2002). In sum, in all cases, the presence of Type 02 chert in the Middle Pleistocene of GBY - or in any other place in the Hula basin (e.g. Natufian 'Eynan) - was not possible in a natural way.

Now one can try to explain the very specific nature of the surface of these cherts. This feature of battered cortex clearly indicates that these cherts were collected in a secondary context. However, hydrographic and topographic conditions in northern Israel cannot produce such stigmata on the surface of chert nodules (see Delage, 2001, Appendice 4). On the western slope of the Galilee, there are no perennial rivers which could carry a lot of sediments. Moreover, the slopes are not steep enough to have any impact on the environment and the terrain, in terms of erosion activity. Finally, a geo-archaeological survey has confirmed this picture as conglomerates or slope deposits yielding siliceous nodules are extremely rare (Delage, 2001, 2012). This type of battered chert is therefore foreign to the Western Galilee. The eastern slope of the Galilee (Naftali Mountain) could have been a better candidate, since the unevenness encountered between the Yiron Plateau (at the spring of Nahal Dishon) and the Hula Basin below is relatively steep. In addition, the hydrographic network (e.g. Nahal Dishon, Nahal Qadesh) carries here a lot more materials, including siliceous nodules of various sizes. However, again, the cortex is well eroded but is not sufficiently altered for the external carbonate to have completely disappeared and to produce such salient battered stigmata.

So why are these battered cherts encountered only in this particular area of the Central Jordan Valley? A reliable answer can be put forward only by addressing a few other intermediate questions. We have at our disposal in the region three types of surface on chert nodules: fresh cortex, partially eroded cortex, and surfaces without cortex and very battered. The last two types come from secondary contexts of deposition. While the second type may be found everywhere in our study area, the third type appears only south of the Sea of Galilee. What kind of natural phenomena of sediment erosion and chert abrasion would be required to produce type 3 from type 2? In other words, what is a battered surface on siliceous nodules? For this region of the Near East, no quantitative studies have been conducted to measure the strength and intensity of the shocks required to produce complete erosion of
the cortex and a battered surface on chert nodules. However, we can benefit
from recent work on cherts from the chalky coasts on both sides of the
Channel. These in-depth studies help us to better understand the processes
of alteration and abrasion of siliceous nodules from their thick carbonate
cortex morphology in the chalky matrix to the sub-spheroidal neocortex in the
littoral pebble beaches, at the foot of the cliffs (Bridgland, 1990; Dornbusch et
al., 2002, 2004, 2005; Henaff et al., 2002; Héquette and Rufin-Soler, 2007
eds.; Mortimore and Duperret, 2004 eds.). Thus, once a rock mass has
collapsed, the sea can begin its work of clearing and undermining. Limestone
sediments, including the cortex of siliceous nodules - because of the porosity,
permeability, and structural fragility of these rocks - are rapidly pulverized and
leached into the water, while the siliceous nodules show greater internal
resistance (Henaff et al., 2002, 111). However, these siliceous rocks do not
remain unchanged. Movements of high hydrographic energy, which result in
violent and repeated friction and shocks of the released siliceous materials
among themselves, progressively erode the cherts of their original cortex.
When they are just released from their sedimentary matrix, the siliceous
nodules appear sub-angular in shape and still have a thick white cortex. At the
end of the weathering process, the carbonate cortex has totally disintegrated,
exposing the siliceous inner part (neocortex). Moreover, the siliceous blocks
pass from an angular and elongated initial morphology to sub-spheroidal and
smooth pebbles (Figure 4).

Such observations seem to be a very useful and reliable reference for
understanding the abrasion processes of some secondary cherts in the
Central Jordan Valley.
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

Figure 4- Normandy cherts. 1-2. Natural outcrops; 3. Chert nodule with diagenetic carbonate cortex; 4. Chert nodule with partially eroded cortex; 5. Chert nodule with carbonate cortex fully eroded and replaced by siliceous nex-cortex (photos: C. Delage).

We can now try to specify the very particular hydrographic and climatic context that may have produced such phenomena. Initially, the Yarmouk River was considered the main hydrographic vector for the erosion of chert-bearing deposits and the transport of these materials (Delage, 2001). However, these battered cherts have a geographical distribution in the Central
Jordan Valley much wider than the restricted zone of confluence of the Yarmouk River with the Jordan River. Moreover, the process of erosion of the Eocene sediments and of abrasion of the released chert nodules was already taking place in the Miocene-Pliocene: battered cherts are indeed present in conglomerates that date back to this period. These processes may have been active for a few million years, but they do not seem to be particularly active today. Finally, although the Yarmouk River is an important river with perennial waters that carries a lot of materials, it cannot have the ecological impact and produce the battered stigmata on cherts that we have highlighted.

To produce the mass of lithic materials in secondary position (notably in terraces and conglomerates) south of the Sea of Galilee, it took specific geomorphological and climatic conditions, very different from those in the present landscape. These conditions certainly date back to the Miocene-Pliocene associated to the great tectonic upheavals that took place in the Dead Sea Transform. But, above all and in reference to the Channel (as exposed earlier), we argue that it required a very specific hydrographic context.

Long before the emerging of the Sea of Galilee (and the Dead Sea) in the Holocene, the Rift Depression in the Central Jordan Valley was the location of a series of freshwater paleo-lakes in the Plio-Pleistocene (Bandel et al., 2016; Horowitz et al., 2001). As described in the previous section, various paleo-lakes (i.e. Sedom, Erq el-Ahmar, 'Ubeidiyah, Amora, Samra, Lisan) may have profoundly impacted on the erosion of the surrounding lands, and thus carried huge masses of (carbonate and siliceous) materials (Coianiz et al., 2019; Davis et al., 2009; Haase-Schramm et al., 2004; Lev et al., 2019; Machlus et al., 2000; Miebach et al., 2019; Stein, 2001; Torfstein, 2019; Torfstein et al., 2013b).

As it has been quantitatively and experimentally documented along the Channel we argue here that the battered surface on chert nodules in the Central Jordan Valley is the result of high hydrographic energy and wave erosion. A comparison of battered cherts from the Channel (Figures 4-5) and from the Central Jordan Valley (Figures 2-2 & 6-B) reveals similar surficial features that could result from similar erosional phenomena. At the same time we may doubt that most of the paleo-lakes documented in the Central Jordan Valley throughout the Plio-Pleistocene could produce waves and high energy capable of totally eroding the carbonate cortex on chert nodules. Yet the paleo-lake that could interest us most here is the Sedom Lagoon, the oldest lake from the Pliocene. At the time, the Kinneret basin was no longer connected to the Hula basin but it was occasionally open to the Mediterranean Sea during major marine transgressions (Stein, 2001, 272, 274, 2014, 284-287; Torfstein et al., 2009, 2605). These marine conditions further inland could have produced high energy and large waves. We could have here the first key hydrographic event of the erosion and undermining of the Eocene sediments, the dismantling of these rocks, and the abrasion of their silicifications (Bender, 1974, 88-90; Moh'd, 2000, 21-25; Powell, 1989, 114-116).

## CASE STUDY #2: THE DISAPPEARANCE OF CHERT-BEARING DEPOSITS IN THE CENTRAL JORDAN VALLEY
The Central Jordan Valley can still be used to illustrate other aspects of the complex geological history of this region and of their consequences for lithic availability. These features appeared as a result of the study of the lithic procurement patterns by the early Natufians of Wadi Hammeh 27.

Previous analyses by Phillip Edwards (1991, 2013a) clearly documented that the Natufians had collected their siliceous rocks exclusively from secondary deposits. They were indeed mainly collecting small (max. 5-10cm long) nodules, of rather eroded, sub-spheroidal and non-angular morphology. When superficial portions of cortex are preserved on certain artifacts (mainly the cores), the cortex is very eroded; in general, it has even disappeared and is replaced by a battered surface (i.e. neocortex), similar to those cherts discussed in the previous section.

This is already an important feature concerning the strategies of chert acquisition implemented by the Natufians (even if this is not the subject that we are trying to develop here). Indeed, a recent geo-archaeological survey has revealed the abundance and diversity of siliceous rocks available to the Natufians in the Wadi Hammeh landscape (Edwards et al., 2018a, 2018b). The north-west province of Jordan, where this archaeological site is located, is indeed quite rich in chert-bearing deposits, with silicifications very suitable for flintknapping (Figure 5; see details in Supplementary Materials). Toward the east, and upstream from the site, the terrains correspond mainly to primary deposits. Toward the west, chert nodules were easily accessible downstream in Miocene (Waqqas/Dana Formation) conglomerates or on the surface. In these downstream deposits the siliceous rocks correspond to very eroded spheroid nodules. By contrast, in the valley bottoms, chert nodules are eroded but still preserve some cortex, and yield a sub-angular shape (Figure 6). Thus, in the Late Pleistocene ecological setting, the Miocene conglomerates and the shore of Lake Lisan downstream from the site constituted the lithic source areas for the Wadi Hammeh 27 inhabitants since they excluded from their strategies the direct exploitation of the rich chert-bearing outcrops (notably the Muwaqqar-Chalk-Marl Formation) located at the same elevation and upstream.
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure 5- Distribution map of chert availability around Wadi Hammeh 27, north-west Jordan.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

Figure 6- Various chert cortexes featured on archaeological artefacts from Wadi Hammeh 27. A. Items with partially eroded cortex; B. Items with battered neo-cortex (photos: C. Delage).

The following facts are much more intriguing and problematic to interpret. Indeed, preliminary observations of the lithic material do not indicate that the Natufians have systematically exploited all of the secondary deposits in the surrounding landscape, and have collected - randomly or opportunistically - all the chert nodules available. Although several archaeological chert types have been identified - corresponding to a wide range of lithic rocks - it seems that the Natufians have mostly selected a specific chert type, a yellow-brown chert, easily recognizable macroscopically (Chert type MCM-04; see Supplementary Material, Figure S18). During the recent survey around Wadi Hammeh, this chert was found in several primary outcrops of the Muwaqqar-Chalk-Marl Formation (dated to the Maestrichtian-Paleocene), in wadi deposits, and in Miocene conglomerates (Figure 7). Yet archaeological artifacts of this yellow chert type present visual features exclusively typical of secondary contexts of deposition. The challenge is then to understand the nature of this complex behavior.

To do so, it is reasonable to further describe the natural context of chert availability. As exposed above, the Miocene conglomerates are very important in the picture of regional lithic availability we are trying to draw, because they are extremely rich in siliceous rocks and they crop out on a large surface at the foot of the hills, and especially near the prehistoric site (see
Supplementary Materials, Figures S40-S41). They yield a large variety of cherts (i.e. size, shape, density, texture, color, quality) which correspond to different geological formations and ages (i.e. Amman Silicified Limestone and Muwaqqar-Chalk-Marl formations). In these deposits, yellow cherts are not a particularly abundant type in the landscape nowadays; they are loosely represented in river streams and conglomerates. In other words, there are no secondary deposits rich in yellow cherts in the region, as recent surveys have documented.

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>Figure 7- Chert Type MCM-04 and its geographical distribution (red dots) around Wadi Hammeh 27.</figcaption></figure>
To account for the fact that the Natufians focused their attention on this yellow-brown chert in secondary deposits, one option would then be to think they practiced a selection, a sorting in these specific disturbed sediments. Yet it is quite difficult to picture them sorting out wadi cobbles to select precisely those with this unique colour. A yellow chert nodule may appear here and there, but it would take hours of collecting and infinite patience to select only the yellow cherts, and - moreover - all the nodules. Furthermore it does not seem there would be enough yellow chert nodules to meet the needs of a large Natufian village for several centuries. This option seems therefore very unlikely. Thus the abundance of yellow cherts at early Natufian Wadi Hammeh 27 should rather reflect the concentration of this chert type in definite locations in the landscape.

In our current state of research, several arguments can be put forth to account for the absence of rich chert-bearing secondary deposits in the exploitation territory of WH27.

Since we reached the conclusion that secondary deposits rich in yellow cherts were available in the local landscape at the end of the Pleistocene, one should consider that these deposits have since disappeared, most notably at the beginning of the Holocene, with the introduction of new erosion phenomena which have deeply impacted the landscape (Palchan et al., 2019). In the Early Natufian, a good part of Wadi Hammeh (as other valleys along both sides of the Jordan Valley) was filled with travertines and lacustrine sediments, as well as alluvial deposits, on which the archaeological site was sitting (Edwards, 2013b; Macumber, 1992; Macumber and Head, 1991). The incision of the valleys perpendicular to the Jordan Valley, as well as the modern hydrographic system, could go back to the retreat of Lisan Lake, at about the time of occupation (or soon after) of Wadi Hammeh 27. With the Holocene profound erosional processes modified the landscape by incising weak structural points represented by ancient faults (Abdelhamid, 1995, 29). Indeed the presence of these numerous faults segmenting the landscape into separate sedimentary blocks was the result of the complex tectonic activities and geomorphological processes that started with the Miocene, as we have seen earlier (Figure 8). Thus the post-Pleistocene climate and the erosional forces of the wadi streams would have constituted the main source of disassembled sedimentary materials, and notably siliceous rocks. In other words, some deposits rich in yellow cherts could have existed in the Pleistocene, but have since disappeared. And, more generally, it may be suggested that the regional frame of lithic availability has profoundly changed since the occupation of the region during the Late Epipalaeolithic. By contrast, another argument could rest upon the hypothesis that these deposits still exist but we did not find them during our field surveys. In this regard, our survey and analysis of the geological chert samples collected have provided irrefutable information on the age and natural context of these lithic materials. As mentioned earlier they are clearly associated with the Muwaqqar-Chalk-Marl Formation. Therefore, we know the geographical distribution of primary deposits of this formation in the region and we can extrapolate the distribution of secondary deposits where yellow cherts may be present. Furthermore, it can be hypothesized that these rocks were not of foreign origin, but that they were collected in an area that did not exceed a 15km radius around WH27 (Figure 8). Insofar as such an area has been
rigorously covered by our surveys and we have not found secondary deposits with large concentrations of yellow cherts, we must agree with the first option, namely that such original deposits have disappeared since the end of the Pleistocene.

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>Figure 8- Geological map around Wadi Hammeh 27, with the location of most fault lines.</figcaption></figure>

CASE STUDY #3: EFFECTS OF PLATE TECTONICS AND LATERAL PLATE DISPLACEMENT ON LITHOSCAPES AND CHERT PRIMARY SOURCE AREAS
As the previous case studies have shown the DST has had a considerable impact on the formation and availability of secondary deposits of chert and siliceous rocks. Another issue which requires more attention is to examine the effect the DST has been having on the lithological landscape, and on the diversity of rock sources east and west of the Rift Valley.

The analysis of lithic assemblages from several middle to late PPNB (10,300-8,900 cal. BP) sites of the Greater Petra Region (i.e. Ba'ja, Beidha, Basta, and Shkârat Msaied) showed a broad spectrum use of more than 11 major chert groups (FRMG 1-11, with several subgroups; see Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz, 2020). Two chert raw material surveys were carried out in the Greater Petra Region which allowed for the identification of most chert groups within the regional geological environment (i.e. the Campanian and Eocene limestones). However, there are a few chert types which were not found during the surveys, and which appear to be "alien" to the Greater Petra Region (Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz 2020; Purschwitz, 2013, 2017, 2019a). Among these "alien" cherts are two chert types (FRMG 6 and a nodular variant of FRMG 2) both of which are among the most common used chert types found in the middle PPNB sites of Beidha and Shkârat Msaied (Purschwitz, 2017; see also Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz, 2020, table 7-8 for the raw material tabulation).

FRMG 6 is characterized by a homogeneously silicified extra fine chert of yellowish brown to slightly reddish-brown color, with irregular clouds and concentric bands of lighter hues. The chert bodies can be reconstructed as nodular to lenticular in shape, usually bearing whitish soft limestone cortex (Figure 9). FRMG 6 was the most prominently used chert type at Beidha and Shkârat Msaied, where it accounts for 18 to 35% of all chert artefacts, and where it was preferably used for bidirectional blade production (Purschwitz, 2017).
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>Figure 9- Examples of FRMG 6 found in Shkârat Msaied (a: Loc. 80008, b: 60213, c: Loc. 60212, scale 1:1); for further illustration see Parow-Souchon, this volume, figure 3.</figcaption></figure>

FRMG 2 is comprised of pale brown to yellowish brown opaque cherts, homogeneously silicified with a fine to extra fine texture, and having excellent knapping quality. There is a tabular type within this chert group which has been termed "Jiththa Flint" (Muheisen et al., 2004; Purschwitz, 2013). Its only known source area is the eponymial site of Jabal Jiththa on the Jordanian Plateau (some 7km east of the LPPNB site of Basta), where Jiththa-chert was abundantly processed for bidirectional bladelet production. Jiththa-chert occurs on the eastern slopes of Jabal Jiththa, where it can be found embedded in Pleistocene lake deposits of the Ma'an palaeolake. Small tablets (2-3 cm thick) with very chalky cortex on both faces (Figure 10a-b) can be easily collected from the soft lake deposits. When used for blades and bladelets, there are often cortex remains preserved on the lateral edges, which makes its identification quite easy (Figure 10c-e). If no cortex is preserved, the non-cortical qualities of Jiththa chert are quite similar to the nodular chert type of FRMG 2 found at Beidha A and Shkârat Msaied. At both sites this nodular FRMG 2 accounts for between 3% and 6% of the analyzed assemblages (Purschwitz, 2017). However, there is one pit (Loc. 90307) in Shkârat Msaied which included more than 3,700 artefacts, all being nodular FRMG 2 (Figure 10f-k). The analysis of this material demonstrated that the knapping waste was composed of 10 or 11 core reductions of bidirectional blade cores, which were prepared on nodular to lenticular chert bodies no less than 10 cm in size. There are plenty of cortical pieces preserved, which are marked by limestone cortex (1-2 mm thick; Purschwitz, 2019b).
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Figure 10: Tabular FRMG 2 from Jabal Jiththa (a-b, scale 1-2) and LPPNB Basta (c-e, Loc. A5:5, scale 1-1), and refitted core trimming elements (f-g) and blades (h-k) found in Shkârat Msaied (all Loc. 90307, scale 1:1) showing a nodular variant of FRMG 2 (for further illustrations, see Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz, this volume, figure 3).</figcaption></figure>

Both nodular FRMG 2 and FRMG 6 are represented by complete reduction chains, which indicates that both chert types were processed on-site. Accordingly, the raw materials arrived predominantly as nodules, or at least
as pre-shaped cores. Preserved cortex remains are characterized by a fresh limestone matrix, while secondary surfaces are very rare - both indicating an origin from primary source areas.

We interpret this combined evidence as an indicator of direct rather than of indirect procurement strategies. We acknowledge the existence and importance of regional to supra-regional PPNB chert networks (e.g. Barzilai, 2010), but we would not expect the circulation of nodules and core-preforms over longer distances, as the exchange of blade blanks would have been more efficient. In our opinion, such a scenario is attested for most of the other non-local chert groups of the region which are found predominantly either as tools or as blade blanks (Purschwitz, 2017; see Mortensen 1988, for imported blade blanks at Beidha).

Though the source areas of nodular FRMG 2 and FRMG 6 are unknown, we suggest an origin from an adjacent region which allowed a direct procurement.

Due to the tectonic configuration of the DST and the lateral displacement of the Palestinian and Transjordanian tectonic plates, we consider the Negev as one of the most likely source areas, and suggest checking whether both FRMG can be found there. We should not ignore the Negev chert sources, as there is some evidence suggesting a seasonal migration movement at Shkârat Msaied with a winter occupation in the Wadi Araba (or even further west; Bangsgaard, 2004, 59-65, 2008; Jensen, 2005, 131-132; Purschwitz, 2017).

The intensive procurement of Negev chert sources during the PPNB period is attested by several chert quarries, such as those found at Ramat Tamar (Schyle, 2007), Mitzpe Ramon (Oron et al., 2019), or Har Gevim (Gopher and Barkai, 2011).

The quarries of Ramat Tamar and Har Gevim are both located in a favorable position on the western flanks of the Rift. Being easily accessible through wadis from the east, their position might have been very attractive for the Neolithic communities of the western Rift Valley and the Greater Petra Region.

The quarry complex of Har Gevim is located only 30-40 km away from the sites of the Petra Region, and can be reached from Beidha or Shkârat Msaied in about 14h (Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz, 2020). During perfect weather conditions it can even be seen from the mountain tops near both sites. The quarry complex includes around 500-600 quarry pits, which show the abundant exploitation of Turonian chert nodules. Artefacts (i.e. bidirectional blade cores) found on the surface indicate human use during the PPNB period (Gopher and Barkai, 2011).

Though chert procurement of eastern Negev chert sources by Transjordanian Neolithic communities remains speculative at this point, we would like to stress the lithological diversity of both adjacent landscapes (due to the specific tectonic impacts of the DST) which makes its source exploitation attractive for both sides.

## CASE STUDY #4: TECTONIC INFLUENCE ON CHERT QUALITY
As a final aspect of chert availability in highly tectonically modified environments the effect of the tectonic influence on the quality of cherts embedded in the geological formations shall be discussed. Lateral and vertical displacements as well as tilting procedures have affected the geological formations of the Dead Sea Transform fault and thus also the embedded cherts. These processes shall here be discussed on the example of the Wadi Sabra in the Greater Petra Region, District Ma'an, Southern Jordan.

The geological succession of the Greater Petra Region includes a late Palaeozoic basement formed by the volcanic Aqaba and Araba complexes (Bandel and Salameh, 2013, 7ff; Barjous, 2003, 4; Cohen et al., 2013; Jarrar et al., 1983) which is uncomfortably overlain by a series of sedimentary rocks, most prominently the Ram-Group of Cambrian to Ordovician sandstones. This sequence of different sandstones is overlain by a succession of Late Cretaceous limestones of which the Na'ur-Limestone (NL), Wadi As Sir-Limestone (WSL), Wadi Umm Ghudran-Limestone (WG), Amman Silicified Limestone/Al-Hisa Phosphorite (ASL/AHP) formations carry cherts in varying amounts and quality. A further chert-bearing deposit is the Eocene Umm Rijam Chert Limestone (URC; Abed and Schneider, 1980; Barjous, 2003; Bender, 1974; Cohen et al., 2013; see also Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz 2020, for a more detailed description). These formations are preserved and outcropping in their original formation context in the eastern rift escarpment, where the limestone formations are accessible mainly in and above Wadi Musa, overlain by large detritic cones.

The Wadi Sabra is one of the wadis formed by tectonics as well as the drainage from the escarpment to the Wadi Araba. With a catchment area of about 90 km² and altitude differences between 1700 m a.s.l. around Taibeh in the highlands to 250 m a.s.l. in the Wadi Araba (Bertrams, 2013, 12) it encloses considerable topographic variations (Barjous, 2003, 1). It begins at the plateau of Al-Halla about 5 km south-west of Petra and forms a wide-open U-shaped valley in its upper part (Bertrams, 2013) where it is enclosed by tall mountains of Cambrian to Ordovician Umm Ishrin sandstone (Barjous, 2003, 15) rising up to 1175 m a.s.l. In its middle part it enters the Al-Quwayra fault zone, which has major effects on the topography and geology of the Wadi Sabra separating it in three distinctive parts. In the area of the Al-Quwayra fault zone the Wadi Sabra narrows down to a small channel leading over a steep cliff forming a ~75 m high waterfall into the Lower Wadi Sabra. Geologically the area is characterized by an uplifted block of the volcanic basement separating the geological formations in the Upper and Lower Wadi Sabra. The Lower Wadi Sabra forms as a meandering V-shaped valley bordered to the West by a series of tilted limestone formations and to the East by an escarpment of Umm Ishrin Sandstone cliffs (Figure 11). The limestone formations are heavily tectonically affected, tilted to about 45° in E-W direction and displaying prominent chert bands towards the wadi's flanks. Small tributary wadis dissect the slopes giving access to the chert deposits in the upper slopes. Two main chert-bearing formations are accessible in this section of the wadi which are the Late Cretaceous ASL/AHP and the Eocene URC formations. The ASL/AHP formation flanks the wadi along its course (Figure 11a), while the URC formation outcrops at one prominent cone-shaped hill (Figure 11c).
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>Figure 11: Raw material availability in the Lower Wadi Sabra.</figcaption></figure>

In 2015 a raw material survey was conducted in the Lower Wadi Sabra and the Wadi Musa area in the highlands. While in the Lower Wadi Sabra the eastern adjacent tributaries were surveyed (Figure 11) in the Wadi Musa area the survey followed road 35 exiting Wadi Musa to the East making use of the outcrops formed by targeted detonations during road construction. In both regions the Late Cretaceous chert formations were accessible, consisting of FRMGs 3b, 3d, 11 and 10 of the Al Hisa Phosphorite (3b, 3d, 11) and the Amman Silicified Limestone (10) formations. Eocene chert could only be observed in the Lower Wadi Sabra (Figure 9) as the Eocene outcrops in the highlands are far beyond Wadi Musa (see Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz, 2020).

In comparing both source regions, a striking difference (Figure 12) in preservational condition of the cherts from those primary outcrops was visible: In the highland margin the material was fresh and free of internal fissures or cracks except for some minor affection from the detonation. Good quality material could be easily gained in large quantities in a wide region above Wadi Musa. In the Lower Wadi Sabra, the situation was reversed: due to the tilting of the formations the fine-grained cherts embedded were heavily fissured and cracked. Each try to obtain a raw material sample ended in myriads of shards on the ground, no large enough pieces to produce a core
could be gained. In contrast to the Late Cretaceous formations, the Eocene cherts in the Lower Wadi Sabra proved to be in much better preservational condition. The large, free-standing outcrops (Figure 11c) were tilted to a similar degree as the AHP/ASL counterparts but the coarser grained raw materials were much less affected. It is possible that this outcome is also a result of the isolated nature of both URC outcrops forming single blocks which can move more freely during tectonic events, thus reducing internal fracturing.

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>Figure 12: Differences in chert preservational conditions in the Lower Wadi Sabra and the highlands behind Wadi Musa.</figcaption></figure>

This difference in chert preservation is clearly reflected in the archaeological material from this region. Especially easily visible is the difference in the two early Upper Palaeolithic sites of Al-Ansab 1 (Ahmarian) and Sabra 4 Palmview 1 (Arqov-Divshon) located in different parts of the Wadi Sabra. While Al-Ansab 1 is located directly adjacent to the chert outcrops in the Lower Wadi Sabra (Figure 11), Palmview 1 is located in the Upper Wadi Sabra surrounded by Umm Ishrin sandstone (see Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz, 2020). While in Ansab the local URC outcrop reaches numerical percentages of 54% and weight percentages of 71% the AHP/ASL outcrops remain below 15% each. In Palmview 1 located at a similar distance to both source regions, around Ansab and in the highlands beyond Wadi Musa, both sources are used to about equal proportions with a numerical share of 32% and a weight percentage of 38% for the URC outcrop in Ansab and a numerical share of 38% (weight: 29%) for the AHP/ASL layers (Figure 13).
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>Figure 13: Raw material use in Ansab 1 and Palmview 1</figcaption></figure>

While the good preservational state of the ASL/AHP nodules used in Palmview 1 clearly suggests a primary raw material acquisition in the highland region the few small cores of those raw material groups in Ansab are most likely acquired locally. In both Upper Palaeolithic sites a careful raw material selection was undertaken resulting in a near absence of fissured nodules. In contrast to this, the Epipalaeolithic site of Sabra 3 South (Kebaran), also located in the Upper Wadi Sabra, favors an on-site raw material testing resulting in the introduction of fissured nodules and a frequent discard of cores due to impurities (Figures 14 and 15).
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>Figure 14: Fissures in knapped lithic artefacts from the Epipalaeolithic site of Sabra 3 South.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>Figure 15: Precore (FRMG 11) from Sabra 3 South with tectonic damage.</figcaption></figure>

While on the one hand thus clearly different sourcing strategies can be observed in diachronic perspective, the given case example can serve to illustrate the importance of taking the geological history of the chert-bearing formations into consideration while reconstructing chert availability and procurement patterns. The strong tectonic influence on the lithic material in the fault zone renders especially the fine-grained Late Cretaceous cherts nearly unusable, while it has had little effect on the Eocene cherts. In contrast lithic preservational conditions in the tectonically unaffected geological body of the highland margin are pristine and any acquisition of good quality Late
Cretaceous cherts, especially favored in later periods (see Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz 2020), requires a procurement trip into the highlands.

## SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION

The four case studies illustrate the diversity and complexity of geomorphological processes which shaped the DST-Rift zone and which have severe impact on chert availability and chert qualities in the past as in the present. There are several lessons learned which may contribute to a better understanding of chert availability and which will help refine our predictive modellings. First of all (pedestrian) survey is a key step to explore the local and regional conditions of chert sources and preservation, and to assess the spectrum of chert types, qualities, and quantities as they can be found in the landscape. Geological maps are a great help here but they usually lack sensitive informations of specific chert types, bodies, textures and other features which influence the knapping abilities and raw material suitability for specific lithic chaînes opératoires. Geological maps also provide little information on cherts or other suitable raw materials in secondary contexts of deposition, which can be quite important sources for lithic acquisition as case studies #1 and #2 have shown (see also Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz, 2020). The modelling of such secondary source areas requires a profound knowledge of the geological past, as such deposits often are exposed to a diversity of geomorphological and tectonic phenomena. Source areas might be altered in their composition, buried or even completely removed by changing climatological, topographical or hydrological conditions. The geomorphological impact might be more severe in tectonically very active regions such as the DST fault system as well as for earlier periods of human prehistory (during the Early and Middle Pleistocene). However, as case study #2 suggests, there can occur significant modifications on the chert landscape within geologically rather 'insignificant' time spans as the Natufian period, approximately 13,000 years ago.

Moreover, the effect of tectonic influence should not be underestimated in the highly modified tectonic environments such as the DST. Lateral and vertical displacements as well as constant tilting processes affected chert-bearing formations and resulted in heavily fissured and cracked cherts, as has been demonstrated for the Wadi Sabra (case study #4). Though still embedded in their primary context of formation, these cherts are not very suitable for knapping and often were abandoned after testing. This, however, may have a greater effect on primary contexts of chert formation than on secondary contexts of chert deposition. However, from a chert user's perspective there are also many advantages to live in such an environment. The constant lateral movement of the Transjordanian and Palestinian tectonic plates increase the source diversity and shorten distances to landscapes (and raw materials found there) which otherwise would be separated by more than 100 km from each other. Lithic analysts working in the Dead Sea Rift or adjacent regions should be aware that the chert spectrum of "the other side" might be different and that knowledge on local or regional chert availability cannot simply be transferred. Raw materials which are found in sites but appear "alien" to the chert spectrum of the local geology not necessarily need to be of "non-local origin" (see case study #3). The diversity of knappable stones and cherts is also increased by the massive lifting and faulting which particularly formed the eastern slopes of the rift. Erosional processes also contributed to shape a
steeply sloped landscape which is intersected by west-east running wadis and valleys. The largest of these wadi systems (e.g. Wadi el-Mujib, Wadi Musa, Wadi Faynan) "cut" almost the entire geological sequence and provide easy access to all kinds of rocks and raw materials, which also can be gathered in the wadi fills.

## NOTES

(1) The Gesher Benot Yaaqov case study has already been partially published (Delage, 2007a). We may refer the reader to the contribution by Parow-Souchon and Purschwitz 2020 for details regarding the Greater Petra Region case studies (see also Purschwitz, 2017; Parow-Souchon, in press). The Wadi Hammeh preliminary observations presented here are the results of research in progress. Thus the geological sequence and an emphasis on the chert-bearing formations illustrated in that case study are detailed in the Supplementary Materials.

## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank for their help and support the following: Phillip C. Edwards, John Webb, Louise Shewan, Ibrahim Rusan, Imad Obeidat, Jürgen Richter, Thomas Hauck, the People of Tabaqat Fahl and Mashari'a, as well as the Department of Antiquities of Jordan. Research in the Wadi Sabra has been funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the framework of the CRC-806 Our Way to Europe.

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