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**Chapter Twenty-One**

**Women Participation in Sustainable Development Initiatives: Implication for the Niger Delta**
**Built Environment**

***Okodudu Ezinneka Eunice***

Department of Geography & Environmental Management, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State,
Nigeria

EMAIL: ezinneka.okodudu@uniport.edu.ng

**ABSTRACT**

Women's participation in sustainable development initiatives within the built environment of the Niger Delta region plays a crucial role in fostering inclusive and equitable development. This paper reviews existing literature and examines the multifaceted roles women play in enhancing sustainability within the region's built environment. It discusses challenges faced by women in accessing and influencing sustainable development projects, while also highlighting successful initiatives and policy frameworks that have promoted their participation. The paper concludes with recommendations for enhancing women's roles in sustainable development initiatives, emphasizing the importance of gender-sensitive policies and community empowerment strategies.

KEY WORDS: Sustainable Development; Gender; Niger Delta; Women Participation

**INTRODUCTION**

The Niger Delta region in Nigeria is made up of nine oil-producing states: Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers States. These areas are rich in natural resources, particularly oil and gas. Nigeria generates about 95% of its total revenue from oil and gas exports and has earned over $400 Billion as oil revenue since the early 70s (Duru, 2010). Ironically, oil and gas has turned out to be a curse to the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria since its discovery in 1956. The inhabitants of the region have been plunged into hardship, escalated through oil pollution, environmental degradation, communal conflicts, insecurity and other negative effects from the oil and gas explorations by multinational companies (MNCs).

Oil was initially discovered in commercial quantities in the Ijaw community of Oloibiri in 1956, in the Ogbia Local Government Area of Bayelsa State (Olusola, 2017). Today, the Niger Delta is best known as a region that sustains much oil exploration and exploitation by the agents of Western economic powers. The Niger Delta basin is considered the mainstay of the Nigerian economy for its significantly high level of oil reserves. The region is also naturally endowed with viable deposits of hydrocarbon and gas reserves. Petroleum and derivatives dominate the Nigerian economy making up about 98 percent of exports, over 80 percent of the government's annual revenue and 70 percent of budgetary expenditure. Crude oil resource gives the Nigerian government about US$ 20 million a day (Oviasuyi & Uwadiae., 2010).

However, in recent times, the Ijaw community of Oloibiri has been characterised by hardship, damaged farmlands, polluted rivers, the absence of electricity and potable drinking water, and a lack of basic social amenities. Sadly, many oil-bearing communities share a similar fate. (Oviasuyi & Uwadiae., 2010). This paper aims to throw more light on the involvement of women in activities that ensure sustainable development in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria.

**Environmental Challenges and the Need for Sustainable Development**

Duru (2014) asserts that the advent of the oil business in Nigeria has ushered in much degradation for the Niger Delta environment alongside poverty and strife in the region. Although the region is responsible for the generation of huge revenue to the Nigerian state, it has been faced with problems of oil spillages and gas flaring, which have caused serious atmospheric pollution, groundwater and soil
contamination, constant heat around the flare pits and abnormal salinity of the pool water, resulting in health hazards for the inhabitants and its ecosystem. The Niger Delta is the point of the highest concentration of such industrial activities, which bears the highest effect of environmental degradation in Nigeria (Oritseshemaye, *et al*, 2022). According to Stewart-Koster et al. (2015), the incredibly well-endowed ecosystem contains one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity of the planet, flora and fauna trees, arable terrain that can sustain a wide variety of crops, lumber, or agricultural trees and more species of freshwater fish than any ecosystem in West Africa.

Numerous environmental and human rights abuses have sparked conflicts in the Niger Delta, leading to the deaths of many, the destruction of cities and communities, and the rape of women and young girls (Ekine, 2008). Many women in the Niger Delta are farmers and fishers, and they are particularly affected by land degradation and deforestation. Ikelegbe (2006) notes that before the arrival of oil companies, the land and water in the Niger Delta were safe for farming and fishing, including traditional fishing festivals. However, pipelines laid by oil companies during the dry season have disrupted the seasonal flow of rivers. The forest, where the inhabitants harvest "Ogono," a highly demanded agricultural product, has been destroyed, depriving women of their traditional economic activities. Walker (2011) lists various other effects of the degraded Niger Delta environment on its inhabitants, including high levels of poverty, lack of access to quality antenatal care, the spread of diseases, respiratory problems from cooking with fossil fuels, wasted hours searching for clean water, the spread of HIV/AIDS, reduced economic activities, scarcity of medicinal plants, and blockages of creeks, lakes, and swamps (Jereoma, 2001). Women were largely excluded from and dissatisfied with the resolution of the conflict. The gender imbalance in post-conflict peace negotiations reflects broader issues, such as the distribution of political offices and reintegration processes (Akinwale, 2010).

The Centre for Advanced Social Science (CASS, 2016) conducted a study revealing that current governance patterns of public oil revenues exclude disadvantaged grassroots groups in the oil-producing communities of the Niger Delta Region. The CASS study keenly observed that people at the grassroots level in the Niger Delta are entirely excluded from the country's economic and social environment. Therefore, to prepare them for the impact of globalization—characterized by a technologically interconnected world and heightened competition—and for the consequences of oil depletion when transnational corporations (TNCs) withdraw from the area (as seen in Oloibiri, Bayelsa State), efforts must be made to improve their dire and desperate conditions. This improvement is essential to enable them to participate effectively in governance practices (Oruwari, 2007).

## Importance Of Women's Participation in Sustainable Development

Women play significant and diverse roles at home, in the workplace, and in society, serving as homemakers, contributors to societal well-being, job seekers, and job providers (Heath & Weber, 2020). Globally, women are central to rural livelihood activities, with their roles varying across regions, countries, and districts, and being differently divided between women and men (Choithani, 2020). These gender differences are influenced not only by cultural norms and practices but also by the types of environments and farming systems that communities depend on for their livelihoods. The role of women is crucial to national economies, given that they make up about 50% of the world's population (Boserup, 2013). Therefore, including women in all aspects of economic activities is essential to reduce gender inequality and promote overall economic growth. This inclusion is particularly important because a woman's economic empowerment has positive ripple effects on her children, family, society, and the entire nation.

## CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

### Sustainable development

Literally, sustainable development refers to maintaining development over time. It can be defined as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987: 43). The concept of Sustainable development comprises of three pillars: social, ecological and economic development. Sustainable development seeks the need to maximize the goals across all three pillars at the same time and attain mutually supportive gains that can be made through sustainable development actions. Hence sustainable development can be viewed as the varied interaction between social, economic and ecological dimensions of development
## Gender equality and women's empowerment

Gender equality is the concept that women and men, girls and boys should have equal conditions, treatment, and opportunities to realize their full potential, human rights, and dignity, and to contribute to and benefit from economic, social, cultural, and political development (UNICEF, 2017). Achieving gender equality and empowering women is a fundamental development goal crucial for sustainable development worldwide. Promoting gender equality is a key part of the development strategy that not only reduces poverty levels among both men and women but also improves the overall standard of living (Lawal, et al., 2016).

The meaning of empowerment varies depending on the political, cultural, and socio-economic context in which it is represented. Empowerment is a multi-faceted social process that helps people gain control over their own lives. In the context of women's empowerment, it means women gaining control and power over their lives, ensuring that their rights, opportunities, and responsibilities are not determined by their gender. Women's empowerment is essential for achieving gender equality (Lawal, et al., 2016).

## Relevance Of Women's Participation in Sustainable Development

Gender inequality is pervasive across the world and women experience a series of disadvantages, in comparison to men. However, Sustainable Development dictates that equal rights should be enjoyed by all as well as lives free from violence and discrimination. (UN Women, 2020a). It is not news that women constitute half of the world's adult population and often contribute more than their due share to society, yet their personalities, interests, ideas and activities have not received the attention they deserve (Akpabio, 2007). Hence, a situation where approximately half of the population is denied equal opportunities, equal participation in decision-making, and equal access to resources, education and employment will contribute to severely inhibiting Sustainable Development and global prosperity.

## Women In Development (WID)

The term "Women in Development" (WID) was introduced in the early 1970s by a network of female development professionals in Washington. These professionals challenged the prevailing "trickle-down" development theories, arguing that modernization was impacting men and women differently. They observed that, rather than improving women's rights and status, the development process was worsening their position (Tinker, 1990:30). This led to lobbying efforts by women's groups in the United States, culminating in the 1973 Percy Amendment. The WID movement emerged during this period, advocating for better educational and employment opportunities, equality in political and social participation, and enhanced health and welfare services to address the major concerns of women worldwide regarding social justice and equity.

An important theme of the feminist movement during this period, particularly in the United States, was the pursuit of equal opportunities for women. In developing countries, the Women in Development (WID) movement emphasized women's productive roles and their integration into the economy as a means to improve their status (Riami *et al.*, 2019). The focus on the productive labour of third-world women was part of a strategy to redefine women's identity in development policy. Early colonial authorities, post-war development agencies, and NGOs had identified women solely in their supportive roles as wives and mothers, restricting policies for women to social welfare concerns such as nutritional education and home economics, often referred to as the "welfare approach." This was the general policy environment that the WID movement opposed. WID advocates argued that failing to acknowledge and utilize women's productive roles within and beyond the household constituted planning errors that led to inefficient resource use (Tinker, 1990:30).

The impact of the early Women in Development (WID) movement can be seen on two fronts. Firstly, it generated discussions and research that highlighted the differential impact of development on men and women, challenging traditional development theories (Namibiru, 2020). Secondly, it spurred the establishment of institutional mechanisms within development agencies and governments aimed at integrating women into development processes. These institutional machineries were tasked with promoting gender equality and women's empowerment within development initiatives. The WID
movement thus not only influenced discourse and research but also led to concrete actions to address
gender disparities in development.

A well-known case study from a rice irrigation project in the Gambia (Dey, 1981) highlights the issues arising from not understanding complex household relations. The project incorrectly assumed men were the primary rice growers with full control over labour. Women grew rice for household needs and had specific rights and obligations within the family. When the project gave men exclusive rights to new irrigated land, it failed to improve rice production significantly. This was partly because women, who traditionally worked the fields, were not willing to provide unpaid labour. Men had to compensate women with wages, gifts, or land to secure their labour, especially during the wet season when women focused on their crops. This case illustrates that the failure to consider women's roles and provide for their independent farming needs can lead to the failure of development projects. It also marked a shift in development thinking, moving beyond women-only projects to integrating women's concerns into mainstream projects.

However, the Women in Development (WID) approach has faced several key issues. A fundamental problem is that WID views women as a homogeneous group. WID projects often fail to address intrahousehold dynamics and the complexities of gender relations within households (Bazbauers & Madkour, 2024). By focusing on women's productive roles and income-generating activities, WID initiatives sometimes overlooked broader issues such as asset ownership and power dynamics within households (Forti, 2011). Additionally, some critics argue that WID projects tended to reinforce traditional gender roles by emphasizing women's economic contributions without challenging underlying social norms and structures. Furthermore, there have been concerns that WID initiatives were sometimes co-opted into welfare-oriented actions rather than promoting genuine economic empowerment for women.

Gender and Development (GAD)

The Gender and Development (GAD) approach emerged as a response to the limitations and critiques
of the Women in Development (WID) approach (Bazbauers & Madkour, 2024; Jacquette, 2017). GAD
evolved in the late 1980s and early 1990s as a more comprehensive and transformative framework that
sought to address the root causes of gender inequality and promote women's empowerment within
broader development processes (Chauhan, 2014). Unlike WID, which primarily focused on integrating
women into development projects, GAD emphasizes the need to analyse and challenge the unequal
power relations between men and women that underlie gender disparities. GAD also recognizes that
gender is a social construct that affects both men and women and advocates for gender mainstreaming
across all development sectors. Overall, the GAD approach represents a shift towards a more holistic
and intersectional understanding of gender issues in development (Chauhan, 2014).

The Gender and Development (GAD) approach encompasses several key concepts that distinguish it
from the earlier Women in Development (WID) framework (Chauhan, 2014). Some of the key concepts
of GAD include:

Gender as a Social Construct: GAD recognizes that gender is socially constructed and goes beyond biological differences between men and women. It acknowledges that gender roles, norms, and identities are shaped by societal expectations and power dynamics.

*Intersectionality:* GAD considers how various social categories such as gender, race, class, and ethnicity intersect to create multiple forms of discrimination and inequality. It emphasizes the importance of addressing these intersecting factors in development interventions.

*Power and Agency:* GAD focuses on power relations and the agency of individuals within these power structures. It seeks to empower women and marginalized groups to challenge and change unequal power dynamics.
*Transformative Change:* GAD aims for transformative change by addressing the root causes of gender inequality and promoting structural shifts in policies, institutions, and social norms. It seeks to create lasting and sustainable improvements in gender equality.

*Gender Mainstreaming:* GAD advocates for the integration of gender perspectives into all stages of policy and program development. It emphasizes the need to consider gender implications in all areas of development to ensure that interventions benefit both men and women equally.

*Participation and Inclusivity:* GAD promotes the active participation of women and marginalized groups in decision-making processes at all levels. It recognizes the importance of inclusivity and diversity in shaping development outcomes.

By incorporating these key concepts, the GAD approach aims to advance gender equality, empower women, and promote social justice within development initiatives. Critics of the Gender and Development (GAD) approach have highlighted several key issues. One major critique is the essentializing of gender, where GAD is accused of treating women as a uniform group with similar experiences and needs (Anyidoho, 2021). This overlooks the diversity among women based on factors like class, race, ethnicity, and sexuality. Such an oversimplification can miss important nuances in women's experiences. Another criticism is the lack of attention to men and masculinities. GAD has been primarily focused on women, often neglecting how traditional notions of masculinity can also be restrictive and harmful. This oversight means GAD may miss opportunities for more comprehensive gender transformation that includes changes in male roles and behaviours. Implementation challenges are also a significant concern. While GAD promotes transformative change, practical application can be difficult due to limited resources, institutional resistance, and a lack of political will (Briere & Auclair, 2020). These obstacles can hinder the effective integration of gender perspectives into development policies and programs. Critics also point out an overemphasis on Western feminist perspectives within GAD frameworks. This focus can fail to capture the complexities of gender dynamics in diverse cultural contexts, leading to the imposition of external models that may not resonate with local realities. Additionally, there is a critique that GAD sometimes neglects economic factors, concentrating more on social and cultural aspects of gender inequality. A more comprehensive approach would address economic disparities and women's access to resources and opportunities (Chauhan, 2014). Finally, some argue that GAD does not sufficiently tackle broader structural issues like patriarchy, capitalism, and globalization, which perpetuate gender inequalities. Without addressing these underlying structures, GAD interventions may not achieve lasting impact. Overall, these critiques highlight the need for a more nuanced and context-specific understanding of gender dynamics in development to effectively implement the GAD approach.

## Marxist Feminism

The term "Marxism-Feminism" emerged in the early 1970s as part of an international struggle. Its precise meaning evolved through a process involving diverse and often conflicting interpretations (Chinchilla, 2018). This development was driven by a minority within both feminist and Marxist circles, who were often marginalized. The concept arose from a student movement engaged with Marxist theory and a women's movement seeking to integrate women's perspectives and liberation into traditional Marxism. The convergence of these movements created a space for such transformative struggles to take place. Marxist feminism explores how gender ideologies of femininity and masculinity structure production in capitalism. It challenges the primacy of capitalist value to determine social values, both the exchange value in wages and the surplus value of profit by making the use value of reproductive labour visible. (Armstrong, 2020).

Marx and Engels developed their insights about the social, and historical character of reproduction between the 1840s and 1880s. Under capitalism, Engels argued, “household management lost its public character. It no longer concerned society. It became a private service: the wife became head servant,
excluded from all participation in social production” (Engels, 1942, 65). Women’s subordination was neither biologically natural nor God-given; instead, the class relations of capitalism enforced the gender hierarchies that anchored women’s oppression. Marxist feminists viewed this patriarchal family as integral to capitalism, and thus a site of oppression that must be destroyed. Familial-gendered labour relations, instead, should be socialized. Only when women as workers joined proletarian struggles against capitalism could they combat women’s oppression in patriarchal values and social orders. Marxist feminists expanded these insights in the 1880s through the 1920s to ask how divisions of reproductive labour and productive work reproduced capitalism. Luxemburg (1951) as cited by Schmidt (2014) argued that imperialism relied upon reproduction to more intensively exploit workers, new markets and natural resources.

Critics of Marxist feminism argue that it often neglects intersectionality, prioritizing class analysis while overlooking other forms of oppression such as race, sexuality, and disability (Bohrer, 2019; Hunt, 2018). This narrow focus can miss the unique experiences and struggles of women who face multiple forms of discrimination, failing to capture the full complexity of women's lives and their intersecting identities. Another critique is that Marxist feminism can be reductionist, simplifying complex social relations to purely economic factors. This approach may ignore the importance of cultural, political, and social factors in shaping women's oppression (Haug *et al.*, 2023). By focusing predominantly on economic dimensions, it risks missing critical aspects of how gender inequality operates in various contexts.

Marxist feminism is also criticized for gender essentialism, assuming a universal experience of women's oppression that does not account for the diversity of gender identities and experiences (Barret, 2014). Additionally, it may have a limited scope of analysis, not adequately addressing issues like reproductive rights, sexual violence, and intersectional discrimination. Critics suggest that this framework often overlooks historical and cultural dimensions of gender oppression, leading to a limited understanding of evolving gender norms and practices (Barrett, 2014; Bohrer, 2019). Furthermore, the political strategies advocated by Marxist feminists are questioned for their effectiveness, as a singular focus on class struggle may not fully address the complexities of women's oppression in capitalist societies.

## CURRENT STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE NIGER DELTA

Most rural women in the Niger Delta are engaged in farming or fishing activities, including harvesting seafood or trading farm products, fish, and seafood as their primary occupation (Etim et al., 2019). These occupations provide these women with income, dignity, and self-esteem in society, enabling them to contribute to the well-being of their families and reduce their dependence on their male partners or spouses. The abundant food and seafood sourced from farms and the creeks/wetland ecosystem help improve the fertility, reproductive health, and overall well-being of rural women in the Niger Delta. The United Nations Development Program's Niger Delta Human Development Report (2006) states that "the environment is very important for the Niger Delta people, where 60% of the population depends on the natural environment, both living and non-living, for their livelihood".

The environment is the primary source of livelihood for rural women in the Niger Delta, providing essential resources such as water, energy, food, housing materials, and pharmaceuticals (Kornom-Gbaraba et al., 2022). However, the sustainability of these environmental resources is threatened by continuous pollution, particularly from the hydrocarbon industry, which coexists with traditional agriculture. This pollution includes industrial wastewater, fumes, gaseous emissions, and hazardous pollutants, degrading vital resources like farmland, freshwater swamps, rainwater, mangrove forests, and wetlands. These environmental degradations jeopardize the income, water supply, food, fuelwood, and medicinal herbs that rural women depend on for their livelihoods (Kornom-Gbaraba, et al., 2022).

## Socio-Economic Profile of Women

In the Niger Delta region, women occupy prominent positions as drivers of the local economy and primary providers for their families. The socio-economic situation created by grassroots resistance against the oil economy has challenged the traditional perception of women as subservient, dependent on their husbands, and unable to determine the course of their lives.
The position of women in the Niger Delta is relatively complex. Economically, women play a crucial role in sustaining their families and communities. Socially, they battle age-old institutionalized restrictions imposed by a patriarchal system that limits their participation in land ownership and inheritance (Umejesi, 2019). Women are major contributors to the economy of oil-producing communities, particularly through trade. Research conducted by Umejesi (2019) on the Egbema community found that while there are male traders, approximately 75% of traders are women (Umejesi, 2019). Although men dominate the fishing profession in Egbema, women dominate fish trading, providing a significant source of income for many families.

Oil exploration and exploitation in the Niger Delta have disproportionately affected women, leading to a series of agitations (Ekpemerechi, 2021). The exploitation, inequality, social exclusion, disempowerment, and lack of development have contributed to unrest among women in the region. Women whose local industries are fishing and farming have been severely impacted by the activities of transnational oil companies like Chevron, Texaco, and Shell (Darkwah, 2010). This explains the numerous protests and agitations from the affected women. Moreso, in the Niger Delta, women have borne the brunt of the adverse effects of the oil economy. First, they are more sedentary and constitute a greater proportion of subsistence farmers. Second, they have suffered most from the adverse effects of soil degradation and pollution (Ihayere et al., 2014). They have suffered serious losses of farmlands and fishing waters. As subsistence fisherwomen, they have suffered from the pollution of the creeks and rivers and the decline in fish stocks. Women are therefore disproportionately dispossessed by oil exploitation. Their economic activities are paralysed. In Uzere, Delta state, for instance, the women were driven from fishing by gas flaring (Akubor & Akubor, 2021; Twum, 2019). Women and their children are also most affected by the pollution of communal ponds and rivers that provide drinking water. The health hazards from toxic waste and the pollution of drinking water are borne mostly by women and their children. Women have been victims of other consequences of the social economy of oil. With thousands of MNC workers (Ihayere et al., 2014), most of them are separated from their families by the exigencies of work.

## Women's Roles in Sustainable Development Initiatives

A research study by Folami (2010) emphasized the significant roles that women play in addressing environmental problems in the Niger Delta. These roles differ from the methods employed by men, who have often resorted to armed struggle, kidnapping, abduction, and killing of oil workers, foreigners, and innocent citizens in response to years of oil exploitation and exploration. In contrast, women have shifted their support away from these violent tactics and are now advocating for peace. Their protests have been peaceful, and they have engaged in community sensitization, press campaigns, civil disobedience, and lobbying to press for their demands.

Various women's organizations have helped mitigate the challenges faced by women in the Niger Delta by implementing empowerment initiatives and holding protests against the harsh conditions in their communities (Oruwari, 2022). Organizations such as the Women Professional Organization have organized cooperatives and thrift societies to address poverty among women, issued soft loans, and provided alternative business opportunities to replace sources of subsistence destroyed by oil exploration. Additionally, the organization has offered scholarships and grants to young schoolgirls in secondary and tertiary institutions and organized vocational training for women.

## Environmental Restoration and Conservation

The solidarity among women to challenge multinational oil companies is highlighted by Jike (2010). The study revealed that women's groups from the Itsekiri, Ijaw, and Ilaje ethnicities united to march on the western operational headquarters of two major oil and gas companies, Shell and Chevron/Texaco, in the region. Armed with placards and green leaves, the protesting women sang solidarity songs to protest environmental and human rights abuses by the multinationals. They aimed to barricade the gates of the oil companies and compel them to stop harmful gas flaring (Zalik, 2004). Women from the Gbaramatu, Egbema, and Urhobo communities also blocked Chevron flow stations in the Niger Delta. Around the same time, according to Environmental Rights Action (ERA) (2002), women from Ilaje in Ondo State, along with many other Ijaw and Itsekiri women, paralyzed activities at the operational
headquarters of SPDC. The women left the Chevron oil exploration platform only after Chevron signed an agreement to improve sanitation, electricity, schools, clinics, and town halls. When these promises were broken, the women returned to the site the following year (Turner, 2001). In the last decade, oil-bearing communities in the western Niger Delta have seen a rising tide of resistance to the environmental degradation and inhumane activities of multinational oil and gas companies. Turner and Ferguson (1994) note that the frustration experienced by women led them to call for the rejection of multinational oil companies in the region.

## Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security

Though women make up about 75 percent of the farming population in the Niger Delta (Uduji et al., 2019), working as smallholders and labour suppliers, their potential in agriculture is hindered by cultural norms. Their lower productivity compared to their male counterparts is largely due to limited access to agricultural land and inputs. A study by Uduji et al. (2019) indicated that while the General Memorandum of Understanding (GMoUs) model has achieved significant success in various development areas, it has also perpetuated inequality in agricultural projects and programs in the region. Cultural obstacles to women's rights to own agricultural land and access inputs are key gender gaps in the region's agricultural development. This suggests that if the agricultural productivity of rural women continues to be restricted by unequal access to resources and opportunities, widespread inequality will hinder both growth and poverty reduction in Nigeria. To close the gender gaps in agriculture, GMoUs must reach rural women with agricultural information and resources through the rural groups in which women already participate, rather than focusing solely on clusters or production-oriented groups. Additionally, addressing women's productivity in agriculture requires multinational oil companies (MOCs) to work with governments to improve cultural norms by supporting agricultural land reforms, thereby boosting food security in Africa (Uduji et al., 2019)

## Case Studies of Successful Initiatives

Uduji et al (2019) argued that if multinational oil companies (MOCs) aim to achieve an ideal corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the Niger Delta region, closing the gender gaps in accessing agricultural land and inputs would benefit both women and agriculture (Uduji et al., 2019). To improve gender equality in land access for women in the Niger Delta, various policy advocacy mechanisms can be employed. These include traditional joint-tithing methods, land leasing, issuing land use certificates, community and territorial land delimitation programs, state-managed land reform programs, and land law reforms. Working with traditional and cultural groups where women are already active may be more effective for reaching women with modern agricultural inputs, rather than focusing solely on clusters or production-oriented groups. This approach acknowledges that when women have more control over their income, they gain greater influence over important family decisions, particularly those affecting their children. Families where women influence economic decisions tend to allocate more income to food, health, education, and children's nutrition.

It is well-established, as reported by various oil firms operating in the area, that the exploration and exploitation of oil resources in the Niger Delta have resulted in significant economic and environmental conflicts, with women bearing the brunt of these issues (Obaseki, 2001; SPDC Report, 2003; Akubor & Akubor, 2018). Women in the region are primarily responsible for producing the means of livelihood through farming, while men often pursue oil contracts, a trend that began with the discovery of oil in commercial quantities. The government's lack of responsiveness in addressing these problems has led women to form various groups to voice their grievances. One notable example is the Federation of Ogoni Women's Associations (FOWA), an umbrella organization for all women's groups in Ogoni, Nigeria's oil-rich Niger Delta region (Keys, 2019). FOWA was established on April 25, 1997, out of the frustration experienced by women in the area, and it advocated for a non-violent stance (Akubor & Akubor, 2021). However, negative responses from the government led to mass protests. Akubor & Akubor (2021) stated that the analysis of women's actions in the Niger Delta played a key role in one of the largest non-violent struggles for environmental and social justice in African history. In the case of the Ogoni people, Barikor-Wiwa (1997) noted that the era of the most intense protests began on January 4, 1993, when the Ogoni people took their future into their own hands and peacefully protested
nearly four decades of environmental devastation by the Shell oil company. During this protest, over 300,000 people participated from a total Ogoni population of 500,000, and not a single stone was thrown nor were properties or installations destroyed. At the end of the protest, it was resolved that Shell could not and must not be allowed in Ogoni. According to Barikor-Wiwa (1997), "we say no to Shell as it remains persona non grata in Ogoni." This pronouncement, along with five other resolutions, was made and signed (or thumb-printed by those who could not sign) by over 300 women leaders in Ogoni who represented FOWA's 57,000 registered members.

# CHALLENGES TO WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION

## Cultural And Societal Barriers

Culturally institutionalized attitudes, such as male-dominated household heads, private spheres for women, bride price, silence of women's voice, invisibility of women's income, chores, and other forms of cultural repression dominate ways of life in the Niger Delta. It portrays women as less than full members of society and prevents them from participating as equals (Fraser, 2010).

An example of such a scenario is the Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration (DDR) program which was implemented by the Nigerian government to address the prolonged conflict in the Niger Delta over oil exploration and exploitation, focusing on security and peace (Folami, 2022). However, justice for victims and the significant roles played by women in the conflict, such as in demonstrations, lobbies, strikes, and caregiving, were not recognized. The DDR mandate was limited to ex-militants, excluding most women, who were categorized with other victims of human rights abuses. While the DDR and Amnesty programs brought relative peace and security to the region, they failed to address the human rights abuses suffered by women. The exclusion of women from negotiations significantly impacted their involvement in the entire DDR (Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration) process (Folami, 2022).

Women did not benefit from allowances or reintegration efforts since participation required weapon submission, which most women could not meet. Women's contributions as cooks, caregivers, arms carriers, nurses, demonstrators, campaigners, lobbyists, activists, and peacebuilders were not recognized. During the demobilization process, only 133 women (0.6%) out of 23,000 were listed as beneficiaries (Agbiboa, 2011). Many women, being either victims of conflict or environmental damage, did not participate in the disarmament. Umejesi (2014) notes that cultural factors viewing men as combatants prevented most women from participating in the DDR.

Women in the Niger Delta face multiple layers of victimization, starting with general gender-based discrimination and disadvantages. They are underrepresented in strategic sectors such as politics, government, the economy, education, and the labour force. Most women are peasants and housewives, marginalized in production and distribution processes. Additionally, the economic crisis has forced more women into the informal sector as they strive to support their families, bearing the brunt of social disruption and economic disarticulation.

## Economic Constraints and Access to Resources

Women in the Niger Delta are traditionally hardworking income earners, responsible for feeding their families. While men contribute to family living expenses and undertake projects such as children's education and housing, women generate vital family income through subsistence farming, fishing, petty trading, and informal sector activities. Women have benefited the least from employment opportunities in the oil companies and have been excluded from token compensations for the acquisition, pollution, and devastation of farmlands and fishing waters (Okah, 2022). Compensation claims are typically made by traditional rulers and local elites, with women rarely recognized as owners of land and water resources (Ikelegbe, 2005).

## Political Marginalization and Lack of Representation

The grassroots women's activism in the oil economy has faced limitations. Firstly, awareness, interest, and mobilization have been largely local or community-based, focusing primarily on local demands for development, employment, and economic empowerment (Mai-Bornu, 2023). These local women's
groups have not engaged in broader, region-wide demands such as resource control, derivation, and political restructuring. The scope and range of their agitation are further restricted by poverty, limited education and exposure, and the constrained resources of the local groups and their leadership. These factors contribute to a low level of consciousness and difficulty in mobilizing for causes that are not cultural or communal.

The limited resources of grassroots groups also restrict their potential impact and degree of agitation. However, this does not mean that women's groups are ineffective. In fact, grassroots women's protests have often been more successful than their male counterparts in reaching Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) with communities and initiating economic empowerment programs. Their activism is addressing the marginalization of women in the Niger Delta struggle and the oil economy. Women's engagement in the resource struggle and conflict in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria is often perceived as non-existent or inactive, partly because it has been overlooked in analyses of civil groups in the region. Our analysis positions women's groups in the region as organized formations in rural communities through which women express their interests and grievances.

## Impact Of Women's Participation

Women's participation in the oil economy has a longstanding history, primarily through involvement in community protests, civil groups, and support for ethnic, regional, and youth leaders' engagements up until the 1990s (Munir, 2021). Often, their role involved encouraging their husbands and children to participate in protests and militant movements, sometimes even serving as custodians of weapons during these struggles (Munir, 2021).

However, a notable shift has been the emergence of organized and concerted associational activism. The most active groups in the oil economy are the local Community Women's Organizations (CWOs), which have consistently engaged in protests, disrupted production, and occupied facilities (Patch, 2008). These associations, directly affected by the impacts of the oil economy, are highly aware, interested, and engaged in issues such as poverty, neglect, local development, employment, and economic empowerment. They advocate for benefits and address issues that directly affect their local environments.

Community women's organizations encompass a variety of groups including age grades, thrift, welfare, and mutual support groups, facilitating information exchange, articulation of interests, and mobilization efforts (Ukwuagu, 2014). Equally significant are urban-based women's groups, often affiliated with community development associations and mutual welfare organizations, which support and enhance the mobilization and awareness efforts of CWOs. These urban groups are typically better informed, enlightened, confident, and empowered, thus playing a crucial role in mobilizing and empowering CWOs (Ihayere et al., 2014).

Regional women's groups have been actively involved in responding comprehensively to neglect, environmental abuses, state repression, and harassment in their regions. Their activism and engagement have intensified, particularly in protesting against economic marginalization in the oil sector, corporate mismanagement, state abuses, behaviours of other groups, pervasive insecurity, and violence. Their efforts are aimed at achieving stronger voices, greater participation, empowerment, and creating a better and safer society and environment. In terms of their methods of engagement, women's groups have established a framework of peaceful advocacy, representation, mediation, and accommodation concerning their targets of struggle: multinational corporations (MNCs), governmental entities, and local actors such as community governance, leaderships, local elites, and youth groups.

The gender NGOs and women national associations such as the National Council for Women Societies (NCWS) have been active in the empowerment of women through training and the articulation of women conditions and interests (Austin-Lucas, 2021). The NCWS was involved in brokering peace between the Itsekiri and Ijaw women protesters who sealed up some oil flow stations in the Warri region of Delta state. Gender NGOs are also engaged in the defence of women rights and the advocacy of peace and negotiated but peaceful solutions to the conflicts between the region and the state and oil companies. Ikelegbe, A. (2005).
## POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives have profound implications for enhancing women's participation in sustainable development. They empower women by granting access to resources and skills crucial for active engagement in sustainable projects, thereby promoting gender equality across education, healthcare, employment, and leadership opportunities (Uduji, et al., 2019). These activities also aim to foster community welfare, spur economic growth, and ensure environmental sustainability. CSR serves as a platform for advocating policies that advance women's rights and influence gender-inclusive practices. Through capacity-building initiatives, CSR equips women with the skills necessary to contribute effectively to sustainable development goals.

In the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, CSR initiatives like the General Memorandum of Understanding (GMoU) have both positive and negative impacts on women's participation in sustainable development. Women in this region rely on CSR initiatives such as GMoUs for policy dialogue and advocacy to improve their access to agricultural land and inputs. GMoUs' agricultural interventions hold promise in enhancing gender equality by empowering women and facilitating their involvement in sustainable development initiatives. However, concerns arise regarding GMoUs potentially undermining gender equality by failing to adequately address existing gaps in resource access and opportunities for women. Cultural norms also pose barriers, limiting women's direct participation in GMoUs' agricultural programs. Despite these challenges, MOCs have been actively involved in various CSR activities in the Niger Delta and other parts of Nigeria, ranging from agricultural development to healthcare, infrastructure, and education (Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2017). The introduction of GMoUs in 2006 marked a significant shift in MOCs' CSR strategy, emphasizing transparency, accountability, sustainable practices, and conflict prevention in community engagements (Alfred, 2013).

According to a study by Uduji et al. (2019), increasing CSR investments targeted at advocating for women farmers' access to land can significantly enhance productivity and inclusive growth in rural communities. Access to land remains a major challenge for rural women farmers, highlighting the potential impact of CSR interventions aimed at improving their land and resource access. Policy advocacy mechanisms, such as traditional joint-tithing methods, land leasing, land use certificates, and state-managed land reform programs, are crucial for advancing gender equality in land access policies. In conclusion, MOCs can play a pivotal role in enhancing gender equality through GMoUs by investing in agricultural projects and supporting inclusive practices. By improving local livelihoods and empowering communities, MOCs contribute to sustainable development and social progress in conflict-prone regions like the Niger Delta. Embracing a localized CSR approach should continue to guide MOCs' engagements in sub-Saharan Africa, promoting equitable development outcomes for women and communities alike.

## CONCLUSION

Sustainable development hinges significantly on political will and governance quality, particularly in achieving gender parity. It requires harmonizing economic, environmental, and social goals, necessitating explicit integration of gender equality and women's rights across all policy levels. In the context of the Niger Delta, women's perceptions of development are shaped by environmental challenges such as oil-related pollution and socio-economic disparities. Women advocate for infrastructure improvements, environmental protection, and equitable resource management, engaging actively in public life to address these issues. The study highlights the adverse impacts of oil exploitation on women, including environmental degradation and socio-economic marginalization. There is a clarion call for inclusive development strategies that empower women through education, vocational training, and support networks, contrasting with violent approaches historically favoured by male counterparts. Ultimately, the government and oil companies are urged to adopt non-violent resolutions to crises, recognizing that sustainable development in the Niger Delta depends on empowering and protecting women's rights and contributions.
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**Chapter Twenty-Two**

**Water Resources: Need For Sustainability in Nigeria**

Victor U. Nkemdirim

Department of Geography/Planning Abia State University, Uturu, Nigeria

EMAIL: princevic09@yahoo.com

**ABSTRACT**

Water is the most helpful servant of mankind, and consequently the most important resource of society. This is because of its unique position among other natural resources because a country can survive in the absence of any other resources except water. The sustainability of water resources is a significant challenge for most countries, especially for those that are located in arid regions. Although, water is a renewable resource (as it constantly circulates in the biosphere through the hydrological cycle), its available quantity on Earth is fixed and finite. The distribution of water, however, maintains an almost perfect balance to sustain life on Earth. It is important to note that our water demand is constantly increasing due to the increasing population and adoption of modern lifestyles, whereas, the availability of water remains the same. Due to this continuously increasing demand, water is bound to become scarce in future, even if sufficient water is available today. Hence, to ensure that this great resource (i.e. water) of humanity continues to fulfil our demands for the present and future generations, it is essential to maintain, protect, conserve, and use it very judiciously. This paper argues that water resource sustainability can be achieved through the proper and efficient application of sound water management practices.

KEYWORDS: Water resources; Sustainability; Water demand; Water availability

**INTRODUCTION**

Water has a unique position among other natural resources, like fuels, forests, etc. because a country can survive in the absence of any other resources, except water. Therefore, water is the most important resource of a country, and of the entire society as a whole, since no life is possible without water. Water is the only resource that does not have a substitute. Without any exaggeration, water can, therefore, be called the most helpful servant of mankind, and consequently the most important resource of society. The world is approaching the end of a period in which resources were cheap, readily available, and lavishly used. Over the centuries, the earth has been viewed as an almost inexhaustible storehouse of resources for humans to exploit. Now there is a growing realization that resources can be depleted and that the air, water and soil – also resources – cannot absorb massive amounts of pollutants and yet retain their life-supporting abilities. That realization was reflected in June 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, when the world's governments agreed to form the UN Commission on Sustainable Development. Since that time, many countries have launched efforts to chat a path towards sustainable development, including Nigeria. An environmentally sustainable economy satisfies current needs without jeopardizing the prospects of future generations. Therefore, sustainable water management means using water in a way that meets current, ecological, social, and economic needs without compromising the ability to meet those needs in the future. Nations, the world over, strive for studious planning, development and management of resources to meet the basic needs of people, over time, to live and maintain a life which is decent, healthy and respectable.

Nigeria is a West African country bordered by Cameroon, Niger Republic, Chad and the Atlantic Ocean. Its major drainage (fig. 1: hydrological map of Nigeria), the Niger River flows through the Niger Republic and discharges through the deltas and into the Atlantic Ocean. Lake Chad, another major surface water body for Nigeria, is principally shared with the Chad Republic. The River Niger, River Benue and the Lake Chad water bodies are dominant in the hydrology of Nigeria. From the foregoing, it is clear that Nigeria has abundant water resources although they are unevenly distributed over the country. However, with the evident increase in human population estimated at over 200 million, and the
ever-increasing rates of economic growth, the demand on water is rapidly increasing and approaching the capacity of the natural water cycle to replenish this vital resource. The concept of sustainable water resources and efficient water resource management in Nigeria has become necessary.

<figure><img src="image_47.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1. Hydrological map of Nigeria. (Source: Onuh & Bassey, 2021).</figcaption></figure>

## Problem Statement

Despite having abundant water resources, water availability in Nigeria is facing serious challenges due to enormous population increase and economic development. Water supply in Nigeria is a political issue that features a “free water supply” that is conspicuous in the manifestoes of all political parties. In various communities, such non-functional water projects abound. Usually, water projects are tied to political water supply project slogans such as “national borehole programme”, small town water supply and sanitation programme”, “national water supply rehabilitation programme”, “constituency water supply projects”, “rural access to water and sanitation”, etc. In most cases, quality control and assurances were downplayed with emphasis on number of communities covered rather than system efficiency. Schemes of sustainability involving ownership, operation and maintenance structure are not seriously addressed in planning, consequently, project benefits are short-lived.

The dearth in water management and supply systems in Nigeria has led to many citizens resorting to self-help and exploiting the underground water resources in an unstructured, uncoordinated, and unsustainable manner (Akpor & Muchie, 2011). The challenges of water resource management in Nigeria have been severally blamed on the paucity of data (Adeaga et al, 2006), a deficit of implementation of the integrated water management system (Adeoti, 2014), lack of funds, manpower shortage, use of political party loyalists who are not skilled in the positions they occupy, etc. (Nkemdirim et. al, 2017 & 2018).

Successive governments have been pursuing with vigour aggressive water supply programmes and donor agencies such as (UNICEF, EU and World Bank) have also been making their impacts in the sector through expansion of water supply infrastructures that have brought extensive capacity building on participatory project management in the water sector. Despite numerous attempts of succeeding governments to harness the vast surface and underground water resources available to Nigeria, the
country still falls short, significantly in meeting its water needs for the socioeconomic development of
the country.

To achieve success in the water supply sector, both the politicians and officials of the Federal and State Ministries of Water Resources have to come to terms with the implementations of water demand management strategies to raise the coverage level of water supply and sanitation for the sustainability of water resources and the environment, as well as economic efficiency and social development towards achieving the goal six of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) aims to fulfil all water needs by 2030.

NECESSITY FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF WATER RESOURCES

This paper has earlier pointed out that the available quantity of water on Earth is fixed and finite, and that the hydrosphere occupies over 70% of the earth's surface. If the hydrosphere occupies over 70% of the earth's surface, then, the earth is a watery planet. The question now is, if the earth is a watery planet, why do we worry about water since it is plentiful and suffers from acute water supply shortages in almost all parts of the world?

The answer to the above question lies partly in the way the water bodies of the earth are spatially distributed. About 97.3% of the water of the world is found in the seas and oceans which are saline or salty and not good for man to drink. Out of the balance of about 2.7% of fresh water, about 2.03% of the water is locked up in ice caps and glaciers (in Polar Regions) which are frozen and too far for man to reach. Of the remaining 0.67%, about 0.61% is trapped in the underground reservoir which cannot be easily tapped. What remains for man to fulfil his numerous domestic and non-domestic activities is about 40% of the total groundwater (i.e. the groundwater stored in upper exploitable depths of up to about 800 m), and the surface water of lakes and rivers (which constitute hardly 0.01% of the total water).

It can, therefore, be easily understood that the surface water, which can readily be utilized by society, is generally very small (less than 1%) and this does not change or increase with everyday increasing population of the world. This is where the water problem of man starts. Coupled with this is that this less than 1% also faces environmental pollution thereby limiting the already scarce potable water available to man.

Finally, it becomes imperative for water resource sustainability due to the increasing population and adoption of modern lifestyles; whereas, the availability of water remains the same. Due to this continuously increasing demand, water is bound to become scarce in future, even if sufficient water is available today. Hence, to ensure that this great resource of humanity continues to fulfil our demands for all times to come, it is essential to conserve, sustain and use it efficiently.

HISTORICAL REVIEW OF WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

Before the period of independence, all the efforts towards water resources planning and development were directed towards urban supply to meet the requirements of the colonialists. In 1964, the Federal Government established a corporate body with full responsibility to handle the water supply. The objectives of the corporation include: controlling and managing all water works under the provision of the law establishing the corporation; establishing, controlling, managing, expanding and developing the existing ones as the corporation may consider necessary for providing water to meet the requirements of the general public, agriculture and industry in various parts of the country; and to ensure that water is supplied to the consumers thereof at reasonable charges and in potable quality and quantity.

Unfortunately, the corporation could not use its monopolistic status to change the economic rates for water because the government declared potable water supply a social amenity. Water resources planning and development proceeded for a long time without any real coordination. The first attempt at integrated planning and development of water resources was during the 1962-1968 planning period through the establishment of the River Niger and Lake Chad Basin Commissions. The commissions were then
mandated to produce hydrological maps of the country's water resources, use the map to fashion out a comprehensive development of agriculture, fisheries, animal husbandry, inland water transportation (particularly River Niger), sporting and use of water for industries and other domestic activities. In the 1970-1974 plan periods, the Kainji Lake Development Commission, and the Sokoto-Rima and Chad Basin Authorities were established.

It was during the 1975-1980 development plan period, however, that a bold step was taken to replace the piecemeal approach with the nationwide, comprehensive multipurpose planned development of water resources. In 1975, the Federal Ministry of Water Resources was created with a department of water resources, as its technical arm to coordinate water resources development in Nigeria. This followed the creation of 11 River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) in 1976. The RBDAs were charged with the responsibility of a comprehensive water resources (surface and groundwater) development of Nigeria for multipurpose uses. In 1984, the RBDAs were increased to 18 and renamed River Basin and Rural Development Authorities (RBRDAs) with similar functions to the RBDAs. With the change of the military administration in 1985, the number (18) was scaled down to 11 and retained the name RBDA, and its function was limited to purely water resources development.

Other Agencies were also created both at the Federal and State levels to take charge of specific water resources activities. The Nigerian Dam Authority was created for hydroelectric power generation as Kainji Federal Inland Waterways Division (of the Federal Ministry of Transport) for data collection and development of the Niger and Benue River systems for water transportation. The water Boards/Corporations/Utilities were established at the regional (and later State) level to take care of water supply to the people, particularly in the urban and semi-urban areas.

In recent times, too, some other Agencies have been established to support existing ones to increase water resources development, particularly in the rural areas. The Agencies include the Directorate of Food, Roads, and Rural Infrastructures (DFRRI); Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) which have water supply components in their functions; and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO); United Nations Development Projects (UNDPs) and the United Nations International Children's Education Fund (UNICEF) (Handudu, 1990).

Access to water generally for all economic use and clean drinking water is still a prevailing challenge across Nigeria. The Nigerian state has largely failed in its responsibility of providing potable water to the population, leaving about 2/3 or close to 70% of the population to resort to self-help and exploiting the underground water resources in an unstructured, uncoordinated, and unsustainable manner in addressing their water needs (Akpor & Muchie, 2011). The situation is worse in the Northern part of the country where about 30% or less of the population have access to their daily water needs (Owoseye, 2018; USAID, 2019).

## SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES

The term sustainable development was initiated by the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Bruntland Commission) in 1987. Sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations General Assembly, 1987, p. 43). As the world continues to explore economic prosperity, sustainable development goals seek to mainstream the environmental interest of future generations in the economic activities of the present generation. Sustainable development debates have largely centred around the effect of economic activities and industrialization on the environment (Polasky et al, 2019; Bartniczak & Raszkowski, 2018). Goal six of the United Nations 2030 agenda for sustainable development, aims at ensuring the availability and sustainability of water and sanitation for all.

The concept of sustainable water resources has been developed to address this clear conflict between the limited natural supply of water and the demand for water by human society that is increasing without limits. Water is at the core of sustainable development and is critical for socio-economic development, healthy ecosystems and human survival itself. It is vital for reducing the global burden of disease and
improving the health, welfare and productivity of populations. Sustainable water management means using water in a way that meets current, ecological, social, and economic needs without compromising the ability to meet those needs in the future.

The sustainability of any water resource is largely a function of how we manage it. Water management practices that utilize the water stored in any reservoir without considering the corresponding rate of replenishment are not sustainable. Sound management practices should seek to maintain the quality and availability of the water resource indefinitely. This represents the only pathway towards sustainability. Any other pathway would result in compromising the quality and/or availability of water for future generations.

Scholars like Sharma et al, (1996), Biswas (1991), Kundzewicz (1997), and Mwanza (2003), have variously explored issues of water management and security for sustainable development. The significance of water resources in developing countries, more so in sub-Saharan Africa cannot be overstated. The depletion of water bases like rivers and lakes calls for efficient management and exploitation of the resource. Thus, Kundzewicz (1997) held that sustainable development requires an integrated multi-sector approach which should incorporate hydrological and non-hydrological components such as the environment, base of the economy, and character of socio-cultural and institutional subsystems. He argued that water resource management is fundamental to actualizing the goals of sustainable development.

Mwanza (2003) noted that the Transboundary nature of water basins, variability of climate and rainfall, water scarcity, water pollution, environmental degradation and increasing demand are some of the features necessitating efficient water resources management in Africa. The role of water in sustainable development policies is fundamental. Thus, the water security issue is a global one that affects all, requiring an interconnected response framework that should be global in design, embodying within it, a variety of national and regional responses (Biswas, 1991). The response must, as he observed, pay attention to increased investment, technology, diffusion of expertise and increased international cooperation.

The water resource management system in Nigeria is multi-layered with a central authority for the management of water resources residual in the Ministry of Water Resources, a water resource ministry at the state level, while the local governments are responsible for distributing water to rural areas (Ezeabasili, 2014). Summarily, in Nigeria, Sustainable Water Resources and development cannot be achieved without fundamental changes in basic thinking, ethical values, moral concepts, religious beliefs and planning. The dilemma is that most of the state's fundamental planning projects are in indirect conflict with the future anticipated development. Every planning and development problem starts with man and his ability to think. All values and all planning concepts are derived from man.

**Management Framework for Sustainable Water Resources**

Though water is considered to be the most important element for survival, unfortunately, its scarcity is becoming an alarming problem in Nigeria as well as at the global level. The current situation of water is gruesome and it will pose a new threat in the near future when millions of people will not be able to access a single drop of water. It becomes our duty to preserve water both for now and for the coming generations too. Realising the importance and scarcity attached to the freshwater, it has to be treated as an essential environment for sustaining all life forms. Efforts should be made to develop, conserve, utilize, and sustainably manage this important resource. Some of the ways through which water resources could be sustained include;

**a. Integration of a PPP (Public-Private Partnership) model** that allows investors to Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) and also allows for Build, Own and Operate (BOO) into the water resource development regulatory framework. This comprehensive strategy has evidently helped Israel achieve water security in their drive for sustainable development. In spite of the enormous water resource of Nigeria, the problem of water security still persists.
**b. Pricing/Prepaid Water Meters:** The cultivators and households are paying a mere pittance for consuming water. The revenue received is too small, and is not even sufficient for meeting the RMO (Running, Maintenance and Operation) costs. The reason everyone wastes water in Nigeria is that none of us has a real idea of waters economic cost. It can, hence, be concluded, that water rates for irrigation as well as for domestic and industrial supplies in Nigeria need a much higher upward revision, as to make people understand the real cost of water, and to encourage them to save and avoid wastage of this precious and finite resource. It is important to note that, because over 90% of supplies are currently not metered, people develop very poor attitude to the use of water, and tend to waste more with no conservational attitude. Prepaid water meters should be a precondition for prequalification for water service to consumers and punitive measures should be in place to deal with illegal water connections and vandalism of water installations.

**c. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle to conserve water**

We can **reduce** water wastage by using it wisely through the adoption of the three R's (reduce, reuse and recycle) for the well-being of our planet and our future generations. It is important to note that, every single drop of water is very important and every drop of water counts. Taps should be turned off while brushing teeth or washing hands. Outdoor plants should be watered early in the morning. Instead of letting the used water go down the drains, we can **reuse** wastewater for mopping, car washing, irrigation of plants and other household activities. This will decrease the pressure on freshwater required for these activities. **Recycling** of water is another way of conserving treated municipal water. Here, the sullage from the bathrooms of houses is collected, and after very small treatment, is used for supplying to the toilets for flushing cisterns, to save large amounts of treated municipal supplies. The partially or fully treated sewage effluents can also be used to water the lawns and plants in houses. These methods will largely help in controlling the pollution of our precious rivers, as the flow of sewage into the rivers will be reduced. Industries can also purify their effluents and recycle it, thereby reducing their requirement for freshwater, and reducing the pollution load on rivers.

**d. Promoting Rainwater Harvesting:** This is another method to increase the availability of water, both for recharging the groundwater as well as to collect the rainwater in underground tanks to combat drought situations. Rainwater harvesting also helps in reducing the fury of floods, as the runoff gets reduced to its storage in underground reservoirs or in a man-made domestic tank. Farms and gardens can be irrigated with this water. Besides, it can also be used for other household activities. It may, however, be stated that rainwater harvesting may provide some relief at local levels only, and has limited potential, as it can supplement surface storage but not become a substitute for them.

**e. Creation of Water Conservation Consciousness:** Water wastage is a serious issue and water is everybody's business. Let children learn the first lessons of water conservation in the family itself. Teachers can create awareness in schools about the pressing need for water conservation. There is also a need to create awareness among our farmers, urbanites, and the public at large, for affecting the economy by using scarce and precious water sources. This is important because ordinary Nigerians think that water is the cheapest and easiest available commodity, which is absolutely an incorrect notion in today's world.

**f. Government Policy/Regulation:** Water should not be regarded as a social service. The government should demonstrate as a matter of urgency the political will to declassify water supply as a "free service" in their political manifestoes but as a "user pay service". The government should also help to save fresh water and prevent water pollution by measuring water use and setting targets to reduce its wastage. By obliging large companies to measure and manage the amount of warm water resources and making laws to increase water recycling. The government should give top priority attention to water supply schemes and rehabilitation projects during the allocation of funds in the national plan and budgets through the Ministry of Public Utilities.

**g. End-use efficiency:** This means doing more in economic terms with less water. Water-saving strategies/appliances and the use of smart technologies (low-flow showers, low-flush toilets, and aerated faucets) can be adopted in all economic sectors to achieve end-use efficiency. Efficient piping systems
that are leak-free and well-insulated provide a reliable network and help to limit water waste. Using more efficient irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation rather than using sprinklers, leads to greater rates of evaporation.

**h. River Basin Management:** Water does not stop at administrative or political boundaries. So the best way to protect and manage water is by close international cooperation between all the countries within the natural geographical and hydrological unit of the river basin – bringing together all interests upstream and downstream. In Nigeria, very few river basins are managed in principle and this is the main cause of river pollution. To the people, the river is free gift of nature and therefore nature takes care of its maintenance. Of course, you do not blame these people because they have been using the river basins for their economic activities undisturbed since their lifetime. Even the establishment of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) in Nigeria has not solved the problem. There could be efficient river basin management in Nigeria if we are committed and ready to work. Recognition of drainage basin as the basic unit of planning for the development of water resources and call for appropriate measures to optimise utilization of this source not only for the benefit of the people living in the basin but also for transfer of surplus water to meet the requirements of areas which have shortage of water.

## CONCLUSION

Though Nigeria is naturally endowed with enormous water resources, most of its citizens and its national economy have been suffering from thirst and water deficiency. Despite the numerous policies, and legal and institutional regimes evolved by the government for the management of water resources to satisfy national water needs, the deficiency persists. This is probably the case because satisfying water needs appears to be one of the least priorities of the government as the aspirations are not duly pursued with purposeful systematic funding and implementation. Thus far, many communities do not have access to water fit for consumption and all issues relating to this reality are largely the failure of government and economic conditions of the people. Therefore, there is an urgent need to conserve water as well as to protect our water resources from pollution. This can be achieved by adopting sound management practices as already discussed, coupled with fundamental changes in basic thinking, ethical values, moral concepts, religious beliefs and planning.

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**Chapter Twenty-Three**

**Evaluation of Plastic Waste Disposal in Water Bodies and Awareness of the Effects on Marine Lives in Owerri Municipal**

Njoku F. I.<fnref n="1" />; Ogbuji S. I.<fnref n="2" />; Njoku F. C.<fnref n="1" />

EMAIL: sogbujiic@yahoo.com

**ABSTRACT**

The study investigated the disposal of plastics in water bodies and awareness of the effects on marine lives by the residents of Owerri Municipal. A descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. The sampled population comprised 300 residents of Owerri Municipal randomly selected. The sample size was calculated using Taro Yemen Formulae. The research questions were analyzed using mean and grand mean in a four-point Likert scale. The findings of the study revealed that open dumping is the main means of plastic waste disposal in the area. Lack of proper waste management infrastructure, indiscipline, and Cultural practices are among the reasons for disposing of plastics in water bodies. The study also showed that the residents are aware of the effects of plastic waste disposal in water bodies on marine lives such as entanglement of aquatic animals, toxicity, aiding the transport of invasive species, formation of microplastics and ingestion of plastics by aquatic animals. The study recommends the Practice of sustainable living by adopting eco-friendly habits and lifestyle choices that can reduce overall environmental impact, through public enlightenment on the dangers of plastic waste disposal into water bodies and by reducing waste generation.

KEYWORDS: Plastic waste; awareness; Water bodies; Owerri; Marine

**INTRODUCTION**

**Background to the Study**

It was widely acknowledged that the 1907 invention of plastic represented a significant global advancement. Products made of plastic soon proliferated throughout our daily existence. We were largely unaware of the detrimental effects of plastic on human health, biomagnification, the environment, and the climate for a long time, and we only saw its advantages. In general, plastics are problematic because they are not biodegradable; the raw materials used to make plastics include hydrocarbon molecules that are obtained from the processing of natural gas and oil. The disposal of used plastics can be difficult. Plastic's low cost and versatility, which are essential for people's daily lives, have led to an increase in global production. As of 2017, global plastic production was estimated to be 348 million metric tons, growing at a rate of about 90% per year (Verla et al., 2019). They are typically made inexpensively, used just once, and then discarded as litter. Plastics' durability and lightweight lead to the accumulation of litter in landfills and the movement from source areas to water bodies. Plastics have ingrained themselves into our daily lives, and society has benefited greatly from their extensive use in a variety of applications. The annual consumption of plastics has been increasing gradually (Kumar, 2017). Plastics are a material that can be transparent, strong, lightweight, and versatile, which makes them ideal for a wide range of applications. These qualities are what drive the growth in plastic use. They also make excellent packaging materials because of their low cost, good oxygen and moisture barrier qualities, bio-inertness, and light weight. In addition to their widespread use in packaging, automobiles, and other industries, they are also widely used in water desalination, bacterial removal, medical delivery systems, and artificial implants, among other healthcare applications (Ayo, 2016). The electronics and communication industries have relied heavily on specially designed plastics, particularly in the production of chips and compartments, including batteries and fuel cells, the two forms of alternative energy (Babayemi et al., 2018). In the meantime, it appears that emerging economies will continue to produce and use more plastic, so waste management infrastructure will need to grow in step with this trend (Uwaegbulam et al., 2018). Unfortunately, plastic's cost-

<footnote n="1">¹Federal College of Land Resources Technology Owerri, Imo State.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Imo State University Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.</footnote>
effectiveness, durability, and light weight are also factors that make it difficult to dispose of. Plastics (Hopewell, 2009).

This zone of great productivity, marine and waterbodies are home to a variety of subsystems, including sea grasses, plastic wastes, aquatic animals and coral reefs. The ecosystem is intricate and boasts a diverse range of organisms, from highly evolved creatures like dolphins to more primitive species like horseshoe crabs. Due to their interdependence with the terrestrial environment, aquatic ecosystems are impacted by changes in other systems. Numerous factors, such as human activity, have put stress on the marine and coastal ecosystems for decades (Adams, 2005; Richmond, 2015). The physical degradation of the environment by plastic wastes and pollution are two of these stresses. One of the major threats that humans have created to marine and coastal systems is the accumulation of plastic litter (Nualphan, 2013). This is because plastics have certain unique properties, such as the ability to be readily transported by wind and water currents and due to their long shelf lives, plastic litter is persistent in water bodies. As a result of improper waste disposal, there is over 260,000 tons of plastic debris floating on the ocean's surface (Eriksen, 2014). Whether in developed or developing nations, plastic pollution is currently a major concern for the entire water bodies and marine lives. It is against the backdrop that the researcher seeks to research on disposal of plastics wastes in water bodies and awareness of the effects on marine lives.

## Statement of Problem

Every city in Nigeria, including Owerri Municipal, is struggling with plastic waste management issues. The Owerri Municipal Council in the year 2000 approved the available space along the Otamiri Riverbank site as the official dumpsite for the majority of the municipality's solid waste. As a result, plastic waste has been dumped at this location for more than twenty years, covering an area of approximately 11 hectares, standing 6 meters tall and not compacted or capped. Nearly 30 tons of mixed waste are dumped here every day. Plastics and organic materials are among the waste components. During winds and rains, the majority of these materials are washed into the river due to improper disposal of the waste. Improper disposal of plastic waste can lead to the destruction of aquatic life and ecosystems. Hence it becomes imperative to evaluate how the residents manage their waste, especially plastics and ascertain their level of awareness on the effects of plastic waste on marine lives to ameliorate the disposal into water bodies and the negative impacts.

## THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK /LITERATURE REVIEW

### Systems Theory

From the 1940s to the 1970s, Ludwig von Bertalanffy, William Ross Ashby, and others pioneered systems theory. This theory was promoted as one that can be used to improve environmental management. Systems theory provides a comprehensive framework for studying a phenomenon. Life The theory emphasizes taking a holistic approach to a system, ensuring that all components work together to function efficiently. Complementarities of efforts, approaches, and actions are considered to achieve specific goals. It also recognizes the feedback principle. The systems theory is relevant to the environment and has implications for plastic waste management because it extends the participation theory's advocacy for stakeholder involvement in environmental sanitation management. Overall, these theories can serve as a solid foundation for stakeholders to effectively manage plastic waste.

### Concept of Plastics

Synthetic organic materials created through polymerization are known as plastics. When pressure or heat is applied, it readily moulds. They can be moulded or extruded into the desired shapes and have a high molecular mass.

There are two types of plastics: thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermoplastics are molten materials that soften when heated, can be molded or shaped under pressure, and solidify when cooled to maintain their shape. Solids that cannot melt are known as thermosets. They break down when heated (Majka & Pielichowski, 2011). Plastics have a life cycle that starts with the extraction of ethylene from natural gas or crude oil and ends with its disposal as waste after use. In order to increase performance and/or lower cost, a variety of materials are added to polymers during the production process (Ikpe, 2017). According to Ayo (2016), there are five main types of plastics namely, polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Plastic has become indispensable in modern society, serving a wide range of commercial, industrial, medical, and municipal purposes. It is one of the materials that is used the most in the world. Plastic has evolved over the past 60 years into a practical, adaptable material with a variety of uses. Every year, more than 300 million new plastics are used. Typically, half of these are used for less than 12 minutes and only once (Eriksen, 2014). Every year, eight million tons of plastic debris find their way into the ocean. There are so many plastic particles entering the water bodies that in some locations they outnumber plankton by a ratio of 26:1. (Isangedighi, & Samuel, 2012). The 8 million pieces of plastic debris that enter the environment every day were drastically underestimated in a UNEP report. It is important to remember that none of these estimates are endorsed by any specific source, so caution should be applied when interpreting them. Given the diversity and size of the world's water bodies, estimating the average amount of plastic waste in them is a challenging task. Approximately 49% of all plastics that are produced have the property of buoyancy, which allows them to float and follow ocean currents to any location on Earth. From 1.5 million tons per year in the 1950s to roughly 280 million tons in 2011, there has been a significant annual increase in plastic production (Isangedighi & Samuel, 2012).

<table><caption>Table 1: Types of Plastics and Their Common Use</caption><thead><tr><td>Polymer type</td><td>Examples</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Polyethylene Terephthalate</td><td>Fizzy drink and water bottles; Salad trays</td></tr><tr><td>High Density Polyethylene</td><td>Milk bottles, bleach, cleaners and most shampoo bottles</td></tr><tr><td>Polyvinyl Chloride</td><td>Pipes, fittings, window and door frames (rigid PVC); thermal insulation (PVC foam) and automotive parts</td></tr><tr><td>Low-Density Polyethylene</td><td>Carrier bags, bin liners and packaging films</td></tr><tr><td>Polypropylene</td><td>Margarine tubs, and microwaveable meal trays, also produced as fibres and filaments for carpets, wall coverings and vehicle upholstery</td></tr><tr><td>Polystyrene</td><td>Yoghurt pots, foam hamburger boxes and egg cartons, plastic cutlery, protective packaging for electronic goods and toys. Insulating material in the building and construction industry.</td></tr><tr><td>Unallocated References</td><td>Polycarbonate which is often used in glazing for the aircraft industry</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Adapted and modified from Koushal, 2014.

An analysis of European Plastic Production in 2014 predicts that by 2020, annual plastic production will reach 400 million tons. Polyethylene (PE), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), and Polypropylene (PP) are the most widely used plastics (Koushal, 2014). Large amounts of plastic items have been released into the environment and have ended up in the world's water bodies due to frequent inappropriate waste management practices or irresponsible human behaviour. This process is still going on and is getting worse in some areas. Even though plastics are found far inland, rivers and streams eventually carry them into the sea or ocean. Plastics get released into the environment as a result of poor waste management practices, or inappropriate human behaviour. Municipal plastic waste (such as sachet water film bags), commercial plastic waste (such as packaging materials), industrial plastic waste (such as polyethylene film wrapping, auto spare parts, PVC pipes and fittings, etc.), and plastic waste from ships are some of the sources of plastic waste that enter the aquatic ecosystem (Ampofo, 2017).

Plastics can seriously disrupt ecosystems because of their toxins and nearly indestructible morphology. Major oceanic gyres are home to the largest concentration of plastic debris. Presently, the North Pacific Ocean's plastic debris patch spans an area equivalent to that of France and Spain due to the rotation of vortex centres where it accumulates (Isangedighi, & Samuel, 2018). Since humans are at the top of the food chain, this debris affects all marine life, including us. The use of plastics has increased dramatically over the past few decades and there is evidence that the methods currently used for their production, use, transportation, and disposal harm marine life and are not sustainable.

## Plastic Wastes Effects on the Environment

Plastic waste is an international issue with some regional variations. Plastic waste negatively affects both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The effects of unethical disposal techniques worsen when chemicals are released into the environment by burning or leachates from landfills escaping. Fish that
consume plastic also develop internal ulcers, have disturbances in their digestive systems, and have their buoyancy controlled (Verme, 2016). For the Earth's natural life support systems to continue, the aquatic environment must remain intact. The majority of the oxygen we breathe comes from them, which is why they are known as the planet's lungs. They also play a significant role in the global economy by giving millions of people a source of food and income and supporting local communities all over the world. Nevertheless, the amount of waste produced worldwide keeps rising faster than efforts to lessen its negative effects on the water bodies (Blettler et al., 2020). According to Hanafi (2018), one million plastic bottles are discarded worldwide every minute, and five trillion plastic bags are produced annually; roughly ten million each minute. Additionally, according to Darshan and Gururaja (2013), at least eight million tons of plastic are thought to end up in the marine environment annually. The empirical prediction that there will be more plastic in the ocean than fish by 2050 foreshadows grave risks and demands immediate action to combat the problem.

In a statement released by African Development Bank, over 100,000 marine animals are killed by plastics and 83 percent of tap water is found to contain plastic particles (Hanafi, 2018). Nigeria's coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to plastic pollution. Given their strong resistance to natural degradation processes, plastic fragments can linger in the aquatic environment for decades or even centuries. Marine species, such as fish, mussels, crustaceans, seabirds, and marine mammals, are suffocating and becoming entangled in plastic waste, which is the most obvious and concerning effect of marine plastic pollution (Blettler, 2020). Ingestion by accident can also be fatal, hence this is cause for concern. Due to the abrasive or cutting action of the litter, entanglement can result in lacerations and infections (Ugwuegbulam, 2018). Additionally, it hinders the animals' ability to swim, find food, and flee from predators. Hence most victims go undetected as they sink, are consumed by predators, or are carried great distances. The impact of entanglement is greatly underestimated, changing biodiversity and the balance of natural ecosystems. Venon and Oliver (2014), argued that birds and marine animals confuse plastic waste particles for possible prey items and favour particular plastic shapes and colours, which reduces their actual food intake and can result in fatal injuries or death due to intestinal tract blockage. Since pollution has led to the predominance of toxic metals in the food chain, the ingestion of plastic debris is also of concern to small invertebrate organisms and may have health effects on humans who eat seafood. When floating plastics spend a long time in contaminated saltwater, their surfaces may accumulate harmful pollutants, acting as a conduit for these pollutants to enter marine organisms and accumulate there. A concerted effort from all facets of society, including manufacturers, tourists, government authorities and all other users of water bodies, is needed to tackle the problem of reducing plastic pollution in the marine environment, even in addition to the valiant efforts of volunteer beach clean-up organizers.

Our oceans and marine life are currently facing serious problems due to microplastics. These tiny plastic particles, which are less than 5 mm long, are found in everything from industrial processes to cosmetic products. At an alarming rate, they are finding their way into our water bodies. A 2050 study by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation predicts that by weight, there will be more plastic in the ocean than fish. This is a dire forecast that emphasizes how quickly the problem of microplastics needs to be addressed. Single-use plastic products like straws, bags, and bottles are among the main sources of microplastics in the ocean. These products are frequently thrown away after being used for a short while and wind up in the ocean. When plastic enters the ocean, it disintegrates into smaller particles known as microplastics, which life-marine lives may consume (Ampofo, 2017). The effects of these microplastics on marine life may be catastrophic. Many marine species, such as fish, birds, and turtles, may confuse them for food and consume them. They may starve to death if the plastic gets stuck in their stomachs. Furthermore, harmful substances that microplastics absorb have the potential to be ingested by marine life and cause a variety of health issues. Microplastics are a problem that affects more than just marine life.

## Effects of Plastic Waste on the Aquatic Ecosystem's Biota

When introduced into the environment, plastics can kill aquatic life due to their very undesirable properties. The main reasons why plastic pollution affects so many species are when animals get tangled in plastic nets or swallow plastic items when they mistake plastic waste for food. Another issue with
plastic pollution is that it makes it easier for species to spread to other areas. When alien species enter a new ecosystem through floating debris, they alter the species balance or possibly drive out native species. When consumed, plastics can also release toxins into the environment or living things (Isangedighi & Samuel, 2018). A technical report analyzing the effects of marine debris on biodiversity found that 11% of all reported encounters with microplastics and over 80% of reported incidents involving organisms and marine debris involved plastic. Despite its buoyant nature, plastic can sink to the ocean floor due to certain oceanic fronts, rapid and intense fouling, or "bottom-hugging" currents. (Brown, 2020). He further stated that sediment might keep plastic on the seafloor and probable that plastic will alter the ecosystem's functioning once it reaches the seafloor. According to Goldberg (2019), the plastic sheets might function as a blanket, preventing gas exchange and resulting in hypoxia or anoxia, or low oxygen levels. Additionally, plastic waste could produce artificial hand grounds and cause issues, particularly for creatures that burrow (Ofonmbuk, 2012). The effects of plastic pollution on aquatic ecosystems are still largely poorly understood. Nonetheless, the detrimental effects they have on the marine biota are becoming more widely known. The number of plastics polluting the marine environment is rising along with the use of plastics (Nualphan, 2013). Plastic waste can harm the marine industry in addition to its effects on the environment and life (entangling propellers and blocking cooling systems).

## Effects on Marine and Coastal Birds

When diving for food, many birds in the marine environment come into contact with plastic waste. Seabird entanglement is primarily caused by fishing lines and six-pack rings. Both substances are frequently translucent and obscure. They can be mistaken for jellyfish and other food if they are visible (Venon & Oliver, 2014). One species of marine bird that is at risk from plastic waste is the gannet. The gannet, a "plunge-diver," plunges into the ocean from great heights, where it may be ensnared by ghost nets or other debris. A study conducted at the German island of Helgoland, home to a sizable gannet colony, revealed that between 1976 and 1985, 29% of the dead gannets discovered had entangled themselves in broken nets (Venoon & Oliver, 2020). A significant percentage of marine and coastal bird species: 36 percent of the 312 species globally consume plastic debris (Brown, 2020). Up to 80% of a population may be impacted by the ingested debris in 111 out of 312 species of seabirds. Furthermore, it is also known that the chicks pick up plastic debris from their parents when they regurgitate food.

One negative consequence of birds consuming plastic is that they lose weight because, among other things, they don't put on enough fat reserves for migration and reproduction and have a false sense of sated appetite. Plastics are primarily swallowed by birds because they confuse them for food, but they can also be found in the stomach of their prey or transferred from adult to chick through regurgitation feeding (Brown, 2020).

## METHODOLOGY

### The Study Area

The study was conducted in Owerri Municipal which lies within latitude 5°25' and 5°23' N and longitude 5°21' and 7°25'E. It is one of the 27 local governments that make up Imo State as well as the state capital. It is bounded to the North by Amakohia, Nekede to the south and Irete to the west. The area has a radius of about 8km and a land area of about 58 km². The study applied a descriptive cross-sectional research design in some selected residential areas in Owerri Municipal. The study population comprised residents of Owerri Municipal. One-stage sampling method which involves balloting was used in randomly selecting 10 residential units in the study area. Information on plastic waste management and awareness of the effects on marine life were obtained from the residents of the selected units using a semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire. Physical observation of the waste and the dumpsite in the area was done using an observation checklist. The data collected were analyzed using frequency counts of the responses to generate descriptive information and to illustrate the general trend of findings on the various variables that were under investigation. This involved the use of percentages, tables and mean scores for each cluster of the items. Based on the average of the four-point Likert scale, the mean score of 2.50 benchmark was used to answer the research questions of the study and those items scoring a mean below 2.5 were rejected.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

**Research Question 1:** How do you dispose of your plastic waste?

<table><caption>Table 2: Responses on the methods of plastic waste disposal in the study area.</caption><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td>Frequency</td><td>Percentage</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>By Open dumping</td><td>123</td><td>41%</td></tr><tr><td>Municipal waste collectors</td><td>102</td><td>34</td></tr><tr><td>By Burning</td><td>64</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>By Contractors</td><td>11</td><td>3.7</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Source:** Researcher's Fieldwork, 2024

Table two shows that majority of the people (41%) dispose of their plastic waste by open dumping, 34% through municipal waste collectors and in most cases, such wastes are not sorted while the least method is the use of waste contractors. This is in line with studies conducted by Durshan and Gururaja (2013) and Ayo (2016) asserted that means of waste disposal in developing countries include open dumping and through waste collectors.

**Research Question 2:** What is your reason for disposing of the plastics through such method?

<table><caption>Table 3: Mean response of reasons for disposing of plastic waste by the various methods.</caption><thead><tr><td>S/N</td><td>ITEMS</td><td>SA</td><td>A</td><td>D</td><td>SD</td><td>N</td><td>X</td><td>ΣFX</td><td>REMARK</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Lack of proper waste management infrastructure</td><td>136</td><td>35</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.9</td><td>649</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Convenience</td><td>150</td><td>21</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.9</td><td>663</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Ignorance to effects of plastics</td><td>148</td><td>23</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.9</td><td>661</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Citizen's indiscipline</td><td>122</td><td>49</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.7</td><td>635</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Illegal dumping</td><td>127</td><td>44</td><td>0</td><td>40</td><td>171</td><td>3.7</td><td>640</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Cultural practices</td><td>108</td><td>60</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>171</td><td>3.7</td><td>615</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Grand mean</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3.8</td><td></td><td>Accepted</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Source:** Researcher's Fieldwork, 2024

Table 3 above shows that the respondents from items 1-6 all agreed that the listed factors (Lack of proper waste management infrastructure, Convenience, Ignorance, Citizen's indiscipline, Illegal dumping, Cultural practices) are the reasons for their methods of disposal above, with a mean of over 2.5 and with grand mean 3.8 which is above the mean cut off mark. Thus, stating that the listed variables are all reasons for disposing of plastic waste through the methods above. This collaborates with the study by Goldberg (2019), who identified the above as the reasons for indiscriminate waste disposal.

**Research Question 3:** Do you agree that plastic wastes that enter the water bodies can have the following effects on marine life?
<table><caption>Table 4: Mean response on the effects of disposal of plastics into water bodies on marine lives.</caption><thead><tr><th>S/N</th><th>ITEMS</th><th>SA</th><th>A</th><th>D</th><th>SD</th><th>N</th><th>X</th><th>ΣFX</th><th>REMARK</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Entanglement of Aquatic animals</td><td>115</td><td>56</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.7</td><td>628</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Toxicity</td><td>127</td><td>44</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.7</td><td>640</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Habitat destruction</td><td>162</td><td>28</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>200</td><td>3.8</td><td>750</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Transport of invasive species</td><td>148</td><td>23</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.9</td><td>661</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Micro-plastics</td><td>117</td><td>54</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.7</td><td>630</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Ingestion</td><td>98</td><td>70</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>171</td><td>3.5</td><td>608</td><td>Agreed</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Grand mean</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3.7</td><td></td><td>Accepted</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's Fieldwork, 2024.

Table 4 above shows that the respondents with items 1-6 have the same view on the effects of plastic wastes on marine life and are above the cutoff mark and with a grand mean of 3.7 which is above the cut-off mark of 2.5. Thus, stating that the listed variables are all effects of disposal of plastics into water bodies on marine lives, hence the people are aware of the effects of plastic waste disposal in water bodies. Item no 4 with the highest mean score of 3.9 shows that, disposal of plastic waste into water bodies resolves in helping invasive species to attack smaller habitats.

## CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study concluded that the majority of the residents of Owerri Municipal dispose of their plastic waste through open dumps and Municipal waste collectors. Most of them do this because of a lack of proper waste management infrastructure in the area and convenience among others. In terms of their awareness of the effects of plastic waste on marine life, the residents are fully aware of the effects of the waste on aquatic life and therefore cannot claim ignorance of the negative effects.

Based on the findings, the study made the following recommendations:

Based on the responses obtained, the research proffers the following recommendations:

i) Reduction in plastic consumption by choosing reusable alternatives wherever possible: This may include using reusable water bottles, shopping bags, and containers, as well as avoiding products with excessive plastic packaging.

ii) Disposing of plastics responsibly: Always place plastic waste in designated bins or recycling facilities. Avoid littering, particularly near water bodies, and take part in local cleanup efforts to remove existing plastic debris from the environment.

iii) Support policies and initiatives: Advocate for policies and regulations that reduce plastic pollution, such as bans on single-use plastics, plastic bag fees, and extended producer responsibility (EPR) programs. Get involved in community initiatives and campaigns to combat plastic pollution.

iv) Choose eco-friendly alternatives: Whenever possible, replace traditional plastics with biodegradable or compostable alternatives. Support companies and industries that prioritize sustainability and environmental responsibility in their operations and products.

v) public enlightenment: Share information about how plastic pollution affects marine lives and ecosystems with your friends, family, and community. Raise awareness about the importance of responsible plastic use and proper disposal.

By taking these actions, plastic waste can be reduced in water bodies thereby mitigating the negative effects of plastic on marine life.

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**Chapter Twenty-Four**

**Environmental Impact of Climate Change on Sustainable Development: Focus on Gender Vulnerability in Nigeria**

Susan I. Ajiere; Bridget E. Diagi; David O.Edokpa; Ifeoma M. Onyejekwe; Uloma L. Onyeananam; Daniel Lawrence

**ABSTRACT**

Climate change has impacted some natural resources in the environment and has aggravated resource scarcity. This has affected the livelihood of so many women, especially in developing countries. The relationship between gender vulnerability and Climate Change is significant, as women are disproportionately affected and are primarily engaged in activities that interact with the environment, such as agriculture, fishing, searching for clean water for drinking and farm activities, etc. Therefore, it is important to critically review the impacts and recommend more mitigation strategies towards achieving sustainable development. Through a systematic review, this paper investigated Gender vulnerability in sustainable agriculture and food security, clean water, sustainable fisheries and forestry, renewable energy, and climate change resilience. Women and girls may have to abandon education, farming, and fishing because of weather changes and travel further in search of other sources of livelihood. This study covers the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. This work provides insights into the intersection of gender, climate change, environmental impact, and sustainable development, highlighting the importance of inclusive policies that address gender disparities and the need to implement Sustainable Development Goals to enable a synergy in climate change and Gender by incorporating women perspective for a successful climate change initiative. It is important to create awareness and integrate gender equality in mitigation and resilience to climate change, this will reduce the impact of climate change and support sustainable development and girl child education

**KEYWORDS:** Climate Change; Gender Vulnerability; Sustainable development; Agriculture

**INTRODUCTION**

Climate Change's impact on the environment has significantly impacted sustainable development, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria, with far-reaching consequences across various sectors such as agriculture, tourism, trade infrastructure, and coastal communities, particularly in urban areas. Nigeria, Africa's largest and most populous economy, faces challenges and opportunities in addressing climate change, despite its abundant natural resources, oil, and natural gas reserves, etc., the alarming rate of deforestation is a threat to its mangrove forests. Nigeria enacted the Climate Change Act in November 2021 to combat these issues, signing its commitment to climate objectives and social and economic sustainability. Among these, gender vulnerability to climate change impact is a great concern with women and marginalized groups often facing disproportionate risks and burdens due to climate change. The country's vast geographical and ecological diversity, spanning the six geopolitical zones (North West, North East, North Central, South West, South East, and South-South) means that the effects of climate change are varied and multifaceted. As Nigeria continues to grapple with climate change, its impact on sustainable development becomes increasingly evident, particularly when examining the intersecting issues of gender vulnerability.

Nigeria's climate is characterized by high temperatures and seasonal rainfall patterns, which vary significantly across its regions. The northern regions are predominantly arid and semi-arid, while the southern regions experience tropical rainforest conditions. Climate change has exacerbated these conditions, leading to more frequent and severe weather events such as droughts, floods, and desertification (Ezeabasili & Okoro, 2021). In the North West and North East zones, desertification is a critical issue, fuelled by increasing temperatures and decreasing rainfall. This has led to the loss of arable land, directly impacting agriculture—a primary livelihood for the majority of the population (Aminu et al., 2021). In contrast, the South-South and Southeast zones, rich in water resources and biodiversity, face rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and flooding, which threaten both the environment and the economy (Nwankwo & Ogunyemi, 2022). In recent times, there has been a growing momentum
for climate action on the continent, focusing on climate finance, carbon markets, and policy changes. On April 24-26, 2024, the UNDP Stakeholder Consultations & Validation Workshop: Nigeria Carbon Market activation plan was held in Abuja, Nigeria to discuss issues about the carbon market, as part of the instructions in Nigeria's Climate Change Act, which mandates the government to set a National Climate Change Action Plan and a five-year carbon budget, outlining quantified annual objectives for emissions reduction, and some of the Nigerian market drivers include the Nigerian government's aim to secure multi-trillion-dollar climate change financing to fund its budget, signing a strategic shift towards climate-resilient investments. Nigeria needs $17.7 billion annually to achieve its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) targets and fulfil its Paris Agreement commitments to reduce carbon emissions, its Energy Transition Plan, released in August 2022, serves as the roadmap for achieving the 2060 net-zero target. Sean & Chavi (2022) These are some of the efforts the government is making to achieve these goals.

## GENDER VULNERABILITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Gender involvement with climate issues is discussed worldwide because of the role women play in society, it covers a wide range of social learning, cultural expectations, and concerns related to shared responsibility, resource access, and inclusivity in policymaking. (Bouchama et al., 2018). There is a broad range of climate change enlightenment in society where women are involved in empowerment programs and exposure to improved agricultural techniques, notwithstanding, it is important to discuss further gender inequalities as women are particularly vulnerable to its impacts (Lau et al., 2021). By 2050, the global temperature is projected to increase by a range of 0.5°C to 3.5°C due to climate change, with increased weather unpredictability and reduced rainfall in some regions (Allen et al., 2018). The unpredictability of weather is threatening climate resilience and adaptation, particularly changes in rainfall patterns and this is crucial for agriculture. Furthermore, women are more prone to the adverse effect of climate change, (Georgalakis, 2020: Adeola. Et al, 2024) especially in agriculture, they depend solely on rainfall, (Eastin, 2018; Ajiere 2020; Cianconi et al., 2020). The majority of women in Nigeria are involved in agriculture, trade, and fishing, and gender plays a significant role in how climate change impacts communities. In Nigeria, women, particularly in rural areas, are disproportionately affected by climate change due to existing social, economic, and cultural inequalities. These inequalities limit their access to resources, decision-making processes, and adaptation strategies (Adelekan et al., 2020). Gender inequality can delay women's ability to adapt to climate change, but educating women and applying the policies that address gender disparities and the value of incorporating women's perspectives for successful climate change initiatives can enhance climate change impact in our society and sustainable solutions can be achieved.

Recent studies reveal the gendered nature of climate change vulnerabilities and their social implications. There are differences in the political, socioeconomic, and climate situations, the effects of persistent exposure to extreme weather events are felt in social interactions, ecological services, and agricultural productivity because of the varied topography, biodiversity, and variations in precipitation and microclimate. (Rao et al., 2019). In the North East and North West zones, where agriculture is heavily impacted by climate change, women bear the brunt of food insecurity as they are traditionally responsible for food production and household sustenance. As arable land diminishes and water resources become scarcer, women must travel longer distances to find water and fuelwood, increasing their exposure to physical harm and reducing their time for income-generating activities (Omotosho & Olaniyi, 2021). In the South-South zone, where fishing communities are prevalent, women who rely on fishing for their livelihoods are increasingly vulnerable due to the degradation of marine ecosystems caused by climate change. The loss of biodiversity and the decline in fish stocks not only threaten their income but also the nutritional security of their families (Idowu & Ojo, 2022). The impact of climate change on gender is intertwined with food security, water access, land use, assets, forestry resources, women migration, policy, and climate knowledge. Climate change has a disproportionate effect on women, who make up a large portion of the world's poor and bear a greater share of the risks and costs of climate change (UNFCCC, 2018). Climate change affects the livelihoods of communities dependent on natural resources, female-headed households are more likely to experience food insecurity than male-headed households due to a lack of financial support. In areas where climate change has led to drought, women have to travel long distances to access water. Assan et al., (2018) Socioeconomically, Women are more vulnerable to gender-based violence, including human trafficking, child marriage, and
conflict-related sexual violence, due to the perceived threat multiplier of climate change. Some of the women and girls have to travel far in search of water for the household, leading to increased workloads when water scarcity is heightened by climate change (Nahar & Tajuddin, 2022) and this has increased the pressure on their health which is threatened especially during a climate-related disaster rendering them homeless and unable to access health care services or hospital. (Davenport et al., 2020). There have been instances where women abandoned their homes in search of alternative sources of livelihood to sustain their families, thereby, some get involved in prostitution, paid labour work on construction sites, taxi drivers, and if the women are not protected from these hard labour, it will affect the family and the society because their attention is taken from the home, which is their main responsibility, some who can't afford a decent living are forced to migrate to sustain themselves and their children (Kabir & Serrao-Neumann, 2020) which affect the economy of a nation.

## Gender Vulnerability and Climate Change Resilience

Climate change is an intricate worldwide concern linked with the variation of ambient temperature and rainfall anomalies resulting in global disasters such as water and food security (Ayanlade et al., 2023). The sustainability development goals (SDGs) which tend to improve global economic and environmental sustainability for the benefit of humanity in general aim at ending poverty and hunger as well as ensure gender and human equality. Nigeria became a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992, and the Kyoto Protocol in 2004 and has subsequently assumed involvement in addressing climate change concerns (FMEv, 2020). Nigeria, susceptible to climate change problems has a very large population of over two hundred million people with the female count less than 2% male of the total count. This very close ratio shows that any form of gender inequality will hamper significant economic outputs most especially in the agricultural sector where most rural women are engaged without adequate empowerment. The Federal Ministry of Environment via the Department of Climate Change Identified the necessity for gender equality concerning the Paris Agreement and Nigeria's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC). A 2-day National Stakeholders Consultative Workshop on Gender and Climate Change was held in 2016 with support from the Women Environmental Programme (WEP) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Important stakeholders from various Ministries, Department, and Agencies (MDAs), Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Media, academia, youth, and gender professionals including farmers gathered at the workshop to develop a strategic approach to streamlining gender inequality in the national response to climate change in Nigeria. The main outcome of the workshop was the inauguration of the National Action Plan on Gender and Climate Change for Nigeria (FMEv, 2020). The core objective of the National Action Plan is to ensure that national climate change efforts and implementations in Nigeria give gender considerations a topmost priority so that vulnerable members of the society such as women, men, youth, and other stakeholders can have access, partake, contribute and take advantage of climate change awareness, initiatives, programs, policies, and funds.

The UNFCCC (2022) highlights the role of women as agents of change emphasizing the significant inclusive role women and other marginalized people can play in mitigating and adapting to climate change anomaly. It's noted that providing adequate occasions for women to partake in the decision-making process can contribute to the improvement and application of competent and enduring climate-resilient strategies. It was disclosed that climate change-induced weather extremes impact men and women globally most especially in the rural areas where women partake in agricultural activities. The UNFCCC report noted that in most African nations, rural-to-urban migration, men are the most vulnerable, a development motivated by extreme weather events, leaving the women behind in charge of land and the household. It was highlighted that these urban migrations tend to create a living arrangement for the women that promotes hardship in terms of overseeing necessary responsibilities. It was specified that this condition can engender capacity building for women most especially in the agricultural sector thereby improving the monetary state and stimulating the economic empowerment of women and girls.

Ayanlade et al., (2023) indicated that Nigeria's small-scale farmers play an essential role in the nation's food security as they contribute over 70% of the food production, therefore, ensuring climate change resilience is a very important way forward. Nevertheless, with the continuous impacts of climate change
effects that engender anomaly in rainfall amount most especially in the Guinea-Sudan Savannah areas of Nigeria, it is worthy to note that there will be a decline in agricultural productivity leading to food insecurity and poverty, most especially among rural dwellers whose occupation are mostly farming. Since most rural farmers are exposed to extreme climate change impact, it is important to emphasize that necessary tools and access to adequate information on conservative agricultural practices enable improved and sustainable economic well-being of vulnerable biotic environments.

## GENDER VULNERABILITY: SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY

Agriculture is a very important sector in any nation's economy. The recent changes in climate and its adverse impact on food security have attracted many nations, including Nigeria, to invest in the agricultural sector to cushion the impact created by climate change. This investment involves encouraging and creating opportunities for soft loans to the vulnerable population including women. In Nigeria, there have been several interventions by the government, private sector as well as NGOs in trying to revolutionize the agricultural sector to boost food production. In Nigeria, women play a crucial role in the agricultural sector by contributing significantly to food production, processing, marketing as well as distribution of processed food products. Generally, Climate change is widely recognized as impacting agriculture by causing droughts, floods, and sporadic, unpredictable rainfall. Agriculture and agricultural activities in Nigeria are sensitive to the variability of climate change because, despite improved seedings and irrigation systems, climate and weather are still the dominant factors for agricultural production in Nigeria. Nigeria is in a tropical zone that still depends on rain-fed agriculture, where the onset and cessation of rainfall determines the cultural practices of farmers (Odekunle, 2004; Umar, 2010, Ajiere et al.,2020). The IPCC's 5th Assessment Report (AR5) identifies food insecurity as a key climate risk for developing countries (IPCC,2014). Vulnerability differs according to multidimensional inequalities, including gender, and the greatest vulnerability is to those who are marginalized socially, economically, culturally, politically, and institutionally (IPCC 2014). Women farmers in Nigeria are marginalized in several ways as they struggle with weak land tenure, limited access to finance, resources, technology, and extension services, and persistent social inequalities that hinder their agricultural ability and productivity (Glazebrook, et al.,2020). The IPCC makes several recommendations to build climate resilience in agriculture, including technological adaptations, adaptations in agroforestry, and improvement of smallholder access to bank accounts.

Agriculture is the primary livelihood for 1.4 billion women globally who live in rural areas [Glazebrook et al., 2020], Across Nigeria, the World Bank estimates that women account for 30 to 50 percent of the farmers and entrepreneurs as they are involved in growing crops, raising livestock and selling food in local markets. Most often, Rural women are responsible for growing, storing, processing, and preparing food, handling livestock, gathering food, fodder, and fuelwood, managing the domestic water supply, and providing most of the labor for post-harvest activities (Mbow et al., 2019). The phenomenon of women's increasing role in growing food, attributed to family income diversification that draws men away from farming, is known as the 'feminization of agriculture' in which women increasingly work as small-scale, subsistence farmers. The 'feminization of agriculture' is exacerbated by the 'feminization of poverty' that was first recognized at the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 (UN,2020). Nevertheless, gender equality plays an important role in agricultural development, usually women farmers tend to have different access to agricultural-related resources, land, market information, extension services, and credit, compared to male farmers (Muriithi, et al., 2018). In the last few decades, stakeholders have employed some efforts to increase gender equality in the agricultural sectors, such as providing training, technology innovation, and extension activity (Muriithi, 2014). However, gender equality is crucial to the growth of agriculture. Generally, women farmers have less access to loans, land, market knowledge, extension services, and other agricultural resources than their male counterparts (Muriithi, et al., 2018). Stakeholders have used tactics like training, technological innovation, and extension work to promote gender equality in the agricultural industries during the past few decades (Muriithi, 2014). These tactics give female farmers more possibilities to participate in agriculturally related tasks alongside males, which can boost productivity (Ball, 2020). However, it also leads to an intensification of agriculture, which may have an impact on the agriculture sector's sustainability. For example, if more women engage in agricultural activities, there may be a notable rise in the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Thus, it's critical
to consider sustainable agriculture when advancing gender equality. Numerous research has examined this subject since sustainable agriculture is crucial to preserving agriculture's sustainability, particularly the factors that influence farmers' adoption of sustainable agricultural techniques. For instance, Oyetunde-Usman et al. (2021) investigated the factors influencing agricultural practices in Nigeria and found that factors including age, family size, and level of education had an impact on farmers' decisions on sustainable agricultural practices. Similarly, (Candemir et al., 2021) noted that organizations connected to agriculture, like cooperatives, improve the sustainability of agriculture. According to Bilali et al. (2019). information and communication technologies greatly improve agriculturally sustainable practices.

## GENDER VULNERABILITY AND CLEAN WATER

Access to clean water is a fundamental human right, yet millions of people, particularly women and girls, remain disproportionately affected by water scarcity and poor sanitation. Gender vulnerability and clean water are intricately linked, with women and girls bearing the brunt of water-related challenges due to existing socio-cultural and economic inequalities. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive understanding of how gender shapes water access and what interventions are needed to promote gender equity in water resources management.

In many developing regions, particularly in rural areas, women and girls are primarily responsible for fetching water for household use. This task, often involving long hours of walking to distant sources, exposes them to physical strain and potential harm, including sexual violence. A study by the United Nations estimates that women in Sub-Saharan Africa spend an average of 200 million hours daily collecting water. This burden impacts their education and economic opportunities, as time spent fetching water often results in missed school days for girls and diminished work opportunities for women. Women and girls also face unique health risks related to poor water quality and inadequate sanitation facilities. Lack of access to clean water increases the likelihood of contracting waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery. Moreover, menstruation adds an extra layer of vulnerability for women. Without proper sanitation facilities, managing menstrual hygiene becomes a significant challenge, often leading to absenteeism from school and work. In some cultures, women are also stigmatized or ostracized during menstruation, further restricting their access to shared water resources. The gendered disparity in water access has significant economic and social consequences. Women's role as primary water gatherers limits their ability to engage in income-generating activities or education, perpetuating cycles of poverty. The World Bank highlights that increasing access to clean water and sanitation for women can boost productivity, improve health, and reduce gender disparities in education and employment. Addressing this inequity is essential for achieving broader development goals, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, which calls for clean water and sanitation for all, and SDG 5, which advocates for gender equality. To address gender vulnerability in water access, a multi-faceted approach is required. Policies must recognize women's roles as key stakeholders in water management. Programs like the Women's Water Fund, which empowers women through water-related training and leadership opportunities, are examples of gender-inclusive initiatives that can promote equity. Additionally, investing in infrastructure that brings water closer to households and providing gender-sensitive sanitation facilities can significantly reduce the burden on women and girls

## GENDER VULNERABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES AND FORESTRY

Gender vulnerability refers to the heightened risks, challenges, and inequalities individuals experience due to their gender in various social, economic, and environmental contexts. This vulnerability stems from systemic gender biases, power imbalances, cultural norms, and institutional barriers, which disproportionately affect certain groups, particularly women, non-binary individuals, and other gender minorities. Gender vulnerability in the context of sustainable fisheries and forestry refers to the unique challenges and inequalities faced by individuals, particularly women, due to their gender when participating in these sectors. The relationship between gender vulnerability and sustainable natural resource management in fisheries and forestry is critical for environmental sustainability and gender equality. Women play key roles in these sectors, yet they often face systemic disadvantages that exacerbate their vulnerability. Gender vulnerability arises from unequal access to resources, exclusion from decision-making, and disproportionate exposure to the impacts of environmental degradation and climate change. Addressing these challenges through gender-sensitive approaches is essential to
ensuring the sustainability of fisheries and forestry while promoting social equity, and enhancing
community resilience and economic well-being.

Sustainable practices in fisheries and forestry aim to balance economic, environmental, and social factors to ensure long-term viability, and gender issues are central to achieving these goals. Below are key aspects of gender vulnerability to sustainable fisheries and forestry, along with potential solutions to address these challenges. Women contribute significantly to the fisheries sector, particularly in small-scale and artisanal fisheries. While men typically dominate the fishing activities, women are often involved in post-harvest processing, marketing, and aquaculture (FAO, 2020). Despite their substantial roles, women's work is often undervalued, and they face systemic barriers that limit their access to economic opportunities and decision-making power in fisheries management (Kleiber, Harris, & Vincent, 2015). Women in fisheries are frequently excluded from owning key fishing assets such as boats and gear, which limits their capacity to engage in more profitable activities in the value chain. Additionally, they often lack access to financial services and credit, which further hinders their ability to invest in sustainable fishing practices or expand their economic opportunities (Harper, Grubb, Stiles, & Sumaila, 2017). This exclusion from both financial and physical resources heightens their vulnerability, particularly as fish stocks decline due to overfishing and climate change. A key aspect of gender vulnerability in fisheries is the exclusion of women from formal decision-making processes. In many coastal communities, women are not adequately represented in fisheries governance structures, such as co-management bodies or policy-making forums (World Bank, 2012). This exclusion limits their ability to influence resource management practices and advocate for more inclusive and sustainable approaches. Given their critical knowledge of post-harvest activities and local ecosystems, the absence of women's voices in governance weakens the effectiveness of sustainability efforts (Coulthard & Britton, 2015). Women in fisheries are disproportionately affected by the impacts of climate change, such as ocean warming and fish stock depletion. Since women often engage in subsistence fishing or small-scale aquaculture, they are more vulnerable to declining fish stocks and habitat degradation. Furthermore, their capacity to adapt to these environmental changes is constrained by limited access to education, training, and technology (Djoudi, Brockhaus, & Locatelli, 2013). Addressing these vulnerabilities requires gender-responsive climate adaptation strategies that enhance women's resilience and capacity to engage in sustainable practices.

## Gender Vulnerability in Sustainable Forestry

### Women's Dependence on Forest Resources

Women, particularly in rural and indigenous communities, are heavily dependent on forest resources for their livelihoods, including food, fuelwood, and medicinal plants (Agarwal, 2010). However, their access to forest resources is often informal, and they rarely hold land tenure rights, which exacerbates their vulnerability. Without secure land rights, women have limited control over the management of forest resources and are often excluded from participating in forest conservation initiatives (FAO, 2016).

### Barriers to Participation in Forest Governance

Gender inequality in forestry governance is a significant challenge to sustainable forest management. Women are frequently excluded from decision-making bodies at both the community and national levels, leaving their specific needs and contributions overlooked in policy decisions (Larson et al., 2015). Research shows that when women are involved in forest governance, forests are more likely to be managed sustainably, as women tend to prioritize conservation and equitable resource distribution (Leach, Mearns, & Scoones, 1999).

### Climate Change, Environmental Degradation, and Workload

Deforestation and environmental degradation disproportionately affect women, particularly in their roles as providers of household energy and food. As forests degrade, women must travel further distances to collect firewood and water, increasing their workload and exposure to health risks (Rocheleau, Thomas-Slayter, & Wangari, 1996). Climate change exacerbates these challenges, as changing weather patterns reduce the availability of forest resources. Women's limited access to financial and technical resources further restricts their ability to adapt to these environmental changes (Mai, Mwangi, & Wan, 2011).

## THE IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER VULNERABILITY FOR SUSTAINABILITY
Excluding women from decision-making in fisheries and forestry undermines the effectiveness of sustainability initiatives. Women's unique knowledge of local ecosystems, biodiversity, and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is vital for holistic resource management strategies (Agarwal, 2001). By involving women in governance structures, fisheries, and forestry management can be more inclusive and better equipped to address the complexities of sustainable resource use. Addressing gender vulnerability in fisheries and forestry also has important implications for economic sustainability. Women's economic empowerment, through improved access to financial resources, training, and markets, can promote the adoption of sustainable practices. When women can benefit economically from sustainable resource management, they are more likely to invest in the long-term health of ecosystems (FAO, 2020). Gender-responsive strategies that enhance women's access to climate adaptation resources and technologies are crucial for building resilience in both fisheries and forestry. Women's participation in climate adaptation initiatives, such as reforestation and sustainable aquaculture, can strengthen community resilience to environmental changes while promoting sustainable livelihoods (Djoudi et al., 2013).

## Recommendations for Addressing Gender Vulnerability

Governments and development agencies should prioritize policies that improve women's access to land, credit, and technology. Secure resource rights and financial support are essential for empowering women to engage in sustainable practices (FAO, 2016). Women's representation in fisheries and forestry governance should be enhanced through gender-sensitive policies. Including women in decision-making strengthens the effectiveness of resource management strategies and promotes sustainable outcomes (Agarwal, 2010). Climate adaptation programs should be designed to address the specific vulnerabilities of women in fisheries and forestry. This includes providing access to education, climate-resilient technologies, and financial resources to support their adaptation efforts (Mai et al., 2011).

## Gender Vulnerability and Renewable Energy

### Renewable Energy as a Pathway to Sustainable Development

Renewable energy offers a pathway to mitigating the effects of climate change while promoting sustainable development in Nigeria. The transition to renewable energy sources not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions but also provides opportunities for gender empowerment and economic growth. The country's renewable energy potential is vast, with abundant solar, wind, hydro, and biomass resources available across the six geopolitical zones (Odeyemi & Ogunleye, 2023).

Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, significantly reduce carbon emissions compared to fossil fuels. This reduction is crucial for mitigating the effects of climate change, particularly in vulnerable regions where communities are most affected by environmental degradation (International Renewable Energy Agency, 2019). In the North West and North East, solar energy presents a significant opportunity to provide clean, reliable power to remote communities that are not connected to the national grid. Solar-powered irrigation systems, for example, can help mitigate the impact of desertification by providing a sustainable water source for agriculture, thereby supporting food security and reducing gender vulnerability (Aliyu et al., 2023).

The renewable energy sector offers new opportunities for women's employment and entrepreneurship. For example, women can play a significant role in the deployment of decentralized renewable energy systems, such as solar home systems, and hydropower farmsteads, particularly in rural areas. These opportunities not only provide income but also empower women to take an active role in their communities' sustainable development (IRENA, 2019). The North Central zone, with its rivers and waterfalls, has a high potential for small hydropower projects. These can provide electricity to rural areas, reduce reliance on fossil fuels, and create economic opportunities, particularly for women who can engage in small-scale businesses that require electricity (Olusegun & Bello, 2022).

Access to renewable energy can lead to improved health outcomes by reducing reliance on harmful energy sources like biomass, which is often used for cooking in developing countries. The use of cleaner energy sources reduces indoor air pollution, which disproportionately affects women and children who spend more time indoors (World Bank, 2020). In the South-South, South West and South East zones, biomass energy—derived from agricultural and forest residues—can play a crucial role in reducing dependence on traditional biomass (such as firewood) and mitigating deforestation. This not only
supports environmental sustainability but also reduces the time and labor burden on women, allowing them to pursue education and other economic activities (Umeozor & Udeze, 2021).

Integrating Gender Considerations in Renewable Energy Policies

To ensure that the transition to renewable energy contributes effectively to sustainable development and gender equality, it is essential to integrate gender considerations into energy policies and programs. Policymakers must involve women in the design and implementation of renewable energy projects. This ensures that the benefits of these projects are equitably distributed and that women's specific needs are addressed. For instance, training programs and capacity-building initiatives in renewable energy should be tailored to include and empower women (UNDP, 2018). Providing women with access to financing for renewable energy projects is crucial. Microfinance institutions and other financial mechanisms should be designed to support women entrepreneurs in the renewable energy sector, enabling them to participate fully in the energy transition (UN Women, 2021). Implementing robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks that track the gender impacts of renewable energy projects is essential. This allows the identification of gaps and adjustment of strategies to ensure that women benefit equally from renewable energy initiatives (IRENA, 2019).

CONCLUSION

The environmental impact of climate change poses significant challenges to sustainable development which is profound and multifaceted in Nigeria, particularly in terms of gender vulnerability. Gender vulnerability is a critical issue that needs to be addressed in climate adaptation and mitigation strategies. Addressing climate change in Nigeria requires a concerted effort from the government, the private sector, and civil society to promote gender-sensitive policies Women, especially in developing regions like Nigeria, are disproportionately affected by the adverse effects of climate change due to socio-economic disparities, health risks, and increased vulnerability during displacement. However, the transition to clean water, food security, sustainable fisheries and forestry, and renewable energy offers a pathway to mitigate these impacts while promoting gender equality and offering opportunities for sustainable development that are inclusive and equitable across the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria. Access to clean water is a profound issue that limits the rights, health, and opportunities of women and girls worldwide. The intersection of water scarcity, poor sanitation, and gender inequities demands urgent attention from policymakers and development practitioners. Sustainable water management must integrate gender considerations to ensure equitable access and create opportunities for all, regardless of gender. Also, gender vulnerability in sustainable fisheries and forestry is critical for both environmental sustainability and gender equality. Therefore, Women should be involved in decision-making, and access to resources, to ensure that the benefits are equitably distributed, this will help to promote the effectiveness of sustainability efforts, and promote inclusive governance, economic empowerment, and gender-responsive climate adaptation, the different sectors will become more sustainable and equitable, benefiting both ecosystems and communities. The government should adhere to gender involvement, to implement Sustainable Development Goals to enable a synergy in climate change and Gender by incorporating women's perspectives for a successful climate change initiative, the global community including Nigeria can build resilience against climate change, reduce gender disparities, and ensure sustainable development for future generations.

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**Chapter Twenty-Five**

# The Legend of Nwakpuda: Quixotic Environmental Chivalry or Crusading Environmentalism Arriving Before its Time?

*Okechi Dominic Azuwike*

*Department of Geography and Environment Management, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria.*

EMAIL: okedazuwike@yahoo.com

**ABSTRACT**

The paper, The Legend of Nwakpuda: Quixotic Environmental Chivalry or Crusading Environmentalism arriving before its time, interrogates the proper place of the historical figure Chief Nwakpuda in the environmental history of man and the built environment. Whereas literature captures his resistance of colonial rail development and operations in his native Umuahia as some kind of tragic-comedy, it has become necessary to appraise his advocacy along the lines of modern environmental consciousness. Hence using the methods of in-depth literature review and stakeholder analysis around the apparent environmental martyrdom of the persona, this paper interrogates the dynamics of man and the built environment as a conflicted existence that is subject to diverse vistas of interpretation. It found out that consciousness of the environmental and social impact of projects was earlier in the colonies than the environmental movement; top-down projects have historically faced resistance, particularly in the Not-In-My-Back-Yard sense, welfare economics and routing of transportation facilities featured early as elements of environmental justice. In conclusion the militant environmental advocates shown by GreenPeace and others in the late 20th century and currently have a precedent and possibly a precursor in the advocacy of Nwakpuda.

Keywords: Environment; Rail; Nwakpuda; Umuahia; Colonial

**INTRODUCTION**

The built environment epitomizes human efforts at environmental control. It is emblematic of man's quest for an environment that best epitomizes his objectives and designs for comfort, safety, security, economy, convenience and efficiency. It therefore has its *raison d'etre* in guarantees of a more livable, sustainable environment capable of extending the reach of man, upholding civilization and its tenets and improving the overall quality of human life. Whereas the contributions of the built environment to human life and survival, and the quality of the natural environment are common knowledge, there has yet remained an existential human struggle with the built environment. The ironic situation is such that the built environment – roads, railways, airports, seaports, bridges, dams, houses, industrial plants, sports arenas, and landmarks, though of very highly recognizable importance, inspire considerable resentment and concerns for sustainability and preservation of life and ecosystem. Hence, from the earliest beginnings of building structures, there have been apprehensions about their social and environmental significance. At times these apprehensions are founded on fear – reasonable or unreasonable fear. It was seen in The Construction of the London Underground (1863) which people feared would collapse; The Brooklyn Bridge (1883), The Eiffel Tower (1889), and the Tacoma Narrows (1940) which fears about its structural instability were later justified in a collapse after four months; The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (1986) which produced fears of radiation that later materialized in a meltdown, The Three Gorges Dam (2006) and the Burj Khalifa (2010) brought fears of elevator safety and fire.

It is therefore historically for humans, a hot existential struggle with the built environment and idea of the built environment. The built environment as shown in the examples earlier highlighted is generally considered a disruption. In Nigeria the Coastal Railway Project (Lagos to Calabar) also met environmental concerns and community relocation as one of its main challenges. Disruptions occasioned by the built environment might be in terms of aesthetics, acoustics, thermal changes, traffic impedance, fluvial changes (over land flow), air flow changes, land use adjustments and impact on urbanism, population distribution, demography and social relations. Sustainable built environment is
therefore to be desired. It preserves nature and orchestrates the least negative disruption of social
systems. As proof of this, the Bussa people displaced by the Kainji dam in the 1960s and relocated at
New Bussa had to remodify the prototype model houses they were given to accommodate their treasured
traditional architecture (Gyuse and Gyuse, 2008).

The concerns about disruptive built environment projects were also seen in the case of a certain Chief Nwakpuda's engagement of the colonial rail lines across his Umuahia community of the colonial era between 1929 and 1932. His resistance of the construction of rail lines for evacuation of produce from across the country to Port Harcourt was managed through the deployment of security forces all through the laying of the rail tracks. He could not however be dissuaded in his stand against the rail line which he feared was going to upset communal peace, destroy the natural environment and lead to unhealthy emigration of the women folk. Having failed at stopping the project, he had to mobilize young men to bodily stop the train in its tracks when it started operations. He was documented to have died in apparent martyrdom alongside his mobilized youths when the train he confronted crushed them to death and the colonial authorities in recognition of his advocacy raised a monument at the spot of the accident. Whereas his advocacy got some kind of positive reviews in colonial narratives, stretching the symbolism of the monument, the prevalent narrative of his struggles portrayed the Nwakpuda persona as some quixotic adventurer in tragicomedy. Nwosu (nd) described him as a leader who led his subjects to a collective suicide. What is under interrogation, therefore, is the proper place of Nwakpuda in the context of resistance of built environment projects. Was it all about mindless environmental chivalry in which case he was only playing to the gallery and there is no academic merit to the advocacy? Or can he be seen as a crusading environmentalist who defined environmental ethics before the subject became commonplace? Given that massive built environment projects now attract justifiable scrutiny and the concept of Environmental Impact Assessment has become an acceptable paradigm, can it be concluded that Nwakpuda's advocacy was in all ramification's prescient, in which case he arrived before his time?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Barlow (2021) lent a voice of support to Escobar (1995) who holds the position that the conceptualization of Development from a Western viewpoint has helped to marginalize the global south. It suggests a rethinking that will see the development concept work for target people rather than against them. Incidentally, the current idealization of development that is considered hurtful is championed by well-meaning institutions and knowledge producers who might not have realized its shortcomings (Madrueno and Tezanos, 2018). Other workers had earlier asked for rethinking the idea of development and its associated modernization. Bodley (1982) found many of the social changes associated with development injurious to people who receive these. He identified what he labelled as diseases of development associated with the unsustainable embrace of new externally originated trends. He established the price of forcing progress on unwilling recipients in terms of the ‘deaths of millions of tribal people’, their loss of land, political sovereignty and the right to follow their lifestyle. While it is highly probable for tribal groups to be sucked up by the waves of colonial interference there are cases in which groups have been able to retain their society and moral credentials under colonial influence. One such example is shown among Native Americans in Deloria Jr. (1969). They never gave up their originality while submerged under exotic cultural counter currents. In the experience of Latin America as captured in the work of Quijano (2000) many modern-day problems of nation states are ascribed to and rooted in the coloniality of power. This was interrogated by Barletta (2023) who agreed with Quijano that ‘the conjugation of race and global capitalism in the sixteenth century has to be placed at the centre of dysfunctions in both colonial powers and their colonies (and former colonies). Many projects of the colonial era were not essentially in the interest of the colonies and bore manifest elements of Eurocentrism. The idea of Eurocentrism arrogates to European powers in colonial outposts the place of superior knowledge over that of natives in their affairs. This of course translated to the marginalization of non-Western worldviews, knowledge and perspectives. Santus (2014) saw in the marginalization of local knowledge in the global south a case of epistemicide – outright deliberate neglect and annihilation of the knowledge contribution from the marginalized groups.

Colonized people were hardly credited with knowledge in colonial narratives. Hence where colonial
development gambits meet native's resistance, the idea of competence of natives' perspectives is
foreclosed and the superiority of the colonial viewpoint might be taken for granted. Where the
knowledge of locals is marginalized, there may not be guarantees on spatial justice for such marginalized groups in initiated and executed projects. The idea of involvement of space in issues of justice speaks to deprivation considered as a derivative of Moroni and de Franco (2024). This has been a very silent theme in colonial literature. Space is taken for granted as one of the motivations for resisting colonial occupation, particularly in Africa. Among the Aborigines of Australia and the Native Americans, it is also an important omission. People of Yuin country (of Australia) insist Captain James Cook despite his arrogance and scanty recognition of the people he met on arrival 'discovered neither our mountain (Galaga, which he had renamed Mount Dromedary for in his estimation, looking like a camel) nor us' (Hromek, 2019).

Beyond literature's engagement with space is the related engagement with place. A place is a space that is imbued with cultural meanings. Those nuances shape and evoke emotional qualities that are highly tied to identities and a sense of cultural belonging. Walter (1988) has discussed under what he described as Topstics, the dynamic interplay of shapes, powers, feelings and meanings that define a place. People are driven by these elements to engage with places at a certain civic level underserved by mere spaces. Many psychological investments go into places that make, in the words of Hromek (2019) earliest settlers take it as a moral duty to protect the space. This native attachment is rather than honoured, treated with contempt and negligence in colonial narratives. Hence there is usually a resistance to imposed landscape order characterized by Walter (1988) as a Topomorphic Revolution. Local people consider it part of their stewardship to protect the spatial status quo from colonial makeovers they may consider injurious hazardous or some kind of aesthetic disaster. The current effort will find out to what extent the conflicted relationship with colonial projects captured in literature is realized in the advocacy of Nwakpuda and his seeming radical ecology.

## THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The Nwakpuda phenomenon under discourse and its various dimensions can be understood with the help of various theories. With the native argument that the colonial rail line was going to cart away native women and take them to unknown destinations, there is an obvious intersection of gender, power and technology that hints at power relations and a certain patriarchal responsibility to protect women as a vulnerable group. This can be situated in Feminist Political Ecology as captured in Rocheleau (1995) and also in the ecofeminism of Shiva (1998). As a social movement, the Nwakpuda initiative that organized youth to resist the rail project did not just exploit collective action; it relied on framing theory to give a certain meaning to the project that is different from the project initiators in line with the framing theory of Snow and Benford (1988). The fact of marginalization of the colonized in decision-making and their rebellion in standing against the colonial project points to Critical Resistance Theory as shown in the works of Scott (1990, 2009). While the colonial attitude was one of contempt for native resistance and whatever knowledge informed it, indigenous knowledge system theory offers insight into the veracity and admissibility of local perspectives in modern projects. Theories have called for end of epistemicide and the decolonization of methodologies (Smith, 1999). The foregoing shows that various aspects of the radical advocacy of Nwakpuda resonate with various theories and no single theory captures all the ramifications of the historical event.

## Proper Place of Nwakpuda in Project Contestation

Projects have always faced the problem of contestation. This is an old problem replete in Old Testament biblical scriptures. Fearing Jewish resurgence and possible loss of power, Nehemiah's Wall rebuilding was opposed by Sanballat, Tobiah and Geshem (Nehemiah, 4:1-3). Concerns about the great demand for resources and labour led Hiram to initially oppose Solomon's Temple construction (1 Kings 5:2-6). Fear of Jewish resurgence and loss of influence made local officials and Samaritans stand against the temple rebuilding project by Ezra (Ezra 1-6). Contestation might be as trivial as mere ridicule out of unbelief and scepticism such as faced by Noah (Genesis 5:32; 6:9-10) during his Ark construction project. The lesson from the foregoing is that projects are significant interventions that border on the political economy and social standing of localities where they are sited. There are therefore interests that may be injured or served. In modern project delivery, therefore scoping has been made a major element of the Environmental Impact Analysis that establishes a business case, an environmental case for the project or otherwise. Scoping involves the identification of all interests and stakeholders that can
be impacted for possible impact management. It is instructive that these new concepts were not part of
project planning and execution in the Nwakpuda era. As such it can be argued that these efforts from
the past have added to project scrutiny in contemporary times.

A major element in project contestation is the sentiment expressed as Not-In-My-Back-Yard (NIMBY). This is the usual drive of locals who are disproportionately impacted to demand greater distance and insulation from any project that can produce deleterious effects. This is simply saying, "Take it far away from our community". The Nwakpuda resistance happens to fall into this category. His advocacy was not against rail lines and British efforts to move goods to the port. It was a Luddite struggle against its vulgar intrusion and violation of the rustic life of his community. It was a classic case of NIMBY.

Quixotic Environmental Chivalry?

The dominant narrative is that Chief Nwakpuda overreached himself. His brand of radical advocacy is interpreted in literature as some kind of native chivalry in the face of colonial obstinacy. Hence whatever wisdom was to be found in his gambit is submerged and lost under quixotic representation. The name Nwakpuda has continued to elicit dark humour. The question is if the poorly informed public fails to relate with a Nwakpuda *raison d'etre*, is the scholarly community justified in not interrogating the apparent environmental martyrdom? In as much as the approach of confrontation with a train can be considered overboard, perhaps a reflection of the frustration in getting the attention of a stonewalling colonial administration – should the nuances and epistemic appeal of the advocacy be sacrificed and thrown away with the irrational elements?

Crusading Environmentalism

Environmentalism has in modern times been framed as a crusade. Nwakpuda however shows that the
consciousness of extreme radicalism predates the modern environmental movement that got launched
around the middle of the 20th century, at the close of the 1960s. The environmentalism of Nwakpuda
shared a lot with every other crusade ever witnessed. It had a moral imperative, in terms of its moral
obligation towards conservation; it was a binary opposition in terms of environmentalism versus
exploitation; it was a call to action in terms of mobilization of people for action and perception of
urgency emphasizing dangers in delaying action. Since Nwakpuda, there have been several global
environmental crusade rhetorics such as ‘Save the Planet’, ‘War on climate change’, ‘Defend the Earth,
‘Stop Extinction’, ‘Protect Biodiversity’ etc. The crusades may at times appear mindless in ignoring
economic and social nuances while digging in on eco-fundamentalism. It is thus the case that many
modern crusaders such as Al Gore are hardly ever regarded as realists. The case is not very different for
others such as Greta Thunberg, David Attenborough, Jane Goodall and Rachel Carson. Whereas these
crusaders are largely of an intellectual bent, a good number of modern crusaders are active in the field
and outside of regular pedagogical engagement. Hence organizations such as Greenpeace have as will
be shown later taken actions to protect the environment the radicalism of Nwakpuda. The man’s heroics
therefore justifiably stand with all other historical environmental crusades that departed from expected
environmental pragmatism in preference for fundamentalism.

Dynamics of Man and the Built Environment

Human imprints on earth captured in projects and attempts at buildings and all other forms of replacing
natural environments with anthropogenic forms are subject to vistas of interpretation. Hence the built
environment everywhere has a conflicted existence. Just as Fulani herdsmen see landscape change
through built forms as irritant mosaics that hamper field navigation for them and their cattle; diverse
groups have diverse reasons to object to the built environment. At times completed built environment
projects are destroyed and removed as a form of environmental restoration. Dams have been removed
to restore aquatic habitats, highways have been removed to protect endangered species or watersheds,
mining sites have been closed and industrial sites transformed into public parks. As humans have had
to relocate to accommodate projects such as the Kainji dam and railway projects, projects have had to
be relocated or removed to optimize efficiency and reduce collateral damage. Recently Nigeria had to
demolish several properties to make way for Lagos - Calabar Coastal Road Highway; Landmark Beach
Resorts, WinHome Estates etc. (CNN, 2024).