local socio-economic development. Their work enables upward socio-economic mobility, fosters community integration, and sustains local economies through entrepreneurial activity and labor networks. In regions where the formal economy is underdeveloped, the contributions of artisans are essential for maintaining the socio-economic stability of urban areas.

In addition to their socio-economic contributions, artisans play a crucial role in promoting environmental sustainability in urban development. The construction industry is a major contributor to environmental degradation, with the production and transportation of building materials, energy consumption during construction, and waste generation contributing significantly to global environmental challenges. However, artisans, through their reliance on local materials and traditional construction methods, offer sustainable alternatives that align with global efforts to mitigate the environmental impacts of urban development.

One of the most significant contributions that artisans make to sustainability is their use of locally sourced, eco-friendly materials. Unlike large construction firms that may rely on imported, industrial materials such as concrete, steel, and glass, artisans often work with natural materials that are abundant and sustainable within their local environments (Speecke, 2022). Materials such as clay, mud, bamboo, stone, and reclaimed wood have long been used in traditional construction practices across many regions of the Global South. These materials are not only less harmful to the environment but also culturally significant, as they are embedded in the architectural heritage of local communities. The use of these materials reduces the carbon footprint of construction projects, as they require less energy to produce and transport compared to industrial materials (Moll et al., 2019).

Traditional construction methods employed by artisans are another important factor in their contribution to environmental sustainability. Many of these methods have been developed over generations to be well-suited to the local climate and environmental conditions. For instance, in regions with hot climates, artisans may use thick walls made from mud or adobe, which provide natural insulation and reduce the need for artificial cooling systems. Similarly, in regions prone to flooding, traditional elevated construction techniques help protect homes from water damage. These building practices, which prioritize local environmental conditions, align with modern sustainability principles and are often more adaptable to the effects of climate change (Etim & Daramola, 2020).

Artisans also contribute to resource efficiency in construction. In contrast to industrial construction methods, which often generate significant waste, artisanal practices tend to be more resource-efficient. Artisans typically work on smaller-scale projects, using only the materials that are needed for the task at hand. Additionally, because they are working with natural, locally sourced materials, the waste generated by artisanal construction is often biodegradable or recyclable, further reducing the environmental impact. This focus on resource efficiency not only supports environmental sustainability but also aligns with the principles of circular economy, where resources are reused and recycled rather than discarded (Zhang et al., 2021).

In the context of urban planning, artisans play an essential role in cultural preservation. The structures built by artisans often reflect the cultural and historical identity of the communities in which they are located. In many cases, traditional construction methods and materials are used to maintain the aesthetic and cultural integrity of neighborhoods, even as cities expand and modernize. By preserving these cultural elements, artisans contribute to the creation of urban spaces that are not only environmentally sustainable but also culturally rich and historically significant (Moll et al., 2019). This cultural continuity is vital in maintaining a sense of identity and place in urban environments that are rapidly transforming under the pressures of modernization and urbanization.
The adaptive nature of artisanal practices makes them highly suited to promoting urban resilience in the face of environmental challenges. As cities around the world face increasing threats from climate change—such as rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and flooding—there is a growing need for construction methods that can withstand these challenges. Artisans, with their knowledge of local materials and techniques, are well-positioned to contribute to the development of resilient urban infrastructure. For example, by building homes that are designed to resist floods or by using materials that can withstand high temperatures, artisans can help create urban environments that are better prepared for the effects of climate change (Oladimeji, 2022).

Artisans are key players in promoting sustainability in urban development. Through their use of local materials, reliance on traditional construction methods, and contributions to cultural preservation, they offer environmentally sustainable alternatives to modern industrial construction practices. Their work not only supports the development of resilient, eco-friendly urban infrastructure but also helps maintain the cultural and historical identity of the communities in which they work. By integrating artisans into formal urban planning and development processes, cities can build more sustainable, culturally rich, and resilient environments for future generations.

## Actors Affecting Artisan Productivity and Development

Training and apprenticeship programs, both formal and informal, are crucial to the development of artisans' skills and the enhancement of their productivity in urban development projects. These programs offer artisans the technical knowledge and practical experience necessary to perform complex tasks in construction, masonry, carpentry, plumbing, and other vital trades within the urban environment. The traditional apprenticeship system has long been the primary mode of skill acquisition for artisans, especially in developing countries where formal education opportunities are limited (Etim & Daramola, 2020). Informal apprenticeship programs are the most common pathway through which artisans acquire their skills. In this system, young apprentices work alongside master craftsmen, learning their trade through observation, hands-on practice, and mentorship. This model of training is particularly valuable in regions where access to formal education is scarce or expensive. The apprenticeship system not only provides apprentices with practical skills but also serves as a form of social mobility, enabling them to enter the workforce and potentially start their businesses after completing their training. Moreover, informal apprenticeship systems are deeply embedded in local cultures and economies, making them accessible to a large portion of the population, especially those from lower-income households (Afolabi & Ojelabi, 2018).

However, while the informal apprenticeship model has many advantages, it also has significant limitations. The skills taught in these programs are often limited to traditional techniques, which may not be sufficient to meet the demands of modern urban development projects. For example, artisans trained in informal systems may not be exposed to new construction technologies, sustainable building materials, or advanced safety protocols, all of which are increasingly important in today's construction industry (Reinhardt et al., 2020). This gap between traditional knowledge and modern demands creates challenges for artisans when they attempt to transition from informal, small-scale projects to larger, more complex urban development initiatives. In contrast, formal training programs such as vocational schools or government-sponsored technical education centres offer a more structured and comprehensive approach to artisan training. These programs typically provide artisans with formal certification, which can enhance their employability and allow them to take on larger projects that require adherence to specific industry standards. Formal training also exposes artisans to modern construction techniques, tools, and materials, as well as health and safety regulations, all of which contribute to improved productivity and quality of work (Keogh & Smallwood, 2021).

Despite the potential benefits of formal training, access to these programs remains limited for many artisans, particularly in rural or low-income areas. The cost of enrolment, geographic barriers, and the need to
support oneself financially during the training period often make formal education unattainable for many
aspiring artisans (ILO, 2020). Additionally, formal training programs may not always be tailored to the
specific needs of local industries or the socio-economic context in which artisans operate, further reducing
their effectiveness. As a result, many artisans continue to rely on informal apprenticeships, which provide
immediate employment opportunities but may limit long-term productivity and growth potential.

While artisans contribute significantly to urban development, they face numerous challenges that hinder their productivity and limit their growth potential. These barriers are primarily related to access to modern tools and technologies, limited financial resources, and insufficient formal recognition. One of the most pressing challenges facing artisans is the lack of access to modern tools and technologies. Many artisans, particularly those operating in the informal sector, work with outdated tools that are less efficient and require more time and labour to complete tasks. For example, while modern construction firms may use advanced machinery and digital tools like Building Information Modelling (BIM) to streamline project management and improve accuracy, artisans often lack the resources or training to utilize such technologies (Reinhardt et al., 2020). This technological gap significantly reduces artisans' productivity, as they are unable to complete projects as quickly or efficiently as their formally trained counterparts. Moreover, without access to modern tools, artisans may struggle to meet the quality standards required for larger, more complex urban development projects.

In addition to the technological barriers, artisans also face significant financial challenges. Most artisans operate as small-scale, independent contractors or as part of informal networks, which limits their access to financial services such as loans or credit. Without sufficient capital, artisans are unable to invest in the tools, materials, or training necessary to expand their businesses or improve their productivity (ILO, 2020). This lack of financial support also makes it difficult for artisans to weather economic downturns or fluctuations in demand, further limiting their ability to grow or adapt to changing market conditions. Furthermore, without formal financial backing, artisans are often excluded from large-scale urban development projects, as they are perceived as higher-risk contractors compared to larger, more established firms.

Another significant barrier to artisan development is the lack of formal recognition for their skills. Because many artisans acquire their skills through informal apprenticeships rather than formal education, they are often not certified or licensed by regulatory bodies. This lack of formal recognition limits their ability to participate in official urban development projects, as many clients and contractors require proof of certification before hiring artisans for large-scale work. Moreover, without formal recognition, artisans are often excluded from professional networks and associations that could provide them with opportunities for collaboration, training, or advocacy (Boateng, 2020). This exclusion not only limits their economic opportunities but also reinforces their marginalization within the construction industry.

The informal nature of artisanal work further exacerbates these challenges. Artisans who operate outside of formal regulatory frameworks are often not protected by labor laws, health and safety regulations, or social protections such as pensions or health insurance. This lack of regulation not only puts artisans at risk of exploitation but also undermines their long-term sustainability and productivity (Oladimeji, 2022). Without access to legal protections or social safety nets, artisans may be forced to accept lower wages, work under unsafe conditions, or abandon their trade altogether in the face of financial hardship or injury.

While artisans are essential to the success of urban development projects, they face numerous challenges that hinder their productivity and limit their growth potential. Addressing these challenges will require targeted interventions, such as improving access to formal training programs, providing financial support for artisans, and implementing policies that recognize and protect the contributions of the informal workforce. By addressing these barriers, cities can unlock the full potential of artisans, enhancing their productivity and ensuring their continued role in building sustainable, resilient urban environments.
# Skill Gaps and Potential Interventions

## Government and Institutional Interventions

Addressing the skill gaps that artisans face in urban development requires a coordinated effort from governments, academic institutions, and urban planners. Each of these actors plays a vital role in developing and implementing policies, programs, and reforms that can help artisans enhance their skills, improve their productivity, and better integrate into formal urban development processes. Governments play a crucial role in addressing skill gaps by creating an enabling environment that supports artisanal training and development. One of the key areas where government intervention is needed is in the formulation and implementation of policy reforms that recognize the importance of the artisanal workforce in urban development. Many governments, particularly in developing countries, have historically neglected the artisanal sector, leaving it largely unregulated and unsupported. To bridge this gap, governments can implement policies that formalize the artisanal workforce, providing artisans with access to training programs, certification, and financial support (ILO, 2020).

A critical government intervention could be the establishment of vocational training centres specifically designed for artisans. These centres would offer training programs that combine traditional skills with modern construction techniques, enabling artisans to meet the demands of contemporary urban development projects. Governments can also partner with international development agencies, NGOs, and private sector organizations to fund these training programs, ensuring that they are accessible to a broad range of artisans, particularly those from disadvantaged or rural communities (Afolabi & Ojelabi, 2018).

Moreover, governments can play a role in creating regulatory frameworks that standardize artisanal training and certification. By developing a national certification system for artisans, governments can ensure that artisans' skills are formally recognized, allowing them to participate in larger, formal construction projects that require proof of competence. Such certifications would not only enhance artisans' employability but also improve the overall quality and safety of urban development projects by ensuring that all workers meet minimum skill standards (Reinhardt et al., 2020).

Urban planners are another important group of stakeholders who can contribute to addressing skill gaps among artisans. Planners are often involved in the design and execution of urban development projects, and they are in a position to advocate for the inclusion of artisans in these projects. Urban planners can help create pathways for artisans to participate in formal development processes by ensuring that urban planning policies and building codes accommodate the skills and practices of the artisanal workforce. For example, planners can work with local governments to develop inclusive urban development policies that promote the use of local labor and materials, thus creating more opportunities for artisans to contribute to urban growth (Etim & Daramola, 2020).

Academic institutions also have a critical role to play in bridging the skill gap for artisans. Universities and technical institutes can design training curricula that integrate both traditional artisanal practices and modern construction technologies. These institutions can offer programs that provide artisans with formal education in areas such as project management, sustainable construction, and new building technologies. Academic institutions can also research the challenges and opportunities faced by artisans, providing valuable data that can inform government policy and training program development (Keogh & Smallwood, 2021).

Furthermore, partnerships between academic institutions and the private sector can facilitate the development of workforce development programs that provide on-the-job training for artisans. By working with construction firms, housing developers, and other industry stakeholders, academic institutions can ensure that artisans receive practical training that is directly applicable to real-world projects. These
collaborations can also help artisans gain exposure to modern tools and technologies, which are increasingly required in today's construction industry.

## Technology and Innovation

As urban development becomes more complex and technologically advanced, artisans must adapt to new tools and methods to remain competitive. Integrating technology and innovation into artisanal work is a critical intervention that can enhance productivity, improve project quality, and enable artisans to participate in more sophisticated urban development projects. The rise of Construction 4.0—a term used to describe the digitization and automation of construction processes—presents both opportunities and challenges for the artisanal workforce (Reinhardt et al., 2020).

Construction 4.0 includes innovations such as Building Information Modeling (BIM), prefabrication, 3D printing, and drones, all of which are transforming how urban development projects are designed, managed, and executed. These technologies offer significant benefits in terms of efficiency, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness, but they also require a higher level of technical proficiency than traditional artisanal methods. For artisans to take advantage of these technologies, they must be trained in their use and understand how to integrate them into their work.

One of the key ways to facilitate this transition is through training programs that focus on digital literacy and the use of construction technologies. Governments, academic institutions, and the private sector can collaborate to develop programs that teach artisans how to use digital tools such as BIM, which allows for more precise project planning and coordination. By learning how to work with digital blueprints and project management software, artisans can improve the quality of their work and increase their productivity (Keogh & Smallwood, 2021). Additionally, the integration of prefabrication techniques into artisanal work has the potential to revolutionize the construction process. Prefabrication involves assembling building components off-site and then transporting them to the construction site for final assembly. This method reduces construction time, lowers costs, and minimizes material waste. Artisans trained in prefabrication can play a crucial role in urban development projects that prioritize speed and efficiency, particularly in fast-growing cities where housing and infrastructure demand is high (ILO, 2020).

3D printing technology is another area where artisans can benefit from technological innovation. In the construction industry, 3D printing can be used to create complex architectural elements, reducing the need for manual labor and improving precision. Artisans who are trained in 3D printing can expand their skill set to include the design and production of custom-building components, which can be used in both traditional and modern construction projects (Reinhardt et al., 2020). This technology not only enhances productivity but also opens up new opportunities for artisans to contribute to innovative, sustainable urban development projects. Finally, drones are increasingly being used in construction for site surveying, project monitoring, and quality control. Artisans who learn how to operate drones can improve their ability to manage large-scale projects, as drones provide a more efficient way to assess progress and identify potential issues on construction sites. By incorporating these technologies into their work, artisans can enhance their productivity, reduce errors, and ensure that projects are completed on time and within budget (Afolabi & Ojelabi, 2018).

Addressing the skill gaps faced by artisans requires a multifaceted approach that includes government policy reforms, academic and vocational training, and the integration of technology into artisanal work. By investing in training programs that teach artisans how to use modern construction technologies and by creating inclusive policies that recognize the value of artisanal labour, governments, urban planners, and academic institutions can help artisans adapt to the changing demands of urban development. These interventions will not only enhance the productivity of artisans but also contribute to more sustainable, efficient, and innovative urban environments.
# The Future of Artisanal Contributions to Sustainable Urban Development

The future of urban development is heavily dependent on the effective integration of sustainable practices, and artisans will continue to play a vital role in this transition. As cities grow, the demand for housing, infrastructure, and services increases, which presents significant challenges related to resource use, environmental impact, and community development. Artisans, with their knowledge of local materials and construction techniques, offer an essential contribution to addressing these challenges. By addressing the existing skill gaps and enhancing artisan productivity, the long-term benefits for urban development are profound, ranging from more sustainable buildings to stronger local economies and improved urban infrastructure.

Sustainable buildings are one of the most tangible outcomes of improving artisanal skills and productivity. When artisans are equipped with modern tools and trained in sustainable building practices, they are better able to design and construct buildings that meet contemporary environmental standards. Sustainable construction focuses on energy efficiency, the use of eco-friendly materials, and minimizing waste—all areas where artisans can excel if given the proper support and training (Keogh & Smallwood, 2021). For example, artisans trained in green building techniques can contribute to the construction of homes that use less energy for heating and cooling, or that incorporate rainwater harvesting and renewable energy systems. This not only reduces the environmental impact of urban development but also lowers operational costs for homeowners and city planners, making sustainable development both economically and environmentally viable.

Moreover, improving the skills of artisans enhances their capacity to contribute to the cultural and social sustainability of urban environments. Artisans who are proficient in traditional building techniques, combined with modern sustainable practices, can create buildings that reflect the local cultural heritage while meeting the demands of modern urbanization. This fusion of traditional and contemporary methods helps preserve the unique character of cities, fostering a sense of community and place that is essential for social cohesion (Etim & Daramola, 2020). Furthermore, sustainable artisanal practices ensure that urban spaces are developed in ways that respect the local environment, contributing to the long-term resilience of cities in the face of climate change and other environmental challenges.

Another significant long-term benefit is the contribution of artisans to vibrant local economies. As artisans improve their skills and become more productive, they can take on more complex and higher-paying projects, which in turn stimulates local economic activity. By sourcing materials locally and employing local labor, artisans help keep wealth within the community, fostering economic resilience and reducing dependence on external resources. Moreover, by addressing skill gaps and improving productivity, artisans can expand their businesses, hire more workers, and contribute to job creation in their communities. This, in turn, leads to a more dynamic local economy that can better support the growing needs of an urbanizing population (ILO, 2020).

The improvement of urban infrastructure is another critical long-term benefit of closing skill gaps among artisans. Infrastructure development—such as roads, bridges, public buildings, and utility networks— requires a skilled workforce that can deliver high-quality, durable structures. When artisans are trained in modern infrastructure development techniques, they can contribute more effectively to the construction and maintenance of these vital systems. Additionally, by incorporating sustainable practices into infrastructure projects, artisans can help create infrastructure that is more resilient to environmental stresses, such as extreme weather events or resource scarcity (Reinhardt et al., 2020). As cities face increasing pressure to develop in ways that are sustainable and adaptable to climate change, the role of artisans in building resilient infrastructure will become even more important.
In the long term, addressing the skill gaps and enhancing the productivity of artisans is not just about improving individual livelihoods—it's about creating more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive cities. Artisans are an integral part of the urban fabric, and their contributions to sustainable development are essential for meeting the environmental, economic, and social challenges of the 21st century. By investing in artisanal training, formal recognition, and technological integration, cities can harness the full potential of this workforce, leading to better development outcomes for all.

## CONCLUSION

Artisans play a crucial role in the sustainable development of urban areas, contributing significantly to the construction of buildings, infrastructure, and the local economy. Despite the importance of their work, artisans face numerous challenges, including skill gaps, lack of access to modern tools, and insufficient formal recognition. These challenges limit their productivity and ability to contribute fully to modern urban development projects. However, by addressing these skill gaps through government interventions, formal training programs, and the integration of technology, artisans can improve their productivity and contribute more effectively to sustainable urban development.

The key points discussed in this paper underscore the critical role that artisans play in bridging skill gaps and enhancing productivity within the urban development sector. Artisans are uniquely positioned to integrate traditional construction methods with modern, sustainable practices, creating buildings and infrastructure that are both environmentally friendly and culturally significant. Their contributions to local economies through employment and the use of local materials further highlight their importance in building resilient, self-sustaining communities.

The future of urban development depends on creating inclusive policies that support and formalize the artisanal workforce. Governments, urban planners, and academic institutions must work together to provide artisans with access to training, financial resources, and modern technologies. By doing so, cities can ensure that artisans continue to contribute to the creation of sustainable, vibrant, and resilient urban spaces. Ultimately, addressing the skill gaps and enhancing the productivity of artisans will lead to better development outcomes for cities, including more sustainable buildings, improved infrastructure, and stronger local economies. This comprehensive approach to artisanal development will not only benefit individual artisans but will also contribute to the broader goals of sustainable and inclusive urban growth.

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* Boateng, P. (2020). The Informal Economy and Its Impact on Artisans in Ghana: Pathways for Policy Reform. *African Journal of Economic Development*, 11(3), 77–92.

* Etim, F., & Daramola, A. (2020). The Role of Informal Apprenticeship in Skills Acquisition for Artisans in Lagos, Nigeria. *Urban Planning Journal*, 17(2), 112–125.

* Hedidor, D., & Bondinuba, F. (2017). Assessing the Impact of Skills Mismatch on Productivity in the Construction Industry. *Construction Management Review*, 6(4), 98–107.

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Keogh, R., & Smallwood, J. (2021). Integrating Technology in Construction: Opportunities for Artisanal Workforce Development. *Journal of Building Technology and Research*, 35(1), 23–38.

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Zhang, Y., Moll, S., & Keogh, R. (2021). Sustainability Through Local Materials: The Role of Artisans in the Global South. *Journal of Urban Studies and Planning*, 18(2), 77–95.
**Chapter Thirty-Eight**

**Theoretical and Conceptual Perspectives on the Awareness and Perception of Urban and Regional
Planning Among Students in Owerri Municipal**

*Simeon Chidera Amanfo<fnref n="1" />; Christopher Chimaobi Onyeneke<fnref n="1" />,<fnref n="2" />*

EMAIL: simisimeon@yahoo.com

**ABSTRACT**

The awareness and perception of Urban and Regional Planning (URP) as a career choice among students are critical factors influencing their decision to pursue this field. This paper explores the theoretical and conceptual frameworks that shed light on these factors, using Career Awareness Theory and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) to understand how educational, familial, and societal inputs shape student perceptions and career choices. The research focuses particularly on students in Owerri Municipal, an area facing significant urban development challenges that require professional planning intervention. The study reviews existing literature on the awareness and perception of urban planning globally and within Nigeria, highlighting gaps in current knowledge, particularly in the context of Owerri Municipal. Theoretical insights suggest that enhancing curriculum offerings, improving career guidance, and fostering partnerships between educational institutions and urban planning professionals could significantly influence student interest in Urban and Regional Planning. The paper proposes several policy recommendations aimed at increasing the visibility and attractiveness of urban planning as a career. These include integrating urban planning topics into secondary education, developing targeted career guidance programs, and leveraging media to reshape societal perceptions of the field. Future research directions are recommended, focusing on longitudinal studies to track the effectiveness of educational interventions and comparative studies to understand regional differences in career perception. This synthesis of theoretical frameworks, literature review, and policy analysis aims to contribute to a better understanding of the factors influencing urban planning education and career choices, thereby supporting efforts to attract more students to the profession in regions where they are most needed.

KEYWORDS: Career Awareness; Social Cognitive; Owerri; Students; Urban planning

**INTRODUCTION**

Urban and Regional Planning (URP) is crucial for the sustainable development and effective management of urban spaces, particularly in developing regions like Owerri Municipal, where rapid urbanization presents significant challenges. This discipline encompasses a wide range of functions, including infrastructure development, housing, transportation, and environmental sustainability, making urban planners pivotal in ensuring cities are livable, resilient, and efficient. Despite its significance, there remains a notable gap in the awareness and interest among the youth, particularly in Nigeria, where urban planning is often overshadowed by more traditional professions (Balogun & Nnaka, 2017).

Owerri Municipal, the capital of Imo State, serves as a prime example of the urban challenges prevalent in many Nigerian cities, such as inadequate housing, poor infrastructure, and uncontrolled urban sprawl. These issues underscore the need for proficient urban planning and management (Nigerian Urban Planning Journal, 2020). However, there is a noticeable disconnect between the critical role urban planners play and the perception of URP as a viable career path among students. Data from Imo State University reveal a significant decline in student interest in URP courses, reflecting broader disinterest that may stem from a lack of understanding of the profession's potential and the career opportunities it offers (Imo State University Enrolment Reports, 2021). This gap in understanding how students perceive the URP profession

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²School of Architecture and Planning, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa.</footnote>
in Nigeria is concerning, especially in places like Owerri Municipal, where effective urban planning could greatly enhance the quality of life. Research indicates that despite the escalating urban challenges, the profession of urban planning is often viewed unfavourably compared to fields such as medicine, law, or engineering. This negative perception is partly due to widespread misconceptions about the nature of urban planning work and its impact on community development (Fosudo, 2016).

To address these issues, this paper utilizes theoretical frameworks such as Career Awareness Theory and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) to explore students' awareness and perceptions of URP in Owerri Municipal. Career Awareness Theory helps us understand how individuals become aware of their career options, while SCCT offers insights into how self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals influence career choices (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). The strategies proposed to enhance the visibility and attractiveness of the urban planning profession among students include integrating urban planning topics into secondary education curricula, organizing career talks and workshops that feature successful urban planners, and developing partnerships between urban planning faculties and city planning departments for practical exposure (National Planning Commission Report, 2019).

Additionally, the paper will propose policy recommendations for educational policymakers and urban planning professionals on how to effectively promote urban planning as a viable and rewarding career choice. These recommendations focus on improving educational content on urban planning, enhancing student exposure to the field, and actively debunking common misconceptions about the profession (Urban Planning Education Initiative, 2022). Ultimately, this paper aims to provide actionable recommendations that bridge the gap between the critical need for urban planners in Nigeria and the current student disinterest. By enhancing understanding of the profession and addressing misconceptions, it contributes to more effective educational strategies and public policies that promote urban planning as a dynamic and impactful career choice, ensuring that cities like Owerri Municipal are equipped with the skilled professionals needed to manage their growth sustainably and effectively (Development Planning Association, 2023).

In conclusion, this study not only fills a crucial research gap but also serves as a foundation for developing interventions that can potentially transform student perceptions of URP, leading to increased enrolment and a more robust urban planning workforce in Nigeria. By doing so, it aims to ensure that urban centres in the country are better prepared to face the challenges of modern urbanization and achieve sustainable development goals (Ministry of Urban Development, 2024).

## Conceptualizing Awareness and Perception in Career Choices

To effectively address the topic of conceptualizing awareness and perception in career choices, particularly in the context of Urban and Regional Planning (URP), it is crucial to delve into the definitions of awareness and perception, their impact on career aspirations, and the specific relevance of URP as a career option in Nigeria. Awareness in the context of career selection refers to the degree to which individuals are informed about various career options, their scope, and potential career paths. This encompasses knowledge of the necessary educational requirements, job responsibilities, career progression, and the future demand for certain roles. For urban planning, this means understanding the multidisciplinary nature of the field which includes planning, design, and management of urban spaces (Armstrong & Styring, 2005). Awareness is critical as it forms the foundational step in career planning, influencing the early interest and educational choices that pave the way for future career opportunities.

Perception in career choices pertains to how career options are viewed in terms of prestige, earning potential, job satisfaction, and societal impact. It is shaped by cultural, social, and familial influences and often dictates the attractiveness of a career. In the context of URP, perceptions can be significantly influenced by visible community projects, the public profile of planners, or media representation of the
profession. Negative perceptions, such as viewing URP as merely bureaucratic or less impactful compared to careers like medicine or engineering, can deter potential candidates (Scott & Marshall, 2009). Conversely, positive perceptions, reinforced by successful urban interventions and public endorsements, can enhance interest in the field. Urban and Regional Planning plays a pivotal role in shaping cities and communities by determining the layout of cities, the locations of buildings, road systems, and public spaces, and the management of environmental resources. Urban planners are instrumental in designing urban spaces that are functional, aesthetically pleasing, and sustainable. They address issues like urban sprawl, traffic congestion, and the provision of public amenities. The effectiveness of urban planning directly impacts the economic development, environmental sustainability, and overall quality of life in urban areas (Watson, 2009).

In Nigeria, the relevance of Urban and Regional Planning as a career option has grown in importance due to rapid urbanization and the associated challenges it brings. Cities like Lagos and Abuja face issues related to traffic management, waste disposal, and housing shortages, all of which require innovative planning solutions. The Nigerian government has recognized the need for skilled urban planners in its Vision 20:2020 economic development blueprint, which emphasizes the role of effective urban planning in achieving sustainable development (National Planning Commission of Nigeria, 2010). This highlights not only the necessity but also the opportunities for career growth in this field. Furthermore, the expanding job market and the government's investment in urban infrastructure suggest a promising future for aspiring urban planners in Nigeria.

By enhancing awareness and positively influencing perceptions, stakeholders including educational institutions, professional bodies, and media can encourage more students to consider urban planning as a viable and impactful career choice. This shift is crucial for preparing a workforce capable of addressing the complex urban challenges faced by Nigerian cities today and in the future.

## THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS

Exploring the theoretical frameworks that elucidate career choice behaviors can significantly enhance our understanding of how students perceive and decide to pursue Urban and Regional Planning (URP) as a career. Two prominent theories in career development literature—Career Awareness Theory and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)—provide valuable insights. The Career Awareness Theory posits that the decision to pursue a particular career is strongly influenced by an individual's level of awareness about that career. This includes knowledge of the nature of work, educational requirements, career prospects, and the social and economic rewards associated with the career. The theory suggests that enhanced career awareness can lead to a greater likelihood of choosing that career path (Wise, Charner & Lou, 1976). In the context of URP, applying Career Awareness Theory involves examining how well students in Owerri Municipal are informed about the profession. This includes their knowledge of what urban planners do, the necessary academic qualifications, and the potential career opportunities within the field. The theory can be used to assess whether increased exposure to information about urban planning correlates with a higher interest among students in pursuing it as a career.

Lack of awareness about urban planning is likely to deter students from considering it as a viable career option. For example, if students are unaware of the impactful roles urban planners play in shaping cities and influencing policy, they may gravitate towards more well-known professions like engineering or medicine. Conversely, increasing awareness about the benefits and opportunities within urban planning could enhance student interest and enrollment in related educational programs (Armstrong & Styring, 2005).

The Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002) extends the concepts of Bandura's general social cognitive theory into a framework for understanding career development. It focuses on how
individuals form career interests, make choices, and achieve career stability based on three key factors: self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 2002). In the context of Urban and Regional Planning, SCCT can help explain how students' beliefs about their capabilities (self-efficacy), their expectations of the outcomes they would achieve from working in urban planning (outcome expectations), and their career aspirations (personal goals) influence their decision to enter the field. For instance, a student who believes they can complete the necessary education and contribute effectively as an urban planner is more likely to pursue a career in Urban and Regional Planning. Self-efficacy might be influenced by previous successes in related subjects, like geography or environmental science. Positive outcome expectations could be shaped by seeing successful urban planning initiatives that visibly improve community livability. Personal goals might include desires to contribute to societal development or to work in a dynamic, impactful field. Understanding these factors can help educators and policymakers design interventions that enhance these perceptions and thereby attract more students to the field (Bandura, 1986; Lent, 1996).

The theoretical insights gleaned from this study suggest a multifaceted approach to reinvigorating student interest in urban and regional planning. Firstly, educational policies must prioritize the inclusion of URP concepts in the secondary school curriculum. Introducing students to urban planning principles at an earlier age could foster a deeper understanding and appreciation of the field's impact on community well-being and development. Additionally, schools and universities should enhance their collaboration with professional urban planners to organize internships, workshops, and lectures that not only expose students to real-world challenges but also showcase the diverse career paths within the profession. These activities can help bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, making the study of urban planning more attractive and relevant to students.

## Conceptual Framework: Interaction Between Awareness and Perception

Urban and Regional Planning (URP) is essential for sustainable urban development and effective city management, yet the field often lacks awareness and positive perception among students, particularly in areas experiencing rapid urbanization like Owerri Municipal. Awareness in urban planning involves understanding the multifaceted roles urban planners play, the educational pathways leading to the profession, and potential career opportunities. This foundational knowledge significantly influences how students perceive the profession. Enhanced awareness usually leads to a more favorable view of urban planning, especially when students recognize the profession's impact on enhancing city livability and sustainability (Armstrong & Styring, 2005).

However, societal, familial, and institutional factors significantly influence both awareness and perception. Societal respect for urban planning, demonstrated through public acknowledgment of planners' roles in successful urban projects, can enhance its attractiveness as a career. Additionally, family members who work in or value urban planning can provide insights and encouragement, swaying students' perceptions positively. Conversely, educational institutions often do not sufficiently highlight urban planning in their curricula, contributing to gaps in student awareness and diminishing the field's perceived relevance. This educational shortfall necessitates curriculum reforms that integrate urban planning more thoroughly into related subjects like geography, environmental science, and civics (Watson, 2009).

Misconceptions about urban planning, such as the belief that it offers limited career progression or is merely an extension of architecture, severely impact student perceptions. These stereotypes deter students from considering urban planning as a dynamic and impactful career path. Addressing these misconceptions through targeted informational campaigns and real-world examples of urban planners making significant contributions can help reshape perceptions (Florida, 2002).
Secondary schools, teachers, and career counselors play pivotal roles in shaping early career awareness. Their ability to provide accurate and engaging information about urban planning can spark interest in the field. Exposing students to practical experiences through field trips to planning departments or guest lectures by practicing urban planners can bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application (Fisher & Carlton, 2018).

Media portrayals and societal expectations also significantly influence how urban planning is perceived as a career. Positive media coverage of urban planning initiatives and the visibility of planners in addressing urban challenges can enhance the profession's prestige and desirability. Economic opportunities, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions, also play a crucial role. As cities expand and the complexity of urban challenges increases, the demand for skilled urban planners rises, presenting substantial career opportunities (Porter, 2020).

To attract more students to Urban and Regional Planning, stakeholders must engage in a multifaceted approach that addresses educational gaps, challenges misconceptions, and leverages media and societal influences to enhance the visibility and attractiveness of the profession. This effort will ensure a well-prepared workforce ready to tackle the pressing urban challenges of tomorrow.

## APPRAISAL OF EXISTING STUDIES

The academic discourse surrounding the awareness and perception of Urban and Regional Planning (URP) as a career choice has been extensive, encompassing both global perspectives and specific regional insights. An appraisal of existing studies offers a nuanced understanding of how students, particularly in regions like Owerri Municipal, view and decide to pursue careers in urban planning. The literature on URP often highlights the role of urban planners in shaping sustainable cities and communities but suggests that awareness among potential students could be significantly improved. Studies by Armstrong and Styring (2005) emphasize that while urban planning is crucial for city development, it is not perceived as a mainstream career choice by many students, largely due to a lack of exposure and understanding. Globally, the profession is often overshadowed by more established fields such as engineering and medicine, which are perceived to offer better job security and prestige. A study by Watson (2009) pointed out that the rapid urbanization facing African cities requires a substantial increase in professional urban planners.

However, there remains a significant gap between the number of professionals needed and the students entering the field. This shortfall is partly due to the perception of urban planning as a less lucrative and less respected profession. Comparative studies, such as those by Florida (2002), show that in other regions, such as North America and parts of Europe, urban planning is increasingly viewed as a dynamic field linked to creative city-making and innovation, attracting more students due to a stronger emphasis on its role in addressing complex urban challenges. In the context of Owerri Municipal, there are evident gaps in the knowledge and understanding of urban planning as a career path. This region faces unique challenges such as managing rapid urban sprawl, infrastructural deficits, and ensuring sustainable development. Despite these pressing needs, there is a lack of targeted educational programs and initiatives to promote urban planning as a viable and rewarding career. The studies by Landman (2016) and others suggest that enhancing curriculum offerings at secondary and tertiary levels, coupled with public awareness campaigns, could bridge this knowledge gap. Moreover, there is a paucity of research focusing specifically on the perceptions of urban planning among the youth in Owerri. This gap in the literature highlights the need for localized studies that investigate the specific barriers, opportunities, and misconceptions about urban planning in the region. Such research could provide valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and professional bodies aiming to promote urban planning more effectively.

While there is considerable literature on the awareness and perception of urban planning as a career, significant gaps remain, particularly in understanding how these factors play out in specific regional
contexts like Owerri Municipal. The need for more localized research and practical interventions is clear if urban planning is to be promoted as a key profession critical to managing the urbanization challenges of the future. Addressing these gaps will not only enhance the profile and attractiveness of the urban planning profession but also ensure that cities have the necessary human capital to face future urban challenges effectively.

## Theoretical Implications for Urban Planning Education and Practice

The exploration of career awareness and perception within Urban and Regional Planning (URP) has significant theoretical implications for both education and practice, offering directions for future research and policy implementation. By applying theories like the Career Awareness Theory and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), we gain valuable insights into how we might enhance the perception and appeal of URP among students, and thus influence educational frameworks and policy-making.

The application of Career Awareness Theory provides an understanding that raising awareness about URP as a career must start early in the educational journey. This involves integrating urban planning concepts into the curriculum at various educational levels, from primary through secondary education, to expose students to the field before they make crucial career decisions. By embedding urban planning projects and topics into subjects such as geography, environmental science, and social studies, educators can spark interest and provide a realistic view of what urban planners do, thus broadening students' awareness and understanding of the profession's impact and relevance (Armstrong & Styring, 2005).

The insights from SCCT suggest that enhancing curriculum and career guidance can significantly influence students' self-efficacy and outcome expectations regarding a career in urban planning. By offering courses that not only teach theoretical aspects of urban planning but also involve students in practical, real-world problem-solving, educational institutions can help students form a more positive perception of the career's impact and viability. Additionally, involving professional urban planners in career talks and mentorship programs can provide students with role models and real-life success stories, which are crucial in shaping their career aspirations (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2002).

Conceptual and theoretical frameworks like those discussed provide a robust basis for developing policies aimed at increasing the awareness of urban planning as a viable career option in Nigeria. Policy-makers can use these theoretical insights to craft initiatives that address both the educational and professional exposure needed to attract more students to the field. For example, policies could mandate the inclusion of urban planning topics in secondary school curricula or provide funding for urban planning clubs or competitions that encourage student participation and interest from an early age.

A key policy recommendation is for government and educational authorities to actively engage with both secondary schools and higher education institutions to raise awareness of urban planning. This can be achieved by developing partnerships with universities and professional planning bodies to deliver workshops, seminars, and career fairs that highlight the importance and attractiveness of urban planning careers. Encouraging institutions to adopt interdisciplinary approaches that include urban planning in courses related to environmental policy, architecture, and public administration can also broaden students' exposure to the field (Watson, 2009).

## FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Looking forward, research should continue to explore the specific barriers and facilitators to pursuing careers in urban planning within various cultural and economic contexts, especially in rapidly urbanizing nations like Nigeria. Future studies could focus on evaluating the effectiveness of different interventions aimed at increasing awareness and improving perceptions of the urban planning profession. Additionally,
longitudinal studies could track changes in perceptions over time, providing data that could further refine educational strategies and policies.

Parallel to educational reforms, there should be a concerted effort to launch public awareness campaigns that highlight the significance of urban planning in everyday life. These campaigns can utilize various media platforms to tell success stories of urban planning initiatives that have positively transformed communities. By changing the public narrative around urban planning, these campaigns can elevate the profession's status and appeal to a broader audience, particularly among the youth.

Urban planning professionals should be encouraged to engage more actively with their communities and to participate in policy dialogues that impact urban development. By positioning themselves as key players in addressing urban challenges, urban planners can enhance public perception of their profession and inspire more students to consider it as a career. Professional bodies can support this by advocating for policies that recognize and leverage the expertise of urban planners in all aspects of urban development.

Further research is needed to continuously update and adapt urban planning education to reflect the evolving challenges of urban environments. This includes integrating new technologies and innovative planning techniques into the curriculum, which can make the field more dynamic and appealing to tech-savvy youth. Additionally, research institutions can partner with urban planners to conduct studies that demonstrate the impact of well-planned urban policies on economic growth and quality of life, thereby reinforcing the value of the profession.

## CONCLUSION

The exploration of awareness and perception of Urban and Regional Planning (URP) as a career among students provides critical insights into the factors influencing their career choices. Drawing from theories such as the Career Awareness Theory and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), we've identified how educational institutions, societal perceptions, and personal beliefs shape student interest and engagement with urban planning. To enhance the appeal of urban planning as a viable career option, educational institutions must integrate urban planning concepts broadly across their curricula. Starting from an early age, subjects like geography, environmental science, and social studies can incorporate urban planning topics, demonstrating its relevance to everyday life and societal development. Furthermore, schools and universities should foster partnerships with urban planning professionals to offer practical workshops, guest lectures, and internship opportunities. These interactions provide practical insights into the field, connecting theoretical learning with real-world applications.

Career guidance programs specifically tailored to urban planning can also play a pivotal role. By clearly outlining the diverse roles urban planners play, the potential impacts they can have, and the career opportunities available within the field, students can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the profession. Additionally, promoting interdisciplinary learning that ties urban planning with technology, public policy, and architecture can make the field more attractive to students with varied interests and backgrounds. Looking ahead, future research should focus on longitudinal studies to track how educational strategies affect students' career choices in urban planning over time. Comparative studies across different cultural and economic contexts are also crucial, as they can help tailor educational and policy interventions to meet specific regional needs. Evaluating the effectiveness of policy interventions aimed at increasing the awareness and attractiveness of urban planning is essential for determining the success of these initiatives.

Moreover, exploring the integration of emerging technologies such as GIS, urban informatics, and simulation software into urban planning education could attract tech-savvy students and enhance educational outcomes. Such technological integration can make urban planning more accessible and engaging, aligning with modern educational trends and student interests. In conclusion, while significant
strides have been made in understanding the dynamics influencing urban planning career choices, ongoing efforts to enhance the field's visibility and appeal are vital. Through comprehensive educational strategies, strong professional partnerships, and informed policy-making, we can ensure that the next generation of urban planners is well-equipped to address the complex challenges of urbanization and contribute effectively to sustainable city development. These efforts will not only elevate the profession of urban planning but also ensure that it remains relevant and respected in the face of evolving global challenges.

REFERENCES

Armstrong, F., & Styring, J. (2005). *Understanding urban planning education*. London: Routledge.

Beatley, T. (2004). *Planning for sustainability*. London: SAGE Publications.

Bunting, T. E., & Guelke, L. (2004). Geographic perspectives on Canada's social economy. *Journal of Canadian Studies, 39*(2), 5-36.

Fisher, T., & Carlton, I. (2018). *Educating for urban design: Learning for an uncertain future*. New York: Routledge.

Florida, R. (2002). *The rise of the creative class*. New York: Basic Books.

Landman, K. (2016). Critical urbanism as a field of possibilities. *Planning Theory, 15*(1), 23-50.

Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2002). Social cognitive career theory. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), *Career choice and development* (4th ed., pp. 255–311). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Lynch, K. (1960). *The image of the city*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

National Planning Commission of Nigeria. (2010). *Nigeria Vision 20:2020*. Abuja: NPC.

Porter, L. (2020). *Planning in Indigenous Australia: From imperial foundations to postcolonial futures*. Routledge.

Porter, M. E. (1995). The competitive advantage of the inner city. *Harvard Business Review*, May-June 1995.

Scott, M., & Marshall, T. (2009). *Oxford dictionary of sociology*. New York: Oxford University Press.

Taylor, E., & Hochuli, D. F. (2017). Creating better cities: How biodiversity and ecosystem functioning enhance urban residents' wellbeing. *Urban Ecosystems, 20*(3), 597-608.

Watson, V. (2009). The planned city sweeps the poor away...: Urban planning and 21st-century urbanization. *Progress in Planning, 72*(3), 151-193.
**Chapter Thirty-Nine**

**Analyses of Domestic Water Demand and Supply in Okigwe Town, Imo State**

*Tessiana O. Ukah*<fnref n="1" />; *Emmanuella C. Onyenechere*<fnref n="2" />

EMAIL: ogochukwutessiana@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

The demand for water supplies is continuously increasing, numerous researchers have emphasized on water demand management rather than the supply side management. The aim of this study was to analyse domestic water demand and supply in Okigwe town, for water provision planning in Imo state. The study adopted a survey method, sample size of 400 respondents was selected from a population of 182,700 through random sampling technique. The study population was further divided into smaller subgroups, and then 50 copies of questionnaire were administered on each of the eight communities (Umuokpara, Ope, Umueze, Umuzegem, Umuchima, Umunaga, Umuka and Umurigo) that make up the study area. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the analysis of data from field work. Firstly, the result of the Chi-squared analysis showed that there is significant association between sources of water supply and methods of water distribution to households in Okigwe town. Secondly, the result of the Analysis of Variance showed that there were statistically significant variations in the quantity of water supply to households in the eight neighbourhoods of Okigwe town. Thirdly, based on the result of the Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient, the null hypothesis was rejected since most of the correlation coefficients in the test were statistically significant at Alpha level below .05. This implies that there were significant relationships amongst the challenges limiting water supply in Okigwe town. Lastly, based on the study results of the Kendell's tau correlation coefficient, the null hypothesis (H01) was rejected since the calculated significant level of most of the correlations was less than .05, the Alpha level. This implies that there are significant relationships between water use practices within households in Okigwe town. Based on the results above, the study recommends that sensitization on Sustainable Urban and Rural Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (SURWASH) should be properly emphasized on, provision of water should not be free, just like the payment for electricity, payment for water will encourage consistency in the provision and management in small towns within Imo State and Nigeria as a whole.

KEYWORDS: Water demand; Water supply; Water management; Okigwe

**INTRODUCTION**

Water is essential to life and its supply, consumption and spatial distribution are closely associated with economic growth and the development of society. Next to air, water is indispensable to life. It is a foundation for human prosperity because adequate and high-quality water supply provides a basis for the growth and development of people (Folke, Polasky, Rockström, Galaz, Westley, Lamont & Walker, 2021). The importance of water to man cannot be overemphasized; it holds the most important benefit to man's sustenance beside shelter, food and clothing (Ene, 2021). According to Sedlak (2014), it is recognized all over the world that water is a vital resource to human existence and that it is a major factor in commanding the progress of civilization.

Access to water is one of the pressing global issues of the 21st century. As our global population grows and becomes wealthier, the demand for water and water use greatly increases. A world-wide water crisis does not necessarily mean an overall water shortage compared to the water demand, but the problems that arise from an uneven regional distribution of water resources. Currently, many developing countries have insufficient financial, institutional, personal and technical resources, necessary to build up a functional

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria.</footnote>
water supply system. According to the World Water Development Report of the United Nations today about 1.2 billion people have no access to adequate water supply (United Nations (UN), 2021).

According to Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMWR) (2011) report, Nigeria has huge water resources potential estimated at 267 billion cubic meters of surface water and 92 billion cubic meters of ground water. About 47 million Nigerians still rely exclusively on surface water sources to meet their domestic needs. Although Nigeria is blessed with abundant water resources, government at all levels (federal, state and local) have not been able to successfully harness these resources to ensure a sustainable and equitable access to safe, adequate, improved and affordable water supply and sanitation to the population (Muta'a, 2012). Community water supply schemes in Nigeria are marked by lots of ill-conceived, uncoordinated and abandoned projects.

Despite government efforts at the federal level and other tiers as well as international donor agencies towards improving the water supply situation in Nigeria, the majority of the population is still disenfranchised due to poor access to safe water supply. The current water supply coverage in Nigeria is put at about 58 percent, representing 87 million people. It is estimated that about half of the Nigerian population does not have access to a potable water supply (FGN, 2011), that is why most parts of Nigeria suffer from problems of water inadequacy. The situation is pathetic as both old and young, men and women spend most of their time and resources in search of water. The extent of water shortage and how water shortage undermines the productive time and income generating efforts of people in different Nigerian towns demand a scientific study. Therefore, we must continually examine the water demand and supply of residents in cities of Imo State, particularly those in understudied urban centres in Imo State for the sake of planning extensive water supply infrastructure and upgrading existing ones. It is pertinent to note that in Imo State, the existing water network within Okigwe is old and most pipelines have exceeded their design lifecycle thereby hindering the supply of water from reaching the households in Okigwe (Oguzie, Enyinnaya, & Njoku, 2020).

**Aim and Objectives**

This study aims to analyse domestic water demand and supply in Okigwe town, for water provision planning in Imo state. To achieve the above aim, the study has the following objectives:

1. To identify the sources of water supply to households in the residential neighborhoods of Okigwe town;

2. To estimate the quantity of water supply to households in Okigwe town;

3. To identify the challenges limiting water supply in Okigwe town;

4. To assess water use practices of residents in Okigwe town

**METHODOLOGY**

**Data Collection**

Survey research design was employed. The numerical and non-numerical data that were collected for the study include: Basic demographic data like sex, age, marital status, occupation, level of education, household size and residential preference. Information on household socio-economic characteristics, sources of water, time spent daily in search for residential water, distance covered, the amount of income spent to get water daily, the amount of water demanded by households/individuals and the amount of water consumed by households/ individuals. The basic sources of data for the study were the primary and secondary sources. While the primary sources of data provided firsthand information that was derived through reconnaissance survey, observations, questionnaire administration and oral interviews; secondary data was obtained from relevant books, journals, documents, magazines, conference proceedings, government ministries and agencies' official records, and other published and unpublished works.

A sample size of 400 was used for the study. random sampling techniques was used to statistically derived sample size of 400 in which the researcher first divided the population into smaller subgroups, or strata,
and then randomly select among each stratum to form the final sample, 50 copies of questionnaire in each of the eight (8) sampled villages were randomly distributed to households to acquire data on the residential water demand and supply. The respondents were the household heads.

## DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Inferential statistics were used in the analysis of data from field work, such as Chi-square, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Spearman's rank order correlation and Kendall's Tau correlation were employed in this research to determine variations and interrelationships.

### Testing of Hypothesis 1

<table><caption>Table 1: Cross Tabulation of water sources and water distribution methods to households in Okigwe Town</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Sources of water supply</th><th colspan="5">Water distribution method to households</th><th rowspan="2">Total</th></tr><tr><th>Private reticulation within the home</th><th>Water stand accessed outside the compound</th><th>Water stand pipe accessed inside the compound</th><th>Water tanker</th><th>Others</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stream/spring</td><td>4 (1.0%)</td><td>2 (0.5%)</td><td>1 (0.3%)</td><td>0 (0.0%)</td><td><strong>33 (8.6%)</strong></td><td><strong>40 (10.4%)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Well</td><td>2 (0.5%)</td><td>1 (0.3%)</td><td>1 (0.3%)</td><td>0 (0.0%)</td><td><strong>4 (1.0%)</strong></td><td><strong>8 (2.1%)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Water vendor</td><td>4 (1.0%)</td><td>0 (0.0%)</td><td>1 (0.3%)</td><td>2 (0.5%)</td><td><strong>0 (0.0%)</strong></td><td><strong>7 (1.8%)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Borehole</td><td>69 (18.0%)</td><td>123 (32.1%)</td><td>119 (31.1%)</td><td>15 (3.9%)</td><td><strong>2 (0.5%)</strong></td><td><strong>328 (85.6%)</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td><strong>79 (20.6%)</strong></td><td><strong>126 (32.9%)</strong></td><td><strong>122 (31.9%)</strong></td><td><strong>17 (4.4%)</strong></td><td><strong>39 (10.2%)</strong></td><td><strong>383 (100.0%)</strong></td></tr></tbody></table>

A Pearson's Chi-Square test was carried out to assess if there is a significant association between water sources and water distribution methods to households in the residential neighbourhoods of Okigwe town. To undertake the statistical analysis, a cross-tabulation was carried out. The cross-tabulation of the variables is shown in Table 1. The results indicate that there is a statistically significant association between water sources and methods of water distribution to households in Okigwe town, $\chi^2$ (12) = 295.615, p = .000. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis and posit that there is a significant association between sources of water supply and methods of water distribution to households in Okigwe town.

<table><caption>Table 2: Pearson's Chi-Square Test Result</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Critical value</th><th>df</th><th>Significance</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Pearson Chi-Square (χ²)</td><td>295.615</td><td>12</td><td>.000</td></tr></tbody></table>

### Testing of Hypothesis 2

<table><caption>Table 3: Levene's Test of Homogeneity</caption><thead><tr><th>Levene Statistic</th><th>df1</th><th>df2</th><th>p-value</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>N .128</td><td>7</td><td>375</td><td>.001</td></tr></tbody></table>
One-way ANOVA was conducted to test if there is significant variation in quantity of water supplied to households in the eight neighbourhoods in the study area (Umuka, Umuokpara, Ope, Umueze, Umuzegem, Umuchima, Umunaga and Umurido). In terms of homogeneity of variances for water supplied to households with the eight neighbourhoods, the Levene's test of homogeneity of variances shown in Table 3 was statistically significant ($p$ = .001), an indication that there were significant variations in the variances of household water supply to the eight neighbourhoods in the study.

<table><caption>Table 4: Anova Test Results</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Sum of Squares</th><th>df</th><th>Mean Square</th><th>F</th><th>p-value</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Between Groups</td><td>1214353.048</td><td>7</td><td>173479.007</td><td>2.720</td><td>.009</td></tr><tr><td>Within Groups</td><td>23917546.69</td><td>375</td><td>63780.125</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>25131899.74</td><td>382</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Also, results of ANOVA conducted for variation in the quantity of water supplied to households in the eight neighbourhoods in Okigwe town, shown in Table 4. The results showed that the quantity of water supply to households was statistically significantly different between the eight residential neighbourhoods in Okigwe town, $F$ (7, 375) = 2.720, $p$ = .009. Therefore, we deduce that there was significant statistical variation in the quantity of water supply in the neighbourhoods of Okigwe town.

<figure><img src="image_82.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4.1: Graph of Water supply quantities to households within eight neighborhoods in okigwe town per day in litres.</figcaption></figure>

The high level of variation in the graph shows that water supply quantities to households in the study area were very different with respect to the eight neighbourhoods studied, hence the reason why the ANOVA
test was statistically significant. In order to determine where the most variation lies, a post-hoc test on the ANOVA of water supply quantities to households within eight neighborhoods in Okigwe town was carried out using Games-Howell test. The post-Hoc test results are shown in Table 5.

<table><caption>Table 5: Games-Howell Post-Hoc Test</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">(I) Respondent's Neighbourhood</th><th rowspan="2">(J) Respondent's Neighbourhood</th><th rowspan="2">Mean Difference (I-J)</th><th rowspan="2">Std. Error</th><th rowspan="2">p-value</th><th colspan="2">95% Confidence Interval</th></tr><tr><th>Lower Bound</th><th>Upper Bound</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="7">Umuka</td><td>Umuokpara</td><td>101.63265</td><td>82.60771</td><td>.919</td><td>-158.8459</td><td>362.1112</td></tr><tr><td>Ope</td><td>171.00932</td><td>83.28798</td><td>.457</td><td>-91.3075</td><td>433.3262</td></tr><tr><td>Umueze</td><td>120.66964</td><td>84.61896</td><td>.842</td><td>-145.2730</td><td>386.6123</td></tr><tr><td>Umuzegem</td><td>156.25714</td><td>82.65517</td><td>.563</td><td>-104.3481</td><td>416.8624</td></tr><tr><td>Umuchima</td><td>128.87755</td><td>82.16524</td><td>.766</td><td>-130.4154</td><td>388.1705</td></tr><tr><td>Umunaga</td><td>23.96825</td><td>88.39087</td><td>1.000</td><td>-252.5289</td><td>300.4654</td></tr><tr><td>Umurido</td><td>118.28267</td><td>82.32541</td><td>.836</td><td>-141.4401</td><td>378.0054</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Umuokpara</td><td>Umuka</td><td>-101.63265</td><td>82.60771</td><td>.919</td><td>-362.1112</td><td>158.8459</td></tr><tr><td>Ope</td><td>69.37666</td><td>29.86709</td><td>.293</td><td>-23.2959</td><td>162.0493</td></tr><tr><td>Umueze</td><td>19.03699</td><td>33.39945</td><td>.999</td><td>-84.7123</td><td>122.7863</td></tr><tr><td>Umuzegem</td><td>54.62449</td><td>28.05409</td><td>.523</td><td>-32.2904</td><td>141.5394</td></tr><tr><td>Umuchima</td><td>27.24490</td><td>26.57597</td><td>.969</td><td>-55.1288</td><td>109.6186</td></tr><tr><td>Umunaga</td><td>-77.66440</td><td>42.04880</td><td>.591</td><td>-209.1949</td><td>53.8661</td></tr><tr><td>Umurido</td><td>16.65002</td><td>27.06713</td><td>.999</td><td>-67.2693</td><td>100.5693</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Ope</td><td>Umuka</td><td>-171.00932</td><td>83.28798</td><td>.457</td><td>-433.3262</td><td>91.3075</td></tr><tr><td>Umuokpara</td><td>-69.37666</td><td>29.86709</td><td>.293</td><td>-162.0493</td><td>23.2959</td></tr><tr><td>Umueze</td><td>-50.33967</td><td>35.04821</td><td>.838</td><td>-159.1173</td><td>58.4379</td></tr><tr><td>Umuzegem</td><td>-14.75217</td><td>29.99810</td><td>1.000</td><td>-107.8084</td><td>78.3041</td></tr><tr><td>Umuchima</td><td>-42.13177</td><td>28.62055</td><td>.820</td><td>-131.0218</td><td>46.7583</td></tr><tr><td>Umunaga</td><td>-147.04106*</td><td>43.36998</td><td>.024*</td><td>-282.4061</td><td>-11.6760</td></tr><tr><td>Umurido</td><td>-52.72664</td><td>29.07719</td><td>.613</td><td>-143.0257</td><td>37.5724</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Umueze</td><td>Umuka</td><td>-120.66964</td><td>84.61896</td><td>.842</td><td>-386.6123</td><td>145.2730</td></tr><tr><td>Umuokpara</td><td>-19.03699</td><td>33.39945</td><td>.999</td><td>-122.7863</td><td>84.7123</td></tr><tr><td>Ope</td><td>50.33967</td><td>35.04821</td><td>.838</td><td>-58.4379</td><td>159.1173</td></tr><tr><td>Umuzegem</td><td>35.58750</td><td>33.51666</td><td>.963</td><td>-68.5010</td><td>139.6760</td></tr><tr><td>Umuchima</td><td>8.20791</td><td>32.28957</td><td>1.000</td><td>-92.2401</td><td>108.6559</td></tr><tr><td>Umunaga</td><td>-96.70139</td><td>45.87413</td><td>.419</td><td>-239.4233</td><td>46.0205</td></tr><tr><td>Umurido</td><td>-2.38697</td><td>32.69501</td><td>1.000</td><td>-104.0561</td><td>99.2821</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Umuokpara</td><td>Umuka</td><td>-156.25714</td><td>82.65517</td><td>.563</td><td>-416.8624</td><td>104.3481</td></tr><tr><td>Umuokpara</td><td>-54.62449</td><td>28.05409</td><td>.523</td><td>-141.5394</td><td>32.2904</td></tr><tr><td>Ope</td><td>14.75217</td><td>29.99810</td><td>1.000</td><td>-78.3041</td><td>107.8084</td></tr><tr><td>Umueze</td><td>-35.58750</td><td>33.51666</td><td>.963</td><td>-139.6760</td><td>68.5010</td></tr><tr><td>Umuchima</td><td>-27.37959</td><td>26.72312</td><td>.970</td><td>-110.1901</td><td>55.4310</td></tr><tr><td>Umunaga</td><td>-132.28889*</td><td>42.14196</td><td>.048*</td><td>-264.0796</td><td>-.4982</td></tr><tr><td>Umurido</td><td>-37.97447</td><td>27.21162</td><td>.857</td><td>-122.3215</td><td>46.3726</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Umuokpara</td><td>Umuka</td><td>-128.87755</td><td>82.16524</td><td>.766</td><td>-388.1705</td><td>130.4154</td></tr><tr><td>Umuokpara</td><td>-27.24490</td><td>26.57597</td><td>.969</td><td>-109.6186</td><td>55.1288</td></tr><tr><td>Ope</td><td>42.13177</td><td>28.62055</td><td>.820</td><td>-46.7583</td><td>131.0218</td></tr><tr><td>Umueze</td><td>-8.20791</td><td>32.28957</td><td>1.000</td><td>-108.6559</td><td>92.2401</td></tr><tr><td>Umuzegem</td><td>27.37959</td><td>26.72312</td><td>.970</td><td>-55.4310</td><td>110.1901</td></tr><tr><td>Umuchima</td><td>-104.90930</td><td>41.17274</td><td>.195</td><td>-233.9544</td><td>24.1358</td></tr><tr><td>Umunaga</td><td>-10.59488</td><td>25.68506</td><td>1.000</td><td>-90.2327</td><td>69.0430</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Umuokpara</td><td>Umuka</td><td>-23.96825</td><td>88.39087</td><td>1.000</td><td>-300.4654</td><td>252.5289</td></tr><tr><td>Umuokpara</td><td>77.66440</td><td>42.04880</td><td>.591</td><td>-53.8661</td><td>209.1949</td></tr><tr><td>Ope</td><td>147.04106*</td><td>43.36998</td><td>.024*</td><td>11.6760</td><td>282.4061</td></tr><tr><td>Umueze</td><td>96.70139</td><td>45.87413</td><td>.419</td><td>-46.0205</td><td>239.4233</td></tr><tr><td>Umuzegem</td><td>132.28889*</td><td>42.14196</td><td>.048*</td><td>.4982</td><td>264.0796</td></tr><tr><td>Umuchima</td><td>104.90930</td><td>41.17274</td><td>.195</td><td>-24.1358</td><td>233.9544</td></tr><tr><td>Umunaga</td><td>94.31442</td><td>41.49147</td><td>.324</td><td>-35.6410</td><td>224.2699</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Umuokpara</td><td>Umuka</td><td>-118.28267</td><td>82.32541</td><td>.836</td><td>-378.0054</td><td>141.4401</td></tr><tr><td>Umuokpara</td><td>-16.65002</td><td>27.06713</td><td>.999</td><td>-100.5693</td><td>67.2693</td></tr><tr><td>Ope</td><td>52.72664</td><td>29.07719</td><td>.613</td><td>-37.5724</td><td>143.0257</td></tr><tr><td>Umueze</td><td>2.38697</td><td>32.69501</td><td>1.000</td><td>-99.2821</td><td>104.0561</td></tr><tr><td>Umuzegem</td><td>37.97447</td><td>27.21162</td><td>.857</td><td>-46.3726</td><td>122.3215</td></tr><tr><td>Umuchima</td><td>10.59488</td><td>25.68506</td><td>1.000</td><td>-69.0430</td><td>90.2327</td></tr><tr><td>Umunaga</td><td>-94.31442</td><td>41.49147</td><td>.324</td><td>-224.2699</td><td>35.6410</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote>* = significant; p ≤ 0.05.</footnote>
Games-Howell post-hoc test results indicate that the statistical significance in the ANOVA test lies in Ope-Umunaga (p=.024) and Umuzegem-Umunaga (p=.048).

Based on the study results, the null hypothesis ($H_0$1) is rejected since the calculated F-value (7, 375) = 2.720, was statistically significant implying that there are significant variations in the quantity of water supply to households in the eight neighborhoods in Okigwe town.

### Testing of Hypothesis 3

<table><caption>Table 6: Spearman's Rank-Order Correlation Coefficients for the 13 variables on Challenges Limiting (cl) Water Supply in Okigwe Town.</caption><thead><tr><th>Variable</th><th>CL-1</th><th>CL-2</th><th>CL-3</th><th>CL-4</th><th>CL-5</th><th>CL-6</th><th>CL-7</th><th>CL-8</th><th>CL-9</th><th>CL-10</th><th>CL-11</th><th>CL-12</th><th>CL-13</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>CL-1</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-2</td><td>.399**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-3</td><td>.052</td><td>.168**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-4</td><td>-.024</td><td>-.029</td><td>.387**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-5</td><td>-.011</td><td>-.181**</td><td>.281**</td><td>.615**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-6</td><td>.084</td><td>.048</td><td>.223**</td><td>.290**</td><td>.382**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-7</td><td>.362**</td><td>.600**</td><td>.137**</td><td>-.071</td><td>-.066</td><td>.085</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-8</td><td>.337**</td><td>.578**</td><td>.167**</td><td>-.061</td><td>-.062</td><td>.054</td><td>.654**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-9</td><td>.278**</td><td>.446**</td><td>-.031</td><td>-.016</td><td>-.156**</td><td>-.035</td><td>.449**</td><td>.499**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-10</td><td>.218**</td><td>.360**</td><td>-.151**</td><td>-.080</td><td>-.201**</td><td>-.191**</td><td>.361**</td><td>.461**</td><td>.620**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-11</td><td>.207**</td><td>.438**</td><td>.068</td><td>-.029</td><td>-.109*</td><td>-.012</td><td>.434**</td><td>.453**</td><td>.556**</td><td>.474**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-12</td><td>.227**</td><td>.445**</td><td>.122*</td><td>-.103*</td><td>-.136**</td><td>.020</td><td>.506**</td><td>.530**</td><td>.496**</td><td>.403**</td><td>.673**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CL-13</td><td>.177**</td><td>.396**</td><td>.113*</td><td>-.126*</td><td>-.021</td><td>-.056</td><td>.475**</td><td>.492**</td><td>.408**</td><td>.384**</td><td>.647**</td><td>.691**</td><td>1.000</td></tr></tbody></table>

The Spearman's Rank-order Correlation coefficients were used to test relationship statistically. The decision rule is that null hypothesis is rejected if the calculated significance level is less than or equal to the chosen alpha ($\alpha$) level (p = .005) showing a significant relationship and vice versa. On that note, test results for hypothesis 3 are shown in Table 6.

The results of the 13 variables (CL-1: Vandalization of Water Works; CL-2: Inadequate Electricity; CL-3: Hilly Environment; CL-4: Water pollution; CL-5: Lower rainfall; CL-6: Urbanization; CL-7: Public Water Supply Failure; CL-8: Dysfunctional Public water project; CL-9: Abandoned Public Water Facilities; CL-10: Prolonged water collection time; CL-11: Limited public water supply, CL-12: Community leadership failure, and CL-13: Limit donor sponsorship) applied in the Spearman's correlation test. Rank-order Correlation coefficients for the 13 variables on challenges limiting water supply in Okigwe town indicate that there was a total of seventy-eight correlations among variables under this hypothesis. Overall, fifty-six inter-correlations are significant with fifty-one of them at the .01 level. Results indicate that there are eleven inter-correlations whose correlation coefficients were above .500 (CL-2/CL-8; CL-2/CL-7; CL-4/CL-5; CL-7/CL-8; CL-7/CL-12; CL-8/CL-12; CL-9/PCL-10; CL-9/CL-11; CL-11/CL-12; CL-11/CL-13; CL-12/CL-13). It is pertinent to note that all the correlation coefficients above .500 were positive, indicating that an increase in one lead to a decrease in the other, and vice versa. CL-12 (Community leadership failure) had high positive correlation coefficients with CL-13 (Limited donor sponsorship) and CL-11 (Limited public water supply) with the correlation coefficient with CL-13 being the highest in the entire table at .691.

<footnote>* = significant; $p \le 0.05$; ** = significant; $p \le 0.01$.</footnote>
CL-1 (Vandalization of Water Works) had the highest number of positive correlations which were all significant at .01 level, though none of the correlation coefficients were up to .500. Also, CL-6 (Urbanization) was significantly correlated with only one variable (CL-10: Prolonged water collection time) which had a negative correlation coefficient which was less than .200.

Based on the study results, the null hypothesis ($H_0$) is rejected since most correlation coefficients in the test were statistically significant at the Alpha level below .05. This implies that there are significant relationships amongst the challenges limiting water supply in Okigwe town.

## Testing Of Hypothesis 4

<table><caption>Table 7: Kendall's Tau B Correlation Coefficients for the 9 Variables of Water Use Practices (Wup) within households in Okigwe Town.</caption><thead><tr><th>Variable</th><th>WUP-1</th><th>WUP-2</th><th>WUP-3</th><th>WUP-4</th><th>WUP-5</th><th>WUP-6</th><th>WUP-7</th><th>WUP-8</th><th>WUP-9</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>WUP-1</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WUP-2</td><td>.783**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WUP-3</td><td>.594**</td><td>.489**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WUP-4</td><td>.139**</td><td>.160**</td><td>.229**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WUP-5</td><td>.095</td><td>.093</td><td>.355**</td><td>.482**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WUP-6</td><td>.047</td><td>.111*</td><td>.131**</td><td>-.143**</td><td>.172**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WUP-7</td><td>.081</td><td>.070</td><td>.347**</td><td>.391**</td><td>.526**</td><td>-.448**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WUP-8</td><td>.029</td><td>.061</td><td>.116*</td><td>.358**</td><td>.324**</td><td>.238**</td><td>.463**</td><td>1.000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>WUP-9</td><td>.198**</td><td>.112*</td><td>.262**</td><td>.499**</td><td>.394**</td><td>.121**</td><td>.544**</td><td>.370**</td><td>1.000</td></tr></tbody></table>

Kendall's tau correlation coefficient was used to test relationship statistically. The decision rule is that null hypothesis is rejected if the calculated significance level is less than or equal to the chosen alpha ($\alpha$) level ($p = .005$) showing a significant relationship and vice versa. On that note, Table 7 shows the results of the nine variables (WDP-1: Cooking; WDP-2: Drinking; WDP-3: Bathing; WDP-4: Toilet flushing; WDP-5: Laundry; WDP-6: Gardening/irrigation; WDP-7: House cleaning; WDP-8: Vehicle cleaning; and WDP-9: Dish washing) applied in the test.

The results indicate that there was a total of thirty-six correlations among designated variables of water use practices. Overall, twenty-nine inter-correlations were significant with twenty-six of them at the .01 level. Also, most of these inter-correlations were positive. Results show that WUP-3 (Bathing) with six inter-correlations had the highest number, with the correlation with WUP-5 (Laundry) having the highest coefficient value of .355. In the same vein, WUP-4 (Toilet flushing) followed with five significant correlations with other variables. Out of the four variables significantly correlated with WUP-1 (Cooking), the highest coefficient value was the correlation with WUP-2 (Drinking) which was also the highest coefficient value in Table 7, with a coefficient value of .783. Out of the four variables significantly correlated with WUP-5 (Laundry), the highest correlation coefficient value was the correlation with WUP-7 (House cleaning) which was .526. Based on the study results, the null hypothesis ($H_0$) is rejected since the calculated significant level of most of the correlations is less than the .05 Alpha level. This implies that there are significant relationships between water use practices within households in Okigwe town.

<footnote>* = significant; $p \le 0.05$; ** = significant; $p \le 0.01$. Source: Author</footnote>
**Discussion of Results**

The result of the Pearson's Chi-square analysis shows that there is a statistically significant association between water sources and methods of water distribution to households in Okigwe town. The result is similar to Akujieze and Oteze (2021) who noted that 70 percent of the population in Benin derive their water from the numerous boreholes sunk for private, agricultural and industrial purposes. Similarly, Onyenechere and Osuji, (2012) studied the provision of water services in Owerri city and found out that most residents of Owerri city relied heavily on commercial borehole owners and water tanker drivers/water peddlers for their daily supplies.

The result of the quantity of water supply revealed that in Umuka and Umunaga water sources are closer to the residents; most residents travel for distances of not more than 20m to fetch water. Whereas in Umuokpara, Umuchima, Umuzegem, Umurido, Ope and Umueze, water sources are farthest (more than 30m) for most of the residents. Quantity of water fetched can diminish with increasing distance and affect the water supplied.

So many challenges and factors have hindered the respondents in getting sufficient water. From the field survey, it was seen that various challenges limit residential water supply in the study area. The vandalization of the water works is one. It had been functional for some time but had been vandalized by hoodlums. Others are inadequate electric power supply, hilly environment, water supply failure, dysfunctional system, abandoned facilities, long collection time, limited water supply, leadership failure, and limited donors. These are weighty challenges that have posed as a limitation to residential water supply. Water pollution, lower rainfall, and urbanisation have little effect on the residential water supply. It is these challenges that have hindered the people in the study area from getting adequate water supply.

Spearman's Rank-order Correlation coefficients for the 13 variables have indicated that there is a prevalence of challenges limiting water supply in Okigwe town and that there are significant relationships between the prevalence of challenges limiting water supply in Okigwe town. This is because of a dysfunctional system and other factors enumerated earlier. The result is in agreement with the findings of Egbo, Anih, & Obinna (2022) in Enugu urban area, where water supply from the Greater Enugu water supply scheme is delivered to residents most intermittently. This intermittent service is not as a result of the fact that the construction of the water scheme was originally deficient, but rather it is due to lack of proper maintenance of the equipment at the head works, silting of water sources and channels, as well as, heavy water losses from the water transmission and distribution lines. The above have resulted in problems such as absolute and relative water shortages in the residential sector between the amounts demanded and supplied, most especially as a result of poor funding and damaged infrastructure.

**CONCLUSION**

The study analyzed domestic water demand and supply in Okigwe Town. It identified the sources of water supply available to the residents in Okigwe town, and estimated the quantity of water supply to households in Okigwe town. It identified the challenges limiting water supply in Okigwe town and examined factors affecting residential water demand in Okigwe town. The results show that the quantity of water supply to households was significantly different between the eight residential neighbourhoods in Okigwe town. It also revealed the significant relationships among the challenges limiting water supply in Okigwe town.

**Recommendations**

1. In the short and mid-term, self-practicing should be encouraged while proper plans for a functional water scheme is instituted. Therefore, residents can sink boreholes for themselves while waiting for the government to provide water that is potable for the residents of Okigwe town.

2. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) involved in water supply in Okigwe town should increase their efforts in the provision of water by providing more water supply projects.
3. The state government, through the state water agency, should invest in water resources provision and management in Okigwe town, so that the water needs of the people will be met.

4. Regular maintenance of the public water facilities should be put in place rather than abandoning it when the scheme is resuscitated.

5. The natural sources of water in the Okigwe town should be maintained and relevant laws that discourage pollution of the water should be promulgated and implemented at the local level.

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**Chapter Forty**

**Technological Innovations and Strategies for a Sustainable Built Environment**

Joachim A. Onyike

Dean, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria.

EMAIL: joeonyikeco@yahoo.com

**ABSTRACT**

As the urgency for environmental sustainability intensifies, the choice of environment-friendly technology becomes imperative. The subject paper explores the incidence of technological innovations and the relevant strategies and practical applications aimed at fostering a sustainable built environment. It examines cutting-edge technologies such as energy-efficient systems, smart building materials, and advanced construction technologies that minimize environmental impact. Such technologies as computer-aided designs, drones, building information modelling, blockchain technology, total stations, digital twins, cloud computing, internet-of-things, global positioning systems; energy-saving innovations such as green building, sustainable building materials, electrochromic glazing and roofing, energy saver power and lighting systems; resources management and pollution-control innovations such as recycling and reuse of products, water-saving and waste-to-energy technologies; and the applicable strategies for achieving a sustainable built environment were examined. The strategies can be categorized into mixed-sector and public-sector strategies. The paper also touched on artificial intelligence and its relevance in the achievement of a sustainable built environment. The application of the aforementioned technologies will enhance energy performance, reduce carbon footprints and promote resilience against climate change, thereby promoting and ensuring a sustainable built environment.

KEYWORDS: Built environment; Sustainability; Environment-friendly technologies.

**INTRODUCTION**

Human activities have over the years impacted negatively on the environment. Non-renewable resources are fast being depleted to the extent that the very future of man may be compromised if remedial measures are not put in place. There is a need to stem the tide and guide the environment in a sustainable direction to ensure a safe living environment and also enable the available resources to serve the needs of present as well as future generations. As the urgency for environmental sustainability intensifies, the choice of environment-friendly technology becomes imperative. Several such technologies have been developed in recent times. These new technologies are particularly necessary in the built environment where much of the negative impacts of human activities are prevalent. The use of these technological innovations in the drive for a sustainable built environment will be appreciated better if we understand the key terms “built environment” and “sustainable built environment”. It is when they are understood that the inputs of technological innovations and strategies towards transforming the built environment to a sustainable built environment will be better appreciated. This paper will therefore kick off by explaining the aforementioned terms before delving into the new technologies and strategies.

**What is Built Environment?**

The term “built environment” refers to the man-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging in scale from buildings and parks or green spaces to neighbourhoods and cities that can often include their supporting infrastructure, such as water supply or energy networks (Kaklauskas & Gudauskas, 2016). It is a material, spatial, and cultural product of human labour that combines physical elements and energy in forms for living, working, and recreation. The built environment therefore comprises land including associated flora and fauna, and various kinds of buildings and structures and associated infrastructure designed to meet the needs of man. The human population which lives in the built environment rose over the 8 billion mark in November 2022 and still rising. The activities of this population
impact on the environment. Buildings and building activities contribute up to 40% of carbon emissions, making them one of the major contributors to global warming (Dipta, Uday & Chowdbury, 2022). The building industry uses up to 56% of the energy consumed in sub-Saharan Africa (Ariye, 2023). According to the National Institute of Building Sciences, U.S.A, 31% of the carbon dioxide, 49% of the Sulphur oxide, and 25% of the nitrogen oxide that are contained in the air are produced during the construction of buildings. According to Singh (2018), as cited by Ariye (2023), traditional construction methods and materials use about 40% of the natural resources that are extracted in industrialized countries, 70% of the electricity, and 12% of the potable water while producing between 45% and 65% of the wastes that are disposed of in landfills. Singh also added that traditional construction methods produce 30% of greenhouse gases in addition to an additional 18% caused by material exploitation and transportation. As experiences in various parts of the world have shown, the uncontrolled activities of man have caused a lot of damage to the environment to the extent that the interests of the present and future generations of man have been considerably compromised. According to the World Green Building Council (2023), "we are living in a period of environmental breakdown: a climate emergency, mass biodiversity loss, pollution, extinction, the over-utilization of natural resources and a global waste crisis." It is imperative that the damage and depletion of the built environment must be halted and where possible, reversed. Resources must be used efficiently. Renewable resources will be preferred over non-renewable ones. Waste must be reduced to the minimum while energy use must be geared towards achieving zero carbon emission. Clean and cheap energy is the way to go. By so doing, the built environment becomes somewhat "organic", regenerating itself and preserving itself for future generations. Any built environment that manifests these attributes can be referred to as a sustainable built environment. To understand what we will be deploying technological innovations to do for us, we must dig deeper into the imperatives of a sustainable built environment.

## THE IMPERATIVES OF A SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

As observed earlier, we are living in a period of environmental breakdown caused by both human activities and climate change. For any built environment to achieve sustainability, the afore-mentioned threats and challenges must be addressed. Some can be halted, reduced, or even reversed. Some can be managed efficiently to reduce any negative impact on the environment while the rest may require the use of environment-friendly alternatives. In other words, a sustainable built environment must have answers to the use, misuse and depletion of available resources, the issue of waste and environmental sanitation, climate change, and the preservation of the environment and its resources for future generations. A sustainable built environment must promote energy efficiency through the use or deployment of resources and assets that ensure efficient use of energy. It must aim at phasing out the use of fossil fuels which is a major driver of climate change through the excessive carbon emission that attacks the protective ozone layer resulting in high temperatures and increasing levels and frequency of flooding. Renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, wind, tidal, and geothermal kinds are the way to go. A sustainable built environment must engender a clean and healthy environment. Green building in a "green" environment will be the way to go. Buildings must be designed to maximize the use of sunlight and solar energy thereby saving on the cost of energy. Waste-to-energy technologies can be employed to convert organic waste into useful energy. A sustainable built environment must maximize the use of available materials and energy resources. The use of manual energy must as much as possible give way to more efficient and effective kinds of energy enabled by science and technology. Finally, the sustainable built environment must promote the use of renewable resources and as much as possible the reuse and recycling of resources such that wastages are reduced to the minimum. Given the above, one of the challenges facing mankind today is what to do to achieve a sustainable built environment, a challenge highlighted in Sustainable Development Goal No. 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities. Some of the other Sustainable Development Goals such as SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production), and SDG 13 (climate action) are also implicated in the need for a sustainable built environment. Several new technologies are being developed and deployed towards realizing a sustainable built environment. The next section will dwell on some of these technological innovations.
# TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS

Technological innovations can lead to a more sustainable built environment in two distinct ways, namely: through a reduction in resource consumption and an increase in sustainability.

## New Construction Technologies

A bit of history will enable us to appreciate better the innovations of today. Before the mid-19th Century manual labour played a dominant role in the building construction industry. The advent of hydraulic and pneumatic devices led to the development of heavy earth-moving equipment that improved the rate of completion of building projects (Trimble Construction, 2022). Soon after, concrete mixers, cranes, and various power tools came on board. According to Timble Construction (2022), the emergence of the internal combustion engines in the early 20th Century saw the development of forklifts, tractors and bulldozers thus relegating the roles of hand shovels, wheelbarrows and work animals in major construction projects. These were the technological trends until the later part of the 20th century which saw a revolution in the field of Information and Communications Technology (ICT). This revolution has had far-reaching effects on the construction industry. New, efficient and more effective innovations were developed and deployed in the built environment. Some of them include:

### Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

One of the challenges facing architects and builders was the representation of different systems such as electrical, water, gas and other conduits competing for the same physical space in their erstwhile two-dimensional plans and section drawings (Trimble Construction, 2022). When the different drawings come together during construction, certain clashes may be discovered, the resolution of which may delay the work. The advent of computer-aided design has led to the resolution of such issues early in the design phase long before the construction phase.

### Drones

Drones are unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) initially designed for military purposes but recently extended to non-military purposes. These new sets of drones, referred to as civil drones, have been deployed extensively in the built environment (Nwaogu, Yang, Chang & Chi (2022). Based on their configuration, there are broadly three kinds of drones (JOUAV, 2023), namely:

a. Rotorcrafts, which are of two types.

i. Multirotor drones: They are the most commonly used for non-military purposes in the built environment such as building construction and civil engineering works because of their ease of use, low purchase and maintenance costs, accessibility and flexibility of use. They usually have 4-8 rotors and have vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) characteristics which makes them easy to use even in narrow spaces.

ii. Helicopter drones: This type of rotorcraft has one or two rotors, has VTOL characteristics, is more energy-efficient and flies longer than multirotor drones.

b. Fixed-wing drones. These drones which are usually larger than multirotor drones look like aeroplanes and need long runways for take-off and landing. They are more stable, faster, fly longer time than rotorcrafts and are usually used to map large areas of land.

c. Hybrid Fixed-wing drones: These are highly efficient drones which combine the qualities of fixed-wing and multirotor drones. They are expensive and hard to fly and therefore require more flight training to handle.

Drones are used for surveying and mapping, workflow monitoring, equipment tracking and maintenance, project inspection, and risk and safety management. Drones however have some challenges, namely: most civil drones are weather dependent, vulnerable to birds and wild animals, easy to hack, and may malfunction or have software issues. Security considerations of government authorities may sometimes create legislative uncertainty for the use of drones in some areas or locations.

### Building Information Modeling (BIM).
BIM is a computer technology that allows all project stakeholders to work collaboratively to produce a 3D model of a building or structure including all the functional systems and services before the beginning of work on site. The core concept of BIM relies on providing an object-oriented digital representation of buildings in the form of data-rich models and enabling simulation and analysis of these models for design/construction/operation purposes (Tatjana Vilutiene et al. 2019). BIM allows the team to visualize and analyze design decisions and resolve any issues in the design before the construction phase. This saves a lot of time and material resources in the building development process.

### Blockchain technology

A blockchain is a distributed database that allows for secure, transparent, and tamper-proof transactions. TechTarget (2021) defined it as a record-keeping technology designed to make it impossible to hack the system or forge the data stored on it, thereby making it secure and immutable. It can be defined as a simple block of transparent digital information which is highly secured and shareable, but immutable. This technology makes use of digital ledger which in the building industry ensures better cost management and efficient procurement strategies. On the construction site, blockchain can improve the reliability and trustworthiness of construction logbooks, works performed and material quantities recorded (Turk & Klinc, 2017). Blockchain can be used to track materials, contracts, and payments.

### Total Stations

An innovation in the field of land surveying and building construction, the total station is an electronic theodolite integrated with an electronic distance measurement (EDM) to measure both vertical and horizontal angles and the slope distance from the instrument to a particular point, and an on-board computer to collect data and perform triangulation calculations (Wikipedia, 22 July 2023). There are robotic or motorized total stations which can be controlled from a distance with remote control gadgets. Total stations have greater efficiency and accuracy and dispense with the laborious and time-consuming processes of setting out buildings or surveying a site which employ tape measure, spirit level and the conventional theodolite.

### Digital Twins and Digital As-Built

A digital twin or digital as-built is a virtual replica of an existing physical asset that gives real-time data in all phases of construction and maintenance (Trimble Construction, 2022). It involves the use of computer simulation in creating a building prototype. Digital twin facilitates the construction of proto-type buildings by enabling the accurate gathering of design and build information from the original building. It also allows the designer to correct any shortcomings in the design developed from the original building.

### Cloud Computing

The availability and accessibility of project data by all stakeholders have been made easy and efficient through the storage of data in the cloud. Data processing can now be outsourced to required professionals anywhere they may be since they can access the data from wherever they are. Cloud computing has made it possible to access, share and collaborate in the use and application of data to any desired objectives. In summary, Cloud computing simplifies the storage and access of data and protects the stakeholder from data loss, damage or theft.

### 3D Laser Scanner

The 3D Scanner is a computer-aided scanner which is deployed for on-site surveying, mapping, project inspection, safety and other tasks in the building industry.

### Internet of Things (IoTs)

The IoTs describe the network of physical objects – “things”- that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies to connect and exchange data with other devices and systems over the internet.

### Global Positioning System (GPS)
The GPS is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defence (Ali, 2020). Originally intended solely for military purposes, the US Government has allowed its use for non-military purposes since the 1980s. Access to the system is freely available to anyone with a GPS receiver. The GPS enables people with GPS receivers to pinpoint their locations anywhere on the earth's surface. The GPS has a wide range of uses and applications in surveying and mapping, development, agriculture, aviation, transportation, communication, environment, security, safety and disaster relief (Abulude, Akiinnusotu & Adeyemi, 2015), all of which are implicated in the built environment.

### General mobile devices

All members of the building development team can work collaboratively by accessing consolidated digitized information with the aid of smartphones and tablets. Prompt monitoring, analyses, and corrections and reviews where necessary, are achieved at the shortest possible time, resulting in enormous cost-saving. There are other innovations such as 3-D Printing, 4D Simulation, virtual and augmented reality, et cetera which have facilitated activities and developments in the built environment.

## Energy-Saving Innovations

### Green Building

Green building is the practice of creating structures and using environmentally responsible processes and resource-efficient throughout a building's life cycle from the acquisition of the site to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and deconstruction. Green building can therefore be defined as the planning, design, construction, and operation of structures that take into account a few basic, fundamental factors such as energy consumption, water use, interior environmental quality, materials sections, and the structure's impact on the environment (Dipta, Uday & Chowdhury, 2022). Consistent with the foregoing, the Green Building Council of Nigeria (2021) defined a green building as a building which is energy efficient, resource-efficient, and environmentally responsible. Green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on humans and the natural environment by:

i. efficiently using energy, water, and other resources;

ii. protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity; and

iii. reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation.

Materials for green buildings are obtained from natural renewable sources. Green building materials such as recycled glass, hempcrete and cellulose insulation improve energy efficiency and reduce the impact of construction on the environment. Passive solar design, which uses sunshine to heat, cool and light up buildings without mechanical or electrical devices will dramatically reduce the cooling and heating costs of a building. Thus, green buildings incorporate energy-efficient lighting, low-energy appliances and renewable energy technologies such as wind turbines and solar panels. Green building reduces energy use by 30-50%, carbon dioxide emission by 35%, waste generation by 70%, and water usage by 40%, all of which benefit the environment (Dipta et al., 2022). Following the growing importance of sustainability in the built environment, some modern rating systems have been developed to rate the performance of buildings regarding energy efficiency, water efficiency, environment-friendly materials and products, enhanced indoor air quality (IAQ), and improved operation and maintenance (O&M) procedures (Dipta et al., 2022). Some of the rating systems include the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM} developed by the Building Research Establishment in the United Kingdom in 1990, and the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) system developed by the United States Green Building Council in 1993. Examples of green buildings in Nigeria include the Heritage Building, Nest Oil Building, the Wings, and Alliance Building, in Lagos.

### Clean Energy and Mitigation of Climate Change.

Clean energy is the process of using energy sources that produce minimal or no pollutants. These energy sources can include solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, and tidal power. The use of clean energy sources can help to reduce emissions from the built environment and help to create a more sustainable built
environment. Clean energy does not contribute to global warming because it does not emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (TWI Ltd, 2023).

### Sustainable building materials.

For building materials to qualify as sustainable building materials, they have to be durable, reusable or recyclable, include recyclable materials in their composition and have to be from resources of the local area where the building activity will take place (Acciona, 2019). These materials also have to be natural (soil, adobe, wood, cork, bamboo, straw, coconut fibre and other natural fibres, sawdust, etc.). The aforementioned natural materials should have low embodied energy and/or low environmental impact.

### Electrochromic Glazing

Electrochromic glazing is a type of energy-efficient glass that uses electrochromic technology to automatically tint the glass according to weather and lighting conditions (Sage Glass, 2023). This technology allows the glass to block out heat and ultraviolet light, while still allowing natural light to enter the building. This energy-efficient glazing can help to reduce energy use, air conditioning costs, and pollution emissions from the built environment.

### Electrochromic Roofing

Electrochromic roofing is a type of energy-efficient roofing system that uses electrochromic technology to automatically tint the roof according to weather and lighting conditions. This technology allows the roof to block out heat and ultraviolet light, while still allowing natural light to enter the building. This energy-efficient roofing can help to reduce energy use, air conditioning costs, and pollution emissions from the built environment.

Smart Sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies make buildings more efficient by monitoring and adjusting systems such as lighting, temperature and air quality.

Energy savers Smart thermostats, and LED lighting, reduce energy consumption.

Other New Products, Luminescent cement can be used in road surfacing in areas where there are no street lights, thereby compensating for the absence of street lights.

## Resources Management and Pollution-Control Innovations

### Recycling and re-use of products

The extraction, manufacture transport, and disposal of virgin building materials pollute the air and water, deplete resources, and damage natural habitats. Reuse and recycling of products has become a growing trend towards realizing a sustainable built environment. The uses of construction waste management techniques which embrace salvage, recycling and reuse of materials have considerable economic benefits to the project owner (Acciona, 2019). Some examples of reusable, recyclable and biodegradable building materials include: Wood (reusable, recyclable and biodegradable); Earthen materials (reusable/biodegradable); Steel, Aluminium, Iron, Copper (reusable, recyclable); Bricks (reusable/recyclable); Concrete (may be crushed and recycled); Gypsum/Drywall (recyclable, sometimes biodegradable); Straw, and Straw bale insulation (biodegradable); Wool carpet (biodegradable); and Linoleum flooring (biodegradable).

### Water saving

Water saving or conservation is not only a matter of environmental responsibility, but also a way to reduce costs, improve efficiency, and enhance the quality of life (Linked-In Environmental Services, 2023). Several new technologies have been developed for water conservation in the built environment. Such technologies and innovations include smart irrigation systems that use sensors, controllers and relevant software to monitor soil conditions and the water need of vegetation to enable the release of the necessary quantity of water to the lawns and gardens. Such technologies can save up to 50% of water when compared to conventional irrigation. Rainwater harvesting and reuse for non-potable purposes have been enhanced
by new technologies that include filters, tanks, pipes, valves and meters. Some water-efficient fixtures and appliances have been developed to reduce water wastage at homes. Such include smart pressure regulators, low-flow water closets, showerheads and washing machines. Water treatment and recycling have been made more efficient by the introduction of membrane filtration, biological treatment, ultraviolet disinfection and reverse osmosis (Linked-In Environmental Services, 2023).

### Waste-to-Energy technologies

Waste-to-energy technologies can convert organic waste into energy thereby reducing dependence on other energy sources. Proper treatment of municipal solid wastes is one of the major challenges that militate against the achievement of sustainability especially in the urban built environment Campos, Zamenian, Koo & Goodman, 2015). The conventional methods of urban solid waste disposal namely, land-filling and incineration are not efficient and generate a lot of pollutants such as methane and carbon dioxide which cause global warming. Modern technologies have introduced three new processes of dealing with solid waste namely, pyrolysis, conventional gasification, and plasma arc gasification. Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass inside a reactor chamber in the presence of little or no oxygen at a temperature of 600°C and above. Depending on the temperature, the products of pyrolysis include solid char, bio-oils, and gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and volatile hydrocarbons such as methane. The mixture of these flammable gases is called syngas which can be used to generate electricity. Conventional gasification is the thermal decomposition of biomass at a temperature of 788°C – 1650°C using a sub-stoichiometric volume of oxygen; this process produces a higher energy syngas mixed with carbon dioxide and water vapour, and also hydrogen and hydrocarbon gases if steam is added into the process. Lastly, the plasma arc gasification process is the most advanced and efficient waste-to-energy technology. It involves the thermal decomposition of biomass at a temperature of 3980° C – 6980° C which produces higher-grade syngas and other useful products. According to Campos et al. (2015), the above WTE technologies provide a sustainable alternative solution especially as compared to landfill and conventional incineration. The initial cost of establishing this high-level system is very high. An interesting development in the WTE sector is that Norway is running out of municipal solid waste to power its WTE facilities it is importing trash from surrounding countries (Campos et al., 2015).

Renewable energy sources: Solar, wind, geothermal and hydropower are effective alternatives to fossil fuels.

Pollution Control: Control of dust pollution on building sites can be done using Canon misting and water spraying equipment.

Energy saving: Smart thermostats and LED lighting reduce energy consumption.

### Advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

According to Clark (2023), artificial intelligence “is revolutionizing the way we design, construct, manage, and experience real estate and infrastructure”, and “carries the potential to enhance efficiency, transparency and data-driven decision-making”. AI has numerous beneficial applications in the built environment. These include:

#### Design Optimization

AI algorithms can analyze vast datasets to enable optimal design solutions, enhancing space utilization, energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness. There are AI-driven software which can generate design alternatives in accordance to prevailing environmental factors, material properties, and user preferences.

#### Construction Automation

AI-driven robotics and automation tools enhance construction processes, improving speed, accuracy, and safety. Drones and autonomous machines assist in surveying, monitoring, and material handling and reduce human error and labour costs.

#### Property investment and management decision-making
As observed by Clark (2023), the ability of AI to analyze vast amounts of data from various sources such as property listings, market trends, demographic information and user feedback, will enable more effective decision-making in real estate management and investment

### Smart building management

Smart homes with integrated IoT systems powered by AI enable homeowners" to control their homes remotely, efficiently, and cheaply, from temperature and lighting to security and entertainment".

### Predictive Maintenance

AI-powered systems "can monitor building conditions, detect faults, and automatically trigger maintenance requests or alerts"

### Sustainability and Energy Efficiency.

Smart buildings equipped with AI-powered sensors and IoT devices can collect real-time data on energy usage, occupancy patterns and environmental conditions, analyse them and develop energy-efficient strategies, automatically adjusting heating, cooling, and lighting systems based on occupancy and external factors.

### Urban Planning and Smart Cities

AI technology is revolutionizing urban planning and promoting high efficiency in the use of urban resources. Studies by Ghisleni (2024) showed that the use of AI-aided grid-based planning, urban prototyping and digital twin technology has produced better urban plans and at a much shorter time than would be possible with ordinary humans. The challenge posed by rapid population growth in the urban areas is another area of concern. By 2016, the world had about 512 urban areas with population of one million people each and 31 megacities with population of over 10 million people each. These figures are estimated to grow to 662 urban areas and 41 megacities by the year 2030 (Nations, 2018). The high rate of urbanization has implications for the environment, management, healthcare, energy, education and security of the cities (Herath and Mittal, 2022). The development of smart cities, which guarantee the efficient use, and management of the urban environmental resources become imperative. Herath and Mittal (2022) stated that modern smart cities use AI technologies to achieve sustainable socio-economic goals.

### Safety and Risk Management

According to Building Radar GmbH (2024), AI-powered tools are transforming how construction companies assess risks by enabling early identification of issues before they escalate. AI enables the analysis of vast datasets, and potential project risks are identified at the onset and addressed. With the ability of AI technology to analyze vast datasets, potential risks are identified at the onset and corrected. Thus, project delays and cost overruns are eliminated or reduced to the barest minimum.

### Technology and Project Management

Technology has impacted project management at least in the following areas:

- Data backup. Storing data in file cabinets is no longer necessary. You can safely store and backup your data on separate hard drives and in the cloud.

- Instant Communication: Messaging, email, telephone, video calls, etc. have guaranteed quick and efficient communication enabling project management from various locations on-site and off-site.

- Budget tracking: Modern PM software and business budgeting programs have made tracking transactions a lot easier.

- Timestamping: There is new software that helps the PM track the time on each project.

- Social media insights: Social media platforms have improved interaction between PMs and clients as well as other sources of relevant information and assistance.
# STRATEGIES FOR THE APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

While technological innovations can help create a more sustainable built environment, successful implementation requires strategic planning and collaboration. Governments and organizations should work together to create policies that incentivize the development and adoption of green technologies. Additionally, public-private partnerships could be established to fund research and development of sustainable solutions. Finally, investment in education and training is necessary to ensure the effective use of new technologies. Consequently, the strategies implicated in the realization of a sustainable built environment are of two folds, the private sector and public sector strategies. In many situations, they work together as mixed strategies for better results.

## Mixed-Sector strategies

The mixed-sector strategies will address the issue of building designs, building materials, and environmental planning. To achieve a sustainable built environment, there is a need to reappraise the existing architectural designs and the type of existing building materials in our localities. Building designs must take climate change into account. Buildings should have good ventilation and have good access to natural light. In the Nigerian setting, buildings should be shielded as much as possible from intense sunlight and heat by planting trees around the buildings.

The choice of building materials should consider the climate. The common roofing sheets here in Nigeria are long-span aluminium sheets and galvanized iron roofing sheets. These materials are good conductors of heat with the result that a lot of heat builds up within the roof space during the day. Most of these roofs do not have vents resulting in the heat dissipating downwards into the living areas of the building thus creating an uncomfortable indoor environment (Mohammed & Abba-kyari, 2016). Roofing sheets should be coated with bright paints which reflect heat away from the building. Light-coloured roofs should be preferred. The use of electrochromic roofing and electrochromic glazing should be encouraged. Electrochromic technology allows the glass to block out heat and ultraviolet light while still allowing natural light to enter the building. This energy-efficient glazing can help reduce energy use, air-conditioning costs, and pollution emissions from the built environment.

Towns and cities in Nigeria should have enough well-maintained green open spaces (playgrounds, parks) in all the residential neighbourhoods. There should be green belts around all urban areas. Landscaping should be designed to have large areas of pervious surfaces to reduce the volume of surface runoff. The natural vegetation and landscape should be preserved as much as possible. This will enable rainwater to be absorbed into the soil instead of building up into surface runoff and floods. Building developments should as much as possible avoid the destruction of natural drainage channels. Where possible, rainwater should be harvested, processed and recycled for various non-potable uses within an estate. Building materials which do not harbour or release any gaseous or particulate contaminants into the air should be used.

Energy-efficient appliances should be used. Environment-friendly energy sources should be promoted. The use of non-renewable building materials should be reduced to a minimum. Encourage the use of timber, bamboo, straw, palm leaves/mat, earthen bricks, etc. Encourage the use of recycled materials. The use of energy-efficient bulbs and energy-saving appliances should be encouraged.

## Public Sector Strategies.

The roles of Government in the promotion and adoption of technological innovations towards the realization of a sustainable built environment are many folds, namely:

### Policy development and enforcement

The Government should develop relevant policies and legislation to promote and enforce sustainable building and environmental practices. For instance, government can set up and implement water quality policy frameworks and standards. A review of the 2006 Building Code of Nigeria is long overdue;
sustainable development should be reflected in the building code so that it becomes mandatory for developers and investors in the built environment to be environment-conscious in their activities.

### Regulations

New regulations should be put in place to promote green building practices. The government can regulate the discharge of pollutants. The government can legislate on wastewater management, recycling and re-use.

### Facilitation

The government can facilitate some of the policies by providing incentives such as tax waivers and tax holidays. For instance, the Government of Norway in pursuance of its goal to reduce carbon emissions imposed a very high import tax on imported fossil fuel cars while electric cars were exempted from import tax (National Academy of Sciences, 2017).

## Funding Strategies

Funding sustainable development projects can sometimes be a journey to the unknown. Returns on some of the projects are not realizable in the short term. Banks, investors, and other conventional finance providers find other competing demands for their funds more attractive. As a result, “value-creating sustainable projects remain on the shelf despite” their potential for “positive impact on businesses, customers, nature and the climate” (Thomson, 2023). High costs and the unfamiliar nature of some of the projects are some of the factors which hinder investments in sustainable development projects (Chakravarthi and Aravindan, 2019). The financial requirements are so huge that the annual funding gap according to the World Economic Forum estimates put the figure at $2.5 trillion globally, a figure which has since increased as a result of the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Nonetheless, the importance of sustainability projects in the survival of human beings on earth has spurred some markets, institutions, businesses, governments and individuals to show willingness and capability to fund the transition to a sustainable built environment (Thomson, ibid.). Several incentives have been put in place by various international and national institutions to attract investment into the green development. Some funding innovations have been developed which have lower costs of capital, lower risk structures and competitive repayment terms. The funding vehicles include the following: Bank loans, Sustainability bonds, Private capital, Government funds and tax abatements, International Assistance Programs, and Crowdfunding.

**Bank Loans:** Conventional banks are usually the first port of call for loans. For small projects, some of the banks will readily provide funds provided loan repayment guarantees are satisfactory. The development banks are better suited for this type of loan considering the long-term nature of some of these loans.

**Sustainability Bonds:** These are customized bonds issued by government agencies and big commercial companies and targeted on pre-specified sustainable development goal (SDG) objectives. For example, certain climate bonds have variable interests linked to the level of reductions in greenhouse gas emissions achieved by the borrower. Sustainability bonds are branded according to the outcome and conditions attached to the loan. Bonds which are restricted to projects which reduce environmental impacts are referred as green bonds. Bonds targeted at reducing water use or protecting the ocean are blue bonds. Nature performance bonds are those targeted at projects that reduce damage to biodiversity while SDG-linked bonds are those funding projects that support the achievement of the SDGs. The green bonds are the most popular of the sustainability bonds. The green bond market has increased from $34 billion in 2014 to over $250 billion in 2018 (Chakravarthi and Aravindan, 2019). The first financial institution to issue green bonds was the World Bank in 2008. Between 2008 and 2018, it had issued over 130 bonds worth $10 billion. As part of its promotion of sustainable development, the Global Environment Trust Fund assisted the Singapore Tianjin Eco city with $6.16 million.

**Private Capital and Impact Investors:** Some corporate organizations are investing in researches to produce sustainable products. Some individuals, private equity, philanthropic organizations and financial institutions fund specific projects, technologies or infrastructure targeted at certain outcomes of positive impact to the
environment. Some of these impact investors include the Rockefeller Foundation and the Harvard Business School (Thomson, 2023).

**Government Funds and Tax Incentives:** Many sustainability projects in some countries are linked to tax breaks and subsidies as incentives to encourage investments in the projects. In some cases, the government enters into public-private partnerships to fund research and development of sustainable solutions. For instance, the UK announced a £40 million fund for conservation organizations and suppliers and also another fund for a direct air capture programme for developing new technology that captures carbon dioxide from the air (Thompson, 2023).

**Crowdfunding:** This is the practice of funding a project or venture by raising money from a large number of people who each contribute a relatively small amount, typically via the Internet. In certain jurisdictions, crowdfunding is regulated. Tesla the car manufacturer used pre-payment crowdfunding to fund the manufacture of electric cars as an alternative to fossil fuel cars. The ease and flexibility of crowdfunding enables many low-wealth individuals to invest in or support purpose-driven sustainable projects.

## CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the development and adoption of sustainable technologies are essential for creating a sustainable built environment. Governments, organizations, and businesses must collaborate to create policies, fund innovations and ensure effective use of new technologies. With the right strategies, a sustainable built environment will be achievable.

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**Chapter Forty-One**

# The Evolution of Medical Geography in Egypt and Nigeria: A Comparative Review of
Developmental Trends

Ifeanyi Joachim Oduaro

Department of Geography and Environmental Management, Imo State University, Owerri

Corresponding Author: Tel. +2348033676969

Email Address: geovani4utm@gmail.com

## ABSTRACT

Medical geography, an interdisciplinary subfield of geography, examines the spatial distribution of diseases and healthcare resources. The sub-discipline investigates the relationship between environmental and social factors and health outcomes. This paper provides a comparative review on the evolution of medical geography in Egypt and Nigeria, two key African contexts. It traces its development from ancient medical practices to its modern-day applications. The historical progression is examined, from Hippocrates' early observations and Arab physicians' contributions to John Snow's 19th-century cholera map, which formalized the field. The review explored the paradigm shift from medical to health geography broadening to encompass health, safety, and well-being, moving beyond mere disease mapping. Methodologies such as disease mapping and cultural ecology are introduced, with an emphasis on their applications in resource distribution and disease prevention in developing countries. The study identified significant challenges, including data acquisition and the application of spatial tools in resource-limited settings. The comparison between Egypt and Nigeria provides insight into how medical geography has evolved differently in these regions, shaped by local health systems and socio-political contexts. The paper concludes by emphasizing the importance of integrating medical geography into public health planning to address contemporary health challenges in Africa, making specific recommendations for future research.

**KEYWORDS:** Medical geography; Egypt; Nigeria; Spatial analysis; Public health planning; Health geography.

## INTRODUCTION

The field of medical geography has evolved significantly, becoming a critical discipline for understanding how geographic factors impact health, safety, and well-being. Medical geography explores the spatial patterns and environmental determinants of health, examining how factors such as location, climate, and infrastructure influence disease prevalence, healthcare access, and overall quality of life. In Egypt and Nigeria, two culturally rich yet geographically distinct regions, medical geography offers unique insights into public health challenges and developmental trends. The comparative study of these two countries provides a valuable perspective on the evolution of medical geography to healthcare infrastructure, disease control, and population health interventions (Uzoma, 2020). Egypt and Nigeria, while distinct in terms of climate, demography, and socio-political structures, share a common struggle with health disparities, infectious disease burden, and resource limitations that impact health outcomes. Medical geography in these countries addresses not only the distribution of diseases but also the underlying determinants of health, including socioeconomic status, environmental hazards, and access to healthcare services. In both countries, urbanization, population growth, and climate change have further complicated public health efforts, necessitating advanced geographic methods to monitor, manage, and mitigate health risks (Aliyu & Lawal, 2017).

This review examines the historical and contemporary developmental trends in medical geography in Egypt and Nigeria. It explores the progression from early disease mapping and epidemiological studies to modern geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial analysis, which have become vital in addressing issues such as infectious disease outbreaks, pollution and healthcare accessibility. Furthermore, it assesses how
each country has integrated medical geography into health policies and practices, analyzing how differences
in political, economic, and social contexts have influenced the evolution of medical geography in both
settings (Elsabawy, 2013)

This review aims to highlight key lessons, challenges, and opportunities for leveraging medical geography to enhance health outcomes and safety. Understanding these trends will enable policymakers and healthcare professionals better utilize geographic tools to address the pressing health issues facing Egypt, Nigeria, and other regions with similar profiles. The study stems from the need to understand how medical geography has developed through time, with emphasis on two African countries, Egypt and Nigeria. Both countries face distinct public health challenges influenced by environmental and socioeconomic factors. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is not merely the absence of disease or infirmity but a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. This definition underscores the importance of examining environmental, socioeconomic, and spatial determinants that contribute to or detract from holistic health in any population (Bambra et al., 2010). A comparative review allows for the analysis of how geography has shaped healthcare access, disease mapping, and interventions over time. Additionally, this review addresses knowledge gaps and seeks to contribute to improved public health strategies, especially in response to contemporary health crises. The study also contributes to the discourse on the built environment and sustainable development. To achieve the purpose of this review, our study poses the following research questions?

How has medical geography evolved in Egypt and Nigeria over time?

How has the built environment influenced health outcomes in Egypt and Nigeria?

Medical geography, or the geography of diseases, has a long history. The very first precedent for the
development of medical geography can be traced to over 2000 years ago when Hippocrates (c. 460–377
B.C.), often referred to as the father of medicine, highlighted the profound connection between human
health and environmental factors, stating:

> **"Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly should proceed thus: in the first place to consider the seasons of the year, and what effects each of them produces. [...] Then the waters which the inhabitants use, whether they be marshy and soft, or hard and running from elevated and rocky situations. [...] In the same manner, when one comes into a city to which he is a stranger, he ought to consider its situation, how it lies as to the winds and the rising of the sun"** (Hippocrates, *On Airs, Waters, and Places*, Trans. Jones, 1923, p. 5).

This early understanding of the interaction between environmental factors and health laid the foundation
for medical geography, demonstrating how geography affects well-being. Reflecting on historical
precedent, (Barrett, 2002), posits that Dehorne, the editor of the Royal Society of Medicine and founder of
the *Journal de Médecine Militaire* appears to have been the first to use the term 'géographie médicale,' in
1782. However, it was Leonhard Ludwig Finke's (Finke, 1792–1795) work titled; Versuch einer
allgemeinen medicinisch-praktischen Geographie i.e., Attempt at a General Medical-Practical Geography
that had a wide grip on the subject matter. (Finke 1792 as cited in Barrett (2002). Due to his great three-
volume work, many during his time for over a decade, acknowledged him as the one who coined the word
"medical geography". To further advance the frontiers of knowledge in the sub-discipline, Friedrich
Schnurrer (1784-1833) created one of the first attempts to map diseases globally (Schnurrer, 1827). This
review may not be exhaustive but may be considered incomplete without the contributions of Jacques May
(1896 – 1975). Similarly, Meade and Emch (2010) assert that the ancient study of how people, their cultures,
and societies in different environments create and spread disease, promote health, and provide care for the
sick has never been more relevant. The history of medical geography can be traced back to 1854, when
John Snow mapped cholera outbreak in London and highlighted the crucial role of geography (i.e. the location of a tap in Broad Street) in understanding disease patterns as shown in Figure 1.

<figure><img src="image_83.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** The location of a tap in Broad Street</figcaption></figure>

Source: Adapted from Steven Johnson's 2006 book *The Ghost Map: the Story of London's Most Terrifying Epidemic, and How it Changed Science, Cities and the Modern World*.

Furthermore, the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIH) upheld a study of dental health in the early 20th century that revealed fewer cavities among children in certain regions of Colorado. By mapping these areas and analyzing local groundwater, researchers discovered that children living in areas with higher fluoride levels had significantly lower rates of cavities (NIH, 2024). This example further underscores the value of spatial analysis, particularly in identifying environmental factors influencing health outcomes. Other significant historical events include the global influenza pandemic in 1918, the Black Death, the 1947 cholera epidemic in Egypt, the re-emerging Ebola virus and more recently, the Corona virus which is now the most widespread pandemic in human history. One thing is clear from the foregoing, and that is “The fight against disease is yet to be won”.

In Nigeria, Adamu, et al. (2023) traces the development of medical geography to the research conducted during the colonial period through to the 1960s. On the other hand, Elsabawy (2011), posits that:

> Institutions such as the National Research Center, the Theodore Bilharz Research Institute, the Nutrition Institute, the Tropical Medicine Center, the Cancer Institute, and various medical colleges and research centers produce numerous specialized scientific journals focused on diseases influenced by geographic environments which were instrumental for the development of medical geography in Egypt.
Many have often asked “What does geography have in common with medicine?” Brown et al., (2009) contend that the term "medical geography" is misleading because it encompasses very few medical aspects. He proposes that the field would be more accurately described as "epidemiologic geography," "geography of disease," "public health geography," or "the geography of health and disease." Traditionally, the field has been concerned with mapping the prevalence of diseases and understanding their spatial patterns, yet over time, it has expanded to encompass a broader range of health-related issues, including the impact of environmental, social, and economic factors on well-being. The study attempts several definitions beginning from the influential works of Mayer around the 20th century who in an attempt to develop a synthesis, defined medical geography as geographical epidemiology, geographical pathology or disease ecology and the spatial perspective on health planning, health seeking behaviors and health services provision (Mayer, 1982). Medical geography may be positioned as a boundary discipline bridging geography and medicine. Their definition concurs that geographical concepts, methods, and techniques are applied to investigate health-related phenomena. Furthermore, (Howe, 1980) defined the sub-discipline as the study of human challenges in adapting to environmental conditions that contribute to disease. To this end, Elsabawy (2013) defines medical geography as the study of geographical factors related to the cause and effect of health and disease, focusing on affected places rather than diseases alone. Similarly, Adewoyin (2023) described the sub discipline as a branch of human geography that examines the connections between the physical and sociocultural environment and overall human health and well-being, offering insights into the differences in health and disease outcomes across various locations.

Meade and Emch (2010) posits that medical geography has evolved to include concepts and methodologies, and subjects related to the geography of health and disease. Although Medical geography integrates health-related research from biological, environmental, and social sciences, employing both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The sub-discipline is equally grounded in several core concepts that drive its theoretical and practical applications, including the spatial distribution of disease. This is a foundational concept that involves the understanding of geographic variability of disease incidence and prevalence across different regions. This concept, traditionally emphasized the epidemiological approach within medical geography which involves identifying patterns, clusters, and hotspots of diseases, and has been instrumental in controlling the spread of infectious diseases (Oduaro et al., 2023; Phillips et al., 2007; Smallman-Raynor & Cliff, 2016). There is also the concept of Environmental health geography which focuses on the interaction between environmental factors and human health outcomes. Factors such as air and water quality, climate, pollution, and land use are all key variables in this area, as they directly impact rates of respiratory illnesses, infectious diseases, and even mental health (Bambra et al., 2010). This approach acknowledges that health is influenced by both natural and built environments, aligning with the WHO's comprehensive view of health as shown in Figure 2.

<figure><img src="image_84.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2: World Health Organisation's view of Health**</figcaption></figure>

Source: Meade (1977), p.383
Medical geography also examines the healthcare accessibility and equity concept. This concept is also central to medical geography because geographic variations in the availability, affordability, and accessibility of healthcare services can significantly impact population health. Medical geography examines these variations, considering factors such as transportation, socioeconomic status, and local healthcare infrastructure, which all contribute to disparities in health outcomes (Bambra et al., 2010; Iberi & Oduaro, 2023; Otu, 2018).

In line with this Askari & Gupta (2016) opined that medical geography straddles two main elements, viz the geography of diseases and the geography of medical resources. According to Phillips et al. (2007), the development of the geography of disease began with mapping morbidity and mortality rates linked to specific diseases at various geographic scales. This allowed early medical geographers to speculate about regional differences explaining geographic variations in diseases. Influenced by epidemiology and public health, medical geographers seek explanations for spatial variability in specific diseases, contributing to spatial statistics and modelling.

The geography of medical resources involves mapping distributions of medical resources, such as physicians, hospitals, and diagnostic equipment. Medical geographers focus on three key issues: the equity of geographical distributions, accessibility of medical resources, and the social and economic impacts of locating resources at particular locations (Otu, 2018). Over the years, studies have used ratios, location quotients, and Gini coefficients to address geographic maldistribution of medical resources (Otu, 2018). Recent trends include tying research to specific policy issues, nutrition, and addressing physician shortages in rural areas (Adewoyin, 2017).

## METHODOLOGIES IN MEDICAL GEOGRAPHY

Medical geography uses diverse methodologies which continue to evolve as technology advances. The oldest methodology is disease mapping which identifies disease clusters by visualizing prevalence, aiding in tracking and control, as seen in John Snow's 1854 cholera map (Buzai, 2020). Also, the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) allow for sophisticated spatial analysis, integrating layers like demographics and environment to pinpoint health risks and guide interventions (Uzoma, 2020). Another methodology is spatial scan statistics used to test for disease clusters or if a disease is randomly distributed. Scan statistics have been used to analyse disease risks through statistical models, especially for vector-borne diseases. Furthermore, qualitative methods have been used to capture cultural impacts on health and in participatory researches while mixed methods combine various methodologies to provide comprehensive insights into human environment interactions. Studies have also utilized the remote sensing tool to monitor environmental health and access vector habitats.

## CASE STUDIES: EGYPT AND NIGERIA

In line with the aim of the paper, we present two case studies: Egypt and Nigeria. These nations, while geographically and culturally diverse, share common challenges related to health disparities (Oduaro et al., 2023), resource constraints (Omar, 2024), and rapid urbanization (Aliyu & Lawal, 2017).

Egypt, with its ancient medical legacy, provides a fascinating backdrop for examining the evolution of medical geography. From the early observations of the Nile's impact on health to the present day, the country has witnessed a complex interplay of environmental, social, and political factors shaping its health landscape. The ancient Egyptians were keen observers of the natural world and its influence on health. The Nile River, while a source of life and fertility, also brought about seasonal outbreaks of waterborne diseases, shaping settlement patterns and medical practices. The Ebers Papyrus, a testament to their medical knowledge, documents their understanding of anatomy, disease, and treatment, revealing an early awareness of the interconnectedness between geography and health (Hallmann, 2004). It is on this account that physicians like Ibn Sina (Sajadi et al., 2009) made significant contributions to the field. Their work,
integrating Greek, Persian, and Indian medical traditions, emphasized the importance of environmental factors, diet, and lifestyle in maintaining health (Avicenna, 1930). Although (Elsabawy, 2013) pointed out that:

> "Medical geography in Egypt, as a subfield, is relatively recent compared to others. In his paper on Medical geography in Egypt as an interdisciplinary subfield, he noted that from 1979 to 2010, the number of studies and papers increased significantly, reflecting the growth and diversification of the field. The early stage (1979-1989) saw only a few studies due to a lack of clear concepts and resources. The second stage (1989-1999) saw an increase in specific studies on disease patterns and health services. The third stage (1999-2008) focused on health care and health problems in Egypt, such as liver diseases, kidney failure, respiratory issues, cancer, and malaria".

Modern day Egypt faces a double burden of diseases, including infectious diseases such as schistosomiasis and tuberculosis, and chronic illnesses, including cardiovascular disease and diabetes (Abdelfattah et al., 2013). Rapid urbanization, environmental degradation, and socioeconomic disparities pose significant challenges to public health.

A significant aspect of medical geography in Egypt has been the study of infectious diseases and their spatial patterns. For instance, the distribution of hepatitis C, a major public health issue in Egypt, has been extensively mapped and studied to understand its correlation with various socio-economic and environmental factors (El-Ghitany & Farghaly, 2019). The role of medical geography in addressing the 1947 cholera epidemic is another notable example, where spatial analysis helped in identifying the sources and controlling the spread of the disease (Smallman-Raynor & Cliff, 2016). Furthermore, GIS-based studies have been instrumental in understanding the spatial distribution of schistosomiasis (El-Ghitany & Farghaly, 2019).

On the other hand, Nigeria presents a unique set of health challenges and opportunities. Characterized by vast geographical diversity, a rapidly growing population, and significant socioeconomic disparities (Aliyu & Lawal, 2017), Nigeria's health landscape is complex and constantly evolving. Before colonization, traditional Nigerian medicine thrived, with healers possessing a deep understanding of local medicinal plants and their applications. These indigenous knowledge systems, often intertwined with spiritual beliefs, played a vital role in maintaining community health. The arrival of European colonizers in the 19th century brought about significant changes to Nigeria's health landscape (Adamu et al., 2023). The introduction of Western medicine, while offering new treatments, also disrupted traditional healing practices and led to the uneven distribution of healthcare facilities, often favoring urban centers. In their study on Medical geography in Nigeria: History, debates and state of the discipline, Adamu et al. (2023) present a historical foundation of the development of medical geography in Nigeria. According to them:

> "The development of teaching and research in medical geography in Nigeria can be categorized into four phases: the pre-1970 period, which served as the foundational phase; the 1970s to 1980s, focusing on the pioneering works in the field; the 1990s, identified as the latency phase; and the millennial phase, characterized by the expansion and popularization of medical geography beyond the University of Ibadan".

Present-day Nigeria faces a quadruple burden of disease, encompassing infectious diseases (malaria, HIV/AIDS), chronic illnesses such as hypertension, diabetes, nutritional deficiencies, and injuries. Poverty, inadequate sanitation, and limited access to healthcare services exacerbate these challenges, particularly in rural areas. Medical geography offers valuable tools for understanding and addressing Nigeria's health disparities. One significant application of medical geography in Nigeria is the mapping of disease prevalence across different regions. Studies have shown variations in malaria incidence related to environmental factors such as rainfall, temperature, and proximity to water bodies (Adewoyin, 2015). These
spatial analyses have been vital in targeting malaria control programs and distributing resources effectively. Another important application of medical geography in Nigeria is in the field of maternal and child health (Adewoyin, 2020; Otu, 2018). Geographic disparities in access to healthcare services, particularly in rural and remote areas, have been a major focus. Spatial analysis has helped in identifying underserved areas and planning the allocation of healthcare facilities and resources to improve maternal and child health outcomes.

## FROM MEDICAL GEOGRAPHY TO HEALTH GEOGRAPHY: A PARADIGM SHIFT

While the early foundations of medical geography were firmly rooted in understanding and mapping diseases, the latter half of the 20th century witnessed a significant paradigm shift. This transition marked a move from a purely medical model, focused on illness, to a broader health geography perspective, encompassing the multifaceted determinants of well-being. This shift was driven by several factors. Firstly, the epidemiological transition (Atiim & Elliott, 2015) characterized by a decline in infectious diseases and a rise in chronic illnesses, necessitated a more holistic understanding of health beyond mere disease absence. Secondly, the growing recognition of social, economic, and environmental factors as key drivers of health inequalities led to a greater emphasis on social justice and health equity within the field (Bambra et al., 2010). Health geography, therefore, embraces a wider lens, examining the interplay of social, environmental, and behavioral factors in shaping health outcomes. This includes investigating access to healthcare services (Otu, 2018), the influence of socioeconomic status on health disparities (Iberi & Oduaro, 2023), and the impact of environmental hazards on well-being (Aliyu & Lawal, 2017).

As medical geography continues to evolve, several emerging trends are shaping its future trajectory. This includes rapid advancements in technology, particularly in geospatial technologies, big data analytics, artificial intelligence, and Python. These technologies are revolutionizing the field. High-resolution satellite imagery, remote sensing data, and mobile health technologies also provide unprecedented opportunities for monitoring health trends, tracking disease outbreaks, and delivering targeted interventions. Additionally, there is a focus on participatory action research and content analysis suited for underserved populations (Faucher & Garner, 2015). Also, the growing recognition of climate change's profound impact on human health has placed medical geography at the forefront of global health research. Understanding the spatial and temporal dynamics of climate-sensitive diseases, such as malaria and dengue fever, is crucial for developing effective adaptation and mitigation strategies (Adamu et al., 2023; Adewoyin, 2023). Furthermore, the One Health concept which recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health (Kazim, 2023), is gaining increasing traction. Medical geographers, with their expertise in spatial analysis and understanding of human-environment interactions, are well-positioned to contribute to this multidisciplinary approach.

## CONCLUSION

Medical geography, with its roots in understanding the spatial dimensions of health and disease, has evolved into a vibrant and multifaceted field. By embracing a holistic perspective, incorporating technological advancements, and collaborating across disciplines, medical geography continues to provide valuable insights for addressing global health challenges and promoting health equity. As we navigate an increasingly complex and interconnected world, the insights offered by medical geography will be more crucial than ever in creating a healthier and more sustainable future for all.

## Recommendations

To further enhance medical geography in Egypt and Nigeria, it is recommended that medical geography researchers leverage emerging technologies, such as big data analytics, eHealth, mHealth, telehealth and telemedicine to improve health monitoring and interventions. Additionally, fostering participatory action research and implementation for underserved communities and integrating climate change considerations
into health strategies will be essential. Emphasizing a One Health approach will further strengthen the connections between human, animal, and environmental health, thus, promoting comprehensive solutions to health challenges.

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**Chapter Forty-Two**

**Remote Sensing Application in Environmental Management**

Anyadiegwu, Princecharle C.; Okereke, Andy C.

Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics, Imo State University, P.M.B. 2000, Owerri, Nigeria

EMAIL:cpcanyadiegwu@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

Remote sensing has emerged as a critical tool in environmental management, offering unprecedented capabilities for monitoring, analysing and addressing environmental challenges. This paper provided an in-depth exploration of the application of remote sensing technologies in various aspects of environmental management, including land use and land cover change, deforestation, water resource management, disaster response and climate change monitoring. By leveraging satellite imagery, aerial photography and advanced sensor data. Remote sensing enables the detection of environmental changes with high spatial and temporal resolution. This allows for proactive management strategies and informed decision-making. The study also examined the integration of remote sensing data with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of environmental assessments. Through case studies, this research highlighted the effectiveness of remote sensing in tracking environmental degradation, predicting natural hazards and supporting sustainable resource management. The findings underscore the transformative impact of remote sensing on environmental management practices and advocate for its continued development and application in addressing global environmental challenges.

KEYWORDS: Remote sensing; Environmental Management; GIS; Climate change; Landuse monitoring

**INTRODUCTION**

Environmental management has become an increasingly vital component in the global effort to address the escalating challenges posed by rapid urbanisation, climate change, biodiversity loss, deforestation, water scarcity, and the overexploitation of natural resources. As human activities exert pressure on ecological systems, the need for accurate, real-time, and comprehensive data to guide decision-making has never been more critical. Traditional methods of environmental monitoring—such as field surveys, manual data collection, and ground-based observation—are often labour-intensive, time-consuming, limited in scope, and unable to capture the dynamic nature of environmental processes. Remote sensing offers a transformative solution to these limitations. It involves acquiring information about the Earth's surface and atmosphere without physical contact, using satellite imagery, aerial photography, drones, and sensor technologies. These platforms provide consistent and wide-area observations that are essential for analysing environmental changes at both local and global scales. Remote sensing technologies are particularly valuable for detecting land use and land cover changes, monitoring forest loss, assessing water bodies, mapping flood zones, and tracking climate variability over time. Moreover, when integrated with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing enables spatial analyses, data modelling, and the visualization of complex environmental phenomena. This combination facilitates predictive analytics, enhances situational awareness, and supports data-driven planning for sustainable development. The ability to overlay multiple layers of environmental, demographic, and socio-economic data allows policymakers and environmental managers to make more informed and effective decisions.

This paper explores the multifaceted applications of remote sensing in environmental management, highlighting its role in bridging the data gap in resource monitoring and
environmental governance. Through critical analysis of case studies and stakeholder insights gathered from surveys, the study demonstrates how remote sensing not only enhances the accuracy of environmental assessments but also contributes to more responsive, inclusive, and strategic environmental policies. As such, remote sensing is poised to become a cornerstone of 21st-century environmental stewardship.

## METHODOLOGY

The research employed a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative and quantitative data sources, including detailed case study analyses, structured surveys, and spatial data interpretation using geospatial software. This design was intended to capture both the technical application and the stakeholder perspectives surrounding remote sensing technologies in environmental management.

## Case Studies

To demonstrate practical applications of remote sensing in environmental contexts, five case studies were carefully selected based on relevance, data availability, and environmental significance. These case studies examined land use and land cover change, deforestation monitoring, water quality assessment, disaster response mapping, and climate change impact analysis. For land use and land cover change, multi-temporal satellite imagery (from Landsat and Sentinel-2 missions) was used to assess urban expansion and vegetation loss. In the deforestation monitoring case, high-resolution images from commercial satellites like PlanetScope and WorldView were analysed to track forest cover changes and identify illegal logging activities. Water quality assessment relied on remote sensing data using spectral indices such as NDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index) and TSS (Total Suspended Solids) to detect pollution levels and turbidity in rivers and lakes. For disaster response mapping, data from MODIS and radar sensors (e.g., Sentinel-1 SAR imagery) were used for real-time flood mapping and burn scar analysis post-wildfire. Finally, climate change impact analysis was carried out by studying long-term vegetation trends using NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) datasets to observe climate-induced ecosystem changes. These datasets were processed and analysed using software such as ArcGIS Pro, QGIS, Google Earth Engine, and SNAP (Sentinel Application Platform). Time series analysis, supervised classification, and change detection algorithms were employed for data interpretation.

## Surveys

Complementing the spatial analysis, a structured survey was conducted to gather insights from key stakeholders in the field of environmental management. The survey targeted a diverse group of 50 respondents, including professionals from environmental protection agencies, academic researchers, town planners, conservation NGOs, and GIS/remote sensing consultants. The survey instrument was developed to capture both quantitative and qualitative feedback, covering frequency and purpose of remote sensing usage, types of platforms and software adopted (e.g., ArcGIS, QGIS, ERDAS Imagine), challenges in accessing and interpreting remote sensing data, and institutional capacity, training received, and funding support. Data was collected through online tools (Google Forms and email responses), supplemented by field interviews where necessary. Results were analysed using descriptive statistics, thematic coding for open-ended responses, and comparative analysis to align survey outcomes with case study observations.
## Validation and Triangulation

To ensure validity and consistency of results, triangulation was applied by comparing findings across case studies, survey responses, and literature benchmarks. This methodological rigour enhanced the reliability of conclusions drawn regarding the effectiveness, accessibility, and integration of remote sensing in environmental decision-making. This comprehensive approach ensured that the study not only demonstrated the technical capabilities of remote sensing tools but also addressed the socio-institutional frameworks necessary for their successful implementation.

## RESULTS

Findings from both the case studies and surveys demonstrated key patterns in the application of remote sensing in environmental management. Remote sensing revealed significant transformations in land use patterns, with urbanisation contributing to a reduction in agricultural and forested land. Multi-temporal satellite data enabled the quantification of these trends and offered insights into how such changes impact biodiversity and ecosystems (Johnson & Smith, 2020). High-resolution satellite imagery was effective in detecting small-scale illegal logging activities, enhancing conservation enforcement. The integration of field reports with remote sensing data increased the reliability of monitoring efforts (Brown, 2021). Spectral and thermal imagery helped identify pollution in lakes and rivers, including suspended solids and thermal stress. These findings facilitated timely responses to contamination (Williams, 2023). Satellite data enabled real-time flood mapping and wildfire detection, which improved emergency response and resource allocation. This demonstrates the critical role of remote sensing in managing both short- and long-term disaster impacts (Thomas & Wilson, 2022). Longitudinal vegetation indices from remote sensing platforms revealed gradual ecosystem degradation due to prolonged drought and rising temperatures. Remote sensing thus provides valuable foresight for ecological restoration planning (Smith & Jones, 2021). A high percentage of respondents (85%) regularly employed remote sensing, with 70% noting significant improvements in decision-making. Key benefits included spatial coverage, cost-effectiveness, and frequency of data acquisition. However, challenges such as limited access to high-resolution data and technical expertise were reported.

## Case Studies' Results

### Land Use Changes

Remote sensing data provided clear insights into significant changes in land use patterns, particularly in the shift from agricultural and forested lands to expanding urban areas. Through multi-temporal satellite imagery analysis, it was possible to quantify the loss of natural vegetation and farmlands as a result of urban sprawl, industrial development, and infrastructure expansion. The study illustrated that remote sensing allows for more precise, large-scale tracking of these changes, helping urban planners and environmental managers develop sustainable land-use policies (Johnson & Smith, 2020). Additionally, the ability to monitor these shifts over time is crucial for evaluating the effectiveness of land conservation efforts and for predicting future trends that could impact biodiversity and ecosystem services.

### Deforestation Rates

Remote sensing technology was instrumental in mapping deforestation rates, often corroborating ground-based reports of illegal logging and land degradation activities. The use of high-resolution satellite imagery allowed for the detection of small-scale deforestation, which may have otherwise gone unnoticed by traditional on-the-ground monitoring methods. The correlation between satellite observations and field reports highlighted the precision and accuracy of remote sensing in environmental management (Brown,
2021). Furthermore, the findings suggested that integrating satellite data with field surveys can enhance law enforcement and promote more stringent conservation measures in regions prone to deforestation.

*Water Quality Monitoring*

Remote sensing data played a critical role in identifying areas of declining water quality, particularly about surface water bodies such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs. Using spectral signatures and thermal imaging, satellite sensors detected increases in suspended sediments, pollutants, and temperature changes in water bodies, which are indicative of environmental stress or contamination (Williams, 2023). The ability to detect these changes remotely allows for quicker interventions by local authorities, reducing the time lag between the occurrence of an issue and the implementation of corrective measures. This proactive monitoring could significantly improve water management strategies and ensure more sustainable water resource use.

*Disaster Management*

The role of remote sensing in disaster management cannot be overstated. Satellite data were critical in mapping affected areas during natural disasters such as floods, wildfires, and landslides. The ability to quickly obtain detailed information about the extent of damage enabled emergency responders to allocate resources more effectively and prioritise their efforts (Thomas & Wilson, 2022). For example, in flood-prone areas, remote sensing technology allowed for real-time flood mapping, helping authorities make timely decisions on evacuations and the distribution of aid. In the long term, remote sensing also facilitates post-disaster assessments, which are vital for recovery planning and risk reduction strategies in the future.

*Climate Change Effects*

Longitudinal remote sensing data provided valuable insights into how climate change is affecting vegetation cover, revealing significant shifts in local ecosystems. Vegetation indices derived from satellite data showed a noticeable decline in plant health and biodiversity in certain regions, particularly those susceptible to prolonged droughts and temperature increases. These shifts can lead to long-term vulnerabilities in ecosystems, making them more prone to degradation and less resilient to further environmental changes (Johnson, 2020). By tracking these changes over time, environmental managers can identify hotspots of vulnerability and implement targeted interventions, such as reforestation or habitat restoration, to mitigate the impacts of climate change.

*Survey Results*

The survey results provided additional context to the case study findings, offering insights into the awareness, utilization and perceived effectiveness of remote sensing technologies among environmental professionals.

*Utilization of Remote Sensing Data*

A significant majority (85%) of respondents reported that they regularly use remote sensing data in their environmental management activities. This high adoption rate reflects the growing recognition of remote sensing as a valuable tool for monitoring and addressing environmental challenges. Over 70% of respondents indicated that remote sensing data significantly improved their decision-making capabilities, particularly in terms of accuracy and timeliness. This supports the view that remote sensing enhances data-driven decision-making, allowing for more informed and targeted management practices.

*Perceived Benefits*

The perceived benefits of remote sensing technologies were numerous. Respondents highlighted improved efficiency in environmental monitoring, especially in remote or inaccessible areas. The ability to monitor large-scale phenomena, such as deforestation, water quality, and natural disasters, from a distance provides a level of efficiency that traditional methods cannot match. Additionally, respondents noted that remote sensing enables them to gather data more frequently and at a lower cost compared to ground-based monitoring systems. This benefit is particularly crucial in regions with limited resources for extensive fieldwork.