Built Environment and Sustainable Development Faculty
Of Environmental Sciences, Imo State University,
Owerri Conference Proceedings Series (1st Edition

Joachim Onyike, Marcellinus Okafor, Emmanuella Onyenechere, Okechi Azuwike, Stanislaus Okeahialam, Faisal C Emetumah

► To cite this version:

Joachim Onyike, Marcellinus Okafor, Emmanuella Onyenechere, Okechi Azuwike, Stanislaus Okeahialam, et al.. Built Environment and Sustainable Development Faculty Of Environmental Sciences, Imo State University, Owerri Conference Proceedings Series (1st Edition). Faculty of Environmental Sciences International Conference (FESICON 2024), Oct 2024, Owerri, Nigeria. 2025, 978-978-778-659-8. hal-05028186

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BUILT ENVIRONMENT
AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
IMO STATE UNIVERSITY OWERRI
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS SERIES

(1st Edition)

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

**Editors:**

Joachim A. Onyike

Marcellinus U. Okafor

Emmanuella C. Onyenechere

Okechi D. Azuwike

Stanislaus A. Okeahialam

Faisal C. Emetumah
© Joachim A. Onyike et al, 2025

Published in Nigeria by:

Faculty of Environmental Sciences

Imo State University, P.M.B. 2000, Owerri, Nigeria

Website: [www.imsuonline.edu.ng](https://www.imsuonline.edu.ng)

E-ISBN: 978-978-778-659-8
Preface

We are delighted to present the Proceedings from the International Conference on the Built Environment and Sustainable Development hosted by the Faculty of Environmental Sciences (FESICON 2024), Imo State University, Owerri. The conference aims to provide a platform for researchers to discuss novel ideas and share their areas of interest with delegates worldwide. The paper presented in the conference cut across a broad spectrum of issues challenging the environment, particularly in emerging nations.

They are chronicled in 8 parts with 40 chapters. Part I was on Architectural Design and Practice; Innovation and Technology in Architecture; Part II on Greening Building, Innovative Materials and Technology; Skills Development and Labor Output in Construction; Part III on Housing Affordability; Climate Change and Property. Others are Part IV which was on Conceptual and Theoretical Issues; Teaching and Learning Methods; Gender Issues; Environmental Resources Development; Sustainable Development Goals; Plastics and the Environment; Health, Safety and Well-being; Building Codes and Practices; Projects Procurement Processes; Indoor Environment; Artificial Intelligence; Building Information Modelling (BIM); Part V on Physical and Social Environment; Climate Change and Human Ecology; Part VI on Infrastructure Development, Construction and Project Management; Cost and Financial Management; Part VII on Geospatial Information Technology; Remote Sensing Application in Environmental Management, and Part VIII dwelt on Urban Service Delivery; Social Injustice, and Land use and Land Market.

The conference was held for two days, during 29 and 30 October 2024 via both online and onsite modes at the Leo Stan Ekeh Foundation ICT Centre. About 53 papers were selected for presentation after the abstract review process. Out of which, 40 full papers were selected for inclusion in this book of proceedings.

We are grateful to the presenters and the participants for their thoughts-provoking advancement of the frontiers of knowledge in the built environment, and we hope that this book will be exciting, fulfilling and useful.

Arc. Prof. Marcellinus U. Okafor FNIA

On behalf of the FESICON 2024 Editorial Subcommittee
## Foreword

It is with great pleasure that we present this Book of Proceedings for the conference on *The Built Environment and Sustainable Development*. This conference, which took place 29 -31 October 2024, served as a crucial platform for scholars, practitioners, policymakers, and industry experts to engage in meaningful discussions on the challenges and opportunities surrounding sustainability in the built environment.

The built environment plays a pivotal role in shaping societies, economies, and ecosystems. As urbanization accelerates and climate change intensifies, the need for sustainable design, construction, and management has never been more urgent. This conference has brought together diverse perspectives to explore innovative solutions that balance development needs with environmental responsibility, resource efficiency, and social well-being.

The papers and discussions captured in this volume reflect a broad spectrum of themes and sub-themes, including sustainability and building development, sustainable architecture, green infrastructure, energy efficiency, cost management, housing, artificial intelligence, urban service delivery, urban resilience, property valuation, geospatial information technology, Eco Art, human ecology, climate change, land use planning, and related policy frameworks. These contributions not only advance academic discourse but also offer practical insights for real-world applications.

Planning for this conference required several months of hard work by dedicated staff. We extend our sincere gratitude to all authors, reviewers, and organizers whose dedication and expertise have made this conference a success. We hope that the knowledge shared here will inspire further research, collaboration, and action towards a more sustainable future.

**Professor Joachim A. Onyike** FNIVS, RSV.
Dean, Faculty of Environmental Sciences,
Imo State University,
Owerri.
Contents

<table><tr><td>Preface</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Foreword</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Contents</td><td>5</td></tr></table>

PART 1: Architectural Design and Practice; Innovation and Technology in Architecture.................................................. 9

<table><tr><td>Chapter One</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Interrogating the Epistemology of Sustainable Built Environment Research in Developing Countries</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Two</td><td>31</td></tr><tr><td>Systematic Review on the Effect of Indoor Thermal Comfort Conditions on Academic Performance of Students</td><td>31</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Three</td><td>46</td></tr><tr><td>Examining the Architectural Services Delivery Stages of a Mixed-use Development in Bayelsa State, Nigeria</td><td>46</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Four</td><td>57</td></tr><tr><td>Reviewing Architectural Technology Curriculum of Polytechnics in Southeast Nigeria: Trajectories towards Sustainable Development</td><td>57</td></tr></table>

PART 2: Greening Building, Innovative Materials and Technology; Skills Development and Labor Output in Construction.................................................................................................................................................. 68

<table><tr><td>Chapter Five</td><td>69</td></tr><tr><td>Influence Of School Built Environment, Study Habits and Peer Pressure on Academic Performance among Junior Secondary School Students in Gwale Local Government Area of Kano State, Nigeria</td><td>69</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Six</td><td>78</td></tr><tr><td>Sustainable Building Maintenance Model for Accreditation in Public Polytechnics in South-East, Nigeria</td><td>78</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Seven</td><td>89</td></tr><tr><td>Safety and Security of College Buildings in Public Universities in Rivers State Nigeria</td><td>89</td></tr></table>

PART 3: Housing Affordability; Climate Change and Property.................................................................................. 96

<table><tr><td>Chapter Eight</td><td>97</td></tr><tr><td>The Impact of Economic Downturn on Affordable Housing Provision in Imo State</td><td>97</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Nine</td><td>105</td></tr><tr><td>Impact of Building Design Defect on Real Estate Project Management in Port Harcourt, Nigeria</td><td>105</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Ten</td><td>110</td></tr><tr><td>Addressing Housing Affordability Sustainability in Nigerian Built Environment</td><td>110</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Eleven</td><td>118</td></tr><tr><td>Examination of the Challenges of Insecurity on Residential Properties in North Central Nigeria</td><td>118</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twelve</td><td>126</td></tr><tr><td>Assessment of Factors Affecting the Implementation of E-Land Administration and Management in Imo State, Nigeria</td><td>126</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>Chapter Thirteen</td><td>140</td></tr><tr><td>Understanding Green Building, Innovative Materials, and Technologies in Enhancing Sustainable Development</td><td>140</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Fourteen</td><td>151</td></tr><tr><td>The Impact of Climate change on Property Valuation and Sustainable Development</td><td>151</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Fifteen</td><td>162</td></tr><tr><td>Evaluating the Economic Implications of Local Content in Nigeria's Sustainable Housing Development Mantra: A Cost-Benefit Approach</td><td>162</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Sixteen</td><td>170</td></tr><tr><td>Analysis of Factors influencing Rental Value of Shops in Plazas in Owerri Urban, Nigeria</td><td>170</td></tr></table>

PART 4: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues; Teaching and Learning Methods; Gender Issues; Environmental Resources Development; Sustainable Development Goals; Plastics and the Environment; Health, Safety and Well-being; Building Codes and Practices; Projects Procurement Processes; Indoor Environment; Artificial Intelligence; Building Information Modelling (BIM)</td><td>177</td></tr></table>

<table><tr><td>Chapter Seventeen</td><td>178</td></tr><tr><td>Impact of Science Education on Environmental Awareness and Attitude among Secondary School Students in Selected Schools in Tarauni Local Govt. Area, Kano State</td><td>178</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Eighteen</td><td>185</td></tr><tr><td>Effect of Steam Learning Approach on Gender Differential and Academic Performance among Basic Science Students in Nassarawa Local Government Area, Kano State</td><td>185</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Nineteen</td><td>190</td></tr><tr><td>Six Vertex Model: Gaining insights into Atmospheric Dynamics</td><td>190</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twenty</td><td>210</td></tr><tr><td>Formwork Waste in Building Construction in Rivers State: An Analysis of Causes, Impacts and Mitigation Strategies</td><td>210</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-One</td><td>219</td></tr><tr><td>Women Participation in Sustainable Development Initiatives: Implication for the Niger Delta Built Environment</td><td>219</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-Two</td><td>233</td></tr><tr><td>Water Resources: Need For Sustainability in Nigeria</td><td>233</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-Three</td><td>241</td></tr><tr><td>Evaluation of Plastic Waste Disposal in Water Bodies and Awareness of the Effects on</td><td>241</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-Four</td><td>249</td></tr><tr><td>Environmental Impact of Climate Change on Sustainable Development: Focus on Gender Vulnerability in Nigeria</td><td>249</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-Five</td><td>259</td></tr><tr><td>The Legend of Nwakpuda: Quixotic Environmental Chivalry or Crusading Environmentalism Arriving Before its Time?</td><td>259</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-Six</td><td>266</td></tr><tr><td>Evolution of the Gambling Space in the Context of the Urban Built Environment. Insights from Owerri Metropolis</td><td>266</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-Seven</td><td>276</td></tr><tr><td>Studio Ceramic Art: The Panacea for Change towards Sustainable Development</td><td>276</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-Eight</td><td>282</td></tr><tr><td>Effect of Drug Abuse on the Academic Performance of Undergraduate Geography Students in Kano State, Nigeria</td><td>282</td></tr></table>

## PART 5: Physical and Social Environment; Climate Change and Human Ecology 288

<table><tr><td>Chapter Twenty-Nine</td><td>289</td></tr><tr><td>Effects of Artisanal Refining Activities on Property Development among Communities in South-South, Nigeria: An Environmental Perspective</td><td>289</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Thirty</td><td>300</td></tr><tr><td>Bush Burning Effects on the Physical Properties of Soil in Omuma, Oru East Local Government Area of Imo State</td><td>300</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-One</td><td>314</td></tr><tr><td>Analysis of the effects of rainfall and temperature variation on crop yield across agricultural lands in Imo State, Nigeria</td><td>314</td></tr></table>

## PART 6: Infrastructure Development, Construction and Project Management; Cost and Financial Management 326

<table><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-Two</td><td>327</td></tr><tr><td>Construction Scheduling Technique and Inventory Management Model: Panacea for Sustainable Public Building Project Delivery</td><td>327</td></tr></table>

## PART 7: Geospatial Information Technology; Remote Sensing Application in Environmental Management 340

<table><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-Three</td><td>341</td></tr><tr><td>Assessment Of Land Use / Land Cover Changes in Mbaise, Imo State From 2013 to 2023</td><td>341</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-Four</td><td>356</td></tr><tr><td>GIS Evaluation of the Physical Terrain-Induced Flooding Incidence in Owerri Metropolis and its Human Health Implications</td><td>356</td></tr></table>

## PART 8: Urban Service Delivery; Social Injustice, Land use and Land Market 365

<table><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-Five</td><td>366</td></tr><tr><td>Strategic Planning Towards Developing a Sustainable City: Lessons for Lagos, Nigeria</td><td>366</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-Six</td><td>373</td></tr><tr><td>Developing a Platform for Safer Alternatives to Public Water Supply in Owerri Urban</td><td>373</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-Seven</td><td>385</td></tr><tr><td>Addressing Skill Gaps and Enhancing Productivity: The role of Artisans in Sustainable Urban Development</td><td>385</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-Eight</td><td>398</td></tr><tr><td>Theoretical and Conceptual Perspectives on the Awareness and Perception of Urban and Regional Planning Among Students in Owerri Municipal</td><td>398</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Thirty-Nine</td><td>406</td></tr><tr><td>Analyses of Domestic Water Demand and Supply in Okigwe Town, Imo State</td><td>406</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>Chapter Forty</td><td>415</td></tr><tr><td>Technological Innovations and Strategies for a Sustainable Built Environment</td><td>415</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Forty-One</td><td>427</td></tr><tr><td>The Evolution of Medical Geography in Egypt and Nigeria: A Comparative Review of Developmental Trends</td><td>427</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter Forty-Two</td><td>436</td></tr><tr><td>Remote Sensing Application in Environmental Management</td><td>436</td></tr><tr><td>List of Contributors</td><td>444</td></tr></table>
# PART 1: Architectural Design and Practice; Innovation and Technology in Architecture
**Chapter One**

**Interrogating the Epistemology of Sustainable Built Environment Research in Developing Countries**

*Bankole O. Awuzie*

*Department of Construction Management and Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Doorfontein Campus, Johannesburg, South Africa.*

EMAIL: boawuzie@uj.ac.za

**ABSTRACT**

This keynote lecture interrogates the epistemology underpinning sustainable built environment research in developing countries, emphasising the need for context-specific solutions. The construction industry's significant environmental impact necessitates a transformation towards sustainability. Key pathways for achieving this objective include circular economy, sustainable design and construction, digitalisation and automation, sufficiency, smart cities and net-zero carbon strategies. However, the success of these pathways depends on addressing contextual factors such as economic conditions, policy frameworks, cultural values, resource availability and technological readiness. The non-consideration of these contextual variables has culminated in many solutions from the Global North failing to achieve sustainable built environments in the Global South. To resolve this imbroglio, this lecture advocates for the integration of indigenous knowledge systems, participatory approaches, and inter- and transdisciplinary methods towards developing knowledge and solutions for facilitating sustainable built environments in the Global South. This lecture underscores the importance of developing and implementing inclusive and contextually relevant methodologies using an appropriate epistemology to achieve long-term sustainability and resilience in the built environment, contributing to the global sustainability agenda. It is expected that this lecture will stimulate an intellectual debate among scholars in the Global South on the need for appropriate epistemologies for knowledge production as it pertains to the quest for a truly sustainable built environment in those contexts.

KEYWORDS: Epistemology; Digitalisation; Built environment; Sustainability

**INTRODUCTION**

The construction industry's reputation as a domicile for anthropogenic activities that undermine society's sustainability aspirations has continued to resonate globally (Awuzie & Monyane, 2020; Awuzie et al., 2021; Gunawansa & Kua, 2014). Similarly, the built environment, which is a product of construction-related activities, has also been identified as a major emitter of greenhouse gases and a significant contributor to the unsustainable consumption patterns prevalent in society (Awuzie et al., 2024; Camarasa et al., 2022; Collings, 2020; Yu et al., 2020). Accordingly, the industry has come under immense pressure to transform its approach to the delivery of the built environment towards ensuring a reduction of these anthropogenic activities during the construction project lifecycle whilst improving the sustainability performance of the built environment (Awuzie et al., 2024; Sbahieh et al., 2023; Teh et al., 2019). This situation has led scholars worldwide to increasingly focus on research aimed at finding ways to create sustainable built environments in different geographic regions (Moghayedi & Awuzie, 2025). Scholars from developing countries (Global South) have not been left out of this quest (Abam et al., 2023; Emodi et al., 2022; Keena et al., 2023; Moghayedi & Awuzie, 2023). This quest has yielded publications articulating a multiplicity of solutions for tackling the negative impacts of the unsustainable production and consumption patterns associated with the construction industry and, by extension, the built environment (Abam et al., 2023; Aghimien et al., 2024; Awuzie et al., 2024; Emodi et al., 2022; Joshi et al., 2023; Keena et al., 2023; Moghayedi et al., 2021; Olawumi & Chan, 2020; Tantiyaswasdikul, 2023; Timm et al., 2023). These studies have resulted in concepts like sustainable design and construction, responsible procurement, net-zero carbon buildings, lean construction, circular construction, construction digitalisation, nature-based solutions, smart construction, sustainable business models, circular economy business models, regenerative supply chains, etc.

Whilst some of these concepts have gained maturity in developed countries, others remain either in embryonic phases or are steadily evolving (Keena et al., 2023). Also, the development and application of these concepts have been predicated on a variety of theoretical lenses and multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary (MIT) research
endeavours (Awuzie, 2021; Butt & Dimitrijević, 2022; Petrișor, 2013). Although most of these concepts have emerged from research projects executed in developed countries, they have also informed attempts by scholars in developing countries to interrogate the incidence of these unsustainable production and consumption patterns within their respective contexts and to proffer solutions accordingly (Keena et al., 2023). However, despite the rise in scholarly publications elucidating solutions for tackling these challenges in developing countries, these challenges persist. Whereas some scholars have harped on the need for continuous improvement of these solutions, citing the ‘wicked’ nature of these challenges (Goel, 2019; Lönngren & Van Poeck, 2021; Niskanen et al., 2021; Omotayo et al., 2023), others have attributed the seemingly ineffectual nature of these solutions to the non-consideration of contextual peculiarities during the developmental phases (Istiadji et al., 2018; Lazar & Chithra, 2022). Scholars in the latter category, argue that whereas these solutions might have performed creditably in other contexts due to the ability of research participants to contribute towards the co-creation of relevant knowledge underpinning them, this was not likely to be the case in other contexts such as countries in the Global South where research participants might struggle to comprehend the nexus between the theoretical lenses being deployed, the challenge being tackled and the suitability of the solutions being proffered for their context (Conte, 2018; Istiadji et al., 2018; Lazar & Chithra, 2022). Suffice to state that there are doubts regarding the utility of the knowledge production process (epistemology) underpinning the development of the solution.

Such doubts are exacerbated by the limited number of scholarly works seeking to investigate the utility of extant knowledge production structures for the development of relevant knowledge and associated solutions for improving the sustainability performance of built assets and the ancillary features within the Global South context (Brenner & Schmid, 2015; Koch, 2021; Parnell & Robinson, 2012; Zapata Campos et al., 2022). This is the knowledge gap that this lecture seeks to address. It is expected that this lecture will stimulate further discussions among scholars carrying out studies concerning the built environment in the developing country context regarding the suitability of extant epistemological structures for the production of nuanced and relevant solutions for their respective climes. Subsequent sections of this lecture will focus on the following: a definition of the sustainable built environment concept; a categorization of extant studies focusing on the sustainable built environment research; a review of extant pathways (solutions) for improving the sustainability performance of the built environment; an elucidation of the contextual factors influencing the prioritization of sustainability dimensions in built environment research; a critique of the extant epistemological platforms used for the development of sustainable built environment knowledge in the Global South and; finally a presentation of different epistemological praxes that should be prioritized in the Global South to engender the production of relevant knowledge for achieving sustainable built environments therein.

## DEFINING SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENTS

The contemporary built environment plays a pivotal role in the global natural and man-made resource consumption landscape. For instance, the built environment, encompassing buildings, infrastructure, transportation systems, land use and public (green) spaces, is a significant emitter of global greenhouse gases, accounting for roughly 40% of all emissions, with the production and use of materials like cement and steel having a substantial carbon footprint (Chen et al., 2023; Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2020). In addition, buildings are responsible for consuming 40% of natural raw materials globally (Omer & Noguchi, 2020). Also, the impact of the built environment on the health, safety and well-being of building occupants and indoor environmental quality, on water usage, and mobility, among others, enjoys broad reportage in the corpus of relevant literature(Kumar et al., 2023; Nicolini, 2022; Ramohlokoane et al., 2024). These data elucidate the adverse effects of the plethora of anthropogenic activities which occur within the built environment value chain on society’s quest to achieve sustainable futures. This reality has resulted in heightened advocacy for the transformation of the construction industry, leveraging innovative technologies and practices to facilitate improved sustainability performance of the built environment by relevant stakeholders. The sustainable built environment connotation was born out of the industry’s response to this advocacy.

Although scholars indicate the absence of a commonly accepted definition of the sustainable built environment concept (Loftness, 2020; Pear/ce & Vanegas, 2002), there appears to be a consensus among these scholars about its core principles. According to these scholars, a sustainable built environment will result from an integrative, human-ecological design approach, modifications to current land use patterns and community fabric, effective
use of natural, local and globally occurring resources to minimize infrastructure loading whilst maximizing infrastructure use; increased flexibility and integration of urban infrastructure systems for comprehensive performance, increased use of an assembly of regenerative materials, prioritization of design for lifecycle costs instead of initial costs, and increased connectivity of water, energy, transportation infrastructure to sustainable neighbourhood amenities (Loftness, 2020:3). In another study, Pearce and Vanegas (2002) alluded to the need for sustainable built environments to cater to the satisfaction of relevant stakeholders whilst posting minimal impact on the resource and ecosystem base. Based on the foregoing, this lecture considers a sustainable built environment as consisting of buildings and infrastructure designed, constructed, and operated in ways that minimize their environmental impact, promote resource efficiency, and enhance the health and well-being of occupants. As mentioned previously, a multiplicity of studies seeking to facilitate sustainable built environments have either been conducted or are presently ongoing across the world. A perusal of the extant literature highlights a subtle delineation of these studies into five distinct yet interrelated clusters. See Figure 1.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Sustainable Built Environment Research Focus Areas (Author's compilation, 2024).</figcaption></figure>

From Figure 1, five (5) different clusters can be observed. These clusters are briefly described below:

1. *The Blue Cluster*

Studies in this cluster primarily focus on discussions related to costs, necessary investments, and protective measures required to maintain desired levels of sustainability performance within the built environment. These discussions often emphasise the financial aspects of implementing sustainable practices, including the initial investments needed for sustainable technologies and materials, as well as the long-term cost savings associated with energy efficiency and reduced environmental impact. However, it is evident from Figure 1 that the emphasis of these studies lies predominantly with environmental sustainability, giving less attention to economic and social sustainability. Themes such as environmental protection, risk assessment, and energy conservation are central to this cluster. Environmental protection involves strategies to minimize the ecological footprint of construction
activities, while risk assessment focuses on identifying and mitigating potential environmental risks associated with building projects. Energy conservation is another critical theme, exploring ways to reduce energy consumption through efficient design and the use of renewable energy sources. Overall, while the cluster provides valuable insights into the financial and environmental aspects of sustainability, there is a need for a more balanced approach that also considers the economic and social dimensions to achieve comprehensive sustainability in the built environment.

## 2. The Red Cluster

Studies in this cluster are dedicated to understanding and implementing sustainable construction practices and architectural design, with a strong emphasis on minimizing greenhouse gas emissions within the built environment. These studies explore various strategies for integrating sustainability principles into architectural designs and construction processes, ensuring that buildings are not only functional and aesthetically pleasing but also environmentally responsible. A significant focus is placed on establishing frameworks for the optimal selection of sustainable building materials. This involves identifying materials that have a lower environmental impact, are renewable and reusable, and can be sourced and processed in ways that reduce the built environment's carbon footprint. Additionally, the research in this cluster delves into the pathways for processing these materials, aiming to develop methods that are energy-efficient and environmentally friendly. By comprehensively addressing both the selection and processing of sustainable materials, these studies aim to create a holistic approach to sustainable construction. The overarching goal is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, contribute to the broader efforts of mitigating climate change and promote environmental sustainability in the built environment. Through these efforts, the cluster provides practical solutions and guidelines that can be adopted by industry stakeholders to enhance the sustainability performance of construction projects.

## 3. The Purple Cluster

This cluster of studies primarily focuses on the building sector and addresses several core issues critical to sustainability and environmental stewardship. In terms of energy conservation, research in this cluster explores methods to reduce energy consumption through improved insulation, energy-efficient appliances, and advanced HVAC systems, as well as integrating renewable energy sources like solar panels and wind turbines. Water conservation efforts include the development of water-saving technologies, rainwater harvesting systems, and greywater recycling to reduce usage of potable water. Other resource conservation strategies involve the use of sustainable building materials, waste reduction through better planning and recycling, and lifecycle assessments to minimize environmental impacts. Sustainable design and construction practices are also emphasized, with research examining green building standards, passive design strategies, and innovative construction techniques such as modular and prefabricated methods. Additionally, increasing building and surrounding ecosystem resilience is a key focus, with studies exploring climate resilience, biodiversity enhancement through green spaces, and sustainable urban planning to promote overall sustainability and quality of life. These comprehensive approaches aim to develop innovative solutions that enhance the environmental performance and resilience of buildings and their ecosystems.

## 4. The Yellow Cluster

Studies in this cluster focus on urban planning and the development of sustainable cities, addressing several critical facets. One key area of research conducted is the investigation into the degree of stakeholder involvement in urban planning processes. These studies examine how various stakeholders, including government agencies, private sector entities, community groups, and residents, participate in planning decisions and the impact of their involvement on the outcomes. Another important aspect is the prescribed quality of life, where research explores how urban planning can enhance living conditions by providing access to essential services, green spaces, and recreational facilities, as well as ensuring safety and inclusivity. Additionally, these studies investigate approaches for engendering efficient sustainable resource management, such as optimizing the use of energy, water, and materials in urban settings. This includes the implementation of smart technologies, sustainable infrastructure, and policies that promote
resource conservation and reduce environmental impacts. By integrating these facets, the research proposes or develop comprehensive strategies for creating resilient, livable, and sustainable urban environments.

## 5. *The Green Cluster*

Studies in this cluster emphasize the importance of life cycle analysis (LCA) and the assessment of environmental impacts throughout the entire lifecycle of construction and development projects. This approach involves evaluating the environmental effects associated with all stages of a building's life, from raw material extraction, manufacturing, and construction, to operation, maintenance, and eventual demolition or recycling. By adopting LCA, researchers aim to identify and quantify the environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, water usage, and waste generation, at each stage of the building's lifecycle. This comprehensive assessment helps in understanding the cumulative environmental footprint of construction activities and informs the development of strategies to minimize negative impacts. Additionally, these studies explore the potential for integrating sustainable practices and materials that can reduce the overall environmental burden. The ultimate goal is to promote sustainable construction practices that not only meet current needs but also preserve resources and protect the environment for future generations. Through detailed LCA, stakeholders in the construction industry can make informed decisions that enhance sustainability and contribute to the broader goals of environmental stewardship and sustainable development.

From the list of clusters, the focus of the extant corpus of sustainable built environment research can easily be discerned.

# PATHWAYS FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENTS

Extant literature is replete with a number of veritable pathways for achieving a sustainable built environment. These pathways are discussed further below.

## a. Circular Economy

The circular economy is a regenerative system which is aimed at eliminating waste and ensuring the continued use of resources by creating closed-loop systems (Figge et al., 2023; Kirchherr et al., 2023). In the built environment, this involves designing buildings and materials for longevity, using modular construction for easy upgrades, and prioritizing the reuse and recycling of materials (Osobajo et al., 2022). It also emphasizes resource efficiency, waste reduction during all phases of a building's lifecycle, and adaptive reuse of existing structures (Abdullahi et al., 2023). It focuses on business model innovation, especially as it concerns sharing or leasing of built assets and spaces (Nemakhvhani et al., 2024). By applying cradle-to-cradle design principles, materials can be continuously cycled through biological or technical loops without becoming waste. These practices are expected to help create a sustainable built environment by reducing resource consumption and waste.

## b. Sustainable Design and Construction

Sustainable design and construction practices focus on creating environmentally responsible, resource-efficient, and healthy buildings and infrastructure throughout their lifecycle (Goel, 2019; Olawumi & Chan, 2020; Timm et al., 2023; Wu & Zhang, 2022). Key principles include energy efficiency through renewable sources and improved insulation, water conservation via water-saving fixtures and rainwater harvesting, and the use of sustainable, non-toxic, and locally sourced materials. Additionally, ensuring good indoor environmental quality with natural lighting and air quality, and selecting sites that minimize environmental impact while integrating green spaces are essential. The goal is to balance environmental, economic, and social factors to create resilient and sustainable built environments.

## c. Digitalization and Automation

Digitalisation and automation in the sustainable built environment involve integrating advanced technologies to enhance efficiency, reduce resource consumption, and minimize environmental impact (Aghimien et al., 2023).
2022; Begić et al., 2022; Nikmehr et al., 2021; Olawumi & Chan, 2020; Yevu et al., 2021). Key principles include using Building Information Modeling (BIM) for precise planning and resource management, employing smart sensors and IoT devices to monitor and optimize energy use, and automating construction processes with robotics to reduce waste and improve precision. For example, digital twins can simulate building performance to identify areas for improvement, while automated systems can manage lighting, heating, and cooling to ensure optimal energy efficiency. These technologies not only streamline construction and operational processes but also support the creation of resilient, sustainable buildings that adapt to changing environmental conditions. Other technologies that have gained prevalence in this space include blockchain (distributed ledger) technology, big data analytics and Artificial Intelligence (AI).

### d. Net Zero Carbon Built Environment

A Net Zero Carbon Built Environment represents a crucial pathway for achieving sustainability by addressing both operational and embodied carbon emissions throughout a building's lifecycle (Moghayedi & Awuzie, 2023; Moghayedi & Awuzie, 2025; Rauniyar et al., 2024; Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2020). This approach aims to balance carbon dioxide emissions with equivalent sequestration or offsetting, leading to a net-zero carbon footprint. Key components include reducing operational carbon through energy-efficient designs and renewable energy integration, and minimizing embodied carbon by selecting sustainable materials and adopting efficient construction practices. A whole lifecycle approach, involving comprehensive lifecycle assessments (LCA) and carbon offsetting, ensures that environmental impacts are evaluated and mitigated at every stage, from material extraction to end-of-life disposal. The benefits of this approach include significant contributions to climate change mitigation, enhanced energy independence, improved health and wellbeing for occupants, and long-term economic savings. Implementation strategies involve supportive policies and regulations, industry collaboration, and raising awareness about the benefits and feasibility of net-zero carbon buildings. Overall, this pathway not only promotes environmental sustainability but also offers economic and social advantages, paving the way for a more resilient and sustainable future.

### e. Sufficiency Principles

Sufficiency principles, which focus on reducing resource consumption and environmental impact to levels that are within the planet's ecological limits, remain another veritable pathway for achieving sustainable built environments (Jungell-Michelsson & Heikkurinen, 2022; Lall & Sethi, 2024; Ness & Xing, 2017). Unlike efficiency, which aims to do more with less, sufficiency emphasizes consuming less in absolute terms and prioritizing essential needs over excessive wants. Sufficiency principles involve the optimization of the use of existing buildings, repurposing unused spaces, and prioritizing multi-family homes over single-family dwellings to maximize resource efficiency. It advocates the downsizing of living spaces to match the evolving needs of households, thereby reducing the demand for materials, energy, and water. By setting clear consumption limits, these principles ensure equitable access to resources and promote social equity. This systemic approach not only mitigates greenhouse gas emissions but also fosters a more resilient and sustainable urban landscape, aligning with global efforts to address climate change and promote environmental stewardship.

### f. Smart Cities

The concept of Smart Cities revolves around leveraging technology and data to enhance urban living, making cities more efficient, sustainable, and livable (Omotayo et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2018). By leveraging a coterie of digital technologies, particularly the Internet of Things (IoT), smart cities can collect and analyze real-time data to optimize the performance of city services and infrastructure. This includes smart grids for energy, intelligent transportation systems, and smart water management. Additionally, smart transportation systems reduce congestion and emissions, while environmental initiatives like waste-to-energy programs and air quality monitoring promote sustainability. The benefits of smart cities include a reduced carbon footprint, improved resource management, enhanced quality of life, and economic growth. Examples of successful smart city initiatives can be seen in cities like Barcelona, Singapore, and Amsterdam, where technology has been used to create more sustainable and efficient urban environments. Overall, smart cities represent a
holistic approach to sustainable urban development, aiming to create a healthier and productive future for residents.

These pathways have resulted from an extensive exploration of the knowledge domain or study field by scholars seeking to proffer solutions towards curbing the unsustainable production and consumption patterns associated with different phases of the built environment lifecycle. These pathways are not context-specific, implying their applicability across multiple contexts.

However, as highlighted previously, literature has attributed the varied performance of these pathways across different geographic and sectoral domains not just to the existence of certain contextual peculiarities but more importantly, the inclination of stakeholders in these contexts to prioritize particular sustainability dimensions over others during implementation of these pathways (Arinabo, 2022; Haswell et al., 2024; Keena et al., 2023; Marino & Pariso, 2022). Such a skewed approach to implementation undermines the need for effective and equitable integration of these sustainability dimensions, a major determinant of improved sustainability performance. The factors responsible for the prioritization of sustainability dimensions during the operationalization of these pathways are outlined in the next section.

# CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON THE PRIORITIZATION OF SUSTAINABILITY DIMENSIONS

## a. Economic Factors

Economic factors significantly influence the prioritization of sustainability dimensions by scholars and funders (Salvia et al., 2019). Scholars often prioritize research areas that align with available funding opportunities, which are influenced by economic conditions and policy priorities. Funders, including government agencies, private foundations, and international organizations, allocate resources to sustainability projects that promise significant economic benefits, such as cost savings, job creation, and economic growth. Funding availability and economic incentives play a crucial role in shaping research agendas. Scholars are more likely to pursue studies that have a higher likelihood of securing grants and financial support. Additionally, funders may prioritize projects that align with broader economic goals, such as promoting green technologies, enhancing resource efficiency, and supporting sustainable development. Market demand and global economic trends also impact the prioritization of sustainability dimensions. Funders may focus on areas with high market potential and emerging economic opportunities, such as renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and circular economy practices. This alignment with market demand ensures that funded projects have practical applications and can contribute to economic resilience and competitiveness. By understanding these economic factors, scholars and funders can strategically prioritize sustainability dimensions that offer the greatest potential for economic and societal impact.

## b. Policy and Regulation

Scholars and funders often prioritize research and projects that align with these regulatory requirements to ensure compliance and support policy implementation. Government policies, including subsidies for renewable energy and tax incentives for green technologies, further influence the focus of sustainability initiatives by providing financial advantages and aligning with national or regional policy goals (Biermann et al., 2022). For instance, regional, national and international policy goals, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), guide the prioritization of sustainability dimensions. Scholars and funders align their research agendas with these overarching objectives to contribute to global sustainability efforts. Effective policy implementation and evaluation are deemed critical, prompting scholars to study the effectiveness of existing policies and funders to support projects that offer innovative solutions for better policy outcomes. The political and economic context, including changes in government leadership and shifts in political priorities, further impacts the focus and funding of sustainability initiatives, requiring scholars and funders to navigate these dynamics to ensure their work remains relevant and impactful.

## c. Cultural Values:

Cultural values significantly influence the prioritization of sustainability dimensions by shaping the beliefs, norms, and practices of societies (Lazar & Chithra, 2022). These values determine how communities perceive
and interact with their environment, influencing their commitment to sustainable practices. Cultures that emphasize harmony with nature and collective well-being are more likely to prioritize environmental sustainability and social equity. Conversely, cultures that prioritize economic growth and individual success may focus more on economic sustainability. The integration of cultural values into sustainability efforts ensures that initiatives are contextually relevant and resonate with the local population, enhancing their effectiveness and acceptance. Moreover, cultural values impact the development and implementation of sustainability policies and practices. Policymakers and funders often consider cultural contexts when designing and supporting sustainability projects to ensure they align with local traditions and values. This alignment can lead to greater community engagement and support for sustainability initiatives. Additionally, cultural values can drive innovation in sustainability by inspiring unique and culturally relevant solutions to environmental and social challenges. Recognizing the importance of cultural values in sustainability efforts helps create more inclusive and effective strategies that address the diverse needs and priorities of different communities

### d. Geographical and Climatic Conditions

Geographical and climatic conditions significantly influence the prioritization of sustainability dimensions in built environment research (Vera et al., 2022). In arid regions, where water scarcity is a major concern, the focus often shifts towards water conservation and efficient usage, incorporating technologies like greywater recycling and drought-resistant landscaping. Conversely, in tropical climates with high humidity and rainfall, the emphasis might be on managing moisture and preventing mold growth, alongside harnessing solar energy due to abundant sunlight. Coastal areas, vulnerable to sea-level rise and storms, prioritize resilient construction techniques and flood defenses to protect infrastructure. In colder climates, energy efficiency becomes paramount, with research directed towards improving insulation, heating systems, and utilizing passive solar design to reduce energy consumption. Urban areas with high population densities might prioritize reducing air pollution and enhancing green spaces to improve air quality and residents' well-being. Thus, the unique geographical and climatic conditions of each region dictate which sustainability dimensions are most critical, guiding researchers to develop tailored solutions that address specific environmental challenges and opportunities.

### e. Availability of Technology

The availability of technology plays a crucial role in determining which sustainability dimensions are prioritized in built environment research (Yevu et al., 2021). In regions with advanced technological infrastructure, there is often a greater emphasis on integrating cutting-edge solutions such as smart grids, renewable energy systems, and advanced building materials that enhance energy efficiency and reduce environmental impact. These areas can leverage technologies like IoT, AI, and big data analytics to optimize resource management and improve urban planning. Conversely, in regions where technological resources are limited, the focus may shift towards more accessible and cost-effective sustainability measures, such as passive design strategies, local materials, and community-based initiatives. Any disparity in digital technology availability or readiness will undoubtedly influence the implementation of sustainable practices; for instance, areas with limited access to renewable energy technologies might prioritize energy conservation and efficiency over generation. Thus, the level of technological advancement in a region shapes the feasibility and implementation of various sustainability strategies, guiding researchers to develop context-specific solutions that align with the available resources and capabilities.

### f. Social Equity

The prioritization of social equity varies across different contexts. Accordingly, this reality significantly influences the choice of what sustainability dimensions are emphasized by scholars (Marais et al., 2020; Zallio & Clarkson, 2021). In areas with high levels of social inequality, researchers may focus on creating inclusive urban spaces that address the needs of underserved and vulnerable populations. This could involve prioritizing affordable housing, ensuring equitable access to public services, and developing community spaces that foster social integration. Conversely, in regions where social equity is less of a pressing issue, the
focus might shift towards other sustainability dimensions such as energy efficiency, environmental conservation, or technological innovation. The varying emphasis on social equity across different contexts shapes the research agenda, guiding scholars to tailor their sustainability strategies to address the unique social dynamics and needs of each community. This approach ensures that sustainable development efforts are both contextually relevant and effective in promoting overall well-being and resilience.

### g. Historical Built Environment Context

The historical features of built environments across different contexts play a pivotal role in shaping the sustainability dimensions prioritized by scholars in the field (Hakiminejad et al., 2015; Tweed & Sutherland, 2007). In cities with rich architectural heritage, the focus will often lie with the need to preserve historical structures while integrating modern sustainable features and practices. This might involve retrofitting ancient buildings with energy-efficient technologies or using traditional materials and techniques that have stood the test of time. The challenge here is to balance conservation with innovation, ensuring that the cultural and historical integrity of these sites is maintained while enhancing their environmental performance. In contrast, regions with a more recent urban development history may prioritize different sustainability dimensions. Here, the emphasis might be on addressing urban sprawl, improving energy efficiency in newer buildings, and developing green infrastructure. The lack of historical constraints allows for more flexibility in implementing cutting-edge sustainable technologies and urban planning strategies. In post-industrial cities, the focus might be on repurposing old industrial sites into sustainable, mixed-use developments. The historical context of these cities drives a unique set of sustainability priorities aimed at revitalizing and transforming the urban landscape. Overall, the historically built environment features of a region significantly influence the sustainability dimensions that scholars prioritize. Whether it is about preserving ancient architecture, addressing the challenges of modern urbanization, or revitalizing post-industrial landscapes, the historical context provides a framework that guides sustainable development efforts, ensuring they are both contextually relevant and effective.

### h. Resource Availability

The availability of resources across different contexts significantly influences the sustainability dimensions prioritized by scholars in the built environment field (Zahoor et al., 2022). In resource-rich regions, where materials and energy sources are abundant, the focus often shifts towards optimizing the use of these resources to enhance efficiency and reduce waste. Scholars in these areas might prioritize the development of advanced technologies, such as renewable energy systems, smart grids, and high-performance building materials, to leverage the available resources effectively. Conversely, in resource-scarce regions, the emphasis is on maximizing the use of limited resources and finding innovative solutions to overcome shortages. Here, sustainable built environment research might prioritize water conservation, energy efficiency, and the use of locally available materials. Strategies such as rainwater harvesting, passive solar design, and the use of recycled or low-impact materials become crucial in these contexts. The goal is to create sustainable solutions that are both affordable and practical given the resource constraints. In regions where certain resources are particularly scarce, such as water in arid areas or energy in remote locations, the prioritization of sustainability dimensions is even more pronounced. Scholars might focus on developing technologies and practices that specifically address these critical shortages, such as desalination plants, off-grid renewable energy systems, and energy-efficient building designs. Overall, the level of resource availability in a region shapes the sustainability priorities of built environment scholars. Whether it is about optimal use of abundant resources or innovating to overcome scarcity, the context-specific availability of resources guides the research and development of sustainable practices that are both effective and relevant to the local conditions. This tailored approach ensures that sustainability efforts are practical, impactful, and aligned with the unique challenges and opportunities of each region.

## THE ROLE OF EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology, derived from the juxtaposition of the Greek words “epistēmē” and “logos,” is a term that delves into the philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge (Audi, 2010). “Episteme” can be translated as “knowledge,” “understanding,” or “acquaintance,” while “logos” can be translated as “account,”
"argument," or "reason" (Woozley, 2020). Often referred to as the theory of knowledge, epistemology explores how we come to know what we know and the validity of that knowledge (Rescher, 2012). Epistemology seeks to comprehend the fundamental and widespread aspects of human inquiry, like perceptual knowledge and inductive reasoning, whilst exploring particular areas of knowledge or rational belief (Cruz, 2006).

In the context of Sustainable Built Environment (SBE) research, epistemology examines the origins and nature of knowledge specific to this field. It focuses on how knowledge is constructed, validated, and applied concerning sustainable concepts, practices, and technologies in the built environment (Brenner & Schmid, 2015). This involves critically questioning the methodologies, assumptions, and biases that influence research outcomes to ensure credibility, relevance, and applicability of emergent knowledge. By doing so, epistemology in SBE research helps create a robust foundation for policy-making, implementation, and innovation, ultimately leading to profound impacts on sustainable development practices.

## Components of SBE epistemology

Components of an epistemology as elucidated by Audi (2010), Cruz (2006) and Rescher (2012), albeit with a focus on the sustainable built environment, knowledge domain are presented below.

### a. Sources of Knowledge

Sources of knowledge are fundamental to the epistemology of sustainable built environments, shaping how scholars understand and approach sustainability challenges. These sources can be broadly categorized into empirical, rational, and indigenous knowledge systems. Empirical knowledge, derived from observation and experimentation, provides data-driven insights into environmental performance, resource usage, and the impacts of various building practices, which are crucial for developing evidence-based strategies and technologies. Rational knowledge involves logical reasoning and theoretical frameworks that help in understanding complex systems and predicting outcomes, including mathematical models, simulations, and theoretical constructs that guide sustainable practices. Indigenous knowledge encompasses the traditional wisdom and practices of local communities, which have evolved over centuries to adapt to specific environmental conditions, offering context-specific insights and sustainable practices often overlooked by modern science. By integrating these diverse sources of knowledge, scholars can develop a more holistic and effective approach to sustainability in the built environment, ensuring solutions are scientifically sound, culturally relevant, and practically applicable, leading to more resilient and sustainable urban and rural spaces.

### b. Nature of Knowledge

The nature of knowledge in sustainable built environment epistemology encompasses the understanding of how knowledge is created, validated, and applied within the field. It involves recognizing the interdisciplinary nature of sustainability, which draws from various domains such as environmental science, engineering, social sciences, and humanities. This multifaceted approach ensures that knowledge is comprehensive and considers multiple perspectives. Additionally, the nature of knowledge in this context emphasizes the importance of both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating scientific measurements with human experiences and values. It also acknowledges the dynamic and evolving nature of knowledge, where continuous learning and adaptation are crucial in responding to new challenges and discoveries. By appreciating the diverse and evolving nature of knowledge, scholars can develop more robust and adaptable strategies for creating sustainable built environments that are responsive to both current and future needs.

### c. Scope of Knowledge

The scope of knowledge in sustainable built environment epistemology encompasses the breadth and depth of information and understanding required to address the complex challenges of sustainability. It includes a wide range of topics such as energy efficiency, resource management, environmental impact, social equity, and economic viability. This broad scope ensures that all relevant aspects of sustainability are considered, from the micro-level details of building materials and construction techniques to the macro-level implications of urban planning and policy-making. Additionally, the scope of knowledge extends to understanding the interactions between natural and built environments, recognizing the interconnectedness of ecological
systems and human activities. By embracing this comprehensive scope, scholars can develop holistic and integrated approaches that address the multifaceted nature of sustainability, ensuring that solutions are effective, inclusive, and resilient. This wide-ranging perspective is essential for creating built environments that are not only environmentally sustainable but also socially and economically viable.

### d. Justification

Justification is a critical component of sustainable built environment epistemology, as it involves providing sound reasoning and evidence to support the validity of knowledge claims within the field. This process ensures that the strategies and practices proposed for sustainability are based on credible and reliable information. Justification requires rigorous scientific methods, including empirical research, data analysis, and peer review, to validate findings and conclusions. It also involves ethical considerations, ensuring that the proposed solutions are not only effective but also equitable and socially responsible. By emphasizing justification, scholars can build a robust foundation of knowledge that is transparent, accountable, and trustworthy. This, in turn, fosters confidence in sustainable practices and policies, encouraging their adoption and implementation across various contexts. Ultimately, justification helps to ensure that the pursuit of sustainability in the built environment is grounded in well-substantiated and rationally defensible principles.

### e. Skepticism

As a vital component of sustainable built environment epistemology, skepticism encourages researchers to critically examine and interrogate existing knowledge, assumptions, practices and ground norms. This epistemological facet ensures that proposed solutions and strategies are rigorously evaluated for their validity, effectiveness, and resultant unintended consequences. By fostering a culture of skepticism, scholars and practitioners are prompted to continuously seek evidence, challenge prevailing paradigms, and remain open to new ideas and innovations in their drive for context-relevant solutions to the problems, negating the attainment of sustainable built environments. This critical mindset helps scholars to identify and address any flaws or limitations in existing sustainability initiatives, hence leading to more robust and resilient outcomes. In addition, skepticism promotes transparency and accountability, as it prioritizes the use of credible and verifiable evidence to substantiate assertions and decisions regarding relevant phenomena. Ultimately, skepticism in sustainable built environment research drives the pursuit of excellence and continuous improvement, ensuring that sustainability efforts are grounded in sound reasoning and empirical evidence.

### f. Truth

Truth is a fundamental component of sustainable built environment epistemology, as it underpins the integrity and reliability of knowledge within the field. Pursuing truth involves commitment to accuracy, honesty, and objectivity in research and practice. Scholars and practitioners strive to uncover and present factual information, free from bias or distortion, to ensure that sustainability strategies are based on solid evidence and sound reasoning. This dedication to truth helps build a trustworthy foundation for decision-making, fostering confidence in the proposed solutions and their potential to achieve genuine sustainability. Moreover, the pursuit of truth encourages transparency and accountability, as it requires that all claims and findings be open to scrutiny and verification. By prioritizing truth, the field of sustainable built environments can develop more effective, credible, and ethical approaches to addressing the complex challenges of sustainability, ultimately leading to more resilient and sustainable communities.

Accordingly, the epistemology of contemporary sustainable built environment knowledge is predicated upon the consideration of the abovementioned components and any or a combination of the following:

**Theory (Theoretical Lens):** A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspects of the natural world that is based on a body of evidence and repeatedly tested through observation and experimentation (Weick, 1995). It is a framework for understanding how certain phenomena work, allowing predictions and further investigation (Abend, 2008). A cursory review of the theories underpinning research into the sustainable built environment knowledge domain reveals the prevalence of four main clusters (see Figure 2). These clusters are discussed below.
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2: Popular Theories in Sustainable Built Environment Research</figcaption></figure>

a. *The Red Cluster*

This cluster encompasses a range of studies related to Construction and Architecture, focusing on key areas such as architectural design, the construction industry, decision making, energy utilization, and building information modeling (BIM). These studies are driven by several foundational theories. Decision Theory is employed to guide the complex decision-making processes involved in construction projects, ensuring that choices are made based on a balance of cost, quality, and sustainability. Sustainable Design Theory (SDT) underpins efforts to create buildings that are not only aesthetically pleasing but also environmentally responsible, emphasizing energy efficiency and minimal environmental impact. Building Information Modeling (BIM) Theory supports the integration of digital tools to create detailed representations of buildings, facilitating better planning, design, and management throughout the construction lifecycle. By leveraging these theories, researchers in the Red Cluster investigate and exemplify the phenomena associated with the keywords, advancing knowledge and practices in sustainable construction and architecture.

b. *The Blue Cluster*

Studies in this cluster focus on Sustainable Development and Environmental Economics, addressing key areas such as sustainable development, government, tourism, rural areas, environment, economics, and ecology. These studies are driven by several fundamental theories. Sustainability Theory provides a framework for understanding how to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, emphasizing long-term environmental stewardship and social equity. Ecological Economics integrates ecological and economic principles to evaluate the sustainability of economic activities, ensuring that economic growth does not come at the expense of environmental health. Stakeholder Theory highlights the importance of considering the interests and impacts on all stakeholders, including governments, communities, and businesses, in the pursuit of sustainable development. By leveraging these theories, researchers in the Blue Cluster investigate and exemplify the complex interactions between economic activities, environmental health, and social well-being, advancing knowledge and practices that promote a more sustainable and equitable world.
### c. *The Green Cluster*

With a focus on Spatial and Environmental Sciences, studies and theories in this cluster address key areas such as human interactions, land use, spatiotemporal analysis, and ecosystem services. These studies are driven by several fundamental theories. Spatial Analysis Theory provides tools and methods for examining the spatial distribution of various phenomena, enabling researchers to understand patterns and processes related to land use and human activities over time. Ecosystem Services Theory emphasizes the benefits that ecosystems provide to humans, such as clean water, air, and food, highlighting the importance of preserving and managing these natural resources sustainably. Human Ecology Theory explores the relationships between humans and their environments, examining how cultural, social, and economic factors influence land use and environmental impact. By leveraging these theories, researchers in the Green Cluster investigate and exemplify the complex interactions between human activities and the environment, particularly in the context of China. This comprehensive approach advances knowledge and practices that promote sustainable land use, enhance ecosystem services, and foster harmonious human-environment interactions.

### d. *The Yellow Cluster*

The studies in this cluster focus on Material Science and Environmental Chemistry, addressing key areas such as carbon sequestration, electrolysis, metals, oxygen, and current density. These studies are driven by several fundamental theories. Density Functional Theory (DFT) provides a quantum mechanical framework for investigating the electronic structure of materials, enabling researchers to predict and understand the properties of various substances at the atomic level. Electrochemistry Theory explores the chemical processes that occur at the interface of an electrode and an electrolyte, which is crucial for understanding and optimizing electrolysis and other electrochemical reactions. Materials Science Theory encompasses the study of the properties, performance, and applications of materials, guiding the development of new materials with enhanced characteristics such as higher strength, conductivity, or reactivity. By leveraging these theories, researchers in the Yellow Cluster investigate and exemplify the complex interactions between materials and their environments, particularly focusing on processes like electrolysis and the behavior of metals and carbon-based materials. This comprehensive approach advances knowledge and practices in material science and environmental chemistry, leading to innovations that improve energy efficiency, reduce environmental impact, and enhance the performance of various technologies.

## THE NATURE OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS/HYPOTHESIS/PROPOSITIONS

Another facet into which these components of epistemology must be incorporated is the nature of the research questions, hypotheses or propositions which are expected to guide such knowledge production processes. According to the dominant research methodological frameworks, these questions or propositions are usually predicated on a variety of facets such as the researcher's philosophical worldviews or paradigms, the approach to theory development or reasoning logic, the methodological choice, research strategy and the time horizon within which the study is expected to be conducted (Saunders et al., 2009). These facets have impacted the knowledge production process over an extensive period of time. Notably, no consideration has been explicitly given to context-dependent variables in these research methodological frameworks.

Although recent attempts by scholars to develop frameworks for research question formulation have fared better than the extant methodological frameworks regarding the consideration of context-based variables, they appear to have towed a similar trajectory regarding the approach adopted. For instance, Robinson et al. (2011) suggest the use of a 5-point theoretical model to articulate the research gap and question. This 5-point model labelled PICOS comprises the following components: population, intervention, comparison, outcome and setting.

Within the PICOS model, population refers to the segment of the population that is the focus of the research, intervention focuses on the primary intervention, such as a treatment or procedure, being considered, comparison is the alternative against which the intervention is compared, outcome details the effects of the intervention or comparison, including the measurement of these effects and the setting relates to the context in which the research is conducted, which can include the location or specific conditions (Robinson et al., 2011). On the surface, this
model allows for a consideration of contextual peculiarities. However, a downside is the focus on testing interventions which have been developed for other contexts within contexts for which these interventions and their alternatives can be considered alien. Although available evidence suggests that this model has been deployed mostly in the health and mainstream sciences, existing research into the actualization of sustainable built environments in the Global South has followed this pathway. Sustainable built environment research in the Global South remains focused on evaluating the applicability or utility of design and construction-related interventions or theories which enjoy provenance in the Global North, in the former. This has undermined the ability of scholars and practitioners alike in the Global South to craft context-specific and relevant knowledge and interventions towards engendering a sustainable built environment.

This observation has heightened the clamour for a renewed inclination towards the prioritization of the context-focused epistemologies, particularly those relating to the Global South (Epistemologies of the South).

## A Global South Approach to Sustainable Built Environment Knowledge

The concept of Epistemologies of the South, introduced by Portuguese sociologist Boaventura de Sousa Santos (de Sousa Santos, 2015; de Sousa Santos & Meneses, 2019), critiques the dominance of Western-centric knowledge systems while championing the diversity of knowledge originating from the Global South. Santos's framework highlights the limitations of Eurocentric epistemologies, which often overlook and marginalize non-Western forms of knowledge. By emphasizing Indigenous, local, and subaltern perspectives, this concept advocates for cognitive justice—the recognition and validation of diverse knowledge systems and their crucial role in understanding the world. de Sousa Santos (2015) calls for a critical examination of the relevance and suitability of established epistemological constructs, including theories, research questions, and methodological choices, urging scholars to embrace a more inclusive and pluralistic approach to knowledge production. This shift is essential for addressing global challenges in a way that respects and incorporates the rich tapestry of human experiences and wisdom.

Such a shift will involve key changes to the current epistemologies. Some of these changes are discussed below.

1. **Recognition of Diverse Knowledge Systems:** Researchers are encouraged to value and integrate Indigenous, local, and subaltern knowledge systems, which have often been marginalized or overlooked by traditional Western methodologies. Examples of some of these indigenous knowledge systems and philosophies are articulated below:

I. *Indigenous Knowledge/Philosophies/Theories*

African philosophies and theories offer a valuable framework for sustainability, particularly through Indigenous knowledge, ethical perspectives, and community-centered approaches. One notable example is the philosophy of Ubuntu, which translates to "I am because we are" (Lutz, 2009). This philosophy highlights the interconnectedness of all people and the importance of community and mutual care. In the context of sustainable built environment research, Ubuntu can guide the development of inclusive and community-focused urban planning and architectural practices. It encourages the creation of communal spaces that foster social interaction and collective well-being, such as shared gardens, community centers, and public spaces. Additionally, Ubuntu promotes the use of local materials and labor, ensuring that development benefits are distributed within the community and cultural heritage is preserved. By integrating Ubuntu principles into sustainable built environment research, scholars can develop approaches that prioritize social equity, community engagement, and environmental stewardship (Ojiako et al., 2014; Rwelamila et al., 1999). This leads to more resilient and harmonious communities, reflecting the core tenet of Ubuntu: interconnectedness and communal well-being.

II. *African Indigenous Knowledge System (AIKS)*

This system encompasses traditional practices and wisdom passed down through generations, often rooted in a deep understanding of local ecosystems. An example of an African Indigenous
Knowledge System (AIKS) in the context of sustainable built environments is the traditional practice of agroforestry in Africa (Ntawuruhunga et al., 2023; Santoro, 2023). Agroforestry involves integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes, which has been practiced for centuries by local communities. This system is rooted in a deep understanding of local ecosystems and offers numerous sustainability benefits. For instance, the trees provide shade and windbreaks, reducing soil erosion and improving microclimates for crops. They also enhance soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and organic matter addition, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Additionally, agroforestry supports biodiversity by creating habitats for various species and contributes to carbon sequestration, helping to mitigate climate change. This traditional practice exemplifies how indigenous knowledge, passed down through generations, can contribute to sustainable land use and environmental stewardship, ensuring the resilience and productivity of agricultural systems while preserving ecological balance.

### III. Holism

This is a dominant feature in African philosophies, which often view the world as a complex, interconnected system. Within the context of sustainable built environment research, this feature envisions the built environment as an intricate tapestry of interdependent systems, seamlessly integrating ecological, social, economic, and cultural dimensions to create a harmonious and sustainable whole (Booth, 2008; Farid et al., 2017). This philosophy advocates synergistic ecosystems where natural and built environments coalesce, fostering biodiversity and ecological balance (Booth, 2008). It promotes symbiotic economies that are deeply intertwined with local communities and natural resources, creating economic models that sustain and regenerate local economies and ecosystems (Fowler et al., 2024). Holism emphasizes interwoven social fabrics, cultivating communities where social structures are linked with the physical environment to enhance social cohesion and collective well-being. Additionally, it underscores the importance of cultural continuity, preserving and integrating cultural heritage within the built environment to ensure that development respects and enhances cultural identities (dos Santos, 2023; Naudé, 2024). By adopting a holistic approach, sustainable built environment research transcends traditional boundaries, fostering a comprehensive and interconnected vision of urban development that is resilient, equitable, and harmonious.

### IV. Pan-Africanism and Decolonial thought

This concept advocates for the unity and self-determination of African nations, has evolved to address contemporary challenges, including sustainable development (Kessi et al., 2021). Pan-Africanism and Decolonial thought offer profound insights for sustainable built environment research by emphasizing the reclamation and integration of African identities, knowledge systems, and cultural practices. Pan-Africanism advocates for unity and solidarity among African nations and peoples, promoting the use of Indigenous knowledge and local resources in urban planning and architecture. This approach fosters self-reliance and resilience, ensuring that development is rooted in the continent's unique cultural and environmental contexts. Decolonial thought, on the other hand, challenges the dominance of Western paradigms and seeks to dismantle colonial legacies in the built environment. It encourages the adoption of alternative, locally-informed practices that prioritize social justice, equity, and environmental sustainability. By integrating Pan-Africanism and Decolonial thought, sustainable built environment research can create inclusive, culturally resonant, and ecologically sound urban spaces that reflect and celebrate African heritage and values.

### V. Afrocentric Environmental Ethics and Justice

This principle is rooted in traditional spiritual beliefs and emphasizes the sacredness of nature (Ssebunya et al., 2019). Afrocentric Environmental Ethics, within the context of sustainable built environment research, emphasizes the intrinsic connection between humans and nature, rooted
in African cultural and philosophical traditions. This ethical framework advocates for a
harmonious relationship with the environment, recognizing the interdependence of all living and
non-living elements (Manzini, 2019). It promotes the use of Indigenous knowledge systems and
practices that have sustained African communities for generations, such as sustainable
agriculture, water management, and construction techniques (Manzini, 2019; Ssebunya et al.,
2019). By valuing and integrating these traditional practices, Afrocentric Environmental Ethics
seeks to create built environments that are not only ecologically sustainable but also culturally
resonant and socially equitable. This approach challenges the dominance of Western paradigms,
advocating for development that respects and enhances local ecosystems and cultural heritage,
ultimately fostering resilient and thriving communities.

2. Cognitive Justice

Cognitive justice is a concept that emphasizes the importance of recognizing and validating the legitimacy of diverse ways of knowing. It advocates for research methodologies that respect and incorporate the perspectives and experiences of various communities, particularly those that have been historically marginalized or overlooked (Odora Hoppers, 2021). This approach ensures that the knowledge and insights of Indigenous, local, and subaltern groups are valued and integrated into the research process. By doing so, cognitive justice promotes a more equitable and inclusive understanding of the world, challenging the dominance of Western-centric epistemologies and fostering a richer, more diverse tapestry of knowledge (Rodriguez, 2017). This shift not only enhances the relevance and impact of research but also empowers communities by acknowledging their contributions and ensuring their voices are heard.

3. Contextual Relevance

Contextual relevance in research methodologies involves adapting research questions, methods, and interpretations to align with the specific cultural, social, and environmental contexts of the communities being studied (Sabuj et al., 2021). This approach ensures that the research is not only accurate but also meaningful and applicable to the local context. By grounding methodologies in the unique characteristics and needs of the community, researchers can gather more relevant and insightful data (Flynn et al., 2021). This leads to findings that are more likely to be accepted and utilized by the community, as they resonate with their lived experiences and realities. Additionally, contextually relevant methodologies help to avoid the imposition of external perspectives that may not be suitable or effective in the local setting, thereby promoting more sustainable and impactful outcomes.

4. Participatory Approaches

Participatory approaches emphasize the active involvement of community members in the research
process, transforming them from passive subjects to active participants (Fraser et al., 2006). This
collaborative method ensures that the research is more equitable, as it respects and incorporates the
knowledge, experiences, and perspectives of the community. By engaging community members in the
design, implementation, and analysis phases, participatory approaches foster a sense of ownership and
empowerment. This not only enhances the relevance and accuracy of the research but also ensures that
the outcomes are directly beneficial to the communities involved. Ultimately, participatory approaches
promote social justice and inclusivity, leading to more meaningful and impactful research. Participatory
approaches improve data quality by actively involving community members in the research process,
which enhances the accuracy, relevance, and reliability of the data collected (Vaidya & Mayer, 2014).
When community members participate, they bring valuable local knowledge and insights that help ensure
the data reflects the true context and experiences of the community. This fosters a sense of ownership and
trust, leading to more honest and comprehensive data collection. Additionally, participatory methods
often involve continuous feedback loops, allowing for real-time verification and correction of data, which
enhances its precision and integrity (Fraser et al., 2006). By engaging diverse stakeholders, participatory
approaches also help identify and address potential biases, ensuring that the data is more inclusive and
representative. Overall, these methods create a more robust and credible data set that better informs
research outcomes and policy decisions.

5. **Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Methods**

Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary methods involve integrating knowledge and perspectives from multiple fields to address complex issues comprehensively (Butt & Dimitrijević, 2022; Schneider et al., 2023). These approaches break down traditional academic silos, fostering collaboration among diverse disciplines such as sociology, ecology, economics, and cultural studies. By drawing on a wide range of expertise and viewpoints, researchers can develop a more holistic understanding of the problems they are studying. This not only enriches the research process but also leads to more innovative and effective solutions that are better suited to the multifaceted nature of real-world challenges. Ultimately, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary methods promote a more inclusive and nuanced approach to knowledge production, reflecting the diverse realities and experiences of different communities. Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary methods have a profound impact on policy-making by promoting a more integrated and comprehensive approach to tackling complex issues. By breaking down traditional academic barriers, these methods encourage collaboration across various fields and incorporate diverse perspectives, including those from outside the academic sphere. This holistic approach ensures that policy decisions are informed by a broad spectrum of knowledge and expertise, leading to more innovative and effective solutions. The involvement of these multiple stakeholders, such as community members, policymakers, and experts from different disciplines, fosters inclusivity and ensures that policies are more relevant and responsive to the needs of diverse populations. Ultimately, these methods enhance the quality and impact of policy-making, resulting in more sustainable and equitable outcomes.

By embracing these principles, researchers can develop methodologies that are more inclusive, equitable, and capable of addressing the diverse realities and challenges faced by communities around the world, including experiences in the Global South, which negate the actualization of sustainable built environments therein.

CONCLUSION

This study has critically examined the epistemology of sustainable built environment research in developing countries, highlighting the unique challenges and opportunities within this context. The construction industry, a significant contributor to unsustainable practices, faces immense pressure to transform and align with global sustainability aspirations. Despite the proliferation of concepts such as sustainable construction, net-zero energy buildings, and circular economy models, their application in developing countries remains limited and often ineffective due to contextual peculiarities. The analysis revealed that many solutions developed in the Global North do not seamlessly translate to the Global South, primarily due to differences in socio-economic, cultural, and environmental conditions. This underscores the necessity for context-specific research and the development of tailored solutions that consider local realities. The study advocates for a renewed focus on the epistemologies of the South, emphasizing the integration of indigenous knowledge systems, participatory approaches, and interdisciplinary methods to create relevant and sustainable built environments.

Furthermore, the study elucidated key pathways for achieving sustainable built environments, including circular economy principles, sustainable design and construction, digitalization, and the adoption of net-zero carbon strategies. However, the success of these pathways is contingent upon addressing the contextual factors that influence the prioritization of sustainability dimensions, such as economic conditions, policy frameworks, cultural values, and technological availability. Summarily, the pursuit of sustainable built environments in developing countries requires a paradigm shift towards inclusive and contextually relevant research methodologies. By embracing diverse knowledge systems and fostering collaborative approaches, scholars and practitioners can develop innovative solutions that are not only environmentally sustainable but also socially equitable and economically viable. This holistic approach is essential for achieving long-term sustainability and resilience in the built environment, ultimately contributing to the global sustainability agenda.
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Chapter Two

Systematic Review on the Effect of Indoor Thermal Comfort Conditions on Academic Performance of Students

Chinedu U. Oluigbo<fnref n="1" />; Marcellinus U. Okafor<fnref n="2" />; Ephraim O. Nwanguma2

EMAIL: chineduoluigbo@ndu.edu.ng

ABSTRACT

Thermal Comfort is associated with health, cognitive ability, and academic performance of students. Environmental parameters, human physical and psychological parameters constitute factors that influence indoor thermal comfort, and consequently, the academic performance of students in educational buildings. Hence, academic performance portrays the degree to which a student has met set short- or long-term educational goals, which is essential for career development. This study reviews indoor thermal comfort conditions and associated academic performance of students in articles published between 2013 and 2023. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis review methodology was used to select the 14 articles for this study. The findings from the selected articles were synthesized and discussed using a narrative approach. The study captured comfort limits to vary based on sundry factors such as: air and radiant temperature, relative humidity, clothing, physical activity and metabolic rates, perception / thermal sensation, climatic factors, characteristic seasons, ventilation modes, and physical condition of learning spaces. This review revealed that academic outcomes, study-related attitudes and perceived learning of students varied significantly with indoor thermal comfort conditions. Furthermore, the review found out dearth in studies investigating the relationship between indoor thermal comfort conditions and academic performance of architecture students, hence, the study recommends more research focus as it pertains to universities in south-eastern, Nigeria.

KEYWORDS: Academic performance; Educational buildings; Indoor Thermal Comfort; Students; Systematic Review

INTRODUCTION

Global climate change is increasing according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] Fifth Assessment Report [AR5] (IPCC, 2015). The global temperature increased from 0.56°C to 0.92°C between 1906 and 2014 (IPCC, 2015). Until the end of this century, the planet's temperature is predicted to rise by an average of 0.2°C per ten years (Abdussalam, 2014). Therefore, all life on Earth faces an existential threat from a globe that is warming quickly. The way and time at which we respond will determine how severe it gets (Abdussalam, 2014). More so, a 2017 World Bank study found that rising temperatures and humidity levels can trigger numerous degradation processes and material damage and pose a risk to health and indoor thermal comfort [ITC]. Hence, thermal comfort has always been linked with health and overall well-being and significantly impacts students' performance, productivity, and concentration in educational buildings (Lamberti, Salvadori, Leccese, Fantozzi, & Bluyssen, 2021). The thermal environment of learning spaces [Ls] directly impacts students' mood, concentration, physical and mental health, and learning efficiency (Zhang et al, 2022). Of all the parameters related to Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) in a building, such as the thermal, visual, and acoustic environment, air quality, and building characteristics, thermal comfort is ranked as having a greater influence on overall indoor satisfaction than impact of other parameters (Zagreus, Huizenga, Arens & Lehrer, 2004; Frontczak & Wargocki, 2011). Specifically, ITC is one of the primary IEQ indicators that could impact students' academic performance and health (Sarbu & Pacurar, 2015). According to Bloyssen (2018) and Corgnati, Filippi, and Viazzo (2007), inadequate thermal environment design in Ls can lead to a rise in thermal discomfort and health issues, such as headaches, dizziness, and muscle soreness. According to Zomorodian, Tahsildoost, and Hafezi (2016), it might also increase the amount of energy used for heating and cooling. Additionally, studies have shown that ventilation and thermal comfort levels have an impact on reading accuracy, academic performance [AP] and learning abilities, cognitive functioning, stress and mental exhaustion, productivity, absences due to illness, and attention (Karjalainen, 2012; Abdallah, 2015; Indraganti, Ooka, & Rijal, 2015; Mishra & Ramgopal, 2015; Bajc, Banjac, Todorovic, Mishra, & Ramgopal, 2015; Jiang, Landoli, Van-Dessel, Liu, & Whitehill, 2019; Fabozzi & Dama, 2020; Fazio, Ge, Rao, & Desmarais, 2020; Sun, Luo, & Ming, 2022). According to the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers [ASHRAE], thermal comfort is the mental state of a person

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Architecture, Niger Delta University, PMB 071, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Architecture, Imo State University, PMB 2000, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria</footnote>
that reflects contentment with his/her surroundings, and several factors can affect the comfort of occupants (ASHRAE, 2017). The surroundings on which the person reflects his/her contentment can be outdoor or indoor, thus, when indoor is referred to as “Indoor Thermal Comfort”. The drive for improved levels of thermal comfort in the built environment has seemed to be further delineated among scholars as it concerns ITC and outdoor thermal comfort [OTC] (Masmoudi & Mazouz, 2004). According to Arup and Design genre (2016), the ITC conditions can be influenced by environmental, human physical factors, or psychological factors. Hence, the most influential parameters in the study of ITC remain environmental factors [EF]; air temperature [TA], radiant temperature [TR], air velocity [AV], and relative humidity [RH] (Ogunsote, 1990; Odim & Onyegiri, 2008; Alozie, 2014) while the human physical factors [HPF] are clothing [Clo], physical activity [PA], and metabolic rate [MET], in addition, psychological factors [PF]; human perception, seasonal expectations, and control capacity (Arup & Design genre, 2016). ITC is achieved when occupants can pursue their daily endeavors without any hindrances for which the building is intended (Aminu, Bello, Mbasumai, & Danladi, 2023). Hence, ITC varies from person to person and is generally measured through subjective assessment (Moktan & Uprety, 2023). Izobo-Martins, Aboderin, Abah, and Ilolo (2017) also found out that both internal and external areas of Ls impact students' creativity. Also, sundry studies conducted on the effect of ITC conditions on academic performance [AP] of students in educational buildings have shown to vary due to factors such as climate, environment, building materials and services, furniture, and personal factors (Izobo-Martins et al., 2017; Bena, Gillott, & Boukanouf, 2023; Nordin et al., 2019).

In 2016, the trending issues of global warming and climate change heightened the need for improved ITC conditions in educational buildings and has in turn sparked further interest in investigating environmental factors of ITC - Ta, Tr, Va, and Rh (Alozie, Alozie & Fenibo, 2016). According to Chenvidyakarn (2007), ITC depends on weather, environment, and design of the building which contributes 75% to its comfort level. Hence, there comes the challenge of achieving thermal comfort in indoor educational spaces due to extreme weather conditions (Chenvidyakarn, 2007).

Thereto, it becomes critical to embark on this study to stimulate awareness on improving the design and management of Ls to ensure thermal acceptability among students. In particular, this study provides insight into the relationship between ITC conditions and AP of students with special emphasis on the need for stakeholders and players in the education sector to prioritize the provision of comfortable learning environments for students. To the best of our knowledge, there is a limited study that provides an overview of both ITC conditions and related AP of students in one study. Hence, this systematic review was aimed to provide evidence about ITC conditions of learning spaces relative to AP of students/pupils unraveling a gap in the research focus. Hence, it explored and compared the ITC conditions of classrooms, lecture rooms, design studios, lecture theatres/halls, and dormitory rooms in respect to the performance of users. Lastly, the findings from the review can be used to understand how attaining thermal comfort influences the AP of students in educational buildings [Eb].

**Methodology**

The study adopted "PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) review methodology", which was particularly designed for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Page et al. 2021). This review methodology has been proven to be efficient in carrying out analysis in environmental sciences.

**Inclusion criteria**

This study includes research-based articles (field study), peer-reviewed, human participants, study findings comprising ITC conditions (any of its parameters), and AP of students in educational buildings. The extant articles reviewed in this paper span from 2013 - 2023.

**Exclusion criteria**

Excluded from this study are review articles, and studies on non-learning environments. Also, studies on OTC, and Semi-Outdoor Thermal Comfort (STC) conditions were not considered.

**Study selection and data search**

Articles selected for this study were drawn from: ScienceDirect, Semantic Scholar, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate databases. The search string was deduced while utilizing Boolean operators and keyword search as highlighted in Table 1. Also, titles and abstracts of all studies traced to be identical were examined to know those that satisfied the selection criteria.
<table><caption>Table 1: Keyword search used in the screening process</caption><thead><tr><td>Database</td><td>Search string</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ScienceDirect</td><td>TITLE-ABS-KEY (("indoor thermal comfort" OR "indoor thermal discomfort") AND ("academic performance" OR "performance" OR "thermal sensation") AND ("students" OR "educational buildings"))</td></tr><tr><td>Semantic Scholar</td><td>TS = (("indoor thermal comfort" OR "indoor thermal discomfort") AND ("academic performance" OR "performance" OR "thermal sensation") AND ("students" OR "educational buildings"))</td></tr><tr><td>Google Scholar</td><td>(("indoor thermal comfort" OR "indoor thermal discomfort") AND ("academic performance" OR "performance" OR "thermal sensation") AND ("students" OR "educational buildings"))</td></tr><tr><td>ResearchGate</td><td>(("indoor thermal comfort" OR "indoor thermal discomfort") AND ("academic performance" OR "performance" OR "thermal sensation") AND ("students" OR "educational buildings"))</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Quality assessment

The quality of the selected articles was evaluated utilizing the "Navigation Guide Systematic Review framework" (Woodruff & Sutton, 2014).

## Data extraction and synthesis

After the primary search, a standardized form to extract required data from identified studies via the research databases was created. This was presented in tabular format with the following field: Author(s) of the study, Country where the study was carried out, Climate of the study area, Season and duration of field study, Type of educational building or learning space, Ventilation type utilized, Study population (age and sample size), Physical condition of building/space, Clothing, Physical activity and Metabolic rate of students, Comfort level and model used, Perception/psychology of the students, Relative humidity, Air velocity/speed in the learning spaces, and Comfort temperature. These parameters and features were selected since they constitute the principal factors that affect the ITC condition of *Ls*.

This systematic review utilized a narrative synthesis encompassing descriptive data analysis. It generated relevant themes accordingly through familiar data, code generation, theme search, theme review, theme definition, and write-up (Clarke & Braun, 2013). Additionally, both the ITC conditions and AP were separately explained. In summation, the study findings were discussed using a narrative approach.

## RESULT

### Basic description

A total of 14 articles were selected based on the pre-determined inclusion criteria to identify the ITC conditions and associated AP of students (Fig. 1). The included articles represented 4 continents in the world: Africa (4 articles), Asia (6 articles), Europe (3 articles), and North America (1 article). The articles cut across different climatic and geographical zones: Cold (2 articles), Temperate (3 articles), Tropical (4 articles), Arid (4 articles), and Hot Desert (1). The sample size of the studies reviewed ranged from 42 - 1973. The studies were carried out in classrooms (n = 6), lecture rooms (n = 2), dormitory rooms (n = 1), and design studios (n = 7). The age of the sample sizes ranged from 18 to 30 years old. Hence, Table 2 summarizes the properties and key findings of the articles included in the review.

### Indoor Thermal Comfort conditions

The ITC conditions is described according to; Climatic conditions, Season and duration of field study, Type of educational building or learning space, Ventilation type, Study population (age and sample size), Physical condition of building/space, Clothing, Physical activity, and Metabolic rate of students, Thermal comfort index/model, Comfort limit / level, Perception/psychology of the students. The Thermal Comfort Model [TCM] used in all the articles varies between the Predicted Mean Votes [PMV] and the Adaptive model.
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1: The PRISMA flow diagram</figcaption></figure>

## Climate

The included studies in this review capture thermal comfort levels within cold, temperate, tropical, arid, hot desert, and continental monsoon climates in classrooms, dormitory rooms, lecture rooms, and design studios across different countries. For a long-year study in a cold climate, neutral temperature varies seasonally: summer - 26.2°C, winter - 22.4°C while average Indoor Relative humidity (IRh) - Spring: 66.1%, Summer: 68%, Autumn: 72.8%, Winter: 65%. In temperate climates, a lower number of students were found within the thermal comfort zone defined by national regulations in the studied educational buildings. In tropical climates, the comfort range for operative temperature ranges from 19.4–27.7 °C. An average of 58% of students’ votes were within the ASHRAE 55-2107 recommended comfort zone. One of the studies within the middle belt tropical savannah climate shows that the mean of thermal sensation votes is 0.6 at 25.6°C and 2.4 at 34.5°C. The study by Ifebi, Olotuah, and Ezeji (2019) in southeastern Nigerian universities found that 17.0% of architecture students felt comfortable with the sampled design studios. In the Continental monsoon climate, 63% of students were within the comfort limits for Design classrooms, and 79% for Dormitory rooms.

## Season, duration of study, and educational spaces

All the studies were carried out in varying seasons across corresponding climatic zones. However, only one of the studies in the cold region of China was a Year-long field study, others were done in varying duration in a year. These conditions affected the ITC of the lecture halls/theatres, classrooms, lecture rooms, dormitory rooms, and design studios selected in the respective studies. In addition, Students felt more uncomfortable during lesson hours than at lower activity levels.

## Study population, age, and ventilation type

The sample size from the studies spans from 42 - 1973 students between the ages of 18 – 30 years in different Ls. The population of males was from 44% – 63% while females ranged from 40% – 55% on average. One of the
studies incorporated 16 instructors as part of the study population. The ADS selected spans from 1 – 8. Another worked with 407 Junior Secondary School [JSS] students within 13 years in 11 schools. Significant differences in thermal sensation votes between female and male students (p < 0.001) show a neutral temperature one degree higher for females. The ventilation types recorded were NV, MM, MV, and AC. Most studies in cold and temperate regions evidenced the use of NV and MV, with radiators for heating in winter while in hot deserts and arid climates, Eb relied on AC. In the tropical climate especially in developing countries NV classrooms, lecture rooms, and design studios were featured. In general, 36% of the studies worked on Ls in NV while 14% in MV and AC with 50% on MM. Notably, students in NV classrooms were more tolerant of high temperatures.

<table><caption>Table 2: Properties and findings of the selected articles (n = 14)</caption><thead><tr><td>S/N</td><td>Author / Country</td><td>Climate</td><td>Season and duration of field study</td><td>Type of educational buildings</td><td>Ventilation type</td><td>Study Population</td><td>Clothing, Activity, and metabolic rate of students</td><td>Perception/psychology of the students</td><td>Relative humidity & Air velocity</td><td>Comfort tempt. / Model</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Wang et al. (2021). Xi'an, China</td><td>Cold</td><td>Year-long field study 12 months</td><td>University classrooms</td><td>Naturally ventilated [NV] with ceiling fans, and radiators for heating in winter (Nov. 15 - March 15)</td><td>1973 university students</td><td>Clothing insulation estimated based on EN ISO 9920-2007. 1.0 met.</td><td>Students in NV classrooms were more tolerant to temperatures deviating from neutral compared to AC classrooms.</td><td>Average IRh - Spring: 66.1%, Summer: 68%, Autumn: 72.8%, Winter: 65%.</td><td>Neutral temperature varies seasonally: summer - 26.2 °C, winter - 22.4 °C. (PMV)</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Aguilar et al. (2022). Spain, Granada</td><td>CSA (Köppen-Geiger climate classification)</td><td>Cold season</td><td>University lecture rooms</td><td>NV</td><td>989 university students (84% aged 18-24, 91% aged 18-30)</td><td>Clothing insulation values were calculated based on ISO 7730; Students remained seated during lectures lasting at least one hour.</td><td>55% of students were dissatisfied with the thermal environment. Significant differences in thermal sensation votes between female and male students (p < 0.001). The neutral temperature is one degree higher for females.</td><td>Av. IRh: 37.9%, Std. Dev: 7.3%, Max: 50.1%, Min: 19.6%; Av. Air Velocity: 0.03 m/s, Std. Dev: 0.04 m/s, Max: 0.19 m/s, Min: &lt;0.01 m/s</td><td>The T<sub>A</sub> is generally in the range 0-34 °C, and rarely rises above 38 °C or drops below -4 °C during the year.</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Jia et al. 2022. Hong Kong, China</td><td>Tropical (Specific classification not provided)</td><td>Not specified</td><td>University classroom</td><td>Mechanically ventilated [MV]</td><td>University students (Specific sample size not provided)</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Students prefer a relatively cold indoor environment to tolerate bad IAQ with high CO<sub>2</sub>. Air sensation (AS) is the most critical comfort aspect (weight of 0.32), followed by thermal sensation (weight of 0.18).</td><td>Rh: 47-63.5%</td><td>5-min averaged comfort range for operative temperature: 21.5°C - 23.8 °C</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Al-Jokhadar et al. (2023). Jordan</td><td>Arid</td><td>Autumn semester (October to February)</td><td>Architecture design studios and Classrooms</td><td>Mixed-mode [MM] (natural ventilation through windows + ceiling fans for cooling + radiators for heating)</td><td>16 instructors and 117 students (preliminary assessment), later focused on students in 4 studios - 173 architecture students</td><td>Metabolic rates are higher than students in regular classrooms due to design studio activities.</td><td>58% of students' thermal sensation votes were within the ASHRAE 55-2107 recommended comfort zone. In design studios, 53% of students felt warm, compared to 58.8% who felt cold in lecture rooms.</td><td>Design studio 3 had the lowest air temperature (17.3 °C) and the highest relative humidity (55.2%).</td><td>ASHRAE 55 Adaptive model</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Heracleous & Michael (2020) Cyprus</td><td>East-Mediterranean</td><td>Winter and Summer</td><td>Secondary School classrooms</td><td>NV</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Not specified</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Shi, Liu, Zhang, & Yue (2022). China</td><td>Cold</td><td>Two months before and after heating (Specific months not provided)</td><td>Design classroom for teaching architecture and dormitory rooms</td><td>Not specified, but classrooms have radiators for heating.</td><td>89 architecture students</td><td>Students adjusted clothing, but not necessarily to adapt to the thermal environment.</td><td>Thermal acceptability is close to 100% in both classrooms and dormitory rooms. In the design classroom, PMV predicted the indoor thermal environment relatively accurately, unlike in the dormitory rooms.</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Thermal neutral TOP in the design studio: 23.1 °C. Students maintained a neutral-cool thermal sensation in the dormitory</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Elnaklah et al. (2023). Jordan</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Heating season (November 2021- January 2022)</td><td>Architecture design studios and typical lecture rooms</td><td>MM (operable windows + 5 electrical fans + central heating system)</td><td>173 architecture students</td><td>Not specified.</td><td>In design studios, 53% of students felt warm, compared to 58.8% who felt cold in lecture rooms. Students heavily depended on behavioral adaptation strategies.</td><td>Average indoor relative humidity: Design studios - November: 29.4°C, December - 24.8°C, January - 24.8°C</td><td>Design studios: November - 29.4°C, December - 24.8°C, January - 24.8°C</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>8</td><td>Ifebi, Olotuah, and Ezeji (2019) Nigeria (South-east)</td><td>Wet tropical climate</td><td>The rainy season (April-October) of the year 2018, for seven months</td><td>Design studios of universities</td><td>MM</td><td>A sample size of 248 respondents</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Less than 20% were dissatisfied with the thermal conditions</td><td>46%, December: 41%, January: 43%. Lecture rooms - November: 43%, December: 40%, January: 38%; Average indoor air velocity: &lt;0.2 m/s</td><td>23.1°C. Lecture rooms: November - 24.1°C, December - 21.9°C, January - 20.8°C. ASHRAE 55-2107</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Shaqour, (2021) Egypt</td><td>Hot desert climate</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Architecture design studio</td><td>Air-conditioner [AC]</td><td>42 students of the Architecture Department who study the Architectural Design course at Nahda University</td><td>Not specified</td><td>The design studio's design on the students' psyche and their level of performance</td><td>Not specified</td><td>The average daily indoor air temperature readings of 28°C - 30°C. PMV</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Bena, Gillott, and Boukanouf, (2023)</td><td>Tropical wet and dry climate</td><td>hot/dry season</td><td>Architectural studio complex at Federal University Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria</td><td>MM</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Not specified</td><td>RH: 49% - 13%</td><td>27°C - 32°C as Standard Effective Temperature (SET)</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Shi, Liu, Zhang, and Yue (2022)</td><td>Continental monsoon climate</td><td>From 15 October to 31 December in 2020 for two months</td><td>Design classrooms, and dormitory rooms</td><td>MM</td><td>89 students (19-21years)</td><td>Not specified</td><td>The thermal sensation was maintained at neutral cool in the dormitory rooms. thermal acceptability was close to 100%.</td><td>Not specified</td><td>23.1°C in the design classroom. PMV</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Makun, (2019). Nigeria (Minna, Niger State)</td><td>Middle Belt tropical savannah climate</td><td>2016-2019</td><td>Classrooms</td><td>NV</td><td>11 schools 407 JSS pupils within the age of 13</td><td>Mean clothing, activity, and metabolic rates for each classroom were captured..</td><td>89 % of the samples (pupils) were thermally comfortable at mean air temperatures of 25.6°C when their thermal comfort was evaluated at the field experiments.</td><td>Variables measured - Indoor Thermal Temperature, Thermal comfort, Health, Academic performance</td><td>Air temperature levels of 25.6°C. and 34.5°C. PMV (ASHRAE, 2004)</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Moktan, and Uprety, (2023). Nepal (Kantipur City College, Kathmandu)</td><td>Cool temperate climate</td><td>Summer (2 weeks in June)</td><td>Classrooms</td><td>NV</td><td>2 Classrooms (Field study), 84 students (Questionnaire survey - 44 males and 40 females)</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Students felt uncomfortable during lesson hours</td><td>Not specified</td><td>indoor temperature s were in the range of 27°C - 32 °C. 7 Point ASHRAE (2017)</td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Mitkees, Stephens, and Heidarinejad (2018). United States of America (Chicago)</td><td>Temperate climate</td><td>A typical winter day in Chicago with a cloudy sky. (November 7, 2018; between 16:30 and 17:30 during the maximum student capacity</td><td>IIT's iconic Crown Hall (Design studio)</td><td>MM</td><td>. Out of 130 students in attendance on the sampling day, 118 students (63 male, 55 female) completed surveys, with a 90% response rate</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Not specified</td><td>Wind speed 8-10mph; Wind direction SSW</td><td>Outdoor temperature ranges between - 3°C and 3°C.</td></tr></table>

## The physical condition of learning spaces in the educational buildings

Most of the spaces were rectangular with varying floor areas. Also, the walls of the classroom, lecture halls, and ADS studied in Nigeria were built with 225mm hollow concrete blocks, plastered with cement/sand and finished internally with a bright color (light cream color). Some *Eb* in other countries were framed with reinforced cement concrete with Celotex sheets as finishes for the interior spaces. As a barrier separating the external and internal environments of *Ls*, the physical features had some effect on the ITC conditions of the study spaces. Design
features such as form or size and orientation of space-building, about wind directions, size and position of space openings, vegetation, and other physical conditions greatly affect the thermal performance of *Ls*.

## Environmental Parameters

The articles show that ITC conditions can be influenced by $E_F$, $HP_F$, or $P_F$. Hence, the most influential parameters in the study of ITC remained $E_F$ which include $T_A$, $T_R$, $A_V$, and *Rh* with $T_A$ posing the most significant impact. In the cold region, the neutral temperature in classrooms and design studios varies seasonally from 26.2 °C - 22.4 °C while 80% acceptable temperature range from 25.4°C - 29.6°C. The *IRh* is between 66.1% - 72.8%. Most of the studies in cold seasons of temperate regions show that NV classrooms exhibited average *IRh* of 19.6% - 50.1% (Std Dev: 7.3%) while average $A_V$: 0.01 m/s - 0.19 m/s (Std. Dev: 0.04 m/s). In tropical climates, the average comfort range for operative temperature [OP]: is 21.5-23.8°C with RH: 47-63.5%. In arid climates, $T_A$ within the acceptable range for comfort conditions defined by ASHRAE 55 adaptive method during the cold season was between 19.4 - 27.7 °C. In *Ls*, only 58% of students' votes were within the ASHRAE 55-2107 recommended comfort zone. Nevertheless, the lowest air temperature recorded was 17.3°C, and the highest *Rh*: 55.2%. For design studios average *IRh* is 46% - 43% between November to January and that of lecture rooms is 43% - 38% respectively. In addition, the average $A_V$ was <0.2 m/s. In a tropical climate, 27°C - 32°C was the limit for Standard Effective Temperature (SET) with *Rh* 13% - 49%. For a study carried out in classroom and dormitory rooms 63% and 79% of students expressed satisfaction with respective thermal environments in educational buildings while $A_V$ <0.2 m/s (Wind speed 8-10mph). $T_A$ levels of 25.6 and 34.5°C were captured while the mean of the Thermal Sensation Votes [TSV] is 0.6 at 25.6°C and 2.4 at 34.5°C. Also, providing insulation to the walls and ceilings, applying thermal mass, or changing the window glazing lowered temperatures by 2-4 °C. Table 3 provides a summary of comfort temperatures reported on *Ls* in the tropics.

<table><caption>Table 3. Thermal comfort temperatures identified by authors in educational buildings of tropical climates (Makun, 2019)</caption><thead><tr><td>S/N</td><td>Author</td><td>Location</td><td>Comfort temperature</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>I.</td><td>Kwok (1997)</td><td>Hawaii (USA)</td><td>22-29 °C</td></tr><tr><td>II.</td><td>Wong and Khoo (2003)</td><td>Singapore</td><td>27.1 -29.3°C</td></tr><tr><td>III.</td><td>Hwang et al. (2009)</td><td>Taiwan</td><td>30 °C</td></tr><tr><td>IV.</td><td>Liang et al. (2012)</td><td>Taiwan</td><td>29.2°C</td></tr><tr><td>V.</td><td>Mishra and Ramgopal (2015)</td><td>India</td><td>31.5°C</td></tr><tr><td>VI.</td><td>Le et al. (2017)</td><td>Vietnam</td><td>29.9°C - 32.8°C</td></tr><tr><td>VII.</td><td>Hamzah et al. (2018)</td><td>Makassar (Indonesia)</td><td>29°C</td></tr><tr><td>VIII.</td><td>Singh et al. (2018)</td><td>India</td><td>29.8°C</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Human physical parameters

The $HP_F$ that influenced ITC conditions of most of the studies in *Eb* were predominantly; *Clo*, *Pa*, and *Met* of students. During cold seasons, students wore clothing with relatively high *clo* values, serving as a thermal barrier to prevent cold air infiltration and minimize heat loss in their bodies, thereby maintaining thermal comfort within the *Ls*. In hot seasons as well as warm environments, students exhibited a preference for clothing featuring low *clo* values, facilitating heat dissipation from the body and promoting thermal comfort. The Clothing insulation estimated in the studies was based on EN ISO 9920-2007, and ISO 7730. More so, most students were sedentary with a metabolic rate of 1.0 met. Metabolic rates in ADS are higher than students in regular classrooms due to the level of activity rate in design studios. Lastly, none of the studies captured field measurements of the students *Clo*, *Pa*, and *Met*.

## Psychological parameters

In cold regions, students in NV classrooms were more tolerant to temperatures deviating from neutral compared to AC classrooms. In AC classrooms and dormitory rooms, thermal acceptability was close to 100% despite significant differences in thermal environments. In classrooms, PMV predicted the indoor thermal environment relatively accurately, while in dormitory rooms, the PMV underestimated thermal sensations. Students showed adaptability to the environment and could tolerate lower temperatures. The 3 articles within temperate climate captured an average of 55% of students dissatisfied with the thermal environment in NV lecture rooms. Significant differences in thermal sensation votes between female and male students (p < 0.001) show a neutral
temperature one degree higher for females. One of the studies in the United States of America (USA) shows more students were dissatisfied (63%) than satisfied (23%), with only 13% of the students reporting neutral satisfaction levels while in the cool temperate of Nepal, Students felt uncomfortable during lesson hours in NV classrooms. In tropical climates, 6 articles reported students preferred relatively cold indoor environments to tolerate bad Indoor Air Quality [IAQ] with high Carbon [IV] Oxide [CO2]. Air sensation [AS] was the most critical comfort aspect (weight of 0.32), followed by thermal sensation (weight of 0.18). Also, less than 20% of architecture students in MM design studios were dissatisfied with the thermal conditions as captured by one of the studies. Furthermore, 5 articles in Arid and Mediterranean regions highlighted that 58% of students' thermal sensation votes were within the ASHRAE 55-2107 recommended comfort zone. In design studios, 53% of students felt warm, compared to 58.8% who felt cold in lecture rooms. Students heavily depended on behavioural adaptation strategies, such as adjusting clothing and consuming hot/cold beverages. In a hot desert climate, the design of studios had an effect on the students' psyche and their level of performance.

## Academic Performance

AP is described according to E<sub>F</sub>, HP<sub>F</sub>, or P<sub>F</sub> and P<sub>C</sub> of Ls. There are studies spanning over four decades with evidence to show that E<sub>F</sub> especially T<sub>A</sub> has an adverse effect on the thermal comfort, and AP of students in Eb. Against this background, Table 4 presents a summary of previous studies related to the effects of T<sub>A</sub> on AP of students (from 1960 – 2010).

<table><caption>Table 4: Summary of studies on the effect T<sub>A</sub> on thermal comfort and performance (Makun, 2019).</caption><thead><tr><td>Reference / Country</td><td>Climate</td><td>Findings</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Peccolo (1962). USA</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Students demonstrated superior AP within T<sub>A</sub> range of 15-23°C compared to temperature [tempt] between 22-27°C.</td></tr><tr><td>Pepler and Warner (1971). USA</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Students' academic achievement, as measured by test scores were significantly enhanced at an air temperature of 23°C in comparison to 26°C.</td></tr><tr><td>Schoer and Shaffran (1973). USA</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Significant academic improvement was observed among the pupils at indoor air temperatures of 22.5°C in comparison to 26°C.</td></tr><tr><td>Wyon et al. (1975). Demark</td><td>Temperate</td><td>The authors found that cognitive performance among students stayed relatively consistent, with no statistically significant differences shown between T<sub>A</sub> of approximately 18.7°C and 23.2°C.</td></tr><tr><td>Humphreys (1977). UK</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Thermal discomfort and increasing T<sub>A</sub> featured a positive correlation, indicating that rise in temperatures were associated with rise of thermal discomfort among the sample population.</td></tr><tr><td>Jaakkola et al. (1989). Finland</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Positive correlation was found between increased T<sub>A</sub> and the incidence of some symptoms associated with Sick Building Syndrome.</td></tr><tr><td>(Nelson et al., 1984). Canada</td><td>Temperate</td><td>It was found that T<sub>A</sub> of 30°C intensified feelings of fatigue and impair task performance among subjects, leading to significant decrements in productivity.</td></tr><tr><td>Kahl (2005). USA</td><td>Temperate</td><td>No significant performance decrement was reported amongst the subjects exposed to different T<sub>A</sub> of about 15°C, 20°C, 22°C, and 26.6°C.</td></tr><tr><td>(Wyon et al., 1979). Denmark</td><td>Temperate</td><td>The speed by which multiplication task was performed by the male subjects at the experiment was significantly reduced at 28°C.</td></tr><tr><td>Pilcher and Huffcutt (1996). USA</td><td>Temperate</td><td>T<sub>A</sub> of about 32.2°C and low air temperatures of 10°C below have negative consequences on performance of cognitive tasks.</td></tr><tr><td>Mäkinen et al. (2006). Finland</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Exposures to cold T<sub>A</sub> of about 10°C have negative effects on cognitive performance.</td></tr><tr><td>Wargocki and Wyon (2007). Demark</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Performance of school work by pupils was significantly higher at T<sub>A</sub> of 20°C than at 25°C.</td></tr></tbody></table>
Indoor environmental parameters

In a temperate climate with T<sub>A</sub>: -40C - 380C, IRh: 19.6% - 50.1%, and Av: 0.01m/s - 0.19m/s, 55% of students reported that the thermal environment of NV university lecture rooms affected by their AP, according to three articles. From 5 papers with study areas in the Arid and Mediterranean climates (lowest T<sub>A</sub>: 17.3°C, greatest Rh: 55.2%), students evaluated their thermal environment as productive when they felt colder MM ADS. Furthermore, in four articles on cold climates and two on continental monsoon climates (thermal Neutral Operative Temperature in MM design studios and dormitory rooms is 23.1°C, A<sub>V</sub> > 0.2m/s), 63% of students in design studios and 79% in dormitory rooms reported that the environment was comfortable for their AP. In a tropical climate, among six articles that highlighted SET ranging from 25.6°C to 34.5°C, one concluded that 17% of architecture students felt their MM design studio was comfortable for AP, while another discovered that the percentage decrease in academic performance of students in mathematics was estimated to be about 7% due to differences in SET but that of English language remained constant. This study examined the effect of ITC circumstances on students' academic achievement (articles from 2013 – 2023) as captured in Table 5.

<table><caption>Table 5: Summary of previous studies related to effect of ITC conditions on performance of students</caption><thead><tr><td>Reference / Climate</td><td>Climate</td><td>Findings</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Melikov et al. (2013). Denmark</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Health, comfort and performance of the samples significantly decreased at 26°C and 28°C in comparison to 23°C</td></tr><tr><td>Park (2016). USA</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Tempt. Above 26°C is detrimental to the performance of academics' task by students.</td></tr><tr><td>Mitkees, Stephens, and Heidarinejad, (2018). USA</td><td>Temperate</td><td>Wind speed 8-10mph; Wind direction SSW. The subjective survey investigated students' thermal sensation, thermal satisfaction, and perceived level of productivity using 7 Point scale by Fanger (1970).</td></tr><tr><td>Porras-Salazar et al. (2018). Costa Rica</td><td>Tropical</td><td>Reducing TA in the classroom from 300C to 250C increased the performance of cognitive related tasks by pupils.</td></tr><tr><td>Choi et al. (2019). China</td><td>Sub-tropical</td><td>Relatively high TA is unhealthy to the attention span of persons during the performance of academic task.</td></tr><tr><td>Ifebi, Olotuah, and Ezeji (2019). Nigeria</td><td>Wet Tropical Climate</td><td>The average daily indoor TA readings of 28°C - 30°C. Less than 20% were dissatisfied with the thermal conditions.</td></tr><tr><td>Makun (2019). Nigeria</td><td>Middle belt Tropical Savanna Climate</td><td>TA levels of 25.60C, and 34.50C. Mean of the TSV Is 0.6 at 25.60C and 2.4 at 34.50C. 89 % of the samples (pupils) were thermally comfortable at mean TA 25.60C when their thermal comfort was evaluated at the field experiments. The effect of TA on the performance of academic task by pupils is not often straight forward, it could be influenced by the nature of task.</td></tr><tr><td>Shaqour, (2021). Egypt</td><td>Hot Desert Climate</td><td>The design studio's physical features have effect on the students' psyche and their level of performance.</td></tr><tr><td>Wang et al. (2021). China</td><td>Cold</td><td>Average IRh - Spring: 66.1%, Summer: 68%, Autumn: 72.8%, Winter: 65% affected the concentration level and performance of students in classrooms.</td></tr><tr><td>Shaqour, (2021). Egypt</td><td>Hot Desert Climate</td><td>The design studio's physical features have effect on the students' psyche and their level of performance.</td></tr><tr><td>Aguilar et al. (2022). Spain</td><td>Temperate</td><td>IRh: 37.9%, and Average IAV: 0.03 m/s. 55% of students were dissatisfied with the thermal environment. Significant differences in thermal sensation votes between female and male students (p < 0.001) shows neutral temperature one degree higher for females which impacted the AP of the students.</td></tr><tr><td>Jia et al. (2022). China</td><td>Tropical</td><td>Students prefer a relatively cold indoor environment to tolerate bad IAQ with high CO2. Air sensation (AS) is the most critical comfort aspect (weight of 0.32), followed by thermal sensation (weight of 0.18) amongst the factors that affected the ability of students to perform academic tasks.</td></tr><tr><td>Al-Jokhadar et al. (2023). Jordan</td><td>Arid</td><td>58% of students' TSV were within the ASHRAE 55-2107 recommended comfort zone. In design studios, 53% of students felt warm, compared to 58.8% who felt cold in lecture rooms. Students heavily depended on behavioural adaptation strategies, such as adjusting clothing and consuming hot/cold beverages in order to ensure optimal AP.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Shi, Liu, Zhang and Yue (2022). China</td><td>Continental Monsoon climate</td><td>Rh: 63% for Design classrooms, and 79% for Dormitory rooms. AV &lt;0.2 m/s. 23.1°C in the design classroom. Thermal sensation was maintained at neutral-cool in the dormitory rooms. Thermal acceptability was close to 100% in both classrooms and dormitory rooms despite significant differences in thermal environments. In the design classroom, PMV predicted the indoor thermal environment relatively accurately, while in dormitory rooms, the PMV underestimated thermal sensations. Students showed adaptability to the environment and could tolerate lower tempt.</td></tr><tr><td>Elnaklah et al. (2023). Jordan</td><td>Arid</td><td>Design studios: November - 29.4°C, December - 24.8°C, January - 23.1°C. Lecture rooms: November - 24.1°C, December - 21.9°C, January - 20.8°C. Average IRh: Design studios - November: 46%, December: 41%, January: 43%. Lecture rooms - November: 43%, December: 40%, January: 38%; Average indoor air velocity: &lt;0.2 m/s. Students were more productive when they felt cooler.</td></tr><tr><td>Bena, Gillott, and Boukanouf, (2023). Nigeria</td><td>Tropical wet & dry climate</td><td>27°C - 32°C as SET, Rh: 13% - 49%. AP of students dropped when Ta and Rh increased.</td></tr><tr><td>Moktan, and Uprety, (2023). Nepal</td><td>Cool temperate climate</td><td>TA were in the range of 27°C -32°C. At high temperatures, students felt uncomfortable during lesson hours which caused a drop in their concentration levels.</td></tr></table>

## Human physical parameters

The articles from the temperate region included in this study demonstrated that students remained sitting for lectures lasting at least one hour. Students' metabolic rates in conventional courses were often lower than those in design studios due to architecture students' higher activity levels. Some research indicated students modified clothing, but not necessarily to adapt to the thermal environment, possibly due to habituation. In the tropics, the results show that at lower indoor T<sub>A</sub> of around 25.6°C, differences in the clo values of the uniform worn by classroom students and pupils had no significant effect on their thermal comfort. Overall, the result of the independent t-test reported in two articles shows that when students wearing school uniforms with clothing insulation values of 0.5 clo could be more desirable for the thermal comfort and AP of pupils in schools within the tropical climate, this is in comparison to the use of uniforms with clo value of 0.8.

## Psychological parameters

A neutral temperature (NT) range of 23-26°C was indicated for improved working memory during learning. Cognitive assessments measure learning skills, including attention, perception, working memory, and thinking ability. The results revealed that psychological elements such as human perception/sensation, seasonal expectancies, and control capacity influence students' AP. However, all of the publications that grabbed P<sub>F</sub> were focused on perception or experience. During hot seasons, over 55% of students in NV classrooms were displeased with the thermal environment at high temperatures, which hampered their short-term AP. Significant disparities in thermal sensation voting between male and female students revealed that male students outperformed their female counterparts at high OT, whereas females performed one degree higher at NT. Students preferred a relatively cold indoor environment in NV classrooms, lecture rooms, and design studios within Hot desert, Tropical, arid, Mediterranean, and parts of Temperate regions for improved AP. Also, in design studios, 53% of students felt warm, compared to 58.8% who felt cold in lecture rooms during classes. To maintain concentration, students heavily depended on behavioural adaptation strategies, such as adjusting clothing and consuming hot/cold beverages. Students in the tropics showed adaptability to their thermal environment and could tolerate lower temperatures during lectures. 89% of the samples (pupils) were thermally comfortable at mean T<sub>A</sub> 25.6°C when their thermal comfort was evaluated, making them comfortable during lesson hours.

## Physical condition of learning spaces in educational buildings

Design features and physical condition of buildings directly influence E<sub>F</sub> (Fig. 2). In turn, the IEC created as a result of these factors influences the health, perception, and AP of students as uncovered by the reviewed articles. The mechanism behind how E<sub>F</sub> of buildings affects the AP is collectively or individually by arousal, discomfort, distraction, fatigue and displeasure.
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2: Link between physical conditions of the learning spaces with comfort, health and academic performance. (Mendell & Heath, 2005).</figcaption></figure>

According to the findings of the physical studies, classrooms in Nigerian educational structures are rectangular in shape, regardless of where the schools are located. The classrooms also depend mostly on NV in providing thermal comfort for the users. The findings from the physical surveys of 2 articles suggest that the window to floor ratio of the classrooms is relatively small in comparison the window to wall area ratio suggested by some authors in previous research. In the tropics, 3 articles studied showed evidence that the roof covering of the classrooms are metal sheets with no insulation panels, also the roofs do not also have vents for dissipation of heat. Also, walls of the Ls were built with 225mm hollow sandcrete blocks, plastered with cement/sand and finished internally with a bright colour devoid of further insulation leading to rise in SET.

Discussion

This review explored the literature on issues concerning ITC conditions and AP. As a result, the findings revealed a wide range of ITC circumstances and academic performance levels demonstrated by students / learners in Ls. Furthermore, the ITC conditions and AP in this review varied depending on the climate, seasonal changes, duration of field study, type of educational building, ventilation type, physical condition of spaces, students' clothing, physical activity, metabolic rate, and perception.

This study shows that students in Ls of educational buildings within cold and temperate regions found it difficult to acclimatize with higher comfort levels (+2 to +3) by PMV (Yan et al. 2016). More so, it was deduced that AP of students slightly declined during hot and warm seasons justifying increased demand on ventilating and air-conditioning systems to regulate the thermal sensation of students for enhanced performance (Lee and Tsai 2020). In tropical, arid, and hot desert climates, indoor OT gradually posed thermal discomfort to students in NV classrooms, lecture rooms, and design studios at varying levels owing to physical conditions of the spaces, climatic, and seasonal changes. In the tropical climate of Nigeria, Ls usually run on NV and MM, thus, students expressed low thermal acceptability at high OT under same physical conditions reducing the ability of students to perform different academic tasks. In addition, the AP of students significantly varies based on the type of Ls. To ensure comfortable design studio required higher thermal requirement and comfort level due to increased Pa of architecture students. This led to higher met of students in design studios compare to those in classrooms / lecture rooms of similar ventilation type, and physical conditions. More so, corporate uniforms worn by pupils / students of some schools reduced cloth adaptation in response to changes in ITC conditions while students / pupils with adaptive clothing exhibited higher AP.

Evidently, this review shows paucity in research pertaining to ITC conditions of architecture students in design studios. Therefore, suggests study on effect of ITC conditions on design performance of architecture students in warm humid tropical climate with reference to southeast geopolitical zone of Nigeria. This keen interest on design studios is evolved because architectural students have to perform intensive learning activities (e.g., designing, drawing, physical model making, research, and experimentation activities) with higher metabolic rates compared to students in typical lecture rooms, who usually have mild activities (i.e., passive sitting) with lower metabolic rates (EN ISO 8996, 2004).

To highlight the relevance of this recommended study, Ifebi, Olotuah, and Ezeji (2019) assessed the influence of indoor TA on occupants' thermal sensation in ADS of universities in Southeast, Nigeria. The study revealed that many of the ADS in the South-East are NV, with fans installed and operated by users as the need arises, which predisposes the indoor environment to outdoor climatic factors. Due to this, architecture students especially in design studios, are forced to study in Ls with a difficult thermal environment. Such study should be aimed at evaluating the effect of ITC conditions on design performance of architecture students of universities accredited by National Universities' Commission [NUC] in Southeast, Nigeria with special reference to developing design criteria for maximizing the thermal performance of design studios.
The findings of the study will provide government, public organisations, and private bodies involved in the establishment and management of universities of the South East with a blueprint on how design studios should be developed to maximize the ITC conditions thereof. It will also equip the NUC, Architects Registration Council of Nigeria [ARCON], and allied associations with deliverables and frameworks desirable in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for establishment, accreditation, and management of design studios for enhanced academic experience among architecture students and lecturers.

Finally, the recommended study will provide architects, engineers, developers, quantity surveyors, facility managers, sponsors of academic programmes and other players in the built environment with design criteria and strategies to achieve ITC of architecture students in design studios of universities within the South-East. In addition, acquaint architecture students, and lecturers with adaptive ITC measures to ensure a comfortable thermal environment for educational activities in the design studios.

## Limitation

There are some limitations to this study. The extant literature reviewed were drawn from four research databases; ScienceDirect, Sematic Scholar, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate of which most of the articles pertaining to ITC were domiciled, hence, the study findings may not be generalized. More so, this study focuses on ITC conditions and AP of students / pupils in Eb. It specifically reviews the effect of E<sub>F</sub>, HP<sub>F</sub>, P<sub>F</sub> on AP of students. Also, the levels and effects of IEQ parameters such as noise, daylighting, ventilation, indoor air quality, CO<sub>2</sub>, ergonomic conditions, heat and light sources as well as human physiological conditions - body mass index, age, skin colour, health, and other non-environmental parameters were not considered in this study. Therefore, since this systematic review selected articles from the predetermined inclusion criteria which were screened, the included articles were adequate to fulfill the study aim.

## CONCLUSION

The ITC conditions and AP of students in this study varied owing to plethora of factors such as climate, season, type / space of educational building, ventilation type / mode, age of study population, physical condition of building, indoor environmental factors, students' physical factors (clothing, physical activity, and metabolic rate), and students' psychological factors. All of these factors were related to each other. This review reveals ITC conditions of students in *Ls* varied with the climatic zones and seasons of which the study was carried out. The students (between 17-27 years) within the warm humid climate performed lower academically in NV schools due to high T<sub>A</sub>, and *Rh* levels in the indoor thermal environment while AC classrooms had improved AP of students. The types of clothing, physical activity, and metabolic rate of students also influenced the comfort, and AP of students. In addition, heavy / corporate clothing, and increased physical activity heightened the metabolic rate of students predisposing them to thermal discomfort and stress. In addition, the thermal mass of the components of learning spaces also played a role in controlling state of the indoor environmental factors. Lastly, *Ls* should be designed or retrofitted, taking cognizance of the factors that constitute ITC to enhance students' AP.

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**Chapter Three**

**Examining the Architectural Services Delivery Stages of a Mixed-use Development in Bayelsa State, Nigeria**

Chinedu U. Oluigbo<fnref n="1" />; Dumbari V. Nnaa<fnref n="1" />; Chimene Okere<fnref n="2" />

EMAIL: chineduoluigbo@ndu.edu.ng

**ABSTRACT**

To assess projects is paramount in the building industry. Owing to the relevance of such assessment in improving project delivery, this study is embarked upon to explore the constituting Architectural Services Delivery Stages (ASDS) of a Mixed-use development situated at Agbura in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. The mixed-use development is situated on a plain and captures safety, functionality, and structural ability as its key considerations. The data for the study is collected via observation and documentation of the delivery stages. Specifically, this study utilizes the Architects Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON) Architectural Consultancy and Project Management Services - Conditions of Engagement, Charges and Agreement for the Professional Architect as a benchmark to analyze the design, construction, post construction stages of the Mixed-use development which is characterized of two suspended floors. Furthermore, this study pinpoints the challenges attributed to the reviewed Architectural Services Delivery Stages of the Mixed-use development and means devised to address issues emanating from the various stages. Finally, it recommends ways that will aid architects and other stakeholders in the built environment to improve project management and building contract administration of similar developments.

KEYWORDS: Architectural services, Assessment, Building Contract Administration, Delivery Stages, Mixed-use Development

**INTRODUCTION**

Project documentation is a necessity to resolve issues that usually arise in the course of executing projects (Oluigbo, Unamba, & Nnaa, 2023). However, the performance of every project is subject to the processes undertaken in carrying out the Architectural Services Delivery Stages [ASDS] (Oluigbo & Nnaa, 2023). Delivering architectural services involves different stages for the successful completion of a building project (Patil, July 11, 2024). According to the Architects' Registration Council of Nigeria, these stages include the pre-design Stage [PDS], Design Stage I [DS I], Design Stage II [DS II], Tendering and Award Stage [TAS], Construction Stage [CS], and Post Construction Period [PCP] (ARCON Architectural Consultancy and Project Management Services, 2016). To demystify these stages, a mixed-use development located at Agbura in Bayelsa, Nigeria is selected for this study. This mixed-use development is designed to house dairy products as well as provide offices and accommodation units for staff.

Specifically, this study is tailored towards exploring the ASDS of a mixed-use development located at Agbura, Bayelsa State in Nigeria which was designed to provide necessary spaces for housing commodities and staff of Mike Mary Concept & Company Nigeria Limited. To achieve the aim, this study is structured to - i. Uncover challenges that characterized the ASDS for the mixed-use development; ii. Highlight measures the encumbrances encountered in the ASDS were addressed; iii. Propose effective ways the ASDS be carried out thereof, by following the ASDS published by ARCON in the Conditions of Engagement, Charges, and Agreement for the Professional Architect (ARCON Architectural Consultancy and Project Management Services, 2016) to evaluate the selected mixed-use development with particular reference on recommending ways challenges posed during the stages were resolved. Lastly, the outcome of this study will be beneficial to architects, developers (clients),

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Architecture, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State, Nigeria</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Architecture, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.</footnote>
engineers, quantity surveyors, and other stakeholders in the area of design and construction of such projects.

## Brief Project Information

<table><caption>Table 1: A summary of the Project information</caption><thead><tr><th>i.</th><th>Project title</th><th>Mixed-use Development</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>ii.</td><td>Project location</td><td>Agbura, Bayelsa State</td></tr><tr><td>iii.</td><td>Duration</td><td>11th April, 2014 – 27th November, 2015</td></tr><tr><td>iv.</td><td>Client</td><td>Mike Mary Concept & Co. Nig. Ltd.</td></tr></tbody></table>

## LITERATURE REVIEW

Mixed-use is a type of urban development, urban design, urban planning and/or a zoning classification that incorporates multiple uses, such as residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, or entertainment, into one space, where those functions are to some degree physically and functionally integrated, and that provides pedestrian connections (Business Geography & New Real Estate Market Analysis, 2016); (Quality Growth Toolkit, 2011); (Raman, Roy, 2019). A mixed-use development may be a new construction, reuse of an existing building or brownfield site, or a combination (O'Connell, 2021). Mixed-use developments are home to significant employment and housing opportunities (Harris, 2017). To promote efficiency, productivity, and quality of life in the development, a mixed-use model Zero commuting concept of Nadim (2019) where working spaces and living spaces are blended was adopted as shown in Figure 1.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: A Proactive Social Infrastructure model for future Mixed-Use Housing in Egypt (Nadim, 2019).</figcaption></figure>

### Project location

This mixed-use development is sited on a plain, and strategically located along Azikoro – Agbura road (opposite Davian hotel), Agbura town, Yenagoa, Bayelsa state in Nigeria. It is also characterized by two suspended floors. The warehouses are positioned on the ground, while the administrative, and storage spaces are positioned on the first floor. Lastly, the second floor is zoned to accommodate some staff of the company - Mike Mary Concept & Co. Nig. Ltd. (A distributor of Dairy products, Flour, Sugar, Tomatoes, Cooking oil, and related commodities).

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

Scale: NTS

<caption>Figure 2: Map showing the Mixed-use development at Agbura in Bayelsa State, Nigeria (Google Earth, 2018)</caption>

## Pre-Design Stage [PDS]

The first objective of every design process is to get together with a client to ascertain the overall project vision and goals. These include but are not limited to discussions on scope, features, purpose, and functionality (Patil, 2024). This stage was characterized by consultations with the client, inspection and documentation of existing conditions survey, capturing of photographs, and measurements of existing site features, preparation of high-level base drawings, statement of probable construction cost, programming of spaces as well as code review.

## Inception

In April 2014, the director of Mike Mary Concept & Company Nigeria Limited requested the architect to design 2 units of warehouses on the ground, and first floor with dwelling spaces on the second floor.

## Brief taking

Thereafter, the architect requested from him a formal letter of engagement and a survey plan of the property on which he wanted his project executed. On receipt of our above request the following day, the architect proceeded to the site for site inspection where all the beacons as stated in the survey plan and other site peculiarities were observed. Thereto, the survey plan and the corresponding verbal approval of the design brief were captured.

## Local authorities' rights on the site

Before the commencement of the project, the architect made some enquiries about the site and project from Bayelsa State Physical Planning and Development Board [BSPPDB] for the land-use zones and setbacks for that location (zone). In that regard, the architect was able to obtain the setbacks for the mixed-use developments in that area: From the rear site boundary line to the building line should not be less than 3.5metres while for the sides is 2metres respectively Hence, that of the front (the set back from the building line to the access road should not be less than 6metres).

## Report on project feasibility

The feasibility study on the project shows the project is structurally and economically viable. It showed that siting the project on an undulating plain and along the road is suitable to lower the cost of construction and the movement of commodities during, and after construction. More so, the client's company will leverage on accessibility of the project site for stocking and marketing of their products.

## Spatial requirement

i. 2 Warehouses ii. Offices iii. Stores iv. Apartments

## Consultants required

i. Land surveyor ii. Quantity Surveyor iii. Structural engineer iv. Services engineer
## Challenges arising from the briefing process

One of the encumbrances encountered during the brief process is discussing the brief outside the office environment. This mitigated the architect's ability to convince the client with reliable instruments, and formally sign off the briefing process. To help the client understand the workings of the proposed development, the architect utilized some electronic devices. Another challenge laden with the process is the ignorance of the client as regards the cost of the professional services of Architects and other players of the built environment: This was tackled by enlightening the client with the Conditions of Engagement, Charges and Agreement for the Professional Architect (ARCON Architectural Consultancy and Project Management Services, 2016).

## Design Stage [DS I]

In this stage, a series of sketches/drawings that illustrate the basic concepts of the design are executed. Also, initial research on local compliance and regulations is completed at this time (Patil, 2024, July 11). This stage captures schematic floor plans of all levels with generic openings, exterior building elevations with representative openings and finishes, building cross-sections, and other preliminary drawings.

## Concept design

This phase is about finalizing your research and information gathering as well as developing design options for your client to consider in response to the brief and the information obtained thereof (Admin, February 23, 2024). In other to achieve a functional design, the architect captured planning relationships, intended building form, characteristics, services and layout of the building design.

## Site Planning Relationships (Site Components)

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3: Relationship between the constituting site components</figcaption></figure>

## Building Spaces provided

- Warehouse - Circulation areas – Offices – Stores - Apartments – Conveniences

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4: Relationship between the constituting site components</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>Table 2: Accommodation schedule of the mixed-use development</caption><thead><tr><td>S/N</td><td>SPACES PROVIDED</td><td>UNIT</td><td>AVERAGE AREA (M²)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Loading Bay</td><td>2</td><td>15.20</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Warehouse</td><td>4</td><td>201.60</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Store</td><td>2</td><td>7.50</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Data room</td><td>2</td><td>10.00</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Offices</td><td>11</td><td>15.90</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Kitchen</td><td>2</td><td>15.5</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>File room</td><td>4</td><td>3.90</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Conveniences</td><td>14</td><td>5.00</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Stair Halls</td><td>3</td><td>15.20</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Horizontal circulation areas</td><td>1</td><td>53.20</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>TOTAL</td><td>44</td><td>343.00</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>Figure 5: Vertical relationship among floor levels</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Figure 6: Vertical zones of floor levels</figcaption></figure>

On the ground floor, the space provided is for storing the company products, and the first floor for administrative purposes while the second floor is designed to house some of the resident staff.

## Building form

The building form concept is anchored on two qualities, teamwork and stability. These ideas were transformed into an architectural character on the facade where the structural columns (colonnade) on the facade of the building reveal the teamwork needed in any organization.

### 2.2.5 Challenges arising from lack of proper sign-off of concept design

One of the hurdles encountered in this stage is a poor understanding of the design concept design by the client. This was resolved by carefully discussing each of the design and planning steps/stage with the client. Another challenge was the subjective pattern of the client in terms of decision-making. To control that, the architect evolved graphical illustrations, pictures and videos to communicate ideas to the client.

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>Figure 7: The relationship between the Architect, Client, and other Consultants</figcaption></figure>

## Consultants' selection & coordination

In the project, the client involved other consultants based on the architect's recommendation and advice. However, there was a rough relationship between the architect and other consultants which were selected by the client because of his failure to formally relate the other consultants to us. Owing to the
subjectivity of the client, weak submission of some consultants to the Architect's instructions was experienced. To overcome this challenge, the architect diplomatically followed up with the consultants, advising the client on the need to stimulate the synergy amongst the design team tailored towards achieving an integrated design. In addition, there was ineffective delivery by some consultants which was tackled by the coordination and responsiveness of the architect towards the production of the required design concepts.

## Design Stage [DS II]

### Coordinated Detail Design

This encompasses the development of the design concept in sufficient detail. It involves detailing the site plan and the location of all site structures, graphically defining the construction of the building, spatially coordinating the designs by other consultants and specialists, reviewing the design with the relevant authorities, submitting the project for planning approvals (ARCON Architectural Consultancy and Project Management Services, 2016). The client having accepted the concept developed, verbally communicated with the architect to develop the design for the development. In this process, the design concepts were developed taking cognizance of the details involved. Furthermore, the architect involved the services of other consultants to develop their designs. The design encompassed the location plan, site plan, Architectural plans, sections etc.

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>Figure 8: An exterior perspective of the mixed-use development</figcaption></figure>

During this process, the architect rolled out a comprehensive drawing for the mixed-use development furnished with exterior and interior perspectives.

After developing the designs from the different consultants, the client made some inputs which were incorporated in the design to earn his approval for the next stage.

* **Challenges arising from lack of proper sign-off of the developed design**

The main encumbrance in the design development is the periodic interferences by the client which led to variation. This was handled by regularly advising the client on the implication of some of his desires as regards the building design.

* **Specification writing**

Preparation and issuance of Schedules and Written Specifications are essential deliverables in DS II. However, this was agreed upon by the client without any formal documentation buttressed by the fact that the design team will form the construction team. In this regard, there was the need to access some special notes on assembly, construction and installation processes of which the project consultants evolved model solutions for issues raised in their respective fields.

* **Budget estimates**

Accordingly, data for the preparation of information for the Bills of Quantities (BOQ) are derived from the developed design (ARCON Architectural Consultancy and Project Management Services, 2016). Hence, all drawings were coordinated and reconciled with the Bill of Quantities to eliminate discrepancies between drawings and the Bill of Quantities.
As it demands, after developing the designs the need to estimate the probable cost of realizing the building project arose. The contribution from the other professionals led to the development of the preliminary budgets for the client. Hence, presenting the cost estimate for the project to the client witnessed a reduction in Estimated Total Cost [ETC] by modifying the design to realize the design goal at the most effective cost.

## Construction Documentation

During Construction Documentation an all-encompassing and coordinated suite of detailed drawings and documents that will enable a builder or contractor to price and construct the project is developed. Thus, these will be used to lodge a final building approval application and call tenders or negotiate a construction price with a contractor (Admin, February 23, 2024).

This phase covers the preparation of construction drawings, and documents and coordination of construction deliverables by other consultants and specialists. It is in this phase that the selection of appropriate Conditions of Contract for the project is specified. It also entails the determination of appropriate Preliminary Items to suit actual site conditions and project nature (ARCON Architectural Consultancy and Project Management Services, 2016).

In this stage, all the developed designs for the mixed-use development were thoroughly scrutinized for discrepancies and developed in consonance with the client. More so, the building code experts ran a thorough check on the code requirements for the mixed-use development including electricity, fire, safety and plumbing as per the compliance guidelines. This Design Stage II [DS II] encompasses the architectural, structural, electrical, and mechanical drawings of the mixed-use development.

### Building Systems

i. **Foundation:** An isolated Pad foundation was adopted for this framed structure. Pad foundations support columns and transmit the loads to the soil evenly.

ii. **Floor Component:** The reinforced floor slab was finished with non-slip ceramic tiles (600mm x 600mm x 25mm)

iii. **Wall component:** Machine Molded Sandcrete Masonry wall (blocks) was adopted for the walls. They were rendered with mortar and laid in Ashlar bonding.

iv. **Roof component:** The roof truss system adopted was the Lattice Truss System (rising/falling struts with posts).

## Tendering and Award Stage [TAS]

This stage constitutes guiding and advising the Client as well as coordinating the pre-qualification of contractors, sub-contractors and the invitation of suitable firms to tender (ARCON Architectural Consultancy and Project Management Services, 2016).

For this project, the form of tender obtained was based on Selective tendering. Selective tendering allowed different contractors to submit tenders based on recommendations. Thereto, a pre-selected list of possible contractors was prepared owing to their experience in the size, nature and complexity of such a project, of which Urban Construction Services emerged with the successful tender. This selective tendering was chosen for this type of project to cut down on the resources expended in open tendering.

## Contract Management

The type of contract adopted to run this project was the Lump sum and Scheduled contract. This contract type is suitable when the number of resources required for a project is limited or when it is possible to work out exact quantities of work to be executed. However, it was adopted to monitor the progress and conduct of the work by the contractor as well as work out the exact qualities of work to be executed owing to scarce resources available. In the Lump sum and Scheduled contract, the contractor was paid at regular intervals of 2-3 months as per the progress of work based on the slated stages (milestones) contained in the conditions of the contract. Lastly, a schedule of rates was also included in the agreement for making payment of extra items.

## Construction Stage [CS]