Lessons from the Nwakpuda Phenomenon

1. The modern environmental movement started only in 1969, a clear 40 years following the opening of the rail line that was opposed by Nwakpuda. His advocacy therefore led the current consciousness by over four decades. The colonies were for colonizer's grounds for experimentation and innovative freedom beyond what regulated environments could offer. They represented regulatory wilderness that served as Guinea pigs for testing ideas. Thus, it is believed that the *Cordon Sanitarie* that separated natives and colonial residences in colonial Africa was a realization and testing of Ebenezer Howard's idea of the Garden City with the 440 yards of green that surrounded Colonial Reserved Areas. Hence, some of the earliest forms of resistance against Environmental Injustice and efforts at realizing spatial justice are pioneered in colonies.

Nwakpuda phenomenon shows that consciousness on the environmental and social impact of projects came earlier in the colonies. Much of Africa had decolonized before the environmental movement arrived at the close of the 1960s. Thought leadership in the area of bringing projects in line with environmental objectives came after development projects in Europe and highlights the efforts of persons such as Nwakpuda.

2. Top-Down Projects have Historically Faced Resistance: In the case of the colonial rail line project under discourse, factories in Britain needed raw materials inputs from the colonies. The Ports was ready but that is only a part of the logistics. From colonial hinterland where cocoa, timber, rubber, groundnuts and others were produced there was no easy way of accessing the ports of embarkation by the Atlantic Coast. A rail line was desperately needed as the colonial enterprise of the post-World War I was already in its twilight. The hurry precluded any form of stakeholder engagement and consultation beyond the British administration to which the colonial office reports. It was not in the habit of colonial authorities to court the goodwill of colonized people on such things as project delivery. Hence the Top-Down approach of project administration that has endured to plague public administration in much of Africa is seen as a colonial vestige. In the rail line construction, native-buy-in was not sought as the colonial office was not out to secure permission. All that was necessary was notification to natives, their mobilization as labourers on the project and admonition to stay away from danger. This project scenario will always elicit resistance from knowledgeable people even as domination of instruments of terror secures for the colonial office acquiescence from the majority of people. This project is not alone. History is replete with project resistance from various parts of the colonized world. Aswan High Dam (1890-1902) faced resistance from the Nubian people which its lake displaced. They saw injustice in their compensation package and forced relocation (Reynolds, 2012). In the case of the Australian Overland Telegraph line (1870-1880), Australian Aborigines resisted the project and would attack telegraph stations over the massive deployment of the unfamiliar object; metals (Jones, 2023). In modern times, the resistance of top-down projects has continued and stakeholders' engagement has been made a cornerstone of project sustainability.

3. There is Flexibility in Routing of Transportation Facilities. Most transportation facilities are high-risk oriented. A redeeming factor however is the possibility of their flexibility. Managing the risk posed by a facility such as rail line may require weighing alternatives when all elements of risk assessment are considered – engineering data, social, economic, political and ecological concerns. While more direct routing may prove financially cheaper, it may prove more expensive in terms of allowed risks. Hence risk reduction may leverage overlay technique such as the one made popular in McHarg (1969). It overlays various ecological, social and economic factors to identify optimal land use patterns. For a project such as the rail line that crossed Umuahia, application of McHarg's technique would have produced overlays with themes such as Topography, Hydrology, Vegetation, Wildlife habitats, soil quality, land use patterns, population density, economic activities, areas of conflict, compatibility and opportunity. These sheets as transparencies laid out would have yielded most sustainable route for the project. Of course, the Nwakpuda issue predates McHarg's technique and the idea of optimal routing would not have been common knowledge. Otherwise, such pockets of resistance as Nwakpuda presented could have been avoided for a less controversial route.
4. Radical Environmental Advocacy of the 21st century has 20th century precedents. While epistemicide has characterized the western discourses and their relationship with African knowledge systems. African knowledge is well represented in modern theories and practices which the West has come to adopt and own. Many terms have been carved out for this; epistemic injustice, cognitive injustice etc. Entire continents can be affected while an entire section of the world such as the global south can be victimized. In Nwakpuda's case, the worth of his intellectual abilities of course assessed through western lens might be negligible. If indigenous knowledge systems were factored in colonial administration, perhaps his advocacy could have received prima facie attention.

Nwakpuda undoubtedly was extreme in his dissonance for danger in pursuit of his advocacy. Much radicalism has materialized that bears similarity in the 21st century. There are extreme groups such as EarthFirst, Reclaim the streets, Camp for climate action, Friends of the Earth, Earth Liberation Front, Sea Shepherds Conservation Society (SSCS) etc. Extreme actions have been taken. In the 1980S NGOs spiked trees with metals to prevent logging; SSCS will raM whaling ships and also use acid to damage their propellers, groups occupied nuclear plants; Activists have occupied trees for extended periods to prevent logging. GreenPeace occupied offshore gas rig for eight hours. Many projects have been resisted – The Istanbul Canal Project (Turkey), The Amazonian Highway (Brazil), The Gillette Coal Mine (USA), The Rio Tinto Mine (Serbia), The Brunei LNG Plant, Brunei and the Trans Mountain Railway, Canada. Where resistance has failed to stop projects, it has enabled re-appraisals that secured greater sustainability from projects. The understanding in the modern world currently is that humans and their welfare which is usually tied to quality of their environment are to be prioritized over projects. Nwakpuda is part of the pioneers that laid the foundations for this consciousness.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The paper interrogated the proper place of the historical figure Nwakpuda in the context of resistance of built environment projects. His resistance of colonial rail line across his Old Umuahia Community, a fatal and extreme measure at the time has preceded many of such forms of radical environmental advocacy and a lot of changes have been introduced into project designs to align them with environmental objectives and secure the goodwill of stakeholders. Interpretations of the actions can benefit from theories on feminist political ecology, framing and critical resistance. What is central is the worth of indigenous knowledge in the face of colonial default to epistemicide. The Nwakpuda phenomenon raises issues about colonial resistance, Not-In-My-Back-Yard sentiment factors in built environment delivery, dissonance from the scholarly community on his apparent environmental martyrdom, pioneering role in ushering the modern environmental movement. It also raises issues against top-down project delivery and poor involvement of critical stakeholders and also impact comparison techniques that can lead to more sustainable alternative project designs. Beyond the evocation of tragic comedy as the Nwakpuda persona has inspired in environmental history therefore, a review of its curricular worth is compelled by modern radical environmental advocacy as led by the likes of GreenPeace which in the footprints of Nwakpuda has forced sustainable development on the global agenda.

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Walter, E.V. (1988). *Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment*, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina.
## Chapter Twenty-Six

# Evolution of the Gambling Space in the Context of the Urban Built Environment. Insights from Owerri Metropolis

Okechi Dominic Azuwike<fnref n="1" />; Ephraim Nwanguma<fnref n="2" />

EMAIL: okedazuwike@yahoo.com

## ABSTRACT

The paper Evolution of the Gambling Space in the Context of the Urban Built Environment. Insights from Owerri Metropolis interrogates the built environment dimensions of space negotiation by the increasingly proliferated activity of gambling. It investigates spatial adjustments made by roadside gambling outfits to maintain their spaces within the city's built environment against all development control measures and how the spaces created by gambling behaviour impact the built environment (ambience, aesthetics, navigability etc.). This is done through in-depth observation of gambling business operators and residents of the city. The reasons that compel roadside orientation and the form of mushroom physical structures housing these gambling activities were identified. Through narrations and observations, it is found that the configuration of the gambling space in its extant form is driven by the privacy needs of participants in the context of societal stigmatization of the gambling space. It is also found that whereas more elaborate housing can be accessed by gambling house operators, the need for proximity to the gambling public compels a culture of roadside, makeshift shelters. It is concluded that stigmatized activities maintain stigmatized spaces amid regular activities through the evolution of spatial adjustments, spatial masks, camouflage and trade-offs in aesthetics, comfort and convenience. They therefore produce their built-environment landscapes while modifying the outlook of cities. They have to be seen as violations of developmental order worthy of control.

KEYWORDS: Gambling; Space; Urban; Environment; Built

## INTRODUCTION

Urban areas with particular reference to Owerri metropolis are known for land use intensification and enlarged markets for goods and services resulting from population concentration. Space use in these settings is therefore highly nuanced. This is because various measures are employed by activity areas which may be compatible or incompatible with other spatially contiguous activities to sustain themselves in their locations despite their poor location. Hence certain activities though stigmatized are patronized. The spaces they occupy readily become spaces of stigmatization. Also, stigmatized spaces end up modifying social, economic and political experiences (Taggart *et al.*, 2022). The underworld is an urban reality. The activities therein exist on the urban surface but have to be masked as forms of underground activities to survive urban appraisal and retain clientele. In this category of activities, to various degrees in various urban cultures, are found drug dealerships, witch doctors and seers, herbalists specializing in Sexually Transmitted Diseases, brothels, abortion clinics, certain money lenders, certain food vendors, certain used cloth dealerships and gambling outfits.

The gambling space has evolved. Gambling is currently a proliferating activity in urban centres. Whereas gambling was generally about playing pools which are weekly regimented, various gambling platforms enabled by developments in Information and Communication Technology have evolved enabling gambling cycles in hours and days rather than weeks. There is a greater number of gambling promoters, and greater proportions in typology (sports betting, lotto, virtual etc). Licensed gambling operators such as Betnja, NairaBet and Sporty Bet, Casinos, online gaming platforms such as Betway Nigeria and most pool operators such as Nigerian Association of Pools Stakeholders and Perchstone and Grays (P & G) pools are compelled by requirements of their operators to fixed elaborate buildings and rooms. The case is different for those in the Bingo and Lottery categories such as Premier Lotto Ltd (Baba Ijebu), Global Gaming Ltd (Glo Bingo), DNJ Gaming Ltd (DNJ Lotto, Give & Win Lottery and Western Lotto. These have an outdoor orientation in makeshift shelters. There is a greater density of gambling agents across space as the various promoters have appointed their agents. The greater ease of

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Geography and Environment Management, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Architecture, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria</footnote>
gambling has also enabled the attainment of a mass market. Rather than confinement to elaborate housing and well-appointed office spaces as known as pool offices, emergent gambling has become footloose and more invasive achieving greater spatial comprehensiveness. Most of the mentioned stigmatized activities adopt orientations of timing and space use that enable them to survive stigmatization. Measures such as temporal adjustments, say choice of nightlife in deference to unsympathetic public institutions and their activities, is adopted by some of the stigmatized activities. Gambling, however, may not afford a nocturnal orientation given the number of episodes lotto services for instance operate daily. How does an activity that attracts stigmatization maintain a presence in proximal trafficked and built-up spaces that are of interest to its markets, within the urban built environment? This paper investigates the spatial dynamics of gambling focusing on how roadside gambling outfits negotiate space amidst development control measures. It examines the spatial adjustments made by these gambling outfits and their impact on the built environment.

## Aim and Objectives

The aim is to understand the evolution of gambling spaces in the urban built environment and spatial adjustments made by roadside gambling outfits to maintain their presence amidst development control measures.

Objectives: The objectives are to

Identify the reasons behind the roadside orientation of gambling outfits in Owerri Metropolis.

Examine the types of makeshift structures used for roadside gambling and their impact on the urban building environment.

Analyse the spatial adjustments made by gambling outfits to maintain visibility and accessibility.

Investigate residents' perceptions of gambling spaces and their impact on the community.

Explore the views of gambling business operators on regulation and its implications for the built environment.

## Research Questions

What drives the proliferation of roadside gambling outfits in Owerri metropolis?

How do gambling outfits adapt to urban development control measures?

What are the implications of emergent gambling spaces for urban aesthetics, safety and community well-being?

How do residents perceive gambling spaces and what are their concerns?

What are the perspectives of gambling business operators on regulation and how do they impact the urban building environment?

## LITERATURE REVIEW

The issue of gambling space user behaviour has been featured prominently in literature. Philander, Tabri, Wood and Wohl (2022) found a strong link between casino proximity and visit frequency which can predict addictive behaviour. This followed the work of Badji, Black and Johnston (2020) in Australia. The link between proximity and user appeal brings to the fore gambling firms' efforts to attain great densities to kill off the disincentive and impedance presented by distance. This will rather bring gambling into conflict with development control where the proliferation of gambling points challenges the ambience around and usage of built-up spaces. The proliferation of gambling spaces cannot attain their new distribution without a makeshift orientation. The aesthetic dimension of modular shelters raised for gambling therefore becomes a subject of research interest.

The necessity of production of an 'affective atmosphere' for gambling to take place is noted in the works of Waitt, Gordon, Harada, Gurnieri, Reith and Cioriari (2023). It might create tensions between the regular built environment and street-side islands of sandwiched shelters that have to provide minimal ambience for the gambler in the most inconvenient of spaces such as the frontage of office buildings and top of covered drainage channels. In all, the gambling landscape has come under spatial change.
The Czech Republic has tried to bring it under legal control (Frajer, Fiedor, Kwarik, Sery, Aigelova and Charvat (2024). The idea is that the results might not be salutary if gambling were to be left to self-regulate under market forces without government intervention.

In Nigeria, the issue of gambling which rubs off on the quality of the built environment fits into the larger issues of the informality of much of the economy. Farinmade, Soyinka and Sui (2018) linked the problem
of sustainable urban development in Lagos to urban informal activities which compromise the quality of the built environment. Infrastructure planning is very inadequate in Lagos and this is central to the proliferation of urban informality.

Chattopadhyay (2024) grappled with the discourse on informality finding it indescribable in its duality of hypervisibility and illegibility; endurance and impermanence. Associated with infrastructure, it found the nexus of urban infrastructural transformation where sidewalks, streets and public spaces transform into shops. What stands out in this informality infrastructure relationship is the idea that informality is only a way of seeing where interpretation is dependent on where an observer belongs in the formality-informality divide.

Chen (2021) found the notion of informality a stigmatized one that requires architectural solutions. It found that the desire to do away with make-shift structures is linked to urban imagery, sense of place and identity. Interpretations of these are highly subjective as shown in Chattopadhyay (2024). To this extent, the makeshift gambling spaces may have a highly culturally and aesthetically nuanced relationship with the built environment in which they are ill-fittingly subsumed. It is a tension which development control may not ignore.

Gambling spaces may sometimes be concentrated in some areas to the sanity of other areas in the form of a concentrate-and-contain gambit. Hence Adeniyi, Brown and Whysall (2023) found these concentrations in areas populated by underprivileged groups. The spatial dynamics involving these gambling outfits and their outlook on the one hand and the formalized built environment on the other are at the heart of a contestation that elicits interrogation.

## THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theory of the production of space (Lefebvre, 1991) indicates that space is socially produced in which case it bears all the trappings of social relations; power dynamics and economic forces. While space is material in essence, it is also mental and symbolic. Given that it has these diverse attributes, it is therefore subjective in interpretation and a hot platform for contestation. Diverse interests compete to shape and control space. Civic engagement is therefore involved in assigning rights to participate in shaping urban spaces or denial of such rights.

Inputs such as economic forces of capitalism and globalization, political decisions such as zoning and development control, cultural values such as social norms and values and technological advancement such as online gambling influence space use. They are mediated by processes of space production to produce the physical and social setting of gambling, changes in the spatial organization of the built environment and impacts on communities that are of a social, economic or environmental nature.

Goffman (1959) in the theory of Front Stage and Back Stage shows that spatial organization manages social interactions by limiting some activity to a front/back stage orientation considered appropriate in terms of impression management. Hence the relaxed informal, unscripted, hidden-from-public orientation of backstage activities such as gambling is contrasted with formal, scripted, audience-oriented interactions that strictly adhere to conventions and social norms. There is a realization of a shift in dialectical materialism where backstage activities emerge from the shadows to contest space with the front stage activities. It is part of the spatial dynamics under interrogation.

## METHOD

The study is a qualitative one based on a purposive sampling of 250 gambling operators, gamblers and the public around the gambling points. Data collection tools include audio recording and note-taking. The method used is in-depth interviews which explore experiences; perceptions and attitudes of gambling operators, gamblers and members of the community in gambling areas. Observations involved recording of behaviours, interactions and environmental context.

The thematic analysis method was used involving coding (identification and labelling of preliminary themes and patterns, theme identification and development (relationships and patterns) and theme definition (scope and boundaries of each theme). Analysis of themes involved coding (labelling and categorization), memoing (insights and reflection), mind mapping (visualization of relationships between themes and pattern matching (identification of recurring patterns).

Themes covered include: Spatial adaptations with subthemes such as camouflage strategies and location selection.
Regulatory ambivalence with subthemes such as lack of effective regulation and poor recognition of makeshifts under the regulatory radar.

Social impacts with subthemes such as community concerns and problem gambling and insecurity.

# OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

## Reasons for the Proliferation of Roadside Gambling Outfits

Reasons for the proliferation of roadside gambling outfits are many and they emanate from a number of factors: economic, social administrative, technological, environmental and psychological.

**Economic Factors:** A whole lot of people are unemployed in Nigeria's depressed economy. Gambling outfits are seen as a way of gaining employment. However, under prevailing poverty, capital availability is highly limited. Hence there is a resort to minimalist investment in gambling entrepreneurship under existing franchise arrangements that lead to the roadside. On the side of the gambling public, erosion of income opportunities also encourages low-end gambling behaviour at roadsides.

**Social Factors:** There is in recent times a progressive normalization of gambling in local culture. This has not however totally eradicated stigmatization since acceptance of gambling behaviour still functions within certain social boundaries. People are yet stigmatized on the grounds of age and gender with the elderly and the very young as well as women negatively profiled.

Peer influence in gambling is heightened in locales with a certain threshold of regular gamblers. Gambling as a social activity requires the mutual reinforcement of collocated patrons. Hence territorial orientation of spheres of influence makes gambling a spatially sensitive activity. One can actually find insulation or better leverage at resistance based on location. Gambling points located at roadsides therefore are strategic in breaking individual resistance by relieving potential gamblers of investment in efforts. It gets effortless by removing the distance barrier. It is therefore incentivized,

Though gambling may provide thrills and escape, the ambience of shade provided by gambling shelters offers an oasis effect under the hot sun and in the absence of alternative moderated spaces. Its public profile also makes it unquestioningly welcoming even to stragglers. For some of these reasons, parts of the public seem to have acquiesced to gambling points as an effort at urban furniture. The roadside gambling room presents a unique subculture, allowing under its highly limited space pleasurable social occasions and interactions that would otherwise have been elusive.

**Administrative Factors:** The regulatory environment gets very lax out of poorly resourced planning offices that get overwhelmed with development control demands. Weak enforcement tends to incentivize proliferation of makeshift gambling structures. The state's development control institutions do not seem to prioritize makeshift spaces and such other pseudo housing as the gamblers' umbrellas even as the umbrellas are effective alterations to the landscape. Beyond the failure of state development control agencies, neighbourhoods have not evolved formalized structures to regulate the operations and spatial orientation of gambling businesses. Inadequate policy framework leading to lack of clarity in guidelines is exploited by gambling businesses to achieve greater location density.

**Technological Factors:** The gambling business has become very footloose on account of the digital payment systems that have evolved. The devices in use make it convenient for the business to locate at any point. Hence the locational freedom makes for gravitation to the roadside – the points that generate the most traffic.

**Environmental Factors:** The roadside orientation serves a public that is already in tune with the patronage of roadside traders. Visibility is another element that goes with accessibility. The public shows a reluctance to go beyond the least effort in sourcing services.

**Psychological Factors:** Many gamblers are victims of addiction and in their condition, they are scarcely trustworthy. If the level of gambling associated with such people is taken to inner offices in regular housing, admitting such persons of questionable character into such gambling spaces may be of high-security risk. The roadside gambling space is therefore a way of maintaining safe business relationship under difficult, trust-deficit circumstances. These show that roadside gambling is not passive but actively recreating its space in agreement with the submission of Maassen and Madeleine (2019) about informal workers of Durban who design market place, rather than accept displacement.

## Typology of Makeshift Structures for Gambling

Makeshift structures in use are temporary in nature. They are also informal and adaptive. There are those that may be found in container-based structures, tent-based structures, street-side stalls, market stalls, roadside kiosks and other types of modular structures. A dominant type that dots the landscape in
Owerri metropolis is the umbrella-based shelter that comes in bright colours such as red for maximum visibility in the city scape. The makeshift arrangement is around a couple of benches under the umbrella with a table serving to give anchorage to the umbrella. The umbrella is rooted in heavy cylinder of earth for stability and the umbrella hoisted over the only table under which the sand cylinder serves as a pillar of support. The room created is hardly enough to grant elbow room to the 5 or 6 that might huddle under the umbrella researching on what numbers to stake. The roof elevation of the umbrella is such that sitting clients are virtually covered and out of view but for their exposed ankles or knees. On all sides, various materials are used as curtains to maximize the privacy of facility users,

This is the most popular set-up as it is quite cheap to assemble. This however makes it highly amenable to proliferation and the aesthetic challenge it has come to assume. It is in agreement with the findings of Dodd (2000) on informal trading areas of Johannesburg. Despite the observed state however Dodd (2000) sees architectural makeovers as best practice given their economic value.

## Spatial Adjustments and Adaptation of Gambling Spaces

Most operators of gambling businesses are vulnerable young ladies who may not stand up to robbers. They therefore locate on very business roadsides to find security in the public limelight. Incidentally, gambling cannot be zoned away like some other stigmatized commercial interests of the informal sector to its own 'redlight districts'. Gambling at the low level that is common has to be in the trajectories of traffic as clients will not find it economical to take a trip for the low-end transactions that are commonly done at the roadsides. Gambling points have to be sporadic in space and cannot adopt a localization orientation for dealing largely with 'small change'. Being so boxed in, the gambling businesses have to contest for space where none has been provided. They spill into sidewalks, streets and parks where they have to show flexibility and readiness to give way to vehicles as the need arises and get restored as convenience demands. Their readiness for impermanence is a fluidity that enables tolerable encroachment.

Other adaptation strategies include their outlook of camouflage to blend with similar informal shelters housing cobblers, petty traders, mobile money operators (described as POS operators), roadside catering outfits, good vendors, newspaper vendors etc.

Proximity to transportation hubs is a common feature tying the business to transportation infrastructure such as motor parks and a linear orientation following the roadways. Where there is scarcely space to maintain contiguity with the roads, open drainage systems have been covered with boards to provide platforms for the gambling shelters. Adaptive strategies have also been seen in the city of Ammon where the local community is reinventing its informal spaces (Yaghi, Abuhassan, Hamdan, Aalwneh, Khushamn, Tarawneh & Goussous, 2023).

## Implications for Urban Aesthetics Safety and Security

The episodic nature of some forms of gambling implies that many gamblers hang on for extended hours keeping to regimens across the day. It is therefore a perfect spatial alibi for loafers and stragglers that would otherwise not find a foothold in some neighbourhoods and business layouts. The gambling space therefore brings reserved and private spaces into the urban commons subject to diverse abuses and vulgarity. While disruptive activities in urban areas such as refuse evacuation and clubbing are usually time-zoned away from conflict with diurnal activities yielding the usual nightscape specialities dominated by youth culture, gambling is not so amenable to such temporal adjustments. Its disruptive capacity cannot therefore be managed in this way.

There is a security risk in gambling umbrellas permanently adjusted to a low roof orientation to mask identity of clients and enable evasion of public stigmatization. The street, this way accommodates a person whose identity is unknown and apprehension about security is common. The privacy-security trade-off challenges the sustainability of the industry. The aesthetic presentation is one of poor visual and sensory experiences and even deeper negative symbolic meanings. The environments where these gambling points are found are cluttered and chaotic with bright colours, decrepit, patchy drapery and unapproved advertising and signage. Urban landscape is degraded due to the disruption of public space aesthetics and incongruence with surrounding architecture. Crowding and congestion effect is created by the loss of road verges. Navigation of the area is impaired through obstruction of vehicular lanes, pedestrian paths and visibility. The neighbourhood identity suffers. The symbolism is one of urban decay, neglect and representations of economic struggle and resilience under poverty. It reinforces in
the urban space the old aesthetic conflicts that speak to the tension between formal and informal urban
design; luxury and poverty; order and disorder and planned and unplanned development. Urban beauty
and ugliness and people's economic survival within those contexts emerge as a central concern and
subject for debate. The link between neighbourhood deprivation and gambling concentration
established in Adeniyi (2023) is made evident. What is however left for conjecture is the causal pathway
– to ascertain which between gambling concentration and deprivation is the precursor of the other.

Perspective of Gambling Operators on Regulations and Impact on the Built Environment

A major point that kept showing up in submissions made by the gambling operators on regulatory
pressures is the employment opportunities they have created for themselves as grounds to justify the
relaxation of regulatory pressures on their business model. It is the same old logic of environmental
quality considered as an inferior good to survival.

Another economic ground canvassed for relaxation of development control pressures is the tax revenue
gambling firms generate that goes into government coffers. Most gambling operators consider it
inconsistent for the government that tax their operations to declare them a problem for the urban
ecology. Within the context of neighbourhoods, they consider the customers they attract that patronize
other collocated businesses enough compensation for the inconveniences associated with their business,
They reject the suggestion of relocation from the maladjusted spaces they occupy on the insistence that
their extant chosen locations are where the customers are found. Besides, lack of money to rent a regular
structure for the business is a regular concern. It reinforces the idea that regulations favour established
operators; and starters operating at the margins need to be granted some kind of affirmative action to
democratize participation in the economy.

The gambling operators do not reckon with their negative impact on the built environment and
landscape. They rather hold unto the conviction that they add value. The claim is that their operations
are not a disturbance or distortion to the built environment as they do not operate permanent structures.
While they see the modularity of their umbrellas as an index of sustainability, the night time removal
of the structure does nothing to ameliorate its several hours of cluttering the business space during
business hours. Interestingly while the umbrella can be considered temporary, certain ancillary
structures are left in situ on a permanent basis.

Another contention by the operators is that they participate in neighbourhood environmental sanitation
implying their internalization of what could have been externalized; a show of goodwill and civic
responsibility that should count for something in terms of social responsibility.

Their perspectives reinforce the idea of Chattopadhyay (2024) that appraisal of informal structures and
decisions made about their significance depends on where one is located on the informal-formal divide.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Gambling regulators need to engage the communities to stimulate self-regulation of gambling activities.
Development control agencies which currently emphasize permanent built structures while regulating
makeshifts should recognize the disruptive value of makeshift structures.

Government agencies – the pools and gaming board should clarify the operational standards spelt out
for gambling operators to guide the general public.

The built environment designs should be made to provide for public use such that informal activities
are not essentially reduced to squatter activities ill-adjusted to built-environments.

Financial inclusion and empowerment should be pursued to reduce the number of persons dependent
on gambling business. This will produce good landscape changes.

CONCLUSION

The paper interrogates the proliferation of gambling and its impact on the urban built environment. It
investigates how low-end gambling negotiates space in the built-up urban context. Its investigation of
the evolution of gambling spaces is to establish spatial adjustments made by roadside gambling outfits,
as stigmatized activities, to maintain their spaces in the face of public disapproval and development
control. It asked questions about factors that drive roadside proliferation; adaptation to urban
development; implications for urban aesthetics, safety and security; public perception of gambling
spaces and operators' perception of regulations and the impact of their operations.
The space production theory of Henri Lefebvre and the Frontstage and Backstage theory of Erving Goffman were invoked to analyse the placemaking and social psychology involved in informal sector spatial dynamics. The qualitative method involving thematic analysis helped to ascertain economic social, administrative, psychological, technological, and environmental reasons for roadside orientation of emergent gambling businesses. The realized gambling spaces are modular, and not amenable to district localization and spatial fidelity. While the spatial adjustment they make entails sandwiching among regularly built environments, they produce distorting effects on urban aesthetics, safety and security.

The general perspective of operators shows self-preservation, enlightened self-interest and support for the maintenance of the spatial status quo. Their perspective highlights the idea that the position held on informal businesses and their outlooks depends on where an assessor belongs in the existential formal-informal divide. The urban space contestation between formal and informal space use is therefore a class struggle and a socio-political event.

## REFERENCES

Adeniyi, A.O., Brown, A. & Whysall, P. (2023). Spatial Concentration of Gambling Opportunities: An Urban Scale Perspective. *Cities*, 140: 104386.

Badji, S., Black, N. & Johnston, D. (2020). Proximity to Gambling Venues, Gambling Behaviours and Related Harms. Research Report, https://responsiblegambling.vic.gov.au/documents/969/VRGF_RR

Chattopadhyay, S. (2024). Informality and Infrastructure, In Elorduy, N.A., Sinha, N. & Marx, C. (eds). *Urban Informality and the Built Environment, Infrastructure, Exchange and Image*, London: UCL Press pp. 19-31.

Chen, H.L. (2021). Improving Makeshift Places: The Architecture and Design of Informal Settlement, Ph.D Thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, May 2021.

Dodd, H. (2000). Transformations in Informal Trading Areas. Stretford South Entry Orange Farm Case Study Johannesburg South Africa. LTH, Lunds Tekniska Hogskola. https://www.hdm.th.se/hdm.

Farinmade, A., Soyinka, O. & Sui, K.W.M. (2018). Assessing the Effect of Urban Informal Economic Activity on the Quality of the Built Environment for Sustainable Urban Development in Lagos, Nigeria, *Sustainable Cities and Society*, 41.

Frajer, J., Fiedor, D., Kovarik, F., Sery, N., Aigelova, F. & Charvat, M. (2024). Changing ‘Casinoscape’: Spatial Patterns of Casino Municipalities and Impacts of the New Gambling Act in the Czech Republic *Journal of Maps*, 20 (1). https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2024.2387921.

Goffman, E. (1959). *The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life*. University of Edinburgh Social Sciences Research Centre. Monograph 2.

Lefebvre, H. (1991). *The Production of Space (Translated by Donald Nicholso-Smith)* Blackwell Publishing.

Maassen, A. & Galvin, M. (2019). Urban Transformations: In Durban, Informal Workers Design Marketplaces Instead of Getting Displaced by them, World Resources Institute.

Philander, K., Tabi, N., Wood, R. & Wohl, M. (2022). Casino Proximity, Visit Frequency and Gambling Problems. *International Gambling Studies*, 22 (3) 459-479.

Soyinka, O., & Siu, K.W.M. (2018). Urban Informality and Infrastructure Planning In Hong Kong and Lagos Metropolis for Sustainable Urban Design. *Spaces and Flows: An International Journal of Urban and Extra Urban Studies*, Vol. 3, Iss. 3.

Taggart, T., Rendina, H.J., Boone, C.A. ... Bowleg, L. (2022). Stigmatizing Spaces and Places as Axes of Intersectional Stigma among Sexual Minority Men in HIV Prevention Research, *AJPH*, June 2022. Accessed 10th October, 2024.

Waitt, G., Gordon, R., Haraola, T., Gurrieri, L., Reith, G., Cioriari, J. (2023). Towards Relational Geographies of Gambling Harm: Orientation, Affective Atmosphere, and Intimacy, *Progress in Human Geography*, vol. 47, Iss. 5.

Yaghi, A., Abuhassan, L., Hamdan, D., Aalwneh, L., Khushaam, N.L., Tarawneh, S. & Goussous, J. (2023). Typologies of Informal Adaptations of Communal Spaces: A Comparative Study
between Different Socio-Economic Spatial Settings in Amman, Urban Research and Practice,
1-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/17535069.2024.2383991.

APPENDIX

<figure><img src="image_48.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1: Fire Service Junction Wetheral Road</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_49.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2: Wetheral /Aba Road Junction</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_50.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3: Old Timber Market by Wetheral</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_51.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 4: Ogbo Osisi</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_52.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 5: Egbu Road</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_53.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 6: Christ Church by Wetheral</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_54.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 7: Ikenegbu Layout by Destiny Supermarket</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_55.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 8: IMSU Junction, Okigwe Road</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_56.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9: Imo State University, Owerri</figcaption></figure>
**Chapter Twenty-Seven**

**Studio Ceramic Art: The Panacea for Change towards Sustainable Development**

*Victoria Ifeoma Konkwo*

Department of Fine and Applied Arts, Imo State University, Owerri

EMAIL: vifeoma415@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

This study explores the importance of ceramics studio art as a panacea for the change we need in a deprived society to achieve sustainable economic development and overall growth in Nigeria. Ceramic studio art constitutes some of the important forms of expression and representation through which the studio ceramists contribute to the growth of the Nigerian nation. The thrust of this paper is to highlight and discuss the significant roles which studio ceramic artists play in the areas of education, technology, culture, social, aesthetics, political, communication, religious, historical and entrepreneurial development of the Nigerian Nation. The paper examines the meaning of development in a broader context which is not limited to economic enterprise alone but also incorporates other aspects of human endeavors. The benefits of studio ceramic arts in achieving overall sustainable development in the above-mentioned areas were enumerated and discussed. It concluded that studio ceramic arts is a human activity aimed at helping man face the challenges of his environment. This makes it imperative that studio ceramic arts can no longer be sidelined in the drive towards developmental goals in Nigeria.

KEYWORDS: Studio ceramic arts; Deprived society; Sustainability; National Development

**INTRODUCTION**

Ceramics arts according to Oziogu (2011) is the act of forming objects of clay in a moist plastic condition and firing them in a kiln. Nigrosh (1996) opines that ceramics are made with soft clay, which can be easily modelled into any shape and fired to permanency. The writer asserts that ceramics is an important aspect of human life, which can be two or three dimensional involving the skill of making earthenware containers and firing them by the action of heat. Studio ceramics art therefore is the making of ceramic art in a studio setting rather than in a factory. Studio ceramists are free to experiment with many techniques and styles. Their artistic works can be functional, aesthetical, or expressional. Studio ceramists produce functional wares such as table wares, ornamental wares, sculptural pieces and a host of other items. Studio ceramist's work of art in the opinion of Duane and Seruh Preble (1994, p.12) is the aesthetic expression of an idea or experience formed with skills through the use of a medium. In support of the above view, Omaighe (2006) sees studio ceramic art as a medium of expression that dictates a certain discipline and structural standard to convey both meaning and aesthetic values. One way of studying change is through the appreciation of studio ceramists and the wares they produce in the society which play significant roles in the individual and collective lives of a society or nation. Ago (2012) asserts that all human civilization is creative imagination. Therefore, this implies that studio ceramic artists are imaginative, creative and innovative in expressing ideas or experiences formed with skill through the use of a medium (clay). In all ages, studio ceramics art is of paramount importance to the society. It consists of both a form of expression and practical convenience. Konkwo (2013) opines that studio ceramics art continued through the early civilization to the modern age. Konkwo further said that its practice and study contributed to the development of some ancient cities such as France, Britain, America, Germany and a host of others. National development in the context of this discourse is considered as the extent to which our nation has evolved ceramic art as a means towards attaining satisfying levels in areas of her economic, social, educational, cultural, environmental, technological, aesthetics, communication, historical, political and entrepreneurial needs.

**Deprived society**

According to Nwoke (2023), the word deprived means to keep something away from someone or society. He further stated that the state of deprivation means something is missing and this implies that Nigeria is deprived in the sense that notwithstanding the national development plans, Nigeria do not
have things or conditions such as the ever presence of many studio-ceramic artists that are usually considered necessary for a pleasant life.

## National and sustainable development

National development is the capacity of a country to raise the standard of living of its residents. It could be achieved by providing individuals with basic livelihood requirements and supplying them with employment. According to Nwoko (2013), national development must be based on a country's resources both human and material. To utilize the benefits of human resources, this study focuses on studio ceramic art: the panacea for the change we need in a deprived society for sustainable development. This shows the need for more studio ceramic artist's participation in the mainstream of Nigerian society. Thus, studio ceramic art empowerment in Nigeria is recommended as contributing more to human resources than any other because, it has a lot to do with human competence, creativity and skills. Studio ceramic arts in this study will no doubt, provide the necessary professional skills, knowledge, industry, innovation, creativity and competence which leads to maximum output in studio ceramic production, decision making and leadership qualities. In all ages and in every society, studio ceramic artists have aided the development of mankind by producing necessary aesthetic, ornamental, industrial, technological, table wares and a host of other items which helps man solve its pressing problems. The reason which among other things motivated this paper is the need to highlight the significance of studio ceramic arts as the panaceas for the change we need in Nigeria for sustainable development. These changes are thus classified under the following subheadings. It is the opinion of the writer that any nation or society without these areas of studio ceramic arts is like a tree without a root.

## CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

### The Concept of Culture

Culture is an inherent part of human social relations. Culture is the way of life of a people. The shared, learned behaviour of a people's Culture means different things to different people. Ojulari (2009) defines culture as that complex whole which included knowledge, belief, arts, moral, laws, custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of a society. According to Peters (1973) culture is the sum total of human creation, the organized results of group experience from the past to the present time, thus it includes all that man had made of in the form of tools, weapons, shelter and other material goods. By this, culture represents the distinctive way of life of a group and their complete design for living.

Famuyide (2007) defines culture as the whole way of a society or the way people live. It is the totality of all the life and living patterns of a particular group of people. According to him this includes their ideas, the object they make or create and all the activities which go on among them. Thus, culture embraces all characteristic activities and interests of a set of people or society. Every society has a culture which members of that society transmit from generation to generation as their cultural heritage. Aspects of culture can be classified under two broad headings. First is the material culture and second is the non-material culture.

* The material culture describes an object of culture which are a creation of man and which is visible. These include buildings; works of arts, tools, clothes, jewels, pots, etc. Culture is very useful particularly when it comes to tracing the history of a people. This could be done through the help of archaeology by excavating relies (materials) from the ground.

* Non-material cultures are abstract and not seen physically but are of great value and importance to the people or the society. The non-material culture is reflected in attitude, values, beliefs, manner, of greetings and dressing styles for men and women, morals, languages, motivation, etc, which are shared and transmitted. Famuyide, (2007).

Studio ceramic artists contribute a lot in projecting the people's culture as it mirrors their lifestyles. Studio ceramic works at any time or place are always influenced by the physical, cultural and socio-historical factors in the environment in which he or she works and lives. Studio ceramic arts are forms of language that immediately tell a visitor the tradition or culture of that particular area.

Uzoagba (2001) notes that studio ceramic arts encourage cultural integration and promote national economy and foreign exchange. Adejumo (2007) opines that studio ceramic arts wares are a tangible creation force of any culture. Nigerian Studio Ceramic artists reflect in their works the cultural attributes
of our nation by producing creative works of high aesthetics that depict ceremonies and occupations of the people such as New Yam Festivals, Traditional ceremonial pots for carrying palm wine during traditional marriage ceremonies, Chieftaincy ceremonies, child naming ceremonies and a host of others. These artistic endeavours by the studio ceramists give a deep insight into Nigerian culture. Some cultural studio ceramic wares are used to determine cultural values, beliefs, norms and occupations of the society. Ikegwuonu, (2010) opines that indigenous cultures are expressed and projected to the outside world through studio ceramists' art works.

## Studio ceramic arts promote the economy of a nation or community

Studio Ceramists can be seen as vessels for change in sustainable economic and overall development in Nigeria. They are seen as instruments for employment generation. When hundreds of studio ceramic artists become self-employed and entrepreneurs, young and teaming graduates will be employed in their studios to market their wares and production, thus, reducing or minimizing the rate of unemployment in the country. According to Adejuma (2007) studio ceramic arts are a tangible creative force of any country. The artists can enrich themselves by producing diverse made-in-Nigeria ceramic wares for industrial and household needs. This will no doubt improve the standard of living of the people as many young unemployed graduates will be employed by them. This will develop sound moral values in the youths and keep them out of the streets, cultism and violence.

Studio ceramic artists produce works that are kept in museums and prominent hotels. These wares are bought by tourists as gift items and personal uses. This increases the standard of living of the artists and makes them to attain a sustainable level of economic independence.

## Studio ceramic arts represent a means of communication

Ceramic wares are essential in the education of both the young and the old. Studio ceramic arts impact learning by providing young people with an authentic learning experience that engages their minds and bodies. The arts transform the environment for learning. Thus, visuals assist individuals in generating ideas, bringing ideas to life, and to communicate them in workplaces. Through studio ceramic arts, children learn their languages faster. Generally, children learn about their environment through visual communication which their mother interprets their meanings. Children from infancy appear to understand faster through visual learning. Ekeada (2007) notes that “Children at early stage of life are naturally endowed with skills but they tend to lose it at school because of discouragement from their teachers or parents." No doubt then that they scribble early on the walls, floor and ground to express their ideas and feelings about the world. We can see that it is inborn by observing children who make pictures, sculptures and model buildings before learning to read or write. Thus, Nwaugha (2005) remarks that "we cannot effectively teach the pupils with only words, these pupils are too small to express their feelings, so, they learn and understand faster and better with visuals or objects they can see, touch or hear its sound". This in effect helps the children to remember faster what they are taught in school and at home as well as promote their languages and cultural identification in Nigeria.

Studio ceramic arts play important roles in displaying adverts for important information effectively and vividly. The space and computer technology are generating a visual culture that thrives on new ideas, new ways of doing things, new areas of explorations and experimentations very much the same way in which studio ceramic arts is constantly seeking for new sensibilities, new materials and new directions.

## Studio ceramic arts and education

Studio ceramic arts perform significant roles in the education sector as they expose the child to the use of tools and instructional materials which are rooted in visual art, right from the first cave dwellers who drew on the walls of their caves. Onyejemezi (1996) states that:

> Meaningful learning takes place when the learner is fully involved in the process through the use of well-prepared instructional media. This gives the learner the opportunity of experiencing as he/she observes, hears or listens, touches or manipulates things, carried out some experiments or interacts with some concrete objects and situations. According to Okere (2011, p.16) through the use of interesting studio ceramic visuals, educators can 'inject' into scholars, the vitality and zeal to
learn. Besides he, continues, it will lessen the severity of learning processes. Hence, he asserts that: device is to serve as a more concrete referent to learning than spoken or written word. Words are arbitrary symbolize. They don't look or sound usually like the things they represent.

Supporting the above view, Broekhuizen (1995) asserts that studio ceramic arts help to educate the illiterate masses on how to prevent certain diseases such as HIV (Human Immune Deficiency Virus) diabetes, malaria, and a host of others by producing visuals that illustrate what they are saying. He contends that "because these people cannot read, write or understand English language, it is helpful to translate what we say into studio ceramic visuals".

Studio ceramic arts education programmes in Nigerian higher institutions of learning are designed to provide intellectual background for general education as well as tailored towards manpower development in specialized practical skills, acquisition of relevant skills for creating value or applied, industrial, commercial, cultural or aesthetic and social development purposes. Konkwo (2013) opines that the philosophy of the Studio ceramic arts education programme is geared towards construction, selectivity, creativity, organization and order, which emphasize the value of "making" as a knowledge process. The Nigerian Studio ceramists are trained to be technical, professional and self-reliant which enhances self-employment, and vibrancy in the labour market as well as creates employment opportunities.

## Studio Ceramic Arts and Religion

Studio ceramic arts perform vital roles in religious worship in society. The Christians of the Renaissance period interpreted religious matters symbolically through visual forms. For example, the dove represents peace, the lamb as Jesus Christ, the apple as evil, the blood as life or soul and the palm as triumph over death. Adams (2001) opines that the use of Studio ceramic arts for religious purposes started earlier than the 16th century when Michelangelo (1475-1564) was commissioned to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel by Juliana II. The ceiling, which covered about 5800 square feet and a long corridor was covered with visual arts numbering about 300 figures drawn from the theme "the creation, fall and redemption of man". These sceneries, which provoke some inspiration to ardent Christians in our contemporary period, are seen in various, churches around us. We can see some sculptural ceramic pieces of the crucifix, the Last Supper, the Blessed Virgin Mary, the shepherds, the three wise men and a host of others in our churches today. Studio ceramic wares such as flower pots, candle stands, ceramic cups for Holy Communion, ceramic tiles and ceramic bricks are used in decorating and beautifying Christian Churches. Hence, the use of studio ceramic arts to project religion is not a new idea.

## Studio Ceramic Arts and Economics

From the prehistoric time to the modern period, studio ceramists have created, a myriad of interesting artworks, and designs used for different purposes. The objectives of engaging in such activities were often inspired by the need to express themselves. These creative activities have led to creative experiences resulting in creating gainful employment and opportunities for financial rewards to the studio ceramists.

This human endeavour "Studio ceramic arts" can be used to enrich an individual, the entire nation the environment where it is practised, and the community and the society at large. Ceramic art techniques and processes are technically applied to reflect human achievements, needs and feelings. According to Eze (2011), "most people are now becoming aware of the relevance of the discipline in manpower development. For example, many non-governmental organizations have incorporated Studio ceramic arts as an aspect of their entrepreneurship".

In Nigeria, Mbari, Ife, Igboukwu and Yoruba arts are other classes of ceramic arts and design used as creative traditional enterprises for tourist attractions and fundraising. Tourists buy Nigerian ceramic art as gifts to their loved ones thereby, increasing the economic growth of the nation.

## Studio ceramic arts and Crafts

Studio ceramic arts cannot be separated from crafts. The traditional system could not have made substantial development without input from the crafts. Artifacts such as woven textiles, ropes, diggers,
hoes, pots, knives, fans, pottery, carved architectural doors, cane chairs, beds, trays and a host of others
contribute to the economic well-being of Nigerian society.

Studio Ceramic Arts and Aesthetics

Studio ceramic arts develop man's sense of beauty by training one to appreciate the importance of harmony and beauty in both objects and society. According to Idiong, (1999), "one can also see artistic Studio ceramic wares and ideas used aesthetically in designing and decorating Nigerian hotels and recreational parks. These aesthetic developments might not be unconnected to the declaration of Owerri as the cleanest state capital in Nigeria, during the Babangida administration. In this era of industrialization, one observes that technology must not be devoid of aesthetics. For instance, a technician or cabinet maker will only reach aesthetic value if he employs a sense of balance, beauty and ugliness. He can arrange a living room and its environs to needed interior standards.

He also knows what fits where and what must be kept or removed in a space. Positively Nigerians have made a great stride in their artistic development through studio ceramic arts.

Today, ceramic arts because of their aesthetic value attract tourists to the country. By such interaction, they migrate from one area to another to view beautiful landscapes and environments decorated with ceramic wares. These landmarks educate people and unite Nigeria as a country. It therefore implies that Studio ceramic arts can be used to improve the aesthetic quality of an environment. Studio ceramic wares are environmentally friendly products (s) that give(s) an intrinsic perceptual appeal to the viewer. It must be noted that the modern African artist not only works in pictorial and plastic forms, he/she also designs and beautifies his society through his artistic contributions to the environment. He/she sees periodic art exhibitions as an indispensable platform from which his/her art can speak to his environment. In support of this view, Azikiwe in Osita (2012) asserted that "No modern society can develop industrially or meaningfully without products. from studio ceramic arts ".

Ceramic pots produced by studio ceramists are used to decorate the environment by planting beautiful flowers on them and placing them in strategic places to attract the attention of their beholders. It is an important aspect of visual art that could be used to improve upon the standard of a given environment economically, domestically and aesthetically.

The functional roles of these areas of endeavour cannot be over-emphasized. From the aforesaid, it is the writer's view that any environment or society without this area of studio ceramic arts is like a tree without a root.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Studio ceramic arts in our national life contribute to all facets of human endeavour, socio-economically in the production of a wide variety of objects, which serve as functional items, conceptual or decorative objects. The Studio ceramic art objects could be used for various purposes ranging from private, pleasure, social use, domestic or public environment as well as for commercial production. Studio ceramic arts preserve our culture unite society and speak to our souls.

Ecoma (2011) asserts that " Studio ceramic arts could be a source of powerful influence for positive change and a voice for artists who otherwise might not be head." The universal language of art can cross barriers and boundaries, thereby bringing Nigerians of diverse ethnic backgrounds together to promote greater understanding of one another.

A nation that is weak in arts and creativity lacks development organization hence, will be weak and dependent on developed cultures for developmental strategies.

Visual art is important in foreign relations as an instrument of cultural diplomacy. Nigeria's artistic heritage and contemporary visual culture are sometimes shown overseas. "The artist is a seer and a prophet, through his arts, he makes available both truth and mode of existence that are essential to a human being".

Recommendations

Given the aforementioned, I hereby recommend that:

* Studio ceramic arts should be made compulsory core subjects from primary and junior secondary levels.
* More Art galleries and national museums should be established in all the stages of the country and those already in existence should be made to be functional, for the public to appreciate studio ceramic art forms.

* Studio ceramists should be empowered by the government by giving them loans to set up viable ceramic studios and industries in order to employ more youths.

REFERENCES

Adam, L.S. (2001) *A History of Western art*, 3rd Edition, New York: McGraw Hill

Ago, O.W. (2012) Visual Arts: A major tool for Environmental Development South Eastern Nigeria Example: *Journal of Modern Nigerian Art* Vol. No.2, April, 2012

Anyanwu, S.U. (2011) *Historical Development of Language Policies in Nigerian Education*. Owerri, Barloz Publishers Ltd

Brain, R (2006) *Art and Society*, Hong Kong Scheck Wah Tong Printing Press Ltd

Broeknuizer, R.J (1995) *Graphics Communication* New York Glencose/Mc Grew Hill Company.

Duane and Serah, P. (1994) *Art Forms: An introduction to the Visual Arts*: New York: Harper Cillins College publishers

Ecoma, V.C. (2011) Art and Human Endeavours *Journals of Modern Nigerian Arts*.

Ekeada, F.I.N. (2007) *Art Fundamentals: Theory and practice for Junior Secondary Schools*, Book3, Owerri: New African Publishing Co. Ltd

Eze, N. (2011) The impact of Art on modern Nigerian Technology ASA: *Journal of Modern Nigeria* Art. 1(1) p.22-28

Konkwo, V.I (2013) Ceramics an important tool for promoting national development in Nigeria. *Journal of modern art*

Konkwo, V.I (2014) The relevance of the environment to ceramic entrepreneurship in Nigeria. *Journal of modern Nigeria* 1 March 2014

Nigrosh, L.I (1982) *Clay Work: Form and idea in Ceramic Design*. Davis Publishing, Inc, Worcester, Massachusetts.

Nwoko, B.E.B (2023) Transformational Leadership: the panacea for the change we need in a deprived society 15th convocation lecture of the Delta State University Abraka Delta State.

Ojulari, S.I. The relationship between culture and education: A philosophical view. *A paper presented at the 27th Annual conference of the philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria (PEAN)* held at Ahmadu Bello University Zaria pp. 1-6

Onyejiemezy D.A (1996) *Managing instructional Resource in Primary Schools in Owerri* International University Press

Peters, R.S (1979) *Ethics and Education*. London: Unwin Brothers.

Uzoagba, I.N (2001) *Understanding Art in General Education* (3rd ed) Onitsha Africana Fep Publishers Limited.
# Chapter Twenty-Eight

## Effect of Drug Abuse on the Academic Performance of Undergraduate Geography Students in Kano State, Nigeria

### Abubakar Yamusa Abdullahi; Fatima Bello Muhammad

Department of Education, Sa'adatu Rimi University of Education Kumbotso, Kano, Nigeria
Department of Geography, Sa'adatu Rimi University of Education Kumbotso, Kano, Nigeria

EMAIL: abubakaryamusa79@gmail.com

## ABSTRACT

This paper examines the effect of drug abuse on the academic performance of Undergraduate Geography students in Kano State, Nigeria. However, drug abuse is rampant among teenagers because of their ignorance they do not understand the effects and repercussions of drug addiction. Moreover, many students acquire it through their friend's influence, experimental curiosity, and personal problems due to socio-background conditions while many need it for energy to work for long hours. Similarly, some need drugs to prevent the occurrence of withdrawal symptoms etc. In addition, students are encouraged to abuse the following drugs Alcohol, cocaine, Nicotine Phencyclidine etc. but all these drugs have negative effects on the body. For instance, many students find it cumbersome to read and even it kills their moral of reading culture. Consequently, after they have taken the drugs, many students behave abnormally while others fall sick based on their body system even it affects their ability to reason all these problems contribute to their reading culture and many students fail honourably in public examinations such as WAEC, NECO and other external examinations yearly in Nigeria. Therefore, parents, teachers and the Ministry of Education neither the federal nor state must contribute positively to reducing the use of drugs among teenagers in private and public secondary schools in Nigeria.

KEYWORDS; Drug Abuse; Academic; Performance; External. Examination; Student

## INTRODUCTION

Historically, herbs, leaves and plants are forms of drugs that are used to heal and control diseases. Plants have been utilised as medicines since their creation. The specific plants to be used and the methods of application for particular ailments were passed down through oral history from one generation to the other (Khalid, Zaidi, & Ahmad, 2014). There is evidence that intentionally fermented alcohol existed from as early as 10,000 BC when it was used in religious worship, for recreation, medicinal use and for quenching thirst by long-distance travellers. Marijuana was used as medicine from 2,737 BC in China then later in the 19th century, active substances used in the production of drugs like cocaine and morphine were extracted and freely prescribed by physicians for various ailments and even sold over the counter (Magidson & Jessica, 2016).

A drug is referred to as a substance that could bring about a change in the biological modifies perceptions, cognition, mood, behaviour and general body functions (Balogun, 2016). actions (Chebukaka, 2017). It is also considered as a substance that could thus be considered as a chemical modifier of the living tissues that could bring about psychological and behavioural changes (Nnachi, 2017). The use of drugs in itself does not constitute any danger, because drugs correctly administered have been a blessing to bring healing. Unfortunately, in contemporary times certain drugs that initially produced effects such as ecstasy, a sense of feeling good, serenity and power have grown into a problem of dependence and abuse (Ekpenyong, 2012). Drugs such as tobacco, cocaine, marijuana, and alcohol among others tend to stimulate the nervous system of an individual to behave abnormally and extraordinarily, leading such an individual to lose his/her sense of being. The abuse of drugs can cause serious irreversible damage to such individual's physical and psychological development. As Manbe (2018) pointed out, a common incident that happens around us today is as a result of drug abuse and if care is not taken, this could lead to mental disorders.

The World Health Organization defined drug abuse as a "state" of periodic or chronic intoxication, detrimental to the individual and the society, produced by the repeated consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic) (WHO, 2016). Drug abuse are disorder evident in the deliberate use of chemical substances for reasons other than intended medical purposes and which occasion physical, mental, emotional, or
social impairment to the users (Mehta & Rouf, 2013) argued that the use of drugs like Benylin with
codeine, Tutolin with codeine, for medical purposes like the whooping cough is not drug abuse but
becomes abused only when it is geared towards producing some desired behaviours, physical
dependency, addiction, and/or constitute a nuisance to the society. More so, drugs can be said to be
abused when they are used without due land, must approve their use. This observation is borne out by
several studies on ill behaviours of qualified and registered persons who, according to the laws of the
particularly among undergraduate students in tertiary institutions (Abdullahi, 2015, Obiamaka, 2014,
Fawa, The causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students may be sociological, psychological, out
of inquisitiveness, boredom, to ease fear, develop sexual and physical pleasures, or as a result of family
background among other things (Ngesu, 2018). The sequence of usage ranges from tobacco, alcohol,
marijuana and other higher substances. Undergraduate students are gradually engaging in prescribed
drugs, particularly narcotics which are given to relieve severe pain and stimulant medications, which
treat conditions like attention deficit disorder and narcolepsy (Turner in Dankano & Garba, 2020). A
long-lasting effect on the learning abilities of the user is common for those students who start using
drugs at a younger age. Drug abuse causes some areas of the brain not to develop properly leading to
learning disabilities. Persistent abuse of drugs further leads to loss of memory and judgment. Many
undergraduate students who engage in drug abuse tend to be forgetful and can hardly focus particularly
in their studies; it can also lead to loss of short-term memory. Drug abuse may weaken memory by
slowing down the coordination of materials and may decrease students' ability to remember such field
materials that were learned before using the drugs (Magidson & Jessica, 2016).

In a similar vein, undergraduate students found in the acts of drug abuse are often academically and socially less developed as they are not respected and recognized to make reasonable contributions to any development. This is because drug abuse does not only downgrade the academic performance of students but also affects the moral, physical and general buildup of the students (Dankano & Garba, 2020). Thus, youths who are perceived as the veered to the act of abusing drugs. This act does not in any way contribute to the development of being trained in various tertiary institutions in diverse field have the students and as such the expected output of these students can greatly diminish their academic performances because of their persistence in drug abuse (Staff, 2012). It is against this background that the study sought to ascertain the effect of Drug Abuse on the Academic Performance of Undergraduate Students in Kano State.

**Statement of the Problem**

Over the years, the abuse of drugs such as tobacco, sedatives, Marijuana (Indian hemp), cocoa leaves, alcohol, heroin, morphine, cocaine, inhalants (such as glue), and amphetamines to mention but a few have drastically been on the increase. This is disturbing globally as well as in our circumstantial setting among undergraduate students in Kano State. It is widely believed that drug abusers are often mentally derailed and are unable to perform well in their academics. This is more pronounced in science courses, such as computer science, medicine and allied studies, which require high attentiveness for better understanding. Profligacy in drug abuse by undergraduate students does not only tend to affect their academic performance but also affects their cognitive quotient thus exposing them to crime and health challenges (Jonathan & Samuel, 2018). Despite worldwide concern and education about the dangers of drug abuse, many undergraduate students ignorantly or knowingly depend on one drug or the other for their daily lifestyle. From the assertion of the above, it is therefore becoming necessary to carry out this study to determine the effect of drug abuse on the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State Particularly Geography Departments.

**Objective of the Study**

The Objective of the Study is to Examine the Effect of Drug Abuse on the Academic Performance of Undergraduate Geography Students in Kano State. Specifically, the Study Sought to;

1. identify Causes of Drug Abuse among Undergraduate Geography Students in Kano State.

2. Examine the Causes of Drug Abuse on the Academic Performance of Undergraduate Geography Students in Kano State
## Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses are formulated for the study:

1. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of causes of drug abuse among Undergraduate students in Kano State based on gender.

2. There is no significant relationship in the mean ratings of effect of drug abuse on academic Performance of undergraduate students in Kano State based on location.

## METHODOLOGY

The descriptive survey research design was applied for this study which examined the effects of drug abuse on the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State. The population of the study was made of 9,805 undergraduate students from Five (5) universities and Colleges of Education in Kano State. The Universities and Colleges include: Bayero University Kano (BUK), Sa'adatu Rimi University of Education, Yusuf Maitama University, Aliko Dangote University of Technology Wudil, and Federal College of Education (FCE Kano) The simple random sampling technique was used to select 245 students used for the study. The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire on a four (4) point rating scale. The order was used to determine the reliability of the instrument which yielded a reliable instrument was validated by the experts from Bayero University, Kano.

Spearman rank coefficient of 0.86. Two hundred and forty-five (245) copies of the questionnaire were administered to the respondents by the researcher and two other research assistants. Out of the 245 questionnaires administered, 218 copies were retrieved and used for analysis. Mean and standard deviation were descriptive statistical tools that were used to analyse the two research questions while the t-test was the inferential statistics used to test the null hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance. For the research questions, the decision was based on the criterion mean of 2.50. Thus, any item whose mean value is 2.50 or above was accepted while any item having a mean value lower than 2.50 was rejected. For the hypotheses, since the calculated value of t (t-cal) was less than the table value of t (t-crit), the hypothesis was accepted.

## RESULTS

**Research Question 1:** What are the causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students in Kano State?

<table><caption>Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of Responses on the causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students in Kano State?</caption><thead><tr><td>S/N</td><td>STATEMENT</td><td>SA</td><td>A</td><td>D</td><td>SD</td><td>MEAN</td><td>S.D.</td><td>REMARK</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Peer pressure is most likely to drive students into drug abuse under the false impression that the same drugs stimulate appetite for food, increase strength and give wisdom as well as courage to face life.</td><td>120</td><td>85</td><td>11</td><td>2</td><td>3.48</td><td>0.64</td><td>Agree</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Parental neglect is most likely to lead musicians or television personalities abusing undergraduate students into drug abuse</td><td>209</td><td>8</td><td>1</td><td>-</td><td>3.95</td><td>0.23</td><td>Agree</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Low grades tend to create negative feelings among undergraduate students, and so to ease the pain and low morale, they resort to drug abuse as a remedy to their failures in an effort to gain self-confidence</td><td>119</td><td>76</td><td>15</td><td>21</td><td>3.40</td><td>0.77</td><td>Agree</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Influence of role models from movie stars to drugs tend to drive undergraduate students into drug abuse</td><td>18</td><td>3</td><td>176</td><td>15</td><td>2.08</td><td>0.66</td><td>Disagree</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Students may abuse drugs for reasons like relaxation, relieving stress, showing independence, getting rid of boredom, being included in a social group, curiosity among others</td><td>88</td><td>101</td><td>14</td><td>-</td><td>3.20</td><td>0.84</td><td>Agree</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's field survey data, 2024.

From Table, the grand mean of 3.22 which is clearly above the cut-off point of 2.50 (agree) as well as the standard deviation of 0.63 indicated that the respondents agreed that peer pressure, parental neglect, influence of role models, as well as relaxation, relieving stress, showing independence, getting rid of
boredom, being included in a social group, curiosity among others are causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students in Kano State.

**Research Question 2:** How does drug abuse affect the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State?

<table><caption>Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of Responses on Drug Abuse effects on academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State.</caption><thead><tr><th>S/N</th><th>STATEMENT</th><th>SA</th><th>A</th><th>D</th><th>SD</th><th>MEAN</th><th>S.D.</th><th>REMARK</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1.</td><td>Undergraduate students are most likely to stay away from lessons and classes due to the effect of drug abuse and this could lead to poor academic performance</td><td>192</td><td>23</td><td>3</td><td>-</td><td>3.87</td><td>0.38</td><td>Agree</td></tr><tr><td>2.</td><td>Drug abuse is most likely to make undergraduate students less serious in their academic work leading to poor performance</td><td>183</td><td>-</td><td>3</td><td>3</td><td>3.80</td><td>0.52</td><td>Agree</td></tr><tr><td>3.</td><td>Drug abuse has a negative effect on the memory and cognitive capacity of students as they tend to forget what was taught previously</td><td>123</td><td>77</td><td>18</td><td>-</td><td>3.48</td><td>0.64</td><td>Agree</td></tr><tr><td>4.</td><td>Drug abuse tends to give room for poor scores and results due to students' inability to keep up with their studies</td><td>117</td><td>101</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>3.54</td><td>0.50</td><td>Agree</td></tr><tr><td>5.</td><td>Drug abuse such as heavy drinking may lower undergraduate students' expectations about their academic performance which could lead to dropping out of school</td><td>198</td><td>11</td><td>9</td><td>-</td><td>3.87</td><td>0.44</td><td>Agree</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Grand Mean</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3.71</td><td>0.50</td><td>Agree</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's field survey data, 2024.

From Table 2, the grand mean of 3.71 which is above the cut-off mark of 2.50 (agree) as well as the standard deviation of 0.50 showed that the respondents are in unison that drug abuse affects negatively the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State.

**Hypotheses**

H01: There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students in Kano State based on gender.

<table><caption>Table 3: T-test Analysis of Undergraduate Students on the Causes of Drug Abuse among Undergraduate Students in Kano State based on Gender</caption><thead><tr><th>Respondents</th><th>N</th><th>S<sup>2</sup></th><th>Df</th><th>t.cal</th><th>t.crit</th><th>Remark</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Male</td><td>103</td><td>3.65</td><td>216</td><td>0.497</td><td>1.971</td><td>Retain Ho</td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>115</td><td>3.61</td><td></td><td></td><td>0.05</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's field survey data, 2024.

From the t-test table in Table 3 since t-cal (1.41) < t-crit (1.97), we retain Ho. The null hypothesis is hereby retained that there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of undergraduate students on the causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students in Kano State based on gender.

H02: There is no significant relationship in the mean ratings of undergraduate students on the effect of drug abuse on the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State based on location.
<table><caption>Table 4: T-test Analysis of Undergraduate Students on the Effect of Drug Abuse on Academic Performance of Undergraduate Students in Kano State Based on Location.</caption><thead><tr><th>Respondents</th><th>N</th><th>S<sup>2</sup></th><th>Df</th><th>t.cal</th><th>t.crit</th><th>Remark</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Urban</td><td>120</td><td>3.71</td><td>216</td><td>0.249</td><td>1.971</td><td>0.05</td><td>Retain Ho</td></tr><tr><td>Rural</td><td>98</td><td>3.69</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's field survey data, 2024.

From the t-test result in Table 4 t-cal (1.41) < t-crit (1.97), we retain Ho. The null hypothesis is hereby retained that there is no significant relationship in the mean ratings on the effect of drug abuse on the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State based on location.

## Discussion of Findings

**Research Question 1** sought to find out the causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students including: the influence of peer pressure on drug abuse under the false students in Kano State. The finding of the study revealed that the causes of drug abuse among the impression that the same drugs stimulate appetite for food, increase strength and give wisdom as well as courage to face life. Parental neglect which has driven undergraduate students into drug abuse; influence of role models from movie stars to musicians or television personalities abusing drugs; low academic grades which create negative feelings among undergraduate students has also contributed. Other causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students include: relieving stress, being included in a social group, showing independence, relaxation, getting rid of boredom, and curiosity. This finding is in consonant with Ngesu (2018) who submitted that the causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students may be sociological, psychological, boredom, out of curiosity, to alleviate fear, derive sexual and physical pleasures, or as a result of family background among other things.

**Research Question 2** sought to examine how drug abuse affects the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State. The finding of the study as shown in Table 2 revealed that drug abuse impact negatively on academic performance of undergraduate students in Edo State. This is buttressed by the fact that undergraduate students due to the effects of drug abuse stay away from lessons and classes; become less serious in their academic work; develop low memory and cognitive capacity leading to forgetfulness of previously taught lessons; unable to keep up with their studies; as well as low expectations about their academic performance which could lead to dropping out of school. This finding is in line with the findings of Dan Kano and Garba (2020) which revealed that drug abuse does not only downgrade the academic performance of students but also affects the moral, physical and general build-up of the students

**Hypothesis 1** focused on the t-test analysis of undergraduate students on the causes of the null hypothesis (H01) was accepted that there is no significant difference in the mean drug abuse among undergraduate students in Kano State Based on Gender. The analysis revealed

ratings of undergraduate students on the causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students in Kano State based on gender. While

**Hypothesis 2** focused on the t-test analysis of undergraduate students on the effect of drug abuse on the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State based on location. The analysis revealed that the null hypothesis (H02) was accepted that there is no significant relationship in the mean ratings of undergraduate students on the effect of drug abuse on the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State based on location.
CONCLUSION

This study focused on the effects of drug abuse on the academic performance of undergraduate students in Kano State, Nigeria. From the findings of the study, it can be concluded that there are various causes of drug abuse among undergraduate students and its effect is numerous. Some of the causes are psychological, while others are social and biological, more so, drug abuse has a negative effect on undergraduate students' academic performance because it makes them stay away from lessons and classes, become less serious in their academic work as well as make them unable to keep up with their studies and all these factors leads to poor academic performance, indiscipline, mental imbalance, school dropout and so on.

Recommendations

From the findings of the study, the following recommendations were put forward.

1. The government should make drug education compulsory at all levels of our educational system. This will reduce the ignorance level of what constitutes drug abuse and the likely causes and effects.

2. Government at all levels as well as other stakeholders should run constant awareness programmes on the threats of drug abuse on the Academic Performance of Students starting from freshers to those in their final Years

3. Parents and religious bodies should inculcate the habit of constant monitoring and advising their wards on the implications and effects of taking hard drugs. Mass Media should be a Driving force in Carrying out Jingles and Campaigns on the Effects of Drug Abuse.

REFERENCES

Abdullahi, Z. (2015). *Drug Abuse among Youths: Strategies for School Counselling*. The Nigerian Society of Educational Psychologists, Jos, Nigeria.

Balogun, S. K. (2016). Chronic intake of separate and combined alcohol and nicotine on body maintenance among albinorats. *Journal of Human Ecology*, 19(1), 21-24.

Chebukaka, R. N. (2017). Drug Abuse among Students in Public Secondary Schools in Kenya, The Case of Vihiga County. *International Journal of Social Science & Education*. 2(3), 45-61.

Dankano, E., & Garba, M.J. (2020). Drug Abuse and its Effects on Academic Performance of Secondary School Student in Bali Local Government Area of Taraba State, Nigeria. *Taraba State University Journal of Sociology*, 2(2), 117-126.

Ekpenyong, S. N. (2021). Drug Abuse in Nigerian Schools: A Study of Selected Secondary Institutions in Bayelsa State, South-South, Nigeria. *International Journal of Scientific Research in Education*, 5(3), 260-268.

Jonathan, U., & Samuel, G. K. (2018). Assessment of Tramadol abuse predictors among undergraduates in Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, "International Journal of Recent Advances in Multidisciplinary Research," 5(4), 3775-3781.

Khalid, S., Zaidi, W., & Ahmad, F. (2014). Evaluation of the awareness and perception of professional students in medicine, business and law schools of Karachi, regarding the use of (recreational) cannabis. Evaluation.

Magidson, G.H., & Jessica, J.L. (2016). Psychosocial correlates of alcohol and other substance use among low-income adolescents in peri-urban Johannesburg, South Africa: A focus on gender differences. *Journal of Health Psychology*, 3(2), 34-56.

Manbe, D. A. (2018). Crime and Drug Abuse among Nigerian Youths: A Critical Examination in World Health Organization (WHO). Expert Committee on Drug Dependence, 28th Report.

Meht, H., & Rouf, A. (2015). A Comparative Study of Drug Abuse among Students at a Sydney University. *Journal of Drug Addiction, Education, and Eradication*, 9(1/2), 11.

Ngesu, L.M. (2018). Drug dependence and abuse in Kenyan secondary schools: strategies for intervention. *Educational and Review*, 3(10), 304-308.

Nnachi, R. O. (2017). *Advanced Psychology of Learning and Scientific Enquiries*, Enugu: J. J. Classic Publishers Ltd.

Obiamaka, V. O. (2014). Problem behaviours in Nigerian secondary schools. *Nigeria Society for Education Psychologists*, 4(1), 69-75.

Staff, B. N. (2021). *Perception of Drug Abuse Amongst Nigerian Undergraduates*. London: The Macmillan Press.
Geneva: http://www.who.org. Accessed March 31 2022.

World Health Organization (WHO) Report (2016). Management of Substance Abuse: Alcohol.
# PART 5: Physical and Social Environment; Climate Change and Human Ecology
**Chapter Twenty-Nine**

**Effects of Artisanal Refining Activities on Property Development among Communities in South-South, Nigeria: An Environmental Perspective**

Nwanekezi Silver C.<fnref n="1" />; Onyike Joachim A.<fnref n="2" />; Okeahialam Stanislaus<fnref n="2" />

EMAIL: silver.nwanekezi@futo.edu.ng

**ABSTRACT**

Artisanal refining poses a series of effects on various aspects of the human environment and ultimately affects property development. The study considered the environmental effects of artisanal refineries on property development in affected communities in the South-South Region of Nigeria. The survey research method was adopted for the study through the use of a questionnaire; three (3) states (Rivers, Bayelsa and Delta), six (6) LGAs and eighteen (18) communities were selected, leading to 427 respondents selected for the study. Data was analyzed using frequency counts, response percentages, mean values and Pearson correlation coefficient. The findings revealed that respondents agreed that artisanal refining activities have decreased returns on investment due to toxic air, soil quality and water quality (Bayelsa-59.6%, Delta-53.6%), increased the risk of fire incidents in the community (Rivers-50.4%, Bayelsa-50.9%, Delta-62.2%), resulted in premature wear and tear on properties (Rivers-50.4%, Delta-61.4%), air and water quality concerns have reduced demand for property sale/rent (Rivers-58.2%, Bayelsa-47.4%, Delta-52.8%), and is causing more oil spill on land thereby making it difficult for property development activities (Rivers-52.8%, Bayelsa-53.8%). The findings showed a statistically significant relationship between property development and various environmental effects variables due to Artisanal refining activities in the study area. The relationship/correlations were significant (where p ≤ 0.05, r ≥ 0.5). The study concluded that artisanal refinery activities in these communities have affected property development; hence, the need for stricter enforcement of regulations that will forestall the activities of artisanal refineries. Also, stakeholders need to be committed to effective land remediation and restoration management, ensuring suitable conditions for property development within the communities.

**KEYWORDS:** Artisanal refinery; Environmental pollution; Property development; Oil theft

**INTRODUCTION**

Land as a natural resource is vital to hosting various property development activities and sustaining all living organisms, fauna and flora. Land is a fixed asset that aids the production of socio-economic goods and services, hosting virtually all activities on the earth's surface (Magel, 2001). According to Abegunde (2011), the land's nature and its components' types dictate what exists on it. Land is indispensable in property development and is complex in social relations to production in the economic world, which is central to the continuity of human life (Abegunde, 2011). Consequently, many land areas in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria have been subjected to various anthropogenic activities leading to land degradation and pollution over time (Afolabi and Adesope, 2022). Recently, oil bunkering and artisanal refining activities have been on a rapid rise, leading to environmental degradation, including rendering land resources unsuitable for property development. According to Obenade and Amangabara (2014), oil theft and artisanal refining in the South-South region are massive and growing problems; it is estimated that between 200,000 and 300,000 barrels of oil are lost daily to theft, known in the country as bunkering.

Artisanal refining activities, as used in this study, refers to individuals or groups of persons engaging in siphoning crude oil from oil pipes and refining it into other petroleum products such as diesel and kerosene for local markets to earn their living, which is contrary to the Hydrocarbon Oil Refineries Act 1965 (Mezie-Okoye, 2022). This often leads to hazards and pollution of the environment. Activities of artisanal refineries due to air pollution not only affect human health but also negatively affect

<footnote n="1">¹F Department of Estate Management & Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Estate Management, Imo State University Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.</footnote>
agricultural activities, resulting in huge losses. The direct economic loss on farm production and the indirect harm on other receptors is a worldwide political and scientific issue (Vallero, 2014). The operation of artisanal refineries brings direct losses on property development, reflecting in the loss of farmland, waste of mineral resources on land, urban land degradation during and after their operations, inability to conserve landed properties with cultural or historical values, inaccessibility to urban land for meaningful socio-economic or property development schemes among others (Addison, 2001; Abegunde, 2010). Significantly, artisanal refining operation in the South-South geopolitical zone is initiated by tussle over resource control on land, which results in further losses on land and its attachments. The land is seen as an impetus for development that can impede the built environment. Several studies have considered the effect of artisanal refineries as various aspects of socio-economic and environmental factors such as physicochemical and microbiological properties of soil and water (Nwakwoala et al., 2017; Douglas & Cornelius, 2019; Onwuna et al., 2022a) vegetation (Yabrade & Tanee, 2010), cultural and religious beliefs (John & Nnadozie, 2021), socio-economic (Goodnews & Anale, 2019; Ogele & Egobueze, 2020; Ikezam et al., 2021), sustainable food production (Odubo & Onyige, 2019; Richard et al., 2022) and air quality (Onwuna et al., 2022b); however, the present study examined the environmental effect of artisanal refining activities on property development among communities in South-South region of Nigeria.

# RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

## Study Area

The South-South Region of Nigeria is located on 4°21' 43.2''N, 7° 40' 52.8'' N and longitude 5° 8' 42''E, 9° 30'7.2'' E (Figure 1) protruding towards the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic coast of West Africa (Shittu, 2014). The region is a densely populated area in Nigeria. Its population is about 31 million (National Population Commission, 2006). The land mass extends about 70,000 km2, making up 7.5 percent of Nigeria's landmass.

<figure><img src="image_57.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Overview of the Study Area Source: GIS Unit, University of Port Harcourt (2024)</figcaption></figure>

## Population of the Study

The research population refers to the aggregate of all possible respondents from which the sample is selected. The population of the study comprises all six states in the South-South region of Nigeria (that is, Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta, Edo, Akwa-Ibom and Cross-Rivers); however, based on eligibility criteria,
the population of the study was limited to three states, Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta and their artisanal refineries activities. The selected LGAs for the study are found within the states from the region, involved in artisanal refinery activities with a history of fire incidents due to artisanal refinery activities (Odubo and Onyige 2019; Ikezam et al., 2021; Onwuna et al., 2022b). The selected study communities are found within the states and LGAs involved in artisanal refinery activities.

## Sample Size and Sampling Technique

With the aid of the Taro Yamane formula for sample size determination based on the target population of 2,312,454, four hundred and twenty-seven (427) respondents from three (3) states and six (6) local government areas were selected for the study. The respondents which were represented by heads of households were selected through a simple random sampling technique.

<table><caption>Table 1: Sample Size, Questionnaire Distribution and Retrieved Number</caption><thead><tr><th>States</th><th>LGAs</th><th>Projected Population (2023)</th><th>Percentage in Projected Population</th><th>Distribution of the Questionnaire</th><th>Number Retrieved</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Rivers</td><td>Ikwere</td><td>306,067</td><td>13.2</td><td>63</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>Ahoada</td><td>378,594</td><td>16.4</td><td>79</td><td>69</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Bayelsa</td><td>Southern Ijaw</td><td>517,449</td><td>22.4</td><td>108</td><td>95</td></tr><tr><td>Ekeremor</td><td>437,816</td><td>18.9</td><td>91</td><td>76</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Delta</td><td>Ndokwa East</td><td>167,137</td><td>7.2</td><td>34</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>Warri South</td><td>505,391</td><td>21.9</td><td>105</td><td>97</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td></td><td>2,312,454</td><td>100</td><td>480</td><td>427</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Data Sources

The study adopted primary data sources through the use of a questionnaire. The study's data collection was carried out using a questionnaire. The questionnaire adopted for the study used a Likert 5-point scale and was closed-ended. The Likert 5-point scale was expressed as follows: 1: Undecided (U), 2: Strongly Disagreed (SD), 3: Disagreed (D), 4: Agreed (A), and 5: Strongly Agreed (SA). The respondent's decision was represented by a 0 – 3 Mean point, “Disagreed”, while 3.1 Mean points and above, “Agreed.”

## DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

The retrieved copies of the questionnaire were coded and subjected to statistical analysis using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). For proper analysis, descriptive statistics tools such as frequency counts, percentages of response, and mean values were adopted for the presentation and analysis. The research hypotheses of the study were tested through inferential statistics (Pearson correlation) at a 95% significance level.

## Socio-Demographic Details of the Respondents

The socio-demographic details of the respondents in individual states are presented in Figure 2. The outcome revealed that 62.8% of the respondents were male while the female respondents were 37.2%. Also, most respondents were 30 – 40 years old, representing 45.0% of the respondents. Considering the marital status of the respondents, it was deduced that 37.0% of the respondents were single, 38.9% were married, and 17.3% and 6.8% were divorced and widowed, respectively. Regarding the educational qualifications of the respondents, the outcome indicated that most respondents possess secondary school level education, which represents 34.0% of the respondents, while the least respondents possess a
tertiary level of education, which represents 13.1%. The combination of these categories indicated that most respondents could understand and participate in the study. On the respondents' occupations, it was revealed that 17.8% of the respondents are students, 23.9% are salary workers, 26.2% are farmers, and 16.4% are traders. In comparison, 9.6% and 6.1% of the respondents are involved in fishing and other forms of occupation, respectively.

## Environmental Effect of Artisanal Refining Activities on Property Development

The environmental effect of artisanal refining activities across the study area was examined, and the feedback was presented in Table 2. From the findings, it was revealed that respondents agreed that artisanal refining activities have affected air quality of the environment (Rivers-60.5%, Bayelsa-58.5%, Delta-55.1%), the air in the community is no longer fresh and smell of oil all the time (Rivers-50.4%, Bayelsa-53.2%, Delta-47.2%), there are more issues of respiratory diseases in the community now than before the incident of artisanal refining activities (Bayelsa-50.9%, Delta-52.0%), there is decreased returns on investment due to toxic air, soil quality and water quality (Bayelsa-59.6%, Delta-53.6%), land/soil contamination from artisanal refining activities has made property development less attractive in the communities (Bayelsa-53.2%, Delta-50.4%), artisanal refining activities have exposed the soil to toxic chemicals and made land difficult for development (Rivers-44.1%, Bayelsa-53.2%, Delta-52.8%), artisanal refining activities have increased the risk of fire incidents in the community (Rivers-50.4%, Bayelsa-50.9%, Delta-62.2%), artisanal refining activities has resulted in premature wear and tear on properties within the communities (Rivers-50.4%, Delta-61.4%), air and water quality concerns have reduced demand for property sales/rent (Rivers-58.2%, Bayelsa-47.4%, Delta-52.8%), environmental effect of artisanal refining in the community has made it difficult to secure loans using properties (Rivers-62.0%, Bayelsa-55.6%, Delta-58.3%) and artisanal refining is causing more oil spill in their land thereby making it difficult for property development activities (Rivers-52.8%, Bayelsa-53.8%).

Although in Rivers and Delta states, the respondents disagreed that there are more issues of respiratory diseases in the community now than before the incident of artisanal refining activities (Rivers-48.8%), there are decreased returns on investment due to toxic air, soil quality and water quality (50.4%), land/soil contamination from artisanal refining activities has made property development less attractive in the communities (Bayelsa-50.9%) and artisanal refining activities is causing more oil spill into our community land making it difficult for development (Delta-47.2%). In Table 4.6, the overall mean of the environmental effect variables ranged from 3.29 to 3.62, which indicated that respondents agreed with each variable across the study area.
<figure><img src="image_58.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2: Socio-Demographic Details of the Respondents</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>Table 2: Environmental Effects of Artisanal Refining Activities</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Variables</th><th colspan="5">Rivers State</th></tr><tr><th>U</th><th>D</th><th>A</th><th>Mean</th><th>Total</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>EE1</td><td>5 (3.9)</td><td>46 (35.6)</td><td>78 (60.5)</td><td>3.82</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE2</td><td>20 (15.5)</td><td>44 (34.1)</td><td>65 (50.4)</td><td>3.27</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE3</td><td>18 (14.0)</td><td>63 (48.8)</td><td>48 (37.2)</td><td>2.96</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE4</td><td>8 (6.2)</td><td>65 (50.4)</td><td>56 (43.4)</td><td>2.98</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE5</td><td>21 (16.3)</td><td>55 (42.6)</td><td>53 (41.1)</td><td>2.71</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE6</td><td>22 (17.1)</td><td>50 (38.8)</td><td>57 (44.1)</td><td>3.08</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE7</td><td>20 (15.5)</td><td>44 (34.1)</td><td>65 (50.4)</td><td>3.27</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE8</td><td>8 (6.2)</td><td>56 (43.4)</td><td>65 (50.4)</td><td>3.43</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE9</td><td>8 (6.2)</td><td>46 (35.6)</td><td>75 (58.2)</td><td>3.62</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE10</td><td>5 (3.9)</td><td>44 (34.1)</td><td>80 (62.0)</td><td>3.72</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>EE11</td><td>7 (5.4)</td><td>54 (41.9)</td><td>68 (52.8)</td><td>3.66</td><td>129 (100)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's fieldwork, 2024 NB: A-Agreed (Strongly Agreed + Agreed), U-Undecided, D-Disagreed (Strongly Disagreed + Disagreed); Mean/Overall Mean Interpretation: 0.1-1.9 (Neutral), 2.0-2.9 (Disagreed) and 3.0-3.9 (Agreed)

KEY I: EE1: Artisanal refining activities have affected air quality of the environment, EE2: The air in the community is no longer fresh and smell of oil all the time, EE3: There are more issues of respiratory diseases in the community now than before the incident of artisanal refining activities, EE4: There is decreased returns on investment due to toxic air, soil quality and water quality, EE5: Land/soil contamination from artisanal refining activities has made property development less attractive in the communities, EE6: Artisanal refining activities have exposed soil to toxic chemicals and made our land difficult for development, EE7: Artisanal refining activities have increased the risk of fire incidents in the community, EE8: Artisanal refining activities has resulted in premature wear and tear on my property, EE9: Air and water quality concerns have reduced demand for property sale/rent, EE10: Environmental effect of artisanal refining in the community has made it difficult to secure loans using my property, EE11: Artisanal refining activities is causing more oil spill in our community land making it difficult for development.
<table><caption>Table 3: Environmental Effects of Artisanal Refining Activities</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Variables</th><th colspan="5">Bayelsa State</th></tr><tr><th>U</th><th>D</th><th>A</th><th>Mean</th><th>Total</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>11 (6.4)</td><td>60 (35.1)</td><td>100 (58.5)</td><td>3.59</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>17 (9.9)</td><td>63 (36.9)</td><td>91 (53.2)</td><td>3.39</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>16 (9.4)</td><td>68 (39.7)</td><td>87 (50.9)</td><td>3.53</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>23 (13.5)</td><td>49 (26.9)</td><td>102 (59.6)</td><td>3.41</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>10 (5.9)</td><td>70 (40.9)</td><td>91 (53.2)</td><td>3.43</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>3 (1.8)</td><td>77 (45.0)</td><td>91 (53.2)</td><td>3.43</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>4 (2.3)</td><td>80 (46.8)</td><td>87 (50.9)</td><td>3.29</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>10 (5.8)</td><td>87 (50.9)</td><td>74 (43.3)</td><td>3.16</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>19 (11.1)</td><td>71 (41.5)</td><td>81 (47.4)</td><td>3.31</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>11 (6.4)</td><td>65 (38.0)</td><td>95 (55.6)</td><td>3.64</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr><tr><td>6 (3.5)</td><td>73 (42.7)</td><td>92 (53.8)</td><td>3.45</td><td>171 (100)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's fieldwork, 2024. NB: A-Agreed (Strongly Agreed + Agreed), U-Undecided, D-Disagreed (Strongly Disagreed + Disagreed). KEY II: Mean/Overall Mean Interpretation: 0.1 – 1.9 (Neutral), 2.0 – 2.9 (Disagreed) and 3.0 – 3.9 (Agreed)

KEY I: EE1: Artisanal refining activities have affected air quality of the environment, EE2: The air in the community is no longer fresh and smell of oil all the time, EE3: There are more issues of respiratory diseases in the community now than before the incident of artisanal refining activities, EE4: There is decreased returns on investment due to toxic air, soil quality and water quality, EE5: Land/soil contamination from artisanal refining activities has made property development less attractive in the communities, EE6: Artisanal refining activities have exposed soil to toxic chemicals and made our land difficult for development, EE7: Artisanal refining activities have increased the risk of fire incidents in the community, EE8: Artisanal refining activities has resulted in premature wear and tear on my property, EE9: Air and water quality concerns have reduced demand for property sale/rent, EE10: Environmental effect of artisanal refining in the community has made it difficult to secure loans using my property, EE11: Artisanal refining activities is causing more oil spill in our community land making it difficult for development.
<table><caption>Table 4: Environmental Effects of Artisanal Refining Activities</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Variables</th><th colspan="7">Delta State</th></tr><tr><th>U</th><th>D</th><th>A</th><th>Mean</th><th>Total</th><th>Overall Mean</th><th>Grand Total</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>8 (6.3)</td><td>49 (38.5)</td><td>70 (55.1)</td><td>3.26</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.56</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>9 (7.1)</td><td>58 (45.7)</td><td>60 (47.2)</td><td>3.18</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.29</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>9 (7.1)</td><td>52 (40.9)</td><td>66 (52.0)</td><td>3.40</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.32</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>9 (7.1)</td><td>50 (33.9)</td><td>68 (53.6)</td><td>3.40</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.36</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2 (1.6)</td><td>61 (48.0)</td><td>64 (50.4)</td><td>3.47</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.31</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>60 (47.2)</td><td>67 (52.8)</td><td>3.43</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.32</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>48 (37.7)</td><td>79 (62.2)</td><td>3.59</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.37</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>-</td><td>49 (38.6)</td><td>78 (61.4)</td><td>3.54</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.35</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2 (1.6)</td><td>58 (45.6)</td><td>67 (52.8)</td><td>3.46</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.45</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2 (1.6)</td><td>51 (40.1)</td><td>74 (58.3)</td><td>3.50</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.62</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>11 (8.7)</td><td>60 (47.2)</td><td>56 (44.1)</td><td>2.20</td><td>127 (100)</td><td>3.44</td><td>427 (100)</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's fieldwork, 2024. B: A-Agreed (Strongly Agreed + Agreed), U-Undecided, D-Disagreed (Strongly Disagreed + Disagreed). KEY II: Mean/Overall Mean Interpretation: 0.1 – 1.9 (Neutral), 2.0 – 2.9 (Disagreed) and 3.0 – 3.9 (Agreed)

KEY I: EE1: Artisanal refining activities have affected air quality of the environment, EE2: The air in the community is no longer fresh and smell of oil all the time, EE3: There are more issues of respiratory diseases in the community now than before the incident of artisanal refining activities, EE4: There is decreased returns on investment due to toxic air, soil quality and water quality, EE5: Land/soil contamination from artisanal refining activities has made property development less attractive in the communities, EE6: Artisanal refining activities have exposed soil to toxic chemicals and made our land difficult for development, EE7: Artisanal refining activities have increased the risk of fire incidents in the community, EE8: Artisanal refining activities has resulted in premature wear and tear on my property, EE9: Air and water quality concerns have reduced demand for property sale/rent, EE10: Environmental effect of artisanal refining in the community has made it difficult to secure loans using my property, EE11: Artisanal refining activities is causing more oil spill in our community land making it difficult for development.

From Table 5, the study's hypothesis was tested using the Pearson correlation analysis. The hypothesis was tested based on the following statement:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between the environmental effects of artisanal refining activities and property development within the study area

H₁: There is a significant relationship between the environmental effects of artisanal refining activities and property development within the study area

In explaining the outcome from the multivariate tests of significance, the Pearson correlation (r) was used in ascertaining the extent of the relationship between the environmental effects of artisanal refining activities and property development, while the p-value was adopted for the level of significance in the relationship (where p ≤ 0.05 reject the null hypothesis). The analysis revealed that there is a relationship between property development and various environmental effect variables due to Artisanal refining activities in the study area, and the relationship/correlations were significant (where p ≤ 0.05, r ≥ 0.5).
Discussion of findings

Across the studied communities, it was established that artisanal refining activities have affected the air quality of the environment, caused the air in the community to smell of oil all the time, increased the risk of fire incidents in the communities, reduced demand for property sales/rent due to poor air, soil and water quality, caused difficulty to secure loans using their properties and difficulty in property development activities due to consistent oil spills. Also, the communities in Bayelsa and Delta states suggested that there are more issues of respiratory diseases in the community now than before the incident of artisanal refining activities, decreased returns on investment due to exposure of the soil to toxic chemicals and property development becoming less attractive in the communities due to land/soil contamination from artisanal refining activities.

<table><caption>Table 5: Tests of Significance Relationship for Property Development and Environmental Effects of Artisanal Refining Activities</caption><thead><tr><td>S/N</td><td>Environmental Effect of Artisanal Refining Activities</td><td>Pearson Correlation</td><td>Sig. (2-tailed)</td><td>N</td><td>Remark</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Property Development</td><td>1</td><td></td><td>427</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Artisanal refining activities have affected the air quality of the environment</td><td>0.922</td><td>0.058</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>The air in the community is no longer fresh and smells of oil all the time</td><td>0.712</td><td>0.040</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>There are more issues of respiratory diseases in the community now than before the incident of artisanal refining activities</td><td>0.813</td><td>0.000</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>There are decreased returns on investment due to toxic air, soil quality and water quality</td><td>0.561</td><td>0.000</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Land/soil contamination from artisanal refining activities has made property development less attractive in the communities</td><td>0.614</td><td>0.000</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Artisanal refining activities have exposed soil to toxic chemicals and made our land difficult for development</td><td>0.955</td><td>0.003</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Artisanal refining activities have increased the risk of fire incidents in the community</td><td>0.721</td><td>0.000</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Artisanal refining activities have resulted in premature wear and tear on my property</td><td>0.571</td><td>0.038</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Air and water quality concerns have reduced demand for property sale/rent</td><td>0.591</td><td>0.001</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>The environmental effect of artisanal refining in the community has made it difficult to secure loans using my property</td><td>0.674</td><td>0.000</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Artisanal refining activities are causing more oil spills in our community land, making it difficult for the development</td><td>0.711</td><td>0.011</td><td>427</td><td>H<sub>1</sub> Accepted</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Researcher's fieldwork, 2024.
The outcome is similar to Onwuna et al. (2022b), which asserted that artisanal refining activities are a source of environmental concerns. According to Onwuna et al. (2022a), the operators of artisanal refineries in the Niger Delta are driven by financial motives, with an apparent disregard for the environmental and health impacts of their operations. Consequently, their operations lead to air, water, vegetation and soil pollution within the vicinity of their operations, which can discourage investment willingness, reduce demand for property sales/rent and reduce ease of property development. The present study finding is similar to that of Ikezam et al. (2021), who noted that artisanal refinery activities have reduced various human-related activities such as farming and housing due to oil spills, soil and air pollution in their study area. The finding corroborated with that of Amangabara and Njoku (2012), who asserted that the groundwater of their study area is highly polluted due to the activities of artisanal refineries, which could influence decisions towards property development in the area. Similarly, Richard et al. (2022) opined that artisanal crude oil refiners harm the vegetation cover, alter the physicochemical and microbial composition of the soil, and release hydrocarbons into the environment, making it difficult for property development or demand extra cost for clean-up. The present study shares similarities with that of Richard et al. (2022).

## CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Artisanal refining activities involve the use of local facilities to refine stolen oil. These activities are dangerous and, therefore, have several implications. They have caused significant damage to the environment of many communities in the south-south region of Nigeria. The environmental effects of artisanal refineries in the study area have led to severe environmental pollution and degradation, adversely affecting property development and investment attractiveness in the study area. These effects have affected air quality of the environment, caused premature wear and tear on properties, exposed soil to toxic chemicals and made land difficult for development, increased the risk of fire incidents in the community and decreased returns on investment. Therefore, there is an urgent need for stricter enforcement of regulations that will forestall the activities of artisanal refineries as well as land remediation and restoration management practices should be encouraged in the communities to improve the land's suitability for property development.

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**Chapter Thirty**

**Bush Burning Effects on the Physical Properties of Soil in Omuma, Oru East Local Government Area of Imo State**

Christian N. Chibo<fnref n="1" />; Patricia N. Duru<fnref n="1" />; Chiamaka R. Igweanuba<fnref n="2" />

EMAIL: nadeo2k6@yahoo.com

**ABSTRACT**

For many years, the relationship between agricultural practices and the environment remained stable and favourable. However, this relationship got disturbed or upset when due to certain forces agricultural exploitation of natural resources led to serious environmental degradation. Bush burning leads to land/soil degradation as these affect soil's physical properties. This study investigated the effect that bush burning has on the physical properties of the soil in the study area. the reasons for bush burning, the time/period of the year of the burning as well the physical properties of the soil affected by bush burning were all examined and investigated. The research made use of both survey and experimental designs. Six (6) samples of soil were collected from the study area. These samples were collected from the area of controlled burning for 6 years, and the area of alternate burning for 3 and 6 years respectively. Soil physical parameters like clay, silt, aggregate stability, porosity, and moisture content, among others, were analyzed. Clearing of land for farming was identified as the major reason for bush burning in the study area, and also farming period is the period most of the burnings take place. For soil textural properties, all of them are affected more when the burning takes place annually than when it is done biannually as the mean result for the control variable, biannual burning and consecutive burning respectively shows 75.88%, 81.6% and 81.08% for sand; 12.12%, 10.25% and 7.77% for silt; and 12.00%, 8.19% and 11.22% for clay. For physical properties, the result showed that bush burning increases the bulk density of the soil and leads to a reduction in the soil porosity, water stable aggregate and soil moisture. There is a statistically significant difference between the controlled samples and experimental samples at 0.05 confidence level of chi-square test (x<fnref n="2" />). Law enforcement and the provision of farm tools are important in curtailing this environmental damage owing to the lack of mechanization to clear the forest within the study area. Also, some level of awareness of the hazards of indiscriminate burning needs to be created in the community.

Keywords: Bulk density, Bush Burning, textural and physical properties, Soil, Water Stable Aggregate

**INTRODUCTION**

Historically, humans have thought that all fires were detrimental because they blackened landscapes and burned trees (Vogl, 2018). Plants and animals evolved together with fire, making it a necessary element in the survival of many ecosystems. (Vogl, 2018). For millions of years, natural selection and adaptations have acted on plants' and animals' lives as a result of life in a fire-dependent ecosystem. Many farmers depend on fire to heat and scar their seeds as a process for germination (Vogl, 2015). Burned-out trees provide useful shelter for birds, reptiles, and small mammals. Decaying trees release nutrients into the soil and serve as a base for new plants to sprout (Vogl., 2018). Many ecological regions of the world are dependent on fire to sustain the natural balance of life. Fire is an important natural phenomenon that encourages the re-growth and diversity of vegetation in many forests, deserts, and grasslands that cover the earth's continents. Humans populate many of the world's regions that depend so heavily on fire to sustain a natural equilibrium. To live successfully in accord with nature and get the most out of its resources without depleting them, humans must develop a successful policy of fire management (Vogl, 2015). Proper management involves an accurate knowledge of the several classifications of fire, along with the topography of a region. Fire can

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Environmental Management, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria.</footnote>
be extremely fierce and swift, thus making weather and climate conditions the most important factors in assessing a fire.

Before humans inhabited the regions susceptible to fire, weather conditions, (lightning and volcanoes) were the only source for ignition (Vogl., 2015). When humans settled in these regions, they used fire in numerous ways to ensure their living conditions. Native Americans, and Africans, for example, used fire as a tool to clear land and facilitate hunting. On peninsulas, the fire could be used to trap animals, or in open regions, it could be used to burn soil cover. Fire became more of a detriment because populations increased and permanent cities were established. Similarly, regions rich in natural resources served as important economic interests in preventing the destruction of land by fires.

In the 19th century, a series of large fires that resulted in the loss of many lives and property damage encouraged a fire policy of suppression into this century. An attempt to extinguish all fires was made to save lives and property before the blazes burned out of control. The policy of fire suppression proved to be an important educational experience in the necessity of fire to maintain the balance of nature. The enormous fires in Yellow Stone National Park in 1988 which resulted in over a million acres of charred land, were believed to have been a result of the accumulation of forest litter (Vogl, 2015). The debris that gathered on the forest floor, which was usually burned in small, low-intensity fires every few years, was allowed to accrue and serve as an awesome source of fuel for the fire in 1988. Many studies on the nature of fire and how it affects ecosystems have been conducted to evaluate fire situations for their proper management. Fire is a major disturbance even leading to numerous changes in ecosystem cycling and in the floral and faunal composition of the communities affected. The effect of bush burning and prescribed burns on the biota of natural areas needs to be accurately documented and analyzed in all attempts to ensure that management practices do not impact on the diversity and species richness of the habitats affected. Numerous studies have been carried out and the findings have suggested both increases and decreases in the abundance of arthropods (Chikelu and Ogbuagu, 2014). However, many of these studies lack preferred data as a baseline with which to compare the effects of the fire on the soil nutrients after the burning.

Fire has played a major role in the evolution of the present vegetation cover, and is responsible for most of the tussock grasslands below the natural tree line (Vogl., 2018). Over time, it was recognized that repeated burning of tussocks at short intervals followed by intensive grazing was weakening the plant to the point where being replaced by short tussock species or grassland, or in more recent years by herbarium, an invasive flat weed. Thus, tussock burning has declined to a relatively low frequency. Grazing and associated frequent broad-scale burning is a principal cause of degradation and loss of biodiversity in some of our forests. In most forestry management areas, the principal cause of wildfires is burning by grazes, and this is also a major cause of the high incidence in most areas of low-intensity broad-area deliberate burning. The impact of associated burning is additional to direct impacts, such as destruction of under Storley, local and regional loss of species of flora and fauna, removal of nutrients, introduction and spread of weeds, compaction and degrading of soil, damage to stream banks and elimination of regeneration.

Nowadays, fire is still a very important land management tool, but is used much more judiciously than previously. The necessity for man to produce food, clothing and shelter involves methods that have seriously interfered with the complex balance in the soil. Large areas have been denuded of their natural cover of vegetation through bush burning. Vast areas of forest have been destroyed by bush burning and tree felling. The destructive activities of man constitute a profound upsetting of the natural order in the soil. The rate of bush burning within Imo State of Nigeria with particular reference to Omuma in Oru - East Local Government Areas of the State is very alarming. Bush burning does encourage erosion because it removes the soil's protective covering. It has also been responsible for the movement of wild animals from one location to another because the cover available for their breeding and protection has been destroyed.
The humus that makes phosphates available is destroyed. Nitrogen in grass is completely lost to air by burning. Efforts to educate the farmers, land users and land managers on the effects of bush burning have been hampered largely because of lack of adequate research information. Information or data on the rate of decline in soil fertility could create an awareness of the magnitude and dangers of the problem of bush burning on the environment.

Many people set the fire deliberately to the bush for hunting or to make new grasses to grow for cattle to feed on. Bush burning could even be accidental, either by wind spreading the fire used for cooking to the bush or by cigarette fire dropped carelessly around the bush. No matter the cause of burning, it exposes the surface of the soil to high temperatures through the sun.

Bush burning is the most common traditional way of controlling insects by some locals such as the cattle headers who habitually use moderate, localized fire to fight off insects and harmful pests from their homes. We must make it clear that when they set fire, their intention is not to generate heat, but to send out dense smoke that repels the ticks, ants, bugs, bees, locusts, rodents and reptiles (NEAP, 1985).

Some farmers option for bush burning (burning their farmlands) in other to save time for easy clearing of the farmland for quick cultivation of crops. This also conserves energy for the farmers/land users. Over time it has been observed that bush burning clears the grasses, and weeds (vegetation) better than cutting with cutlass (Belnap and Sandford, 1996).

Bush burning as it is being studied not only poses a health hazard to man alone but also affects the environment in general via the emission of the various pollutants NEMA, 2001). From the data above, it is glaring that particulate, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen a negligible percentage of oxides of sulphur are the major pollutants of bush burning and they all have various effects on man and the environment, like reduction of visibility by particulate matters, especially during periods of air stagnation and causing some respiratory diseases. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are also hazardous as they cause respiratory disorders and irritants, respectively. Apart from the soil destruction and desert encroachment caused by bush burning, it has also had a marked increase in global warming due to the emission of NO2, SO2, SO3, NO, CO and CO2 gases which have tremendous effects on the ozone layer and also, formation of acid rain which deteriorate plant life, damage calcium containing soils and also increase the acidity of surrounding lakes and rivers (Addo et al., 2020). Bushfires are part of some country's way of life. All states and territories have experienced catastrophic fires over the years and observed the adverse effects on air quality as one of the consequences. Smoke from prescribed burning is also common in some countries like Australia and the levels of smoke from this source vary depending on the nature of the vegetation and the extent of the fire (Maxine Lamote, 1985). Smoke from prescribed burning can be minimized if fires are lit at the right time of year and managed correctly smaller hotter fires are preferred as this minimizes air pollution (Kazoora, 2002).

Because of this, the involvement of farmers, land users and land managers on environmental management through good farm and land practices has become necessary; this task requires some basic research information on acceptable existing burning management systems, and farming systems including forestry, crops and livestock.

## Statement of the Research Problem

The study verified the role of bush burning and its effects on the soil properties in Imo State of Nigeria with particular reference to Omuma in Oru - East Local Government Area of the state. Fire has both short or immediate and long-term effects. The short-term effects on soil are easy to monitor and quantity even as they vary among soil types, but there is little scientific data about the long-term ecological effects (Bourlieve, 1995). It is only recently that attempts have been made to standardize the terminology used so that the results of different researchers are comparable (Dembele, 1998). The physical effect of bushfire depends on the fire intensity, available fuel energy, combustion rate and rate of spread (Deubmire 1997).
These factors influence the volatilization of plant nutrients and changes in soil properties. The effect of fire on variants of soil dynamics has recently been extensively reviewed (Gallon, 1995). The findings of these researchers are widely varied depending on the climate, soil, and vegetation duration of the application of repeated fire and whether the fire is natural or man-induced (Huntley, 1996).

Perhaps the most damaging effect of burning is erosion. The effect of erosion can linger for years following a devastating fire. The effects of bush burning and prescribed burns on the biota of natural areas need to be accurately documented and analyzed in an attempt to ensure that management practices do not impact the diversity and species declines of the habitats affected. To live successfully in accord with nature and get the most of its resources without depleting them, humans must develop successful policies on fire management.

**Aim and Objectives**

The aim of this study is to ascertain the effect of bush burning on the physical properties of soil in Omuma, Oru-East Local Government of Imo State. In pursuit of this aim, the following objectives will be vigorously pursued.

i. To examine the effect of bush burning on the soil textural properties of the study area

ii. To investigate the effect of bush burning on the physical properties of soil in the study area

iii. To investigate the reason for bush burning in the study area.

**Research Questions**

i. What are the implications of bush burning on the textural properties of the study area

ii. What effects of bush burning on the physical properties of Omuma Soil

iii. What are the reasons for Bush Burning in the Study Area?

**Research Hypotheses**

Ho. Bush burning does not affect the physical properties of the soil in Imo state

Hi. There is no significant difference in the physical and textural properties of the soil in the study area resulting from bush burning.

# RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

## The Study Area

### Location of the Study Area

The study area, Omuma in Oru-East Local Government Areas of Imo State is one of the ten (10) towns in the local government. Omuma town is the headquarters of Oru East Local Government Area of Imo State. It is one of the oldest towns in Imo State. Omuma is located at latitude 5.95° N and longitude 6.59° E with a total area of about 110.8 sq. km (Figure 1.1). Its boundary to the west is Mgbidi, to the east by Akatta and Attah, to the North by Eleh and Nempi and to the South by Amiri and Otulu. Omuma has four communities: Abia-Omuma, Ozuh-Omuma, Umuhu-Omuma, and Etiti-Omuma. It is made up of four villages which are Umuuhu, Abia, Atti and Ozuh. Omuma has abundant land for agricultural activities, most of the inhabitants' occupations are farming and trading. Farming in this area is still practised at the subsistence level. Major food crops grown include Yam, Cassava, Maize, Cocoyam, Melon and Vegetables, while the cash crop is Oil Palm.
<figure><img src="image_59.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1.1: Map Imo State showing the Study Area. (Modified from Vogl. R.T., (2018).</figcaption></figure>

## Research Design

To carry out this research, both experimental and survey design was adopted. Some samples of soil from the study area were collected and a laboratory analysis was conducted to determine the physical characteristics of the soil. Furthermore, copies of the questionnaire were also distributed to obtain information from the respondents on the research topic.

## Population and Sample Collection
The population for this study constituted the entire population of farmers in Omuma, Oru East Local Government Area of Imo State. Data obtained from the Imo Agricultural Development Program (ADP) showed that Oru East LGA consists of 1142 registered farmers, and 311 came from Omuma. The researcher therefore randomly sampled 100 registered farmers and this number constituted the sample size for the research.

Soil samples A, B and C were also collected from three different locations in the study area, with samples B and C having been exposed to bush burning, while sample A has not been exposed to any form of bush burning, and this sample constituted the control sample. 1kg of soil samples from each plot was collected using the soil auger at a depth of 0-10cm for each sample, measuring tape for quadrant demarcation, cutlass for clearing and cutting the weeds to enable easy auguring. The samples were comprised of:

1. Sample A: (Control) Unburnt for 6 years.

2. Sample B: Experienced alternate burning for 6 years at 2 years interval.

3. Sample C: Experienced consistent yearly burning for 6 years.

In the end, a total of six soil samples were collected and taken to the laboratory for soil test

## Variables of interest for Soil Test

The information presented in Table 1 constitutes the variables of interest. This is because these variables were considered important in both soil fertility and gully erosion

<table><caption>Table 1. Variables of Interest and Units of Measurement</caption><thead><tr><td>Variables</td><td>Source</td><td>Unit</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sand</td><td>Laboratory</td><td>%</td></tr><tr><td>Clay</td><td>Laboratory</td><td>%</td></tr><tr><td>Loam</td><td>Laboratory</td><td>%</td></tr><tr><td>Bulk density</td><td>Laboratory</td><td>gmc-3</td></tr><tr><td>Porosity</td><td>Laboratory</td><td>%</td></tr><tr><td>Water Stable Aggregate</td><td>Laboratory</td><td>%</td></tr><tr><td>Soil Moisture</td><td>Laboratory</td><td>%</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Methods of Data Collection

### Laboratory Test

The researcher established three plots in three different areas within the same location that were last burnt by a bushfire in

1. 2004 baseline (control)

2. 2005, 2007 and 2009

3. 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008,2009 and 2010.

Each plot was located 25 meters away from the nearest road or from the walking track (to reduce edge effects) in the farmland of Omuma Oru-East Local Government Area of the Eastern Zone of Imo State. The soil samples A, B and C were subjected to laboratory tests to determine the effect of bush burning on the nutrient richness levels in the soil. In general, a total of six soil samples were collected and subjected to laboratory analysis
## Questionnaire Administration

A total of 100 copies of the questionnaire were administered to registered farmers in Omuma community. The reason for the questionnaire was to elicit data and information on the human aspect of the research and the information obtained through the questionnaire was used to treat objectives 1 and 2 of the research

## Reconnaissance Survey

A reconnaissance survey was carried out at the early stage of fieldwork for this research. The reason is for the researcher to get first-hand information from the farmers to indicate some of the plots and farmlands that have experienced bush burning and the rate at which they were burnt. This also serves as a guide for soil sample collection

## Methods of Analysis of Soil Physical Properties

### Particle Distribution of the Soil

Soil particle density or distribution ($\rho_s$) is a measure of the oven-dry unit volume of solids only. Each Individual soil mineral has a characteristic particle density. Quartz, a predominant soil mineral, has a value of about 2.65 Mg m⁻³, which is why this value is frequently given as representing all soils. In contrast, gypsum hg m⁻³ as a value of 2.32Mg m⁻³, biotite a value of 2.80 – 3.20 Mg m⁻³ and hematite a value of 4.80 – 5.30 Mg m⁻³ (Kalikinkaret al., 2012). The particle density of soil is an average for the distribution of soil particulates present in a given soil. Organic matter (OM) which is also a soil solid can influence particle density. Soils with high OM may have much lower average particle density than soils similar in texture that are low in OM. Standard procedure calls for the removal of OM before particle density analysis of these soils. However, this may produce significant error while calculating the porosity of soils using density data. The particle density of most mineral soils is in the range of 2.60 – 2.75 Mg m⁻³, representing the particle density of quartz, feldspar and colloidal silicates, which dominate the mineral fraction of the soils (Kalikinkaret al., 2012).

The particle density is determined using the Archimedes principle. The most common method is the use of a pycnometer. A pycnometer is a device which is made to retain a reproducible or measurable volume. A known weight of oven-dry soil sample is introduced into the pycnometer and the volume of soil is determined by the volume of liquid displaced when soil is immersed.

Mathematically, Soil Particle Density ($\rho_s$) is given by

$$ (\rho_s) = \frac{[w_s]}{[w_{pw} + w_s - w_{psw}]} \text{ gcm} - 3 $$

Where, Ws, Wpw, and Wpsw are the weight of oven-dry soil, water-filled pycnometer and pycnometer + soil + water, respectively (Kalikinkaret al., 2012).

### Bulk Density of the Soil (bd)

Soil bulk density (bd) is a measure of the oven-dry mass per unit volume of the bulk soil. The ratio of the bulk density of soil to the density of water is called the apparent specific gravity. Bulk density varies with the packing of the soil particles. Typically, sands more closely and values range from 1.9 Mg m⁻³ (Kalikinkaret al., 2012). Bulk density depends on several factors like texture, structure, organic matter content, state of compaction etc. Clays tend to be bridged and cannot pack tightly, giving values from 0.9 to 1.4Mg m⁻³. Textures between sand and clay vary in their density accordingly. The wide range in bulk densities for a particular texture indicates that other factors (such as organic matter) have an important influence on this property. Bulk densities of loam and clay soils vary from 1.1 – 1.5 Mg m⁻³, those of sandy soils from 1.4 – 1.8 Mg m⁻³ and that of organic soils is as low as 0.5 Mg m⁻³ (Kalikinkaret al., 2012). A comparison of the bulk density of bulk soil and that of soil aggregates provides a measure of the importance
of inter-aggregate spaces in well-structured soils. Bulk density tends to increase with depth in the soil profile.

Mathematically, Soil Bulk Density ($\rho_b$) is given by

$$ \text{Soil bulk density (}\rho_b\text{)} = \frac{\text{Oven - dry weight of soil}}{\text{volume of soil}} $$

Where volume of soil(cm³) = total gravelly soil volume – volume of rocks (Kalikinkaret al., 2012).

### Soil water Stability Aggregate

Soil structure, its arrangement and organization of the particles in the soil, determines the total porosity as well as the shape of individual pores and their size distribution. Hence, soil structure affects the retention and transmission of fluids in the soil, seed germination, root growth, tillage, erosion etc. The direct method of measuring soil structure involves the determination of total aggregation, strength and size distribution of aggregates. Measuring soil structure by aggregate analysis is concerned directly with the size distribution of aggregates and indirectly with the size distribution of soil pores associated with each particular aggregate size distribution. An aggregate may be defined as a group of primary particles joined together to each other more strongly than to other surrounding soil particles (Kalikinkaret al., 2012).

### Soil Moisture Content

The gravimetric method is based on the principle that the water in the porous material is lost by evaporation on heating and the porous material undergoes an equivalent loss in its weight. However, the water loss may be limited by the internal operation within the complex porous material such as soil. This method is simple, routine, reliable and easy to use. The major limitations of this method are that it is destructive, laborious and time-consuming.

## Methods of Data Presentation and Statistical Analysis

Data obtained in the course of this work were presented in tables and bar charts. Data analysis was done using percentages and simple analytical techniques like measures of central tendencies (mean, mode and median). The analytical technique employed to test the hypothesis was the chi-square

# RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

## Bush Burning and Textural Properties of the Soil

The data presented in Table 2 represents the effect of bush burning on soil textural properties in Omuma community for the various soil samples analyzed in the laboratory.

The information in Table 2 shows how the soil textures have varied in the study area as a result of bush burning. Analysis of the information from the table showed that the textural values (sand, silt and clay) in the controlled variables (soil that has not experienced burning for six years) have a sand composition of 75.25% for the sample collected at a depth of 2cm. The percentage sand composition increased to 76.50% from 4cm depth, which is an indication that in the study area, there is an increase in a sandy faction of the area with an increase in the depth of the spoil. This has a calculated mean value of 75.88%. Findings also revealed that when the soil experienced bush burning for alternate 2-year intervals, the mean percentage sand composition increased to 81.06 percent. But when the soil is burned annually for six years the mean sand fraction was 81.01 percent. For silt fraction, the percentage in the control variable was 12.50% for soil samples collected at a depth of 2cm and 11.75% for soil samples collected at a depth of 4 cm with a mean of 12.12%.
<table><caption>Table 2. Result of Bush Burning on Soil Textural Properties in Omuma Community</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Textural class</th><th colspan="3">Control variable (unburnt for six years)</th><th colspan="3">Experienced alternate burning for six years @ 2 yrs intervals</th><th colspan="3">Experienced consistency/yearly burning for six years</th></tr><tr><th>R<sub>1</sub>(2cm)</th><th>R<sub>2</sub>(4cm)</th><th>Mean</th><th>R<sub>1</sub>(cm)</th><th>R<sub>2</sub>(cm)</th><th>Mean</th><th>R<sub>1</sub>(cm)</th><th>R<sub>2</sub>(cm)</th><th>Mean</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sand (%)</td><td>75.25</td><td>76.50</td><td>75.88</td><td>80.20</td><td>82.10</td><td>81.06</td><td>77.01</td><td>85.01</td><td>81.01</td></tr><tr><td>Silt (%)</td><td>12.50</td><td>11.75</td><td>12.12</td><td>11.25</td><td>10.25</td><td>10.75</td><td>8.74</td><td>6.79</td><td>7.77</td></tr><tr><td>Clay (%)</td><td>12.25</td><td>11.75</td><td>12.00</td><td>8.73</td><td>7.65</td><td>8.19</td><td>14.25</td><td>8.20</td><td>11.22</td></tr></tbody></table>

R<sub>1</sub> = horizon A; R<sub>2</sub> = horizon B

This showed that silt composition decreases with an increase in depth in the study area. When the soil was subjected to burning for alternate 2 years for 6 years the mean silt composition decreased to 10.25 cm, and when the soil was burned annually for 6 years, the mean value reduced further to 7.77%. This by implication is revealed to mean that consistent bush burning reduces the silt composition of soils in the study area. For clay composition, the mean value of the controlled variable was 12.00 %. This value decreased to 8.19% when the soil experienced alternate bush burning for six years and also decreased from 12% to 11.2 % when the soil was burned annually for six years. The finding summarises that bush burning increases the sand composition of the soil particles, while it in turn reduces the silt and clay composition of the soil. This by implication means that the increase in sand composition results in a reduction in soil cohesion. The reduction in silt and clay content means that those materials that held the soil particles together have been reduced; hence there is a reduction in the soil cohesion. This feature will make the soil vulnerable to various forms of soil erosion. Furthermore, since research has shown that sandy soil is generally lacking in soil nutrients, it can be affirmed that bush burning leads to a reduction in soil nutrients, thereby constituting a threat to food security in the study area.

## Variation in Soil Clay Ratio in Omuma

Information in Table 3, Presented the statistical analysis of the results of the variation in the clay soil for the controlled samples, alternately burnt and yearly burnt samples respectively.

<table><caption>Table 3: Variation in Clay Ratio of Soil Samples in Omuma</caption><thead><tr><th>Horizons</th><th>Control</th><th>Yearly</th><th>Two years interval</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>R<sub>1</sub>(2m)</td><td>12.25</td><td>14.25</td><td>8.23</td></tr><tr><td>R<sub>2</sub>(4m)</td><td>11.75</td><td>8.20</td><td>7.65</td></tr><tr><td>Mean</td><td>12.00</td><td>11.23</td><td>8.19</td></tr></tbody></table>

As observed from Table 3, the mean clay content of the control variable was 12.00 %, and this value decreased to 11.23 for yearly burning, and 8.19 for 2-year interval burning. This shows that the clay content of the soil in Omuma decreased with increased bush burning. According to Lal., 1993 soil with a narrow (small) clay ratio will resist erosion more than a soil with wide clay ratio. Based on this unburnt soil has a clay content of 12.00, and a yearly burnt ratio of 11.23. Therefore, the implication of the finding is that bush burning makes soil vulnerable to soil erosion due to the reduction in clay content which helps to compact the soil particles together

## Variation in Soil Silt Ratio in Omuma as a Result of Bush Burning

Data in Table 4, Presented the statistical analysis of the results of the soil silt ratio of controlled samples, alternately burnt and yearly burnt samples respectively of the study area.
<table><caption>Table 4.: Variation in Soil Silt ratio of Omuma Community</caption><thead><tr><th>Horizons</th><th>Control</th><th>Yearly</th><th>Two-year interval</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>R<sub>1</sub>(2m)</td><td>12.60</td><td>14.25</td><td>8.23</td></tr><tr><td>R<sub>2</sub>(4m)</td><td>11.75</td><td>8.20</td><td>10.75</td></tr><tr><td>Mean</td><td>12.12</td><td>7.77</td><td>8.19</td></tr></tbody></table>

Analysis of the information in Table 4 shows that there is a reduction in silt content of the soil in the study area from the control sample both when the soil is burned annually or alternatively for 6 years. It was observed the silt composition reduced more when the soil is burnt annually. This by implication means that there is a reduction in the material particles that binds the soil together and therefore the soil cohesion is greatly reduced and also the soil fertility is equally affected

## Variation in Soil Sand Ratio in the Study Area

Information in Table 5 presented the statistical analysis of the results of the soil sand ratio of controlled samples, alternately burned and yearly burnt samples respectively in Omuma community.

<table><caption>Table 5: Variation in Soil Sand ratio of Omuma Community of Imo State</caption><thead><tr><th>Horizons</th><th>Control</th><th>Yearly</th><th>Two years interval</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>R<sub>1</sub>(2m)</td><td>75.25</td><td>80.20</td><td>77.01</td></tr><tr><td>R<sub>2</sub>(4m)</td><td>76.50</td><td>82.10</td><td>85.01</td></tr><tr><td>Mean</td><td>75.88</td><td>81.06</td><td>81.01</td></tr></tbody></table>

Analysis of the information from Table 5 shows that there is an increase in sand ratio when the soil is burnt both annually and alternately for years. The mean value for the control samples was 75.88 % and this increased to 81.06 % when the soil experienced yearly burning and 81.01% when the soil experienced two-year interval burning. The result shows that the value of sand ratio increases more when the soil experienced yearly bush burning and this will lead to reduction in fertility of the soil because sandy soil soils are generally not known to be fertile for agricultural purposes.

## Bush Burning Effect on the Soil Physical Properties in the Study Area

The physical properties identified and chosen for this study are the bulk density, porosity, water stable aggregate, and moisture content. The reason for these physical properties is because they are of utmost importance is soil compatibility and cohesion, and these are factors considered important in soil erosion. The information in Table 6, Presented the statistical analysis of the results of the physical properties of soil in Omuma Community
<table><caption>Table 6: Result of soil physical properties of the soil in Omuma Community</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Soil Physical Parameter (%)</th><th colspan="3">Control Burning for six years</th><th colspan="3">Experienced alternate burning for six years @ 2 yrs intervals</th><th colspan="3">Experienced consistence/year burning for six years</th></tr><tr><th>R<sub>1</sub>(2m)</th><th>R<sub>2</sub>(4m)</th><th>Mean</th><th>R<sub>1</sub>(m)</th><th>R<sub>2</sub>(m)</th><th>Mean</th><th>R<sub>1</sub>(m)</th><th>R<sub>2</sub>(m)</th><th>Mean</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Bulk Density (gcm<sup>-3</sup>)</td><td>1.40</td><td>1.39</td><td>1.40</td><td>1.49</td><td>1.46</td><td>1.48</td><td>1.49</td><td>1.52</td><td>1.51</td></tr><tr><td>Porosity (%)</td><td>47.17</td><td>47.55</td><td>47.36</td><td>43.77</td><td>44.91</td><td>44.34</td><td>43.77</td><td>42.64</td><td>43.21</td></tr><tr><td>Water stable Aggregate (%)</td><td>30.25</td><td>31.77</td><td>31.01</td><td>25.20</td><td>25.09</td><td>25.15</td><td>22.50</td><td>21.99</td><td>22.25</td></tr><tr><td>Moisture content (%)</td><td>20.72</td><td>18.27</td><td>19.50</td><td>16.25</td><td>14.25</td><td>15.25</td><td>10.27</td><td>12.99</td><td>11.63</td></tr></tbody></table>

Observation made on the information in Table 4.8 shows the mean bulk density for the controlled sample was 1.40 gcm⁻³. This increased to 1.48 gcm⁻³ when the soil is burnt at the two-year interval and further increased to 1.51 when bush burning is done annually. This implies that bush burning increases the bulk density of the soil. Analysis of the soil porosity or retention capacity indicated that the mean value for the controlled sample is 47.36%. This value reduced to 44.34% for two-year interval burning, and further to 43.21% when the soil experienced yearly bush burning. The result is an indication that bush burning reduces the soil-water retention capacity. There is also a reduction in the mean value of both the water-stable aggregate and moisture content of the soil in Omuma community as a result of bush burning.

The high value of the soil bulk density of the three samples could be a result of the high sand percentage and heavy rainfall experienced in the area (Chibo, 2022). This leads to the washing down of the organic matter content of the soil that binds the soil particles together. Enyankwere et al (2015) observed that if the bulk density value is high, it causes a reduction in infiltration, leading to water logging and thereby reducing soil stability and resistance to erosion.

## Reasons for Bush Burning in the Study Area

Bush burning has been identified as a common practice in different parts of the world. The reason why farmers in Omuma engage in this activity was investigated and the result obtained is presented in Table 7.

<table><caption>Table 7. Reason for Bush Burning in Omuma Community</caption><thead><tr><td>Reason for bush burning</td><td>Respondents</td><td>% Respondents</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Clearing of farmland</td><td>61</td><td>63.5</td></tr><tr><td>Hunting</td><td>28</td><td>29.2</td></tr><tr><td>destruction of pests</td><td>2</td><td>2.0</td></tr><tr><td>Warding off of invasive species of animals</td><td>6</td><td>6.3</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>96</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table>

Analysis of the information in Table 8 shows that there were two main reasons why farmers in Omuma resort to bush burning in their community. The two reasons were for clearing of farmland and hunting.
These two activities were the opinion of 92.7 percent of the sampled respondents. The result of the finding of the study showed that clearing farmland for agricultural activities is the major reason why bush burning is taking place in Omuma community of Imo state. This is the view of 61 respondents or about 63.5% of the sampled population. The implication is that over 63 percent of farmers in Omuma community practice bush burning for farming purposes. Clearing of farmland is followed distantly by hunting. This is an indication that hunting is also another major reason for bushes are set on fire bur in Omuma community of Imo state. This was the opinion of 28 respondents or about 29.2 percent of the sample population. Other minor reasons for bush burning as indicated by the respondents are the destruction of pests (2%) and the warding off of invasive animals (6.3%).

## Data Analysis

The hypothesis was tested using test statistics of chi-square ($X^2$).

<table><caption>Table 8. Chi-square ($X^2$) table for soil textural and Physical Properties</caption><thead><tr><th>Parameters</th><th>O</th><th>E</th><th>O - E</th><th>(O - E)<sup>2</sup></th><th>(O - E)<sup>2</sup> / E</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Sand</td><td>75.88</td><td>81.01</td><td>-5.1</td><td>26</td><td>0.32</td></tr><tr><td>Silt</td><td>12.12</td><td>9.3</td><td>2.8</td><td>7.8</td><td>0.84</td></tr><tr><td>Clay</td><td>12.00</td><td>9.71</td><td>2.3</td><td>5.3</td><td>0.55</td></tr><tr><td>Clay ratio</td><td>3.15</td><td>4.41</td><td>-1.3</td><td>1.7</td><td>0.39</td></tr><tr><td>Bulk density</td><td>1.40</td><td>1.50</td><td>-0.1</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.01</td></tr><tr><td>Porosity</td><td>47.36</td><td>43.8</td><td>3.6</td><td>13.0</td><td>0.3</td></tr><tr><td>Aggregate stability</td><td>31.01</td><td>23.7</td><td>7.3</td><td>33.3</td><td>2.23</td></tr><tr><td>Moisture content</td><td>19.50</td><td>13.4</td><td>6.1</td><td>37.2</td><td>2.78</td></tr></tbody></table>

$X^2$ calculated = 7.42; $X^2$ calculated (0.05) = 3.21; $X^2$ calculated (0.02) = 1.76

Since at both 0.01 and 0.05 confidence levels, the calculated value is greater than the tabulated value; therefore, we reject the Null hypothesis (Ho) and conclude that there is a significant difference in the observed and expected soil physical properties of the study area, owing to bush burning. Therefore, bush burning has an effect on the soil physical properties
One-way ANOVA for Soil Textural and Physical Properties

<table><caption>Table 9. One-Way ANOVA for Soil Textural and Physical Properties</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="2"></th><th colspan="4">ANOVA</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2"></th><th>Sum of Squares</th><th>df</th><th>Mean Square</th><th>F</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">sand composition</td><td>Between Groups</td><td>70.729</td><td>5</td><td>14.146</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>Within Groups</td><td>.000</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>70.729</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">silt composition</td><td>Between Groups</td><td>24.711</td><td>5</td><td>4.942</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>Within Groups</td><td>.000</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>24.711</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">clay composition</td><td>Between Groups</td><td>96.938</td><td>5</td><td>19.388</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>Within Groups</td><td>.000</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>96.938</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">bulk density of the soil</td><td>Between Groups</td><td>.014</td><td>5</td><td>.003</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>Within Groups</td><td>.000</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>.014</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Porosity of the soil</td><td>Between Groups</td><td>19.809</td><td>5</td><td>3.962</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>Within Groups</td><td>.000</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>19.809</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">water stable aggregate of the soil</td><td>Between Groups</td><td>81.047</td><td>5</td><td>16.209</td><td>.</td></tr><tr><td>Within Groups</td><td>.000</td><td>0</td><td>.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>81.047</td><td>5</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

The result of the ANOVA shows that it is only bulk density that there is a significant difference in the soil's physical and Textural properties resulting from bush burning in the study area

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The information presented in this section represents the summary of findings derived from this study. Bush burning affects the physical properties of soil. Some nutrient elements are more prone to the effect of bush burning than others. Consistence bush burning on a particular piece of land could surely lead to complete loss of certain nutrients in that soil. Soil and water temperature are also greatly affected by fire; when the canopy of leaves and branches is destroyed, sunlight reaches regions that are not used to the added heat. Nutrients of the soil are seriously and negatively affected by bush burning (fire). When a fire destroys the intricate matrix of roots and grasses devastating landslides and soil erosion can occur. Bush burning has been found to lead to the reduction of animals from their habitat destruction by bush fire. Soil and water temperature are greatly affected by fire, which serves many positive purposes in plant and animal life in the ecosystem but it can also damage communities just as well. Perhaps the most damaging effect on bush fire is in erosion. Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made to the farmers, land managers, and policy formulators.

1. land managers should be encouraged to always apply the practice of soil conservation and management.

2. Farmers should be educated on the effects if bush burning (fire) on the soil.
3. Land users should be enlightened on the need to allow the land to regenerate on its own by allowing it to fallow for a certain number of years.

4. Database should be provided by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources and Ministry of Environment to help farmers.

5. Regular work/seminars should be organized for land users and farm managers on soil management practices

REFERENCES

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Chibo, C, N and Fashae A.O (2023): Respondent's Perception on Anthropogenic Determinants of Gully Erosion in Upper Imo River Basin (UIRB), Southeastern Nigeria. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 2023, 19 (4): 107.117 DOI: 10.3844/ajessp.2023.107.117

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Nishita, H; and Hang, R.m., (1972) soil physical and chemical Ecosystems of sub-Saharan Africa, in T. T. Kozlowski and C. H Ahlgren, (eds) fire and ecosystem, Academic press, New York, Pp 435-481

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Vogl. R.T., (2018) Effects of fire on grass land, in T.T Kozolowski and C.E Ahlgren (eds) fire and ecosystems Academic press, New York

Vogl R.J., (2015), Fire, a destructive menace or a natural process, in J.Cairns, K. L. Dicson E.E Herricks, (eds)Recovery and Restoration of Damaged Ecosystem University press of virgina, charlottesville pp 261-289.

Whelah (2009). Fire Refugia: The mechanism governing animal survivorship with in a highly flammable plant
**Chapter Thirty-One**

**Analysis of the effects of rainfall and temperature variation on crop yield across agricultural lands in Imo State, Nigeria**

*Chioma Precious Oku*

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria

**ABSTRACT**

Temperature and precipitation affect crop growth and resultant productivity disproportionately. The variation in climate impacts on crop yield over time has received less attention which is significant to understand their nexus for ensuring future food security. This study seeks to assess the influence of historical climate variability in explaining crop yield variability across selected agricultural areas in Imo State, Nigeria's diverse forest belt. A descriptive historical survey guided the study and climate change provided the conceptual framework of this study. Secondary data used include monthly temperature and rainfall data for a period of 30 years (1993-2023) across the study area, while descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis were used at α0.05. The findings revealed significant variations in both temperature and precipitation on crop yield across the diverse agricultural lands in Imo State. The coefficient of variation, or yield variability normalized by mean yields was lower in the top crop production regions of the state on account of their higher yields and conversely higher in the areas of lower yields. Proper and adequate funding, use of early maturing, drought and disease-resistant crops and good extension services are recommended.

**KEYWORDS:** Climate; Variability; Temperature; Rainfall; Crop Yield.

**INTRODUCTION**

Understanding climate impacts on crop yields is fundamental for enhancing agricultural resilience in a changing climate. Numerous studies have been conducted to assess the impacts of climate change on crop yield at the regional and global scales (Olesen and Bindi 2002, Jones and Thornton 2003, Parry et al 2004, Tao et al 2006, Yao et al 2007, Schlenker and Roberts 2009, Reidsma et al 2010, Schlenker and Lobell 2010, Bindi and Olesen 2011, Müller et al 2011, Urban et al 2012, Rosenzweig et al 2014). In general, high temperature exerts a negative impact on yields directly through heat stress and indirectly via soil moisture deficits, while low precipitation tends to induce closure of stoma, reduction of carbon uptake and decrease of yields (Peng et al 2004, Schlenker and Roberts 2009, Butler and Huybers 2013, Asseng et al 2015; Ray et al 2015, Liu et al 2016, Zhao et al 2016, Schlauberger et al 2017, Wang et al 2017). Crops are most sensitive to high temperatures at the reproductive stage and grain-filling/fruit maturation stage (Hatfield et al., 2011). However, plant responses to each type of temperature alteration are species-specific and mediated through both photosynthetic activity for biomass accumulation, which is responsible for plant growth, and the phenological and morphological changes, which occur during plant development. Each type of temperature stress has a different effect on crop duration and overall plant productivity. The effect will depend on how sensitive each species is at its stage of development when the temperature alteration occurs. Adapting to these effects will require different types of responses. The increase in average temperature during the growing season typically causes plants to use more energy for respiration for their maintenance and less to support their growth. With a 1°C increase in average temperatures, yields of the major food and cash crop species can decrease by 5 to 10 per cent (Lobell and Field, 2007; Hatfield et al., 2009). With higher average temperatures plants also complete their growing cycle more rapidly (Hatfield et al., 2011). With less time to reproduce, reproductive failures are more likely and this will also lower yields (Craufurd and Wheeler, 2009).
**Statement of the Problem**

Climate change and climate variability affect weather patterns and cause shifts in seasons with serious repercussions such as declining food production and productivity for communities and households (Kabubo-Mariara and Mulwa, 2019). Studies have examined the effects of droughts on agricultural production (Leng and Hall 2019) and the impacts of concurrent droughts in different locations (Gaupp *et al* 2019). Crop production is highly sensitive to climate. It is affected by long-term trends in average rainfall and temperature, interannual climate variability, shocks during specific phenological stages, and extreme weather events (IPCC, 2012). Some crops are more tolerant than others to certain types of stresses, and at each phenological stage, different types of stresses affect each crop species in different ways (Simpson, 2017). Climate change can make conditions better or worse for growing crops in different regions. For example, changes in temperature, rainfall, and frost-free days are leading to longer growing seasons globally. Climate change is the worldwide environmental threats that seriously affect agricultural productivity and it affects mankind in numerous ways, including its direct influence on food production (Enete and Amusa, 2016). Even though climate change is global, developing countries, like Africa are the most adversely affected by climate change due to their low level of adaptation capabilities (Enete and Amusa 2016; Nwafor *et al*. 2007). The livelihoods of millions of people who are poor and susceptible are presently threatened by Climate change which altering the natural and physical resources they depend on generally and agricultural production particularly (Mesfin and Bekele 2018).

Many countries in tropical and sub-tropical regions are expected to be more vulnerable to climate change which will affect their marginal water balance and harm their agricultural sectors. Like other continents of the world, Africa is under pressure from climate stresses and is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate variability which accounts for one-third of African people (i.e. 220 million are exposed to drought each year) (Philemon, 2016). However, different research has been done on tropical countries on the extent of damage of climate variability on agricultural productivity. In Africa and some parts of the world, climate change is expected to change the dynamics of drought, rainfall and heat waves, and prompt secondary stresses such as the spread of pests, increased competition for resources, and consequent biodiversity losses (Enete and Amusa, 2016). Changes in precipitation regimes include changes in seasonal mean, the timing and intensity of individual rainfall events, and the frequency and length of droughts. Each of these factors is critical to crop productivity. The impact of changes in precipitation will be particularly marked when they are combined with temperature alterations that affect the crop's evaporative demands. This may lead to different forms of moisture stress depending on the phenological stage the crop has reached. The specific impacts of changes in precipitation regimes on crops vary significantly because around 80 per cent of the cropped area is rainfed and produces 60 per cent of the world's food (Tubiello et al., 2007). The levels and distribution of precipitation determine whether a crop can be grown without irrigation and/or drainage, or whether investments in this area are necessary. The general prediction is that with climate change, areas that already receive high levels of rainfall will receive more, and those that are dry will become drier (Liu and Allan, 2013). The reduction in seasonal mean precipitation will have a greater impact on areas with degraded soils. Soils with lower organic carbon levels retain less water at low moisture potentials. Furthermore, crops grown in nutrient-poor soils, especially those lacking potassium, recover less quickly from drought stress once water is again available (Lipiec et al., 2013).

**MATERIALS AND METHODS**

**Study Area**

**Location, Population and Area Extent of Imo State**

Imo State came into existence in 1976 along with other new states created under the leadership of the late military ruler of Nigeria, Murtala Muhammad, having been previously part of East Central State. The state is named after the Imo River. Part of it was split off in 1991 as Abia State, and another part became Ebonyi State. The main cities in Imo State are Owerri (the state capital), Orlu and Okigwe. The local language is Igbo and Christianity is the predominant religion. Imo State lies within latitudes 4°45'N and 7°15'N, and longitude 6°50'E and 7°25'E with an area of around 5,100 square Kilometre. It is bordered by Abia State
on the East, by the River Niger and Delta State on the west, by Anambra State to the north and Rivers State to the south. Besides Owerri, Imo State's major towns are Isu, Okigwe, Oguta, Orlu, Mbaise, Mbano, Mbieri, Orodo and Orsu. Imo State has a population of over 4.8 million with a population density that varies from 230 persons per square. Kilometre in Oguta/Egbema area to about 1,400 persons per square. Kilometre in Mbaise, Orlu, Mbano and Mbaitoli areas. This high population density has led to intensified pressure on land, forests and other natural resources, leading to increasing rural poverty which is characteristic of densely populated rural areas. The fallow period rarely exceeds one year and, in some areas, continuous cropping is the rule. Low crop yield and loss of land to erosion have combined to induce people to migrate in search of jobs and even farmland in other parts of the country.

## Agriculture, Natural Resources and Climate of Imo State

The state has several natural resources which include, crude oil, natural gas, lead, calcium carbonate, solar and wind power, and zinc. Profitable flora including iroko, mahogany, obeche, bamboo, rubber tree and oil palm. Additionally, white clay, fine sand and limestone are also found in the state. The rainy season begins in April and lasts until October, with annual rainfall varying from 1,500 mm to 2,200 mm (60 to 80 inches). An average annual temperature above 20 °C (68.0 °F), creates an annual relative humidity of 75%. With humidity reaching 90% in the rainy season. The dry season experiences two months of Harmattan, from late December to late February. The hottest months are between January and March. With high population density and overfarming, the soil has been degraded and much of the native vegetation has disappeared. Agriculture is the primary occupation, but due to over-farming and high population density, the soil has greatly degraded. This could be a result of inefficient production techniques, poor resource base, declining soil productivity, the predominance of primitive techniques of agricultural production, inadequate supply of credit, low capital investment, and use of crude implements to mention but a few. The Agricultural sector in Imo State needs the intervention of the state government and other huge private companies, this is because having a strong economy based on crude oil, natural gas and palm oil will not aid the development of the state.
<figure><img src="image_60.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. Study Area showing the different agricultural zones in Imo State</figcaption></figure>

# RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

## Spatial and temporal trends in meteorological variables

Minimum and maximum temperatures varied over the climatological period between 1993 to 2023 across Imo State. Minimum temperatures (Figure 2) ranged between 18.2°C to 33°C with average temperatures of 22°C to 25°C reflecting across March to October across the state within the climatological period. Maximum temperatures (Figure 3) ranged between 29°C to 36.1°C with average temperatures of 31°C to 33.3°C showing across the months of January to November within the 30-year periods of 1993 to 2023. Rainfall (Figure 4) ranged between 1.8mm to 609mm across the state and climatological period. The wet season months of April to October revealed higher rainfall values with double maxima of between 251mm to 609mm while the dry season months of January to March and November and December showed lower rainfall values of between 0 to 70mm
<figure><img src="image_61.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2. Minimum temperatures across Imo State from 1993 to 2023</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_62.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3. Maximum temperatures across Imo states from 1993 to 2023</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_63.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4. Variation in Rainfall across Imo states from 1993 to 2023</figcaption></figure>

Multiple linear regression was employed to test for the relationship between rainfall, temperature and relative humidity, on crop yields for a climatological period. (Table 1 to 3). The dependent variable (climate) was regressed with monthly crop yields for (Rice, Cassava and Yam). The independent variables significantly influenced monthly crop yields for Rice, Cassava and Yam for the climatological period under review. For Rice, (Table 1) Climate variables of temperature and rainfall averagedly influenced rice yield
(β=6.61, p=0.00), also the R²=0.173 depicts that the model explains 17.3% of the monthly variation in rice yields throughout 1993 to 2023. Additionally, the coefficients were also assessed to ascertain the influence of the temperature and rainfall on rice yields and the results revealed an insignificant influence of the regression coefficients on rice yields (p > 0.05). For yam, (Table 2) Climate variables of temperature and rainfall averagely influenced yam yields (β= 10.09, p=0.00), also the R²=0.021 depicts that the model explains 2.1% of the monthly variation in yam yields throughout 1993 to 2023. Additionally, the regression coefficients were also assessed to ascertain the influence of the temperature and rainfall on yam yields and the results revealed an insignificant influence of the regression coefficients on yam yields (p > 0.05). For Cassava (Table 3) Climate variables of temperature and rainfall averagely influenced cassava yields (β= 64.65, p=0.00), also the R²=0.048 depicts that the model explains 4.8% of the monthly variation in cassava yields for 1993 to 2023. Additionally, the regression coefficients were also assessed to ascertain the influence of the temperature and rainfall on cassava yields and the results revealed an insignificant influence of the regression coefficients on cassava yields (p > 0.05).

<table><caption>Table 1. Climate and Rice</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Model</th><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">Unstandardized Coefficients</th><th>Standardized Coefficients</th><th rowspan="2">t</th><th rowspan="2">Sig.</th></tr><tr><th>B</th><th>Std. Error</th><th>Beta</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">1</td><td>(Constant)</td><td>6.611</td><td>1.024</td><td></td><td>6.455</td><td>.000</td></tr><tr><td>Temp</td><td>-.009</td><td>.011</td><td>-.146</td><td>-.812</td><td>.424</td></tr><tr><td>Rainfall</td><td>.001</td><td>.003</td><td>.059</td><td>.283</td><td>.779</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">R<sup>2</sup></td><td>0.173</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">a. Dependent Variable: Rice</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 3. Climate and Cassava</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Model</th><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">Unstandardized Coefficients</th><th>Standardized Coefficients</th><th rowspan="2">t</th><th rowspan="2">Sig.</th></tr><tr><th>B</th><th>Std. Error</th><th>Beta</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">1</td><td>(Constant)</td><td>64.651</td><td>12.673</td><td></td><td>5.102</td><td><strong>.000</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Temp</td><td>-.149</td><td>.142</td><td>-.203</td><td>-1.050</td><td><strong>.303</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Rainfall</td><td>.013</td><td>.032</td><td>.090</td><td>.406</td><td><strong>.688</strong></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">R<sup>2</sup></td><td>0.048</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">a. Dependent Variable: Cassava</td></tr></tbody></table>
**Discussion**

Rainfall and temperature variables revealed a fluctuating trend across the agricultural zones. The impacts on Cassava, rice and yam yields are manifold which is consistent with similar studies globally. Globally, climate change greatly impacts the production of major crops, and there have been many attempts to model future yields under warming scenarios in recent years (Mohammadi, et. al. 2023). A study by Sule et al. (2020) to investigate the effects of climate variability on crop yield and its implication for smallholder farmers in the Guinea Savanah region of Nigeria revealed a rising trend in both temperature and precipitation and a moderate to strong positive relationships between climate variables and yield with Maize, Bambara nut and Groundnut showing significant relationships. Ahmad, et. al. (2021) investigated the impact of climate variability on crop yield in South Asia and found that 27-72% variations in wheat and 17-55% in rice crop yields are linked with temperature variations while precipitation changes were closely linked with 39% variations in wheat and 75% variations in rice crop yields in all study sites. Mohammadi, et. al. (2023) evaluated the links between changes in temperature and precipitation and changes in wheat, barley, and potato yields at the county level during 1980-2019 in Norway, a Nordic country with a range of climates across a relatively small spatial scale. The results show that the impacts of climate variables on yield vary widely by county, and the strength and direction of the link depend on underlying local bio climate. Atiah, et al. (2021) investigated the vulnerability of maize yield to rainfall, soil moisture, and minimum and maximum temperature variability in Ghana and found a decreasing trend in rainfall and soil moisture and an increasing trend in the maize yield and minimum and maximum temperature in Ghana. Rainfall, soil moisture, and minimum and maximum temperature accounted for approximately 4.2, 22.5, 39.2, and 23.1%, respectively, of the annual maize yield variations throughout the study period while multivariate regression analysis revealed that soil moisture and minimum and maximum temperature accounted for approximately 75% of the variation of maize yield under wetter-than-normal conditions in Ghana. Ajala and Ajetomobi (2018) study investigated the relationship between the unadjusted mean yield, yield variance and adjusted mean yield of maize, rice, beans and groundnut, and temperature and precipitation for the period 1981 – 2018 in Nigeria. The result indicated that an increase in temperature negatively influences maize and rice adjusted mean yield and positively influences beans and groundnut adjusted mean yield. However, an increase in precipitation positively influences the yield level of maize and rice and it negatively influences the yield of beans and groundnut.

**CONCLUSION**

While predicting crop yield response to climate change and variability has received a lot of attention, it is not well explored in terms of yield variability and extremes. Agriculture is the most vulnerable sector to climate change and variability. Among the agriculture sector crop production livestock production, apiculture (beekeeping), horticulture and aquaculture (fish production) are the most susceptible to climate change. Similarly, those countries who are dependent on agricultural activities are affected more than those of agricultural-independent countries. Climate change impacts on crop yield are often integrated with its effects on water productivity and soil water balance. Global warming will influence temperature and rainfall, which will directly have effects on the soil moisture status and groundwater level. Crop yield is constrained to crop varieties and planting areas, soil degradation, growing climate and water availability during the crop growth period. With temperatures increasing and precipitation fluctuating, water availability and crop production will decrease in the future. If the irrigated areas are expanded, the total crop yield will increase; however, food and environmental quality may degrade. Soil evaporation and plant transpiration will be changed with climate change; thus, water use efficiency may decrease in the future. Improving water productivity and keeping stable relations with global food suppliers will be vital for food security. To help their crops use water more efficiently, farmers must pay attention to improving and maintaining soil fertility on sustainable soil and land management for climate-smart agriculture on sustainable soil management for increased crop productivity and on crop residue management for soil carbon conservation and sequestration.
## Recommendations

Climate change harms the agricultural sector. To reduce the impact of climate change on production and productivity adopting and exercising different adaptation strategies is important. Among adaptation strategies: - using traditional ecological knowledge, irrigation activities, water harvesting, strong policy, using advanced technology, strong institutional framework, use of existing opportunities, and introducing stress-tolerant crop varieties are very important to minimize the effect of climate change. In addition to adaptation strategies mitigation measurement also plays a great role in moderating the impact of climate change. Sustainable forest management, afforestation, reforestation, agroforestry practices, and wetland protection are some of the mitigation measures to climate change impact. The uptake of technologies such as early planting, the use of improved crop varieties, and crop diversification are some of the ways to manage the impacts of climate variability on crop yield (Kabubo-Mariara and Mulwa 2019).

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