ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

# Sedimentology and palaeoenvironmental analysis of a karstic shallow carbonate lake (Early-Middle Miocene, Sinj Basin, Croatia)

Alan Vranjković<fnref n="1" />

Elizabeth Gierlowski-Kordesch<fnref n="2" />,†

Arjan de Leeuw<fnref n="3" />

Oleg Mandic<fnref n="4" />

Dunja Aljinović<fnref n="5" />

Ivan Dragičević<fnref n="5" />

Mathias Harzhauser<fnref n="4" />

Klaudia Kuiper<fnref n="6" />

Vlatko Brčić<fnref n="7" />

Davor Pavelić<fnref n="5" />

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

## Correspondence

Davor Pavelić, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
Email: dpavelic@rgn.hr

## Funding information

Development Fund of the Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb; Republic of Croatia, Ministry of Science and Education, Grant/Award Number: 195-1951293-2703; Austrian FWF, Grant/Award Number: P18519-B17

## Abstract

In the Early to Middle Miocene, the post-orogenic intramontane lacustrine Sinj Basin that belonged to the Dinarides Lake System evolved in the area of the External Dinarides. A composite 770 m thick stratigraphic column was measured spanning the basin's stratigraphy. Eight facies were differentiated. Four facies are almost entirely composed of freshwater carbonate deposits. Carbonate facies are divided into calcareous mudstone, charophytic micritic limestone, calcisiltite and coquina facies. They are interpreted to belong to a prograding carbonate bench on a gently inclined lake margin. In addition, tuff/clays, carbonate conglomerate, carbonate breccia and coal were differentiated. The tuff/clays are the result of remote volcanic eruptions, while the coarse-grained sediments belong to subaqueous shallow stream channels or were deposited by gravity flows. The coal at the top of the measured succession, mostly of allochthonous origin, was deposited as a fen forest peat, representing the final stage of the lake. The formation of the Sinj Basin might have been triggered by dissolution of Permo-Triassic evaporites, within the mostly carbonate basement but also by breakdown and collapse of Mesozoic and Palaeogene carbonate rocks and coalescence of contiguous sinkholes. The non-tectonic interpretation of the basin genesis is a novel hypothesis explaining the origin of one of the Dinarides intramontane basins and is in contrast to previous considerations that evolution of the Sinj Basin was controlled by strike-slip or extensional tectonics.

## KEYWORDS

carbonate bench, karst lake, Miocene Dinarides Lake System, non-tectonic basin

<footnote n="1">¹INA-Industrija Nafte, Zagreb, Croatia</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Institut des Sciences de la Terre, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble Cedex 9, France</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴Geological-Paleontological Department, Natural History Museum Vienna, Vienna, Austria</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷Croatian Geological Survey, Zagreb, Croatia</footnote>

<footnote>†Deceased.</footnote>
# 1 | INTRODUCTION

Lakes can form and be maintained by a variety of processes that can be tectonic, fluvial, aeolian, karstic, volcanic or glacial in nature and may even include impact events (Cohen, 2003; Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2010). In regions of carbonate and evaporite bedrock, karstic processes such as dissolution and collapse may form centripetal drainage patterns and depressions for specific karstic lake development (Valero-Garcés et al., 2014, and references therein). Modern karstic lakes evolve in different regions, such as North and Central America, southern China and around the Mediterranean, but they occupy less than 1% of the total global lake area (Cohen, 2003). Their development is strongly controlled by different karstic processes that form depressions and govern runoff and groundwater input. In that way, the lakes' evolution is affected by a hydrological balance that is reflected in water-level changes (Nicod, 2006; Morellón et al., 2009; Valero-Garcés et al., 2014).

Karstic lakes that are related to an evaporite bedrock have specific controls on their evolution. There, solution of evaporites can cause land subsidence but also breakdown and collapse of overlying carbonate rocks, and coalescence of contiguous sinkholes (Nicod, 1993, 2006; Klimchouk, 1996, 2002). In the Mediterranean region, modern lakes of this kind are Lac de Besse, France (Nicod, 1999), Lago di Pergusa, Italy (Sadori & Narcisi, 2001), Lake Demiryurt, Turkey (Alagöz, 1967) and several lakes in Spain (Julià, 1980; Pulido-Bosch, 1989; Morellón et al., 2009; Valero-Garcés et al., 2014).

The genesis of the Miocene lacustrine Sinj Basin, that is located in the External Dinarides (Figure 1), also known as the Karst Dinarides, has been interpreted along with other Dinarides intramontane basins as a result of normal extensional (de Leeuw et al., 2011a; Van Unen et al., 2019a, 2019b) or wrench tectonics, that is as a pull-apart basin (Tari, 2002). As the basin is related to the

Mesozoic and Palaeogene carbonate and Permo-Triassic evaporite bedrock, sedimentological and palaeoenvironmental characteristics of its whole depositional sequence enable alternative interpretation of the basin genesis, that is possibility of a non-tectonic origin, representing a novel hypothesis explaining the origin of the Dinarides intramontane basins.

# 2 | GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The geological setting of the Sinj Basin and the Miocene freshwater deposits in particular were described by Mandic et al. (2009), Jiménez-Moreno et al. (2008) and de Leeuw et al. (2010). Here, a summary is given.

## 2.1 | Palaeogeographical setting

Palaeogeographically, Lake Sinj belonged to the Miocene Dinarides Lake System (DLS) that occupied the post-orogenic intramontane basins across the Dinaric Alps (Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008; Mandic et al., 2009; de Leeuw et al., 2010, 2012; Figure 2A). The DLS was restricted to the westernmost part of the Dinarides-Anatolian land-mass that formed a 2000 km long geographical barrier between the Mediterranean and Paratethys seas during the early-Middle Miocene (Rögl & Steininger, 1983; Popov et al., 2004; Harzhauser & Piller, 2007; Piller et al., 2007; Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008; Mandic et al., 2009; de Leeuw et al., 2010, 2012; Kováč et al., 2018; Avanić et al., 2021; Figure 2B). The north-east part of the DLS coexisted with the Southern Pannonian Lake System before its marine flooding by the Central Paratethys Sea (Kochansky-Devide & Slišković, 1978; Kochansky-Devide, 1979; Mutić, 1980; Pavelić et al., 1998, 2001; Hajek-Tadesse et al., 2009; Mandic et al., 2019a, 2019b; Marković et al., 2022).

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 1 Location map.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 2 (A) Dinarides Lake System (DLS) (modified after Pavelić, 2002). (B) Palaeogeographical sketch map of the circum-Mediterranean area in the Early Miocene (modified after Harzhauser & Piller, 2007). The asterisk shows the tentative position of Lake Sinj.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 3 (A) Geological map of the Sinj Basin with the position of the studied sections (simplified after Hrvatski geološki institut, 2009). (B) The correlation of the standard chronostratigraphy with the Central Paratethys stages (after Hilgen et al., 2012; Raffi et al., 2020). The stratigraphic position of the Miocene Sinj Basin lacustrine deposits is represented by a black bar (de Leeuw et al., 2010, revised after Brlek et al., 2021).</figcaption></figure>
The DLS was a long-lasting and complex lacustrine system that generated locally very thick basinal infills (Krstić et al., 2001, 2003; Pavelić, 2002; Rasser et al., 2008; Mandic et al., 2009, 2011, 2020; de Leeuw et al., 2012; Andrić et al. 2017; Sant et al., 2018). It is characterised by different dimensions and shapes of basins, basin fill style, age and thickness of lacustrine deposits. For example, in the Sinj Basin (Figure 3A) the sedimentary succession is more than 500 m thick, in the neighbouring Livno Basin the thickness reaches up to 2.6 km (de Leeuw et al., 2011a, 2012), and in the largest Sarajevo Basin the infill is more than 3 km thick (Sant et al., 2018; Figure 2A). The successions of the former two basins are dominated by shallow-water lacustrine carbonates. In contrast, the Sarajevo Basin of the Internal Dinarides is dominated by clastic deposits related to the syn-depositional unroofing of a Palaeozoic metamorphic core complex (Andrić et al., 2017).

## 2.2 | Tectonic setting

The Sinj Basin is situated in South-Eastern Croatia, in the western marginal part of the Dinarides Thrust Belt that belongs to the Karst (External) Dinarides. The main phases of thrusting in this area occurred in the Middle and Late Eocene, possibly until the earliest Oligocene, and involved mostly Mesozoic to early Cenozoic limestones from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform (AdCP) (Aubouin et al., 1970; Tari-Kovačić & Mrinjek, 1994; Tari, 2002; Vlahović et al., 2005; Schmid et al., 2008, 2020; Ustaszewski et al., 2008; Korbar, 2009). These thrust sheets eventually formed the basement for the Sinj Basin, which started to develop in the Early Miocene (de Leeuw et al., 2010). It has been considered that the basin's subsidence was controlled by the strike-slip movement on the Split-Karlovac Fault and the main decollement level was formed by Permo-Triassic pelitic and evaporite rocks (Schmid et al., 2008; Tari, 2002; Balling et al., 2021). The latter rocks comprising gypsum and anhydrite are exposed as a diapiric dome in the central part of the basin (Figure 3A).

The Miocene Sinj Basin deposits experienced strong post-depositional compressional tectonics as indicated by folding, faulting, tectonic breccia composed of the Sinj Basin limestones, and probably a moderate counterclockwise rotation (Papeš et al., 1982; Šušnjara & Sakač, 1988; Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008; Mandic et al., 2009; de Leeuw et al., 2010; Márton et al., 2016). Diapiric uplift of the Permo-Triassic evaporites could also contribute to the deformations (Raić et al., 1984). Late Miocene-Pliocene tectonics formed the modern rhomboidal shape of the basin (Van Unen et al., 2019a, 2019b; Figure 3A). In the

proximity of the Sinj Basin, ca 60 km towards the north-west, there is the small Drniš Basin whose deposits are strongly correlative with the Sinj Basin limestones, suggesting they were coeval and part of the same large lacustrine depositional system (Neubauer et al., 2015). Later, these deposits were affected by post-depositional tectonics that caused partitioning into two basins separated by uplifted blocks.

## 2.3 | The Sinj Basin filling stratigraphy

The infill can be subdivided into three parts: a lower part with freshwater limestone with a considerable terrigenous input and coal seams, which mostly crops out in the south-eastern part of the basin, authigenic carbonate deposits in the middle part of the stratigraphy and carbonate deposits with coal intercalations in the upper part (de Leeuw et al., 2010). The main, 4 m thick coal seam in the uppermost part of the basin fill was formerly mined and it was from this layer that large mammal fauna was collected (Mandic et al., 2009). Freshwater carbonate deposits developed throughout the whole basin succession. A sedimentary breccia is located near the basin margins in several places (Papeš et al., 1982; Šušnjara & Sakač, 1988).

Lacustrine deposits are well exposed along the western margin of the Sinj Basin near the village of Lučane, where there is an almost complete and continuous section of the Miocene basin infill (de Leeuw et al., 2010). There, the basal and the middle part of the infill show carbonate rocks, whereas the upper part includes intercalated carbonates and coal seams, especially in its uppermost portion (Šušnjara & Sakač, 1988; Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008; Mandic et al., 2009; de Leeuw et al., 2010). The succession is intercalated sporadically by volcanic ash layers (Šegvić et al., 2014). In the upper part of the infill, calcite is the dominant carbonate mineral, while aragonite locally attains 5% by weight of the carbonate and is related to mollusc coquinas (Mandic et al., 2009).

The Sinj Basin infill was dated through magnetostratigraphy that was correlated to the Astronomically Tuned Neogene Timescale (ATNTS; Lourens et al., 2004) using the absolute ages of three ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dated ash layers as tie points (de Leeuw et al., 2010). The age of the lowermost ash horizon was recently verified by means of ID-TIMS Th-corrected ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U dating of volcanic zircon (Brlek et al., 2021), which confirmed the previously established chronostratigraphy. Based on these data, the deposition in the Miocene Sinj Basin infill is placed between 17.6 and 15.0 Ma. This time span correlates with the upper Burdigalian and lower Langhian standard stages and
the uppermost Ottnangian, Karpatian and lowermost Badenian Central Paratethys stages (de Leeuw et al., 2010; Hilgen et al., 2012; Raffi et al., 2020; Figure 3B).

The constructed magnetostratigraphy provided good control on the sedimentation rate. The lower half of the infill has a sedimentation rate of about 10 cm/kyr, while in the upper half, the sedimentation rate increases to 20 cm/kyr (de Leeuw et al., 2010). Besides, the ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U detrital zircon dating of bauxites, which are underlying the Miocene succession of the eastern basin margin, at ca 17 Ma, points to a diachronous lacustrine transgression across the Sinj Basin (Brlek et al., 2021). The bauxitisation process itself is in accordance with palynological data, pointing to persistently wet subtropical regional climate conditions during the lifespan of the palaeolake (Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008).

# 3 | METHODS

## 3.1 | Field work

The area of the Sinj Basin is characterised by many surface exposures of the Miocene deposits. They occur in many places but are mostly small and scattered throughout the basin. Due to their uniform lithology, stratigraphic correlation based on tracing distinct sedimentary cycle patterns and marker beds was difficult. The best sections are located in the western and central part of the Miocene Sinj Basin, where many outcrops were examined. Finally, the Lučane and Glavice sections were selected for detailed logs (Figure 3A). The Lučane composite section (LCS), with a thickness of about 514 m was selected because of its reliable time frame based on palaeomagnetic and radioisotopic data (de Leeuw et al., 2010; Brlek et al., 2021, 2023; Figure 4). The LCS is actually a composite of four, partially overlapping (50 m apart) sections, logged in and around the Sutina creek, near the village of Lučane at the north-west margin of the basin. The Lučane section was logged along the eastern limb of a syncline with striking NE-SW axis (localities Lučane 1, 2 and 3). Only 10 m of section with conglomeratic lenses was logged in the western limb of the syncline and correlated to the main section (Lučane 4). The Glavice section (GCS) (logged near the localities of Poljaci and Šolto) is also a composite section from the central part of the Sinj Basin, about 5 km east of the Lučane section. The GCS with a thickness of about 200 m was selected because it could be correlated to the Lučane section based on a radioisotopically dated tephra layer by Brlek et al. (2023, Figure 4).

## 3.2 | Petrography and geochemistry

The infill of the Sinj Basin consists dominantly of limestone. There are several limestone facies, a 6 m thick carbonate breccia lens, two carbonate conglomerate lenses, coal seams and 12 tuff/clay interlayers. Rock samples were collected in the field and used for detailed study. The total number of thin sections studied included 150 limestone samples and five tuffs. Thin sections were stained using a standard procedure (K-ferricyanide and Alizarin Red S), but Feigl's solution (method after Warne, 1962) was also used aiming to reveal the presence of aragonite. Micropetrographic analyses were accomplished by using a polarising light microscope (Leitz Laborlux 11POL).

The carbonate content of samples was measured by dissolving 2 g of homogenised, powdered samples in 10% HCl. The residue was washed, dried and weighed. The difference in weight gives the loss in carbonate.

Mineral composition was determined by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) using a Philips diffractometer (CuKα radiation, U=40 kV, I=35 mA) with a graphite monochromator and proportional counter (at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering). The XRD analyses were performed on the bulk-rock and insoluble residue, with the latter enabling precise determination of the non-carbonate component in the limestones. Samples weighing up to 100 g were crushed to a size of 2–5 mm and dissolved in 5% acetic acid. To determine clay minerals, the insoluble residue was treated with glycerol and ethylene glycol and heated for 2 h at 600°C. To identify kaolinite, samples were dissolved for 24 h in 18% warm HCl. The diffraction patterns were recorded after each mentioned procedure. The XRD analysis was performed at the University of Zagreb (Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering).

# 4 | RESULTS

## 4.1 | Facies analysis

The sedimentary succession obtained by detailed logging at Lučane and Glavice localities makes a composite 514 m thick column of the Miocene deposits in the Sinj Basin (Figure 4). In total, 770 m of deposits were measured at six localities, which are partly stratigraphically correlative. Only the lowermost and uppermost intervals of the Sinj Basin infill are missing, because of the lack of exposure. Eight facies were differentiated (named by letters A to H, Figure 4). Four facies are composed almost entirely of carbonate deposits. In addition, the coal, tephra and coarse-grained facies were differentiated. Facies are organised
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

FIGURE 4 Sections measured in the Sinj Basin (after Vranjković, 2011) related to their palaeogeographical position (marginal/basinal). Units according to de Leeuw et al. (2010). Radioisotopic dating after de Leeuw et al. (2010) and Brlek et al. (2021, 2023). For the geographic position of sections see Figures 1 and 4.
into three main depositional units (Units 1, 2 and 3; de Leeuw et al., 2010). Unit 1 is composed of Facies association A, B and C with minor Facies D and E. The Facies association of Unit 2 consists predominantly of Facies B with minor Facies C and D. Unit 3 is composed of Facies B and G with minor Facies D, E and F.

## 4.2 | Carbonate facies

### 4.2.1 | Facies A (FA—Calcareous mudstone)

#### Description

Deposits of FA were studied at sections Lučane 1, Poljaci and Šolto representing the distal or central part of the Sinj Basin (Figure 4). Facies A consists of homogenous to faintly laminated very thin to thin-bedded grey to purple calcareous mudstone (Figure 5A) that forms up to 50 m thick

continuous intervals. Lower bedding planes are uneven in places (Figure 5A). Calcareous mudstones contain 80–83 mass % of carbonate component while the rest is insoluble residue represented by clay minerals (mixture of kaolinite, illite, illite-smectite and chlorite). Petrographically, calcareous mudstones show homogeneous micritic to microsparitic texture (Figure 5B). Rare unidentified bioclasts (mostly composed of calcite spar crystals) are dispersed in the micrite (Figure 5C). Curved, subvertical cylindrical ichnoforms in micrite infilled by organic matter and calcisiltite also occurs (Figure 5D). Coalified macrophytic debris of *Doderleinia sinjana* (Kerner, 1905) plant fruit, millimetres to centimetres in size, occasionally defines lamination (Figure 5E). *Chara* stems occur in this facies as well and possibly accumulated *in situ* (Figure 5F). Sparse fish remains and plant leaves are occasionally preserved on bedding planes (Figure 5G). Facies A is rarely intercalated by calcisiltites (Facies C; Figure 4).

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**FIGURE 5** Facies A. (A) Grey to purple beds of calcareous mudstone.
(B) Microphotography of micritic texture.
(C) Sparite composed bioclast in micrite.
(D) Worm-like bioturbation in micrite infilled by organic matter and calcisiltite.
(E) Coalified macrophytic debris of *Doderleinia sinjana* (Kerner, 1905).
(F) Fragment of *Chara* stem in cross-section. (G) Terrestrial plant leaf preserved on bedding plane.</figcaption></figure>
### Interpretation

The presence of the plant fruit *Doderleinia sinjana* (Kerner, 1905) indicates deposition of FA in a lacustrine environment. Accumulation of homogenous or faintly laminated lime mud with rare *in situ* accumulation of *Chara* stems and fish remains indicates slow deposition in a low energy, sublittoral part of a relatively shallow lake probably with a non-stratified water column (Calvo et al., 2000; Muniz & Bosence, 2018; Wright, 2020; Azerêdo et al., 2021). The preservation of root traces probably produced by rare subaqueous vegetation that inhabited the low energy, but still oxic, deeper, distal part of the lake environment indicates a relatively shallow lake. Deposition of homogenous mud in the deeper/distal part of the lake was probably influenced by an intermittent subtle input of re-suspended littoral material-clay, *Chara* stems and girogonites (Dean, 1981; Schurrenberger et al., 2003). The fair preservation of *Chara* girogonites support the interpretation of deposition in the low energy, possibly deeper part of the basin. Thus, deposition of FA represents the base of the carbonate lake filling succession, that is the distal, deeper part of the lake.

### 4.2.2 | Facies B (FB—Charophytic micritic limestone)

#### Description

Deposits of FB were studied in all sections except the locality Poljaci. Facies B occurs in all three facies associations (units) and appears to be the dominant facies of the complete studied Lower to Middle Miocene deposits. Facies B is represented by a rhythmic alternation of partly cream-coloured light grey (B1) and dark grey (B2) limestone varieties, with 3–8 cm thick beds (Figure 6A).

Deposits of FB can be intensively bioturbated. The bioturbation is represented by horizontal, vertical and subvertical narrow burrows observed within some layers or at contacts between layers (Figure 6A,B,C). They range up to 10 cm in length and 0.1 to 1.8 mm in width (as seen in cross-sections). Intensive reworking by organisms (bioturbation) contributes to the formation of intraclasts.

Intraclasts of the underlying bed can be incorporated into the overlying layer. These intraclasts range in size from millimetre to centimetre-scale. Long burrows are associated with those types of contacts. Some burrows are filled with overlying sediment while others are filled with shell fragments of coquina (Facies D) or coalified material of *Doderleinia* seeds.

The light grey variety (B1) is differentiated as mudstone and consists of micrite (or microsparite with crystals up to 30 µm) with rare occurrence of charophyte stems. The dark grey variety (B2) is differentiated as

wackestone and consists of a significant amount of variously preserved bioclasts distributed in the carbonate matrix (Figure 6D). Bioclasts in both varieties correspond to calcified/encrusted charophyte stems (Kerner, 1916; Mandic et al., 2009). Encrustations consist of up to 0.1 mm thick sparitic crystals. Spiral charophyte oogonia that range in size from 300 to 1300 µm occur extremely rarely in Facies B; some spar is elongated due to compaction (Figure 6E). In the B1 facies variety, subvertical rod-shaped forms infilled by root remnants occur (Figure 6F). In Facies B charophyta fragments in wackestone are replaced with calcified fruits or stems of *Damasonium suti-nae* (Kerner, 1916) in Unit 3 (Figure 6G).

Fossils found in FB include roots of aquatic vegetation, stems of charophytes (*Chara*), fruits of *Damasonium*, calcitic encrustation of fan-like or columnar-shaped cyanobacteria (Figure 6H)—cyanolith (Riding, 1979, 1983), ostracods, bivalves and gastropods with preserved aragonite shells. Fruits of *Damasonium* are slightly elongated lensoid bodies, about 4 mm long, arranged in a star-like pattern of six fruits.

A higher amount of (*in situ*) *Chara* stem encrustations is present in the wackestone (B2) variety compared to B1 (Figure 6I). Roots of aquatic vegetation are carbonised (Figure 6J). Some carbonised nemaphaea rhizomes are found. Mollusc and ostracod shells are finely dispersed in the sediment matrix of FB. Minor fish remains are preserved very rarely. Very small pyrite crystals are visible in reflected light and are dispersed throughout deposits of this facies.

FB—charophytic micritic limestone occurs in all three units and is the most commonly represented facies. In Unit 1 rare intercalations of calcisiltite (Facies C) and coquina layers (Facies D) occur within FB (Figure 4). In Unit 2, FB is rarely intercalated with Facies D. In Unit 3 the layers consisting of Subfacies B2 are overlain with coal layers (Facies H).

#### Interpretation

The rhythmic alternation of light and dark grey limestone varieties B1 and B2 are interpreted as being deposited on a shallow, low energy littoral lake, probably a bench platform-type lake margin (cf. Murphy & Wilkinson, 1980; Tucker & Wright, 1990; Platt & Wright, 1991; Calvo et al., 2000; Abdul Aziz et al., 2004; Mandic et al., 2009; Pentecost, 2009; Valero-Garcés et al., 2014; Muniz & Bosence, 2018). Progradational carbonate/marl benches with a flat platform (on landward side) and a steeply inclined slope (on basinward side) are recorded from hard-water lake margins of modern Lake Littlefield (Murphy & Wilkinson, 1980) and Sucker Lake (Treese & Wilkinson, 1982) in Michigan (United States). Ancient examples of low energy, steep gradient, bench lake margins
FIGURE 6 Facies B. (A) Alternation of partly cream-coloured light grey (variety B₁) to dark grey (variety B₂) layers of charophytic micritic limestone. Lower bedding planes are usually characterised by bioturbation that is clearly visible in the uppermost part of the photomicrograph. (B) Bioturbation in detail. (C) Narrow, worm-like burrows within a layer of FB. (D) Characean biomicrite with calcite skeletons. (E) Cross-section of characeans thallus encrustation. (F) Subvertical rod-shaped forms infilled by carbonised root remnants. (G) Cross-section of encrustation of *Damasonium sutinae* seed. (H) Calcitic encrustation of fan-like shaped cyanobacteria.

(I) Longitudinal sections of encrusted thallus of characeans. (J) Cross-section of carbonised aquatic root characterised by outer brownish zonation produced by Fe oxides and hydroxides.

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>
include the Lower Cretaceous Peterson Limestone of Wyoming and Idaho (Glass & Wilkinson, 1980), from Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Draney Limestone of central western United States (Brown & Wilkinson, 1981). A modern example of such a lake is Montcortés in Spain (Corella et al., 2012). The transition from a carbonate bench margin into a ramp lake margin is observed in the Upper Miocene Las Minas Basin, Spain (Calvo et al., 2000), whereas modern Lake Taravilla in Spain is characterised by a ramp lake margin (Valero-Garcés et al., 2008). Micrite-rich limestone varieties of FB with abundant fragments of macrophytes and cyanoliths confirm deposition in a low energy, shallow and vegetated, littoral lake environment (Calvo et al., 2000; Valero-Garcés et al., 2008; Gomes et al., 2020a; Wright, 2020; Wright & Barnett, 2020; Azerêdo et al., 2021). Pronounced encrustation of microphytes and macrophytes occur in this shallow vegetated environment. The breakdown of the encrustation provided the main debris fragments that accumulated in large amounts in B2 and less in the B1 variety, in analogy with descriptions by Arribas and Arribas (2007).

The breakdown of carbonate-encrusted macrophyte stems, and detrital carbonate grains is usually the main source of carbonate accumulation on gently inclined bench platforms (Murphy & Wilkinson, 1980; Treese & Wilkinson, 1982; Tucker & Wright, 1990; Platt & Wright, 1991; Renault & Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2010). Fine carbonate particles eroded directly from the surrounding exposed Mesozoic AdCP marine carbonates are a negligible source of carbonate particles as seen in the modern hard-water Plitvice Lakes (Croatia) (Srdoč et al., 1985). Penecontemporaneous carbonate grain can be a product of precipitation in fluvial channels/creeks or in the shallow lacustrine areas, resulting from the calcium-rich waters draining the Mesozoic carbonates (sensu Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998; Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2010). The main source of penecontemporaneous carbonate particles is usually freshwater tufas (Lang et al., 1992; Pedley, 2000), carbonate soils (Alonso-Zarza, 2003) and other pedogenetic carbonates (Freytet & Plaziat, 1982). Cyanoliths can be interpreted as penecontemporaneous coated grains produced in streams (Arribas & Arribas, 2007) that surrounded the lake margin. They probably represent bio-induced calcite crystallisation around *Rivularia* and *Pharmidium* cyanobacterial filamentous colonies (Riding, 1979; Schneider et al., 1983; Arribas & Arribas, 2007). Thus, the charophytic micritic limestone of FB, with the lacustrine flora and fauna, indicate prevailing subaqueous conditions throughout sedimentation in a shallow lake zone (bench platform) of the permanent lake. Facies B possibly marks alternating higher and lower lake water periods related to climate

variability. Small-scale lake water-level oscillations may have produced the centimetre-scale alternation of light grey (B1) and dark grey (B2) interlayers, indicating short climate-induced periods of low water level (dry climate), and high-water level (wet climate) that generated a high production of freshwater vegetation in B2 (Figure 7). During wet periods or short flood periods, when the lake-level raised, a slightly deeper environment was created on the subaqueous bench platform and the vegetated littoral fringe moved shoreward. An increased input of stream water, apart from rising the lake water level, also brought high amounts of nutrients that resulted in intense *in situ* growth of plants (Dean, 1981). The calcium-rich water also induced encrustation of plants that finally resulted in the deposition of wackestone rich in *Chara* stems, encrusting (sparitic) fragments and coalified phytoclasts. The dark grey colour of the B2 variety possibly stems from higher organic productivity and preservation of more abundant organic debris in comparison with the B1 variety.

During lake-level fall (dry climate periods—Figure 7) the subaqueous vegetated littoral fringe shrank and moved basinward onto the gently inclined bench platform. Deposition of mudstone characterised periods of lake-level fall, indicating a decrease in nutrients and therefore scarcer vegetation that resulted in prevalence of lime mud deposition.

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 7 The centimetre-scale alternation of partly cream-coloured light grey (B1) and dark grey (B2) interlayers produced by small-scale water-level oscillations due to dry to wet climate change.</figcaption></figure>
### 4.2.3 | Facies C (FC—Calcisiltite)

**Description**

Facies C is defined as cream or white-coloured calcisiltites, that reveal tabular, partly laminated beds 10–30 cm thick and make intervals up to 11 m thick (Figures 4 and 8A,B). The deposits are mostly structureless, but faint horizontal lamination is visible in places. Contacts with deposits of FA and FB are sharp. Petrographically, calcisiltite of FC consists of detrital, well-sorted, silt-sized calcite crystals of various shapes: equant or rhomboidal, spherical (fairly rounded) to irregular (angular) (Figure 8C,D). The amount of detrital, silt-sized carbonate crystals is estimated at 80%. In addition, charophyta gyrogonites and stems (Figure 8E) and coalified macrophyte fragments, as well as framboidal pyrite occur. All these constituents are mixed in varying amounts. Coalified or carbonised and sometimes jellified plant remains of *Doderleinia sinjana* are distributed randomly (Figure 8F), as well as charophyta gyrogonites.

The majority of the allochems, the rhomboidal, rounded and fragmented calcite crystals, are

distributed throughout the micrite. They range in size from 40 to 280 µm. Perfectly rhomboidal calcite crystals are mixed with rounded to fragmented crystals in a clastic texture. The amount of carbonate component in this facies is 94.5–98 mass % while the insoluble residue consists of clay minerals, mica, quartz and amorphous component.

Deposits of FC were studied at all sections and occur in Unit 1 and the lower part of Unit 2. Facies C is frequent in Unit 1 (Figures 4 and 8A).

**Interpretation**

The calcisiltite of FC is interpreted to have been deposited from sediment-laden density currents (hyperpycnal flow; underflow) after severe floods that drained the shallow sublittoral zone. Density currents form when fluvial floods charged with a high sediment load enter a lower-density, freshwater lake body (Dasgupta, 2002; Kostic & Parker, 2003; Zavala et al., 2006; Sáez et al., 2007; Lamb & Mohring, 2009; Renault & Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2010; Wright, 2020). These currents lead to sedimentation in

**FIGURE 8** Facies C. (A) Cream-coloured calcisiltite beds are up to 30 cm thick. (B) Horizontally bedded and laminated calcisiltite. (C) Idiotypic rhomboidal calcite crystal in the middle of the photograph. (D) Columnar forms of jagged sparite crystals. (E) Cross-section of *Chara* oogonium. (F) Coalified, and sometimes jellified plant remains of *Doderleinia sinjana*.

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /></figure>
distal areas, as the sediment bypasses the river/stream mouth (sensu; Renault & Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2010). The tabular, well-sorted silt-sized calcitic fragments accumulate as structureless or poorly plane laminated beds and indicate flood events that may have rapidly washed the silt-sized material into the lake and redistribute it from shallow littoral areas to more distal parts. This usually occurs without any apparent erosion (Abels et al., 2008). A lack of incised distributary channels associated with these non-channelised tabular sheet-like currents points to lobe deposition during stable lake levels. The silt-sized detrital crystals that are the main constituent of calcisiltite probably originated from the erosion of the encrusted flora that covered the shallow littoral zone, but other interpretations are also possible. Sparitic bioclasts in the modern rivers of the Pyrenees (Arribas & Arribas, 2007) originate due to erosion of freshwater cyanobacterial reefs and soils. The fossils that occur in Facies C, such as the charophyte fragments and the coalified plant remains, are probably remnants of the autochthonous lake littoral material also reworked by the density currents. The pyrite probably originated from organic-rich sediments during shallow burial due to the decomposition of organic matter as a result of microbial activity (Murphy & Wilkinson, 1980; Gomes et al., 2020b).

### 4.2.4 | Facies D (FD—Coquina)

**Description**

Deposits of FD were studied at sections Lučane 1, 2 and 3 and Poljaci, that belong to the marginal and central parts of the lake. Deposits of FD consist of accumulations of mollusc fragments; mostly gastropods and bivalves. Coquinas make irregularly shaped layers or lenses or tabular beds that vary in thickness from very thin to thick beds (35 cm). Their average thickness is 8 cm (Figure 9A,B,C).

Deposits of FD—coquinas represent coarse-grained gastropod and bivalve-rich accumulations within micritic or calcite silt matrix. Fragments of macrophytic encrustations, fan-like or columnar-like encrusted fragments of cyanobacteria, with radial filaments in places (Figure 9D), ostracods, charophyte debris and carbonised plant remains also occur. Some incrusted fan-shaped cyanobacteria fragments are attached to mollusc shells. There are two main varieties of coquinas: gastropod-rich and bivalve-rich coquinas.

Coquinas are composed of aragonitic gastropod shells as whole shells to fragments. They are associated with coal fragments in places.

An appreciable number of gastropod, bivalve and ostracod species have been recovered from this facies. The main mollusc genera are: *Illyricocongeria*, *Orygoceras*, *Lymnaea*, *Theodoxus*, *Prososthenia*, *Melanopsis* and

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

**FIGURE 9** Facies D and E. (A) Limestones are very thin to thin bedded. Gastropod coquina on bedding plane. (B) Coquina composed of fragments of molluscs in the middle of the photograph. Erosive lower bedding plane is visible. (C) Irregular intercalation of coquinas with coal laminae (FH). (D) Fragments of macrophytic encrustations, fan or columnar-like encrusted fragments of cyanobacteria, with radial filaments. (E) Bivalve *Illyricocongeria aletici* is common in FD. (F) Homogenous vitroclastic tuff that consists dominantly of glass debris (variety E1). (G) Diagenetically altered vitroclastic tuff (variety E2).
*Fossarulus* (Figure 9E). Detailed description of the molluscs and ostracod species from the Sinj Basin in general and their distribution in the studied section were presented in previous studies (Sokač, 1979; Pipik & Mandic, 2007; Mandic et al., 2009; de Leeuw et al., 2010; Neubauer et al., 2011 and references therein).

This facies is found in association with FB in Units 1, 2 and 3. It is also found with the best preservation in association with the coal facies (Facies H) in Unit 3 (Figure 4).

### Interpretation

The association of bivalves, gastropods, ostracods, cyanobacteria and fragments of macrophyta encrustation with organic matter suggests deposition in an isolated carbonate shoal that existed parallel to the lake shore or indicate shallow littoral deposits (Milroy & Wright, 2002; Mandic et al., 2009; McGlue et al., 2010; Tänavsuu-Milkeviciene & Sarg, 2012; Thompson et al., 2015; Wright, 2020). The mollusc association with prevailing *Melanopsis* and *Theodoxus* in FD indicate deposition in a lake littoral fringe or river/ stream mouth, thus implying a high-water energy environment. Recent species of *Melanopsis* and *Theodoxus* inhabit creeks and estuarine river mouths (Pfleger, 1984). On the contrary, gastropod of genera *Prososthenia* prefers a muddy, algal-rich lake littoral environment. Their occurrence thus implies a change of depositional conditions or a restriction of fluvial water inflow and commencement of swamp/mire-like conditions. The dominance of *Prososthenia* in Unit 3, where it is associated with coal seams, confirms this hypothesis. Thus, coquina facies, whether composed of bivalve or gastropod shells, signify deposition on a shallow lake littoral zone influenced by intermittent river/ stream inflow or lacking it. The accumulation of calcitic fragments indicates intense encrustations of macrophyta. Disintegrated *Chara* oogonium also occurred.

Beds with severely fragmented gastropod shells indicate resedimentation processes from proximal to distal parts of the lake, possibly during periods of floods or intensive stream inflows. Therefore, coquina lenses can be found in association with FA and FB. Resedimentation processes can also be related to occasional instability of soft sediment substrate due to sediment overloading and/ or other factors (i.e. earthquake shock, drop in lake-level, storms; Jiang et al., 2007). Cohesive debris flows may be the resedimentation mechanism.

## 4.3 | Other facies

### 4.3.1 | Facies E (FE—Tuff/clays)

#### Description

Deposits of FE were studied at sections Lučane 1, 2 and 3, and Poljaci. These deposits occur within all three units

usually as up to a few centimetre-thick intercalations. Only in the base of Unit 1, there is a significantly thicker bed of 0.60 m (Figure 4). There are three varieties of tuffs in this facies: (E1) vitroclastic tuff, (E2) altered vitroclastic tuff, and (E3) tuffaceous clays. The lithotypes were described previously in the literature (Šegvić et al., 2014).

Homogenous vitroclastic tuff (E1) consists dominantly of glass shards (0.02–0.04 mm in length) and subordinately of pumice fragments (Figure 9F). Other pyroclastic components are crystaloclasts of plagioclase, quartz and biotite (<3%). There is no sign of welding. Shards are mainly unaltered, only rarely devitrified to cryptocrystalline quartz. Secondary alteration to green minerals (chlorite, pumpelite, zeolite?) is present. Diagenetically altered vitroclastic tuff variety (E2) consists dominantly of clays (dominantly kaolinite and/or smectite) and scattered glass shards with ca 5%–7% crystaloclasts (Figure 9G). Shards are generally smaller than in lithotype E1. The carbonate component of this variety resembles FC. Tuffaceous clays (variety E3) contain very rare, altered glass shards floating in homogenous clay.

The XRD analyses of E1, E2 and E3 show quartz, calcite, kaolinite, smectite and illite material. Subordinately K-feldspar, plagioclase, gypsum and pyrite occur.

#### Interpretation

Deposits of the facies FE are a result of deposition of volcanic ash from temporarily explosive but remote volcanic eruptions and accumulation of pyroclastic material as ashfall deposits in a subaqueous lake environment. The presence of authigenic carbonate as well as an association with facies FA and FB contribute to this interpretation. Based on the regional geological, petrological and geochemical considerations, the volcanic source was likely in the adjoining region of the southern Pannonian Basin (Brlek et al., 2023). The presence of kaolinite also indicates that diagenesis must have occurred under alkaline conditions in an open hydrologic system of a lacustrine environment (Šegvić et al., 2014).

### 4.3.2 | Facies F (FF—Carbonate conglomerate)

#### Description

Deposits of FF were studied at sections Lučane 4 and Poljaci. They belong to Units 1 and 3. There lens-shaped conglomerates are associated with charophytic micritic limestone (FB) and calcareous mudstones (FA) (Figure 4).

At Lučane 4 the western part of the lenses is truncated by a vertical fault. In this 9.1 m thick measured section, conglomerates form two types of units: the thick lower unit (F1) and the thin upper unit (F2) (Figure 4). Unit F1 has a
maximum thickness between 0.45 and 1 m. Conglomerate bodies are characterised by a gently concave-upwards surface suggesting channel infill geometry (Figure 10A). They are massive, poorly sorted and clast-supported consisting of subangular to moderately rounded pebbles and cobbles which mostly vary from 3 to 12 cm in diameter, but in some places they are up to 20 cm in diameter. The matrix is represented by fine-grained to coarse-grained sand-sized carbonate allochems. The palaeotransport direction to the south-east seems plausible regarding the palaeogeographical position of the lake and the land. Petrographic analysis of different clasts from this facies revealed that the majority of clasts are slightly older, reworked lacustrine carbonates. Pebbles and cobbles derived from local Mesozoic and Palaeogene rocks also occur in unit F1. The intercalation with the charophytic micritic limestone (FB) indicates two small-scale coarsening-upwards cycles with the FB-limestone type at the base and conglomerate of the type F1 at the top (Figures 4 and 10B).

Units F2 differ from units F1 primarily in thickness and grain size. In the lower part of the Lučane section lenses are only 10–13 cm thick, and are composed of pebbles mostly 1 to 2 cm in diameter. In the upper part of the section lenses have a slightly erosive contact and show a chaotic internal fabric. Subangular to subrounded grains are supported by a calcareous sand-sized matrix. There, units F2 also occur as two non-erosive irregular, locally one-pebble thick layers with prevailing pebbles 1 to 7 cm in diameter.

## Interpretation

Coarse-grained clast-supported deposits with poor sorting and a lack of fine-grained matrix suggest deposition by strong currents possibly in a shallow channel, thus a slight erosion of underlying deposits can be assumed. The conglomerate units which represent lens-shaped bodies intercalated within lacustrine limestone facies indicate subaqueous sedimentation, that is below the lake water surface. These bodies are interpreted as shallow stream channels that temporarily prograded into the shallow lake. Another possibility is the transformation of initial debris flows to hyperconcentrated gravelly turbidity flows (Mutti, 2003). The presence of fragments of partly lithified littoral deposits of the lake indicate that the hyperconcentrated gravelly turbidity currents that could reach distal parts of lake were erosive near the lake shore (Gruszka, 2007).

Fragments derived from fringing older marginal lake beds were probably exposed as mud flats and subsequently eroded. The dimensions of the prevalent subangular to moderately rounded clasts indicate relatively short transport and deposition in proximity to the source area. Coarsening-upwards cycles suggest two short phases of progradation of the coarse-grained clastic system into the shallow lake. The progradation was probably generated during a lake-level fall as indicated by subaerial exposure of the slightly older lacustrine carbonates (Wright, 1989) and deposition in the shallow lake subaqueous areas.

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /></figure>

**FIGURE 10** Facies F and G. (A) Concave-upward erosive surface shows channel geometry of conglomerates (marked by arrows) (F). (B) Intercalation of breccia lenses (marked by arrows) with charophytic micritic limestone (F). (C) Unstratified, unsorted and highly disorganised limestone breccia (G). (D) Extra-basinal clast of Lower Cretaceous micrite (G).
### 4.3.3 | Facies G (FG—Carbonate breccia)

**Description**

A breccia body occurs as a single lens within Unit 1 that is 6 m thick and 20 m wide. This thick breccia is intercalated within the lacustrine calcareous mudstone facies (FA—representing distal lake facies) (Figure 10C). This non-stratified, unsorted and highly disorganised limestone breccia is logged in the uppermost part of the Poljaci section in the central part of the basin infill (Figure 4). Clast-supported to matrix-supported breccia includes mostly angular clasts and large boulders, up to 5 m in diameter. Breccia clasts are of a wide stratigraphic range, from Jurassic, Cretaceous (Figure 10D) to Palaeogene limestones and dolomites. A similar lens up to 0.5 m thick occurs at Lučane 1 (Figure 4). The matrix is sparite calcite.

**Interpretation**

Breccias are interpreted as deposits of cohesive debris flows transported basinward by colluvial processes from the steep margin of the lake that originated as subaerial talus breccia (Blikra & Nemec, 1998) that was subaqueously transformed to debris flow (Lowe, 1982; Shanmugam, 2020). Intercalation of this breccia with lacustrine Facies A indicates flows that reached the distal basinal zones. The angularity of clasts indicates relatively short transport towards the distal part of the

lake in a period of significant lake-level drop or may reflect short impulses of tectonic activity (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992).

### 4.3.4 | Facies H (FH—Coal)

**Description**

Coals of FH were studied at sections Lučane 1 and 3 that belong to the marginal zone of the basin. While only a few thin intercalations of the coal occur in Unit 1, Unit 3 is characterised by numerous thin and thick coal seams, mostly in its middle and upper part (Figure 4). The seams rhythmically intercalate with limestones (FB), and are usually a few millimetres to several centimetres thick (Figure 11A,B). At the top of the section the thickness gradually increases (Figure 11C) reaching a maximum of 4 m. Coal bedding planes are sharp and irregular in places lacking any evidence of plant roots (Figure 11B). Some coals are associated with gastropod coquinas and calcitic fragment accumulations (Figure 11D). Vitrinite reflectance of two samples indicated a rank at the transition from lignite to subbituminous coal, while the ash and sulphur content was high (Mandic et al., 2009).

Coals from the H₁ facies show that they consist mainly of huminite with moderate amounts of liptinite and inertinite. Liptinite macerals are represented by alginite,

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 11 Facies H.</figcaption></figure>

(A) Intercalation of coal and charophytic micritic limestone characterised by a variable thickness of the deposits. (B) Coal laminae within charophytic micritic limestone characterised by irregular contact. (C) Gradual increase in coal seam thickness. (D) Gastropod coquinas and calcitic fragment accumulation associated with coal.
terrestrial liptinite and by leaf-derived liptinite. The inerti-
nite group includes (semi-)pyrofusinite and inertodetrin-
ite. Funginite is up to 2%. The uppermost 4m thick coal
bed (H₂) shows a slightly higher huminite content, a sig-
nificantly lower liptinite content, a lower percentage of
leaf-derived macerals and absence of alginite (Mandic
et al., 2009).

Pollen spectra analysis from Unit 3 showed a flora dom-
inated by semi-evergreen subtropical *Engelhardia* species
typical for the broad-leaved evergreen forest. The rare pres-
ence of *Taxodium*-type and *Quercus* deciduous types of pol-
len indicates a low representation of swamp vegetation and
deciduous temperate forests (Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008).

Interpretation

The sharp lower bedding contact of the coal seams
without any visible root traces (Figure 11B) indicates
a mainly allochthonous and minor hypautochthonous
origin (Cabrera & Saez, 1987). The high ash and sulphur
content indicate that the majority of allochthonous or-
ganic material (allochthonous phytoclast) came from
frequently flooded low-lying, calcium-rich swamps/
mires (Mandic et al., 2009) along the lake shoreline. Most
of the organic debris are a mixture of both herbaceous
allochthonous humic-rich materials (pollen grains,
leaves, needles, seeds, woody material and other organic
detritus) from the drainage basin and the lipid-rich sap-
ropelic autochthonous materials (debris from aquatic
macrophytes and planktonic algae). A comparison can
be made with modern temperate hard-water lakes from
the North-East United States (Dean, 1981). Alginite and
abundant leaf-derived macerals in H₁ are typical for a
subaquatic environment (Mandic et al., 2009). The in-
tercalation with limestones (FB) indicates a shallow
lacustrine environment. There, streams which were
draining a highly vegetated area, flowed into the lake
and transported allochthonous phytoclasts to the lake
basin. The reducing conditions needed for the preserva-
tion of organic matter were established throughout the
whole water body as a result of slow flowing streams and
*in situ* growth of plants (Alonso-Zarza & Calvo, 2000).

Through river input, leached nutrients from the
surrounding areas accumulated in the lake (sensu
Dean, 1981). With the increased organic productivity of
the lake, more organic debris either was incorporated in
the sediment or decayed, releasing additional nutrients for
organic growth.

Sedge peats around lake margins forming afterwards
provided a stable substrate for a succession of higher
plants and deposition of the topmost coal bed (H₂ fa-
cies). The transition from sedge peat (H₁) to forest swamp
peat (H₂) was followed by evident replacement of lipid-
rich, algal organic matter with herbaceous humic-rich

allochthonous phytoclasts from aquatic and forest vege-
tation (Dean, 1981). This high amount of allochthonous
phytoclasts entering the lake from dominantly thermo-
philous flora suggests a warm, quite wet, subtropical cli-
mate during coal deposition that was probably related
to the Miocene Climatic Optimum (Zachos et al., 2001;
Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008; de Leeuw et al., 2010; Brlek
et al., 2021).

5 | DISCUSSION

5.1 | Origin of carbonates and evolution of the lake based on the vertical and lateral succession of facies and palaeogeography

The Sinj Basin with its 514 m thick lacustrine sediment infill (Lučane and Glavice sections, **Figure 4**), deposited from *ca* 17.6 to 15.0 Ma (Early-Middle Miocene). It provides a continuous record of a complete shallowing upwards carbonate sequence that was dated by magnetostratigraphy and radioisotopic dating of tuff layers (de Leeuw et al., 2010; Brlek et al. 2021, 2023). The sequence starts with a tuff layer (FE) overlain with sublittoral calcisiltites (FC), and ends with a 4 m thick peat coal (FH₂). The lower part of the sequence (Unit 1) is composed of mostly sublittoral carbonates (FA and FC) with subordinate shallow bench platform carbonates (FB). The middle part (Unit 2) consists mostly of shallow bench platform carbonates (FB), with rare intercalations of sublittoral calcisiltites (FC). In the upper part of the sequence (Unit 3) there is an intercalation of shallow bench platform carbonates (FB) with coal layers (FH) that reveals that sedge and swamp peat terminated deposition in the basin. Locally, the lake was affected by coarse-grained deposition (FE and FG) probably generated by short and discontinuous tectonic activity that caused uplift of lake margin blocks and their erosion (Figure 4).

Most of the time carbonate sedimentation was re-
stricted to a prograding carbonate bench on a gently in-
clined lake margin. Limestone facies comprise 98% of
the infill with carbonate deposition mostly in the form
of mud-sized to silt-sized material with minor clayey
siliciclastic influx, so the question of the origin of the
carbonates arises. Concerning the lithological charac-
teristic of the Sinj Basin basement, it can be presumed
that water saturated with calcium carbonate entered the
lake through numerous streams and springs that were
fed by groundwater percolating through AdCP marine
karstified carbonate bedrock (Kaufmann et al., 2001;
Zupan Hajna et al., 2019). Calcium ions probably de-
rive from river or groundwater leaching of bedrock
carbonates, whereas carbonate ions can be derived from direct atmospheric equilibrium, respiration or bacterial reduction of organic matter. In such hard-water lakes, carbonate production also originates from extracellular CaCO₃ precipitation on charophytes, chlorophytes and other benthic, littoral or free-floating macrophyte flora, due to photosynthesis (Kelts & Hsü, 1978). Freshwater reefs (phytoherms) forming in springs and subaqueous seeps that are common along such lake's margins might represent an additional source of carbonates (Liutkus et al., 2010; Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2010) although they were not found in the Sinj Basin deposits. Much of the littoral zone might have been rimmed with overhanging algal freshwater reefs (sensu Dean & Egglestone, 1975; Egglestone & Dean, 1976) that were possibly eroded, thus not preserved in the section. Contributions from physiochemical precipitation of fine-grained calcite in the epilimnion must also be mentioned. Carbonate sedimentation in hard-water lakes is to a minor degree enhanced by carbonate precipitation of shelly invertebrate fauna (Kelts & Hsü, 1978; Dean, 1981). Aquatic meadows of macrophytes (*Chara, Damasonium*) and cyanobacterial mats growing on an undisturbed, clear, oxygenated flat landward bench platform probably represent the main carbonate 'factory' of the lake. Macrophytes dominated by characeans and their photosynthetic activity represent one of the main mechanisms involved in the precipitation of calcium carbonate in the littoral zone of clear, alkaline freshwater lakes (Tucker & Wright, 1990; Pentecost, 2009; Pelechaty et al., 2013, and references therein; Valero-Garcés et al., 2014). These meadows flourish on sites with various depths, but usually less than 10 m (Cohen & Thouin, 1987). Additionally, calcified parts of charophytes, both encrustations and gyrogonites, may have a significant contribution to carbonate accumulation in lakes. Encrustations that occur on charophyte stems fall apart after algae death and constitute a fine-grained carbonate fraction of the lacustrine sediment (Anadón et al., 2000). Gyrogonites can be found more frequently because of their higher preservation potential. Sediment-laden density currents, debris flows and hyperconcentrated gravelly turbidity currents were the main mechanisms in redistributing sediments and transport of material to relatively deeper parts of lake. This mechanism is referred to as 'sediment focussing' (Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2010). Such major mechanisms of carbonate transport in the lake could be closely associated with the fluvial system (Bohacs et al., 2000) as indicated by gastropods *Theodoxus* and *Melanopsis* that frequently colonise river mouths. There is another, important way of accumulating carbonate material in lakes. It can precipitate from whitings, drifting milky clouds of water, which contain

suspended carbonates originating from direct chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate by both physical and chemical factors (Effler, 1987; Thompson et al., 1997; Hodell & Schelske, 1998; Hodell et al., 1998; Sondi & Juračić, 2009; Ruiz et al., 2020).

Currents transported carbonates to the basinward part of the bench platform. The bench platform and the gently inclined slope were major depositional environments recorded on logs from the Lučane and Glavice composite sections as indicated by the prevalence of lacustrine shallow-water deposits (FB) (Figure 4). Profound basinal micrites (FA) that occur only in Unit 1, define the initial/incipient stage of filling of a relatively deeper basin. With the progradation of the bench platform, the basinal (distal) carbonates were covered with gently inclined bench slope deposits (FB) (sensu Calvo et al., 2000) which dominate the Unit 2 (Figure 12A).

The deposition of FA and FB was occasionally interrupted by deposition of calcisiltites (FC) (Figure 12B), suggesting some temporary influence of sediment-laden density currents. The encrusted lake vegetation and the carbonates formed by pedogenesis (Freytet & Plaziat, 1982; Platt, 1989; Alonso-Zarza, 2003) that probably existed around the margin of the lake might have become the major source area for penecontemporaneous detrital sparitic carbonate grains from FC. Possible periods of catastrophic flooding could cause erosion of the marginal carbonates, that is palustrine carbonates, and deposition from non-channelised flows (FC) (Sáez et al., 2007; Jiang et al., 2007). Longer periods of pedogenesis of the lacustrine carbonate might have preceded subsequent re-working (sensu Alonso-Zarza & Wright, 2010). So, the existence of the palustrine carbonate deposits were assumed indirectly by the record of such flooding events. At the same time the flooding events indicate possible temperate climate during Unit 1 (Platt & Wright, 1991), where the intercalation of FB (especially alternation of B1 and B2) and FC reflects lake-level fluctuations probably due to alternating wet and dry periods (Figure 12B,C). Prevalence of the shallow bench platform charophytic micritic limestone (FB) indicates a relatively stable lake level and climate during deposition of Unit 2 and the lower part of Unit 3.

Intercalation of bench platform FC with coal seams (FH) marks the middle and the upper part of Unit 3 (Figure 12C) indicating progressive shallowing of the lake. Due to the water-level fall, possibly accompanied by short tectonic activity, debris flows reached the littoral lake that resulted in coarse-grained deposition (FG). Coals of FH were formed in the shallow lake where reducing conditions prevailed due to the intense accumulation of organic matter (Figure 12D). Reducing conditions needed for the preservation of organic matter
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

FIGURE 12 Depositional model of the lacustrine Sinj Basin. (A) The lake margin is characterised by a carbonate bench composed of charophytic micritic limestone (FB), and coquinas (FD), while in the basinal part of the lake calcareous mudstone (FA) and calcisiltite (FC) accumulate. (B) Low-density turbidity currents supply the basinward part of the bench and the basin with carbonate silt (FC). Deposition of the fine-grained material was rarely interrupted by coarse-grained deposition (FF and FG). (C) The bench progrades over basinal deposits. (D) Lake shallows and bench extends towards the basin. Coal (FH) forms in shallow lake. (E) Transition from the sedge peat to fen forest peat as the final stage of the lake.

could be established throughout the whole water body as a result of slow flowing streams and *in situ* growth of plants. Nevertheless, temporarily oxidising conditions prevailed in the shallow-water column as indicated by

the presence of gastropod coquina layers associated with the coal layers (Alonso-Zarza & Calvo, 2000). Furthermore, leached nutrients introduced from the surrounding areas by river input accumulated in the
lake. The organic productivity of the lake gradually increased and more organic debris was either incorporated in the sediment or decayed, releasing additional nutrients for organic growth. As the lake became shallower, the littoral zone of rooted aquatic vegetation extended, and a floating mat of sedges began to grow outward into the lake. Sedge peat forming around the lake margins then provided a stable substrate for a succession of higher plants, and culminated in a long-lived fen or bog-forest community. The transition from sedge peat to fen forest peat represents the final stage in the evolution of Lake Sinj, evident as 4 m of coal (Facies H₂) in the topmost part of the stratigraphy (Figure 12E). Such large amounts of organic matter derived from the assumed surrounding palustrine environment, together with pollen data analysis (Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008), indicate a generally sub-humid climate during deposition (Platt & Wright, 1992).

The depositional characteristics of the lake enabled its general palaeogeographical reconstruction. The lacustrine basin position was influenced by the basement Permo-Triassic clastic and evaporitic rocks, together with the surrounding Mesozoic to early Cenozoic carbonates from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform (AdCP). The lake coastal belt was mostly of low topography as indicated by a general lack of coarse-grained deposits. Short tectonic impulses probably triggered tectonic uplift of the coast that generated conglomerate and breccia lenses in the shallow lake in the early and late stage of its evolution.

The lake was relatively shallow as indicated by prevalence of shallow-water carbonates. Although Unit 1 is characterised by sublittoral fine-grained carbonates, the lake was not very deep as indicated by *in situ Chara* stems and root traces (Figure 6F) from scarce subaqueous vegetation (i.e. Pentecost, 2009). The lack of wave reworking of the observed littoral deposits strengthens the idea that there was no deepwater area in the lake, even though the wave base in lakes is commonly shallower than in marine systems because of reduced fetch (Wright, 2020). So, the lake was more or less shallow throughout its evolution, mostly fed by an influx of water, probably as run off and groundwater, as the lake was situated in a karstic region. That indicates that climate must have had strong controls on lake evolution, as concluded in previous studies (Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008; Mandic et al., 2009; de Leeuw et al., 2010).

## 5.2 | Type of lacustrine basin

In the geotectonic sense, the Miocene lacustrine Sinj Basin has been interpreted as one of the Dinarides'

pull-apart basins whose evolution was strongly controlled by synsedimentary strike-slip tectonics, primarily based on its modern rhomboidal shape (Tari, 2002). This conclusion was supported by Mandic et al. (2009) based on a study of the upper part of the basin infill. However, the original configuration of the basin has since been strongly deformed due to post-depositional compressional tectonics as indicated by folding and faulting that turned some layers into a vertical position, and formed tectonic breccia from the lacustrine limestones (Papeš et al., 1982; Šušnjara & Sakač, 1988). Additionally, a palaeomagnetic study on a number of sections in the Miocene Sinj Basin indicated minor post-depositional counterclockwise rotation (Márton et al., 2016). Moreover, the depositional style of the Miocene lacustrine sediments does not provide evidence for synsedimentary tectonics. Deposition was characterised by long-lived, monotonous, mostly low-rate carbonate accumulation and a relative balance between sedimentation and subsidence (de Leeuw et al., 2010). That indicates that dramatic subsidence did not exceed sedimentation, as it is characteristic of extensional lacustrine basins where tectonic deepening is a common process (Platt & Wright, 1992; Pavelić et al., 2024). Another important characteristic of such basins are coarse-grained basin margin sequences characterised by high alluvial supply related to the activity of marginal faults (Andrić et al., 2017). Alluvial fans prograde from the fault escarpments into the lake and form coastal, coarse-grained deltas which can also affect the distal lake and even the central basinal area where prodelta clastics accumulate together with lacustrine deposits (Crowell, 1974; McLaughlin & Nielsen, 1982; Dunne & Hempton, 1984; Blair & Bilodeau, 1988; Massari & Colella, 1988; Ryang & Chung, 1999; Leeder, 2011; Pla-Pueyo et al., 2009, 2015). The final result is the organisation of facies into marginal coarse-grained sediments and central lacustrine deposits, high rates of sedimentation, asymmetric sedimentary sequences and facies patterns, abrupt lateral and vertical facies changes and thickness variations (Hempton & Dunne, 1984). However, that is not the case with the Miocene Sinj Basin where the whole sequence is characterised by slow subsidence and shallow-water carbonate deposition across the whole lake that was starved of coarse-grained clastic input. Moreover, the central basinal part was temporarily characterised by shallow-water carbonate deposition (Unit 1 and 2, section Šolto, Figure 4). Sporadic short tectonic impulses are reflected only by the very rare occurrence of conglomerates and breccia (FF) that are intercalated with shallow-water lacustrine limestones (Figure 4). Therefore, the genesis of the Sinj Basin requires alternative interpretation of allogenic controls.

The Sinj Basin is related to a NW-SE striking zone of Permo-Triassic gypsum and anhydrites within the
karst that are unconformably overlain by the Miocene lacustrine deposits. In the central part of the basin, the Permo-Triassic evaporites composed of anhydrite and gypsum form domes produced by diapirism. The contact between the Permo-Triassic evaporites and the Miocene lacustrine deposits is transgressive but also characterised by fault zones produced by diapirism (Papeš et al., 1982). Evaporites easily and quickly dissolve in water. In the karst region, water can supply basins via run off but also via groundwater. As the emersion between the Late Eocene marine deposition and the Early Miocene when the Sinj Basin lake started to form lasted ca 15 Myr the process of karstification of the Mesozoic and Palaeogene carbonate rocks had enough time to form pathways for run off and groundwater flow. In that way, subsidence which allowed the accumulation of over 500m of sediment in the Sinj Basin might be triggered by dissolution of the Permo-Triassic evaporites that formed a depression within the karst when supplied by run off and groundwater. As the climate was generally wet during lake evolution (Jiménez-Moreno et al., 2008; de Leeuw et al., 2010; Brlek et al., 2021), the main allogenic controls were established. Moreover, there is another geomorphological process that could contribute to the formation of the Sinj Basin. In karst regions, the accelerated dissolution of evaporites can cause land subsidence but also the breakdown and collapse of overlying Mesozoic and Palaeogene carbonate rocks, and coalescence of contiguous sinkholes. Some modern lakes that are related to evaporites in Alpine and Mediterranean regions have been interpreted to have formed this way (Alagöz, 1967; Julià, 1980; Pulido-Bosch, 1989; Nicod, 1993, 1999, 2006; Klimchouk, 1996, 2002; Sadori & Narcisi, 2001; Morellón et al., 2009; Valero-Garcés et al., 2014). So, the Miocene lacustrine Sinj Basin, which is characterised by mostly shallow-water carbonates, could be generated by dissolution of the underlying Permo-Triassic evaporites that caused land subsidence and collapse of overlying Mesozoic and Palaeogene carbonate rocks in a period of generally wet climate.

If we zoom out to the wider Dinarides Lake System we see a strong relationship with their deposits and the composition of the underlying bedrock. The Sinj Basin and the Livno Basin (de Leeuw et al., 2012), which formed in the karst region, are mostly composed of carbonates (External Dinarides or Karst Dinarides), specifically limestones. The Sarajevo, Bugojno and Banovići basins, located in the area of the Internal Dinarides have more diverse underlying bedrock, including various types of siliciclastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks, magmatic rocks and metamorphic rocks, so they show less carbonate in their lacustrine sequences and more siliciclastics (Sant et al., 2018; de Leeuw et al., 2011b; Mandic et al., 2020). That indicates that the regional lithological composition of the basement

controls sedimentation together with autochthonous carbonate production in the lakes of the DLS, that is the karst lakes are strongly dominated by carbonates while the non-karst lakes are characterised by mixed carbonate-siliciclastic deposits.

## 6 | CONCLUSION

Deposits of the Miocene Lake Sinj, which belonged to the Miocene Dinarides Lake System, form a 514m thick succession that is mostly composed of various types of carbonates. Tuff/clays, conglomerate, breccia and coal are sporadically intercalated with the carbonates. The low-rate carbonate deposition, that was in balance with subsidence, was most of the time restricted to a prograding carbonate bench on a gently inclined lake margin showing a shallowing upwards tendency. Sediment-laden density currents, debris flows and hyperconcentrated gravelly turbidity currents were the main mechanisms redistributing sediments and transporting material to deeper parts of the lake. The final stage of the long-lived lake was characterised by coal deposition, totalling 4m in thickness, which displays a transition from sedge peat to fen forest. The deposition of the succession was controlled by a warm and generally wet climate, and only sporadic short tectonic impulses.

The origin of the 500m thick accumulation of carbonates was probably related to water saturated with calcium carbonate that entered the lake through numerous streams and springs that were fed by groundwater percolating through the bedrock that consists of karstified marine carbonates of the Mesozoic Adriatic Carbonate Platform. Calcium ions probably derived from river or groundwater leaching of bedrock carbonates, whereas carbonate ions could be derived from direct atmospheric equilibrium, respiration or bacterial reduction of organic matter. The carbonate production could also originate from extracellular CaCO₃ precipitation on chlophytes, chlorophytes and other benthic, littoral or free-floating macrophyte flora, due to photosynthesis. Freshwater reefs forming on springs and subaqueous seeps might represent additional source of carbonates although these were not observed. Aquatic meadows of macrophytes and cyanobacterial mats growing on undis turbed, clear, oxygenated flat landward bench platform probably represented the main carbonate ‘factory’ of the lake. Another, important way of accumulating carbonate material in the lake might be precipitation from whitings, drifting milky clouds of water, which contain suspended carbonates originating from direct chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate by both physical and chemical factors.
The formation of the Sinj Basin and its Miocene long-lived lake might have been triggered by dissolution of the Permo-Triassic evaporites of the basement, which consequently formed a depression within the karst supplied by runoff and groundwater. The accelerated dissolution of evaporites could have caused land subsidence but also breakdown and collapse of the overlying Mesozoic and Palaeogene carbonate rocks, and coalescence of contiguous sinkholes. The non-tectonic interpretation of the basin genesis is in contrast to previous considerations that the Sinj Basin evolution was controlled by strike-slip or extensional tectonics.

## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The study was funded by the Republic of Croatia, Ministry of Science and Education Project: 'Neogene terrestrial environments of the Pannonian Basin and karst region' no. 195-1951293-2703, and the Austrian FWF Project P18519-B17: 'Mollusk Evolution of the Neogene Dinaride Lake System'. Publication process is supported by the Development Fund of the Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb.

## DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

## ORCID

Davor Pavelić https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2697-448X

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**How to cite this article:** Vranjković, A., Gierlowski-Kordesch, E., de Leeuw, A., Mandic, O., Aljinović, D., Dragičević, I. et al. (2024) Sedimentology and palaeoenvironmental analysis of a karstic shallow carbonate lake (Early-Middle Miocene, Sinj Basin, Croatia). *The Depositional Record*, 00, 1–26. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/dep.2.292