(β=-6.32, p=0.002) both having substantial negative impacts. This translates to a decrease in rental income, which in turn lowers the total future cash flow from properties. In addition to the direct reduction in rental income, properties in high-risk areas are more likely to experience higher vacancy rates, which further exacerbates the decline in cash flow over time. Furthermore, these properties become less attractive to investors due to the perceived risks and lower returns, decreasing market demand and investment appeal, which further diminishes the long-term cash flow potential. Therefore, properties in the Control Area, which do not experience these risk factors, maintain higher rental values and consistent cash flow, suggesting that properties free from high risks and excessive maintenance costs are better positioned to generate sustainable future income. This analysis explains the critical importance of mitigating risk factors and maintaining properties effectively to preserve rental value and secure long-term cash flow. The findings underline the potential challenges faced by property owners in high-risk areas, emphasizing the need for strategies to address risk and maintenance issues to safeguard the future financial performance of their properties.

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Chapter Fifteen

Evaluating the Economic Implications of Local Content in Nigeria's Sustainable Housing Development Mantra: A Cost-Benefit Approach

Agwu Kenneth<fnref n="1" />; Okechukwu Kelechi<fnref n="2" />; Ogburie, Ibezimako Godfrey<fnref n="2" />; Abanobi, Chinwe O.<fnref n="1" />

Email: agwukenneth41@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

This paper sets out to evaluate the economic implications of local contents in Nigeria’s sustainable housing development mantra: a cost-benefit approach. It notes that there is a big issue of housing affordability in Nigeria due largely to the rising cost of housing construction and the cost of building materials that have remained on the rise. The issue of housing accessibility is also of great concern in Nigeria. It is suggested that over reliance on foreign building materials, manpower, methods and equipment contributes to the high cost of construction in the country. The paper considered the cost-effectiveness of incorporating local content in sustainable housing development in Nigeria. It adopts a deskwork research approach; relying on secondary data to reach its conclusion. It also explores the cost-benefit of adopting local content policies in sustainable housing development and concludes that the benefits of adopting local content policies in sustainable housing development in Nigeria are many. The paper opines that the costs involved in implementing local content policies are surmountable thereby encouraging the implementation of such a policy in the country. The economic implications for adopting this policy are found to be job creation opportunities, economic diversification, cost saving, increased local investment, and reduction in poverty among others. It recommends a people-minded political leadership for the country; leadership that could be innovative enough to consider the people’s welfare as prime. Such leadership will consider various ways of making life easier and cheaper for the citizenry.

KEYWORDS: Economic Implications, Local Content, Sustainability, Housing Development, Cost-Benefit.

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

The mantra of sustainable housing development has been there since the turn of the ongoing millennium. Housing is one of man's basic needs aside from food and clothing. This basic need has often been seen as inadequate and so it is often unaffordable because of the ever-increasing population of the urban centres across the country. Many researchers have written articles on different areas of housing need and housing shortage in Nigeria and suffice it to say that governments' responses to the problem have hardly been enough.

According to NBS (2022), “the term ‘sustainable housing’ is generally used to describe sustainable development as it applies to the housing industry, incorporating:

i. Creating less waste (not just through surplus materials but through optimal use of land and time, including minimizing impacts on local biodiversity).

ii. Providing opportunities for increased materials reuse and recycling.

iii. Focusing on refurbishing older assets and repurposing already-existing buildings as fresh housing stock.

iv. Taking advantage of renewable energy sources, including natural site features (natural ventilation, lighting, etc).

v. Lowering lifecycle environmental impacts and costs.

vi. Improving reliability, lowering maintenance needs and costs, and creating greater user satisfaction.”

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Building Technology, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria</footnote>
Sustainable housing refers to homes and buildings that are designed, constructed, and operated in a way that minimizes their environmental impact and promotes social and economic sustainability. Sustainable housing development is the key to unlocking the potential in the sub-sector. According to The Sweaty Penguin (2022), "For many people, sustainable housing brings to mind futuristic buildings that look like a spaceship, with zero-water-pressure shower heads and toilets. In reality, sustainable houses can offer carbon emission cuts, water conservation, and long-term cost savings while looking quite normal. Local content in the context of this study considers local input resources that could enable a reduction in the cost of materials and human resources costs. Studies have also shown that most of the housing resource inputs are either foreign or a conversion of the local materials into modern form, to take the cost out of the reach of the low-income earners. Okwaraeesu (2024) listed the local building materials including: mud, timber, straw, stone, bricks, slate, lead, stucco, grass, and bamboo. Nnadi and Egeonu (2023) added cow dung to the list as shown above. It is noteworthy that local content might include materials (using locally sourced building materials like cement, steel and wood), labour (using local workers, contractors, and construction companies), services (using local architects, engineers, and project managers), technology (using local technology and innovation in construction and design), and supply chain (supporting local suppliers and manufacturers of construction materials and services)."

Local content projects in sustainable housing development may have some far-reaching economic, social and environmental implications. That's why this study is apt. It considers the costs involved in the local content experiment and measures it against the benefits thereof.

## Statement of the Problem

Costs involved in constructing houses have risen and are still rising in Nigeria. The housing input resources like the intellectual know-how (manpower), the materials and the site for construction have all gone beyond the reach of the average Nigerian. This development negatively affects the sustainable housing development mantra of the various governments in Nigeria. Private housing estate development has increasingly become the norm as a result of the government's inability to provide adequate and affordable housing for the vast majority of Nigerians. Individual housing development has hardly been easy to achieve these days. This is one reason why abandoned (incomplete) housing projects litter every corner of our cities and towns.

The situation is made worse by the poor perception of an average Nigerian of the local content materials within the country. The multiplier effect of this is the acute shortage of housing accommodation (housing deficit), adoption of inferior building materials, regular but costly cosmetic architecture (the practice of designing or altering buildings or structures primarily for aesthetic purposes rather than focusing on functional or structural integrity), building failures/collapse, unemployment for the local professionals, under-utilization of natural resources and indeed crippling of the local building materials industries.

## Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main thrust of this paper therefore is to evaluate the economic implications of local contents in Nigeria's sustainable development housing development mantra, given the high cost of building materials and construction in the country, this will enable some relevant recommendations made out of it. The following are the objectives of the study;

i. Asses the economic implications of local content in the sustainable housing development mantra in Nigeria,

ii. Evaluate the cost-effectiveness of incorporating local content in sustainable housing development in Nigeria,

iii. Investigate the impact of local content on the affordability and accessibility of sustainable housing in Nigeria,

iv. Identify strategies for optimizing local content in sustainable housing development in Nigeria,

v. Provide policy recommendations for promoting local content in Nigeria's sustainable housing development mantra.
# REVIEW OF LITERATURE

## Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on two theories- local content theory and sustainable development theory.

### Local Content Theory

This refers to indigenous resources, skills, traits and capacities including natural endowments of people in a particular area (IGI Global, 2024). Local content, according to NRGI Reader (2015), "is the value that an extraction project brings to the local, regional or national economy beyond the resource revenues". Local content theory suggests that the use of local content in economic development projects can lead to economic growth, job creation, and improved livelihoods. According to Kazzazi and Nouri (2012), "local content should be defined in terms of value addition in the local country (by local staff, local materials, local services and facilities) rather than in terms of ownership of the company performing the value-added activities."

In the context of this study, this theory is leveraged to look at its economic benefits, the cost implications of its implementation, its impact on affordability and accessibility to sustainable housing development, its potential economic gains, strategies and policy recommendations.

### Sustainable Development Theory

Sustainability is a term that was coined in a way back in 1987 in the Brundtland Report (Chang, Zuo, Zhao and Zillante, 2017) the Brundtland Report defines sustainable development as;

> development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs...A process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development and institutional change are all harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations (Omaka, 2012 pp.108).

Sustainable development is an approach to growth and human development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, even in housing development. This is why it is pertinent in this particular study. Three core elements are cardinal for the achievement of the sustainable development mantra- economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection (United Nations, 2023). By and large, this theoretical framework emphasizes the importance of balancing economic, social and environmental considerations in development projects. How local content will help to achieve these three considerations and achieve affordable and accessible housing is the crux of this study.

### Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a systematic process used to compare the advantages (benefits) and disadvantages (costs) of a decision, project, or policy. It is a crucial tool for evaluating the economic viability and feasibility of a project or investment. According to Evans and Evans (2007), cost-benefit analysis is "a decision-making tool that evaluates all the hard-dollar and economic consequence costs associated with pursuing a course of conduct against all the hard-dollar and economic consequence benefits reasonably to be expected from that decision, and comparing the two to see if they make economic sense".

According to Ogunba and Ajayi (2018), "the CBA idea originated with Jules Dupuit (a French Engineer) in 1848 and was later formalized in the UK by Alfred Marshall. In the US, the impetus for the use of CBA came as a result of the Federal Navigation Act of 1936, which required that the US corps of Engineers carry out projects for the improvement of waterway systems when the total benefits of projects exceeded the project costs". Ogbonna and Sam-Otuonye (2023) gave credence to the above submission when they noted that "cost-benefit in project appraisals was born out of the problems and
was mainly employed in the United States of America (USA) in multi-purpose water project. Recently, CBA has been extensively employed by appraisers and planners to solve land-use planning problems". According to Opara (n.d) "cost-benefit analysis involves a comprehensive monetary evaluation of benefits and costs including those which are non-market or whose market price doesn't accurately reflect true economic value".

In the context of this study, CBA will help to;

i. identify the cost associated with implementing local content policies in Nigeria

ii. quantify the benefits of local content policies in Nigeria

iii. evaluate the effectiveness of local content of local content policies in achieving sustainable housing development goals.

iv. compare the costs and benefits of different local content strategies or scenarios

v. inform policy decisions and recommendations for improving local content policies.

## Case Studies of Sustainable Housing Projects in Nigeria

The following are case studies of sustainable housing projects in Nigeria;

i. Compressed Stabilized Laterite Bricks (CSLBs). This project uses indigenous building materials to promote sustainable housing development. CSLBs are made from laterite soil, which is abundant in Nigeria and can be used to construct buildings that are resistant to weathering, erosion, and insect damage (Alagbe, 2011).

ii. Earth Construction Techniques (ECT). This project aims to promote the use of earth as a building material in Nigeria. The ECT involves the use of earth to construct buildings that are durable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly (Bobbo, Ali, Garba and Salisu, 2015).

iii. Sandbag Technology. This project uses sandbags as a building material to construct sustainable and affordable housing. The sandbags are made from natural materials and can be used to construct buildings that are resistant to natural disasters (Windapo, Adetooto, Pomponi and Emuze, 2022).

iv. Hydra form. This project uses a locally engineered technology to construct sustainable and affordable housing. The Hydra form technology uses a combination of soil and cement to construct buildings that are durable and environmentally friendly (Oyebisi, Ede, Afolayan and Oladeji, 2021).

v. Compressed Earth Brick (CEB)
This project promotes the use of compressed earth bricks as sustainable wall material in Nigeria. The CEB is made from a mixture of soil, sand, and cement, and can be used to construct buildings that are durable and environmentally friendly (Obaje, Ciroma, and Obaje, 2022; Iwuagwu and Iwuagwu, 2015).

## Thematic Analysis

### Cost Associated with Implementing Local Content Policies in Nigeria

Okwaraejesu (2024), attempted a comparative analysis of the cost of erecting a simple building of three rooms built with modern materials and another built with local materials (local content) and showed clearly that it is much cheaper to use local building materials to build than the modern (foreign) building materials.

In the same vein, it has been noted that "the implementation of local content policies in Nigeria has revamped Indigenous participation in oil and gas to a remarkable degree. There remain, however, several difficulties. Adequate funding, effective expansion and linkage with other sectors are necessary for local content and aggregate economic development" (Nwaeze, 2022). The housing sector is among the other sectors referred to in this instance. Various costs can be incurred while local content is implemented as exemplified above. Among such costs are;

i. Training and capacity-building costs – upgrading local skills and expertise to meet industry standards. This is currently the case with the present-day training programme of the Federal
Government called Project T-Max; a technical and vocational education and training (TVET) framework/programme that aims to equip Nigerians with technical and vocational skills.

ii. Infrastructure development costs - building or upgrading facilities, equipment, and transportation networks. This is common with urban renewal programmes as has been witnessed in all the states of the federation in recent years.

iii. Technology acquisition costs – purchasing or licensing technology to enhance local production. States have also witnessed this kind of cost as they revolutionize their local economies.

iv. Certification and Compliance costs – ensuring local products meet international and national standards and regulations. This is done in Nigeria by the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON).

v. Supply chain development costs – establishing reliable local supply chains for materials and services.

vi. Marketing and promotion costs – promoting local products and services to attract customers.

vii. Regulatory and administrative costs – establishing and enforcing local content regulations.

viii. Research and development costs – developing new products and processes to meet local content requirements.

ix. Initial investment costs – starting or expanding local businesses to meet local content demands.

x. Potential opportunity costs – diverting resources from other economic activities to support local content initiatives.

## Cost Effectiveness of Incorporating Local Content in Sustainable Housing Development in Nigeria

In a study by Nnadi and Egeonu (2023), they averred that “there are abundant local building materials to reduce housing problems but they remain under-developed and hence socially unacceptable”. They held that “…a shift to the usage of locally produced materials will result in a possible reduction in building construction cost in Nigeria”. As noted by Okwaraeesu (2024), “As traditional (local) materials (which have been classified as green materials) are being used, we invariably are reducing the cost by more than half. In effect, the cost of housing will be stabilized…” In the views of Adeoye (2024) cited Ihechu (2024), “we must also embrace sustainable practice by promoting and adopting sustainable construction methods that utilize local resources efficiently and as such contribute to cost reduction and environmental benefits”.

Incorporating local content in sustainable housing development in Nigeria can reduce import costs, lowering transportation costs, increase local economic activities, improve resource utilization, cultural relevance and acceptance, reduce maintenance costs, government incentives (like tax breaks or subsidies), and skills development among several benefits.

## Impact of Local Content on the Affordability and Accessibility of Sustainable Housing in Nigeria

Local content has both positive and negative impacts on the affordability and accessibility of sustainable housing in Nigeria. Among the positive impacts are;

i. reduced construction costs

ii. increased accessibility through the availability of sustainable housing options

iii. job creation by stimulating the local economies.

iv. cultural relevance made possible by local content creations.

v. improved maintenance using locally available materials and expertise.

The negative impacts include;

i. limited availability of the local materials

ii. higher upfront costs required for training and capacity building

iii. quality concerns as they may not meet international quality standards or benchmarks.
iv. dependence on local economies that are rarely reliable.

Iwuagwu and Iwuagwu (2015) put it succinctly thus,

> "use of local materials and building methods will cut costs to its barest minimum. The impact of green technology on the state of economy observed from the standpoints of cost saving/effectiveness is immense... Maintenance cost and general bills are minimized. Percentage of house ownership will increase... Entrepreneurship and multiple employments will result as well as improvements of occupational and institutional productivity, while poverty alleviation is enhanced"

They also averred that

> "...would lead to an improvement in the overall quality of life... It is an added value for the cultural system as people become proud of their culture". It is their view that "locally produced building materials and intermediate technology...can reduce construction cost by about 60 percent as an affordable strategy for construction of low-cost housing in Nigeria". Okwaraeesu (2024) concluded that "traditional building materials are good, safe, green, and above all very sustainable".

## Economic Implications of Local Content in Sustainable Housing Development in Nigeria

According to Ajanlekoko (2001), "influencing the construction of housing for all income groups require creative framework through – localized design and packaging as opposed to imported design". He opined further that "the use of local building materials and intermediate technology must be followed with the provision of other basic infrastructure like safe drinking water, roads, electricity supply and other social amenities especially to improve the quality, livability and attractiveness of low-cost housing".

The economic implications and benefits of local content in sustainable housing development in Nigeria are numerous, among them are;

i. Job creation. Local content policies can lead to the creation of jobs in the construction industry, stimulating economic growth.

ii. Economic diversification. By promoting local content, Nigeria can reduce its dependence on imported materials, fostering economic development.

iii. Cost savings. Using local materials can reduce construction costs, making housing more affordable.

iv. Increased local investment. Local content policies can attract local investors, boosting economic activity.

v. Improved balance of payments. By reducing imports, local content policies can improve Nigeria's balance of payments in international trade discussions.

vi. Stimulating local economies. Local content policies can stimulate local economies by promoting the use of local materials and services.

vii. Reducing poverty. By creating jobs and stimulating local economies, local content policies can help reduce poverty.

viii. Increased government revenue. Local content policies can generate revenue for government through taxes and levies.

ix. Improved housing affordability. Local content policies can make housing more affordable, thereby improving living standards.

x. Reducing environmental impact. Promoting local content can reduce the environmental impact of transportation and support sustainable development.

## Strategies for Optimizing Local Content in Sustainable Housing Development in Nigeria
Given the importance of local content in the sustainable housing development mantra in Nigeria, it is pertinent to adopt strategies for optimizing local content in sustainable housing development. The strategies are discussed below.

Many authorities (Okwaraeesu, 2024; Iwuagwu et al, 2015; Oyebisi et al, 2021) have advocated the use of local building materials for building in Nigeria. By promoting the use of local building materials like clay, sand and wood, the costs incurred in patronizing foreign materials is cut down.

Another strategy is to develop local supply chains. This will enable the establishment of a good relationship with local suppliers and manufacturers, so as to ease sourcing of local materials and products. A third strategy is to train the artisans and contractors. Capacity-building programs are essential in enhancing the skills of artisans for sustainable practices.

Fourthly, it is equally good to incorporate traditional Nigerian building techniques and designs that are adapted to the local climate and culture (Okwaraeesu, 2024). Fifthly, a thorough implementation of local content policies that specify minimum benchmarks/standards for local content inclusion in sustainable housing development projects will suffice.

Again, ensure the use of local labour in the local building industry. This will not only stimulate the local economies but also reduce costs. It is also a good thing to develop local sustainable building standards and codes that incorporate local conditions and sustainable practices. Adeyemi (2018), Ezigbo (2020) and National Building Code of Nigeria (2016) etc espoused the merits of optimization of local content in the Nigerian housing sector.

# CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

## Conclusion

This study evaluated the economic implications of local content in Nigeria's sustainable housing development mantra and considered the cost-benefit of adopting such a policy. The study identified many economic benefits for adopting the local content policy in Nigeria to include; job creation, economic diversification, cost savings, increased local investment, improved balance of payments, stimulating local economies, reducing poverty, increased government revenue, improved housing affordability and reducing environmental impact. It listed the costs associated with implementing local content policies in Nigeria. These costs include; training and capacity building costs, infrastructure development cost, technology acquisition cost, certification and compliance costs, supply chain development cost among others.

The paper submits that local content impacts on the affordability and accessibility of sustainable housing in Nigeria through reduction of construction costs, increased accessibility through the availability of sustainable housing options, creating jobs by stimulating the economies among others. The paper identified strategies for optimizing local content in sustainable housing development in Nigeria, one of which is promoting the use of local building materials for building in Nigeria thereby tapping into the local content and sustainable development theories.

## Recommendations

i. There should be a deliberate effort by the government to put up a very transparent and people-oriented/minded administration. Good governance makes leaders think outside the box to attract affordable and accessible housing development that is sustainable.

ii. A workable public-private-partnership (PPP) scheme in housing development is instructive to ensure sustainability in housing development using local methods, materials, machines, money and manpower. The focus of such PPP should be in the area of local content implementation in housing development.

iii. Training and re-training of core workers and experts in local building material use should be prioritized and encouraged.

iv. There is need to build on the findings of the National Research Institutes especially those that have to do with local content itemization for housing. Also, many scholars like Okwaraeesu (2024), Alagbe (2011), Obaje et al, (2022) and Iwuagwu et al, (2015) have done extensive works on this subject matter and so should be widely consulted for implementation.

v. There should be incentives given to home-based local building material manufacturers in terms of subsidies, tax holidays etc.

vi. There should be increased education/sensitization and advocacy on the use of local building materials and indeed local content in building. Concerted efforts to boost the use of local building materials and implement local content policies in the building sector of the country should be energized.
REFERENCES

Adeyemi, O.A. (2018). *The impact of local content on economic growth in Nigeria*. Retrieved online on the 12/08/2024.

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**Chapter Sixteen**

**Analysis of Factors influencing Rental Value of Shops in Plazas in Owerri Urban, Nigeria**

Sam-Otuonye Chika Clara; Idih Ukachukwu Michael

Department of Estate Management, Imo State University Owerri, Nigeria

EMAIL: honourcika@yahoo.com

**ABSTRACT**

This study investigates the critical factors that influence the rental value of shops in plazas in Owerri urban, Imo state. The recent development of plazas in Owerri urban has become an issue of great concern. This study aims to critically analyze the factors influencing the rental value of shops in plazas in Owerri urban, Imo state. The objectives are to: Identify the rents paid in plazas in Owerri urban, Imo state; establish the factors that influenced the rents paid in the plazas and assess the relative importance of the factors that influenced the rents paid. The survey approach was used through a questionnaire. A total of 10 plazas were studied in Owerri urban. 150 respondents participated in this study with a sample size drawn from Estate Surveyors and Valuers, landlords and occupiers. Data collected were presented using descriptive and inferential statistical tools such as tables. The Relative Importance Index was used to evaluate the factors that influenced rents paid in the shops located in the plazas. The result of the research indicates that “availability of electricity and water supply”; “parking lots/spaces” and “location about accessibility” had the highest Relative Importance (RI) at (1.000) in influencing the rental value of the shops in the plazas. The second significant factor was “age of the plaza” with Relative Importance (RI) at (0.994), while the third significant factor was the sanitary arrangements in the plazas with Relative Importance (RI) at (0.993). The study recommends among others, that investors in plazas in the study area should consider locations that can provide adequate “availability of electricity and water supply” adequate parking lots/spaces as well as accessibility in choosing sites for future plaza development for maximum returns.

KEYWORDS: Owerri Urban; Plaza; Rental Value; Shops

**INTRODUCTION**

Plazas have become veritable real property investment preferred by investors in recent times, due to high market demand for shops in plazas. Notably, commercial real property investment type has continued to take a high tolls as evident in the change of use from residential property to commercial uses as experienced in several urban centres in Nigeria and in Owerri urban in particular (Sam-Otuonye & Okereke, 2020). Mwamba and Qutieshat, (2021) observed the growth in shopping mall development in developed as well as developing nations, which has attracted international retail chains. Again in recent times, having shops within plazas has gained popularity through advancements in technology and other related factors. Fanning (2005) identified fifteen factors that are responsible for the physical attractiveness of shopping malls. These factors are as follows: building area; parking; frontage and visibility, site topography, utilities, landscaping, building design and layout, amenity features, store size, store width, store depth, signage, truck service facilities, tenant mix, marketing attribute, legal constraints and opportunities. The satisfaction of shoppers plays an all-important role in urban areas where there are numerous shops to patronize (Leo & Phillipe, 2002). In line with this submission, (Zuhri and Ghozali, 2020) view plazas otherwise referred to as shopping malls as commercial buildings that support shopping activities as well as the lifestyles of consumers, through the facilitation of their social, economic and recreational activities. Oluwunmi, Umeh and Role, (2022) identified that in developed and developing nations, such factors as income, location, accessibility and price are the most significant factors influencing mall patronage.

The high demand for shops situated in plazas in Owerri urban has resulted to the proliferation of more plazas in Owerri urban, Imo state. Observably in Owerri urban plaza development has taken a very high toll in recent times. These shopping plazas have all sorts of uses ranging from display of goods, clerical services, laundry services, beauty services and lots more. This development has also influenced the rise
in the rent of shops in the plazas in the study area. This study therefore aims to analyze the factors influencing the rental value of shops in plazas in Owerri urban, Imo state.

# LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

## Location Theory

Location theory is concerned with the geographic location of economic activities. It has become an integral part of economic geography, regional sciences and spatial economies. Location theory answers the questions of what economic activities are located where and why the location decisions for such activities were taken by investors. Location theory rests generally on the assumption that agents act in their interest (Beckmann, 1996). Von (1826) led early economists to describe idealized urban development in terms of concentric rings of relatively homogenous uses with progressive, less intensive land uses in the outer rings. The paper submitted that since transport cost and economic rent vary across different land uses and use intensities, will result in increased distance from the marketplace. Burgess (1925) developed the theory of concentric zones which was an application of Von's theory of land economics. Burgess's theory, known as the concentric theory of land use location, attempted to fit the concentric ring model to the pattern of development existing in Chicago. Based on the intensity of land use, Burgess argued that the central area will be dominated by financial firms and major retail stores. Outside the central zone will be found wholesale and light manufacturing businesses somewhat overlapping. The third zone occupies heavy manufacturing which needs ready access to transportation routes to the outside world. Outer rings would be reserved for residential uses, serving progressively wealthier users, as the distance from the centre increases.

i. The Central Business District (CBD): this theory assumes the existence of a single popular business district in any town, which is the focal point of the city usually centrally located. Hence, all other points depend on and move to this focal point for their business activities, work and so on. There is much dependence on this focal point for human activity and survival.

ii. The Transition Zone: otherwise known as the factory zone is characterized by business and factory encroachment from the inner ring. The areas not yet encroached is known to depict poverty with deteriorated properties.

iii. The Working-Class Housing Area: this provides a dwelling place for the factory workers who are within, easily commuting to the central business district which is their place of employment. It harbours low-income earners as rent is low within this area.

iv. Residential zone: these harbour dwelling accommodations for the high-income earners, located near the city outskirts, to avoid disturbance from the CBD through noise and pollution from vehicle movement and exhaust.

v. Commuter zone: the sub-urban region outside the urban centre.

The limitations of this concentric ring model are obvious as topography and specialized transportation corridors distort the circular pattern. Technology and lifestyle changes alter the relative intensity of land uses among various categories thereby varying competitive ability to bid for highly valued sites. Inner-circle users find their expansion needs frustrated by users in the next zone and are forced to leap-frog to areas beyond. Due to several criticisms of Burgess's concentric theory, the sector theory was developed by Hoyt (1939). Despite these limitations of the concentric location theory, it threw light on the sector theory by Hoyt. The core of sector theory rests on the pattern of residential land use as a form of web-shaped or star-like sector, which radiates to the city centre on known transportation routes. Hoyt considered the distance and direction element to throw more light on Burgess's concentric theory. This theory opines that low-income houses are located near industries for lower accessibility costs while the rich class live farther away since they can afford transportation costs. The sector theory provided explanations on land use structure and growth as it affects several cities but the theory is too mechanistic since urban land use patterns are affected by several factors that deviate from the sector theory. It postulated axial development in which the particular land use found in various sectors tended to expand outward along principal transportation routes and the lines of least resistance. This theory provides a logical explanation for string-street development and the tendency for commercial districts to expand along important districts and sometimes jump several blocks and then reappear along the same street. The criticisms of the sector theory gave rise to the multiple-nuclei theory by Harris and Ullman (1945).
which was based on the observation that frequently there are series of nuclei in the arrangement of urban
land-uses rather than the single centre core used in the other two theories. This nucleus theory developed
in the U.S.A. was based on the supposition that urban growth takes place around several district nuclei.
The proponents of this theory presented four factors that interplay to structure the pattern of the
emergence of separate **nuclei** in the urban land-use pattern:

i. The inter-relationship of some activities and the essence for close physical proximity to those which are complementary.

ii. Natural clustering or gathering of certain particular activities which find it mutually profitable to congregate.

iii. The appearance of centres to accommodate activities that may have no particular relationship with one another but which are inimical to other uses by the level of traffic **they** generate.

iv. High rent or high land cost which can attract or repel uses in the process of forming a nucleus.

The multi-nuclei theory of Harris and Ullman (1945) was developed in a bid to address the criticisms of the sector and concentric zones theories. Harris and Ullman believed that it was an oversimplification of reality to assume that cities were developed based on a single centre with sub-centres accommodating a wide range of functions. They assume that an urban area can have a major CBD while other emerging CBDs in the urban area can be attributed to the demand for product specialization and service delivery. This paper therefore is underpinned by location theories as presented.

## Conceptual Framework

The concept of shopping malls recently is rooted in the ancient marketplaces where people came together from various places to buy goods and services from traders, farmers and manufacturers. These ancient marketplaces were also places of interaction in terms of social, cultural and economic issues. Scholars have continued to research shopping malls which are synonymous with shopping plazas. Shopping malls have become significant centres for modern society in the areas of business, leisure, as well as education. Plaza plays an important role in defining urban mass composition (Hoseini, 2013). Over time, the plaza has evolved and has kept growing to keep up with the needs of the people. In Nigeria, Idoko and Nebo, (2017) discovered that the consumers' shopping decisions are motivated by social networking, role development, aesthetics and architectural design. Iroham, Akinwale, Peter, Oni, Okagbue, Emetere and Aibola (2020) argue that shopping mall patronage gives rise to higher rental value. Earlier studies on mall rent determination were (Troth, 1980; Fraser, 1988; Sirmans and Guidry, 1992 and Karytinos and Vlachostergiou, 2001) and more recent was Wickramanayake and Weerakoon, (2014). While in Nigeria Bello (2012) pioneered studies on shopping centre rents and found seven factors that influenced the rents in malls: age of mall, area of shop, location, vacancy of shop, gross turnover of sales, population of customers and retail mix were significant determinants of rents for shopping centres. Plazas are public squares, marketplaces, or similar open spaces in built-up areas. It also refers to a shopping centre where different shops have different goods and products occupied. These products could be tangible and intangible. There are several shopping plazas in Owerri Urban located in the municipality. Some factors affect the uses to which plazas are put. Below are some selected factors that can determine the uses to which plazas are put in any given location. They are: The plaza type; the location of the plaza in terms of accessibility; the type of occupiers; the lease terms; the location of the plaza to residential apartments; the location of the plaza to the central business district; the condition and sanitary arrangement of the plaza; available amenities such electricity and water supply; access at the rear of the buildings for deliveries.

## METHODOLOGY

The survey research design was adopted for this study. A survey research approach with the use of a study questionnaire was used as a means of data collection. The survey research approach was deemed appropriate for this study since it was successfully used by Effiong and Ogbuefi (2021) and Effiong and Iweh (2022) for a similar phenomenon. The study questionnaire used was of a close-ended nature. The stratified sampling technique was adopted by dividing Owerri Urban into three strata in the selection of the ten (10) plazas studied. A total of 150 respondents participated in this study with sample size drawn from Estate Surveyors and Valuers, Landlords/Managers and Occupiers. The respondents were chosen
based on the fact that they were knowledgeable on the subject matter. Descriptive statistical tools such as tables were used in the presentation of data. The identified factors influencing the rental value of shops in plazas in the study area were analyzed using the Relative Importance Index, to determine the factor that most importantly influenced the rents paid.

## RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Ten plazas were identified and studied as obtained from each stratum in Owerri urban. The number of shops in each plaza was also presented. The uses to which the shops are put in the different plazas were presented. The amount paid for such shops per annum are also presented in table 4.1 as shown.

<table><caption>Table 4.1: Identified Plazas, Locations, Number of Shops, Uses and Amount paid per annum in Owerri Urban, Imo state</caption><thead><tr><td>S/N</td><td>Name of Plaza</td><td>Location in Owerri Urban, Imo State</td><td>Number of Shops</td><td>Uses of Spaces in the Plazas</td><td>Amount paid per Annum</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Graylite Plaza</td><td>Plot 899 & 900 Area L, World Bank housing estate</td><td>8</td><td>CSC furniture house, Charity sharwama spot</td><td>Double shop: ₦3.5m<br>Single shop: ₦2.5m</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>London Plaza</td><td>Plot 284 Mbari street by old Maris junction, Ikenegbu</td><td>20</td><td>Phone and accessories, pharmacy, men boutique, fabrics and bridals, makeup and saloon, gueens luxury hairs.</td><td>₦1.2m</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Ikenegbu Plaza</td><td>Ikenegbu Road Owerri by Maris junction</td><td>28</td><td>Fast food, Icy groove, make-up studio, slot electronic gadgets, exclusive barber, phone accessories, ruolix saloon and game lodge</td><td>₦235m</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>T-Plaza</td><td>Ikenegbu Road Owerri</td><td>20</td><td>Wine, De Legend barber, Boutique, Beverages, dental clinic, mattress shop</td><td>Upper shops: ₦2.2m<br>Ground floor shop: ₦1.2m</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Dumex mall</td><td>Plot 3, Area A Sam Mbakwe Avenue, World Bank Road, New Owerri</td><td>15</td><td>Bridals, Saloon beauty, Boutique, fast food, Jodella bridals and occasions, Zikel, Chikky's supermarket, Richtel communications</td><td>₦1m</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Lion Yard Plaza</td><td>World Bank Junction, Umuguma road, Owerri</td><td>18</td><td>Perfect trim saloon, Hilda bridals, Roke interior, Great Elisha and sons' furniture, Denver's restaurant</td><td>₦1.8m</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Iwuji Plaza</td><td>World Bank Junction, New Owerri</td><td>8</td><td>Supermarket, children's boutique, electronics, thrift appliances, kitchen utensils</td><td>Upper shops: ₦1.5m<br>Ground floor shop: ₦1.2m</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Eve and Kez Plaza</td><td>33 Umuoba Uratta road Owerri</td><td>19</td><td>Boutique, Printing press, Unisex saloon, bridals, wine, men boutique</td><td>Double shop: ₦2.5m<br>Single shop: ₦1.5m</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Estrela Shopping Mall</td><td>Ekwema crescent Owerri</td><td>24</td><td>Property hub, Saloon, Spa, Supermarket</td><td>Double shop: ₦3.5m<br>Single shop: ₦2.5m</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Boze Plaza</td><td>30B Okigwe Road, opposite prisons</td><td>30</td><td>Laboratories, Bidox estate firm, Lawyer chambers, studios, pharmacy, printing press, aviation services</td><td>Big spaces: ₦1.2m<br>Smaller spaces: ₦0.7m</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field Survey, 2024

Table 4.1 reveals 10 prominent plazas located within Owerri urban, Imo state. The plazas studied and presented are located at different regions in Owerri urban. This was so chosen to capture the entire Owerri urban in this study. The table reveals the names of the plazas, their exact addresses, number of
shops within the plazas, the different uses to which the occupants put the shop spaces as well as the amount paid per annum for the shops in the plazas. Notably, the occupants of the plazas put their shops to different uses. Essentially the nature of the plaza to a good extent influences the use to which the shops in the plazas are put.

Ten factors were selected from the numerous factors that can influence the rent paid for shops in the plazas in Owerri Urban, Imo state. Table 4.2 presents the “trade-off” of the respondents on the selected factors. The Relative Importance of the selected factors are shown in table 4.2.

<table><caption>Table 4.2: Relative Importance Index of the “trade-off” on the Factors that influence the rents paid for shops in Plazas in Owerri urban, Imo state</caption><thead><tr><th>S/N</th><th>Factors Responsible for Rental value of shops in Plazas in Owerri Urban, Imo state</th><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th><th>4</th><th>5</th><th>W</th><th>RII</th><th>Rank</th><th>Inference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Age of the plaza</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>4</td><td>146</td><td>746</td><td>0.994</td><td>2</td><td>Very important/s ig.</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Location: accessibility</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>150</td><td>750</td><td>1.000</td><td>1</td><td>Most Important/ Sig.</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Void Rate</td><td>56</td><td>33</td><td>50</td><td>11</td><td>-</td><td>316</td><td>0.421</td><td>8</td><td>Least Important/s ig.</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Lease terms of the shops in the plazas</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>52</td><td>98</td><td>698</td><td>0.930</td><td>5</td><td>Significant</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Security in terms of the location of the plazas</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>38</td><td>112</td><td>712</td><td>0.949</td><td>4</td><td>Significant</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Location: proximity to residential apartments</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>13</td><td>137</td><td>685</td><td>0.913</td><td>6</td><td>Significant</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Location: proximity to Central Business District</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>42</td><td>43</td><td>65</td><td>623</td><td>0.830</td><td>7</td><td>Less importance /sig.</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Sanitary arrangement of the plazas</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>5</td><td>145</td><td>745</td><td>0.993</td><td>3</td><td>Very important/s ig.</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Availability of Parking lots/ Spaces</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>150</td><td>750</td><td>1.000</td><td>1</td><td>Most Important/ Sig.</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Availability of electricity and water supply</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>150</td><td>750</td><td>1.000</td><td>1</td><td>Most Important/ Sig.</td></tr></tbody></table>

Hint: “5” - Highest Importance; “1” – Lowest or Least Importance

From Table 4.2, “availability of electricity and water supply”, “availability of parking lots/spaces” and “location to accessibility” had the highest importance attached to them by the respondents with Relative Importance (RI) at (1.000) ranking number “1”. This means that out of the ten (10) studied factors that influence the rents paid in shops located in plazas in Owerri urban, these three factors are considered most significant and important in influencing the amount of rent paid for the shops. Observably the study area has two main sources of electricity, which are referred to as “federal light” and “state light”. Notably, federal light is preferred to state light in the study area because it is more regular in terms of supply. However, the federal light is not maximally utilized in all the studied plazas. Observably plazas with adequate parking lots/spaces for end users had more value attached to them in terms of rents paid.

The second most significant and important factor that influences the rent paid for the shops in the plazas in Owerri urban as shown in table 4.2 is “age of the plaza” having its Relative Importance (RI) at (0.994) ranking number “2”. Observably plaza development in the study area is taking a high toll. Modern architectural design in all forms of building development has enveloped the globe in recent times. Aesthetics and modern facilities
through advancement in technology have gained much appreciation in today's world. Hence the state of the art of the plazas is a significant influencer of amount paid as rent in the shops within the plazas.

The third significant factor that influence the rent paid for shops in the plazas in Owerri urban as shown in table 4.2 is “sanitary arrangement of the plazas, with Relative Importance (RI) at (0.993) ranking number “3”. Observably plaza exclusive appearance, high aesthetics as well as delightful ambience have become major physical characteristics of the plazas in the study area. Observably in the study area, the aesthetics of the plazas is given paramount consideration. In the study area, plaza investors do well to represent modern-day state-of-the-art shopping environments in their shopping plazas. Therefore, the condition and sanitary arrangement of the plazas is a significant influencer of the rent paid as well as the class of business occupants that are attracted to the plaza. Hence, the sanitary arrangements in the plazas are of great concern to the plaza investors as it add value to the shops in the plazas. Quality sanitary arrangement in the plazas is a significant influencer of the rent paid for the shops within the plazas in the study area.

The fourth significant factors that influence the rent paid for shops in the plazas in Owerri urban as shown in table 4.2 is “security in terms of the location of the plaza”, with Relative Importance (RI) at (0.949) ranking number “4”. Observably security issues are on the front burner in our contemporary societies today, particularly in the study area. Most of the plazas have security arrangements which are serviced by the occupiers. Due to the nature of services and high-quality goods sold in plazas, security issues are often incorporated in discussions during lease arrangements. Though this factor ranked 4th when compared to other factors under study, it is revealed that security arrangements and security issues are significant in influencing the amount prospective occupiers are willing to pay for the shops in the plazas.

The fifth ranking factor that influences the rents paid for the shops in the plazas in Owerri urban as shown in Table 4.2 is the “lease term of the shops in the plaza”, with Relative Importance (RI) at (0.930) ranking “5”. Observably, landlords are mainly concerned with letting that give the highest profit and advantage. Hence, the lease terms provided by the landlord usually influence the actual rent paid for the shops in the plazas. Most landlords prefer longer lease terms to generate higher returns at a given time. This condition is often accepted or rejected depending on the prospective occupant, though the high demand for shops in plazas has given the landlords more wins in this area.

The sixth ranking factors that influence the rent paid for shops the plazas in Owerri urban as shown in table 4.2 is “location with proximity to residential apartments”, with Relative Importance (RI) at (0.913) ranking number “6”. Hence, though “location with proximity to residential apartments”, is a significant factor that influences the rent paid for shops in the plazas in the study area, it is less significant when compared to the other factors under study.

The seventh ranking factors that influence the rents paid for shops in Plazas in Owerri urban as shown in table 4.2 is “location proximity to Central Business District”, with Relative Importance (RI) at (0.830) ranking number “7”. Hence, though “location proximity to Central Business District”, is a significant factor that influences the rent paid for shops in the plazas in the study area, it is less significant when compared to the other factors under study.

The eighth and last ranking factors that influence the rents paid for shops in the plazas in Owerri urban as shown in table 4.2 is “void rate”, with Relative Importance (RI) at (0.421) ranking number “8”. Observably shops in the plazas in the study area have very high demand rate which has reduced void rates of the shops. Hence, the “void rate” is the least significant factor that influences the rent paid for shops in the plazas in Owerri urban, Imo state.

## RECOMMENDATIONS

Shopping centre developers must be concerned with the development of shopping plazas that can create a holistic shopping environment that would be attractive to consumers. This can be achieved by incorporating the relevant complementary facilities that would enhance the values of the shops in the plazas. The managers of plazas should keep up with the provision of such utilities as electricity and water supply to constantly improve the value of rent paid, as well as increase the demand for the shops in the plazas. The property developers particularly those involved in plaza development should carry out a market survey before choosing the type,
shape and nature of the plaza to build. Necessary amenities such as electricity, water supply and others should
be adequately provided for the smooth running of the plazas.

CONCLUSION

In this study, the focus was to analyze the factors that influence rents paid for shops located in plazas in Owerri urban, Imo state. The results indicate that “availability of electricity and water supply”, “availability of parking lots/spaces” and “location with accessibility” had equal and highest influence on rents paid for shops in the plazas. The significance of these factors could be as a result of the need for electricity in the services rendered in the shops in the plazas, the customer's comfort and the ease with which consumers gain access to the shops located in the plazas. Plaza location with its accessibility should be of utmost importance to developers, as well as the consumers. The consumers here include the renters as well as the end users. The study concludes that the provision of necessary amenities should be brought to the front burner in the plaza development in the study area. The study concludes that several factors contribute to the rent paid for shops in plazas to various degrees. Though most of the studied factors are important, some rank more important than others in the study area.

REFERENCES

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# PART 4: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues; Teaching and Learning Methods; Gender Issues; Environmental Resources Development; Sustainable Development Goals; Plastics and the Environment; Health, Safety and Well-being; Building Codes and Practices; Projects Procurement Processes; Indoor Environment; Artificial Intelligence; Building Information Modelling (BIM)
**Chapter Seventeen**

**Impact of Science Education on Environmental Awareness and Attitude among Secondary School Students in Selected Schools in Tarauni Local Govt. Area, Kano State**

Ibrahim Aliyu Madugu

Department of Integrated Science, Sa'adatu Rimi University of Education, Kumbotso, Kano State,
Nigeria

EMAIL: ialiyumadugu@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

This study investigates the Impact of science education on environmental awareness and attitude among secondary school students in Tarauni Local Government Area (L.G.A). The research employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews to gather comprehensive data. Through a stratified sampling technique, 240 students from various secondary schools in the study area were selected to participate in the study. Quantitative data is collected through structured questionnaires, focusing on students' understanding of environmental concepts, their engagement in environmentally friendly behaviours, and their attitudes towards environmental issues. Additionally, qualitative interviews are conducted with a subset of students to delve deeper into their perceptions and experiences regarding science education and its impact on their environmental awareness and attitudes. Preliminary findings indicate a positive correlation between exposure to science education and heightened environmental awareness among secondary school students in the study area. Students who receive robust science education demonstrate a greater understanding of environmental concepts and are more inclined towards adopting eco-friendly behaviours. Based on the findings, it was recommended that Science educators should adopt hands-on activities and experiments, outdoor education and field trips, and environmental projects and case studies as effective teaching methods to promote environmental awareness and positive environmental attitudes among secondary school students and Science educators and policymakers should collaborate to develop and implement effective science education programs that promote environmental sustainability and conservation. This could include developing and implementing environmental education policies and programs, providing resources and support for science educators, and promoting environmental education initiatives and activities.

KEYWORDS: Science; Education; Environmental Awareness

**INTRODUCTION**

In recent decades, environmental degradation, climate change, and resource depletion have emerged as critical global challenges, threatening the sustainability of ecosystems and human societies (Ajiboye & Silo, 2008). The effects of climate change are becoming increasingly evident through extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and disruptions in food security. Meanwhile, resource depletion, caused by unsustainable consumption patterns and industrial activities, has led to biodiversity loss and the exhaustion of natural resources such as water, forests, and minerals (Nwankwo & Oguzor, 2011). These issues, interconnected and global in scope, have highlighted the urgent need for societies to develop sustainable practices to mitigate environmental impacts and promote conservation efforts (UNEP, 2019).

Environmental awareness—the understanding of environmental issues and the need for sustainable actions—is key to addressing these challenges (Akinbode, 2011). Education is one of the most effective tools for fostering this awareness, particularly when integrated into science curricula (Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2012). Science education plays a pivotal role in shaping students' perceptions of the environment, equipping them with the knowledge and skills to understand complex environmental systems and recognize the human activities contributing to environmental degradation (Palmer, 2012). By engaging students with scientific concepts such as ecology, pollution, and climate change, science
education helps them comprehend the intricate relationships between natural processes and human actions, fostering a sense of responsibility toward the environment.

In developing nations like Nigeria, where environmental degradation poses significant threats to livelihoods and public health, environmental education is crucial for empowering future generations to adopt sustainable practices (Davis & Smit, 2012). Nigeria faces numerous environmental challenges, including deforestation, desertification, water pollution, and waste management issues. In rural and urban areas alike, the consequences of unsustainable practices have led to severe environmental impacts, contributing to food insecurity, health risks, and economic instability (Nwankwo & Oguzor, 2013). Given the scale of these problems, there is an increasing recognition that education systems need to prioritize environmental topics and promote an understanding of how scientific principles can be applied to solve real-world environmental problems.

In particular, secondary schools provide an ideal setting for integrating environmental education into science curricula. At this stage of education, students are at a formative age where they begin to develop critical thinking skills and long-term attitudes toward social and environmental issues (Ajiboye & Silo, 2008). Studies have shown that students who are exposed to environmental content through their science education are more likely to develop positive attitudes toward conservation and sustainable practices (Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2012). This is because science education not only imparts knowledge but also encourages inquiry, problem-solving, and practical engagement with environmental issues, which are essential for developing environmental stewardship (Blumstein & Fernandez-Juricic, 2014).

Science education offers a robust framework for addressing these issues by fostering scientific literacy and environmental consciousness (Davis & Smit, 2012). Through topics like ecology, students learn about the interconnectedness of life forms and ecosystems, helping them understand the consequences of human-induced changes, such as habitat destruction and species extinction (Krasny & Tidball, 2020). Lessons on pollution expose students to the harmful effects of industrial waste, plastics, and chemicals on air, water, and soil quality. Similarly, the study of climate change introduces students to the causes and consequences of global warming, encouraging them to consider both mitigation and adaptation strategies at individual, community, and national levels (Ogunleye & Ogunleye, 2021).

Developing a deeper understanding of environmental issues is fundamental for developing positive attitudes toward environmental conservation. According to Akinbode (2011), students who engage with environmental science topics are more likely to adopt sustainable behaviours, such as recycling, conserving water, and participating in environmental advocacy. Furthermore, research by (Chen & Li, 2021) suggests that science education that includes hands-on learning and fieldwork can significantly improve students' environmental awareness and motivate them to take action in their communities.

## Research Objectives

The main objectives of this study are:

1. To assess the level of environmental awareness among secondary school students exposed to science education.

2. To evaluate the attitudes of these students toward environmental conservation.

3. To determine the relationship between science education and students' environmental awareness and attitudes.

## Research Questions

1. What is the level of environmental awareness among secondary school students who are exposed to science education?

2. What are the attitudes of these students toward environmental conservation?

3. How does science education influence students' environmental awareness and attitudes?

## Hypotheses

1. There is a significant difference in environmental awareness between students who receive science education and those who do not.
2. There is a significant positive correlation between science education and students' attitudes toward environmental conservation.

## LITERATURE REVIEW

Environmental education has emerged as a vital aspect of modern educational systems, aiming to foster awareness and positive attitudes toward environmental sustainability among students. Science education, in particular, is instrumental in instilling this knowledge, as it encourages students to critically engage with issues related to environmental conservation, pollution, climate change, and natural resource management.

Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive correlation between science education and increased environmental awareness. According to Nwankwo and Uzoigwe (2021), science education is crucial in building foundational knowledge that empowers students to understand complex environmental systems. Through interactive and practical approaches, students can connect theoretical knowledge with real-world environmental issues. Science process skills such as observation, hypothesis formulation, and experimentation can foster a deeper understanding of environmental challenges and solutions (Usman, 2020).

Globally, environmental education has become integrated into science curricula, often focusing on climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion (Cutter-Mackenzie & Smith, 2022). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2021) emphasizes the role of science education in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 4 (Quality Education) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). A recent study by Tan and Reames (2020) highlighted the importance of early exposure to science education for developing a lifelong commitment to environmental protection.

In Nigeria, environmental issues such as deforestation, desertification, and water pollution are critical concerns, particularly in the northern regions like Kano State. The Federal Government has recognized the need for environmental education as part of the National Policy on Education (2013), which includes guidelines for integrating environmental topics into science curricula. Ajiboye and Ogunyemi (2021) argue that students' awareness of local environmental issues can be significantly enhanced through effective science teaching, including hands-on learning experiences that promote conservation and sustainability practices.

Environmental awareness often translates into positive attitudes and behaviour toward environmental conservation. Studies show that when students gain a clear understanding of environmental issues, they are more likely to adopt environmentally friendly behaviours (Hungerford & Volk, 2020). According to Kollmuss and Agyeman (2021), science education can shift students' attitudes from indifference to active engagement in environmental preservation, but the content and delivery methods are critical to this transformation.

A study by Ijaiya et al. (2022) conducted in Kwara State found that students exposed to environmental science topics were more likely to engage in recycling and conservation activities. Similarly, Abdullahi and Musa (2023) observed that students in Kano State, particularly in Tarauni, who received science-based environmental education, demonstrated increased concern for waste management and pollution control in their local communities.

While the relationship between science education and environmental awareness is well established, challenges remain, particularly in the Nigerian context. Factors such as insufficient teacher training, lack of resources, and inadequate infrastructure often impede the effectiveness of science education in fostering environmental awareness (Ogunleye, 2020). A study by Ismail and Aliyu (2022) in Kano State highlighted the scarcity of laboratory equipment and practical teaching aids, which hampers students' ability to fully grasp environmental concepts through hands-on learning.
Moreover, the curriculum design in many Nigerian schools often overlooks critical environmental topics or presents them in a theoretical manner without emphasizing practical applications (Udo & Ekong, 2021). This results in students having limited opportunities to relate classroom knowledge to their immediate environmental concerns, thereby reducing the likelihood of behavior change.

## METHODOLOGY

This study employs a quasi-experimental design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. The study was conducted in four randomly selected secondary schools in Tarauni Local Government Area. A total of 240 students (120 male and 120 female) from Junior Secondary School (JSS 3) classes participated in the study. The students were divided into experimental (120 students) and control (120 students) groups. The experimental group received structured environmental education through their science classes, while the control group did not receive any targeted environmental education.

## Research Instruments

Environmental Awareness Questionnaire (EAQ) with 20-item adapted from Ajiboye and Silo (2008) was used to assess students' knowledge of environmental issues. While Environmental Attitude Scale (EAS) was used to measure students' attitudes toward environmental conservation, with items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Both groups were administered pre-test and post-test assessments to measure changes in environmental awareness and attitude.

## Data Collection Procedure

Before the intervention, both the experimental and control groups were given a pre-test to assess their baseline environmental awareness and attitudes. Over six weeks, the experimental group received science lessons focused on environmental topics such as climate change, ecosystems, pollution, and sustainability, while the control group followed the standard science curriculum without these topics. A post-test was administered at the end of the intervention to measure any changes in both awareness and attitudes.

## Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) were used to describe the demographic characteristics of the respondents and the levels of environmental awareness and attitude. Inferential statistics, including t-tests and Pearson's correlation, were used to test the hypotheses at a 0.05 significance level.

## RESULTS

The study aimed to assess the impact of science education on environmental awareness and attitudes among secondary school students in Tarauni Local Government Area. The results are presented in terms of pre-test and post-test results, and the correlation between science education and environmental attitude. These findings are crucial in understanding the effectiveness of science education in promoting environmental sustainability among young students.

<table><caption>Table 1: t-test analysis of pre-test results of the two groups</caption><thead><tr><th>Test</th><th>Group</th><th>N</th><th>Mean</th><th>t-value</th><th>p-value</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Environmental Awareness</td><td>Experimental Group</td><td>120</td><td>48.3</td><td>0.21</td><td>&gt; 0.05</td></tr><tr><td>Control Group</td><td>120</td><td>47.9</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Attitude</td><td>Experimental Group</td><td>120</td><td>3.1</td><td>0.35</td><td>&gt; 0.05</td></tr><tr><td>Control Group</td><td>120</td><td>3.0</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 1 shows that both groups had nearly identical pre-test mean scores (48.3 for the experimental group and 47.9 for the control group), with no significant difference between them (t = 0.21, p > 0.05). Similarly, the attitude toward environmental conservation was similar between the groups before the intervention, with a mean of 3.1 for the experimental group and 3.0 for the control group (t = 0.35, p >
0.05). These data show that both groups started with almost equal levels of environmental awareness and attitudes, confirming that the post-test differences can be attributed to the intervention.

<table><caption>Table 2: t-test analysis of post-test results of the two groups</caption><thead><tr><td>Test</td><td>Experimental Group (Mean)</td><td>Control Group (Mean)</td><td>t-value</td><td>p-value</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Environmental Awareness</td><td>78.5</td><td>54.7</td><td>6.8</td><td>&lt; 0.05</td></tr><tr><td>Attitude (Likert Scale)</td><td>4.2</td><td>2.7</td><td>5.4</td><td>&lt; 0.05</td></tr></tbody></table>

The post-test results in Table 2 showed a significant improvement in the experimental group compared to the control group. The experimental group had a significantly higher mean score (78.5) compared to the control group (54.7), with a t-value of 6.8 and a p-value less than 0.05, indicating a substantial difference in awareness between the groups. With regards to attitude, the experimental group also demonstrated a more positive attitude toward environmental conservation (mean = 4.2 on a 5-point Likert scale) compared to the control group (mean = 2.7), with a t-value of 5.4 and a p-value less than 0.05. These results confirm the effectiveness of science education in improving both environmental awareness and attitudes toward sustainability in the experimental group.

<table><caption>Table 3: Correlation between Science Education and Environmental Awareness and students' attitude</caption><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td>Correlation Coefficient (r)</td><td>p-value</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Science Education and Environmental Awareness</td><td>0.61</td><td>&lt; 0.04</td></tr><tr><td>Science Education and Students' Attitudes Toward Environmental Awareness</td><td>0.61</td><td>&lt; 0.05</td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 3 shows a correlation coefficient of 0.61 in both cases indicating a moderate to strong positive relationship between science education and both environmental awareness and students' attitudes toward environmental conservation. This suggests that an increase in science education is associated with a significant improvement in both the students' understanding of environmental issues and their attitudes toward environmental conservation. The p-value of less than 0.04 in both cases indicates that these correlations are statistically significant. This means that the observed relationships are unlikely to have occurred by chance and are robust.

## DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

The results indicate that science education has a positive impact on both environmental awareness and attitudes toward conservation. The pre-test results ensured that both experimental and control groups had similar baseline characteristics, making the significant improvements observed in the post-test results attributable to the intervention.

The experimental group's higher scores in environmental awareness and positive attitudes toward conservation after the intervention underscore the role of science education in cultivating environmentally conscious individuals. Science education, with its focus on topics like ecology, pollution, and climate change, enhances students' understanding of environmental issues and motivates them to adopt sustainable practices. This aligns with the findings of Ajiboye and Silo (2008) and Okebukola (1997), who emphasize the role of education in promoting environmental responsibility.

The positive correlation between science education and environmental attitudes further demonstrates the importance of integrating environmental topics into the science curriculum. As students gain more knowledge about environmental issues, they develop stronger, more positive attitudes toward sustainability, as seen in the significant relationship found in this study (r = 0.61).
In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest that enhancing science education, particularly with a focus on environmental topics, is crucial for fostering environmental awareness and promoting positive attitudes toward conservation among secondary school students. This is essential in addressing the environmental challenges facing Nigeria and the global community.

## CONCLUSION

The significant improvements in both environmental awareness and attitude demonstrate the powerful impact of science education in shaping students' perspectives on the environment. The findings suggest that science education when integrated with environmental topics, can lead to substantial cognitive and affective gains among secondary school students. These gains are not only important for personal development but also for creating a more environmentally conscious generation that can contribute to solving pressing global challenges like climate change and environmental degradation. The results of this study reinforce the idea that science education should prioritize environmental topics, ensuring students are well-informed about ecological issues and motivated to engage in sustainable practices. Educators and policymakers should continue to promote environmental education within science curricula to cultivate both knowledge and a proactive attitude toward environmental stewardship.

## Recommendations

1. Science educators should adopt hands-on activities and experiments, outdoor education and field trips, and environmental projects and case studies as effective teaching methods to promote environmental awareness and positive environmental attitudes among secondary school students

2. Science educators and policymakers should collaborate to develop and implement effective science education programs that promote environmental sustainability and conservation.

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**Chapter Eighteen**

**Effect of Steam Learning Approach on Gender Differential and Academic Performance among Basic Science Students in Nassarawa Local Government Area, Kano State**

Idris Isyaku Idris

Department of Integrated Science, Sa'adatu Rimi College of Education Kumbotso Kano State, Nigeria

EMAIL: idrisisyaku121@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

The study examined the Effect of the STEAM Learning Approach on Gender differential and Academic Performance among Basic Science Students in Nassarawa Local Government Area, Kano State. The study used a quasi-experimental design, involving a pretest and posttest for data collection. A sample of 200 students was randomly selected from four schools out of 21 Junior Secondary Schools that formed the population. Data were collected using the instruments tagged Heat Concept Performance Test (HCPT). Two research questions were raised and two null hypotheses were formulated. The null hypotheses were tested using a t-test statistical tool at P≤ 0.05 level of significance. The finding of the study revealed that there was a significant difference of academic performance mean score between Basic students who taught heat concept using STEAM Learning Approach (experimental group) and those taught the same concept using lecture method (control group). There was no significant difference between performance mean score of male and female Basic Science students taught heat concept using STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group. The study recommended science teachers should be provided with enough and valuable training opportunities on how to activate STEAM Learning Approach to ensure meaningful learning for students and to increase their awareness to future careers including STEAM jobs.

KEYWORDS: STEAM Learning Approach; Gender; Academic Performance

**INTRODUCTION**

According to Xie, Fang, and Shauman (2015), STEAM is defined as an interdisciplinary curriculum that integrates five fields: Science (S), Technology (T), Engineering (E), Art (A), and Mathematics (M). Key features of STEAM education include its interdisciplinary nature, collaborative approach, and focus on realistic problem-solving. In alignment with this, Yakman (2016) notes that STEAM education fosters students' abilities in innovation, collaboration, and practical problem-solving. Given these advantages, STEAM has emerged as one of the most promising educational methods globally since its inception. However, there has been limited research on STEAM education that considers students' gender and gender groupings, particularly at the elementary level. Gender plays a significant role in education, as it is linked to psychological differences between boys and girls, which can influence their behaviour and performance. Chaplin and Aldao (2014) suggested that girls are often more motivated than boys to please adults, such as teachers and parents, which may contribute to observed gender differences.

Despite these established psychological and behavioural differences, research findings on their impact on learning are mixed. Some studies indicate that boys may excel in science, reasoning, and abstract knowledge (Voyer & Voyer, 2014), while girls tend to outperform boys in language-related skills, such as speech and reading comprehension. Other studies show that girls consistently outperform boys across most subjects in K-12 education (Chaplin & Aldao, 2014). These inconsistencies might be attributed to variations in age, relationships, and the specific academic field (Siddiq & Scherer, 2019).

Students in sixth grade (ages 11-12) are on the cusp of adolescence and possess certain logical thinking and teamwork skills. However, few studies have specifically investigated gender differences in STEAM education for this age group.

STEAM represents an integrated approach to learning in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and art, enhancing both learning efficiency and motivation, while positively influencing students' interest and academic performance. When taught by well-prepared educators, STEAM can inspire students to envision themselves as scientists, engineers, and creative designers (Cook, Bush, &
Cox, 2017). Townes (2016) found that students who participated in STEM courses with art integration achieved higher scores in science and reading, although their mathematics performance remained unchanged. Furthermore, art integration was shown to positively impact students academically and socially (May & Robinson, 2016). Research indicates that the STEAM approach has beneficial effects on academic achievement, attitudes and interests, motivation, self-efficacy, and creativity (Kim & Bolger, 2017; Quigley & Herro, 2016; Thuneberg, Salmi, & Bogner, 2018).

Research studies indicate that the gender composition of groups can significantly influence learning outcomes during collaborative activities. Generally, it has been found that mixed-gender groups tend to perform better than same-gender groups (Jiang, Li, Zheng, & Han, 2017). This may be due to the dynamics of group interactions, where boys often focus more on task-related discussions, while girls excel in planning and communication. As a result, mixed-gender groups may create a more relaxed atmosphere conducive to cooperative behaviour compared to same-gender groups. Conversely, some studies suggest that same-gender groups can be more effective because they tend to be more focused and consensus-driven (Zhan, Fong, Mei, & Liang, 2015). Additionally, others argue that the impact of group gender composition is limited, primarily influencing students' attitudes rather than their actual performance (Li, Luo, Zhao, Zhu, Ma, & Liao, 2022).

When examining the performance of boys and girls in different gender groupings, it has been found that boys perform significantly better in mixed-gender groups compared to same-gender ones, and they generally prefer mixed-gender settings (Herro, Quigley, Andrews, & Delacruz, 2017). This may be attributed to the tendency for boys to take on leadership roles in mixed-gender groups, while girls often exhibit more agreeable behaviours (Li et al., 2022).

This study focuses on the academic performance of Basic Science students using the STEAM Learning Approach. In Nigeria, Basic Science is taught at the primary and junior secondary levels and features a curriculum rich in activities. Therefore, teaching methods should promote an activity-based approach to learning. According to NTI (2007), the teaching of Basic Science should incorporate guided discovery methods that are resource-based. Mastery of Basic Science concepts cannot be fully achieved without effective instructional materials; teaching without these resources can hinder students' ability to recall information and develop essential science process skills, ultimately leading to poor retention and academic performance. Yusuf (2009) describes instructional materials—such as computers and projectors—as tools that aid teachers in conveying information to students.

Research by Ayua (2011) has identified various materials that can effectively enhance the teaching of Basic Science, making the learning experience more engaging and effective. It is believed that well-planned instructional materials can enrich the teaching and learning of Basic Science, making it enjoyable and exciting. As noted by Ndu, Olarewaju, Ndu, and Somoye (2017), Basic Science serves as a foundational subject that prepares students for more advanced science courses, such as Chemistry, Physics, and Biology, at the Senior Secondary School level. For students to succeed in these single science subjects, a strong performance in Basic Science is essential, especially in the Junior Secondary School Certificate Examination (JSSCE). Moreover, Basic Science emphasizes inquiry into the natural environment through an activity-based teaching method. Thus, this study investigates the effects of the STEAM Learning Approach on gender differences in academic performance among Basic Science students in Nassarawa Local Government, Kano State.

**Objectives of the Study**

The objectives of this study were to:

- Assess the academic performance of Basic Science students taught the concept of heat using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group, compared to those taught using the traditional lecture method in the control group.

- Examine the differences in the mean academic performance scores of male and female Basic Science students taught the concept of heat using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group.

**Research Questions**

The following questions were formulated to guide the study:

What is the difference in the mean performance scores of Basic Science students taught the concept of heat using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group versus those taught using the traditional lecture method in the control group?
What is the difference in the mean performance scores of male and female Basic Science students taught the concept of heat using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group?

### Null Hypotheses

There is no significant difference between the mean performance scores of Basic Science students taught the concept of heat using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group and those taught the same concept using the lecture method in the control group.

There is no significant difference between the mean performance scores of male and female Basic Science students taught the concept of heat using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group.

### METHODOLOGY

This study utilized a quasi-experimental design, incorporating pretests and posttests as suggested by Kerlinger (1973). It involved two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The population consisted of all public Junior Secondary (JS II) Basic Science students in Nassarawa Local Government, Kano State, totalling 2,493 students (1,200 males and 1,293 females). Simple random sampling using a balloting method was employed to select four schools from the twenty-one in the population. From these four schools, one intact JS II class was randomly selected using the same balloting method, resulting in a total of four intact classes. Two hundred students were randomly chosen for the study, comprising 102 subjects in the experimental group and 98 subjects in the control group.

The primary instrument used for this study was the Heat Concept Performance Test (HCPT), adapted from past Junior Secondary School Certificate Examination (JSSQE) question papers. The HCPT consisted of 35 multiple-choice items with options A-D and was administered as both a pretest and posttest to evaluate the performance levels of the JS II Basic Science students. The HCPT was first given to the sample group as a pretest by the researcher and research assistants. It was then administered to both groups as a posttest. The researcher graded the HCPT items, and the scores were used to determine the student's performance levels.

### RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

**Null Hypothesis One:** There is no significant difference between the mean performance scores of Basic Science students taught the heat concept using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group and those taught the same concept using the lecture method in the control group.

<table><caption>Table 1: Comparison of post-test performance mean scores of experimental and control groups taught the heat concept using the STEAM Learning Approach</caption><thead><tr><th>Variable</th><th>Groups</th><th>N</th><th>Mean</th><th>Std. Dev</th><th>Df</th><th>t-cal</th><th>t-crit</th><th>P</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Performance mean scores</td><td>Experimental</td><td>102</td><td>21.85</td><td>2.25</td><td>200</td><td>36.4</td><td>1.96</td><td>0.01</td></tr><tr><td>Control</td><td>98</td><td>10.51</td><td>2.10</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 1 shows a significant difference between the performance mean scores of Basic Science students taught the heat concept using the STEAM Learning Approach (experimental group) and those taught using the lecture method (control group). This is evident because the calculated p-value of 0.01 is lower than the alpha level of 0.05, and the calculated t-value of 36.4 is higher than the critical t-value of 1.96 at 200 degrees of freedom. This implies that students in the experimental group performed significantly better than those in the control group. Therefore, the first null hypothesis is rejected.

**Null Hypothesis Two:** There is no significant difference between the performance mean scores of male and female Basic Science students taught the heat concept using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group.
<table><caption>Table 2: Comparison of post-test performance mean scores of male and female Basic Science students in the experimental group taught the heat concept using the STEAM Learning Approach</caption><thead><tr><th>Variable</th><th>Groups</th><th>N</th><th>Mean</th><th>Std. Dev</th><th>Df</th><th>t-cal</th><th>t-crit</th><th>P</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Performance mean scores</td><td>Male students</td><td>58</td><td>12.85</td><td>2.89</td><td>190</td><td>21.4</td><td>1.26</td><td>0.01</td></tr><tr><td>Female students</td><td>42</td><td>10.38</td><td>1.44</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 2 shows no significant difference between the mean performance scores of male and female Basic Science students taught the heat concept using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group. While the p-value of 0.01 is lower than the 0.05 alpha level of significance, the calculated t-value of 21.4 is higher than the critical t-value of 1.26 at 190 degrees of freedom. This indicates that both male and female students performed similarly well in learning the heat concept using the STEAM Learning Approach. Therefore, the second null hypothesis is retained.

## Discussion of Results

Table 1 shows a significant difference between the mean performance scores of students taught cell biology using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group compared to those in the control group. This indicates that students in the experimental group performed better than their counterparts in the control group. These findings align with those of Connor, Karmokar, and Whittington (2015), who found that integrating the STEAM concept with game-based learning elements can enhance students' academic performance compared to traditional lecture-based teaching methods. Table 2 indicates that there was no significant difference between the mean performance scores of male and female students taught cell biology using the STEAM Learning Approach in the experimental group. This finding is consistent with the research conducted by Nadeem, Ali, Maqbool, and Zaidi (2012), which examined the impact of the STEAM Learning Approach on the academic performance of university students in Bahawalpur, Pakistan. An in-depth analysis of the data revealed that the STEAM Learning Approach positively influenced students' academic performance. However, it also showed that poor implementation of the STEAM Learning Approach negatively affected the academic performance of both male and female students.

## CONCLUSION

The results of this study demonstrate that the STEAM Learning Approach significantly impacts students' academic performance when implemented effectively. Additionally, it was found to be gender-friendly.

## RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are made:

1. Teachers should receive comprehensive and valuable training opportunities on how to effectively implement the STEAM Learning Approach. This will ensure meaningful learning experiences for students and increase their awareness of future career opportunities in STEAM fields.

## REFERENCES

Ayua, G. H. (2011) Teachers' Awareness and Level of Improvisation of Primary Science Instructional Materials in Private and Public Primary Schools in Makurdi Metropolis. *Benue State University Journal of Education* 1(1) 44-45

Chaplin, T.M.; Aldao, A. (2014) Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. *Psychol. Bull*, 139, 735-765.

Connor, L., Karmokar, M & Whittington, K. (2015). STEM Teaching Strategies of Primary School Science Teachers: An Exploratory Study. *Malaysian Educational Deans' Council Journal*, 12. 41-54.

Cook, K., Bush, S., & Cox, R. (2017). Engineering Encounters: From STEM to STEAM. *Science and Children*, 54(6), 86-93.
Herro, D.; Quigley, C.; Andrews, J.; Delacruz, G. (2017) Co-Measure: Developing an assessment for student collaboration in STEAM activities. *Int. J. STEM Educ.* **2017**, *4*, 1–12.

Jiang, M.; Li, Y.; Zheng, J.; Han, X. (2017) Gender group differences on behaviour patterns in collaborative problem solving through Lego. *J. Comput. Educ*, *4*, 1–19.

Kerlinger, F.N. (1973). *Foundations of Behavioral Research*. New York. Holt Rinechart and Winston Inc.

Kim, D., & Bolger, M. (2017). Analysis of Korean elementary pre-service teachers' changing attitudes about integrated STEAM pedagogy through developing lesson plans. *International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 15*(4), 587–605.

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Muhammad, B.A. (2014) An Evaluation of the Efficacy of Conceptual Instructional method of teaching Practical *Multi-disciplinary Studies*. 3(1)

Nadeem, M., Ali, A., Maqbool, S. & Zaidi, S.U. (2012). Impact of steam approach on the Academic Achievement of Students Having Different Mental Abilities at University level in Bahawalpur (Southern Punjab) Pakistan. *International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 4* (3), 519-528.

Ndu, F.O.C., Olarewaju, A.O., Ndu, L.O. & Somoye, E.O. (2017). *Basic Science: An Integrated Course for Junior Secondary Schools 3*. Lagos: Learn Africa Plc.

NTI, (2007) Manual for the Re-Training of Primary School Teachers. Basic Science and Technology. National Teachers Institute, Kaduna.

Quigley, C. F. & Herro, D. (2016). "Finding the joy in the unknown": Implementation of STEAM teaching practices in middle school science and math classrooms. *Journal of Science Education and Technology*, 25(3), 410–426.

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Yakman, G. (2016) What is the Point of STE@M? A Brief Overview. 2010. Available online: https://steamedu.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/What_is_the_Point_of_STEAM_A

Yusuf, Z. Y. (2009). The Use of Instructional Materials in the Teaching of Social Studies: A Case Study of Kaduna North Local Government of Kaduna State. *A Published Project Submitted to the National Teachers Institute, December, 2009*.

Zhan, Z.; Fong, P.; Mei, H.; Liang, T. (2015) Effects of gender grouping on students' group performance, individual achievements and attitudes in computer-supported collaborative learning. *Comput. Hum. Behav*, *48*, 587–596.
# Chapter Nineteen

## Six Vertex Model: Gaining insights into Atmospheric Dynamics

Sahabi Ibrahim Gurjiya

Sa'adatu Rimi University of Education, Kumbotso, Kano, Nigeria

EMAIL: sahabigurjiya@gmail.com

### ABSTRACT

This study investigates the potential insights gained from applying principles of the Six Vertex Model in Statistical Physics to the dynamics of the atmosphere. Drawing on parallels between complex systems in Physics and atmosphere processes, we explore how concepts from the Six Vertex Model could shed light on emergent phenomena and patterns observation in an atmospheric dynamic. Through Mathematical frameworks and computational methods inspired by the six-vertex model, we aim to deepen our understanding of weather patterns, turbulence, and climate dynamics, by ultimately enhancing predictive capabilities in atmospheric science

KEYWORDS: Six Vertex; Model; Atmospheric dynamics

### INTRODUCTION

In this section of the paper, motivation, the role of the atmosphere on Earth, and the modelling of the atmosphere from a quantum perspective are discussed.

Traditional weather models often struggle to accurately predict weather patterns and turbulences. As such we want to leverage sophisticated mathematical principles of the six-vertex model from statistical mechanics to address the complexities of atmospheric dynamics. By applying the six-vertex model, this study aims to uncover new insights and improve the predictive accuracy of weather patterns, turbulence, and climate dynamics. This approach combines ideas from statistical mechanics and meteorology to enhance our understanding of atmospheric dynamics.

However, weather patterns are governed by local interactions between atmospheric particles, temperature, humidity, and other factors. The Six vertex model helps capture local interactions and constraints in a simplified mathematical framework, providing insights into how these interactions might propagate through a system. It also represents states on a lattice (grid), similar to how weather models stimulate the atmosphere as a grid of interacting cells as such this offers a way to analyse how localized weather conditions can affect neighbouring regions. The model is also chosen because it can stimulate phase transitions, which may be relevant for predicting sudden changes in weather systems, such as the formation of storms or on a set of cold fronts.

### LITERATURE REVIEW

#### Introduction to the Six-Vertex Model

The name of the six-vertex model or ice-type model comes from the two-dimensional arrangement of water molecules, H₂O, with oxygen atoms at the vertices of a lattice and one hydrogen atom between each pair of adjacent oxygen atoms. Such a model is important for the study of crystals with hydrogen bonds. However, for better understanding we can clearly say, “the six-vertex model finds its roots from statistical mechanics and is crucial in the description of possible states of ice crystals, where hydrogen atoms are arranged in specific configurations” (Lieb, E. H. 1967). Each "vertex" in the model signifies a point of intersection for water molecules, and the model follows specific rules dictating how hydrogen bonds can form between adjacent molecules” (Pauling, L. 1935).

“However, there are about six allowed configurations for each vertex, hence the name. These configurations obey the ice rule, which states that at each vertex, two bonds point in the direction of the vertex and the other two points oriented away from it” (Baxter, R.J. 1982).
Consider a squared lattice with $N^2$ vertices as shown on the left side of Fig. 2.1. Let us orient the edges of the squared lattice with arrows and assign values to them, where we use ↑ or → to correspond to a value 1 and ↓ or ← corresponding to the value 2. This is seen, as an example, on the right side of the Fig. 2.1 for 16 squared lattices. Considering every square as a vertex, there are four edges associated to every vertex, thus leading to the six types of vertices as shown in the figure below, Fig. 2.2. The graphical representation on the right of the Fig.2.1 given above can then be referred to as a 16-vertex model. On imposing an additional condition that at each vertex the number of incoming arrows matches that of the outgoing arrows, it is easily found that 6 vertices have this property (see Fig. 2.2), as we expect two incoming and two outgoing arrows. More specifically, on a vertex two edges with two incoming arrows are chosen in $^4C_2 = 6$.

<figure><img src="image_36.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2.1: **Left:** 16 square lattices, **Right:** a 16 vertex model.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_37.png" /><figcaption>Fig.2.2: Types of the vertices in the upper panel and the corresponding values on the lower panel.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_38.png" /><figcaption>Fig.2.3: The graphical representation of a six-vertex model</figcaption></figure>
**Quantum Perspective: Modelling**

In the quantum perspective, one critically considers the six-vertex model as being very similar to the quantum spin system. In this way, the arrows used in the figures above can be thought of as spin states. As described by Faddeev, L.D. Takhtajan, L.A. in 1987, it looks like up and down. The corresponding quantum type of this model is known as the quantum-six-vertex model, however, closely related to the quantum integrable system and the Yang-Baxter (Baxter, R.J. 1973).

"The quantum six-vertex model becomes important because it is solvable using techniques from **quantum integrability**, such as **Bethe Ansatz**" (Bethe, H. A. 1931). "This solvability makes it a useful tool for exploring complex systems, like the atmosphere, where quantum phenomena might play a role in certain contexts (e.g., in the behaviour of particles or molecular interactions at very small scales)" (Sklyanin, 1982).

Modelling the atmosphere from a quantum perspective with the six-vertex model is a complex topic that requires blending ideas from quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and atmospheric science. We will provide a clear and detailed explanation, covering essential concepts and making connections to the six-vertex model.

"Now when modelling the atmosphere, we usually rely on **classical physics** (e.g., fluid dynamics, thermodynamics) " (Vallis, 2017). However, incorporating a quantum perspective can be useful in certain cases, especially when considering the behaviour of individual molecules or quantum effects in high-energy processes (like those involving cosmic radiation).

**Atmospheric Layers:** The atmosphere is stratified into different layers (troposphere, stratosphere, etc.), with varying temperatures, pressure, and composition. Quantum mechanics could play when considering the energy states of molecules in different atmospheric layers.

**Particle Interactions:** At a small scale, "atmospheric molecules interact through collisions, and quantum mechanical principles govern these interactions, especially when considering energy exchange and absorption/emission of radiation" (Peixoto & Oort, 1992).

For instance, in a quantum atmosphere model, one could imagine each vertex representing a region where energy transfer occurs between molecules. The arrows in the vertex could represent the direction of energy transfer (e.g., excitation or relaxation of molecules).

**Vertex Configurations as Molecular States:** In the six-vertex model, each vertex corresponds to a local configuration of hydrogen atoms in ice. Similarly, in a quantum description of the atmosphere, each vertex could represent a local interaction or state of atmospheric molecules (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen).

"Atmospheric molecules can exist in different quantum states, such as rotational, vibrational, and electronic states. These states can be modelled using a vertex-like framework, where the "arrows" indicate transitions between different energy levels (e.g., absorbing a photon and moving to an excited state) " (Peixoto & Oort, 1992).

To model the energy exchange in the atmosphere using the six-vertex model, consider the following analogy:

* Each "vertex" represents an interaction between molecules (e.g., collisions, energy transfer).

* The six allowed configurations of the vertex could represent different possible energy exchanges (e.g., absorption of radiation, scattering, or thermal excitation).

The **Boltzmann weights** associated with each configuration would correspond to the probability of each interaction occurring, based on the local temperature, pressure, and other atmospheric conditions.
## Potential Role of Atmosphere on Earth

In research by Walter Gilbert from Harvard University (2023) explores the structure and significance of the Earth's atmosphere, which extends up to 10,000 kilometres and plays a vital role in sustaining life. It has been highlighted that the atmosphere is divided into five layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere, each with distinct characteristics. The troposphere is closest to Earth and contains weather systems, while the stratosphere houses the ozone layer, protecting the planet from harmful ultraviolet radiation. The mesosphere is where meteoroids burn up, and the thermosphere is characterized by extreme heat and auroras. The exosphere, the outermost layer, contains mainly hydrogen and helium and is where satellites orbit.

Gilbert emphasizes that the atmosphere consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen, along with other gases like carbon dioxide and water vapour, which are crucial for weather patterns and cloud formation. However, human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions contribute to global warming, leading to severe environmental consequences like rising sea levels and ecosystem disruptions. The paper also highlights the broader impacts of air pollution, including smog and acid rain, and notes ongoing efforts to reduce emissions and protect the atmosphere through renewable energy and technology advancements. Despite the challenges, Gilbert remains optimistic about the potential to preserve this essential resource for future generations

## Current Challenges in Atmospheric Modelling

"Current challenges in atmospheric modelling stem from the difficulty of representing the full complexity of atmospheric processes, particularly small-scale phenomena and chaotic transitions" (Vallis, 2017). Traditional weather prediction models, based on numerical weather prediction (NWP) techniques, face several key limitations:

1. **Small-Scale Turbulence:** "Models often struggle to accurately simulate turbulence, especially at smaller scales like those near the Earth's surface (e.g., in the boundary layer)" (Vallis, 2017). The chaotic nature of turbulence and the sheer range of scales over which it occurs make it hard to resolve with the limited resolution of traditional models. This leads to inaccuracies in predictions related to wind, temperature, and pollutant dispersion.

2. **Cloud Formation and Microphysics:** "Representing cloud formation and related processes like precipitation is particularly challenging" (Stensrud 2007). The formation of clouds involves microphysical processes (condensation, coalescence) that happen at scales far smaller than typical model grid sizes. As a result, simplified "parameterizations" are used, but they often fail to capture the full complexity of cloud dynamics, leading to errors in forecasts of rainfall, thunderstorms, and hurricane intensification.

3. **Chaotic Transitions:** "The atmosphere is a chaotic system, meaning that small differences in initial conditions can lead to vastly different outcomes over time" (Vallis, 2017). Predicting transitions between weather patterns such as the development of storms or the onset of droughts becomes extremely difficult as forecast timescales extend beyond a few days. This chaotic behaviour limits long-term weather prediction reliability.

"Addressing these challenges requires increasing model resolution, improving physical parameterizations, and integrating machine learning to better capture small-scale and emergent atmospheric phenomena" (Palmer, 2017; Vallis, 2017).

To understand how the six-vertex model can be applied to describe atmospheric variables such as temperature, pressure, windspeed, and humidity, we need to explore both the physics of the six-vertex model and how it can be adapted to represent these meteorological quantities.

### Atmospheric Variables: Temperature, Pressure, Windspeed, Humidity

In meteorology, the atmosphere's state can be characterized by variables such as:

**Temperature (T):** A measure of thermal energy.

**Pressure (P):** The force per unit area exerted by the atmosphere.
**Windspeed (V):** The velocity of air movement.

**Humidity (H):** The amount of water vapour in the air.

These quantities interact in complex ways governed by physical laws such as thermodynamics and fluid dynamics. The six-vertex model can be adapted to help represent these variables if we interpret the flow of arrows as abstract representations of energy, moisture, or air movements in the atmosphere.

# Adapting the six-vertex model for atmospheric phenomena

## The Lattice and Vertices:

Imagine the atmosphere represented as a lattice grid, where each vertex represents a point in space (at a given altitude) and the arrows represent fluxes of energy (temperature), mass (air, wind), and moisture (humidity).

The arrows pointing into and out of each vertex can be used to represent wind directions, temperature gradients, moisture flow, or pressure differentials.

### Example - Windspeed and Wind Direction:

At each vertex, arrows can represent wind vectors, where the direction and length of the arrows indicate wind speed and direction.

### The six configurations at each vertex can represent different wind patterns:

i) Strong wind moving to the east.

ii) Light wind from the north.

iii) Calm conditions.

iv) A mix of winds from multiple directions.

In this interpretation, the six-vertex model gives us a way to quantify how wind behaves at different points in a simplified, discrete grid-based model of the atmosphere.

**Diagram:** Imagine a grid where each point has arrows coming in and out, representing wind direction and speed at various points in the atmosphere.

<figure><img src="image_39.png" /></figure>

### Example - Temperature and Pressure:

➤ Temperature and pressure can also be represented by assigning values to vertices (or edges). For example:

i) **High pressure** might correspond to vertices where the arrows are predominantly "inward" (indicating compression).

ii) **Low pressure** might correspond to vertices with arrows predominantly "outward" (expansion).

iii) **Temperature** can be treated similarly: flows of energy (heat) can be represented by the configuration of arrows at a given vertex. For instance:

➤ When arrows predominantly point towards a vertex, it could indicate a local increase in temperature (heat accumulation).

➤ Arrows pointing away from a vertex can indicate a decrease in temperature (heat dispersion).

### Example - Humidity:
➤ **Humidity, or the moisture content in the air**, can be visualized by assigning probabilities to different vertex configurations that indicate the likelihood of moisture flow:

* Vertices with arrows pointing inwards from moist regions can represent areas of high humidity.

* Arrows pointing outward can represent regions where moisture is dissipating (low humidity).

* You could model a system where moisture (humidity) flows from high-pressure (high-temperature) regions to low-pressure regions using the arrows in the six-vertex model.

## Partition function and atmospheric variables

The partition function in statistical mechanics gives us a way to calculate the overall properties of a system by summing over all possible configurations of that system, weighted by their energy. In the six-vertex model, the partition function Z is the sum of all possible configurations of the arrows on the grid, weighted by an energy function that depends on the specific configuration:

Let us consider a system of particles consisting of s states with corresponding energy E(s). The thermodynamic properties of the system can be determined via an important quantity known as the partition function. The partition function is defined as

$$Z(s) = \sum_s \exp(-\frac{E(s)}{T}), \text{ where } T \text{ is the temperature in Joules. The probability of getting a system in the state } s \text{ is given by}$$

$$P(s) = \frac{\exp(-E(s))}{Z(s)} = \frac{W(s)}{Z(s)}$$

for the statistical weight of a state s donated as

$$W(s) = \exp(-\frac{E(s)}{T})$$

* Z(s) is the partition function for the system.

* E(s) is the energy of the state s.

* T is the temperature in Joules (since we're assuming temperature is expressed in terms of energy).

To obtain a partition function of the six-vertex model, statistical weights are to be assigned to each vertex. Assume that the values 1 and 2 shown in Fig. 1.0 have equal probabilities, and assign the statistical weights to be a, b and c corresponding to the vertices-types, see Baxter (1972).

The partition function associated with the six-vertex model is found to be

$$Z_N = \sum_i \prod_j W_{ij}$$

where $W_{ij}$ represents the statistical weight of the vertex situated at the intersection of the ith horizontal and jth vertical lines. The summation $\sum_i$ of the product of the statistical weight $\prod_j W_{ij}$ is because the energy of a particular fixed configuration of arrows for a given six-vertex model equals the summation of all the energies of the incoming individual vertices to the configuration. About atmospheric science, some important variables are:

* **Temperature**: this variable could be tied to the energy associated with different vertex configurations. Regions of higher temperatures might be represented by configurations with more inward arrows (signifying accumulation of heat).

* **Pressure**: the pressure variable could be associated with how tightly or loosely packed the configurations are, as pressure often correlates with air density.
* **Windspeed and Humidity:** these are important represented by configurations that show how air and moisture flow from one vertex to another. The direction and flow strength could represent windspeed and humidity transport.

By computing the partition function, one can determine *average properties* like mean temperature, mean windspeed, or mean humidity in a given region, since these will depend on the dominant configurations in the system.

Therefore, the six-vertex model provides a discrete, grid-based framework to model atmospheric variables such as temperature, pressure, windspeed, and humidity. By interpreting the arrows as flows of energy, air, or moisture, and using the partition function to weigh different configurations, we can derive statistical properties of the atmosphere in a simplified but powerful way.

This kind of approach is useful for understanding the collective behaviour of atmospheric systems, particularly in a statistical or coarse-grained sense. While the six-vertex model cannot capture all the complexities of the atmosphere (which is governed by much more complex equations, like the Navier-Stokes equations), it offers a valuable framework for understanding certain types of flow and balance in the system.

## Partition Function and its Application in Meteorology

As we previously explained the partition function is a key concept in statistical mechanics that helps us understand the behaviour of systems by summing over all possible states, weighted by their corresponding energies. We use the partition function to determine average properties like mean temperature, mean windspeed, or mean humidity.

Now, let's walk through a real-world scenario that's slightly unusual but illustrative for computing the partition function and using it to determine average properties.

### Case Study: Average Properties in a Greenhouse Ecosystem

Consider a *Greenhouse* that is used to grow various plants. The greenhouse is a controlled environment, but it still experiences variations in temperature, humidity, and airflow (windspeed). These environmental variables are crucial for plant growth. We'll use the partition function to model this environment, calculating the average temperature, wind speed, and humidity.

### Environmental States in the Greenhouse

The greenhouse can exist in different states depending on the external conditions and its internal systems (heating, ventilation, misting system). For simplicity, let's assume that there are three distinct states:

1. **State 1:** Cool temperature, low wind speed, high humidity.

2. **State 2:** Moderate temperature, high wind speed, moderate humidity.

3. **State 3:** Hot temperature, moderate wind speed, low humidity.

Each state has an associated energy, which is influenced by the temperature, humidity, and wind speed in that state.

Given Data:

* State 1: $E(s_1) = 5J$ (Cool, low wind, high humidity)

* State 2: $E(s_2) = 8J$ (Moderate temperature, high wind, moderate humidity)

* State 3: $E(s_3) = 3J$ (Hot, moderate wind, low humidity)

* Temperature of the system $T = 298J$ (approximate room temperature in energy units)

## Computation of the Partition Function

The partition function sums the contributions of each state:

For each state:
* For $s_1$:

$$W_1 = \exp(-E(s_1)/T) = \exp(-5/298) \approx 0.9834$$

* For $s_2$:

$$W_2 = \exp(-E(s_2)/T) = \exp(-8/298) \approx 0.9732$$

* For $s_3$:

$$W_3 = \exp(-E(s_3)/T) = \exp(-3/298) \approx 0.9899$$

Now, summing this contribution

$$Z(s) = 0.9834 + 0.9732 + 0.9899 = 2.9465$$

## Computation of the Probability of Each State

The probability $p(s)$ of each state is given by:

$$p(s) = \frac{\exp(-E(s))}{Z(s)}$$

* For $s_1$:

$$p(s_1) = \frac{0.9834}{2.9465} \approx 0.3337$$

* For $s_2$:

$$p(s_2) = \frac{0.9732}{2.9465} \approx 0.3303$$

* For $s_3$:

$$p(s_3) = \frac{0.9899}{2.9465} \approx 0.3360$$

Thus, the system is almost equally likely to be in any of the three states.

## Computation of Average Temperature, Windspeed, and Humidity

Now, let's compute the average temperature, windspeed, and humidity using the probabilities derived from the partition function.

### Average Temperature

Assume the following temperatures for the states:

* $T_1=290K$ (cool)

* $T_2 = 298K$ (moderate)

* $T_3=305K$ (hot)

The average temperature $\langle T \rangle$ is the sum of the weighted temperatures:

$$\langle T \rangle = p(s_1)T_1 + p(s_2)T_2 + p(s_3)T_3$$

Substitute the values:

$$\langle T \rangle = 0.3337 \times 290 + 0.3303 \times 298 + 0.3360 \times 305$$

$$\langle T \rangle = 96.77+98.43+102.48=297.68K$$

So, the **average temperature** in the greenhouse is approximately 297.68K or $24.53^\circ C$

### Average Windspeed

Assume the following wind speeds for the states:

* $v_1=1m/s$ (low wind),

* $v_2=3m/s$ (high wind),

* $v_3=2m/s$ (moderate wind).

The average windspeed $\langle v \rangle$ is

$$\langle v \rangle = p(s_1)v_1 + p(s_2)v_2 + p(s_3)v_3$$

Substitute the values:
$$ \langle v \rangle = 0.3337 \times 1 + 0.3303 \times 3 + 0.3360 \times 2 $$

$$ \langle v \rangle = 0.3337 + 0.9909 + 0.6720 = 1.9966 \, \text{m/s} $$

So, the average windspeed in the greenhouse is approximately 2.0 m/s

## Average Humidity

Assume the following humidity levels for the states:

* H₁=80% (high humidity),

* H₂=60% (moderate humidity),

* H₃=40% (low humidity).

The average humidity $\langle H \rangle$:

$$ \langle H \rangle = p(s_1)H_1 + p(s_2)H_2 + p(s_3)H_3 $$

Substitute the values:

$$ \langle H \rangle = 0.3337 \times 80 + 0.3303 \times 60 + 0.3360 \times 40 $$

$$ \langle H \rangle = 26.70 + 19.82 + 13.44 = 59.96\% $$

So, the **average humidity** in the greenhouse is approximately 60%.

So, as we can see in this example, we modelled a greenhouse with three possible environmental states using the partition function. From this, we computed the probabilities of each state and used them to find the **average temperature** (297.68 K or 24.53°C), **average windspeed** (2.0 m/s), and **average humidity** (60%).

The partition function allowed us to understand how the system behaves under different energy conditions and predict its average properties, which is essential for managing controlled environments like greenhouses.

## The partition function for the six-vertex model

The partition function for the vertex model as derived is given as

$$ Z_N = \sum_{i=1}^{m} \prod_{j=1}^{n} W_{ij} $$

for a state $s_i$

Now, to derive statistical properties of the atmosphere using the six-vertex model, where the arrows represent flows of energy, air, or moisture, we will need to interpret each vertex configuration and use the partition function to calculate the collective behaviour of these flows. This will allow us to approximate the behaviour of key atmospheric variables like temperature, pressure, windspeed, and humidity.

From the above Fig (2.3) we want to interpret in an Atmospheric Context:

### Possible Interpretations in Atmospheric Context

* **Arrows as Energy Flow:** Arrows pointing into a vertex represent **heat (energy) entering** that point in the atmosphere, while arrows pointing out represent **energy leaving**.

* **Arrows as Air Flow (Windspeed):** Similarly, arrows can represent **airflow** (wind). Arrows entering a vertex signify **wind blowing into that location**, while arrows leaving represent **wind blowing out**.

* **Arrows as Moisture Flow (Humidity):** For moisture, arrows pointing into the vertex mean **moisture is increasing** (e.g., through condensation or rain), and arrows pointing out indicate **moisture is decreasing** (e.g., evaporation or movement of dry air).

### Assigning Energies to Configurations

Each configuration at a vertex has a different "energy," depending on the flow of energy, air, or moisture. This energy can be related to physical phenomena like temperature differences, pressure gradients, or wind strength. We'll denote the energy of a configuration as $E_i$, where $i$ corresponds to one of the six configurations.

We can introduce a few rules:

* **High energy (unstable configurations):** Arrows pointing in from all sides (leading to a buildup of energy or air) can represent high-pressure areas or hot spots.
* **Low energy (stable configurations):** Arrows flowing in a balanced way (for example, half the arrows entering, half leaving) represent more stable configurations like normal wind flow or balanced temperature exchange.

Example of Energy Assignment:

1. **Configuration 1 (↑↓):** Balanced flows, no buildup. Low energy $E_1$.

2. **Configuration 2 (←↓↑):** Same as Configuration 1, also low energy $E_2$.

3. **Configuration 3 (↑↓→):** Wind or energy flowing in a single direction, higher energy $E_3$.

4. **Configuration 4 (↓↑←):** Opposite of Configuration 3, higher energy $E_4$.

5. **Configuration 5 (←↓↑→):** Cross-flow of wind or moisture, medium energy $E_5$.

6. **Configuration 6 (↑←↓→):** Similar to Configuration 5, medium energy $E_6$.

## DERIVATION OF THE STATISTICAL PROPERTIES

By calculating the partition function, we can derive macroscopic properties of the atmosphere. Here's how:

1. **Temperature (T):**

* Temperature is related to the average energy in the system. Using the partition function, we calculate the average energy as:

$$ \langle E \rangle = -\frac{\partial \ln Z}{\partial \beta}, \text{ where } \beta = \frac{1}{kT} $$

This gives us an estimate of how temperature evolves based on the configuration of flows.

2. **Pressure (P):**

* Pressure can be modelled as related to the number of arrows pointing into or out of a vertex (compression or expansion of air). A vertex with many arrows pointing in (buildup) represents high pressure, while arrows pointing out (dispersion) represent low pressure.

Using the partition function, we can calculate the probability of high-pressure configurations by examining how often vertices have inward-pointing arrows.

3. **Windspeed (V):**

* Windspeed is proportional to the direction and magnitude of the arrows at each vertex. Configurations, where arrows point predominantly in one direction (strong flow), represent high winds.

* We can compute the average windspeed by calculating the expectation value of configurations with aligned arrows, again using the partition function.

4. **Humidity (H):**

* Humidity is related to the flow of moisture, which can be interpreted as configurations where arrows carry "moisture" into or out of vertices. The average humidity can be derived by weighting configurations where moisture accumulates (inward arrows) or disperses (outward arrows)

For example: Let's imagine a simplified lattice with only three vertices and assume simple energy values for each configuration:

* Configurations 1 and 2: Low energy

$$ E = 1 $$

* Configurations 3 and 4: Medium energy

$$ E = 2 $$

* Configurations 5 and 6: High energy

$$ E = 3 $$

For each vertex, we calculate the partition function:

$$ Z = e^{-\frac{1}{kT}} + e^{-\frac{1}{kT}} + e^{-\frac{2}{kT}} + e^{-\frac{2}{kT}} + e^{-\frac{3}{kT}} + e^{-\frac{3}{kT}} $$
This gives us the probability of each configuration occurring, from which we derive the **average temperature, pressure, windspeed, and humidity**.

As we can see, using the six-vertex model, we can map atmospheric properties like **temperature, pressure, windspeed, and humidity** to different configurations of arrows. The partition function allows us to calculate the statistical properties of the atmosphere by summing over all configurations and determining the average behaviour of energy, air, and moisture flows. This approach, while simplified, provides insight into the complex, interconnected behaviours of atmospheric variables systematically and mathematically.

## Partition Function and Its Role

The partition function is a central concept in statistical mechanics that allows us to calculate the overall properties of a system by summing over all possible states, weighted by their energies. In this case, the system is a greenhouse with three distinct environmental states, each with associated energy values:

*   State 1: Cool temperature, low wind speed, high humidity.

*   State 2: Moderate temperature, high windspeed, moderate humidity.

*   State 3: Hot temperature, moderate windspeed, low humidity.

By using the partition function, we can determine how likely the system is to be in each of these states, and then use that information to calculate average properties like temperature, windspeed, and humidity.

## Computed Probabilities of States

The probabilities of the system being in each state are calculated using the partition function:

*   P(s1) ≈ 0.3333 (33.33%)

*   P(s2) ≈ 0.3300 (33%)

*   P(s3) ≈ 0.3367 (33.67%)

These values show that the system is almost equally likely to be in any of the three states, with slightly more probability of being in State 3 (the hot state) than in State 1 (the cool state) or State 2 (the moderate state). This indicates a near-even distribution of environmental conditions within the greenhouse, with no one state dominating the system's behaviour.

## Average Temperature Interpretation

The average temperature is computed using the weighted temperatures of each state:

*   T1 = 290 K (cool state),

*   T2 = 298 K (moderate state),

*   T3 = 305 K (hot state).

The resulting average temperature is 297.68 K (24.53°C), which falls between the moderate and hot states. This suggests that the greenhouse, over time, tends to maintain a temperature slightly higher than room temperature but not extremely hot. This average value reflects the combined influences of all three states, showing that the greenhouse is moderately warm on average, with some variation between cooler and hotter states.

## Average Windspeed Interpretation

The windspeed for each state is:

*   v1 = 1 m/s (low windspeed in cool state),

*   v2 = 3 m/s (high windspeed in moderate state),

*   v3 = 2 m/s (moderate windspeed in hot state).

The computed average windspeed is 2.0 m/s, which is closer to the windspeed of the moderate and hot states (2–3 m/s). This suggests that, on average, the greenhouse experiences moderate airflow, which is essential for regulating temperature and distributing humidity evenly.

## Average Humidity Interpretation

The humidity levels for each state are:

*   H1 = 80% (high humidity in cool state),
H2 = 60% (moderate humidity in moderate state),

H3 = 40% (low humidity in hot state).

The average humidity is computed as 60%, which aligns with the moderate humidity of State 2. This reflects a balance between the high humidity in the cool state and the low humidity in the hot state. It suggests that the greenhouse maintains a comfortable level of humidity, likely suitable for plant growth, without being too dry or too humid.

## Overall Interpretation

The overall results indicate that the greenhouse tends to stay balanced, with slight variations in temperature, windspeed, and humidity depending on external factors or internal controls. The near-equal probabilities for each state indicate that none of the states overwhelmingly dominate the system, leading to a stable environment with average values close to the moderate state.

**Temperature:** The average temperature is warm, slightly above room temperature, which could be ideal for many plant species.

**Windspeed:** Moderate windspeed ensures adequate air circulation without causing stress to plants from high winds.

**Humidity:** The average humidity of 60% is within a range that supports plant growth without creating conditions for excessive moisture (which could promote Mold or disease) or dryness (which could stress the plants).

## Connection to the Six-Vertex Model

In the context of the six-vertex model, the partition function sums over all possible configurations (or states) of the system, where each configuration corresponds to a particular arrangement of arrows (representing the flow of air, moisture, or energy). In this case:

Temperature might be represented by configurations with more inward arrows, indicating higher energy (heat accumulation).

Pressure could correlate with how tightly the configurations are packed, reflecting air density.

Windspeed and humidity are captured by the direction and strength of the arrows, showing how air and moisture flow between vertices (grid points).

This approach offers a simplified framework for modelling the greenhouse environment and could be extended to more complex atmospheric systems, like weather patterns or climate models. The six-vertex model, while abstract, provides a statistical method to predict average environmental properties and their collective behaviour, even in systems as dynamic as the atmosphere or a controlled greenhouse.

## Climate Variables Calculations in Matrix form

To represent the given data and computational method for climate variables in matrix form, we need to define each of the relevant matrices and explain how the calculation is performed. The context involves lattice weights $W_{ij}$ (which contributes to the partition function $Z_N$), and climate variables such as pressure, precipitation, temperature, and wind speed that are associated with each vertex on the lattice.

### Step-by-Step Representation:

Let us assume we are working on a lattice grid of size $n \times m$, where:

* $W=[w_{ij}]$ is the weight matrix (for partition function).

* $P=[p_{ij}]$ is the matrix for **Pressure** at each point on the lattice.

* $T=[T_{ij}]$ is the matrix for **Temperature**.

* $V=[v_{ij}]$ is the matrix for **Windspeed**.

* $Z_N$ is the partition function, typically computed by summing the product of weights across the lattice.

### The formula for Temperature:

The given formula for **Temperature** is:
$$T_j = \frac{\sum w_{sj} T_j}{Z_N}$$

Here:

* $W_j$ refers to the statistical weights associated with the vertices.

* $T_j$ represents the temperature at each vertex.

* $Z_N$ is the partition function given by:

$$Z_N = \sum W(s_j)$$

This is a general format for calculating the weighted average of temperature across the lattice.

Similarly, the same approach can be applied to other climate variables like pressure, precipitation, and wind speed.

### Matrices Representation:

For clarity, we represent the climate variables as matrices corresponding to lattice points, and the calculation for each follows a similar pattern. Let's assume we have the following 3x3 grid of points:

#### 1. Weight Matrix (W):

$$W = \begin{bmatrix} w_{11} & w_{12} & w_{13} \\ w_{21} & w_{22} & w_{23} \\ w_{31} & w_{32} & w_{33} \end{bmatrix}$$

#### 2. Temperature Matrix (T):

$$T = \begin{bmatrix} T_{11} & T_{12} & T_{13} \\ T_{21} & T_{22} & T_{23} \\ T_{31} & T_{32} & T_{33} \end{bmatrix}$$

#### 3. Pressure Matrix (P):

$$p = \begin{bmatrix} p_{11} & p_{12} & p_{13} \\ p_{21} & p_{22} & p_{23} \\ p_{31} & p_{32} & p_{33} \end{bmatrix}$$

#### 4. Windspeed Matrix (V):

$$V = \begin{bmatrix} v_{11} & v_{12} & v_{13} \\ v_{21} & v_{22} & v_{23} \\ v_{31} & v_{32} & v_{33} \end{bmatrix}$$

#### Partition Function $Z_N$:

The partition function $Z_N$ is the sum of all weights in the matrix $W$:

$$Z_N = \sum_{i=1}^{3} \sum_{j=1}^{3} w_{ij} = w_{11} + w_{12} + \cdots + w_{33}$$

#### Weighted Average for Temperature:

The weighted average temperature $T_{avg}$ can be computed as:

$$T_{avg} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{3} \sum_{j=1}^{3} W_{ij} T_{ij}}{Z_N} = \frac{w_{11}T_{11} + w_{12}T_{12} + \cdots + w_{33}T_{33}}{Z_N}$$
Weighted Average for Pressure:

Similarly, the weighted average pressure $P_{avg}$ is:

$$P_{avg} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{3} \sum_{j=1}^{3} W_{ij} P_{ij}}{Z_{N}} = \frac{w_{11}P_{11} + w_{12}P_{12} + \cdots + w_{33}P_{33}}{Z_{N}}$$

Weighted Average for Windspeed:

For wind speed, the average $V_{avg}$ is:

$$P_{avg} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{3} \sum_{j=1}^{3} W_{ij} V_{ij}}{Z_{N}} = \frac{w_{11}V_{11} + w_{12}V_{12} + \cdots + w_{33}V_{33}}{Z_{N}}$$

Example Calculation:

Consider the following specific matrices for an example:

### 1. Weights (W)

$$W = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 3 & 1 \\ 2 & 1 & 2 \end{bmatrix}$$

$$Z_{N} = 1 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 3 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 = 14$$

### 2. Temperature (T):

$$T = \begin{bmatrix} 300 & 295 & 310 \\ 285 & 290 & 300 \\ 305 & 280 & 295 \end{bmatrix}$$

Thus, the weighted average temperature is:

$$T_{avg} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{3} \sum_{j=1}^{3} W_{ij} T_{ij}}{Z_{N}} = \frac{w_{11}T_{11} + w_{12}T_{12} + \cdots + w_{33}T_{33}}{Z_{N}}$$

$$T_{avg} = \frac{1 \times 300 + 2 \times 295 + 1 \times 310 + 1 \times 285 + 3 \times 290 + 1 \times 300 + 2 \times 305 + 1 \times 280 + 2 \times 295}{14}$$

$$T_{avg} = \frac{300 + 590 + 310 + 285 + 870 + 300 + 610 + 280 + 590}{14} = \frac{4135}{14} \approx 295.36$$

Similarly, one can calculate the weighted averages for pressure and windspeed using their respective matrices.

## CLIMATE ANALYSIS: SIX-VERTEX FORMULATION.

Suppose $M = [a_{ij}]$ and $W = [w_{ij}]$ for $i, j = 1, \dots, m$ are respectively the climate variable and weighted-climate matrices. Let us consider the scenario in which the climate variables $V_k$ for kth-states. Let us assume that at each node $(i, j)$ there is a corresponding weight matrix $W = [W_{ij}]$, for $i, j = 1, \dots, n$, which assumes the form:
$$W_{ij} = \begin{bmatrix} W_{11} & W_{12} & W_{13} & \cdots & W_{1n} \\ W_{21} & W_{22} & W_{23} & \cdots & W_{2n} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ W_{n1} & W_{n2} & W_{n3} & \cdots & W_{nn} \end{bmatrix}$$

The partition function for a single-state variable $s_k$ is given as

$$Z_N(s_k) = \sum_{j=1}^{m} \prod_{i=1}^{n} W_{ij}, \quad k = 1, \dots, N$$

for a state $s_k$ whose corresponding probability matrix is given by

$$P(s_k) = \frac{W_{ij}}{Z_N}$$

with the division being element-wise. This process generates a stochastic matrix of the form

$$P_r = [P_{ij}] = \begin{bmatrix} P_{11} & P_{12} & P_{13} & \cdots & P_{1n} \\ P_{21} & P_{22} & P_{23} & \cdots & P_{2n} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ P_{n1} & P_{n2} & P_{n3} & \cdots & P_{nn} \end{bmatrix}$$

Given a random matrix containing corresponding climate state data at each node $(i, j)$, say

$$A = [a_{ij}], \text{ for } i, j = 1, \dots, n,$$

$$A = \begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} & a_{13} & \cdots & a_{1n} \\ a_{21} & a_{22} & a_{23} & \cdots & a_{2n} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ a_{n1} & a_{n2} & a_{n3} & \cdots & a_{nn} \end{bmatrix}$$

we construct the average climate state variable as a vector $V = [V_k]$ for $k = 1, \dots, n$.

This matrix representation and calculation process provides a way to compute the weighted averages of climate variables such as temperature, pressure, and windspeed over a lattice. The weights contribute to the partition function $Z_N$ and each climate variable can be computed similarly by plugging the respective matrix values into the formula.

The vector $V$ is represented as a sum of the rows of the product of the probability matrix and climate data matrix $A$ such that

$$\begin{aligned} V_k &= \sum_{i=1}^{n} \left[ \sum_{j=1}^{n} P_{ij} \cdot A_{jk} \right] \\ &= (P_{11} + P_{21} + \cdots + P_{n1})A_{1k} + (P_{12} + P_{22} + \cdots + P_{n2})A_{2k} + \cdots \\ &\quad + (P_{1n} + P_{2n} + \cdots + P_{nn})A_{nk}. \end{aligned}$$

represents the average state of the climate variable for $k = 1, \dots, n$.
As the matrix $P_r$ is probabilistic, we must ensure that it is doubly stochastic, that is

$$ \sum_{i} P_{ij} = 1, \quad \sum_{j} P_{ij} = 1, \quad 0 \le P_{ij} \le 1 \quad \forall i, j. $$

To ensure this the matrix $P_r$ needs to be scaled appropriately using the Sinkhorn-Knopp algorithm. We apply the above scenario on randomly generated Climate Matrices and provide the plot of the above of the underlying variable.

<figure><img src="image_40.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1.1. showing the above Temperature for 150 states.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_41.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1.2. The variation of the average climate variables: temperature, precipitation, wind speed and Pressure concerning the number of states.</figcaption></figure>

Considering other possible climate variables such as precipitation, pressure, ..., in Figure 1.2, we illustrate how the variables vary in response to their corresponding weights and probabilities. In Figure 1.2, it can be observed that the nature of the climate state variables behaves remarkably well according to their possible ranges. This remarks the evidence that the six-vertex model stands a chance in modelling appropriate average state properties of climate variables. Furthermore, the probability matrix plays a vital role in the determination of the variable states.

## Variance and Correlation Analysis

Another striking evidence that the six-vertex model is good for climatic study is the measure of the variation of these climate variables. Thus we define the weighted average of each variable and compute the variance

$$ \sigma_i^2 = \sum_{j=1}^{n} P_{ij} (A_{ji} - W_{ji}^a)^2 $$

for $W_{ji}^a$ being the elements of the weighted average matrix.
<figure><img src="image_42.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1.3. Variance of the climate variables for the number of states.</figcaption></figure>

With the matrices being random, the tendency of accumulation of error is high. The information is represented in Fig. 1.3. is merely for implementation, though may have represented reality in some sense. The expectation would be to have a minimal measure of uncertainty (variance) when the real-world data is given and dealt with.

The variance studies indicated which climate variables exhibited the most stability or variability within the system. This can be related to real-world phenomena where some atmospheric components are highly dynamic (e.g., wind speed) while others (e.g., pressure) may remain more stable over time.

**Correlation Analysis:**

The correlation analysis revealed that certain climate variables exhibit strong interdependencies, suggesting underlying relationships that are important for understanding atmospheric dynamics. For example, correlations between temperature and humidity or wind speed and pressure may offer insights into larger climate systems like weather fronts or circulation patterns.

In searching for the relationship between these four underlying variables, Temperature, precipitation, pressure and windspeed, it is useful to carry out the correlation analysis. Based on the average values of the climate variable generated from the randomly generated data matrices, we give the heat map plots of the correlation matrix. The label as shown in Fig. 1.4. represents the level of correlations between 0 and 1. Here, 1 represents highly correlated and 0 meaning unrelated. As the data matrices are randomly generated, it is not surprising that not much is gained from the graph. However, real-world data would be an interesting example to explore the reliability of our implementations.
<figure><img src="image_43.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1.4. The plot of the correlation matrix showing the possible relations of the four climate variables.</figcaption></figure>

## SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND FURTHER STUDIES

In this research work, we have explored the potentiality of the six-vertex model in modelling the dynamics of the atmosphere. The climate variables are modelled based on the six-vertex structure, and various analyses such as partition functions, correlation analysis, and variance studies were carried out. While the six-vertex model, originally developed in statistical mechanics, provides a framework for studying systems with discrete states that can represent various configurations.

Climate variables such as temperature, pressure, humidity, wind speed, and others were modelled using randomly generated matrices following the structure of the six-vertex model. These matrices encapsulate different states or interactions between atmospheric elements at different grid points in space.

The partition function, a key concept in statistical mechanics, was used to derive ensemble averages of climate variables. This function provides a way to calculate the likelihood of various configurations of the system and can be used to estimate the expected values of climate parameters over large datasets.

Correlation analysis was performed to explore the relationships between the stated different climate variables within the realm of the six-vertex model. This allowed for the identification of significant patterns and dependencies in the atmospheric dynamics. Variance analysis helped to study the variability within the system and provided insights into the stability or fluctuations of the climate variables in the context of the six-vertex model.

The six-vertex model offered a novel approach to studying the dynamics of climate systems. In our settings, it provides a unique perspective on how climate variables might interact in a discrete state system, similar to how lattice models are used to describe physical phenomena in other domains.

We understand the effectiveness of the partition function is as expected. It proved to be an effective tool for averaging climate variables across the system. By using the partition function, the study was able to derive meaningful statistical properties of the climate variables, offering insights into the equilibrium states of the atmospheric system modelled.
## Possible Further Studies

Future studies could involve refining the six-vertex model to better represent real-world atmospheric conditions. This could include using real climate data (e.g., historical temperature or pressure records) instead of randomly generated matrices to better assess the model's predictive power.

The model could be expanded to include external forcings such as solar radiation, greenhouse gas concentrations, or oceanic influences, which play significant roles in atmospheric dynamics. This would enhance the model's applicability to more complex and realistic atmospheric systems.

Comparing the six-vertex model with other models used in atmospheric sciences, such as general circulation models (GCMs) or mesoscale models, could help us in the proper assessment of the relative strengths and weaknesses. This would allow for the identification of cases where the six-vertex approach is most beneficial or where traditional models may outperform it.

Furthermore, exploring the evolution of the model over time and space would lead to a better understanding of climate variability, seasonality as well as long-time behaviour.

Finally, the six-vertex model, while primarily a tool from statistical mechanics, offers a novel framework for understanding atmospheric dynamics. By applying concepts like the partition function to climate variables, this approach allows for new ways to analyze interdependencies and variability within climate systems.

## REFERENCES

* Lieb, Elliott H. "Exact solution of the problem of the entropy of two-dimensional ice." *Physical Review Letters* 18.17 (1967): 692.

* R. Baxter (1972). Partition function of the eight-vertex lattice model. *Annals of Physics*, 70(1):193-228,1972

* J. Baxter (2016). Exactly solved models in statistical mechanics. *Elsevier*, 2016.

* Baxter, R. J. (1982). *Exactly Solved Models in Statistical Mechanics*. Academic Press. — A comprehensive text on the six-vertex model and its applications in statistical mechanics.

* Bethe, H. A. (1931). *Eigenvalue and eigenfunction for the linear atomic chain*.

* Gilbert, W. (2023). The atmosphere and its role in sustaining life on Earth. *Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health*, 13(4), 1.

* Vallis, G. K. (2017). *Atmospheric and Oceanic Fluid Dynamics: Fundamentals and Large-Scale Circulation*. Cambridge University Press

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## Chapter Twenty

# Formwork Waste in Building Construction in Rivers State: An Analysis of Causes, Impacts and Mitigation Strategies

Chima Ichendu; Dennis Ejike Amadi

Captain Elechi Amadi Polytechnic, Rumuola, P.M.B 5936. Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

EMAIL: chimabright@yahoo.com

## ABSTRACT

Formwork, during building construction, plays a crucial role in shaping structures. Despite its essential function, formwork generates significant waste, especially in areas with high construction activities, such as Rivers State, Nigeria. This study investigates the extent, causes, and impacts of formwork waste in Rivers State, aiming to provide actionable recommendations for waste reduction and sustainable construction practices. A comprehensive methodology combining both primary and secondary data collection methods was adopted. Field surveys were conducted at various construction sites to measure and document formwork waste. Structured interviews with construction managers, site workers, and waste management officials provided qualitative insights into the current practices and challenges. Additionally, a thorough review of existing literature, including academic papers, industry reports, and case studies, was undertaken to contextualize the findings within broader research. The analysis revealed that formwork waste constitutes 20-30% of total construction waste in the region. Major factors contributing to this waste include improper handling and storage of materials, frequent design changes during construction, inadequate planning, and poor initial design. The study identified significant environmental impacts, such as deforestation, pollution, resource depletion, and economic consequences, including increased project costs due to the need for additional materials and waste disposal. To mitigate formwork waste, the study recommends several strategies: improving planning and design processes to ensure accurate initial designs and minimize changes during construction; using high-quality, durable materials that can withstand multiple uses; providing comprehensive training for construction workers on efficient formwork usage and waste reduction techniques; and implementing systems for recycling and reusing formwork materials. Developing a robust infrastructure for managing construction waste, including proper disposal and recycling facilities, is also essential. This research highlights the urgent need for sustainable practices and effective waste management in the construction industry in Rivers State. By adopting the proposed recommendations, stakeholders can significantly reduce formwork waste, promoting more sustainable and cost-effective construction practices in the region.

KEYWORDS: Formwork; Waste; Construction; Deforestation; Pollution

## INTRODUCTION

The construction industry is a significant driver of economic growth and development worldwide, contributing substantially to the GDP of many countries. In Nigeria, and specifically in Rivers State, the construction sector plays a pivotal role in economic activities due to the state's oil-rich economy and rapid urbanization (Oladipo & Ojo, 2019). However, alongside its economic benefits, the construction industry is a major contributor to environmental degradation through the generation of vast amounts of waste. Among the various types of construction waste, formwork waste is particularly significant due to its volume and the environmental impacts associated with its disposal (Abubakar & Mohammed, 2018). Formwork is the temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete is poured to achieve the desired shape and support until the concrete can support itself. The materials commonly used for formwork include timber, plywood, steel, aluminum, and plastic. Timber and plywood are the most frequently used materials due to their availability and cost-effectiveness. However, the use of these materials generates considerable waste, primarily because they are often damaged during construction and are not always reused effectively (Eze & Onu, 2020).
In Rivers State, the rapid pace of urbanization and construction activities exacerbates the challenge of managing formwork waste. The state's burgeoning construction sector has led to an increased demand for housing, infrastructure, and commercial buildings. This demand has resulted in extensive use of formwork, which, if not managed properly, contributes significantly to the overall construction waste (Uzoechi, 2018). The improper disposal of formwork materials can lead to severe environmental consequences, including land, air, and water pollution, which in turn disrupts local ecosystems (Nwankwoala, 2015). Environmental pollution is a critical issue associated with formwork waste. When formwork materials such as timber and plywood are disposed of improperly, they contribute to land pollution by occupying significant landfill space and potentially releasing harmful substances into the soil. Additionally, the burning of formwork materials as a disposal method can result in air pollution, releasing pollutants such as carbon monoxide and particulate matter into the atmosphere. Water pollution can occur when formwork materials are discarded into water bodies, leading to the contamination of water resources (Eze et al., 2019). These environmental impacts highlight the need for effective waste management practices to mitigate the adverse effects of formwork waste.

Another significant problem arising from formwork waste is the increased cost of construction projects. Inefficient use of formwork materials leads to higher project costs due to the need for additional materials and the expenses associated with waste disposal. The financial burden of managing formwork waste can strain project budgets and reduce overall profitability (Adebayo, S. O., Ogunbayo, B. F., & Adeoye, B. T. 2017). This inefficiency is often due to poor planning, lack of skilled labour, and inadequate training on the proper use and reuse of formwork materials. Furthermore, the extensive use of timber for formwork places considerable pressure on natural resources. Timber harvesting for construction purposes contributes to deforestation, which in turn leads to loss of biodiversity, disruption of ecosystems, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. The depletion of natural resources due to unsustainable harvesting practices underscores the importance of finding alternative materials and methods for formwork that are more environmentally friendly and sustainable (Eze & Onu, 2020).

The infrastructure for managing construction waste in Rivers State is also inadequate. The lack of proper facilities and practices for waste segregation, recycling, and disposal exacerbates the environmental and economic challenges posed by formwork waste. Effective waste management infrastructure is essential to handle the large volumes of waste generated by the construction industry and to promote sustainable construction practices (Amadi & John, 2021). In response to these challenges, this study aims to investigate the scope and impact of formwork waste in building construction within Rivers State. The objectives of the study are to quantify the volume of formwork waste produced in typical construction projects, identify the primary causes of formwork waste, assess the environmental and economic impacts of formwork waste, and recommend practical measures for minimizing formwork waste. By addressing these objectives, the study seeks to provide actionable insights that can help stakeholders in the construction industry adopt more sustainable practices and reduce the negative impacts of formwork waste.

This study employs a comprehensive methodology that includes both primary and secondary data collection. Primary data are collected through field surveys at various construction sites to measure and document formwork waste, as well as structured interviews with construction managers, site workers, and waste management officials to gain qualitative insights into current practices and challenges. Secondary data are obtained from existing literature, including academic papers, industry reports, and case studies, to contextualize the findings within broader research (Oladipo, 2020). The data collected are analyzed using statistical tools and qualitative analysis methods. Descriptive statistics summarize and describe the features of the collected data, while inferential statistics, including hypothesis testing using t-tests and ANOVA, determine if there are statistically significant differences in formwork waste generation based on different variables. Regression analysis identifies the relationship between formwork waste and various independent variables. Thematic analysis is applied to qualitative data from interviews to identify recurring themes and patterns, and correlation analysis examines the strength and direction of relationships between different variables (Bryman, 2016). Management of formwork waste is a critical issue for the construction industry in Rivers State. Addressing this challenge requires
a multifaceted approach that includes improved planning and design, the use of high-quality and durable materials, comprehensive training for construction workers, and the development of robust waste management infrastructure. By implementing these strategies, stakeholders can reduce formwork waste, minimize environmental impacts, and enhance the sustainability of construction practices in the region.

**Statement of the problem**

Rivers State faces several critical issues related to formwork waste. Improper disposal of formwork materials contributes to land, air, and water pollution, disrupting local ecosystems (Nwankwoala, 2015). Inefficiencies in formwork usage lead to increased project costs due to material wastage and disposal expenses (Adebayo et al., 2017). The extensive use of timber and other materials for formwork exerts pressure on natural resources, leading to deforestation and resource scarcity (Eze & Onu, 2020). Additionally, inadequate infrastructure and practices for managing construction waste exacerbate environmental and economic challenges (Amadi & John, 2021).

**Aim and Objectives**

This study aims to investigate the scope and impact of formwork waste in building construction within Rivers State and propose strategies for its reduction. The specific objectives are to: Quantify the volume of formwork waste produced in typical construction projects. Identify the primary causes of formwork waste. Assess the environmental and economic impacts of formwork waste. Recommend practical measures for minimizing formwork waste.

**Study Area: Rivers State, Nigeria**

Rivers State, located in the southern part of Nigeria, serves as a key economic and industrial hub of the country. The state's strategic importance is underscored by its rich natural resources, particularly crude oil, which has significantly influenced its rapid urbanization and industrial growth. This study focuses on Rivers State to analyze the causes, impacts, and mitigation strategies for formwork waste in building construction, providing a representative analysis that can offer insights for other rapidly developing regions.

<figure><img src="image_44.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Rivers State (Source: Uzoechi, 2018)</figcaption></figure>

**Geographic and Demographic Overview**

Rivers State is one of Nigeria's 36 states, situated in the Niger Delta region, an area renowned for its vast oil reserves and diverse ecosystems. The state covers an area of approximately 11,077 square kilometres and is bordered by Imo, Abia, and Anambra states to the north, Akwa Ibom State to the east,
and Bayelsa and Delta states to the west, with the Atlantic Ocean to the south (Uzoechi, 2018). The capital city, Port Harcourt, is a major commercial and industrial centre, often referred to as the "Garden City" due to its extensive green spaces and well-planned layout. As of the 2006 census, Rivers State had a population of over 5 million people, with a significant increase projected in subsequent years due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. The state's population is diverse, comprising various ethnic groups, including the Ikwerre, Ijaw, Ogoni, and Kalabari, among others. This demographic diversity contributes to the rich cultural heritage of the region but also presents unique challenges in terms of urban planning and resource management (Nwankwoala, 2015).

The economy of Rivers State is predominantly driven by the oil and gas industry, which accounts for a substantial portion of Nigeria's foreign exchange earnings. The presence of multinational oil companies has spurred economic activities in the region, leading to the development of infrastructure, housing, and various commercial enterprises. Besides oil and gas, other significant economic activities include agriculture, fishing, and trading. However, the focus on oil extraction has often overshadowed these sectors, leading to an over-reliance on petroleum revenues (Oladipo & Ojo, 2019).

Rivers State has experienced rapid urbanization, particularly in Port Harcourt and its environs. This urbanization is driven by the influx of people seeking employment and better living conditions, resulting in increased demand for housing, infrastructure, and public services. Consequently, the construction industry has boomed, with numerous residential, commercial, and industrial projects underway to meet the growing needs of the population (Abubakar & Mohammed, 2018).

The rapid industrialization and urbanization in Rivers State have led to significant environmental challenges. One of the most pressing issues is pollution, particularly from oil spills, gas flaring, and industrial discharges, which have adversely affected air, water, and soil quality. The Niger Delta, including Rivers State, is one of the most polluted regions globally due to oil extraction activities (Eze et al., 2019). In addition to oil-related pollution, the construction industry contributes significantly to environmental degradation through waste generation. Formwork waste, which includes materials like timber, plywood, and steel, is a substantial component of this waste. Improper disposal of formwork materials can lead to land, air, and water pollution, disrupting local ecosystems and affecting public health (Nwankwoala, 2015).

The infrastructure for waste management in Rivers State is inadequate to cope with the large volumes of waste generated by the construction industry and other sectors. There is a lack of sustainable facilities and practices for waste segregation, recycling, and disposal, exacerbating the environmental and economic challenges posed by construction waste. Effective waste management infrastructure is essential to handle the large volumes of waste generated and to promote sustainable construction practices (Amadi & John, 2021).

Rivers State faces several socio-economic challenges, including high unemployment rates, poverty, and inadequate public services. These issues are compounded by the environmental degradation caused by industrial activities and improper waste management. The reliance on the oil and gas industry has created economic disparities, with wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, while many residents continue to live in poverty. Addressing these socio-economic challenges requires a multifaceted approach that includes sustainable development practices, improved waste management, and investment in public services and infrastructure (Oladipo & Ojo, 2019).

## Formwork Waste in Construction

The extensive use of formwork in construction projects in Rivers State contributes significantly to construction waste. Timber and plywood are commonly used materials for formwork due to their availability and cost-effectiveness. However, these materials are often damaged during construction and are not always reused effectively, leading to significant waste. Factors contributing to formwork waste include improper handling and storage of materials, frequent design changes during construction, inadequate planning, and poor initial design (Adebayo et al., 2017).
<figure><img src="image_45.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2: formwork waste (source: Adebayo et al., 2017)</figcaption></figure>

## Mitigation Strategies

To mitigate the environmental and economic impacts of formwork waste, several strategies can be implemented. Improving planning and design processes to ensure accurate initial designs and minimize changes during construction is crucial. Using high-quality, durable materials that can withstand multiple uses can also reduce waste. Providing comprehensive training for construction workers on efficient formwork usage and waste reduction techniques is essential. Implementing systems for recycling and reusing formwork materials can help minimize waste. Developing a robust infrastructure for managing construction waste, including proper disposal and recycling facilities, is also necessary (Eze & Onu, 2020).

Rivers State, with its rapid urbanization and industrial growth, presents a unique case for studying formwork waste in construction. The state's economic activities, particularly in the oil and gas sector, have driven significant construction projects, resulting in substantial formwork waste. Addressing the challenges of formwork waste requires a comprehensive approach that includes improved planning and design, the use of high-quality materials, training for construction workers, and the development of robust waste management infrastructure. By implementing these strategies, Rivers State can reduce formwork waste, minimize environmental impacts, and promote sustainable construction practices.

## METHODOLOGY

### Definition of Methodology in Construction Waste Management

In the context of construction waste management, methodology refers to the systematic framework used to collect, analyze, and interpret data related to waste generation and management practices on construction sites. This study's methodology includes strategies for gathering both quantitative and qualitative data, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the extent, causes, and impacts of formwork waste in building construction in Rivers State. Effective methodology ensures the research process is scientific, reliable, and can be replicated, thereby providing robust findings that can inform policy and practice (Bryman, 2016).

### Data Collection

The methodology for this study involves a combination of primary and secondary data collection techniques to provide a comprehensive understanding of formwork waste in building construction in Rivers State.

### Primary Data Collection

Primary data were collected through field surveys and structured interviews conducted at various construction sites across Rivers State. Field Surveys: The field surveys aimed to measure and
document the amount of formwork waste generated during construction activities. This involved direct observation and measurement of formwork materials used, wasted, and reused on-site. Specific metrics included the volume and weight of unused formwork materials, the number of times formwork was reused, and the condition of materials post-use (Eze et al., 2019). **Structured Interviews:** Structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders in the construction industry, including construction managers, site workers, and waste management officials. These interviews provided qualitative insights into current practices, challenges, and perceptions regarding formwork waste management. Questions focused on topics such as handling practices, reasons for material wastage, awareness and implementation of waste management practices, and perceived barriers to effective waste reduction (Eze et al., 2019). The selection of construction sites for the field surveys was based on a stratified random sampling technique to ensure a representative sample of different types of construction projects (residential, commercial, and industrial) across various locations within Rivers State. The interviews followed a semi-structured format, allowing for in-depth exploration of specific issues related to formwork waste while maintaining a consistent structure for comparative analysis (Bryman, 2016).

**Secondary Data Collection**

Secondary data were obtained through a comprehensive review of existing literature, including academic papers, industry reports, and case studies relevant to formwork waste and construction waste management. This literature review provided context and background information, helping to frame the study within the broader body of research and identify key variables and factors influencing formwork waste generation and management (Oladipo, 2020). Additionally, government publications, policy documents, and industry guidelines related to construction and waste management in Nigeria were reviewed to understand the regulatory framework and existing practices.

**Data Analysis**

Data collected from field surveys, interviews, and literature reviews were analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods.

**Quantitative Data Analysis**

Quantitative data from field surveys were analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques. Descriptive statistics, such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation, were used to summarize the features of the collected data and understand the distribution and central tendencies of formwork waste generation. These statistics provided a detailed picture of the typical amount of waste generated, variations across different types of projects, and the frequency of formwork reuse.

**Volume of Formwork Waste: Mean Volume:** The average volume of formwork waste per project was found to be 2.5 cubic meters. **Median Volume:** The median volume, representing the midpoint of the data, was 2.3 cubic meters. **Mode Volume:** The most frequently occurring volume of formwork waste was 2.0 cubic meters. **Standard Deviation:** The standard deviation, indicating the variability in formwork waste volume, was 0.8 cubic meters.

**Number of Reuses of Formwork Materials: Mean Reuses:** On average, formwork materials were reused 3.5 times. **Median Reuses:** The median number of reuses was 3 times. **Mode Reuses:** The most common number of reuses was 4 times. **Standard Deviation:** The standard deviation in the number of reuses was 1.2 times.

**Condition of Materials Post-Use:** Good Condition: 45% of formwork materials were in good condition after use. Fair Condition: 35% were in fair condition. Poor Condition: 20% were in poor condition.

These descriptive statistics provide insights into the average variability in formwork waste generation, reuse practices, and material conditions across construction sites in Rivers State.

Qualitative data from structured interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. This method involved coding the data to identify recurring themes and patterns. The thematic analysis helped in
understanding the underlying causes of formwork waste, challenges in waste management practices, and perceptions of stakeholders regarding effective waste reduction strategies (Bryman, 2016). The themes identified included "design changes," "improper handling," "lack of skilled labour," "material quality," and "waste management infrastructure." These themes provided insights into the key factors contributing to formwork waste and potential areas for intervention and improvement.

**Findings from the Study**

The study on formwork waste in building construction in Rivers State, Nigeria, has yielded several critical insights into the extent, causes, and impacts of this type of waste. Through comprehensive field surveys, structured interviews, and a review of existing literature, the findings provide a detailed picture of the current practices and challenges in managing formwork waste. These findings are crucial for developing effective strategies to reduce waste and promote sustainable construction practices in the region.

**Extent of Formwork Waste**

**Quantitative Findings:** The field surveys revealed that formwork waste constitutes a significant portion of total construction waste in Rivers State. On average, 20-30% of formwork materials are wasted during construction projects. This high percentage is indicative of inefficient practices and a lack of effective waste management strategies on many construction sites.

**Descriptive Statistics:** Mean Volume of Formwork Waste per Project: 2.5 cubic meters Median Volume of Formwork Waste per Project: 2.3 cubic meters, Mode Volume of Formwork Waste per Project: 2.0 cubic meters, Standard Deviation: 0.8 cubic meters.

These statistics highlight the variability in formwork waste generation across different projects, with some projects producing significantly more waste than others.

**Causes of Formwork Waste**

**Qualitative Findings:** Interviews with stakeholders identified several key factors contributing to the high levels of formwork waste:

**Improper Handling and Storage of Materials:** Many construction workers lack the training to handle and store formwork materials properly, leading to damage and increased waste (Eze et al., 2019).

**Frequent Design Changes During Construction:** Changes to project designs after construction has started often result in the discarding of previously used formwork materials, contributing significantly to waste (Nwankwoala, 2015).

**Inadequate Planning:** Poor planning and lack of foresight in project execution lead to inefficient use of materials. Projects with detailed planning and waste management strategies in place tend to generate less formwork waste.

**Low-Quality Materials:** The use of low-quality timber and plywood, which are prone to damage, results in higher waste volumes as these materials cannot be reused effectively (Eze & Onu, 2020).

**Lack of Skilled Labour:** The shortage of skilled labour in the construction industry means that workers often lack the expertise needed to minimize waste during the construction process (Amadi & John, 2021).

**Environmental and Economic Impacts**

**Deforestation:** The extensive use of timber for formwork places considerable pressure on forest resources. The high demand for timber contributes to deforestation, leading to loss of biodiversity and disruption of ecosystems (Eze & Onu, 2020).

**Pollution:** Improper disposal of formwork materials can lead to land, air, and water pollution. For example, burning formwork waste releases harmful pollutants into the air, while dumping waste in water bodies contaminates water resources (Nwankwoala, 2015).
<figure><img src="image_46.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3: environmental pollution (source: Nwankwoala, 2015).</figcaption></figure>

**Economic Impacts**

**Increased Project Costs:** Inefficient use of formwork materials leads to higher project costs due to the need for additional materials and expenses associated with waste disposal. This financial burden can strain project budgets and reduce overall profitability (Adebayo et al., 2017).

**Resource Depletion:** The unsustainable harvesting of timber for formwork can lead to resource scarcity, driving up the cost of construction materials and impacting the long-term viability of the construction industry (Oladipo & Ojo, 2019).

**Recommendations**

Based on the findings, the study proposes several strategies to mitigate formwork waste:

**Improved Planning and Design:** Emphasize accurate initial designs and minimize changes during construction to reduce material waste. Projects should incorporate detailed waste management plans from the outset.

**High-Quality, Durable Materials:** Use high-quality materials that can withstand multiple uses, reducing the need for frequent replacements and minimizing waste.

**Comprehensive Training:** Provide training for construction workers on efficient formwork usage and waste reduction techniques. Skilled workers are better equipped to handle materials properly and reduce waste.

**Recycling and Reusing Formwork Materials:** Implement systems for recycling and reusing formwork materials. For instance, modular formwork systems can be used multiple times, significantly reducing waste.

**Robust Waste Management Infrastructure:** Develop infrastructure for managing construction waste, including proper disposal and recycling facilities. This will help ensure that waste is handled sustainably and does not contribute to environmental degradation.

**CONCLUSION**

The findings from this study underscore the urgent need for sustainable practices and effective waste management in the construction industry in Rivers State. By adopting the proposed recommendations, stakeholders can significantly reduce formwork waste, promoting more sustainable and cost-effective construction practices in the region. The study's insights are also relevant for other rapidly developing regions facing similar challenges with construction waste management.