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# PART 6: Infrastructure
Development, Construction
and Project Management;
Cost and Financial
Management
**Chapter Thirty-Two**

**Construction Scheduling Technique and Inventory Management Model: Panacea for Sustainable Public Building Project Delivery**

***Ugochi Agatha Asikogu***

Department of Building, Imo State University Owerri Nigeria.

EMAIL: asklin2007@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

Sustainable building project delivery requires that a necessary model of construction management scheduling techniques and inventory management be adopted such techniques include critical part analysis, (CPM); ABC Analysis; and economic order quantity just to mention a few. Initial studies conducted by some Researchers in the study area showed that project planning scheduling and inventory materials management of most public building projects were far from being effective, at best arbitrary in application. This has resulted most time, in project cost and time overruns, disputes among the parties, unnecessary claims and either partial or total abandonment. To stern this ugly incident, this study as a pilot scheme was carried out in Owerri Metropolis Imo State, Nigeria. Using field survey research design with a study population of 50 composed of construction industry stakeholders. To obtain reliable data, a random sampling method was adopted, while data collated were analyzed using the Chi-square statistical tool empowered by SPSS. From the test of descriptive statistics, the study established that workshops, seminars and training/retraining contributed immensely to project performance. Major findings also showed that the critical path had zero floats: For the ABC analysis model, chipping and cement were the major A items and should be purchased with tightened control. It is strongly believed that with more advocacies to sensitize the relevant construction stakeholders, the adoption of the ABC inventory model and critical path method (CPM) would greatly enhance sustainable public building project delivery in the study area.

**KEYWORDS:** Sustainable; Construction; Scheduling; Techniques; Public

**INTRODUCTION**

Construction project encompasses several processes and sub-processes. The construction process is broad and complex to execute (Chris, 2009). It encompasses different kinds of projects which are interdependent and interconnected in tasks and work packages. Adding to this complex nature, the industry involves many components. Moreover, the involvement of people from different cultures who interact together to deliver projects exacerbates this complication. Project plans, inventory management and schedules are indispensable for delivering projects within budget, time, and quality. The critical path method (CPM) and ABC analysis are two separate management techniques used in project management and inventory control, respectively. While they serve different purposes, they can be related in certain contexts. Both share commonalities in prioritization, resource allocation, risk management, and optimization. Integrating these techniques can lead to more effective project management and inventory control, (Kerzner, 2020).

According to Ochieng, et al., (2013), a project schedule is a document containing a clear plan of all the work needed to be timely delivered by a project, and thus project schedule is essential if a project is to meet the client's requirements(). To come up with a successful project plan and schedule, an extensive knowledge of the basics of project management is required according to Heagney (2011). According to Harris and McCaffer (1985), adequate coordination of materials requirements is very necessary during the overall planning of a building project execution, before the commencement of the work on-site, as well as adequate control and monitoring during the execution processes. It will also necessitate the involvement of those responsible for the production to sort out building materials constituents and decide on how, in what order, and at what time to use them.
Every construction project consists of several activities involving the consumption of labour, time, materials, equipment money etc. Many of these activities are interdependent and the rest can be carried out independently. According to Harris and McCaffer (2013), the entire reason why construction projects are managed is to ensure stakeholders' desires for any project are met through effective planning, controlling, and coordinating in the implementation of the project objectives. Project managers should not only plan, schedule, coordinate and optimise the activities in the project effectively but should also identify and watch closely those critical activities which must be completed within their allotted duration. Management should take advantage of those activities which have some spare time and allow flexibility in planning and economic utilization of resources. Critical path method/analysis (CPM) is such a scheduling tool for laying out all the activities of the project in the time order in which they are to be performed, keeping given the logical sequence of the activities. On the other hand, proper management of building materials could be achieved through inventory management and the application of the appropriate inventory models such as the ABC analysis model. Inventory materials management models are highly essential for every construction project delivery, (Perera 2015). Nagarigan (2012), opined that well-planned inventory (determining the timing and size of the order) can contribute to the effective operation of a firm and to a firm's profit. According to Kerzner (2009), it has been argued that a successful project schedule should fulfil the following criteria: (1) completed without delay, within the as-planned time and cost; (2) implemented at the specified levels of project performance; (3) delivered according to project stakeholder needs and expectations.

**Research Problem**

The impact of project scheduling techniques and materials inventory management models as instruments of effective public building projects cannot be over-emphasized. Poor scheduling and control often lead to unrealistic schedules and budgets, low productivity and increased delay, (Harris & Mc Caffer, 2005).
Without adopting the critical path method/analysis and ABC analysis identifying critical tasks that determine the minimum duration required to complete a project as well as prioritizing inventory items based on their value and importance would be an impossible task in project implementation. By identifying critical tasks and high-priority inventory items, organizations can streamline processes, reduce waste, and improve efficiency. Many kinds of research in the building construction industry were able to identify inefficiency in planning but did not provide a holistic approach to understanding current methods of planning inventory management that can be used by contractors. This study, however, tends to provide solutions on how to improve construction planning through adopting effective project scheduling and inventory management models in project delivery.

Based on an extensive literature review of theories and practices in materials management, the existing research gaps in project scheduling and materials management particularly in a developing economy like Nigeria could be summarized as follows:

i. These days, projects are hardly completed without delay, within the as-planned time and cost;

ii. they implemented at the specified levels of project performance;

iii. level of competence of personnel are undersupplied in the industry

iv. lack of a universally accepted inventory model for every type of building project in the study area;

v. The complexity and logistic nature of the scheduling processes have been increasing in recent times, without an equivalent increase in trained personnel.

**Aim and Objectives**

The study aimed to examine the adoption of project scheduling techniques and inventory management models for sustainable public building project delivery to proffer an appropriate approach for timely project delivery. The objectives are to:

i. Examine factors that limit the implementation of techniques;
ii. ascertain the effects of non-implementation of the techniques for construction project performance and
iii. develop frameworks for critical path method planning scheduling and ABC inventory management models for sustainable public building project delivery.

Hypothesis

H1: Effects of non-implementation of planning scheduling and management models have no significant relationship with sustainable construction project delivery

H2: Factors to improve the usage/awareness of the techniques do not vary significantly among themselves.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Incomplete or poor project plans and scheduling could be a direct result of a lack of knowledge of the project management basis. There must be a clear definition of those influencing factors in developing and controlling project plans and scheduling at the early stages of the project. Without this, contract disputes usually erupt. Ahern et al. (2014) added through their research findings that inadequate depth of knowledge of practical theories of project management accounts for poor project plans and schedules. Furthermore, Kerzner (2009) maintains that a reasonable level of knowledge of the fundamentals was required for successfully applying project plans and schedules. Every construction project consists of several activities involving the consumption of labour, time, materials, equipment, money etc. Many of these activities are interdependent and the rest can be carried out independently. According to Harris and McCaffer (2013), the entire reason why construction projects are managed is to ensure stakeholders' desires for any project are met through effective planning, controlling, and coordinating in the implementation of the project objectives. Baldwin and Bordol (2014) stressed the importance of project scheduling and planning. They agreed that project scheduling should be viewed as integral to project success and not just any necessitated function at the preliminary stages. Project scheduling can be a useful tool for optimizing the efficient execution of projects in maximizing cost, time, and quality (Baldwin & Bordoli, 2014). The common practice in the construction industry is the failure to develop excellent project schedules and thus failure to achieve project objectives (Alias et al, 2014).

There are many scheduling techniques as well as inventory available to manage construction projects with some, more suitable and useful types of projects Askew et al. (2004). This implies that no single technique suitably applies to schedule every construction project irrespective of the type and nature of the project. En.m.wikipedia.org. observed that construction planning is more difficult in some ways since the construction schedule and process are dynamic as the site and the facility change over time as construction proceeds. On the other hand, construction operations tend to be fairly standard from one project to another, whereas structural or startup details might differ considerably from one project to another. Halpin (1985) observed that forming a good construction plan and schedule is an exceptionally challenging problem. There are numerous possible plans available for any given project hence evolving different schedules. While experience is a good guide to construction planning, each project is likely to have special problems or opportunities that may require considerable ingenuity and creativity to overcome or exploit. Unfortunately, it is quite difficult to provide direct guidance concerning general procedures or strategies to form good plans and schedules in all circumstances. Some recommendations or issues can be addressed to describe the characteristics of a good plan. However, as in the design process, strategies of decomposition in which planning is divided into sub-problems and hierarchical planning in which general activities are repeatedly subdivided into more specified tasks can be readily adopted in many cases. Hence, management is expected to select the most appropriate scheduling technique(s) when scheduling for any particular project to ensure optimum use of available and most economic resources (man, money, machine and materials). This study examines how critical path method/analysis (CPM) scheduling techniques and inventory model of construction management have impacted building construction projects.
## Critical Path Method/Analysis (CPM)

According to Akpan and Chizea (2005), the critical path method (CPM) is one of the many classes of network scheduling techniques. The entire reason why construction projects are managed is to ensure stakeholder's desires for any project are met through the effective planning, controlling, and coordinating in the implementation of the project objectives, (Harris and McCaffer 2013). This is a projected timetable of dates of start and finish for each job or activity. The introduction of these into the jobs or activities is a necessary ingredient towards reducing the scheduled plan into a graph. The CPM is a common analysis tool for scheduling time in the industry. CPM as a tool is used by managers to ascertain the longest path from start to finish in a network. This path is called the critical path. To Mubarak (2010) other terms include the analyzing usage of resources, float calculations, and accelerating schedules at minimum allowable costs. The following is the procedure for preparing the schedule of the critical path (Mubarak, 2010):

i. Study the particular project to decide on the general approach to adopt, then specify the individual activities or operations involved in the project: From the work breakdown structure; a listing can be made of all the activities in the project. This listing can be used as the basis for adding sequence and duration information in later steps.

ii. Determine the Sequence of the Activities: Some activities are dependent on the completion of others. A listing of the immediate predecessors of each activity is useful for constructing the CPM network diagram.

iii. Draw the Network Diagram: Once the activities and their sequencing have been defined, the CPM diagram can be drawn. CPM originally was developed as an activity on node (AON) network, but some project planners prefer to specify the activities on the arcs.

iv. Estimate Activity Completion Time: The time required to complete each activity can be estimated using experience or the estimates of knowledgeable persons. CPM is a deterministic model that does not take into account variation in the completion time, so only one number is used for an activity's time estimate.

v. Find out the floats in each separate activity ensuring that the scheduled total duration is not exceeded in the network: Floats enable the project planning team especially the project manager to ascertain if the project will be completed on schedule. When all the activities have positive floats, then, the target time is greater than the total project time and vice versa when the floats are negative. Negative floats give a measure of the time, in which the associated activities must be reduced for the project to meet the target time.

vi. Identify the Critical Path: The critical path is the longest-duration path through the network. The path in the network consuming activities with the least float (or no float) signifies the critical path. The path (route) is critical in the sense that no delay must be allowed here if the project must be completed on schedule or at the appropriate time, all things being equal.

## Pareto Or ABC Analysis Model

Stevenson (2005), defines inventory management as an attempt to balance inventory needs and requirements with the need to minimize costs resulting from obtaining and holding inventory. Inventory management/control according to Nagarjan (2012), refers to those items that are yet to be utilized in the execution of a building project. Since projects consume/utilize materials resources, inventory control is also an aspect that is of great importance during the execution of projects. According to Sadiwala (2007), inventory is defined as a stock of goods which would be carried and stored to ensure the smooth and efficient running of affairs of production and business. All these materials and goods have value and cost and they are the assets purchased and used for building project delivery. Proper management of building materials could be achieved through inventory management and the application of the appropriate inventory models such as the ABC analysis model. This is a method in which inventory is divided into three categories, i.e. A, B, and C in descending value. The items in the A category have the highest value, B category items are of lower value than A, and C category items have the lowest value. Inventory control and management are critical for a business or construction project delivery, (Perera 2015). Nagarigan (2012), opines that well-planned inventory (determining the timing and size of the order) can contribute to the effective operation of a firm and to a firm's profit.
The model categorizes items based on their value to the business, helping managers focus on the most critical products. It's commonly used in inventory management and supply chain optimization. According to Baguley, (1999), this is a popular inventory control technique, which is an adaptation of Paretos' law in Italy. Pareto identified the empirical relationship that is often called the 80-20 rule. When used to control inventories, this identifies the 20 percent of the stocks that are responsible for 80 percent of total inventory costs. These are called class A items. This rule can be used to identify the 20 percent of activities that is responsible for 80 percent of project labour costs or the 20 percent of materials that is responsible for 80 percent of the project's material costs. Once these Class A activities or materials are known, then measurement and reporting routines can be adjusted to make sure that they are measured and monitored more frequently. The 80-20 rule can also be extended so that it takes into account more than just cost. For having identified the A class items or activities, their use on the project's critical path activities can be reclassified and then monitoring and reporting can be readjusted accordingly. This way, those items and activities that are important to two of a project's dimensions – Cost and Time are monitored. Orilicky, (1975), states that the idea behind ABC analysis is to apply the bulk of the (limited) planning and control resources to the A – items where the money is, at the expense of the other classes that have demonstrated much less effect on the overall inventory investment. The ABC concept is to be implemented by controlling A- items more tightly than B – items and so on. Controlling “tightly” means reviewing frequently. The frequency of review, in turn, tends to determine order quantity. A –items would be reviewed frequently and ordered in small quantities, to keep inventory investment down.

According to Payne et al (1999), ABC inventory control based on Paretos Law could be roughly interpreted as 80 percent of a problem which comes from 20 percent of the possible causes. In most material flows where large numbers of different parts of items are involved, it will be found that about 80 percent of the value derives from about 20 percent of the items. This means that inventory control can be exercised efficiently by concentrating on about 20% of the items, and using simple rules to control the other 80 percent of the items.

Nagarajan (2012), is of the view that ABC analysis is based on the principle of vital few and trivial many. The model segregates the material items that are consumed in a building project into three groups, vix, A-items, B-items and C-items. In ABC analysis, the following categories of materials apply:

**1. A-Item (very important material items)**

Among these three categories of materials, A-items are the most important material items used in the construction process. In analyzing the amount of money spent on twenty different materials used in the construction of the shopping plaza, it was discovered that about 70 to 75 percent of the total money involved in the different materials is spent on a few items. Such items may account for about 5 percent to 10 percent of the total items of materials consumed; such materials which form part of only 5 percent to 10 percent of the total items of material consumed, yet account for a major amount of the expenditure is called A-items. In the construction of a shopping plaza, for example, cement and chippings are the A-items and inventory is monitored to control the cost of the project.

**2. B-items (Pseudo vital items)**

These are those items that normally form part of about 10 percent to 15 percent of the total number of items and account for about 10 percent to 15 percent of the total expenditure on the materials. The B-items do not require a rigid control as required for A-items. In the construction of the shopping plaza for example, reinforcement bars 8-25mm dia. are the B-items.

**3. C-items (trivial items)**

These are those items which normally form about 70 to 80 percent of the total number of items but account for only about 5 to 10 percent of the total cost of materials. In the construction of shopping plaza, for example, sandcrete blocks are the C items, (Nagarajan 2012).

The frameworks for critical path method scheduling technique for sustainable construction project delivery;
Activities B, C, D follow activity A while E, F, G precede H. I, J follow H concurrently while K, L also proceed M as concurrently. Activities K, L Follow I, J respectively. M cannot start until K; L has been completed. Draw the network. If A=2, B=10, C=5, D=4, E=6, F=4, G=8, H=2, I=5, J=4, K=6, L=3, M=2.

## RESEARCH METHODOLOGY_AND PROCEDURE

The study adopted a survey design approach and obtained responses from 50 respondents using a structures questionnaire, administered online to Architects, Builders, Civil Engineers and Quantity surveyors across Owerri Metropolis Methods of data analysis. A combination of descriptive and inferential statistics was employed for the presentation and analysis of the data. From the descriptive aspect, frequency and percentage descriptions were employed. Mean scores and Chi-square were used to analyse the hypotheses posed. Data were collected on a five-point scale of 2, 1, 0, -1 and -2 assigned to (strongly agree' agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree) and to (very high; high, medium-low and very low) respectively adopted from Aikharusi et al (2022). The Chi-square was used to test: the effects of the non-implementation of planning scheduling and management models have no significant relationship for sustainable construction project delivery and the factors to improve the usage /awareness of the techniques do not vary significantly among themselves.

## Job/Activities and Assigned Duration

A. Site clearance; B. Excavation; C. Blinding; D. Block work; E. Backfilling; F. Formwork; G. Concreting; H. Framing; I. Roofing; J. Plastering; K. External works; L. Painting and M. Tiling.

<figure><img src="image_64.png" /><figcaption>Fig 3. Critical Path</figcaption></figure>
<table><caption>Table 1: Schedule of Project Activities</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">S/N</th><th rowspan="2">No of Activity</th><th rowspan="2">Activity letter</th><th rowspan="2">Duration</th><th colspan="2">Start Time</th><th colspan="2">Finish Time</th><th rowspan="2">Float</th></tr><tr><th>Earliest (EST)</th><th>Latest (LST)</th><th>Earliest (EFT)</th><th>Latest (LFT)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>i.</td><td>0-1</td><td>A</td><td>2</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>ii.</td><td>1-2</td><td>B</td><td>10</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>12</td><td>12</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>iii.</td><td>1-3</td><td>D</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>6</td><td>10</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>iv.</td><td>1-4</td><td>C</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>7</td><td>14</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>v.</td><td>2-5</td><td>E</td><td>6</td><td>12</td><td>12</td><td>18</td><td>18</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>vi.</td><td>3-5</td><td>G</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>10</td><td>18</td><td>18</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>vii.</td><td>4-5</td><td>F</td><td>4</td><td>7</td><td>14</td><td>18</td><td>18</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>viii.</td><td>5-6</td><td>H</td><td>2</td><td>18</td><td>18</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>ix.</td><td>6-7</td><td>I</td><td>5</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>25</td><td>25</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>x.</td><td>6-8</td><td>J</td><td>4</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>24</td><td>28</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>xi.</td><td>7-9</td><td>K</td><td>6</td><td>25</td><td>25</td><td>31</td><td>31</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>xii.</td><td>8-9</td><td>L</td><td>3</td><td>24</td><td>28</td><td>31</td><td>31</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>xiii.</td><td>9-10</td><td>M</td><td>2</td><td>31</td><td>31</td><td>33</td><td>33</td><td>0</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source of Data: Author

In a situation where two or more activities precede the next activity, choose the highest number to be the critical activity. Use the highest critical activity to balance the preceding events as the forward pass. For example, in activity 3-5, the forward pass was 14 i.e (6+8), in activity 4-5 the forward pass was 11 i.e. (7+4) and in activity 2-5 the forward pass was 18 was the higher number resulting in from the earliest finish time of the activity, hence it was used in balancing up the network.

Again, initially, activities 1-3 had the backward pass to be 6 i.e (10-4). Also in activities 1-4 the backward pass was 9 i.e. (14-5), but after the balancing resulting from the critical path, the backward pass becomes 2 i.e. (12-10) which is the lowest number. Forward pass = Earliest start + the Duration. While backward pass or latest time = latest time for every activity - Duration

The float is based on the start activity. It is the difference between either the Latest (LST) and the Earliest (EST) or the Latest (LFT) and Earliest (EFT). A float is a period of freedom from work, waiting for the completion of critical activities. E.g after the casting of the suspended floor which is a critical activity, the setting time for the suspended floor without any work in progress is an example of the float time. In all critical paths, the float is 0.

## Developing a Framework for ABC Analysis Inventory Planning and Control

The steps for developing the ABC analysis materials management model for different building materials used in the construction of a shopping plaza, in Owerri Imo state are shown below:

i. articulate the different building materials for the Construction of a Public Building Project (not more than 20
items).

ii. state the unit of measurement, quantities required, rate/unit cost and cost of each of the selected materials.

iii. rearrange the items in descending order of cost of individual items.

iv. determine the cumulative cost (this is obtained by retaining the first cost and adding the next cost to the previous total).

v. derive the cumulative percentage cost. This is expressed in terms of percentage of the total cost;

$$ \frac{\text{Cumulative Cost} \times 100}{\text{Total Cost}} = 1 \qquad \dots \text{Equ.1} $$

vi. derive the cumulative rate percentage based on their cumulative percentage cost;

$$ \frac{\text{Amount}/\text{Cost} \times 100}{\text{Total Cost}} = 1 \qquad \dots \text{Equ.2} $$

vii. rank the derived cumulative rate percentage in terms of importance.

## STUDY RESULTS

Table 2 shows material items according to their ABC grouping. This grouping allows the identification of those items of the materials that have a direct effect in tying up project capital and thus will require tighter control in deciding how and when they would be purchased. Those in A group will require tighter control than those in B and C.

<table><caption>Table 2: Material Items A, B & C</caption><thead><tr><th>S/N</th><th>A<br>(5-9)%</th><th>B<br>(10-15)%</th><th>C<br>(35-58)%</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>i.</td><td>Chippings (7.08)%</td><td>Reinforced bars 8-25mm Ø</td><td>Sandcrete blocks<br>(150,225)mm</td></tr><tr><td>ii.</td><td>Cement (50kg) 8.03%</td><td>High yield bar (10.27%)</td><td>(57.4%)</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source of Data: Author's Fieldwork, August 2024

From a field survey carried out using ABC analysis, chipping and cement are the major A items and shall be purchased with tighter control while B items (Reinforced bars and High-yield bars) need fairly tight control. C-items need moderate control and would not tie up the capital; neither will it be controlled infrequently and in large quantities as compared to the total requirement, (Nagarajan 2012).
<caption>Table 3: Ranking the effects of non-implementation of Scheduling techniques on construction cost, time, quality and overall construction performance</caption>

Source of Data: Author's Fieldwork, August 2024

<table><thead><tr><th>S/ N</th><th>Effects</th><th>2 VH</th><th>1 H</th><th>0 M</th><th>-1 L</th><th>-2 VL</th><th>Total</th><th>Mean Score</th><th>Rank</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>i.</td><td>Inefficient use of resources: Without a planning schedule, resources may be allocated haphazardly, leading to waste and inefficiency.</td><td>32</td><td>10</td><td>0</td><td>8</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.32</td><td>5.5</td></tr><tr><td>ii.</td><td>Stockouts and overstocking: Poor inventory management can result in stockouts (running out of stock) or overstocking (holding excess stock), both of which can lead to lost sales and unnecessary holding costs.</td><td>34.7</td><td>12</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.74</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>iii.</td><td>Inaccurate time forecasting leading to time overruns</td><td>46</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.92</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>iv.</td><td>Increased labour costs: Inefficient planning and inventory management can lead to increased labour costs due to overtime, rework, and wasted time</td><td>34</td><td>11</td><td>0</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>2</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>v.</td><td>Reduced productivity: Inefficient planning and inventory management can lead to reduced productivity and increased stress on employees.</td><td>34</td><td>11</td><td>0</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.48</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>vi.</td><td>Reduced customer satisfaction: Stockouts and delayed deliveries can lead to reduced customer satisfaction and loyalty.</td><td>17</td><td>29</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.2</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>vii.</td><td>Reduced quality control: Poor inventory management can lead to reduced quality control, resulting in defective products or services.</td><td>26</td><td>19</td><td>0</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.32</td><td>5.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 3 above on the effects of scheduling techniques on construction performance. Increased labour costs ranked 1 with a mean score of 2. Inaccurate time forecasting leading to time overruns ranked 2 with a mean score of 1.92. Stockouts and overstocking ranked 3 with a mean score of 1.72. Reduced productivity ranked 4 with a mean score of 1.48. Inefficient use of resources and reduced quality control ranked 5 respectively with a mean score of 5.5. Finally, there was reduced customer satisfaction with a 1.2 mean score.

Data Presentation on the factors that limit the implementation of techniques and improve the usage /awareness of construction scheduling techniques in the study area which of the under-listed channels of advocacy is most preferred.

<table><caption>Table 4: Factors on improving the usage /awareness of construction scheduling techniques and inventory management models</caption><thead><tr><th>S/ N</th><th>FACTORS</th><th>2 SA</th><th>1 A</th><th>0 UD</th><th>-1 DA</th><th>-2 SA</th><th>TOTAL</th><th>MEAN SCORE</th><th>RANK</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>i</td><td>Legislation</td><td>7</td><td>43</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.14</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>ii</td><td>Workshop/Seminar</td><td>34</td><td>16</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.68</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>iii</td><td>Incentive</td><td>10</td><td>40</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.2</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>iv.</td><td>Training/Retaining</td><td>21</td><td>29</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>50</td><td>1.42</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source of Data: Author's Fieldwork, August 2024
Table 4 above on factors on improving the usage /awareness of construction scheduling techniques and inventory management models, workshop/seminar ranked 1 with the mean score of 1.68. While training/retaining has a mean score of 1.42 and is ranked 2. This was followed by Incentive with a 1.2 mean score. Impliedly, the study established that workshops, seminars and training/retraining contributed immensely to project performance.

## Test of Hypotheses

Ho1: the effects of non-implementation of planning scheduling and management models have no significant relationship for sustainable construction project delivery.

The Table compares several factors related to the non-implementation of planning, scheduling, and management models with three response categories: Very High (VH), High (H), and Low (L). These factors include inefficient use of resources, stockouts and overstocking, inaccurate time forecasting, increased labour costs, reduced productivity, reduced customer satisfaction, and reduced quality control.

<table><caption>Table 5: Factors * Response Crosstabulation</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="3">RESPONSE</th><th rowspan="2">Total</th></tr><tr><th>VH</th><th>H</th><th>L</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Inefficient use of resources</td><td>Count</td><td>32</td><td>10</td><td>8</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>34.7</td><td>12.3</td><td>3.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Stockouts and overstocking</td><td>Count</td><td>37</td><td>13</td><td>0</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>34.7</td><td>12.3</td><td>3.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Inaccurate time forecasting</td><td>Count</td><td>46</td><td>4</td><td>0</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>34.7</td><td>12.3</td><td>3.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Increased costs</td><td>Count</td><td>50</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>34.7</td><td>12.3</td><td>3.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Reduced productivity</td><td>Count</td><td>34</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>34.7</td><td>12.3</td><td>3.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Reduced customer satisfaction</td><td>Count</td><td>17</td><td>29</td><td>3</td><td>49</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>34.0</td><td>12.1</td><td>2.9</td><td>49.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Reduced quality control</td><td>Count</td><td>26</td><td>19</td><td>5</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>34.7</td><td>12.3</td><td>3.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Total</td><td>Count</td><td>242</td><td>86</td><td>21</td><td>349</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>242.0</td><td>86.0</td><td>21.0</td><td>349.0</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source of Data: Author's Fieldwork, August 2024

<table><caption>Table 6: Chi-Square Tests</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Value</th><th>df</th><th>Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Pearson Chi-Square</td><td>87.353<sup>a</sup></td><td>12</td><td>.000</td></tr><tr><td>Likelihood Ratio</td><td>101.387</td><td>12</td><td>.000</td></tr><tr><td>Linear-by-Linear Association</td><td>10.136</td><td>1</td><td>.001</td></tr><tr><td>N of Valid Cases</td><td>349</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a. 7 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.95.

Pearson Chi-Square: The value of 87.353 with a p-value less than 0.000 indicates that there is a statistically significant relationship between the non-implementation of planning, scheduling, and management models and sustainable construction project delivery. The small p-value (< 0.05) leads to the rejection of the null
hypothesis. This suggests that the non-implementation of these models indeed has a significant impact on the project delivery.

Since the p-value for the Pearson Chi-Square test is less than 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis. There is a significant relationship between the non-implementation of planning, scheduling, and management models and sustainable construction project delivery. This implies that the lack of such models negatively affects project outcomes, making their implementation critical for the success of construction projects.

Ho₂: The factors to improve the usage /awareness of the techniques do not vary significantly among themselves.

A crosstabulation analysis was performed between four factors (Legislation, Workshop/Seminar, Incentive, and Training/Retaining) and the response categories (Strongly Agree (SA) and Agree (A)). Observed counts were compared against expected counts.

<table><caption>Table 7: Factors * response Crosstabulation</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">Response</th><th rowspan="2">Total</th></tr><tr><th>SA</th><th>A</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="6">Factors</td><td rowspan="2">Legislation</td><td>Count</td><td>7</td><td>43</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>18.0</td><td>32.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Workshop/Seminar</td><td>Count</td><td>34</td><td>16</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>18.0</td><td>32.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Incentive</td><td>Count</td><td>10</td><td>40</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>18.0</td><td>32.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Training/Retaining</td><td>Count</td><td>21</td><td>29</td><td>50</td></tr><tr><td>Expected Count</td><td>18.0</td><td>32.0</td><td>50.0</td></tr><tr><td>Count</td><td>72</td><td>128</td><td>200</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td></td><td>Expected Count</td><td>72.0</td><td>128.0</td><td>200.0</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source of Data: Author's Fieldwork, August 2024

<table><caption>Table 8: Chi-Square Tests</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Value</th><th>df</th><th>Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Pearson Chi-Square</td><td>39.063<sup>a</sup></td><td>3</td><td>.000</td></tr><tr><td>Likelihood Ratio</td><td>40.115</td><td>3</td><td>.000</td></tr><tr><td>Linear-by-Linear Association</td><td>1.399</td><td>1</td><td>.237</td></tr><tr><td>N of Valid Cases</td><td>200</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 18.00.

The Pearson Chi-Square test yielded a statistically significant result with a p-value of 0.000, which is less than the common significance level of 0.05, indicating substantial variation among these factors. That the null hypothesis can be rejected. This demonstrates that the factors under consideration (Legislation, Workshop/Seminar, Incentive, and Training/Retaining) do not behave uniformly; they differ significantly in how they influence the usage and awareness of the techniques.

Given the statistically significant results from the Chi-Square tests, we reject the null hypothesis. Thus, the factors for improving the usage and awareness of the techniques do vary significantly among themselves, which implies that they impact the responses in different ways. This highlights the importance of addressing each factor independently when developing strategies for improving awareness and usage of these techniques.
## DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The cumulative assessment of the critical path had zero floats signifying that the target time is less than the total project time. This implies that no delay must be allowed here if the project must be completed on schedule or at the appropriate time, all things being equal. For the ABC analysis model, chipping and cement were the major A items and should be purchased with tighter control.

The cumulative assessment of the test of descriptive statistics, the study established that workshops, seminars and training/retraining could contribute immensely to project performance; and the effects of scheduling techniques on construction performance. Increased labour costs ranked 1 with a mean score of 2. Inaccurate time forecasting leading to time overruns ranked 2 with a mean score of 1.92. Stockouts and overstocking ranked 3 with a mean score of 1.72.

From the test of Chi-square on the effects of non-implementation of planning scheduling and management models have no significant relationship for sustainable construction project delivery.

Pearson Chi-Square value of 87353 is statistically significant (p < 0.000). The null hypothesis was rejected while the alternative was accepted and concluded that the effects of non-implementation of planning scheduling and management models have a significant relationship for sustainable construction project delivery. Also, the factors to improve the usage /awareness of the techniques do vary significantly among themselves as the Pearson Chi-square value of 39.063 yielded a statistically significant result (p < 0.000). Given the statistically significant results from the Chi-Square tests. The null hypothesis was rejected and concluded that the factors for improving the usage and awareness of the techniques vary significantly among themselves

## RECOMMENDATION

To achieve the purpose and objective of any specified project, it is expediting that management techniques be applied to resource allocation, scheduling and cost control to avoid time over-run, cost over-run and quality deviation. The cumulative assessment of the test of descriptive statistics. It has been established that training and retraining were not practised by a majority of firms. This could attest to the high rate of abandoned projects, incessant building collapse and overruns in public project delivery in the study area. However, the responses ascertained that these could contribute immensely to project performance if more advocacies to sensitize the relevant construction stakeholders were adopted.

The services of a registered builder at an early stage of construction projects are very necessary as this is the only professional saddled with the responsibility of preparing and implementing construction documents/programmes. Every client and contractor in the building industry should ensure the implementation of project scheduling techniques measures. The government should make provision for appropriate penalties and corrective measures to ensure effective enforcement or they should have their sites sealed up. The government, clients and contracting firms should provide appropriate inspection services to supervise the application of the techniques.

## CONCLUSION

The importance of construction project scheduling techniques and inventory materials management models cannot be relegated to the background. Every client, professional, contractor, government agency and other built environment participants should ensure the implementation of these techniques or strategies. Every effort should be made to ensure adequate and regular training/ retraining; workshops/seminars, incentives and less legislation. The adoption of the ABC inventory model and critical path method (CPM) would greatly enhance sustainable public building project delivery in the study area as the ugly scenario of project cost and time overruns, disputes among the parties, unnecessary claims and either partial or total abandonment would be reduced to the barest minimum.
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# PART 7: Geospatial Information Technology; Remote Sensing Application in Environmental Management
**Chapter Thirty-Three**

**Assessment Of Land Use / Land Cover Changes in Mbaise, Imo State From 2013 to 2023**

*Sylvanus Ibeabuchi Iro*<fnref n="1" />; *Chukwuemeka O. Ulor*<fnref n="2" />

EMAIL: sylvanusiro@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

The study assessed changes in land use/land cover in Mbaise, Imo State between 2013 and 2023. The study was motivated by the prevalence of unplanned and unorganized land use in the study area, which has led to urban sprawl, disorderliness, and environmental degradation. Study results identified and delineated different land use categories and patterns, estimated the extent of the changes in land use and determined the importance of urban sprawl encroachment on agricultural farmland in Mbaise. GIS, remote sensing, and Landsat imagery were used to collect data in 2013, 2018 and 2023. Arc GIS 10.8 processed these images using the same classification scheme. In 2013, vegetation dominated with 49% and urban land with 43%, respectively. In Mbaise, agriculture, water bodies, and bare land covered 6%, 1%, and 0% of the land, respectively. As of 2018, urban land accounted for 47% of all land area, while vegetation accounted for 45%. In 2023, it was observed that reduction continued in vegetation area; with urban occupying 55% of the land cover and vegetation 38%, Agriculture, bare land, and waterbodies with 6%, 0% and 1% respectively. In addition, water bodies remained the same throughout the study period. The vegetation class has been shown to have changed from 2013 to 2023 to -11% while urban land changed with 12%. Based on the findings, it has shown that urban land is fast taking over the study area. Therefore, the study area should be well planned in consideration of land use of the area. In addition, further research should be carried out on the factors influencing urban growth in the area for an organized environment.

**KEYWORDS:** LU/LC; Mbaise; GIS; Urban sprawl; Vegetation

**INTRODUCTORY BACKGROUND**

The global increase in human population has led to significant urban growth, particularly in Asia and Africa. This rapid urbanization has resulted in the expansion of cities into rural areas, impacting the livelihoods of rural communities and causing significant land use and land cover changes (Ahmad, 2014). These changes are influenced by both natural and socio-economic factors and are particularly prevalent in developing countries where population growth is a leading cause of these changes. In sub-Saharan Africa, urbanization often occurs without corresponding economic growth, leading to the encroachment of urban infrastructure in rural areas. This has negatively affected the livelihoods and quality of life of rural communities that depend on agriculture (Adebola, 2015). The expansion of cities due to urban population growth has also led to property speculation in peri-urban areas (Ngana et al., 2009).

Land use and land cover changes have long-term environmental implications, including impacts on climate, biodiversity, and food security (Geremew, 2013). Assessing and detecting these changes is crucial for proper planning and sustainable management of natural resources (Lambin et al., 2003). Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing techniques are widely used for analyzing and understanding land use and land cover changes, providing valuable spatial information for decision-making processes (Dewan & Yamaguchi, 2009). Studying land use and land cover changes is essential for the sustainable management of natural resources and the environment (Asselman & Middelkoop, 1995). Understanding these changes is crucial for proper planning and management of land resources to meet the increasing demands for basic human needs and welfare (Akpoti et al., 2016). This study aims to analyze and assess land use and land cover changes in Mbaise, Imo State, to understand the level of changes in each land cover and assess the

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Imo State University Owerri, Nigeria.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Environmental Management, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Nigeria.</footnote>
rate of urban sprawl (Birhane et al., 2019). The findings of this study will be used to make recommendations for achieving a proper balance in the ecosystem and the environment.

## Statement Of the Research Problem

The assessment of land use and land cover (LU/LC) is a precise technique used to understand how land is utilized, the types of changes that occur, and the forces and processes behind those changes. The interaction between humans and the environment has become increasingly complex, especially in the exploitation and development of natural resources. In Nigeria, particularly in Mbaise, there is a lack of comprehensive and up-to-date plans or maps showing land use and land cover patterns and categories. As a result, access to information on LU/LC categorizations and patterns has become a serious challenge. In Imo State, and particularly in Mbaise, changes in land use are characterized by unplanned and unorganized development. Urban sprawl, which is supposed to be a source of development, has created disorderliness in the environmental space. Uncontrolled urbanization in some areas, such as Mbaise area, has resulted in disorder and environmental decay. This type of urbanization may not lead to sustainable economic growth because non-agricultural activities may fail to develop at the same rate as urbanization. In addition to urbanization challenges, land use changes also have adverse effects on the ecology of an area and its vegetation. Deforestation, mainly due to agricultural expansion, has been identified as the biggest cause of loss of terrestrial biodiversity. Another consequence of urban sprawl is the loss of open space, as urbanization encroaches into suburban areas and agricultural farmland, putting pressure on lands for food crops. Studies have also shown that in the peri-urban areas of Osun State in Nigeria, farmers have expressed fears of losing their agricultural lands to development projects. The encroachment of urbanization has led to deforestation and colonization of adjacent farmlands, further stressing the availability of land for food crops. While various studies have identified problems relating to land use changes in Nigeria and other parts of the world, there is a lack of literature on LU/LC changes in Mbaise. Therefore, this research aims to assess the land use changes in Mbaise, Imo State, to facilitate proper environmental planning and avert the devastating effects of unorganized land use changes.

## MATERIALS AND METHODS

### Study Area

The study area for this research is Mbaise area of Imo State Figure 1. Mbaise is made up of three local government areas (LGAs) in Imo State Figure 2, Nigeria. These local government areas are: Aboh Mbaise, Ahiazu Mbaise and Ezinihitte Mbaise. Each of these LGAs has its unique characteristics and communities contributing to the overall cultural and social fabric of Mbaise. It is located between latitudes 5°38'11.80"N to 5°37'26.06"N and longitudes 7°11'37.00"E to 7°20'43.33"E. It is bounded to the North by Ehime Mbano LGA and Ihitte Uboma L.G.A, to the East by Obowo and Ngor Okpala and Isiala Ngwa in Abia State to the South by Owerri North and west by Ikeduru LGA of Imo State. Mbaise has grown into a major cattle transit town for Imo state and parts of Abia State of Nigeria. In 2006, Mbaise had a population of about 530,000 which is projected to have a population of about 751,000 in 2022. Mbaise remains one of the food baskets of Nigeria with yam and cassava cultivation practiced on its farmlands.
<figure><img src="image_65.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Map of Mbaise (The Study area) Source: GIS Lab Imo State University, Owerri.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_66.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2: Map of Imo State highlighting the study area Mbaise</figcaption></figure>

## Climate and Weather

In Mbaise, the climate features oppressive, overcast wet seasons and muggy, partly cloudy dry seasons, with warm temperatures year-round. The temperature typically ranges from 18.33°C to 30.56°C, rarely falling below 14.44°C or exceeding 32.22°C (Weather Spark, 2016). The region has an average humidity level of 27 degrees centigrade and a moderate terrain, with two major seasons: dry and rainy. It is characterized by numerous rivers and streams, with an average humidity level of 59 percent. The clearer part of the year in Mbaise starts around November 22 and lasts for 2.7 months, ending around February 14 (Iloeje, 2008). The cloudier part of the year begins around February 14 and lasts for 9.3 months, ending around November 22. A wet day in Mbaise has at least 0.04 inches of precipitation and varies significantly throughout the year. The wetter season lasts 7.3 months, from March 30 to November 7, with a greater than 42% chance of a given day being wet. The drier season lasts 4.7 months, from November 7 to March 30, with the smallest chance of a wet day being 3% on January 1. Rain alone is the most common form of precipitation, with a peak probability of 82% on September 11. Mbaise experiences extreme seasonal variation in monthly rainfall. The rainy period of the year lasts for 10 months, from February 6 to December 9, with a sliding 31-day rainfall of at least 0.5 inches. The rainless period of the year lasts for 1.9 months, from December 9 to February 6. The length of the day in Mbaise remains relatively consistent, with only a 27-minute difference from 12 hours on any given day. In 2021, the shortest day is December 21, with 11 hours and 47 minutes of daylight, and the longest day is June 21, with 12 hours and 28 minutes of daylight (NIMET 2009).

## Topography and Relief

Mbaise has a diverse topography, featuring flat lands, valleys, and plains, creating a varied landscape (Enyoh et al, 2017). The region's elevations contribute to topographical diversity, while fertile valleys
support agriculture. Rivers and streams like the Imo River provide essential water resources (Enyoh et al, 2017). The fertile soil supports agricultural activities, influencing the region's economy and vegetation. Mbaise's landscape, a blend of hills, valleys, and plains, has implications for agriculture, settlement patterns, and the overall lifestyle of the people in the region (Christoper et al, 2019).

## Sources of Data

### The Secondary Sources of Data

The data for this study is secondary data; the secondary sources of data used include Landsat Satellite imagery of the study area of the year 2013, 2018 and 2023 which was obtained from (USGS United States Geophysical Survey). The base map of Mbaise was obtained from Imo State Ministry of Land and Survey. The documented materials from unpublished and published dissertations and thesis, journals, textbooks, internet materials, seminars, and conference papers were used for literature review.

### Method Of Data Analysis

Landsat Thematic Mapper at a resolution of 30 meters was used for land use/cover classification. The satellite data covering the study area were obtained from the Earth Explorer site (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). The layer stack option in the ArcGIS toolbox was used to stack the various Landsat bands of the study areas. The sub-setting of satellite images was performed for extracting the study area from both images by taking geo-referenced out polygon boundary of Imo State AOI (Area of Interest). All satellite data were studied by assigning per-pixel signatures and differentiating the area into five classes based on the specific Digital Number (DN) value of different landscape elements. The delineated classes were: Forest, Urban Areas, Water Bodies, grassland, and agriculture. For each of the predetermined land cover/use types, training samples were selected by delimiting polygons around representative sites. Spectral signatures for the respective land cover types derived from the satellite imagery were recorded by using the pixels enclosed by these polygons. After that maximum likelihood algorithm was used for the supervised classification of the images. All the 3 images of 2013, 2018 and 2023 were classified with supervised classification. This method was used because the author is conversant with the area of study and also Google Earth assisted in assigning class and signature values to the images. The classes were grouped into 5 namely: Vegetation, urban area, water bodies, grassland and agriculture. This methodology was repeated in the three images representing 2013, 2018 and 2023.

## PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

### Land Use / Land Cover of Mbaise

The study area is identified and delineated with different land use and land cover categories and patterns for 15 years. These are Vegetation, Urban land, Water bodies, Grassland, and Agricultural land.

### Landsat imagery of Mbaise of the Year 2013

Figure 3 shows landsat imagery of Mbaise of the Year 2013
<figure><img src="image_67.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3: Land sat imagery of Mbaise of the Year 2013 (USGS 2013)</figcaption></figure>

Land use / Land cover Classification of Mbaise for the Year 2013

Figure 4 shows land use/land cover classification for the year 2013
<figure><img src="image_68.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4: Land use/land cover classification of Mbaise in the year 2013</figcaption></figure>

The land use/land cover classification of Mbaise in 2013 shows the forest, urban areas, water bodies, grassland, and agriculture of Mbaise LGA. Different LU/LC classes, the pixel count, and the area of coverage in the percentage of Mbaise in 2013 are shown in Table 1.

<table><caption>Table 1: Land use/land cover of Mbaise for the year 2013</caption><thead><tr><td>Classes</td><td>Pixel Count</td><td>Area Class in %</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Vegetation</td><td>214810</td><td>49%</td></tr><tr><td>Agriculture</td><td>28048</td><td>6%</td></tr><tr><td>Urban Land</td><td>189202</td><td>43%</td></tr><tr><td>Water bodies</td><td>3804</td><td>1%</td></tr><tr><td>Bare Land</td><td>1938</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>437802</td><td>100%</td></tr></tbody></table>
The pie chart representation of land use and land cover classes of Mbaise for 2013 is shown in Figure 5.

<figure><img src="image_69.png" /><figcaption>Figure 5: Pie chart of Land use/land cover classification for the year 2013</figcaption></figure>

From **Table 1 and Figure 4**, it was observed that in 2013, the higher land use/cover of Mbaise was vegetation which covers about 49% of the area, followed by urban land which covers about 43% of the area. Meanwhile, Agricultural land covers about 6% of the area while water bodies occupy 1% of the area, while the least is the bareland which covers about 0% of the area. This therefore means as of 2013, the area is dominated by green vegetation. Also, Urbanization was equally very high in the area as the year 2013 shows the high rate of urbanism in the study area.

## Land sat imagery of Mbaise of the Year 2018

Figure 6: shows the land use and land cover classification of the year 2018 in the Mbaise Area of Imo state.
<figure><img src="image_70.png" /><figcaption>Figure 6: Land use classification of Mbaise in the year 2018</figcaption></figure>
## Area of Land Use Land Cover Classes for Year 2018

<figure><img src="image_71.png" /><figcaption>Figure 7: Pie chart of the land use / land cover classification of the year 2018</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>Table 2: Land use/ land cover of Mbaise for the year 2018</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="3">2018 Classification</th></tr><tr><th>Classes</th><th>Pixel Count</th><th>Area Class in %</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Vegetation</td><td>194812</td><td>45%</td></tr><tr><td>Agriculture</td><td>29848</td><td>7%</td></tr><tr><td>UrbanLand</td><td>203200</td><td>47%</td></tr><tr><td>Water bodies</td><td>2804</td><td>1%</td></tr><tr><td>Bare Land</td><td>4138</td><td>1%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>434802</td><td>100%</td></tr></tbody></table>

According to Figure 7 and Table 2, the vegetation land is 45%, and Urbanland is 47% which shows that the urban area is gradually replacing the vegetation land. Agricultural land is about 7%, Bareland now developed to 1% showing also that vegetation area is giving way for bare land and Urbanland to develop.

## Land use/land cover classification of Mbaise for the Year 2023

Figure 8: shows the land use land cover classification of Mbaise in the year 2023
<figure><img src="image_72.png" /><figcaption>Figure 8: Land use / Land cover classification of Mbaise in the year 2023</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_73.png" /><figcaption>Figure 9: Pie chart of land use/land cover classification of Mbaise in the year 2023.</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>Table 3: Land use/ land cover of Mbaise for the 2023</caption><thead><tr><td>Classes</td><td>Pixel Count</td><td>Area Class in %</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Vegetation</td><td>164810</td><td>38%</td></tr><tr><td>Agriculture</td><td>28048</td><td>6%</td></tr><tr><td>Urban Land</td><td>239002</td><td>55%</td></tr><tr><td>Water bodies</td><td>2804</td><td>1%</td></tr><tr><td>Bare Land</td><td>138</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>434802</td><td>100%</td></tr></tbody></table>

The land use/land cover classification presented in Figures 8, 9, and Table 3 shows that in the year 2023, Urban land has developed to 55% of the entire area, vegetation is 38% of the land use in the area, followed by Agricultural land 6%, water body and bare land 1% respectively.

## Extent of Changes of the Land use in Mbaise

Change detection is the process of identifying differences in phenomena by observing it at different times. The extent of change in LU/LC of Mbaise for 3 decades is shown in the table below.
<table><caption>Table 4: Change detection from 2013 to 2023 of land use land cover change in Mbaise</caption><thead><tr><th>LULC</th><th>2013%</th><th>2018%</th><th>2023%</th><th>Change from 2013 - 2023</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Vegetation</td><td>49%</td><td>45%</td><td>38%</td><td>-11</td></tr><tr><td>Agriculture</td><td>6%</td><td>7%</td><td>6%</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>Urban Land</td><td>43%</td><td>47%</td><td>55%</td><td>12%</td></tr><tr><td>Water bodies</td><td>1%</td><td>1%</td><td>1%</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>Bare Land</td><td>0%</td><td>1%</td><td>0%</td><td>0%</td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 4 shows the extent of change that occurred in the LULC of Mbaise within 15 years under review. As observed in the table, there is a decrease in the vegetation which lost -11% of its area. Urban areas increased from 43% in 2013 to 55% in 2023, with an increment of 12%. The water bodies remained the same, no loss no gain. The agriculture class also remained the same for 15 years.

**Figures 6 and 7** show that in the year 2018, agriculture was higher and reduced again in 2023 due to urban growth. That means in the year 2023 there is a reduction in agriculture showing that urban area increased. Therefore, from this table, it's observed as of 2023 the urban area occupied a significant portion that is gained more while agriculture and vegetation areas reduced 0% and -11% respectively. However, one can deduce that Mbaise in the last 15 years has been having urban area encroachment taking over vegetation and agricultural areas.

## Discussion

From the analysis above which was carried out with Arc GIS 10.8, it can be deduced that there is a shift in the category of land use/land cover of Mbaise between 2013 and 2023. The vegetation land cover which covered about 49% of the land use in the area in the year 2013 was reduced by 38% in 2023. This means that within the last 15 years, the vegetation class has lost about 11% of its area. This, however, can be as a result of urban Sprawl in the area which brought development in the area because the population has been clearing the vegetation for roads, industries, and buildings in the area.

Furthermore, it was noted that there was no change in the water body in the area within the 15 years of this research. Concerning agricultural land (Farmland), it is the Crop fields and fallow lands for agricultural purposes. In Mbaise, farmland was observed to have covered 6% of the total land coverage in the year 2013. The study identified that within three decades, the farmland remained the same in 2023. The inability of the farmlands to increase could be a result of urbanization. Many farmlands were converted to commercial and residential use. Urban sprawl spreads along with different factors of development which caused the people in the area to decline from agricultural activities into other job opportunities that came along with urban sprawl. The indigenous people of Mbaise were the only people who did farming in the area. Meanwhile, most of their fertile soil was sold to indigenes, migrants, companies, and banks that used the lands for residential and commercial purposes.

In this study, Urban areas are comprised of Residential, commercial, industrial, transportation, roads, mixed urban and other settlements. It was observed in this study that as of 2013, 43% of the total land mass of the area was developed. Within 15 years, it was observed that the built-up areas had increased by 12%. In figures 8 and 9 (change detection figure) it was revealed that among other land use categories, the built-up area has the highest increment (+12%) within the last 15 years of the study. This is as a result of urbanization in the area. In urban sprawl, building and other form of development always have advantage over other land use categories. That is exactly what happened in Mbaise within the last 15 years of review of this study.
Many Residential, commercial, industrial, transportation, roads, mixed urban and other settlements were erected within this period. These findings show that there is a significant change in the land use / land cover of Mbaise from the year 2013 to 2023. This result is similar to the findings of (Emetumah et al. 2023) whose comparison of LU/LC in 2000 and 2020 derived from top Landsat imagery interpretation of Okigwe area indicates that the built-up area, comprising human habitation developed for non-agricultural uses like buildings, transport, and communications is largely increased from 38% (2000) to 57% (2023). This is due to urban expansion and population increase in this study area during the study period. The agricultural lands which are used mainly for cassava and yam production and other mixed varieties like mango, coconuts, and other homestead trees are largely decreased in area also. Also, this work corroborates the work done by (Iro, 2020).

# SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

## Summary

In the assessment of land use/land cover changes of Mbaise from the year 2013 to 2023, the following were the results of the findings:

i) It was observed that in the year 2013, the highest land use/ cover of Mbaise was vegetation which covered about 49% of the area, followed by Urban land which covered about 43% of the area. Meanwhile, Agricultural land covered about 6% of the area.

ii) In the year 2018, the urban area increased to 55% of the land use/land cover of Mbaise, thereby taking over some part of vegetation and agricultural areas

iii) In the year 2023, forest occupied 30% of the land use in the area, followed by agriculture which occupied 29% of the area, whereas Urban development occupied 28% of the land use in the area.

iv) For the change detection, it was detected that forest land use lost 11% coverage within the last 15 years, and water body and bare land have no significant change in the time frame of the study.

## Conclusion

The land use/land cover change detection analysis of Mbaise from 2013 to 2023 was carried out in ArcGIS 10.8 with different classes of LU/LC which include: Vegetation, Agriculture, Urban land, water bodies and bare land. The findings of the research revealed that there is indeed a shift/change in land use/land cover in the area. It was also detected that Vegetation and Urban land use/land cover in the area have negative and positive changes respectively. Hence it was agreed that due to the increase in Urbanization, other land uses are reducing or remaining steady in the area over the period.

## Recommendations

Based on the findings above, the following recommendations are made:

ii. The area should be well planned in consideration of all the land use for ecosystem balancing.

iii. Indiscriminate clearing and falling of economic trees should be controlled to avoid other land disasters like gully erosion, flooding, and heaving.

iv. Fertile farmlands should be reserved for agricultural purposes to feed the growing population

v. Further research can be taken on factors influencing the urban morphology and growth in the area.

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**Chapter Thirty-Four**

# GIS Evaluation of the Physical Terrain-Induced Flooding Incidence in Owerri Metropolis and its Human Health Implications

**Okuh Deborah**

Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria

EMAIL: deboraokuh@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

This research work focuses on GIS evaluation of the physical terrain-induced flooding incidence and its human health implications. The problem is that flood has been identified as a regular hazard to life and property in Owerri metropolis. This study is aimed at identifying flood-prone areas and areas liable to flooding in the study area. The study is designed to make use of information acquired from the residents living within 500 metres radius of the three main flood-prone areas of Bishop Unegbu, Dick Tiger and Afor-Egbu. A georeferenced cadastral map of Owerri was acquired and overlaid both the coordinate points of the residents and the flood site. The ArcGIS known as the Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) was used to run the model. The Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) is a useful model to estimate where water will accumulate in an area with elevation differences. It is a function of the slope and the upstream contributing area. It was observed from the model when zoomed that the areas with 0.27 to 10.6 are areas that are wet and areas with -3.4 to -0.27 are areas liable to flooding. From the analysis, when zoomed in from ArcGIS software, areas such as parts of Trans Egbu, Aladimma, parts of Owerri Urban, Egbu, Amakohia, river banks such as Nworie, Otamiri and Oramiriukwa and those living close to the banks of the rivers etc are constantly flooded or found to be areas liable to flooding from this TWI model. Areas with 5.76 to -3.4 and above are areas with higher ground and have not much flooding or no flooding at all. It showed that areas with high TWI are more liable to flooding than areas with low TWI. The finding revealed that, the topography is a crucial surface characteristic in flood modelling, and that this model adopted can be a valuable tool for city planners. It was recommended that the terrain of the area be put into consideration to avoid areas liable to flooding for residential purposes.

KEYWORDS: Flood; physical terrain; Owerri; GIS; TWI

**INTRODUCTION**

Flooding is one of the most devastating, frequent and widespread of all environmental hazards in most cities of the world. And it is of various types and magnitudes (Wizor & Week 2014; Nwankwoala & Jibril, 2019). Flood is an inevitable natural phenomenon occurring from time to time in all rivers and natural drainage systems, which not only damages the lives, natural resources and environment but also causes loss of economy and health year after year (Thilagavathi, Tamilenthil, Ramuand Baskaran, 2011).

The main causes of flood formation are intense rainfall in the watershed, melting snow in the spring season, inadequate drainage systems, overflow of main drainage channels, and the conversion of forest and pasture areas into residential and agricultural lands (Adeoye, Ayanlade, Babatimehin, 2009). Population growth, especially in urban areas, is one of the most significant triggers of flood disasters (Adeoye et al. 2009; Moazzam, Vansarochana, Rahman 2018). The rapid urbanization process leads to changes in land use, an increase in impermeable surfaces (roads, structures, etc.), and a decrease in urban natural vegetation and river networks. The process of urbanization leads to a decrease in urban drainage capacity. In areas where the soil's water retention capacity is reduced, intense rainfall results in surface runoff.

Flood is a large amount of water covering an area that is usually dry. It is an overflowing of a body of water over land not usually submerged. Nwafor, (2006), defined flood as a natural hazard like drought and desertification, which occurs as an extreme hydrological event. Abam, (2006), defined a flood as a large
volume of water, which arrives at and occupies the stream channel and its flood plain in a time too short to prevent damage to economic activities, including homes.

Flooding is the most common environmental hazard in Nigeria (Etuonovbe, 2011).

Flood disaster is not a recent phenomenon in Nigeria, and their destructive tendencies are sometimes enormous, particularly during the rainy seasons, flooding usually is a common story to read about in the dailies and magazines especially, in the United States of America (Dow & Dewing, 2006); Kersh and Simon, (2005); Pakistan and India (Wright, 2011) and even in Nigeria, the scenario is the same (Akain and Bilesamin, 2011, Aderogba, 2012a and 2012b).

The intensity and amount of rainfall in recent times have resulted in some of the significant flooding within the eastern region of Nigeria, particularly in Imo State in the last few years. With the effects of climate change, heavy and damaging storms will continue to increase in frequency. The exceptionally heavy rainfall of September 2018 in Imo State led to more than 26 deaths and the displacement of over 2,500 families. The Seven LGAs in Imo State that were seriously affected were Owerri municipal, Owerri North, Owerri West, Oru East, Mbaitoli, Isu and Nwangele (Adeoye, 2019). The floods were caused by poor drainage systems and the indiscriminate infrastructural development along river banks (Adeoye, 2019).

The study area, Owerri, the capital city of Imo State, South East Nigeria, has also had many cases of flooding in the past quarter of a century, along with a good number of other Nigerian cities (Bertolo & Fransesc, 2000, Maria, Jürgen, Pierre, Alfred & Roberto 2013). Vanguard Newspaper of Nigeria of Monday 27th June 2005 reported that, "about 3,500 families in Owerri municipality and its adjoining villages were at the weekend sacked by flood, which resulted from a heavy rainstorm that lasted for two days." The Newspaper put the cost of the material loss at N200 Million. Over the years, the perennial flooding has not abated. Bich, Quang, Ha, Hanh, and Guha-Sapir, (2011), Brown & Murray (2013) assert that flooding has a wide range of health consequences such as drowning, injury, outbreak of gastroenteritis, respiratory infections, poisoning, communicable diseases, epidemics such as cholera, diarrhoea, and dengue fever, poor mental health, and disability, among others. Similarly, Baxter, Moller, Spencer, and Tapsell (2001); Few (2004); Du, FitzGerald, Clark, and Hou (2010), also observed the same results in their works.

This study explores the use of GIS in mapping flooding incidence on the physical terrain-induced areas of Owerri Metropolis. This is because Owerri Metropolis experiences seasonal floods which claim property worth thousands of naira and sometimes human lives. The problem of flood in Owerri is intensifying due to urbanization, in which vegetation cover is being cleared for residential buildings.

The study not only adds to the existing literature but has produced a map of an Ikonos satellite image of Owerri identifying the three (3) flood inundated sites in Owerri Metropolis which will be useful to policy makers in land use zonation to steer away development from the risk zones and reduce property damage to floods. It is from these reasons that the study has derived its relevance.

## THE STUDY AREA

Owerri is the capital of Imo State in Nigeria. It is also the state's largest city, followed by Orlu, and Okigwe in the second and third positions respectively. (Fig.1). Owerri is a growing urban centre and it is the capital of Imo state in South-Eastern Nigeria. Geographically, the study area is located between longitude 6° 56' 45'E and 7° 5' 0'E, and latitude 5° 18' 15'N and 5° 34' 45'N. Owerri Metropolis consists of three Local Government Areas including Owerri Municipal, Owerri North and Owerri West Local Government Areas. Two rivers flow through the study area, the Otamiri and Nworie Rivers. The Otamiri River rises from the east while the Nworie River rises from the north to form a confluence at Nekede as shown in Fig.1.

Owerri Metropolis, can be defined culturally, functionally and politically according to Onwumerobi (1989). Owerri Metropolis is wider than Owerri Municipality Council. Owerri Municipality is synonymous with Owerri Urban, which includes all neighbourhoods that perform urban functions in terms of functionality. Owerri Metropolis has also a political definition comprising Owerri North, Owerri West and Owerri Municipal Council Area. These three are political divisions of what makes up Owerri Metropolis.

In this regard, the study looks closely at the areas of Owerri that perform urban function and see how they cope up with flooding in the neighbourhoods. Urban areas and municipalities are demarcated by
neighbourhoods. The neighbourhood's demarcations are based on political definitions because each of these
neighbourhoods, according to the government, is known by its layouts. Amakohia/Akwakuma layout is a
neighbourhood, Ikenugbu is a neighbourhood, Uratta/Prefab is a neighbourhood, New Owerri is a
neighbourhood and Umuguma Housing Estate is a neighbourhood. All of them, when aggregated, make up
what is called the Owerri municipality.

Owerri Urban area, as defined by law, is 11km radius from Ama JK and this 11km radius from Ama JK, includes Ogbaku, Mgbirichi, it will go up to Nworie Ubi Ubomiri, and New Owerri by (Fingeruth and Partners 1977).

By function, cities engaged in some activities not performed by rural settlements. Urban centres have agglomerated activities such as nucleation of households. The urban functions that the households perform are what lead to the flooding in their neighbourhoods.

<figure><img src="image_74.png" /><figcaption>Fig.1: Study area outlined for context</figcaption></figure>

METHODOLOGY

This study adopts Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) methods in processing the
satellite data. This involves Digital Elevation model (DEM) study area analysis and modeling with the
Kernel Density tool of three flood inundated sites to find flood inundated areas prone to the identified health
challenges.

SRTM (DEM) for Topographical Outlook of the Study Area

To obtain the structure and contribution of topography to flood in the study area, SRTM (USGS DEM) image was used. This study used newly released 30m X 30m SRTM data of the study area acquired from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Dataset (Fig. 2) (Iro, 2020). This dataset was chosen to get a recent topographical outlook of the study area to enable qualitative and quantitative analysis of the flood sites. The
DEM were downloaded and cropped to the area of interest (Fig. 3f). The elevation values range from low = 30m to high = 144m. This elevation data from the study area includes hill shade, slope gradient, slope aspect, contour of the area, and stream order. One of the most important factors affecting flooding is topography (Iro & Achalonu, 2020). Digital elevation models (DEMs) have been commonly used in geographic information systems (GIS) for representing topography and for extracting topographical and hydrological features for various applications, including flood and its studies (Iro, 2020). Topography is a crucial surface characteristic in flood modelling, and studies used a digital elevation model (DEM) to derive the topographical characteristics of a study area (Iro, 2021).

In the landscape, the topography determines the behaviour of the surface runoff, the phase of the hydrologic cycle that is most directly associated with runoff, requires a rigorous and effective analysis throughout its entire extension. This is made possible with the use of digital elevation models (DEM) (Oliveira, 2013). The analyses developed using a DEM allowed visualisation of the model in planar geometric projection. From Owerri DEM, grey scale images, shaded images and thematic images, the conducting of profile analyses, and generating derivative maps, such as steepness and exposure maps, drainage maps, contour maps, slope maps, and aspect maps were all generated for analysis. Very importantly, elevation points were generated from the Owerri DEM.

<figure><img src="image_75.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2: An SRTM DEM Image of the study area, cropped to Area of Interest (USGS2021)</figcaption></figure>
Geo referenced Cadastral Map of Owerri Metropolis

Cadastre is a technical term for a set of records showing the extent, value, and ownership (or other basis for use or occupancy) of land. Strictly speaking, a cadastre is a record of areas and values of land and of landholders that originally was compiled for purposes of taxation. This cadastral map of Owerri Metropolis was obtained from Ikonnos Satellite Imagery. It was used to identify those recognised flood-inundated sites in the study area for processing. See (figure 3).

<figure><img src="image_76.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3: Ikonos Satellite Image of Owerri identifying the three floods inundated sites in Owerri Metropolis shown in yellow pins.</figcaption></figure>

TWI (Topographic Wetness Index)

TWI is a topographic parameter that indicates the spatial dissemination of the domain's wetness, groundwater level, saturation zone, soil moisture, and flow aggregation (Mondal and Mandal, 2018) and characterizes flooding. It expresses the saturation level; an enormous TWI value signifies soggy land prone to flooding.

The Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) is a useful model to estimate where water will accumulate in an area with elevation differences. It is a function of slope and the upstream contributing area. The TWI index indicates how slope affects hydrological processes; and describes the water accumulation trend at a particular location, and shows the influence of gravitational forces on the water flow from the local slope (Pourali, Arrowsmith, Chrisman, Matkan, Mitchell, 2014; and Fernandez and Lutz 2010). TWI has been commonly used to forecast soil moisture conditions and the tendency of an area to accumulate water, and, therefore, flood incidence (Beven and Kirkby, 1979). In this study, the slope and DEM datasets were applied to calculate TWI on ArcGIS 10.4. The rasters needed to calculate the TWI are;

1. DEM (Digital Elevation Model)

2. Fill DEM (The DEM, however, has voids. Voids are pixels with no data. These voids need to be interpolated)
3. Flow Direction (from fill DEM of the study area)

4. Flow Accumulation (From the flow direction of the study area, to represent the areas where runoff will accumulate in the study area DEM)

5. Slope Calculated in degrees (to calculate TWI, we need the slope in radians. With the raster analysis tools we can calculate the slope in degrees and percentages. Calculate the slope in degrees and then convert the values to radians)

6. Calculate the Contributing Upslope Area (This is to calculate the contributing upslope area for each pixel in the DEM, and show areas that are wet and liable to flooding)

7. Calculate TWI (Now we have the slope in radians and the upslope contributing area (in pixels) we can calculate the Topographic Wetness Index in the Raster Calculator).

## RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The analysis revealed that, Terrain of an area determines the nature of the landscape which helps to influence runoff of the area Poesen et al. (2003), Marquisée (2010), Boardman (2006), Bochet (2004) and Igbokwe (2008) and as pointed out by (Baker and Capel, 2011), terrain of Owerri Metropolis Imo State Nigeria is the main source of flooding in the area. In Owerri Metropolis, (Njoku, Amangabara, & Duru, 2013; Essien, Unigwe, Adebola, & Jesse, 2018), found that there is a positive relationship between topography and runoff leading to more pronounced flood inundation in areas with flat topography than areas with valley land.

## Identifying Flood Prone Areas and Areas Liable to Flooding in the Study Area, the Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) was used

This was modelled with the Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) in (Fig: 4). It is a useful model to estimate where water will accumulate in an area with elevation differences. It is also a function of slope and the upstream contributing area. From the model, it can be observed when zoomed that in the areas with -0.27 to 10.6 are areas that are wet and areas with -3.4 to -0.27 are areas liable to flooding. From the analysis, when zoomed in from ArcGIS software, areas such as parts of Trans Egbu, Aladimma, parts of Owerri Urban, Egbu, Amakohia, river banks such as Nworie, Otamiri and Oramiriukwa and those living close to the banks of the rivers etc are constantly flooded or found to be areas liable to flooding from this TWI model.

Areas with 5.76 to -3.4 and above are areas with higher ground and have little to no flooding or no flooding at all. It is pertinent to know that areas with high TWI is liable to flooding than areas with low TWI, according to (Chapi, Singh, Shirzadi, Shahabi, Bui, Pham, Khosravi, 2017) in the review of this research literature. TWI was determined as the product of slope and upstream contributing area per unit width perpendicular to the flow direction, this is in line with the work of Lucà, Conforti, Robustelli, (2011) in the review of literature. TWI has a good correlation with many soil properties such as horizon depth, percentage of silt, organic matter, and phosphorous and hence directly influence the flood vulnerability (Moore, Grayson, Ladson, 1991). The TWI is commonly used to quantify topographic influences of hydrological processes (Khoirunisa, Ku, Liu, 2021). High wetness index locations occur where there is a combination of low slope and increased flow accumulation and, as a result, may indicate flood-prone places (Nandi, Mandal, Wilson, Smith, 2016).
<figure><img src="image_77.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 4: TWI Map of Owerri Metropolis showing areas with dark blue as most wet and areas liable to flooding</figcaption></figure>

One of the most important factors affecting flooding is topography (Iro & Achalonu, 2020). Topography plays an essential role in flood intensity, and for determining a flood-prone area, topographic elements directly affect runoff velocity and flow size (Kia et al., 2012). Flood-prone areas consistently exhibit certain characteristics influenced by terrain constraints. These characteristics include the maximum inundation extent, water depth, volume, and potential emergency response times. Importantly, it should be noted that the areas with the highest risk of significant flood depths may not necessarily coincide with regions experiencing frequent flood events.

Therefore, detailed studies on the status and evolution of flood hazards would be beneficial in identifying flood-prone areas and recommending appropriate measures. Generally, models used to identify flood-prone areas take into account certain parameters that contribute to flood formation (Hong, Tsangaratos, Ilia, Liu, Zhu, Chen, 2018). Ozkan and Tarhan (2012) determined flood risk areas using GIS techniques and
considering factors such as flow accumulation, land use, slope, precipitation intensity, and elevation maps. Dolek and Avci (2017) utilized the ArcGIS weighted overlay method to assess flood and inundation risks by considering factors like slope, aspect, elevation, vegetation cover, and soil layers. Tehrany, Pradhan, Mansor, Ahmad, (2015) emphasized that floods in a region are influenced by its morphological, geological, topographic, and hydrological characteristics. Therefore, selecting the parameters that contribute to flood formation is a crucial step in identifying flood-prone areas. Dekongmen, Kabo-bah, Domfeh, Sunkari, Dile, Antwi, Gyimah, (2021) proposed that infiltration and surface flow velocity are primarily determined by high slope and soil properties.

## RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results of the analysis, the following should be taken into consideration:
The terrains and alignments of roads in Owerri Metropolis are to be assessed and looked into here to ascertain the flooding effects in the area. For instance, the terrain of MCC- Uratta is on a higher elevation of about 123.1m (400 feet) above sea level. Amuozara-Ikenegbu extension is about 76.9m (250 feet) above sea level and Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education is around 61.5m (200 feet). If a road is being constructed, it should be constructed such that the road runs along the contours, because if the road cuts across the contours, the water will run at high speed. The speed is higher when cutting across contours, but if it is built along contours, then the flow will be slow.

Environmental planning should incorporate the use of DEMs for housing layouts to mitigate against disasters such as floods. The accurate hydrological analysis of DEM will aid proper planning to avoid flood-risk areas for residential settlement. Terrain parameters such as slope, elevation, aspect, flow direction etc are of great use in this respect.

## CONCLUSION

This study has demonstrated the application and usefulness of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) tools in flood management. The Digital Terrain Model (DTM) has identified the flood inundation areas within the metropolis and has provided adequate knowledge of the flood situation for government intervention towards curtailing the disaster.

This study evaluates the contribution of morphometric causal factors of floods. It is an overview of the impact of the terrain properties on susceptibility to flood occurrences in urban areas. The advancement in remote sensing data acquisition and their integration in a Geographic Information System contribute to specific studies in flood researches. Digital Elevation Model allowed us to compute the morphometric analysis resulting in mapping the susceptibility to flood. By aggregating causal factors, the weighted overlay procedure presented the ability to distinguish areas with higher, medium and lower susceptibility to floods. The lowest and flattest areas are the most affected by the flash floods in city.

Mapping and analysis of topographical setting are fundamental for good understanding and management of the physical environment. It is needed to enable us familiarize ourselves with the terrain in which development takes place. We need to understand that good knowledge of the environmental settings at a particular time improves safety. In the past environmental analyst relied heavily on analogue methods for modelling and analysis of terrain, and this approach can no longer satisfy the contemporary planning needs. Based on this, a sophisticated method that produces reliable results must be adopted to ensure that the right decision is made during planning. The use of remote sensing and GIS platform has become an integrated, well developed and reliable approach in topographical analysis. The results of this study revealed the manifold and multi-dimensional capabilities of integrating remote sensing data and GIS in terrain modelling and analysis. The robust methodology developed in the study is evidenced by the effectiveness of the results. This can be seen in the series of thematic maps generated, which constitute a geospatial database for informed decision making. With this technique, it was possible to map and analyze the flooded areas and other terrain-developed characteristics/attributes, and identify flood inundated areas. It is therefore recommended that researchers should employ this promising technique for their investigations.
Acknowledgement

I want to acknowledge Prof. Pat Duru and Prof. Dominic Azuwike, Department of Geography and Environmental Management and the Faculty of Environmental Management, Imo State University for the opportunity granted to me to be part of this conference.

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# PART 8: Urban Service Delivery; Social Injustice, Land use and Land Market
**Chapter Thirty-Five**

**Strategic Planning Towards Developing a Sustainable City: Lessons for Lagos, Nigeria**

**Faisal C. Emetumah**

Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria

EMAIL: chinonso.emetumah@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

Driven by increasing human population and significant socioeconomic development in the 21st century, Lagos city metropolitan area has become home to over 17 million people. The study aims at evaluating strategic options and key features that can make Lagos metropolitan area more habitable, thereby becoming one of the world's most sustainable places. In doing this, the study uses an exploratory research design to examine existing literature and policy records on strategic planning for sustainable city development. The study analyses the current position of Lagos as a 21st century African mega city faced with numerous challenges, as well as the city's future about sustainability. The study also examines appropriate lessons from exemplars like Curitiba city in Brazil concerning sustainable waste management, renewable energy provision/use, transportation, among other activities associated with 21st century urban living. Key features of the recommended strategy for a sustainable Lagos involve creating more public parks and green spaces, which not only serve as recreation and leisure areas, but also act as run-off catchment areas, among other sustainability enhancing measures. Preliminary assessments should be carried out by conducting aerial surveys of the city to identify best locations for green spaces and flood catchment areas. First phase actions should involve demolitions in low-lying areas to create natural drainage channels for flood control.

KEYWORDS: Planning; Urbanization; Lagos; Curitiba; Sustainability

**INTRODUCTORY BACKGROUND**

Increasing urbanization across the globe is premised on the general belief that living in the city provides better access to economic opportunities while enhancing quality of life, especially in a developing country like Nigeria. The concept of sustainable development provides an effective approach for 21st century cities to meet international best practices by ensuring that economic, social and environmental considerations are made, such that future generations have a better society to look forward to. According to a United Nations Report (2019), global population growth is expanding cities all over the world, with urban areas expected to cover almost 70% of the total human population by 2050. Furthermore, most of the global population growth in the coming years is expected to take place in sub-Saharan Africa, due to cultural factors and high fertility rates (Gu, Andreev & Dupre, 2021). Situated in sub-Saharan Africa (See Figure 1), Lagos is a large coastal metropolitan area in the South West region of Nigeria, with a human population of over 17 million in a land area of less than 400,000 hectares (Odudu, 2015).
<figure><img src="image_78.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. Lagos Metropolitan Area and surrounding communities (Source: Adelekan, 2010).</figcaption></figure>

Due to its large and cosmopolitan characteristics, people from different parts of Nigeria and neighbouring countries migrate to Lagos in search of a better life and improved economic conditions. Urban planning within Lagos metropolis dates back as far as the 1800s. Due to its strategic location in a natural harbour, Lagos has been an important trading centre with substantial quantities of slaves and agricultural products exported to Europe and the Americas throughout much of the 1700s (Opoko & Oluwatayo, 2014). As a result of the city's economic value, land-use organization and delineation with Eko (the native name of the city before European incursions in West Africa) were instituted by the traditional leadership structure instituted by the Oba (king) of Lagos. According to Abubakar et al. (2020), British colonisation of Nigeria from late 1800s to 1960 formalised urban planning in Lagos through legal instruments, especially the Nigerian town and country planning ordinance no. 4 of 1946, which regulated road construction, public health and beautification within the Lagos metropolis.

Currently, there are more than ten planning policies, edicts and regulatory guidelines in Lagos which are operationalised to fast-track urban development in a large evolving metropolis like Lagos (Abubakar, Lawanson & Usman, 2020). Urban development in Lagos metropolis as in many cities in the global south, has been characterised by poor alignment to the concept of sustainable development, due to corruption, unsustainable waste management practices, defective governance structures and poor consideration towards sustainability (Soyinka et al., 2016; Chan et al., 2018). Apart from having about 80% of the city residents
living in the low-income category at less than $2 a day, housing development is characterised by slum and informal settlements for almost 70% of Lagos residents (Lawanson & Omoegun, 2018). Furthermore, housing deficit is very high with more than 3 million Lagos residents without access to adequate housing. Transportation in Lagos is mainly through informal bus services, which account for about 70% of vehicular movement in the city, with less than 4% using formalised bus schemes like the Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) system (Agunbiade and Olajide, 2016). Even though Lagos is one of the most populous cities in Africa, urban train systems are not widely available; the first light rail system in Lagos was recently introduced in 2023 after decades of several failed attempts aimed at reducing the notorious traffic gridlock the city is renowned for (Onu, 2023).

<figure><img src="image_79.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2. Poor Sanitation in Makoko area of Lagos (Source: Lawanson et al., 2023).</figcaption></figure>

In line with Figure 2, the issue of sustainable waste management and proper environmental sanitation is also of concern since less than 30% of Lagos residents have access to better-quality sanitation (Daramola & Olawuni, 2019). Significant inadequacies in sustainability indices in Lagos are further compounded by concentration of improved infrastructural facilities in predominantly high-brow areas of the city. In the same vein, access to potable water is a significant challenge within the Lagos metropolis, given that less than 6% of households in the entire city had access to pipe-borne water in 2016. Similarly, there is a very high risk of flooding for more than 70% of the entire surface area of Lagos due to the city's proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, in addition to inadequate flood control infrastructure which results in perennial submersion of many parts of the city in the peak of the rainy season. Electricity is also a serious challenge in the Lagos metropolis with less than 1000MW of electricity available whereas the city needs at least 4000MW to meet its energy needs (Obafemi et al., 2021). In line with the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG), city planning in the 21st century should have social, environmental and economic balance such that cities can be sustained for centuries to come. On that note, city planning in Lagos can take cues from other cities that have significantly improved their quality of life because they
have embraced sustainability wholeheartedly. Accordingly, six facets make a city smart: having sustainability-aware people, good governance, environmental conservation, green economy, sustainable mobility, and environmentally-conscious living (Larbi et al, 2022).

## SUSTAINABLE CITY PLANNING: CURITIBA EXEMPLARS FOR LAGOS

According to Sahu and Debsarma (2023), several cities across the globe are adopting practices that incorporate sustainability in not only providing green infrastructure, but also ensuring sustainable practices are imbibed in waste management, public health, energy provision/use, transportation, education, among other activities associated with urban living. The city of Curitiba, with a human population close to 2 million, is not only one of the largest cities in Brazil, but also renowned for being one of the few smart cities that aligns with the concept of sustainable planning in the global south (Macedo, 2013). According to Larbi, Kellet and Palazzon (2022), sustainable development planning in Curitiba immensely benefitted from the linearity approach in the preliminary plan proposed by architect Jorge Wilheim to the city's administrators in 1964. This plan provided for developing the city along transit corridors from the city centre outwardly towards the neighbouring city. These transit corridors not only served as locations for residential areas and commercial/industrial clusters, but also provided for open green spaces and historical sites. The ideas in the Wilheim development plan were revolutionised by Jaime Lerner, a Brazilian architect and urban planner who introduced novel sustainable ideas that enhanced transportation, waste management, biodiversity protection and ecological management among others, in Curitiba. A unique feature of Lerner's sustainability revolution in turning Curitiba into a smart city was his preference for local resources, which were more replicable and cheaper rather than conventional ideas available at the time, which were complicated and generally not fit for purpose (Margolin, 2007). Figure 3 shows sustainable transportation corridors for BRT and other transport types in Curitiba, Brazil.

<figure><img src="image_80.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3. Sustainable Transportation Corridors in Curitiba, Brazil (Source: Larbi et al., 2022)</figcaption></figure>

The transit corridors in and out of the Curitiba city centre were fundamental in developing an effective transport system for the city. This is because these corridors provided the need for moving people to and from the city centre, which in turn facilitated the conception of bus rapid transit (BRT) as a viable means of
sustainable mass transit (Larbi, Kellett & Palazzo, 2022). Separate lanes were created for BRT traffic, which not only made movement easy and faster but also encouraged commuters in Curitiba to opt for mass transit, instead of private transport, which in turn reduced carbon emissions. Also, BRT vehicles in Curitiba have substituted diesel fuel from crude oil for a cleaner biofuel diesel with significantly less volume of carbon emissions (Lindau, Hidalgo & Facchini, 2010).

In terms of waste management, Curitiba used public awareness creation and enlightenment on sustainable environmental management to make the city's residents to perceive waste management not as a pernicious challenge that is insurmountable but as a necessity which can be turned into useful resources (Newman, 2010). This approach has become so effective that Curitiba has one of the highest waste recycling rates in the entire world with more than 70% of waste material being recycled, annually (Soltani & Sharifi, 2012). Curitiba has achieved this high level of waste recycling due to the city's green exchange program, where residents are encouraged to efficiently dispose and recycle waste materials in exchange for BRT tickets and food. In addition, fishermen in Curitiba are encouraged to collect non-biodegradable materials in water bodies around the city in exchange for cash rewards, thereby reducing marine pollution. Curitiba has adopted a waste-to-wealth approach where separation of refuse at source has become quite successful such that more than 90% of the city's residents separate waste materials based on biodegradable and non-biodegradable (Gratz, 2013).

Concerning ecological management in Curitiba, significant efforts have been made to synchronise urban development with natural vegetative features (Larbi, Kellett & Palazzo, 2022). In doing this, hundreds of structures situated in areas identified as low-lying areas prone to flooding were demolished and replaced with water parks and ponds where floodwaters can be channelled. Located all over the cityscape, these run-off collection areas were also interconnected with the network of rivers and streams around the city, such that flood waters are effectively controlled without resulting to the construction of concrete tunnels, which is the conventional way of flood control in many parts of the world (Suzuki et al., 2010). Apart from being more affordable than concrete flood control, using natural measures for ecological management in Curitiba also portends less environmental risk in the long term. Curitiba has also increased greenspaces within the city from 0.5 square metre per resident in the 1970s to more than 50 square metre per resident as at 2016, despite a significant population increase over the same period (Macedo & Haddad, 2016). The city was able to achieve this feat by integrating and synchronising urban development with nature conservation techniques. In managing vegetation growth within green spaces and public parks in Curitiba, Capybaras and other domestic ruminants like sheep have been introduced in these areas to control vegetation growth. The approach is more sustainable than using conventional lawnmowers, which are usually powered by fossil fuels.

## RECOMMENDED STRATEGY FOR SUSTAINABLE PLANNING OF LAGOS

Despite having a systemic culture of unplanned development spanning decades, it is still very possible to turn the situation around and carve a path towards sustainable planning in Lagos. The entire Lagos metropolis is prone to flooding because it is a low-lying coastal city experiencing a population explosion, which encourages indiscriminate land reclamation for building construction to accommodate the city's growing population.

On that note, there is an urgent need to demolish structures that are occupying low-lying areas of the city to create natural drainage channels for flood control. Since Lagos metropolis has a lot of streams and natural canals, these low-lying areas can also be dredged and connected to the Lagos lagoon, which in turn is connected to the Atlantic. Also, public parks and greenspaces can be created around these run-off catchment areas, which not only serve recreation and leisure areas, but also increase the ratio of residents to greenspaces, which is currently lacking in Lagos. Furthermore, a synchronising urban development with greenspaces fosters biodiversity as ruminants like sheep and goats can be introduced in the green areas of the city.
Given that waste management is ineffective in Lagos, lessons can be learned from Curitiba by creating more awareness on the benefits of waste separation at source and waste recycling, which turns garbage into wealth. This can be achieved by partnering with existing waste management organisations on how waste separation and recycling can be incentivised. This approach will go a long way in encouraging more Lagos residents to participate in sustainable waste management, thereby significantly reducing the quantity of waste that requires disposal in open dumps and landfills. Even though Lagos has a BRT system which serves less than 4% of the city's residents, efforts should be made towards expanding the BRT system to cover more routes of the city. This can be achieved by learning from the transit corridor approach in Curitiba (See Figure 2), where BRT move commuters away from the city centre. This approach can work in Lagos given that Lagos also has a central business district where most of the traffic heads to in the morning and departs in the evening.

**First phase of actions for a sustainable Lagos**

The first phase actions should involve demolishing structures in low-lying areas of Lagos to create natural drainage channels for flood control. This approach was considered as the first line of action because flooding challenges in Lagos are the most significant, in terms of making Lagos a sustainable city. Therefore, creating an ecologically sustainable Lagos should come first before looking at other aspects of sustainable planning. On that note, Figure 4 shows the first phase of actions for a sustainable Lagos.

<figure><img src="image_81.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4. Outline of first phase of actions for a sustainable Lagos (Source: Author)</figcaption></figure>

Firstly, preliminary assessments should be carried out by conducting aerial surveys of the city using fast terrain mapping using drones or helicopters (Luo *et al.*, 2015). This type of low-altitude digital imagery will provide a clear elevation model of the city to identify where exactly demolition activities need to take place. This will be followed by field visits and enumerations to ground-truth the aerial surveys. This aspect should be completed in less than a year. Subsequently, the demolition plan will commence after that by initially marking structures to be demolished, following which commensurate compensations will be paid. After that, excavation and clearing of the debris from the demolition will take place. This part should be completed within one year.

**REFERENCES**

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**Chapter Thirty-Six**

**Developing a Platform for Safer Alternatives to Public Water Supply in Owerri Urban**

**Ude Anayo D.**

Department of Urban & Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria

EMAIL: udeanayo6@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

This study examined the water quality of alternative sources to the public water supply accessible to residents of Owerri Urban for domestic and drinking purposes. The objective is to determine the potential contamination of these water sources by nearby land uses such as septic tanks and waste disposal sites. A mixed method research design was employed, incorporating qualitative and quantitative data collection and laboratory tests. A sample of 420 households in Owerri Urban provided data on their primary water sources and their quality. Only 13.8% of respondents were aware of their water quality through laboratory tests, while 86.2% had either not tested their water or were unsure if their landlords had done so. Six water samples (two from rivers and four from boreholes) were analyzed using nine parameters: pH, electrical conductivity, color, total solids, total bacteria, total coliforms, Klebsiella, E. coli, and fungi. Results indicated contamination levels in some samples exceeding acceptable standards. Specifically, E. coli, fungi, and coliforms were found at higher levels than permitted by the Nigerian Industrial Standard for Water Quality. An ANOVA test was conducted to assess differences in contamination levels across various neighborhoods in Owerri Urban. The hypothesis (HO) that there was no significant difference in contamination levels across neighborhoods was upheld. This implies that water contamination level does not significantly vary across the neighborhoods studied. The study strongly recommends that the government, through the ISWSC, introduce and implement a Water Policy that mandates both private and public borehole providers to conduct regular water quality tests from their supply sources. Creating awareness on various media platforms to alert the public on the adverse effects of consuming uncertified/unsafe water.

KEY WORDS: Water quality; Contamination; Safe water; Public water

**INTRODUCTION**

The current population explosion of Owerri region appears to have triggered much urbanization and city expansion without corresponding expansion in the development of basic amenities. This uncontrolled urban expansion has exacerbated pressure on the existing basic infrastructures, especially those for water supply, sanitation and environmental quality controls. (Aliyu & Amadu, 2017) reiterated the consequences of unbalanced basic amenities in urban expansion, of which water resource infrastructure happens to be one of the most jeopardized in the case of Owerri urban, though silently because of the abundance of water resources within the geographical boundaries. This has created a deceptive conception that made many Owerri urban dwellers misconceive the availability of an improved water system as the same as accessibility to safe water supply. The inability of Imo State Government to provide a safe, sustainable public water supply for both drinking and domestic use for urban dwellers has resulted in desperate search for alternative sources of potable water for Owerri Urban populace (Osuagwu 2019). This Search for alternatives to public water delivery has led to massive abstraction of water through boreholes by individuals, while very few urban poor fall back to the river, where it is accessible. The worrisome part of the Owerri Urban water supply situation is that these boreholes or rivers being used as alternative sources are not certified by any statutory water supply institution or regulator, therefore the quality of the alternative water supply is usually uncertain. The study of (Osuagwu 2019) on some Owerri borehole water affirmed that many boreholes in Owerri are poorly sited and substandard in terms of construction, therefore prone to pollution from
sewerage and septic tanks and suggested that boreholes only be used as a temporal source of water supply in Owerri. It is critical to note that the quality of the ground water resources which is the main source of water supply for these boreholes may be currently under threat from some of the urban solid waste disposal practices as well as other peculiar urban land use activities such as wrong location of septic system about borehole abstraction point, open and indiscriminate dumping of refuse as well as unsanitary disposal of human wastes. These and many more seem to threaten the surface and ground water aquifers within Owerri. Though public participation in the water sector has provided significant relief to the various Institutions responsible for water supply in Imo state, by their introduction of alternative sources of water supply through self-help, yet the issue of quality has not been addressed. WHO data presented in Mondal et al (2021) indicated unavailability of safe water as the cause of 80% of infections and one third of death in developing nations. Despite the public health challenge in unreliable sources of urban water supplies, neither the State Government nor Imo State Water and Sewerage Corporation have come up with concrete projects or water regulatory policy that adequately address the current Owerri urban water situation. Though access to improved water facilities is on the increase as boreholes are now a complimentary facility of many housing units in Owerri via self-help, but this does not automatically guarantee access to safe water supply. It is also very common to see septic systems and boreholes abstraction point located closely together, likewise other incompatible land uses especially in high density neighborhoods such as Orji, Amakohia, Irete, and others where manual evacuation of septic system is practiced by many; situation where human wastes in septic tanks are manually dug out and transferred to shallow trenches prepared as final disposal place. This crude method is so degrading to the physical environment and may have some negative implications to both ground and surface water sources within the immediate environment. All these practices and many more have prompted this study, which seeks to develop a platform that will promote the delivery of safer alternatives to public water supply in Owerri urban with the view of contributing knowledge that will positively reposition the current water situation in Owerri.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Several studies conducted in both developed and developing countries of the world to address various urban water challenges, especially amongst developing countries, end up shifting priority from improving the quality of available water resources to increasing the quantity of water supply accessible to the people. The increasing challenge of seeking safe water supply in both rural and urban settings, and incessant failures of water supply Institutions to properly address the situation has compelled the populace in most developing countries to desperately seek alternative sources of safe water supply outside the centrally supplied public water supply, which are scarcely available. This study examined literature on groundwater, which serves as the main alternative to the centrally public water supply in Owerri urban. The dependence of over 1500 cities worldwide on groundwater is on the increase, such that the world's potable water is mostly sourced from groundwater in the form of boreholes, springs and wells. (Groundwater.org 2022) noted that the multiplication of uncontrolled groundwater abstractions has resulted in overuse with several negative consequences that are too severe to be ignored. There have been recurring incidences of unstable water supply problem which usually occurs when the degree of water demand outweighs the rate of aquifer recharge through excess rainfall and runoffs. This is a common challenge since the nature of groundwater recharge is designed by nature to be slowly replenished just to aid filtration. There are also reported cases of aquifer degradation and other negative environmental impacts, which are as a result of expanded groundwater exploitation, which may result in water depletion with possible increase in cost of water supplies and may also induce reverse flow of aquifers especially where there is too much pressure on the groundwater aquifers.

Baba and Tayfur (2011) investigated groundwater contamination in Upper Turkey in their study, both anthropogenic and natural sources were indicted in groundwater contamination. The anthropogenic sources include mining waste, agricultural waste, industrial waste, onsite septic tank, and an unperfected well. The natural sources of contamination include geological formation, sea water intrusion and geo-thermal fluid. They suggested the establishment of a groundwater monitoring system as well as delineation
of the critical protection zone, as increased awareness of the public on aquifer vulnerability to pollution. Dan et al (2017) noted that the quality of urban ground water resources has continuously deteriorated due to inadequate waste management and source protection, with shallow ground water aquifer being the most affected. This has exposed many users to a significant health challenge.

Groundwater foundation (2018) identified major sources of groundwater contamination to include underground storage tanks, chemicals that are washed into the ground by rain, landfills, septic tanks and uncontrolled hazardous waste disposal. Free Drinking Water (2011) suggested that these private water sources be investigated against water pollutants, such as microorganisms, heavy metals, lead, copper, household wastes, fluoride, etc. It also opined that further risk of water contamination are influenced by poor construction of boreholes, its location, the type of human activities carried out within the location as well as the rock quality of the aquifer from which the water is drawn. It is therefore suggested that private sources be tested annually for nitrate and coliform since testing for more complex chemicals may be very expensive. It advised against drinking water directly from private well water without a protective filter. Dan et al (2017) noted that the quality of ground water resources continues to deteriorate due to inadequate waste management and water source protection. This has affected most shallow ground aquifers and has exposed many significant health challenges. Since ground water remains a major source of urban water supply especially through boreholes and wells in most countries. It is then important that these numerous boreholes and wells serving various private homes should be properly constructed or undergo adequate water quality test to ascertain its water suitability. APEC (2011) specified some indicators that could enable private borehole owners to dictate boreholes with contamination or construction defects. The nuggets for boreholes examination were outlined as follows:

The presence of coliform bacteria in counts exceeding limits set by health authorities.

Change in quality of water such as in turbidity, colour, taste, odour, etc especially after rain falls.

The presence of roots and biological materials such as animals, insects etc.

Presence of cracks or joints or an unsealed part of the casing.

The settlement of the ground surface around the top of the well or borehole

The absence of a watertight well cover on the borehole.

Changes in the chemical quality of the water as dictated by laboratory analysis.

The publication also suggested that borehole owners take further responsibility to ensure the provision of good quality water from their boreholes. Some corrective measures such as routine checks against cracks, proper covering of borehole heads, and annually carrying out the laboratory test of their water samples. Abia State Water Board Law (Cap 12 section 6, 1993), Imo Water Corporation Edict (section 6,(1995), Imo State Water Law No 42 of 2019 and Anambra State Water Edict (No 3 part 2 section 4,1999), all empowered the State Water Agencies to examine the surface and ground water against the existence of any possible pollutants. They also have the responsibilities to set standards relative to water supply in collaboration with Federal Regulatory Agencies. They are also permitted to issue license to all existing private water works operators and to operate and maintain a state water works for safe drinking water supply. However, only in Abia state the of private boreholes are regulated by the State Government amongst these listed states.

## RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research design adopted for this study was mixed method. This method enabled the study to combine both quantitative and qualitative method at different point of the study as well as use experimentation in the analysis of some water samples tested in this study. According to Federal Republic of Nigeria (2009), Owerri Capital Territory has a population of 640 899 and a household population of 106,816 spread across 45 wards in the four local government areas located within Owerri Capital Territory. The population was projected at a growth rate of 2.8% using the estimate this Formula below:

$$P(e+1) = p(1+R/100)^n$$

This gave a population estimate of 969,808 for Owerri capital Territory in 2024. Using Taro Yamanni formula for determining (Sample size= N/1+N(e)^2), a total of 420 households were randomly selected as
the sample of the study. Record from Owerri Capital Development Authority (OCDA) shows that about 48
layouts exist within the Owerri urban alone; 9 out of these layouts are yet to be developed while 39 are
already functional. The Multi Stage Random Sampling technique was employed in this study. The stratified
random sampling technique was employed in stage 1, to divide the study area in to 3 homogenous strata
based on population densities. Stage 2 adopted simple random technique to select 30% from each layout as
representative to each density group. Based on this selection, three (3) layouts each were selected from both
low and medium density while four (4) layouts will be selected to represent the high-density group with
fourteen 14 layouts. Then, a simple random sampling technique was employed in the selection of streets
from the three population density groups; namely High, Medium and Low densities. Systematic random
sampling technique was employed in selecting households to be sampled along each selected street. In High
density layouts, with an average of 30 buildings per street, 5 households were sampled systematically at an
interval of 5 buildings beginning with the first housing unit in the street. For Medium density layouts with
an average of 20 buildings, 4 households were sampled systematically in each street at an interval of 5
buildings while in Low density layouts with an average of 18 buildings per street, 4 households were
sampled systematically in each street at an interval of 5 buildings.

A total of 420 households were sampled within the randomly selected layouts for questionnaire administration. Because different strata (high, medium and low) are involved, the ratio method was used in determining the number of households that were sampled in each of the three (3) population density groups, since the number of the layouts in each group is not of equal number. The ratio is thus: 4:3:3 respectively for High density, medium density, Low density. Therefore, a total of 168 households were administered with questionnaires in 4 High-density layouts, 126 households of medium and Low-density layouts were sampled and administered with questionnaires, which were used to investigate the quality status of water sources serving as alternatives to the public water supply in their various neighbourhoods. Then, a simple random sampling technique was employed in the selection of streets from the three population density groups; namely High, Medium and Low densities. Systematic random sampling technique was employed in selecting households to be sampled along each selected street. In High density layouts, with an average of 30 buildings per street, 5 households were sampled systematically at an interval A total of 6 water samples (consisting of 4 borehole water samples and 2 river water samples) were collected and tested for possible water contamination. The 4 borehole samples were taken across neighbourhoods using a purposive sampling method. The 2 water samples from the river were collected from Nworie River, being the only river within the randomly selected neighbourhoods, which is often used by some urban dwellers for domestic purposes (particularly, the carrot and sugarcane dealers). The two water samples from the river were tasted using the water quality standard of the federal Ministry of Environment, while the other four samples from boreholes were tested in the laboratory using the Nigerian Industrial Standard for Drinking Water Quality. All the water samples were tested in the laboratory using nine parameters, namely, PH, Electrical conductivity, colour, total solid, total bacteria, total coliform, Klebsiella, E. coli, and fungi, respectively. All the water samples were tested and analyzed in the laboratory to ascertain their compliance with the Nigerian approved standard for drinking and domestic water quality.

STUDY ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Several tables have been used to display data from this study.
<table><caption>Table 1: Sources of Neighbourhood Domestic Water Supply</caption><thead><tr><th>Selected Neighbourhoods/Density (NH)</th><th>Streams</th><th>Private borehole</th><th>Public borehole</th><th>Central tap System</th><th>Total</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>H. D.—Irete, Egbeada, Nchiise and Emmanuel.</td><td>4</td><td>104</td><td>56</td><td>4</td><td>168</td></tr><tr><td>M.D.—Egbeada Est., Worldbank, Ikenegbu</td><td>-</td><td>97</td><td>24</td><td>5</td><td>126</td></tr><tr><td>L.D—Aladinma, Works and Akanchawa</td><td>-</td><td>109</td><td>17</td><td>-</td><td>126</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Total</strong></td><td>4</td><td>310</td><td>97</td><td><strong>9</strong></td><td><strong>420</strong></td></tr><tr><td><strong>Percentage</strong></td><td>1</td><td>73.8</td><td>23.1</td><td><strong>2.1</strong></td><td><strong>100</strong></td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field Survey 2024

Table 1 shows that only 1% of the respondents from Owerri Urban use stream water supply for domestic chores while 73.8% of the respondents use water from private borehole as their major source of domestic water supply. However, 23% of the respondents depend on the public borehole, of which some are commercialized for a fee but some are free for users. Only 2.1% of respondents in the high density and medium density have access to state public water supply, which may not be in their homes but installed within their neighbourhoods.

<table><caption>Table 2: Borehole Water Quality Assessment from Selected Urban Neighbourhoods</caption><thead><tr><th>Selected Neighbourhoods/Density (NH)</th><th>No Idea</th><th>Poor</th><th>Fair</th><th>Good</th><th>Excellent</th><th>Total</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>H. D.—Irete, Egbeada, Nchiise and Emmanuel.</td><td>88</td><td>21</td><td>46</td><td>13</td><td>-</td><td>168</td></tr><tr><td>M.D.—Egbeada Est., Worldbank, Ikenegbu</td><td>36</td><td>17</td><td>42</td><td>31</td><td>-</td><td>126</td></tr><tr><td>L.D—Aladinma, Works and Akanchawa.</td><td>47</td><td>22</td><td>34</td><td>23</td><td>-</td><td>126</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Total</strong></td><td>171</td><td>60</td><td>122</td><td><strong>67</strong></td><td><strong>0</strong></td><td><strong>420</strong></td></tr><tr><td><strong>Percentage</strong></td><td>40.7</td><td>14.3</td><td>29</td><td><strong>16</strong></td><td><strong>0</strong></td><td><strong>100</strong></td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 2 shows that 40.7% of the respondents have no idea or could not place any assessment on the water quality status of their domestic or drinking water sources. A total of 14.3% of the respondents agreed that the quality of water they use in their homes is poor, while 29% believe their water quality is fair, only 16% of the respondents believed that their water supply is of good quality. None of the respondents rated their water quality “excellent”.

<table><caption>Table 3: Showing Certified Water Quality status of Boreholes Across Owerri Urban Neighbourhoods.</caption><thead><tr><th>Selected Neighbourhoods/Density (NH)</th><th>Yes</th><th>No</th><th>No Idea</th><th>Total</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>H. D.—Irete, Egbeada, Nchiise and Emmanuel.</td><td>4</td><td>102</td><td>62</td><td>168</td></tr><tr><td>M.D.—Egbeada Est., Worldbank, Ikenegbu</td><td>23</td><td>87</td><td>16</td><td>126</td></tr><tr><td>L.D—Aladinma, Works and Akanchawa.</td><td>31</td><td>78</td><td>95</td><td>126</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Total</strong></td><td>58</td><td>267</td><td>95</td><td>420</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Percentage</strong></td><td>13.8</td><td>63.6</td><td>22.6</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table>
Built Environment and Sustainable Development

The data from Table 3 shows that only 13.8% of the total respondents know the water quality status of their borehole water supply through laboratory test investigation. A total of 63.6% of the respondents have not carried out any quality test of their borehole water, while 22% of the respondents did not have an idea whether their landlords had carried out any test of their borehole water or not in the past. This group of respondents consist of tenants occupying commercial property.

<table><caption>Table 4: Responses to Challenges Experienced by Respondents Due to Unavailable or Poor Public Water Supply</caption><thead><tr><th>Selected Neighbourhoods/Density (NH)</th><th>Poor Hygiene</th><th>Poor Water Quality</th><th>Health Issues</th><th>Water Rationing</th><th>Increased Expenses</th><th>Waste of Time</th><th>All of the Above</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>H. D.—Irete, Egbeada, Nchiise and Emmanuel.</td><td>67</td><td>87</td><td>84</td><td>56</td><td>109</td><td>74</td><td>120</td></tr><tr><td>M.D.—Egbeada Est., Worldbank, Ikenegbu</td><td>61</td><td>81</td><td>73</td><td>92</td><td>102</td><td>37</td><td>99</td></tr><tr><td>L.D—Aladinma, Works and Akanchawa.</td><td>46</td><td>77</td><td>92</td><td>75</td><td>99</td><td>32</td><td>103</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Total</strong></td><td>174</td><td>245</td><td>249</td><td><strong>223</strong></td><td><strong>310</strong></td><td><strong>143</strong></td><td><strong>322</strong></td></tr><tr><td><strong>Percentage</strong></td><td>41.4</td><td>58.3</td><td>59.3</td><td><strong>53.1</strong></td><td><strong>73.8</strong></td><td><strong>34</strong></td><td><strong>76.7</strong></td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field Survey 2024

Table 4 shows the challenges experienced by residents due to the unavailability of public water supply in most areas of Owerri urban. The table shows that 41.4% of the respondents experienced poor hygiene either in workplaces or at home, while 58.3% decried the poor quality of the available alternatives to the Public central water supply. A total of 59.3% agreed that this situation has increased health challenges, while 53.1% say it has brought about the rationalization of water either at home, offices or in schools. Others affirmed that the water situation has led to increased financial expenses since it is cheaper to procure water from the state water supply. Some (34%) decried waste of man hours in terms of time spent in sourcing for water. However, 76.7% of the respondents agreed to have experienced cumulatively all the above listed challenges ranging from poor hygiene, poor water quality, health challenges and other issues.
<table><caption>Table 5: Level of Contamination of Water from Borehole and River</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Parameter</th><th rowspan="3">FMEnv Standard</th><th colspan="2">Fed Med centre</th><th colspan="2">World Bank area</th><th colspan="2">Nworie River</th><th colspan="2">Alvan University</th><th rowspan="3">METHOD</th></tr><tr><th>Run 1</th><th>Run 2</th><th>Run 1</th><th>Run 2</th><th>Run 1</th><th>Run 2</th><th>Run 1</th><th>Run 2</th></tr><tr><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Ph</td><td>6.50-8.50</td><td>5.20</td><td>5.30</td><td>5.50</td><td>5.40</td><td>5.40</td><td>5.40</td><td>5.10</td><td>4.90</td><td>Potentiometric</td></tr><tr><td>Electrical conductivity, µS/em</td><td>1000.00</td><td>58.00</td><td>58.00</td><td>15.00</td><td>14.00</td><td>82.00</td><td>82.00</td><td>68.00</td><td>72.00</td><td>Potentiometric</td></tr><tr><td>Colour, PCU</td><td>5.00</td><td>34.00</td><td>30.00</td><td>16.00</td><td>18.00</td><td>91.00</td><td>94.00</td><td>32.00</td><td>35.00</td><td>Electro-membrane</td></tr><tr><td>Turbidity, NTU</td><td>10.00</td><td>3.36</td><td>3.35</td><td>2.69</td><td>2.71</td><td>33.45</td><td>33.40</td><td>3.81</td><td>3.83</td><td>Nephelometry</td></tr><tr><td>Total Solid, mg/l</td><td>500.00-1000.00</td><td>74.00</td><td>78.00</td><td>46.00</td><td>41.00</td><td>90.00</td><td>92.00</td><td>74.00</td><td>79.00</td><td>Gravimetric</td></tr><tr><td>Total Bacteria count, Cfu/ml</td><td>0-30</td><td>1.7x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.9x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.51x10<sup>4</sup></td><td>1.61x10<sup>4</sup></td><td>4.0x10<sup>4</sup></td><td>6.0x10<sup>4</sup></td><td>1.0x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.0x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr><tr><td>Total Coliform count, cfu/ml</td><td>0-10</td><td>1.9x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>2.0x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.9x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>2.4x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>2.0x10<sup>4</sup></td><td>5.0x10<sup>4</sup></td><td>2.0x10<sup>2</sup></td><td>1.0x10<sup>2</sup></td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr><tr><td>Total Klebsella Count, cfu/ml</td><td>0</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>1.4x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.1x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr><tr><td>E.Coli, cfu/ml</td><td>0</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr><tr><td>Total Fungi count cfu/ml</td><td>0</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr></tbody></table>

Table 5 displays the result of the water quality test conducted using 6 water samples (2 from the river and 4 from the boreholes). The test was conducted using 9 parameters, namely: PH, Electrical Conductivity, Colour, Turbidity, Total Solid, Total Bacteria count, Total Coliform count, Total Klebsella count, E-Coli, and Total Fungi count. The analysis of water quality based on these parameters is as follows:

### Ph Value

In its purest form, water has a PH of 7, which is the exact center of the PH scale. Particles in water can change the PH of the water, and most water for use has a PH value of somewhere between 6.5. and 8.5 water naturally varies between about 6.5 and 8.5 in the PH scale. Drinking water below and above 7 place humans at risk for health problems such as cancer, stroke, kidney disease, memory problems and high blood pressure. The whole sampled area fell below the Federal Ministry of Environment standard. All the water samples are slightly acidic.

### Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity is a measure of the saltiness of the water and is measured on a scale from 0 to 50,000 (µS/cm). Freshwater is usually between 0 and 1,500 µS/cm. AS salinity and temperature increase, conductivity also increases, which can hurt the quality of water. This is because the higher the conductivity, the higher the number of impurities (dissolved substance, chemicals, and minerals) are in the water. Nworie River has the Highest Electrical Conductivity.

### Total Solids

Total solids are dissolved solids plus suspended and settleable solids in water. In Stream water, dissolved solids consist of calcium, chloride, nitrate, phosphorus, iron, sulphur and other ions, particles that will pass
through a filter with pores of around 2 microns (0.002cm) in size. The Nworie river has the highest number of total solids amongst all the collected water samples.

<table><caption>Table 5: Level of Contamination of Water from Borehole and River (Contd.)</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Parameter</th><th rowspan="2">FMEnv Standard</th><th colspan="2">Alaba Market</th><th colspan="2">Irete clinic</th><th rowspan="2">METHOD</th></tr><tr><th>Run 1</th><th>Run 2</th><th>Run 1</th><th>Run 2</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Ph</td><td>6.50-8.50</td><td>5.30</td><td>5.50</td><td>5.00</td><td>4.90</td><td>Potentiometric</td></tr><tr><td>Electrical conductivity, µS/cm</td><td>1000.00</td><td>34.00</td><td>34.00</td><td>22.00</td><td>22.00</td><td>Potentiometric</td></tr><tr><td>Colour, PCU</td><td>5.00</td><td>65.00</td><td>67.00</td><td>39.00</td><td>41.00</td><td>Electro-membrane</td></tr><tr><td>Turbidity, NTU</td><td>10.00</td><td>18.55</td><td>18.60</td><td>7.10</td><td>7.11</td><td>Nephelometry</td></tr><tr><td>Total Solid, mg/l</td><td>500.00-1000.00</td><td>58.00</td><td>56.00</td><td>48.00</td><td>41.00</td><td>Gravimetric</td></tr><tr><td>Total Bacteria count, Cfu/ml</td><td>0-30</td><td>9.8x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>9.0x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>2.1x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>2.3x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr><tr><td>Total Coliform count, cfu/ml</td><td>0-10</td><td>4.0x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>3.7x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>9.0x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>8.0x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr><tr><td>Total Klebsella Count, cfu/ml</td><td>0</td><td>6.3x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>6.1x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.1x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.1x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr><tr><td>E.Coli, cfu/ml</td><td>0</td><td>2.0x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>1.7x10<sup>3</sup></td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr><tr><td>Total Fungi count, cfu/ml</td><td>0</td><td>NG</td><td>NG</td><td>2.0x10<sup>2</sup></td><td>2.0x10<sup>2</sup></td><td>Spread Plate</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Field Survey 2024; Mg/l - Milligram per litre, ND - None Detected; µS/m - Micro Siemens per centimeter; NS - Not Stated; cfu/ml - colony forming per litre; NG - No Growth

## Total Coliform

Coliform bacteria are organisms that are present in the environment and in the Feces of all warm-blooded animals and humans. coliform bacteria will not likely cause illness. However, their presence in drinking
water indicates that disease-causing organisms (pathogens) could be in the water system. All the six water samples have Total coliform count within the tolerable level.

## Total Klebsiella

Klebsiella occurs widely in nature and is often present in surface water used for Human consumption or recreational purposes. The organism can survive in the Water distribution system despite chlorination. Klebsiella only shows growth in water sample taken from World Bank neighbourhood (1.4&1.1) and Alaba market sample (6.3&1.1)

## Total E. coli

E. coli in water is a strong indicator of sewage or animal waste contamination. Sewage and animal waste can contain many types of disease-causing organisms. Consumption may lead to severe illness; children under five (5) of age, those with a compromised immune system, and the elderly are particularly susceptible. E. coli sample showed growth in the Alaba Market Water Sample.

## Total Fungi

Fungi presence in drinking water may cause severe fungal infection in some patients. Fungi growing in biofilms inside taps and in tap water affects the taste and odour, as it interferes with the chlorination process. The Irete clinic water sample had growth of $2.0 \times 10^2$ which is above the Federal Ministry of Environment Standard.

## Testing Hypothesis 1

H0: There is no significant difference in the contamination level of various sources of water supply across neighbourhoods in Owerri urban.

The hypothesis was tested using the table below.

<table><caption>Table 6: ANOVA</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="6">Y</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>Sum of square</th><th>Df</th><th>Mean square</th><th>F</th><th>Sig</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Between Groups</td><td>189.000</td><td>34</td><td>5.559</td><td>1.324</td><td>.412</td></tr><tr><td>Within Groups</td><td>21.000</td><td>5</td><td>4.200</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>210.000</td><td>39</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: SPSS

The result of the hypothesis as noted in Table 21 shows that there is no significant difference in the water contamination level across various neighbourhoods in Owerri urban. As observed from the table, the significant value of 0.412 is greater than 0.05, and as a principle of decision making, the null hypothesis was accepted while the alternative hypothesis was rejected. This implies that water contamination level does not significantly vary across the neighbourhoods studied. Though there are some differences in the result of water samples from various water sources across neighbourhoods, but the variations were not statistically significant.

## Discussion of Findings

Presently, Imo State Water and Sewerage Corporation (ISWSC) has only 181 public water subscribers in the entire Owerri urban and this is because the institution is embarking on general overhauling after being moribund for over a decade due to its abandonment by past Governments of Imo State. This long
abandonment brought about total suspension of water distribution services from all urban dwellers in Owerri, which consequently resulted in the search for alternative sources of water supply that could substitute for the unavailable public water supply. Data from the field exposed several areas affected during the long period of suspended service, to include water distribution pipes, of which many were destroyed during the urban road rehabilitation project of the immediate past state Government. Many of the pipes are very old and can no longer withstand high water pressure without a burst. Several water valves need replacement due to corrosion. The power generation plants are old and there is a need for new ones for efficiency. There are only two functional reservoirs currently in use by the ISWSC in Owerri urban; one of the functional reservoirs is located at Egbu Road, and in Egbeada/Ubommiri, which are not fully in use due to massive damage of several water distribution pipelines within neighbourhoods of Owerri. Data from field survey also revealed that a greater number of Owerri borehole water users have not investigated the quality of their water supply source via laboratory test. Also, the result of water quality test of all selected 4 borehole water samples revealed contaminations at different levels above the recommended standard stipulated by the Federal Ministry of Environment (FME). And Nigeria Standard for Drinking Water Quality. Example, all the 4 selected borehole water samples were found to be acidic while some water samples had fungi, bacteria growth, coliform, E. coli, and others. The implication of this recorded water contamination in several urban private water sources may be potential health challenges, especially for children, the elderly, and people with compromised immune systems.

## RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the outcome of the study, the following have been recommended:

1. State Water Agencies should develop a Baseline Water Quality Database on every water works constructed for public use, which can be used for local routine monitoring, since most developing countries may not have the financial capacity required to procure modern facilities for regular water quality monitoring.

2. It is important that urban solid waste Agencies extend their services to neighbourhoods at every location within urban areas. This is to avoid indiscriminate solid waste disposal that could negatively affect both surface and ground water sources and become a potential health risk to urban dwellers.

3. Imo State Water and Sewerage Company (ISWSC) should be encouraged to establish a functional water standpoint in all Owerri urban neighbourhoods in order to ensure access to safe drinking water by all citizens.

4. Adequate awareness should be created through various social media platforms, concerning the use of uncertified borehole water for drinking purposes as some may contain a high concentration of certain unwanted elements that may be injurious to health.

## CONCLUSION

The fact that the greater parts of Owerri urban area seats on a shallow water aquifer makes it easy to abstract clean water without digging too deep into the earth. However, this advantage comes with a cost because several studies have revealed that shallow aquifers are usually more prone to contaminations from both natural sources and land use activities. Therefore, may expose users to untold health challenges that is why knowing the water quality status of one's source of water supply should not be compromised.

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**Chapter Thirty-Seven**

**Addressing Skill Gaps and Enhancing Productivity: The role of Artisans in Sustainable Urban**
**Development**

*John Ugwuneke*<fnref n="1" />; *Christopher Chimaobi Onyeneke*<fnref n="1" />,<fnref n="2" />; *Edith Chinwe Pat-Mbano*<fnref n="1" />

EMAIL: johnugwuneke@gmail.com

**ABSTRACT**

This paper explores the critical role that artisans play in addressing skill gaps and enhancing productivity in sustainable urban development, particularly in developing countries. Artisans, who engage in manual trades such as carpentry, masonry, and plumbing, are pivotal in the construction of housing and infrastructure in rapidly urbanizing regions. Despite their significant contributions, they often operate within the informal economy, facing challenges such as limited access to formal education, modern technologies, and financial resources. These factors contribute to skill gaps, which impede both the quality of their work and the overall sustainability of urban development. The study investigates the socio-economic characteristics of artisans, their operational modes, and the factors affecting their utilization in urban construction projects. Through a review of existing literature, this paper highlights the importance of formalizing the artisanal sector and integrating artisans into formal urban planning processes. It also emphasizes the need for training, financial inclusion, and policy interventions to support the upskilling of artisans and improve their access to modern construction technologies. By addressing these challenges, artisans can play a more significant role in promoting sustainable urban development, particularly through the use of local, eco-friendly materials and traditional building techniques. The paper argues that closing the skill gaps among artisans will lead to improved productivity, better-quality infrastructure, and more sustainable urban environments. Ultimately, the study calls for comprehensive policy frameworks that recognize and support the contributions of artisans to the broader goals of sustainable urbanization.

KEYWORDS: Skills gap; Sustainability; Artisans; Urbanization; Technologies

**INTRODUCTION**

Urban development, especially in rapidly expanding cities in the Global South, is heavily reliant on both formal and informal sectors. Within this framework, artisans play an essential role, particularly in the construction of housing and other critical infrastructure. Artisans, defined as skilled workers engaged in manual trades such as masonry, carpentry, plumbing, and welding, contribute significantly to the physical and economic landscapes of growing urban centres. Despite their importance, artisans are often under-recognized in formal urban development discourse, and the potential for their contributions is frequently limited by skill gaps, lack of formal training, and exclusion from formal economic structures (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2020). Addressing these challenges is crucial not only for improving productivity but also for advancing sustainable urban development. Historically, artisans have been fundamental to the development of cities, from ancient civilizations to modern times. In ancient societies such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, artisans were responsible for constructing monumental structures that still stand today (Ranganathan, 2018). These early craftsmen were valued for their skill and creativity, which were passed down through generations via apprenticeships and hands-on learning. Even in the context of modern urbanization, artisans remain indispensable, particularly in regions where formal contractors and highly skilled labour are not readily available. For example, in many African and Asian cities, artisans fill the gap between formal professionals, such as architects and engineers, and the labour force that physically executes construction projects (Oladimeji, 2022; Zhang et al., 2021).

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²School of Architecture and Planning, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa</footnote>
However, the integration of artisans into the broader urban development agenda is often hampered by
several structural and socio-economic barriers. In many developing countries, artisans operate largely
within the informal economy, without access to formal education, certifications, or government support
(ILO, 2020). This informality limits their ability to scale their work, gain access to financial resources, or
fully participate in large-scale urban projects. Moreover, the absence of structured apprenticeship systems
or formal recognition often results in skill gaps, leaving artisans unable to meet the demands of modern
construction, especially in terms of quality control and adherence to sustainable practices (Hürlimann &
March, 2022). These challenges are exacerbated by a lack of access to new technologies and tools, further
widening the gap between artisanal and formal sectors in urban development (Reinhardt et al., 2020).

The issue of skill gaps among artisans is a significant challenge that hinders both productivity and the
quality of construction in urban areas. In many cases, artisans acquire their skills informally through
apprenticeships or on-the-job training, which does not always provide the comprehensive technical
knowledge needed for modern construction demands (Afolabi & Ojelabi, 2018). Artisans, while highly
skilled in traditional techniques, may lack formal certification, which affects their employability and limits
their ability to compete with formally trained professionals. This skill gap not only impacts individual
livelihoods but also has broader implications for the quality and sustainability of urban development. For
example, artisans are often chosen for construction projects because of their affordability and accessibility,
particularly in low-income or informal settlements. However, their limited exposure to formal education
and modern building standards can lead to substandard work, which, in turn, raises concerns about safety
and durability in the built environment (Hedidor & Bondinuba, 2017). In many developing countries, the
construction industry is plagued by cases of building collapses and other structural failures, often linked to
the use of unskilled or inadequately trained labour (Boateng, 2020). Addressing these skill gaps is crucial
for improving both the quality of construction and the long-term sustainability of urban infrastructure.

In addition to the skill gap related to technical proficiency, artisans also face challenges in accessing new
technologies and innovations that are increasingly being integrated into the construction industry. The rise
of Construction 4.0, which emphasizes digitalization, automation, and the use of advanced technologies,
presents both an opportunity and a challenge for artisans (Reinhardt et al., 2020). While these technologies
have the potential to improve productivity and efficiency in construction, many artisans lack the training or
resources to take full advantage of them. This creates a growing divide between traditional artisanal
methods and the demands of modern construction, which increasingly requires higher levels of technical
expertise and innovation (Keogh & Smallwood, 2021).

Despite these challenges, artisans play a vital role in driving urban development, particularly in the context
of sustainable construction practices. Their contributions extend beyond the mere physical construction of
buildings and infrastructure; they are also key players in promoting the use of local materials and traditional
building methods that align with sustainability goals. In many developing regions, artisans are known for
their ability to work with locally sourced, sustainable materials such as bamboo, mud bricks, and reclaimed
wood, which have a lower environmental impact compared to modern construction materials like concrete
and steel (Speecke, 2022). This not only reduces the carbon footprint of construction projects but also helps
to preserve local cultural heritage and building traditions. Artisans' deep knowledge of local construction
practices and materials makes them invaluable in promoting sustainable urban development, particularly in
regions where environmental degradation and resource depletion are major concerns. By using locally
available materials and traditional techniques, artisans help reduce the reliance on imported, resource-
intensive materials, thus contributing to more sustainable and resilient urban development. Furthermore,
the use of traditional methods often leads to the construction of buildings that are better suited to local
climates and environmental conditions, further enhancing the sustainability of these projects (Moll et al.,
2019).
However, for artisans to maximize their contributions to sustainable urban development, they need to be better integrated into formal urban planning and development processes. Government policies must prioritize the formalization of the artisanal sector, providing artisans with access to formal training, financial support, and legal protections (Hürlimann & March, 2022). In many developing countries, the informal nature of artisanal work means that artisans are excluded from formal labour markets and lack access to benefits such as health insurance, pensions, and job security. This not only limits their potential for economic mobility but also creates challenges for the broader construction industry, as the quality and safety of urban infrastructure are often compromised by the use of informal, unregulated labour (ILO, 2020).

The formalization of the artisanal workforce is a crucial step toward addressing the skill gaps and challenges that limit their contributions to urban development. Governments and development agencies must implement policies that recognize the vital role artisans play in the construction industry and provide them with the necessary support to thrive. For example, training programs that focus on upskilling artisans in modern construction techniques, as well as certification programs that formalize their skills and qualifications, would enhance their ability to participate in large-scale urban projects and improve the overall quality of urban infrastructure (Abiodun & Michael, 2016). Additionally, policies that promote financial inclusion for artisans are essential for supporting their growth and development. Many artisans operate as self-employed individuals or small business owners, without access to loans or financial resources that could help them invest in better tools, materials, and training (ILO, 2020). By providing artisans with access to credit and other financial services, governments can help them improve their productivity and contribute more effectively to urban development projects.

In conclusion, addressing the skill gaps among artisans and providing them with the necessary support to formalize their work are critical steps toward enhancing productivity and ensuring sustainable urban development. By integrating artisans into formal urban planning processes and providing them with access to training, financial resources, and legal protections, governments can harness the full potential of this workforce to drive economic growth and promote sustainable, resilient cities.

## Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Underpinnings on Skill Gaps in Urban Development

Urban development requires a wide range of critical skills, particularly in trades such as carpentry, masonry, plumbing, and electrical work. These skills, often provided by artisans, are fundamental to constructing the physical infrastructure of cities. However, the informal nature of artisanal work frequently leads to significant skill gaps that impede the full realization of urban development projects. This situation can be better understood through the lens of Structuralist Theory and Legalist Theory, both of which highlight the complexities within informal labour markets and the challenges artisans face in contributing to formal urban development. Structuralist Theory offers a lens for understanding the duality of the labour market, where informal workers, like artisans, exist alongside formal professionals but operate under different conditions. In many developing countries, artisans constitute a significant portion of the workforce in the construction sector, but they are marginalized by the formal economy (Ugorji, 2019). Their skills, while valuable, are often not recognized or certified by formal institutions, leading to a disconnect between their contributions and their ability to access resources, training, and formal recognition. This marginalization creates a structural barrier that prevents artisans from upskilling or fully integrating into large-scale urban development projects.

Artisans typically acquire their skills informally through apprenticeships or hands-on experience rather than through formal education. While this informal system provides practical knowledge, it does not always align with modern construction standards, especially in rapidly urbanizing cities that are adopting new technologies and methods (Etim & Daramola, 2020). For instance, artisans may lack familiarity with sustainable building technologies, prefabrication techniques, or energy-efficient materials, all of which are becoming increasingly important in global urban development. As a result, their productivity is often
limited by their inability to meet these new demands, widening the skill gap between artisans and formally
trained professionals. Legalist Theory complements this perspective by examining how informal workers
like artisans are excluded from formal regulations, protections, and labour markets. In many developing
countries, informal workers are not subject to the same regulations as formal workers, meaning they are
often outside the scope of labour laws, safety regulations, and social protections (Webb et al., 2020). This
exclusion limits artisans' access to formal training programs, financial resources, and certification processes
that could help them improve their skills and productivity. Furthermore, because they are unregulated,
artisans are often seen as less reliable or skilled than their formal counterparts, even though they may
possess the practical experience necessary for urban development projects. This theoretical framework
helps explain why skill gaps persist among artisans. The Structuralist view emphasizes the economic and
social structures that marginalize informal workers, while the Legalist perspective highlights the regulatory
exclusion that prevents artisans from gaining formal recognition and accessing resources. Together, these
theories underscore the need for policies that address both the structural barriers to upskilling and the
regulatory frameworks that keep artisans outside the formal economy. Productivity in urban development
is influenced by the skill level and efficiency of the labour force, including artisans. Structuralist Theory is
particularly relevant here, as it explains how the informal nature of artisanal work limits productivity by
creating fragmented and inefficient labour markets. In many cases, artisans operate independently or in
small groups, without the organizational structure that characterizes formal construction firms. This lack of
structure can lead to inefficiencies, as artisans may not have access to the tools, materials, or training that
would allow them to work more efficiently (Ugorji, 2019).

Artisans are often engaged in construction projects because of their affordability and accessibility, particularly in regions where formal contractors are too expensive or unavailable. However, their productivity is frequently hampered by the skill gaps discussed earlier. For example, artisans may rely on traditional building techniques, which, while valuable, may not align with modern construction practices that emphasize speed, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. Without training in newer methods, such as digital construction tools or sustainable materials, artisans are often unable to contribute to urban development as effectively as their formally trained counterparts (Reinhardt et al., 2020). Improving productivity in urban development requires addressing the structural barriers that keep artisans from accessing modern tools, techniques, and training. Legalist Theory suggests that one way to do this is by formalizing the artisanal sector, bringing artisans into the regulatory framework that governs the construction industry. By providing artisans with formal certification, access to financial resources, and inclusion in labour protections, their productivity could be significantly enhanced (Webb et al., 2020). Formalizing their work would also allow for better coordination with architects, engineers, and urban planners, leading to more efficient and higher-quality urban development projects. In addition to formalization, improving artisans' access to modern tools and technologies is essential for boosting productivity. Training programs that focus on upskilling artisans in areas like energy-efficient building techniques, green construction methods, and digital construction management can help close the gap between informal and formal labour markets (Keogh & Smallwood, 2021). These programs would enable artisans to work more efficiently, reduce waste, and contribute to more sustainable urban development outcomes. Productivity in urban development is closely tied to the ability of artisans to overcome the structural and legal barriers that limit their participation in formal projects. By addressing skill gaps through targeted training and formalization, artisans can play a more productive role in building sustainable, resilient urban environments. The integration of Structuralist and Legalist theories into the analysis of skill gaps and productivity highlights the importance of addressing both economic and regulatory challenges to fully leverage the potential of artisans in urban development.
# LITERATURE REVIEW

## The Role of Artisans in Urban Development

Artisans play a pivotal role in urban development, not only through their contributions to physical construction but also through their deep-rooted involvement in the socio-economic fabric of their communities. In many developing regions, particularly in Africa and Asia, the artisanal sector serves as a major source of employment, and its socio-economic contributions are substantial. Socio-economic mobility is one of the key contributions that artisans make to urban development. For many individuals, entering the artisanal workforce offers a pathway out of poverty. Becoming an artisan typically requires learning through apprenticeships or family trade, which provides individuals, especially those in marginalized or rural communities, with skills that are highly valued in both informal and formal labour markets (ILO, 2020). These skills provide artisans with relatively stable employment in an economy where formal job opportunities are often limited. Artisans involved in carpentry, masonry, plumbing, or electrical work can build sustainable livelihoods through their expertise, contributing to their economic advancement as well as that of their communities.

Moreover, artisans create opportunities for entrepreneurship and small business development. In many cases, artisans work as independent contractors, operating small, informal businesses or micro-enterprises that service local communities. These enterprises often rely on local networks of clients, suppliers, and labourers, creating a self-sustaining cycle of economic activity within the community. The ability to start and grow a small business empowers artisans to not only improve their own socio-economic standing but also to create jobs for others within their community. This entrepreneurial spirit is a key driver of local economic development, especially in regions where larger firms are absent, and the construction industry is predominantly driven by informal labour (Webb et al., 2020).

The role of artisans extends beyond individual economic gain and includes community integration and resilience. Artisans are often central figures within their local communities, providing essential services such as building homes, schools, markets, and other infrastructure. Their work is crucial in developing the social fabric of urban environments, as it enables the creation of spaces where people live, work, and interact. Furthermore, artisans are often involved in community-based projects, such as constructing places of worship, community centers, or local roads, which reinforces their ties to the community and contributes to local cohesion. This integration of artisans within their communities fosters a sense of ownership and pride in the built environment, as the structures they create are closely linked to the community's social and cultural identity (Moll et al., 2019).

A significant socio-economic aspect of artisanship is the informal transfer of skills through apprenticeship systems. Artisans are responsible for training future generations, passing down not only technical skills but also knowledge of local materials, cultural building techniques, and problem-solving skills that are tailored to the local environment. Apprenticeships are a vital component of the artisanal workforce, ensuring that skills are preserved and adapted over time. This informal education system helps maintain a continuous labor force capable of supporting urban development needs. It also ensures the economic mobility of apprentices, who can later enter the workforce as independent artisans or skilled labourers (Etim & Daramola, 2020).

In addition, artisans contribute to local economic resilience by using materials sourced from nearby areas and employing labourers from within the community. This local sourcing helps keep money circulating within the economy, fostering economic resilience. Artisans often form small cooperatives or networks that allow them to share resources, collaborate on larger projects, and leverage their collective bargaining power when negotiating with suppliers or clients. This collective approach to labor and business further strengthens their position within the local economy, enabling them to take on more significant projects and employ more people (Reinhardt et al., 2020). Thus, artisans are not only builders but also key drivers of