# Thermochronology of the Maures-Tanneron crystalline basement: insights for SW Europe Triassic to Miocene tectonic history

Louise Boschetti, Y. Rolland, F. Mouthereau, S. Schwartz, Gaétan Milesi, Philippe Munch, M. Bernet, M. Balvay, Denis Thiéblemont, Michaël Bonno, et al.

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## ► To cite this version:

Louise Boschetti, Y. Rolland, F. Mouthereau, S. Schwartz, Gaétan Milesi, et al.. Thermochronology of the Maures-Tanneron crystalline basement: insights for SW Europe Triassic to Miocene tectonic history. Swiss Journal of Geosciences, 2025, 118 (1), pp.14. 10.1186/s00015-025-00485-8. hal-05173707

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Submitted on 21 Jul 2025

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# Thermochronology of the Maures-Tanneron crystalline basement: insights for SW Europe Triassic to Miocene tectonic history

Louise Boschetti<fnref n="1" />,<fnref n="2" />*, Y. Rolland<fnref n="2" />,<fnref n="3" />, F. Mouthereau<fnref n="1" />, S. Schwartz<fnref n="2" />, G. Milesi<fnref n="4" />, P. Munch<fnref n="5" />, M. Bernet<fnref n="2" />, M. Balvay<fnref n="2" />, D. Thiéblemont<fnref n="6" />, M. Bonno<fnref n="5" />, C. Martin<fnref n="5" /> and P. Monié<fnref n="5" />

## Abstract

This paper presents a thermochronological study of the Western European basement in the Maures-Tanneron massif (MTM), using zircon and apatite fission-track data, in addition to apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He analyses. The combination of these methods with inverse thermal modelling allows us to trace the thermal history of this massif from the Late Triassic to the present day. The study identifies several thermal events that are linked to two major tectonic phases at 120–40 Ma and 40–15 Ma. These new results prompt us to re-evaluate the thermal evolution and exhumation of Western European basement of the Provence region. We distinguish four episodes. (i) A period characterized by constant temperature contemporaneous with Triassic magmatic activity and Tethys rifting (ii) a period of sedimentary burial heating of the MTM associated with the Cretaceous Pyrenean rift evolution (iii) subsequent N–S Pyrenean inversion at 75 Ma, causing cooling and exhumation of the MTM, (iv) opening of the West European rift system and the Liguro-Provençal basin, which resulted in heating from 35 to 15 Ma and post 15 Ma cooling of the MTM. This study also provides insights into the paleogeography of the MTM and demonstrates its evolution at the cross-roads between the Pyrenean and Alpine orogens.

**Keywords** Thermochronology, Thermal modelling, Rifting, Pyrenean-Provence inversion, Western-European-rifting, Mediterranean opening

Handling editor: Eline Le Breton.

This article is part of the Special Issue: 16th Emile Argand Alpine Workshop, Siena 2024, Italy.

*Correspondence:

Louise Boschetti
louise.boschetti@univ-tlse3.fr

## 1 Introduction

Different paleogeographic reconstructions have been proposed for the Provence region, in Southeast France, which represents a complex tectonic domain at the intersection between the European, Iberian and Adriatic plates (e.g., van Hinsbergen et al., 2020; Angrand and Mouthereau, 2021). Based on these reconstructions, this region underwent prolonged crustal thinning from the Triassic to the Jurassic associated with the Neo-Tethys and Alpine Tethys opening (e.g., Stampfli, 2000; Schmid et al., 2004; Handy et al., 2010; van Hinsbergen et al., 2020), during the Lower Cretaceous in the Pyrenean, Vocontian, Valaisan rift systems (e.g., Vacherat et al., 2014; Ford et al., 2022; Espurt et al., 2012; Bestani et al., 2016; Balansa et al., 2022) and Eocene subduction of the Ligurian Tethys, south of

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<footnote n="1">¹ Géosciences Environnement Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, IRD, 14 Av. Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² ISTERRE, Université Grenoble Alpes, USMB, CNRS, IRD, UGE, 38000 Grenoble, France</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³ EDYTEM, Université Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, UMR 5204, Le Bourget du Lac, France</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴ GeoRessources, Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LabCom CREGU, Vandoeuvre-Lès-Nancy, France</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵ Géosciences Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, UMR 5243, Université Des Antilles, Montpellier, France</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶ Bureau de Recherche Géologique Et Minière (BRGM), B.P. 6009, 45060 Orléans Cedex, France</footnote>
Corsica-Sardinia (e.g., Lacombe and Jolivet, 2005). The Mesozoic-Cenozoic paleogeography and tectono-thermal evolution of the Provence remains elusive, because of the overprint by younger tectonic events related to the West European rifting system and the opening of the Liguro-Provençal Basin during the Oligo-Miocene (e.g., Merle and Michon, 2001; Carminati et al., 1998; Jolivet and Faccenna, 2000, Mouthereau et al., 2021; Boschetti et al., 2023). The thermal evolution of the Variscan European basement during the Mesozoic and Eocene is constrained in the surrounding massifs, such as the Massif Central (Olivetti et al., 2020), the Pelvoux massif (Boschetti et al., 2025), the Argentera massif (Bigot-Cormier et al., 2006) and Corsica-Sardinia (Fellin et al., 2006; Danisik et al., 2007; Zarki-Jakni et al., 2004; Malusà et al., 2016). All these massifs show complex temperature histories including thermal imprint related to the development of the Eocene-Oligocene West European rift system and the Eocene-Miocene Alpine compression. A Late Cretaceous cooling imprint, recognized in the Pelvoux massif and the NW block of the Argentera massif, is interpreted as reflecting an early phase of exhumation (Bigot-Cormier et al., 2006; Boschetti et al., 2025), while it is associated with cooling after partial resetting during Alpine Tethys opening or Alpine thermal overprinting during Alpine metamorphism in Corsica-Sardinia (Fellin et al., 2006; Danisik et al., 2007; Malusà et al., 2016). Providing insights on the thermal and tectonic evolution of the Provence region is a key for the understanding of the limits between tectonic domain, especially at the intersection between the Pyrenean-Vocontian and Tethyan rifts systems. The Variscan basement of the Provence is well exposed in the Maures-Tanneron massif (MTM). It is devoid of any significant Alpine tectonic imprint and remained part of the European margin during opening of the Gulf of Lion and the Ligurian basin (Morillon et al., 2000). Unpublished apatite fission track (AFT) analyses of the Maures massif yielded Oligo-Miocene ages (Fig. 2) that were interpreted to reflect the opening of the Ligurian basin (Morillon, 1997; Jakni, 2000). Moreover, samples with apparent AFT cooling ages around 90 and 60 Ma (Fig. 2) were also presented in these studies, which suggest cooling episodes prior to the opening of the Ligurian Sea. Lucazeau and Mailhe (1986), in contrast, published much older Triassic AFT ages (Fig. 2) from the Tanneron massif, raising questions on the overall thermal evolution of the MTM. However, no inversion modelling of AFT cooling ages and related track lengths measurements were associated with these works to elucidate the thermal history. The lack of data and thermal modelling greatly limits our understanding of the Mesozoic to Cenozoic

tectono-thermal history of the MTM, which has remained essentially unconstrained.

The present study fills this gap by providing new low-temperature zircon (ZFT) and apatite (AFT) fission tracks and apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He (AHe) data and thermal inversion modelling of basement rocks from the MTM.

## 2 Geological setting

The MTM is the only location where the Variscan crystalline basement is exposed in the Provence region. The MTM is an E-W trending massif that resulted from collision between Gondwana and Laurasia during the Silurian-Carboniferous (e.g., Matte, 1986). The massif is composed of metamorphic (gneiss), plutonic (granitoid), and volcanic rocks, spanning from the Early Devonian to the Late Carboniferous (e.g., Crévola and Pupin, 1994) (Fig. 2). Two metamorphic domains, the external zone (EZ) and the internal zone (IZ) can be distinguished, separated by the La Garde-Freinet/Cavalaire fault. The EZ in the west is characterized by low-grade metamorphic rocks, whereas the IZ to the east consists of high-grade metamorphic rocks, with evidence of partial melting and dome-like structures (Crevola and Pupin, 1994; Rolland et al., 2009; Corsini et al., 2010; Oliot et al., 2015; Gerbault et al., 2018) (Fig. 2). The entire massif is thought to have been exhumed during the late Variscan period due to N-S transpressive and transtensive tectonics (e.g., Corsini and Rolland, 2009; Simonetti et al., 2020a; Gremmel et al., 2023), associated with the emplacement of large granitic plutons (Gerbault et al., 2018; Bolle et al., 2023) until Late Carboniferous to Early Permian times. This phase of exhumation is correlated at a larger scale with the movement of the East-Variscan shear-zone (ESVZ), which is recognized from Corsica-Sardinia to the Pelvoux and Mont-Blanc massifs (e.g., Rolland et al., 2009; Corsini et al., 2012, 2015; Bolle et al., 2023; Simonetti et al., 2020b; Schwartz et al., 2024; Boschetti et al., 2025). The transpressional phase ended during the Carboniferous, resulting in the formation of intracontinental basins and calc-alkaline volcanism (Bonin et al., 1987; Toutin-Morin and Bonjoly, 1992). This was followed by N-S extension during the Early Permian, and the deposition of alluvial deposits in intramontane E-W oriented basins, accompanied by rhyolitic volcanism (Toutin-Morin, 1985; Toutin-Morin and Delfaud, 1987). During the Permian, a large E-W Permian basin formed, separating the Maures massif from the Tanneron massif (Fig. 2). The rifting and sedimentation were accompanied by alkaline volcanism (Toutin-Morin et al., 1993), which outlines the early stage of Pangea fragmentation and the onset of the Neo-Tethys opening (e.g., Jolivet et al., 2016; Mouthereau et al., 2021). During the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, extension led to subsidence as recorded by the deposition
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1** Simplified geological map of the study area after French geological map (1/1,000,000). C.S: Cap Sicié. Offshore crystalline basement is taken from Fournier et al. (2016)</figcaption></figure>

of marine carbonates in narrow fault-bounded basins. The Middle and Late Jurassic period is characterised by subsidence in the Provence and Corsica-Sardinia region (e.g., Edel et al., 2018; Elter et al., 2004; Corsini and Roland, 2009). Based on the occurrence of Jurassic and Cretaceous sedimentary sequences, Toutin-Morin (1993) assumed that the MTM recorded sedimentary burial. To the west of the MTM, Jurassic to Cretaceous sedimentation has been documented in the Beausset Basin (e.g., Hennuy, 2003; Fournier et al., 2016) (Fig. 1). This basin

is characterized by turbidite formations, spanning the Cenomanian–Turonian interval (100–88 Ma), including terrigenous deposits attributed to an unknown crystalline massif to the south (Fig. 1) (Hennuy, 2003; Floquet and Hennuy, 2003; Bestani et al., 2016; Fournier et al., 2016). Cap Sicié, which forms the westernmost extension of the MTM (Fig. 1), is hypothesised to be a basement relict of this larger southern massif, as it is composed of Variscan basement similar to the clastic lithology found in the basin (Fournier et al., 2016). The presence of
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2** Geological map of the Maures-Tanneron massif after French geological map (1/50,000). Sample of this study are located in this geological map. AFT ages from literature (black: Lucazeau and Mailhe, 1986) and French PhD Thesis are presented (red: Morillon, 1998, blue: Jakni, 2000)</figcaption></figure>

those terrigenous sediments in the Beausset basin indicates exhumation of this high relief during the Upper Cretaceous, but its relationship with the MTM remains unclear. Only scarce AFT data are available for the Tanneron massif (142.3 ± 6.6 Ma, 146.0 ± 4.8 Ma; Lucazeau and Mailhé, 1986) and the Maures massif (93.1 ± 6.1 Ma, 94.3 ± 2.6 Ma, 62.5 ± 3.4 Ma; unpublished PhD thesis of Morillon, 1997 and Jakni, 2000) (Fig. 2) support a cooling associated with exhumation of the MTM during Cretaceous to early Paleogene. Other AFT ages vary from 21.1 ± 6.3 Ma near the coast to 37.2 ± 3 Ma inland (Morillon, 1997; Jakni, 2000), and reflect the thermal evolution associated with the Gulf of Lion and Ligurian basin opening.

# 3 Methods

## 3.1 Sampling strategy and sample preparation

Twenty granite and gneiss samples were collected during two field campaigns with the objective of elucidating the thermal history of the MTM. Samples of the M17 series

have been collected in 2017 by the Montpellier Geosciences team and the second samples series T23 and M23 in 2023 by both the Geosciences Environnement Toulouse and ISTerre Grenoble teams. A total of twenty granite and gneiss samples from the MTM were analysed (Fig. 2). Samples from the M17 series were prepared at the Geosciences Montpellier laboratory and M23-T23 at the ISTerre Geo-Thermochronology (GTC) platform, Université Grenoble Alpes. From the 160–80 µm grain size fractions, apatite and zircon grains were separated with standard magnetic and heavy liquid separation techniques to allow grain handpicking under a binocular (Kohn et al., 2019).

## 3.2 Zircon and apatite fission-track dating

Fission-track analyses were performed at the ISTerre GTC fission-tracks laboratory for the M23-T23 series. Apatite grains were mounted in epoxy, polished and etched for 20 s at 21 °C with 5.5 M HNO₃. Zircon grains were mounted in Teflon® sheets, polished and etched
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 3** Simplified geological map of the Maures-Tanneron massif with presentation of thermochronological ages (ZFT, AFT, AHe)</figcaption></figure>

between 13 and 41 h in a NaOH-KOH melt at 228 °C in a laboratory oven. Then, grain mounts were covered with muscovite sheets as external detectors and irradiated at the Oregon State University reactor. Apatite samples were irradiated together with IRMM540R (15 ppm U) dosimeter glasses and Durango and Fisch Canyon Tuff ages standards, whereas zircon samples were irradiated together with IRMM541 (50 ppm U) dosimeter glasses and Fish Canyon Tuff age standard (Naeser et al., 1981). After irradiation, the mica detectors were etched at 20 °C for 18 min in 48% hydrofluoric acid for revealing induced fission-tracks. Samples were analysed and fission tracks were counted using an Olympus BX51 optical microscope at 1250× magnification with the FTStage 4.04 system (Dumitru, 1993). The Zeta factor calibration (Hurford and Green, 1983) was employed to determine the individual fission-tracks ages. For apatite samples, horizontally confined mean tracks length (MTL) and track etch pit size (Dpar) were determined. The calculation of pooled and central ages was conducted using the BinomFit software (Bran don, 2002). The evaluation of the age distribution was done with radial plots using the RadialPlotter software

(Vermeesch, 2009) in order to depict the fission-track ages as a function of U content for ZFT and Dpar for AFT.

## 3.3 Apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He dating

Apatite grains from samples T23-01, T23-05, M23-07, M23-06, M17-07, M17-08 and MR1 contained enough well crystallised apatite grains for (U-Th-Sm)/He dating (Fig. 3). Samples were prepared according to criteria defined in Flowers et al. (2023) and Gautheron et al. (2024). Apatite separates were handpicked to select inclusion-free crystals for the M17 and MR samples at the Geosciences Montpelier Noble Gas laboratory and for the T23-M23 samples at the ISTerre GTC laboratory. All samples were analysed at the Geosciences Montpelier laboratory. Each individual grain was packed in Pt tubes for apatite. The tubes were placed under vacuum and heated with a 1090 nm fibre laser operating at 4.0 W (900 °C) during 5 min for apatite and 6.2 W (1100 °C) during 15 min for zircon. After ³He spiking, the gas was purified using a cryogenic trap and two SAES AP-10-N getters, and the helium content was measured on a PrismaPlus QMG 220 mass-spectrometer quadrupole. The ⁴He content was determined by the peak height method
for 10 to 10,000 times above typical blank levels. A second heating run was systematically performed using the same analytical procedure. This was done to verify that more than 99% of the ⁴He was extracted during the first run. After helium extraction, the Pt or Nb tubes were removed from the sample chamber and transferred to a 2 ml conical tube made of polypropylene. Using procedures previously described by Wu et al. (2016) for apatite samples, they were doubly spiked (²³⁰Th and ²³³U) and dissolved. The resulting solutions were diluted and U (²³³U and ²³⁸U) and Th (²³⁰Th and ²³²Th) were measured using isotope dilution ICPMS. Ft software (Gautheron & Tassan-Got, 2010; Ketcham et al., 2011) was used to calculate ages using the alpha ejection correction (Farley et al., 2002). The Durango apatite standards were analysed between four unknown grains. The mean age of the different analyses in this study was 31.24 ± 2.18 Ma. These results agree with McDowell et al. (2005) Durango reference age of 31.02 ± 1.01 Ma. A conservative He partial retention range 40 °C–80 °C is considered for apatite (U-Th/He) thermochronology (Stockli et al., 2000).

## 3.4 Modelling of time-temperature histories

Thermal histories for the studied samples were reconstructed using the QTQt software (Gallagher, 2012). Inversions are calculated through a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm to determine the best time-temperature path, reproducing the observed data through a large number of MCMC-tested solutions (150,000 for each model). Models generated by QTQt incorporate a kinetic model for the diffusion processes in apatite, which allows for the accounting of radiation damage production and annealing. In this study, we adopt the model proposed by Ketcham et al. (2007) AFT data and MTL using Dpar as a kinetic indicator. QTQt permits the inversion of AFT and TL data, considering the effects of partial annealing. This is not the case for ZFT data. For the ZFT dating method the kinetics of track annealing is not sufficiently well known, as is for AFT, which does not allow for the determination of whether the obtained age is a fully or partially reset age. Furthermore, the kinetic models for ZFT annealing proposed by Tagami et al. (1998) and Yamada et al. (2007) were designed for fully crystalline zircon grains with zero to only very moderate amounts of radiation damage, which depending on the study purpose, is not coherent to use in the modelling of our samples. In this study, as ZFT reflect different degrees of radiation damage (see part 4.1), our approach was to use ZFT ages with low dispersion for defining time-temperature constraint boxes. These boxes are departure constraints of our models. AHe data were modelled using the kinetic models of Gautheron et al. (2009).

The two datasets obtained from the two samples series were treated separately for reasons of scientific consistency, as the sampling strategy was not identical. Furthermore, the integration of all data, meaning 53 AHe ages for 12 AFT ages, would result in a negligible amount of AFT analysis compared to AHe. In instances where the AHe ages are distributed with dispersion as a consequence of a complex thermal history (see Sect. 4.4), these data will prevail over the AFT data, thereby precluding the interpretation of the thermal history of the AFT data and their MTL (Abbey et al., 2023). Nevertheless, in a model comprising a single thermochronometer, an increase in the amount of data will result in enhanced model accuracy (Abbey et al., 2023). Consequently, only samples constrained by both AFT and AHe data (M23 and T23 dataset), were considered in the modelling. Then, the following series of models was produced: (i) a model for the Maures part of the MTM, comprising AFT and AHe M23, (ii) a model for the M17 sample dataset presented in the Supplementary Material.

# 4 Results

## 4.1 Zircon fission tracks

Ten samples yielded a sufficient number of grains (20 to 36 grains), necessary to compute a ZFT age with reasonable uncertainty. We obtained ZFT central ages ranging from 207 ± 19 to 178 ± 15 Ma (Table 1, Figs. 3, 4). These ZFT ages are relatively similar within uncertainty at the scale of the massif (Fig. 3). However, the distribution of single grain ages for all sample show dispersion between 70 and 500 Ma with a central age of 193 ± 9.6 Ma with strong uranium correlation from 565 to 37 ppm respectively (Fig. 5A; Supplementary material Fig. S1).

## 4.2 Apatite fission tracks

AFT analysis from the Tanneron massif (samples T23-01, to 05) yielded ages from 231.6 ± 12 Ma to 137.3 ± 7.2 Ma (Table 1; Figs. 3, 4). The track lengths vary from 9 to 18 µm, considering the c-axis projected TL, with an average MTL of approximately 10 µm for each sample (Fig. 5B). The samples exhibit unimodal or slightly bimodal track length distributions (Fig. 5B).

The Maures massif (sample M23-01 to 07) exhibit considerably younger AFT ages, ranging from 151 ± 8.2 Ma in the north to 23.7 ± 3.7 Ma in the south (Figs. 3, 4). C-axis projected track lengths vary from 10 to 17 µm, with bimodal distributions in most samples (Fig. 5B). Only sample M2307 presents a unimodal distribution with MTL of <15 µm. Radial plots of all samples from both massifs are presented in the Supplementary material (Fig. S2).
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 4** Thermochronological ages vs distance all along the massif from Maures in dark grey (SW) to Tanneron in light grey (NE) for each sample</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 5** A Radialplot of entire ZFTs from the MTM. B Histogram of observed track lengths and Gaussian distribution of track lengths from AFT data generated by QTQt software. Red lines are the model-predicted track length and grey lines correspond to uncertainties. MTL = Mean track length; O: Observed mean track length; P: Model-predicted mean track length; n: number of counted tracks. The sample M23-05 is missing as there were no measurable track length (see available data)</figcaption></figure>

## 4.3 Apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He

The apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He ages range from 204 ± 16 Ma to 13 ± 1 Ma (Table 2 and Figs. 3, 4). The correlation between the ages and eU (effective uranium) reveals that the dataset accurately reflects the diffusivity of helium in apatite (Fig. 6A), rather than a dependence to grain size, as there is no correlation between ages and Rs (equivalent spherical radius) (Fig. 6B). The dispersion of ages depending on eU indicates that grains from this dataset underwent partial resetting (e.g., Gautheron et al.,

2009; Flowers and Kelley, 2011; Flowers et al., 2023). Two grains from T23-05, which do not align with the eU and Rs behaviour (Fig. 6), have been excluded from thermal modelling and interpretation. These older apparent ages can be attributed to the presence of uranium inclusions or non-homogeneous repartition of eU in the crystal (e.g., Flowers and Kelley, 2011). Furthermore, grains from sample M17-05 are also susceptible to a similar process, as evidenced by its significant dispersion of eU (Fig. 6A).
<table><caption>**Table 2** Presentation of (U-Th-Sm)/He data (Coordinate system: Lambert93)</caption><thead><tr><th>Sample</th><th>Lat</th><th>long</th><th>alt (m)</th><th>He (nccSTP/g)</th><th>U (ppm)</th><th>Th (ppm)</th><th>Sm (ppm)</th><th>Th/U</th><th>eU (ppm)</th><th>Rs (μm)</th><th>Weight (μg)</th><th>FT</th><th>Age (Ma)</th><th>2 s</th><th>AgeC (Ma)</th><th>2 s.C</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>M17-01</td><td>6.5711</td><td>43.4475</td><td>80</td><td>379.866</td><td>43</td><td>27</td><td>0</td><td>0.64</td><td>49.2</td><td>65.3</td><td>6.79</td><td>0.81</td><td>63.8</td><td>0.6</td><td>78.8</td><td>6.3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>255.067</td><td>47</td><td>11</td><td>0</td><td>0.23</td><td>49.3</td><td>56.1</td><td>4.47</td><td>0.78</td><td>42.7</td><td>0.4</td><td>54.6</td><td>4.4</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>295.859</td><td>50</td><td>12</td><td>0</td><td>0.23</td><td>52.4</td><td>53.9</td><td>3.91</td><td>0.75</td><td>46.7</td><td>0.5</td><td>62.2</td><td>5.0</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>398.093</td><td>40</td><td>21</td><td>0</td><td>0.51</td><td>45.3</td><td>62.6</td><td>6</td><td>0.78</td><td>72.6</td><td>0.7</td><td>93.0</td><td>7.4</td></tr><tr><td>M17-03</td><td>6.5583</td><td>43.3594</td><td>220</td><td>517.071</td><td>57</td><td>26</td><td>0</td><td>0.45</td><td>63.3</td><td>60.2</td><td>5.82</td><td>0.79</td><td>67.5</td><td>0.7</td><td>85.4</td><td>6.8</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>197.953</td><td>49</td><td>9</td><td>0</td><td>0.19</td><td>51.4</td><td>51.4</td><td>3.25</td><td>0.77</td><td>31.9</td><td>0.3</td><td>41.5</td><td>3.3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>385.779</td><td>36</td><td>21</td><td>0</td><td>0.60</td><td>40.9</td><td>70.2</td><td>8.93</td><td>0.80</td><td>77.9</td><td>0.8</td><td>97.0</td><td>7.8</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>290.955</td><td>40</td><td>22</td><td>0</td><td>0.54</td><td>45.2</td><td>71.5</td><td>11.54</td><td>0.82</td><td>53.2</td><td>0.5</td><td>65.1</td><td>5.2</td></tr><tr><td>M17-04</td><td>6.502222</td><td>43.336389</td><td>340</td><td>208.538</td><td>22</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.13</td><td>23.0</td><td>78</td><td>13.16</td><td>0.82</td><td>75.0</td><td>0.8</td><td>91.0</td><td>7.3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>181.781</td><td>24</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>0.25</td><td>25.4</td><td>65.2</td><td>5</td><td>0.79</td><td>59.1</td><td>0.6</td><td>75.0</td><td>6.0</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>125.587</td><td>41</td><td>9</td><td>0</td><td>0.21</td><td>43.4</td><td>52.3</td><td>3.96</td><td>0.74</td><td>23.9</td><td>0.2</td><td>32.2</td><td>2.6</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>13.516</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>0.07</td><td>5.3</td><td>88.1</td><td>15.76</td><td>0.84</td><td>21.0</td><td>0.2</td><td>24.8</td><td>2.0</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>11.705</td><td>4</td><td>1</td><td>0</td><td>0.29</td><td>3.9</td><td>86.7</td><td>15.09</td><td>0.84</td><td>24.6</td><td>0.3</td><td>29.2</td><td>2.3</td></tr><tr><td>M17-05</td><td>6.5556</td><td>43.3003</td><td>145</td><td>343.007</td><td>104</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.03</td><td>105.1</td><td>79.2</td><td>9.9</td><td>0.85</td><td>27.0</td><td>0.3</td><td>31.7</td><td>2.5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>237.964</td><td>63</td><td>7</td><td>0</td><td>0.11</td><td>64.8</td><td>58.1</td><td>5.3</td><td>0.77</td><td>30.4</td><td>0.3</td><td>39.5</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>640.525</td><td>114</td><td>24</td><td>0</td><td>0.21</td><td>119.2</td><td>57.3</td><td>4.68</td><td>0.76</td><td>44.4</td><td>0.4</td><td>58.1</td><td>4.6</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>359.740</td><td>81</td><td>15</td><td>0</td><td>0.18</td><td>84.8</td><td>54.2</td><td>4.97</td><td>0.75</td><td>35.1</td><td>0.4</td><td>46.8</td><td>3.7</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>430.426</td><td>107</td><td>18</td><td>0</td><td>0.17</td><td>110.8</td><td>61.7</td><td>4.62</td><td>0.81</td><td>32.1</td><td>0.3</td><td>39.5</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td>M17-06</td><td>6.6775</td><td>43.2006</td><td>68</td><td>264.953</td><td>37</td><td>38</td><td>0</td><td>1.02</td><td>46.5</td><td>48.8</td><td>3.55</td><td>0.72</td><td>47.1</td><td>0.5</td><td>65.4</td><td>5.2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>267.131</td><td>39</td><td>52</td><td>0</td><td>1.35</td><td>51.1</td><td>50.7</td><td>3.69</td><td>0.75</td><td>43.2</td><td>0.4</td><td>57.9</td><td>4.6</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>235.034</td><td>34</td><td>57</td><td>0</td><td>1.69</td><td>47.4</td><td>51.8</td><td>3.91</td><td>0.77</td><td>41.0</td><td>0.4</td><td>53.3</td><td>4.3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>4</td><td>24</td><td>40</td><td>0</td><td>1.67</td><td>33.0</td><td>54.1</td><td>4.91</td><td>0.74</td><td>39.6</td><td>0.4</td><td>53.5</td><td>4.3</td></tr><tr><td>M17-07</td><td>6.4189</td><td>43.1483</td><td>25</td><td>41.555</td><td>16</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.20</td><td>16.7</td><td>51.6</td><td>4.16</td><td>0.74</td><td>20.5</td><td>0.2</td><td>27.9</td><td>2.2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>106.658</td><td>14</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.24</td><td>14.8</td><td>40</td><td>7.3</td><td>0.81</td><td>59.4</td><td>0.6</td><td>73.5</td><td>5.9</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>103.503</td><td>18</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.15</td><td>19.1</td><td>75.2</td><td>8.97</td><td>0.82</td><td>44.8</td><td>0.5</td><td>54.9</td><td>4.4</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>78.220</td><td>16</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.16</td><td>17.0</td><td>65.3</td><td>7.94</td><td>0.79</td><td>38.1</td><td>0.4</td><td>48.2</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td>M17-08</td><td>6.3969</td><td>43.1453</td><td>20</td><td>32.731</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.42</td><td>8.3</td><td>62</td><td>6.9</td><td>0.77</td><td>32.5</td><td>0.3</td><td>42.2</td><td>3.4</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>15.672</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>0</td><td>0.48</td><td>5.2</td><td>58.2</td><td>5.74</td><td>0.76</td><td>24.8</td><td>0.3</td><td>32.6</td><td>2.6</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>56.885</td><td>19</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.17</td><td>19.8</td><td>60.4</td><td>5.19</td><td>0.77</td><td>23.8</td><td>0.2</td><td>30.9</td><td>2.5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>9111</td><td>4</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.70</td><td>5.1</td><td>47.2</td><td>2.58</td><td>0.71</td><td>14.9</td><td>0.2</td><td>21.1</td><td>1.7</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>33.520</td><td>12</td><td>3</td><td>0</td><td>0.25</td><td>12.2</td><td>63.4</td><td>5.47</td><td>0.78</td><td>22.8</td><td>0.2</td><td>29.4</td><td>2.3</td></tr><tr><td>MR1</td><td>6.3867</td><td>43.2883</td><td>653</td><td>101.941</td><td>32</td><td>2</td><td>69</td><td>0.06</td><td>32.5</td><td>59.6</td><td>7.1</td><td>0.76</td><td>29.9</td><td>1.0</td><td>34.9</td><td>3.5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>182.140</td><td>40</td><td>3</td><td>83</td><td>0.07</td><td>40.4</td><td>62.7</td><td>5.87</td><td>0.77</td><td>37.2</td><td>1.5</td><td>49.4</td><td>4.9</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>233.561</td><td>64</td><td>1</td><td>79</td><td>0.02</td><td>64.5</td><td>65.2</td><td>7.8</td><td>0.78</td><td>29.9</td><td>1.2</td><td>39.3</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>129.331</td><td>32</td><td>2</td><td>50</td><td>0.05</td><td>32.0</td><td>74.4</td><td>11.38</td><td>0.82</td><td>33.4</td><td>1.3</td><td>42.0</td><td>4.2</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>Table 2 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Sample</th><th>Lat</th><th>long</th><th>alt (m)</th><th>He (nccSTP/g)</th><th>U (ppm)</th><th>Th (ppm)</th><th>Sm (ppm)</th><th>Th/U</th><th>eU (ppm)</th><th>Rs (μm)</th><th>Weight (μg)</th><th>FT</th><th>Age (Ma)</th><th>2 s</th><th>Age.C (Ma)</th><th>2 s.C</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">M23-06</td><td rowspan="3">6.4842</td><td rowspan="3">43.2962</td><td rowspan="3">398</td><td>113,140</td><td>33</td><td>4</td><td>80</td><td>0.13</td><td>33.8</td><td>60.5</td><td>6.74</td><td>0.76</td><td>27.6</td><td>1.1</td><td>37.1</td><td>3.7</td></tr><tr><td>32,517</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>31</td><td>0.71</td><td>7.5</td><td>33.1</td><td>1</td><td>0.64</td><td>35.8</td><td>0.4</td><td>56.0</td><td>4.5</td></tr><tr><td>47,177</td><td>13</td><td>4</td><td>76</td><td>0.31</td><td>13.6</td><td>46.2</td><td>2.44</td><td>0.73</td><td>28.5</td><td>0.3</td><td>39.1</td><td>3.1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">M23-07</td><td rowspan="6">6.3518</td><td rowspan="6">43.1829</td><td rowspan="6">118</td><td>23,973</td><td>9</td><td>4</td><td>53</td><td>0.41</td><td>9.4</td><td>40.5</td><td>1.86</td><td>0.67</td><td>20.8</td><td>0.2</td><td>31.2</td><td>2.5</td></tr><tr><td>11,199</td><td>7</td><td>7</td><td>174</td><td>1.02</td><td>8.2</td><td>58.9</td><td>4.04</td><td>0.79</td><td>11.0</td><td>0.1</td><td>13.9</td><td>1.1</td></tr><tr><td>12,147</td><td>8</td><td>4</td><td>106</td><td>0.50</td><td>9.1</td><td>58.9</td><td>2.87</td><td>0.75</td><td>10.9</td><td>0.1</td><td>14.6</td><td>1.2</td></tr><tr><td>118,368</td><td>40</td><td>3</td><td>108</td><td>0.08</td><td>40.9</td><td>63.1</td><td>5.27</td><td>0.77</td><td>23.8</td><td>0.2</td><td>30.8</td><td>2.5</td></tr><tr><td>21,222</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>62</td><td>0.30</td><td>8.5</td><td>70</td><td>6.78</td><td>0.80</td><td>20.4</td><td>0.2</td><td>25.6</td><td>2.1</td></tr><tr><td>11,580</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>61</td><td>0.41</td><td>5.1</td><td>54.6</td><td>4.48</td><td>0.77</td><td>18.6</td><td>0.2</td><td>24.0</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">T23-01</td><td rowspan="5">6.6215</td><td rowspan="5">43.5749</td><td rowspan="5">253</td><td>169,929</td><td>42</td><td>35</td><td>144</td><td>0.84</td><td>50.5</td><td>47.2</td><td>2.76</td><td>0.71</td><td>27.7</td><td>0.3</td><td>39.1</td><td>3.1</td></tr><tr><td>146,587</td><td>35</td><td>25</td><td>114</td><td>0.72</td><td>41.2</td><td>50.9</td><td>3.37</td><td>0.73</td><td>29.3</td><td>0.3</td><td>40.2</td><td>3.2</td></tr><tr><td>435,693</td><td>72</td><td>60</td><td>251</td><td>0.84</td><td>86.0</td><td>58.6</td><td>3.74</td><td>0.76</td><td>41.7</td><td>0.4</td><td>55.2</td><td>4.4</td></tr><tr><td>148,556</td><td>25</td><td>20</td><td>78</td><td>0.79</td><td>29.4</td><td>58</td><td>5.17</td><td>0.76</td><td>41.6</td><td>0.4</td><td>54.8</td><td>4.4</td></tr><tr><td>292,117</td><td>41</td><td>39</td><td>151</td><td>0.95</td><td>50.1</td><td>50.7</td><td>4.01</td><td>0.73</td><td>48.0</td><td>0.5</td><td>65.9</td><td>5.3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">T23-05</td><td rowspan="5">6.6215</td><td rowspan="5">43.5749</td><td rowspan="5">3</td><td>454,653</td><td>50</td><td>5</td><td>449</td><td>0.10</td><td>51.0</td><td>44</td><td>1.44</td><td>0.68</td><td>32.8</td><td>0.3</td><td>48.4</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td>2,934,725</td><td>151</td><td>20</td><td>389</td><td>0.13</td><td>155.7</td><td>60.1</td><td>3.81</td><td>0.76</td><td>155.3</td><td>1.6</td><td>204.4</td><td>16.4</td></tr><tr><td>343,233</td><td>46</td><td>4</td><td>212</td><td>0.09</td><td>47.5</td><td>53.5</td><td>3.06</td><td>0.77</td><td>59.4</td><td>0.6</td><td>77.0</td><td>6.2</td></tr><tr><td>1,834,936</td><td>111</td><td>22</td><td>386</td><td>0.20</td><td>116.0</td><td>51.5</td><td>1.89</td><td>0.71</td><td>130.2</td><td>1.3</td><td>182.6</td><td>14.6</td></tr></tbody></table>
(A) Zircon fission tracks

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

(B) Apatite track lengths

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 6** Plot of (U-Th-Sm)/He from T23, M23 and M17 dataset. A Ages vs eU. eU is the effective uranium concentration, which represents the U and Th concentration. B Ages vs Rs. Rs is the equivalent spherical radius which represent apatite weight and grain size</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 7** Time vs. temperature models from QTQt. A Tanneron massif (T23). B Maures massif (M23). The black box represents the ZFT constraint. The red line represents the full thermal path modelled by QTQt. The black line represents the best fit thermal path used for discussion. Red, blue and green colours represent a statistical scale, with red representing the best data reproducibility (likelihood)</figcaption></figure>

Once these variables have been accounted for, the ages range from 85.4 ± 16.4 to 13.9 ± 1.1 Ma.

## 4.4 Thermal history modelling

### 4.4.1 Tanneron massif (T23 samples)

The initial time-temperature condition for the thermal modelling of the Tanneron massif are 200 ± 30 Ma and 100 ± 100 °C, which correspond to ages and closure temperature defined by AFT and ZFT ages (Fig. 7A). The best-fit solution (black curve in Fig. 7A), which represent the best agreement between predicted and observed age (Supplementary Material Fig. S4), shows relatively constant temperatures during the Jurassic (200–145 Ma) and

heating of 40 °C at a rate of 0.89 °C/Myr starting during the Early Cretaceous (~120 Ma) and ending in the Late Cretaceous (~75 Ma; Fig. 7A). Subsequently, there was a phase of cooling from 75 Ma until the Late Eocene, around 50 Ma at a rate of ~1.8 °C/Myr followed by a slower cooling to surface temperature (~20 °C) in the Oligocene (35 Ma). From ca. 35 to 15 Ma the Tanneron massif experienced renewed heating to ~60 °C at a rate of 2 °C/Myr followed by cooling at 2.7 °C/Myr from 15 Ma to present, at a temperature close to the surface (~20 °C).
### 4.4.2 Maures massif (M23 samples)

The initial time-temperature conditions for the Maures massif (Fig. 7B) are similar to those of the Tanneron massif. Similar to the case of Tanneron massif, temperature seemingly remained constant from the Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. Then, the best-fit thermal model indicates a primary heating event between 100 and 70 Ma from surface temperatures to 100 °C at a rate of ~2.6 °C/Myr, followed by a cooling phase to surface temperatures (~20 °C) reached at 55 Ma at a rate of ~4.7 °C/Myr. The same thermal event is identified in the AHe modelling from the M17 dataset with heating up to 70 °C from 100 to 75 Ma, and onset of rapid cooling to surface conditions from 75 to 65 Ma (Supplementary Material Fig. S3). Then, the massif records a transitional period marked by constant temperatures of approximatively 30 °C throughout the Eocene (Fig. 7B). From 35 Ma our thermal model resolves heating to temperatures of 70 °C until 30 Ma at a rate of 6 °C/Myr followed by a slower heating until 16 Ma, when the temperature reached 80 °C. After reaching its maximum temperature, the massif cooled instantaneously at 16 Ma to a surface temperature and has remained at this level until present.

## 5 Discussion

### 5.1 Variable peak temperatures and partial resetting in the MTM

ZFT single grain ages from MTM span the entire Mesozoic to Paleogene times (Fig. 5A), and are clearly dependent on radiation damage, reflected by varying uranium content from 37 to 565 ppm. Although similar AFT and ZFT ages are observed in the Tanneron massif, MTL distribution are <15 µm and show a large standard deviation, which is characteristic of a long period of residence in the partial annealing zone in contradiction with a rapid cooling scenario (Kohn et al., 2024). This is supported by the complex pattern of ZFT ages, which may reflect partially annealed and slowly cooled zircons with considerable amounts of accumulated radiation damage that may result in lower than average ZFT closure temperature (Bernet, 2009). Moreover, it appears that the apparent cooling age of AFT from T23-02 to T23-04 is older than the apparent cooling age of ZFT. However, the 2-sigma errors range overlap indicates that the true cooling age of AFTs is not necessarily older than ZFT ages. This phenomenon can also be attributed to the long-term thermal history of the rocks, the U-content of the grains, and the accumulation of damages (Bernet, 2009). In the Maures massif, the AFT ages range from 150.9 ± 8.2 Ma (M2301) in the north to 23.7 ± 3.7 Ma (M2305) in the south (Fig. 3). The track lengths of the older sample, M23-01, are similar to those of the Tanneron massif (e.g. M23-02, M23-03, M23-04, M23-06) and exhibit bimodal distributions

with MTL < 15 µm, characteristic of partial annealing (Kohn et al., 2024). In contrast, the only coastal sample (M23-07) show a unimodal and narrow distribution with MTL < 15 µm, characteristic of slow cooling (Kohn et al., 2024). The fact that AFT ages are older toward the north, suggests that the temperatures reached in the MTM were lower in the north than in the south. This is supported by the track length distributions, which present bimodal to narrow unimodal distributions from north to south. This is in line with results of the thermal history modelling that indicate the grains resided at apparent maximum temperature of ~80 °C in the north, compared to temperatures of ~100 °C in the southern Maures massif. These temperatures fall within the AFT partial annealing zone between 60 and 120 °C, hence supporting the conclusion that these apatite grains are partially annealed (e.g., Gleadow and Duddy, 1981). In contrast, regarding the maximum temperatures of 80 and 100 °C during the Cretaceous thermal event (Fig. 7) zircons should not have been reset during this event, considering the partial annealing zone for ZFT ranges from 200 and 340 °C (e.g., Kohn et al., 2024). Therefore, we suggest that the large distribution of ZFT ages represents an older thermal history where the ZFT were heated in their partial annealing zone for a long period of time either because of heating and/or slow cooling through the partial annealing zone. The strong correlation of ZFT ages with the uranium content reveals that low-retentive zircons characterised by higher U content (and therefore high amounts of radiation damage) grains have been partially annealed for a long period of time of 50–100 Ma within the ZFT partial annealing zone at lower temperatures than the commonly assumed temperature of ~180–220 °C (Reiners & Brandon, 2006).

### 5.2 Tectonic interpretation of MTM thermal evolution

#### 5.2.1 Triassic and Jurassic times: effects of CAMP, Neo-Tethys and Alpine Tethys opening

Our new ZFT and AFT data broadly conform with low-temperature thermochronology data of the Corsica and Sardinia Variscan basement rocks, which show Mesozoic ZFT ages of 244–144 Ma and a larger spread of AFT ages of 192–16 Ma (Fellin et al., 2006; Danisik et al., 2007; Zattin et al., 2008; Malusà et al., 2016). A similar cooling event dated to the Mid to Late Jurassic (160–150 Ma) has been reported in the Pre-Piedmont-Briançonnais domain based on the combination of ZFT and ZHe ages (Decaris et al., 2017).

In the case of MTM, inverse thermal history modeling of old (~200 Ma) AFT ages combined with track length data indicate no significant heating or cooling during the opening of the Alpine Tethys. In addition, the reconstructed thermal histories indicate that the MTM
massif never cooled to surface temperatures of 10 ± 5 °C from 250 to 150 Ma, but instead resided at temperatures of 40 ± 10 °C. This is in line with the lack of evidence for exhumation at this time as Triassic-Jurassic deposits are exposed on the edges of the massif (Toutin-Morin et al., 1993), and the absence of marked crustal thinning during this period (e.g., van Hinsbergen et al., 2020; Angrand et al., 2020; Angrand and Mouthereau, 2021) (Fig. 9A). The lack of cooling at around 165 Ma, which contrasts with Corsica-Sardinia and Pre-Piedmont-Briançonnais indicates the thermal impact of the Alpine Tethys was minor in the MTM. This could reflect the fact that the crust of Provence recorded a prolonged period of high geothermal gradient since the Triassic that compensates for thermal relaxation during Pangea breakup and/or was too far from the Alpine Tethyan rift domain. The possible role of a Triassic high thermal gradient is supported by evidence in the Corsica-Sardinia region, where zircon overgrowths with U–Pb ages spanning the Middle to Late Triassic (220–240 Ma) (Seymour et al., 2016), and allanite U–Pb dating is of 225 ± 8 Ma (Di Rosa et al., 2020). Basalts were dated at 202 ± 6 Ma by K/Ar method with the MTM at Rougier (Baubron, 1974) and a basaltic intrusive dyke from MTM has been dated using <sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar with an approximate plateau age of 200 Ma (Morillon, 1997). The Triassic magmatism is also detected in the Alpine peridotite at about 200 Ma in the southern Alps (e.g. Zanetti et al., 2013; Denyszyn et al., 2018), which appears transitional to magmatism associated with the opening of the Alpine Tethys in the Jurassic. This period is associated with different event, as the Pangea dispersal associated to a maximal thermal isolation from 260 to 180 Ma and Neo-Tethys opening (e.g., Le Pichon et al., 2021, 2023; Frasca et al., 2024), the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) culminating around 200 Ma (Marzolli et al., 1999; Mouthereau et al., 2021; Bonazzi et al., 2024) (Fig. 9A), and the rifting of the Alpine Tethys that started around 200 Ma succeeded by its break-up at 165–160 Ma (Schattegger et al., 2002; Kaczmarek and Müntener, 2008; Schettino and Turco, 2011) (Fig. 9B).

The succession of these episodes associated with crustal thinning could explain the high geothermal gradient and constant temperatures reported in the MTM massif during the Triassic-Jurassic.

### 5.2.2 Placing the MTM in the Pyrenean rift evolution

The Cretaceous heating event spanning the 120–75 Ma period resolved in the MTM coincides with the timing of the rift-related thermal event associated with the crustal thinning in the Pyrenean and Vocontian rift domain (e.g., Jammes et al., 2009; Tugend et al., 2014, 2015; Angrand et al., 2020; Célini et al., 2023). The structural continuity of the MTM with the Beausset basin indicates that the

MTM forms the basement of the sedimentary basin, and recorded the same Pyrenean thinning event (Fig. 9C). The slightly distinct thermal histories between the Tanneron massif and the Maures massif, with the latter experiencing slightly lower peak temperatures is in agreement with their relative position to the E-W oriented rift axis, as the Tanneron massif is located to the north of the Maures massif, in a more proximal position. This interpretation is supported by the southward increase in subsidence rates in the Beausset basin during Aptian-Albian times (Masse and Fenerci-Masse, 2013; Fournier et al., 2016). Considering modelled maximum temperature (Figs. 7, 8) and geothermal gradients ranging from 34 °C/km in the case of the proximal European margin to 47 °C/km, for the distal European margin (Saspiturry et al., 2020), sedimentary burial is estimated to have been between 1.7 and 1.3 km for the Tanneron massif and between 4.2 and 2.2 km for the Maures massif. During Aptian-Albian times (120–100 Ma), the Durancian Isthmus formed an E-W trending topographic high between the Pyrenean rift to the south and the Vocontian-Valaisan rift to the north (e.g., Combes, 1990; Guyonnet-Benaize et al., 2010; Chanvry et al., 2020; Mondillo et al., 2025; Célini et al., 2023; Angrand and Mouthereau, 2021). Bauxite, deposited into karst of this uplifted surface (Fig. 9C), has been attributed to the erosion and transport of laterite from the MTM the Late to Early Cretaceous (e.g., Debrand-Passard et al., 1984; Mondillo et al., 2025). However, our interpretation of the MTM as the basement of the Beausset basin during this period challenges this hypothesis, as we suggest that it would remain buried below a thick sedimentary cover. Furthermore, the Cap-Sicié and the western extension of the Maures massif form a coherent unit. Therefore, the presumed source, that feed the Beausset basin and its MTM prolongation was likely situated more than 20 km further south than the Cap-Sicié basement as estimated by Fournier et al. (2016) (Fig. 9C). The considerable distance of this southern source from the Durancian Isthmus, combined with the presence of the Beausset-MTM basin, suggest that this high relief was not the source of the laterite forming the bauxitic karst of the Durancian Isthmus.

### 5.2.3 Placing the MTM in the Pyrenean convergence history

The 75–70 Ma cooling recorded throughout the MTM (Fig. 8) is consistent with the timing of the Pyrenean orogeny, where the tectonostratigraphic studies of foreland basins place the beginning of convergence at about 84 Ma (e.g., Teixell et al., 2018; Muñoz, 2019; Ford et al., 2022). Low-T thermochronology analysis indicates that the collision-related cooling in the Pyrenees occurred at 75–70 Ma (Mouthereau et al., 2014, Ternois et al., 2019), controlled by the far-field rotation of the Africa-Europe
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 8** Superimposition of the Maures (M23) and Tanneron (T23) massif thermal models and comparison with significant surrounding geological events. Blue events are associated to divergence and orange events are associated to convergence. Only the bauxite formations are shown in black because their formation is not yet associated with clear geodynamics. Alpine Tethys (Piedmont-Ligurian: Stampfli, 2000; Schmid et al., 2004; Handy et al., 2010; van Hinsbergen et al., 2020; Le Breton et al., 2021; Frasca et al., 2024). Pyrenean rifting (Tugend et al., 2014, 2015; Angrand et al., 2020) and orogeny (Ford et al., 2022). West European rifts (Merle, 2001; Dèzes et al., 2004); Ligurian-Provençal basin opening (Seranne, 1999; Jolivet et al., 1999, 2020, 2021). Bauxite (Combe, 1990; Chanvry et al., 2020)</figcaption></figure>

plate resulting in N-S convergence (Handy et al., 2010, 2015; Müller et al., 2019; van Hinsbergen et al., 2020; Angrand and Mouthereau, 2021; Le Breton et al., 2021). The lateral continuity of the Pyrenean orogen in the Provence region is consistent with the tectonic and stratigraphic records, which show a phase of N-S contraction in the Late Cretaceous (e.g., Philip et al., 1987; Espurt et al., 2012; Bestani et al., 2016; Balansa et al., 2022; Bilau et al., 2023) (Fig. 9D). A similar deformation trend is observed in the Devoluy massif, which is associated with a Turonian-Coniacian (88 Ma) angular unconformity (Glangeaud and d'Albissin, 1958; Debelmas, 1989).

Additionally, the Pelvoux massif recorded N-S shortening, affecting the crystalline basement and its Mesozoic cover (Ford et al., 1996, Lazarre et al., 1997; Dumont et al., 2008, 2012) and a low-temperature thermochronological analysis argues for a Late Cretaceous cooling event at around 85 Ma attributed to the onset of the Pyrenees-Provence collision (Boschetti et al., 2025). In the Pelvoux massif implications of the Ebro-Corso-Sardinia and Adriatic microplates are questioned. In this study, it appears that, as with the Pyrenean orogen, exhumation of the MTM seems to have initiated during the onset of Iberia-Europe convergence (Fig. 9D). The variable cooling
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 9** Paleogeographical reconstruction of the Western Mediterranean region with location of the MTMT massif, derived from its thermal history and main tectonic structures, modified after Angrand et al. (2020) and Angrand and Mouthereau, (2021) (for Iberia Ebro, SC, B blocks), Boschetti et al. (2025) (for Active rifting of the Valaisan basin at 95 Ma), Le Breton et al. (2021) (for Adria and location of Alpine-Apennines subduction fronts), van Hinsbergen et al. (2020) (for PeCa and Lower AA location), Séranne, (1999) (for Western European rifts at 35 Ma). Abbreviation: AA: Austro-Alpine nappe; AlCaPa: Alpine-Carpathian-Pannonian unit. B: Beleares; DI: Durancian Isthmus; HR: High relief; MTM: Maures-Tanneron; PeCa: Peloritani-Calabria; SC: Sardinia-Corsica</figcaption></figure>

rates obtained between the Maures and Tanneron massifs show that the latter experienced slower cooling associated with Pyrenean orogeny. This slower cooling may be due to the fact that the Tanneron massif was located farther north, and therefore underwent more gradual exhumation than the Maures massif (Figs. 2, 3).

### 5.2.4 Western European rifting and the Cenozoic Mediterranean thermal event

Thermal histories in the Tanneron and Maures massifs indicate heating from 35–30 Ma followed by cooling at 20–15 Ma (Fig. 8). This thermal event is recorded in the AHe modelling of the M17 dataset (Supplementary Material Fig. S3) and in the AFT, AHe modelling of the M23-T23 dataset (Fig. 8). It is suggested that this event was not long and hot enough to cause a complete reset of the AHe system in most of the sampled rocks, explaining the dispersion of AHe ages vs. eU (Fig. 6). Thermal modelling of the Maures and Tanneron data show slightly

different thermal histories (Fig. 8), especially for the cooling during the last 15 Ma. However, the timing of heating and cooling are similar, at 35 Ma and 15 Ma, respectively. The difference obtained in the modelled paths might reflect spatial variability and duration in the heating or simply be an artefact of the modelling close to present day. Thus, it appears difficult to interpret the resulting paths.

The onset of heating at 35–30 Ma in the MTM temporarily coincides with sedimentation in the Saint-Antonin basin north of the MTM from which detrital ZFT data reveal rapid cooling and exhumation during the Early Oligocene in surrounding massifs (Jourdan et al., 2018). Those detrital ZFT ages have been interpreted as indicating exhumation of the Corsica-Sardinia block and possibly the MTM as a result of the Pyreneo-Provencal orogeny. But according to our thermal histories the MTM recorded heating rather than cooling during the Early Oligocene. We suggest this heating could correspond to
the opening of the West European Rift system and the transition towards the opening of the Western Mediterranean (e.g., Bois, 1993; Séranne, 1999; Dèzes et al., 2004; Mouthereau et al., 2021) (Fig. 9E). Furthermore, this rift-ing and heating event coincides with a magmatic episode dated to 35-31 Ma featured by calc-alkaline intrusions in the MTM (Giraud et al., 1975; Giraud 1983; Lustrino and Wilson, 2007; Réhault et al., 2012). This heating phase in the Provence region is synchronous with the heating of about 100 °C recorded for the Piedmont basin, North of the Ligurian Alps in Italy, located eastward of the MTM (Amadori et al., 2023). The onset of the West European Rift system extension marks a change in the geodynamics of the region, from the end of the Pyrenean convergence to the opening of the Western Mediterranean from 30 Ma. Both could lead to slow exhumation (0.1-0.2 km/Ma estimated by Jourdan et al. (2018) and heating explained by a magmatic event as modelled in this study (Giraud et al., 1975; Ruffet et al., 1995). Slab roll-back in the Western Mediterranean then triggered initial rift-ing and opening of the Gulf of Lion at 20-15 Ma between Corsica-Sardinia and the Provence region, and the Liguro-Provençal basins during the Miocene (e.g., Séranne, 1999; Jolivet et al., 1999, 2020, 2021; Dumont et al., 2012; 2022). The lack of evidence for the development of the Miocene sedimentary basins in the vicinity of the MTM (Jourdon et al., 2014), suggests that Oligocene-Miocene heating was the result of a high geothermal gradient explained by a two-phase tectonic event: (i) arc/back-arc magmatism, which formed the magmatic intrusion cross-cutting the MTM basement, (ii) crustal thinning and Ligurian ocean opening (20-15 Ma), leading to oceanic crust formation (e.g., Boschetti et al., 2023) (Fig. 8). Cooling since 15 Ma to the present most likely represents thermal relaxation after the end of the Gulf of Lion and Ligurian basin opening (e.g., Séranne, 1999; Jolivet et al., 1999, 2020, 2021; Dumont et al., 2012; 2022). Tectonic activity and resulting thermal anomalies rapidly migrated south-eastward due to slab roll-back (Fig. 9F), which subsequently led to the opening of the Tyrrhenian basin (Fig. 9F) (e.g., Loreto et al., 2020). The same range of AFT ages and similar thermal models have been documented in the eastern part of Corsica and interpreted as cooling in response to the isostatic rebound, caused by the Ligurian-Provençal Rifting (Danisik et al., 2007).

# 6 Conclusion

The thermochronological study of the Maures-Tanneron crystalline massifs (MTM), representing the basement of the Provence region, serves to elucidate the tectonic history of this marginal domain of Western Europe. The thermochronological signal of the complex ZFT data from the MTM indicates a complex thermal history,

which highlights constant high geothermal gradient during the Triassic-Jurassic times. The MTM shows a clear thermochronological signal during the Cretaceous, when it was subjected to progressive heating due to burial during sedimentation associated with the Pyrenean rifting. Slight differences in maximum temperature between the Maures and Tanneron massifs are explained by their positions relative to the rift axis. This lateral gradient resulted in a prolonged exposure to the partial annealing zone in the Tanneron massif whereas the Maures massif, lying close to the rift axis, underwent more significant partial annealing to complete resetting for the most southern sample. Following this ~30 Ma burial and heating phase, the main phase of exhumation of the massif is correlated with Pyrenean-Provence compressional deformation from around 75 to 40 Ma in response to Iberia-Europe convergence. Finally, the Oligocene-Miocene thermal event, from 30 to 15 Ma has been linked to two major tectonic events: (i) extensional tectonics and formation of the West European Rift system and (ii) the opening of the Ligurian back-arc basin. This thermal event vanished once the back-arc opening jumped to the east of the Corsica-Sardinia block in the Tyrrhenian Basin.

# Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s00015-025-00485-8.

Supplementary Material 1.

## Acknowledgements

Authors would like to thank Abdellatif Lahfid from for discussions and links with the BRGM and also Alexis Derycke and Cécile Gautheron for their advices on data processing and modelling. This article benefited from comments and suggestions of two anonymous reviews, and editorial guiding by Eline Lebreton, which helped enhance the former submitted version.

## Author contributions

LB is the corresponding author who carried out the field investigation, analysis, interpretation and drafting of the manuscript. RY, MF and SS contributed to field investigation, interpretation of data and review of the manuscript. SM, GM, DT and PM contributed to bring sample from field investigation and bring review on the manuscript. MBe, MBA, MBo and CM analysed part of the sample and made corrections to the manuscript.

## Funding

This study was made possible thanks to ministerial funding from the SDU2E doctoral school at Paul Sabatier III University and by additional the funding by the RFG-Alps programme, coordinated by the BRGM.

## Availability of data and materials

Sequence data that support the findings of this study have been deposited in the PerSCiDO repository. https://doi.org/10.18709/perscido.2025.01 ds416

## Declarations

### Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.
Received: 27 January 2025 Accepted: 12 May 2025

Published online: 11 July 2025

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