as a central purpose and element of IHRL. In the *Mayagna* case (2001), the IACtHR based its ruling on this philosophical approach by arguing that indigenous customary law must be considered. Hence, the Court concluded that under these customary principles, possession of land is sufficient to consider their ownership from an administrative perspective.<fnref n="1340" /> The link between land and indigenous spiritual life, economic survival and culture prompted the Court to consider their customary law and values.<fnref n="1341" /> In *Yakye Indigenous Community* (2005), also about land ownership, the Court applied a *pro individual* approach to extend the Convention's scope by using of Article 31 of the Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties and Article 14(3) of the ILO Convention No. 169. With these two articles, the Court changed the understanding of the right to property, to include communal property of ancestral lands for indigenous groups.<fnref n="1342" /> Moreover, the Court once more recalled the importance of considering human rights treaties as living tools, and therefore evolutive and urge their application while considering individuals' conditions.<fnref n="1343" /> In 2015, the Court recalled how land ownership is not centred around individuals but around groups and the indigenous community. By doing so, it highlighted that the right to property must be understood through culture, customs and beliefs of individuals. Indeed, not following this approach would lead to an illusory protection of these communities.<fnref n="1344" />

The Court's approach argued for a recognition of individual in society from a historical, religious and cultural perspective. In this view, individuals are substantively equal, but institutions must acknowledge their differences.<fnref n="1345" /> By upholding this approach within its jurisprudence, the IACtHR crystalises the idea that individual protection under IHRL must be considered, in a multicultural frame. In accordance with the concept of multiculturalism, States must understand human rights not as a unique concept of rights, but one that must be adapted and consider diversity. The interpretation of treaties, in this case the ACHR, should be in

<footnote n="1340">1340 *Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua* (n 1336) para 151.</footnote>

<footnote n="1341">1341 Mazzuoli and Ribeiro, ‘Indigenous Rights Before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights: A Call for a Pro Individual Interpretation’ (n 1347) 153.</footnote>

<footnote n="1342">1342 *Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v Paraguay* [2005] IACtHR Merits, Reparations and Cost, Series C, No. 125 [124].</footnote>

<footnote n="1343">1343 *ibid* 125.</footnote>

<footnote n="1344">1344 *Kaliña and Lokono Peoples v Suriname* [2015] IACtHR Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 309 [129]; *Sawhoyamxa Indigenous Community v Paraguay* [2006] IACtHR Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 146.</footnote>

<footnote n="1345">1345 Mazzuoli and Ribeiro, ‘Indigenous Rights Before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights: A Call for a Pro Individual Interpretation’ (n 1347) 167.</footnote>
accordance with the fundamental element of diversity as part of the individual's legal personality. The cultural specificity of indigenous groups, leading to their constant discrimination, requires proper effective protection from States, which should consider "their specificities, their economic and social characteristics, as well as their situation of special vulnerability, their customary law, values, and customs".<fnref n="1346" /> Following the *pro homine* principle, the Court acknowledges the multicultural approach to individual human rights violation and the role of culture, holding States responsible for such violations. Despite its absence in the jurisprudence, the Court recognises this.

**3. Extending responsibility: from States to judges**

In the ECtHR analyses, jurisprudence underlined the importance of linking discrimination with historical and sociological processes. However, this qualitative approach differs from the IACtHR's. In the European continent, the EU influenced the integration of anti-discriminatory legislations, as seen with abuses in the Central and Eastern countries. In South America, the IACtHR had to consider two elements: (i) State construction is closely linked to indigenous groups; (ii) the monistic tradition of colonisation and dictatorship.<fnref n="1347" /> This monistic approach, pushes the IACtHR to identify an approach that would make it a determining actor in national legal systems. The Court created what Helfer and Slaughter call a "community of law".<fnref n="1348" /> For the ECtHR this results in a sphere where legal actors "interact based on common interests and values". For the IACtHR, it implies the integration of jurisprudence and interpretation within the region. This hands all judges, irrespective of their national legal structures, the necessary tools to protect indigenous rights.

<footnote n="1346">¹³⁴⁶ Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v Paraguay (n 1352) para 63.</footnote>

<footnote n="1347">¹³⁴⁷ Méryl Thiel, ‘Le Droit Constitutionnel Chilien Face Au Système Interaméricain Des Droits de l’homme : Le Droit Des Peuples Indigènes En Question - Le Cas Mapuche’ (2017) 111 Revue française de droit constitutionnel 691.</footnote>

<footnote n="1348">¹³⁴⁸ Laurence Helfer and Anne-Marie Slaughter, ‘Toward a Theory of Effective Supranational Adjudication’ (1997) 107 Y.L.J 273, 277.</footnote>
3.1. The control of conventionality and constitutionality

The second strategy of the Court, which creates an important precedence for cases of indigenous groups, is to consider that human rights are no longer at the mercy of States’ political programme but lie in the hands of the judiciary. The theory of the control of conventionality occurred in several cases, notably as structural discrimination towards indigenous land delimitation,<fnref n="1349" /> the rape of young indigenous women,<fnref n="1350" /> or even the right to not be discriminated because of sexual orientation. <fnref n="1351" /> At the national level, several cases related to discrimination faced by indigenous groups underline the use of this theory. <fnref n="1352" /> The establishment of this theory, within South America, seems to prove the increased importance accorded to the IACtHR approach. <fnref n="1353" />

With this innovation, responsibility in cases of human rights violation changes making judiciary a central actor of the IAHRS. While the State is the primary responsible actor for neglecting human rights, and violating them, the San José judges in their jurisprudence highlighted the national judges’ role, perceived as conventional judges of common law.<fnref n="1354" />

The conventionality control doctrine is developed as a mechanism to bring coherence to the application of law and protect the primacy of IHRL at the national level. <fnref n="1355" /> This doctrine seems successful as a tool to respect and guarantee the Convention’s rights. It seeks to confirm the ACHR as the supreme rule within the national legal order. Furthermore, it is a key instrument in implementing an *ius commune* within the IAHRS, in terms of developing individuals and constitutional rights,<fnref n="1356" /> and providing for a consolidation and harmonisation

<footnote n="1349">1349 Xákmok Kásek Indigenous Community v Paraguay (n 156) para 311.</footnote>

<footnote n="1350">1350 Fernández Ortega v Mexico [2011] IACtHR Interpretation of Judgment of Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 224.</footnote>

<footnote n="1351">1351 Duque v Colombia (n 1268) ; Atala Riffo and Daughters v Chile (n 156).</footnote>

<footnote n="1352">1352 See: *El Caso Takana El Turi Manupare II* [2014] Tribunal Constitucional Plurinacional de Bolivia 0572/2014.</footnote>

<footnote n="1353">1353 Laurence Burgorgue-Larsen, ‘Chronique d’une Théorie En Vogue En Amérique Latine Décryptage Du Discours Doctrinal Sur Le Contrôle de Conventionalité’ (2014) 100 Revue française de droit constitutionnel 831, 848.</footnote>

<footnote n="1354">1354 Burgorgue-Larsen, Les Nouvelles Tendances Dans La Jurisprudence de La Cour Interaméricaine Des Droits de l’homme (n 1275) 20.</footnote>

<footnote n="1355">1355 Néstor Pedro Sagüés, ‘Obligaciones Internacionales y Control de Convencionalidad’ 8 Estudios Constitucionales 117, 134.</footnote>

<footnote n="1356">1356 ibid 118.</footnote>
of a regional legal system. Finally, it transforms national judges into the guardians of the
ACHR.<fnref n="1357" />

In the 2006 cases, *Almonacid Arellano*<fnref n="1358" /> and *La Cantuta*,<fnref n="1359" /> the IACtHR for the first time asserted the role to be played by national judges in its jurisprudence. National judges are expected to defend the ACHR and invalidate any legal norms that violate the Convention or the Court's jurisprudence. The legal foundation of the national judges' conventionality control was advanced in the *Almonacid* case. Here, the San José judges named conventionality control as the obligation for judges to control the compatibility of national legislation with the Convention.<fnref n="1360" /> The elaboration of this doctrine is therefore linked to a jurisprudential evolution and is not distinctly recognised by the ACHR. It is the result of a development of the IACtHR interpretation under Article 1§1 of the Convention and Articles 25 and 27 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.<fnref n="1361" />

The Court argued that domestic judges, are firstly State officials, and secondly must ensure that domestic laws do not contradict conventional norms. Under this control of adequacy, judges not only have an obligation to apply national laws including the Convention, but must also resolve legal issues within these norms, while protecting the supremacy of the ACHR.<fnref n="1362" /> Notably, this approach of the Court resembles the U.S SC arguments on protecting judicial review in the *Marbury* case (1803).<fnref n="1363" /> The doctrine was later developed and clarified in the

<footnote n="1357">1357 Yota Negishi, ‘The Pro Homine Principle’s Role in Regulating the Relationship between Conventionality Control and Constitutionality Control’ (2017) 28 Eur. J. Int. Law 457.</footnote>

<footnote n="1358">1358 *Almonacid-Arellano et al v Chile* [2006] IACtHR Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 154.</footnote>

<footnote n="1359">1359 *La Cantuta v Perú* [2006] IACtHR Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 162.</footnote>

<footnote n="1360">1360 Humberto Nogueira Alcali, ‘Los Desafíos Del Control de Convencionalidad Del Corpus Juris Interamericano Para Los Tribunales Nacionales, En Especial, Para Los Tribunales Constitucionales’ [2011] Humberto Nogueira Alcala 331, 340.</footnote>

<footnote n="1361">1361 Pablo González-Domínguez (ed), ‘Jurisprudential Development of the Doctrine of Conventionality Control’, The Doctrine of Conventionality Control: Between Uniformity and Legal Pluralism in the Inter-American Human Rights System, vol 11 (Intersentia 2018) 13.</footnote>

<footnote n="1362">1362 Claudina Orunesu, ‘Conventionality Control and International Judicial Supremacy’ [2020] Revus. Journal for Constitutional Theory and Philosophy of Law 45, para 5.</footnote>

<footnote n="1363">1363 *Marbury v Madison* [1803] SC of the US 5 U.S. 137.</footnote>
*Heliodora Portugal* case (2008), where the Court linked Article 2 of the ACHR to the control of conventionality.<fnref n="1364" />

From a legal perspective and under French inspiration of the *bloc de constitutionnalité*, judges are guardians of the Conventions and must therefore follow the conventionality control. In *Almonacid Arellano* (2006), the San José judges highlight national judges’ responsibility for following ratified international treaties like the ACHR. According to the Court, the judiciary must respect national legal provisions, the ACHR and the interpretation of the IACtHR.<fnref n="1365" /> Consequently, national judges must exercise a conventionality control between national legal norms and the ACHR. The Court goes further by pointing out the importance for the Judiciary to consider the evolution of the IACtHR jurisprudence. In practice, this implies that judges must verify the existence of a jurisprudence on the legal issue. Additionally, they should look upon the doctrine arising from the IACtHR case and examine whether or not this *ratio* is applicable to the case in question. Finally, they are called upon to analyse the jurisprudence in light of internal legal reasoning. In case of a contradiction within the IACtHR jurisprudence, judges should either follow the Court’s rulings or the national legal approach, and in any case justify their approach.<fnref n="1366" /> Following the Attorney General Office of Argentina’s attitude, the IACtHR jurisprudence becomes a guide for the interpretation for the ACHR. Consequently, the jurisprudence is binding but not mandatory, as the judiciary must consider it. However, it may not apply because of the specificity of national cases.<fnref n="1367" />

This first approach to the conventionality control appeared for the first time in a separate opinion emanating from Judge Garcia Ramirez in the *Myrna Mak Chang* case (2003).<fnref n="1368" /> Surprisingly, a difference occurred between the Spanish version of the case which used the expression “control de convencionalidad” and the English translation with the expression “treaty control”.<fnref n="1369" /> This difference in translation also appeared in other cases such as *Cabrera*

<footnote n="1364">1364 Heliodoro Portugal v Panama [2008] IACtHR Preliminary objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 186 [179–180].</footnote>

<footnote n="1365">1365 *Almonacid-Arellano et al v Chile* (n 1368) para 124.</footnote>

<footnote n="1366">1366 Orunesu, 'Conventionality Control and International Judicial Supremacy' (n 1372).</footnote>

<footnote n="1367">1367 *Gelman v Uruguay* [2013] IACtHR Monitoring Compliance with Judgment.</footnote>

<footnote n="1368">1368 *Myrna Mack Chang v Guatemala* (n 199).</footnote>

<footnote n="1369">1369 ibid 27.</footnote>
*Garcia and Montiel Flores* (2010) in which the Spanish version argued that it is the judges and the bodies involved in the administration of justice, whereas the English version claimed “the judiciary at all levels” must exercise a control of conventionality in *ex officio*.1370 The English translation simplified the importance granted by the IACtHR judges to integrate different types of judges. These were later corrected for future cases.1371 In the *Gelman* case (2011), the Court’s judges increased the exercise of the conventionality control to any type of public authority and not uniquely to organs related to judicial administration.1372

In the *Dismissed Congressional Employees* case (2006), the Court uncovered new elements concerning the role of judges. It held that the judiciary must not only exercise a control of constitutionality but also one of *ex officio* conventionality between national norms and the ACHR.1373 Significantly, this control must be performed in respect of the competences and procedural rules. Under this principle, the judiciary not only becomes an important ally of the IACtHR as it can question the conventionality of national legal norms, but judges have to respect the characteristic of their legal order such as the place of internationality treaties in the *bloc de constitutionnalité*.1374 The idea of a control of conventionality by national judges was consolidated through the Court’s jurisprudence.1375

Judges have applied this theory in various ways. Some have accepted it while others refused it on legal grounds that consider the place of IHRL within national Constitutions, or for

<footnote n="1370">1370 *Cabrera García and Montiel Flores v Mexico* [2010] IACtHR Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations, and Costs, Series C, No. 220 [225].</footnote>

<footnote n="1371">1371 Burgorgue-Larsen, ‘Chronique d’une Théorie En Vogue En Amérique Latine Décryptage Du Discours Doctrinal Sur Le Contrôle de Conventionalité’ (n 1363) 839.</footnote>

<footnote n="1372">1372 *Gelman v Uruguay* [2011] IACtHR Merits and Reparations, Series C, No. 221 [239].</footnote>

<footnote n="1373">1373 *Dismissed Congressional Employees (Aguado Alfaro et al) v Peru* [2006] IACtHR Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 158 [128].</footnote>

<footnote n="1374">1374 La Aplicación de Los Tratados Sobre Derechos Humanos Por Los Tribunales Locales (CELS 1997).</footnote>

<footnote n="1375">1375 *Boyce et al v Barbados* [2007] IACtHR Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 169 [78] (the Court points out the absence of conventionality control by the national judges); *Cabrera García and Montiel Flores v Mexico* (n 1380) para 225;233; *Gelman v Uruguay* (2011) (n 1382) para 193;239; *López Mendoza v Venezuela* [2011] IACtHR Merits, Reparations, and Costs, Series C, No. 233 [228] (example of control of conventionality by national judges); *Fontevecchia and D’Amico v Argentina* [2011] IACtHR Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 238 [93]; *Atala Riffo and Daughters v Chile* (n 156) paras 282–283; *Furlan and Family v Argentina* (n 1288) para 303 (examples of the use of control of conventionality by SC judges); *Gudiel Álvarez et al (‘Diario Militar’) v Guatemala* [2012] IACtHR Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 253 [330] (expands the interamerican juris corpus and adds within the judiciary organs the public prosecutor); *Ríos Avalos v Paraguay* [2021] IACtHR Fondo, Reparaciones y Costas, Series C, No. 429.</footnote>
more political reasons, as the nomination of judges, and States' systematic rejection of the
IAHRS in Peru under Fujimori or in Venezuela under Chavez.<fnref n="1376" />

The control of conventionality does not claim to be an automatic process of justiciability for indigenous groups, but is developed as a strategic tool. <fnref n="1377" /> Generally, the IACtHR employs it without considering the specificity of cases and uses it a general doctrine. <fnref n="1378" />

3.2. From regional to national jurisdiction

National and IACtHR judges enjoy a certain equality, as both are guardians of the ACHR.

In terms of discrimination faced by indigenous groups, this implies that the Courts' understanding of situation must be followed by all national judges in South America.

Judge Cançado Trindade, in a separate opinion (*Dismissed Congressional Employees*), argues the importance for national judges to understand not only constitutional law but also IHRL.<fnref n="1379" /> Judge García Ramírez, in another separate opinion, argued that consistency between international and national implementations of the ACHR is essential to protect individual human rights.<fnref n="1380" /> He claimed that national courts should adopt the IACtHR interpretation and implement it at the domestic level.<fnref n="1381" /> This creates a deeper relation between the regional system and the national system, and more importantly, makes for a consistency in the

<footnote n="1376">1376 Eduardo Góngora Mera, 'Interracciones y Convergencias Entre La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos y Los Tribunales Constitucionales: Un Enfoque Coevolutivo' in Armin Von Bogdandy, Flavia Piovesan and Mariela Morales Antonazzi (eds), Estudios Avançados de Direitos Humanos (Elsevier, Campus jurídico 2013).</footnote>

<footnote n="1377">1377 Fernando Casado and Francesco Maniglio, 'Los Derechos Indígenas y El Control de Convencionalidad OIT. Algunas Consideraciones Sobre Los Casos de Ecuador, Venezuela y Bolivia' [2022] Rev. Latinoam. de Derecho Soc. 243, 248.</footnote>

<footnote n="1378">1378 Ariel E Dulitzky, 'An Inter-American Constitutional Court? The Invention of the Conventionality Control by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights' (2015) 50 TILJ 45, 51.</footnote>

<footnote n="1379">1379 Separate Opinion of Judge A.A. Cançado Trindade, *Dismissed Congressional Employees (Aguado Alfaro et al) v Peru* (n 1383) paras 2-3.</footnote>

<footnote n="1380">1380 Separate Opinion of Judge García Ramírez, ibid 2.</footnote>

<footnote n="1381">1381 ibid 6-7.</footnote>
application of IHRL.<fnref n="1382" /> In this way, the San José judges advanced an important aspect of the rulings: universality and efficiency. For the former President of the IACtHR, Judge García Ramírez, this system allows the use of a clear interpretation and application by member States and furthers uniformity within the different legal systems for human rights violation.<fnref n="1383" />

In practice, this approach strengthens the relationship between IACtHR and national judges. During the opening of the 150th regular session in Brazil, Judge Pérez in his presentation underlined the importance of the training course to strengthen jurisprudential dialogue between Brazil and the IACtHR.<fnref n="1384" /> Secondly it consolidated the place of international treaties within the *bloc de constitutionnalité*.

With the application of conventionality control, judges play a dual role: they are judges for their national laws but also, inter-American judges at the national level.<fnref n="1385" /> This develops a decentralised system, creating a strong jurisprudence around the ACHR. However, it can also lead to cases where national judges are either partially consistent, or in open contradiction with the current interpretation and rulings of the IACtHR.<fnref n="1386" /> Whilst the doctrine of conventionality control intended to promote a more stable human rights law, it could in fact, lead to the contrary. Yet, the will to see an emergence of Inter-American judges at the national level could in fact further a more rigorous universalism of human rights, under which courts can converge laws with current national political and cultural practices. Besides, the IACtHR built its ruling and its theory of integration and conventionality control on already existing national practices,<fnref n="1387" /> despite some inconsistency. Consequently, unsurprisingly, the control doctrine was both

<footnote n="1382">¹³⁸² ibid 5–7.</footnote>

<footnote n="1383">¹³⁸³ ibid 8.</footnote>

<footnote n="1384">¹³⁸⁴ IACtHR, ‘150th Regular Session in Brazil’.</footnote>

<footnote n="1385">¹³⁸⁵ Humberto Nogueira Alcalá, ‘Los Desafíos Del Control de Convencionalidad Del Corpus Iuris Interamericano Para Los Tribunales Nacionales’ [2012] Revista de Derecho Público 393, 404.</footnote>

<footnote n="1386">¹³⁸⁶ Dulitzky, ‘An Inter-American Constitutional Court? The Invention of the Conventionality Control by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (n 1388) para 72.</footnote>

<footnote n="1387">¹³⁸⁷ Miguel Angel Ekmekdjian v Gerardo Sofovich, recurso extraordinario [1992] SC of Argentina E000000064 (the Convention interpretation must follow the IACtHR jurisprudence); Libertad De Expresion En Opinión Consultiva De La Corte Interamericana De Derechos Humanos [2000] Corte Constitucional de Colombia C-010/00 (the IACtHR interpretation is relevant for the Colombian Constitution interpretation due to the status of the ACHR in the Colombian legal order).</footnote>
embraced and rejected by national judges.<fnref n="1388" /> Using Court jurisprudence not only strengthens national courts’ ruling,¹³⁸⁹ but it becomes a legitimate tool of authority for IACtHR decisions and future rulings.

The internationalisation of South American State Constitutions not only enhances relations between international human rights system and national legal systems,<fnref n="1390" /> but discourages violence practiced by dictatorships. IHRL within Constitutions appear to embody democratic values. In Colombia, Article 93§2 of the Constitution advances, albeit in ambiguous terms, the prevalence of international treaties related to human rights protection ratified by the State in the internal system. The ambiguity lies in the position given to international treaties, as it can be analysed through the angle of supra-legislative or constitutional rank. Despite this haziness, the constitutional court argued the primacy of the IACtHR jurisprudence when interpreting the Constitution.<fnref n="1391" /> Consequently, explicit reference to the Court’s jurisprudence became significant in national cases.<fnref n="1392" /> According to the former President of the constitutional court, Judge Córdoba Triviño, judges know the importance of the IACtHR jurisprudence, and its impact on the sustainability of judicial rulings.<fnref n="1393" /> Furthermore, within any country, judges will not react the same way towards the IACtHR. For instance, in Chile, the SC seems quite in favor of the IACtHR jurisprudence, contrary to the constitutional tribunal.<fnref n="1394" /> Despite having established a principle related to national judges’ role in protecting human rights violations in theory, in practice, judges often put aside legal norms.

<footnote n="1388">¹³⁸⁸ *Sentencia* [2012] Corte Constitucional de Guatemala 3334-2011; [2008] Venezuela Supreme Tribunal of Justice 08-1572; *ML, JFF0, denuncia, excepcion de inconstitucionlidad arts 1, 2, y 3 de la Ley no 18831* [2013] Uruguay SC IUE 2-109971/2011.</footnote>

<footnote n="1390">¹³⁹⁰ Alec Stone Sweet, 'On the Constitutionalisation of the Convention: The European Court of Human Rights as a Constitutional Court' (2009) 80 Revue trimestrielle des droits de l'homme 1.</footnote>

<footnote n="1390">¹³⁹⁰ Mariela Morales Antoniazzi, 'La Doble Estatalidad Abierta: Interamericani- Zación y Mercuruzación de Las Constituciones Suramericanas' [2013] Estudios Avanzados de Direitos Humanos 178.</footnote>

<footnote n="1391">¹³⁹¹ *Sentencia C-010/00* (Corte Constitucional de Colombia).</footnote>

<footnote n="1392">1392 Jaime Córdoba Triviño, ‘Aplicación de La Jurisprudencia de La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos al Derecho Constitucional Colombiano’ [2007] Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano 667.</footnote>

<footnote n="1393">¹³⁹³ ibid 669.</footnote>

<footnote n="1394">¹³⁹⁴ Burgorgue-Larsen, ‘Chronique d’une Théorie En Vogue En Amérique Latine Décryptage Du Discours Doctrinal Sur Le Contrôle de Conventionalité’ (n 1363)846–847; Gonzalo Aguilar Cavallo, ‘El Control de Convencionalidad En La Era Del Constitucionalismo de Los Derechos. Comentario a La Sentencia de La Corte Suprema de Chile En El Caso Denominado Episodio Rudy Cárcamo Ruiz de Fecha 24 Mayo de 2012’ (2012) 10 Estudios constitucionales 717.</footnote>
### 3.3. Judges' role v. States responsibilities

With the theory of control of conventionality, the IACtHR places a strong responsibility on national judges. Undoubtedly, the ECtHR mentions the State's responsibility. Yet, it lays aside the role of national jurisdiction in increasing and accentuating discrimination towards minority groups. In Eastern and Central Europe, the cases of Roma minority groups brought before the ECtHR highlight how national judges often base their rulings on strong community stereotypes and increase their invisibility before national institutions.

The doctrine of control of conventionality does not ignore State responsibility. However, it recalls the judiciary's role and gives it a central role to ensure the effectiveness of the ACHR. The integration principle, which consists of incorporating the Convention in national legal systems, prompts national judges to recognise the IAHRS. For the Court, this approach is essential to protect and promote human rights.<fnref n="1395" /> Whereas States are frequently perceived as the principal actors, responsible for the respect of human rights due to their obligations under international law, judges and the judiciary are key actors for enforcing the Convention. Contrary to the ECtHR that develops the concept of due diligence to remind States of their obligation, the IAHRS elaborated a process laying down judges' responsibility. This approach is grounded on the idea that States are not the only actors in international law. Whilst the judiciary could be perceived as State agents and therefore enact State responsibility, it is important to recall that the judiciary is partly responsible.

Under this doctrine, State authorities must apply the Convention, but so must judges in all their rulings. The Convention thus becomes an important part of the domestic legal system. Curiously therefore, the ACHR turns out to be superior in hierarchy to the national legal system including the Constitution.<fnref n="1396" />

With the integration process, the ACHR becomes a unit of stable legal rules. Indeed, the governments use of the Constitution as a political charter suggests that human rights, especially minority rights, can be easily jeopardized. Although each legal principle or doctrine is in theory based on a functioning democracy, especially in independent and effective judicial systems, doctrines protecting human rights violation still need to be developed. For the IACtHR, human

<footnote n="1395">¹³⁹⁵ Santo Domingo Massacre v Colombia [2012] IACtHR Preliminary Objections, Merits and Reparations, Series C, No. 259 [142–43].</footnote>

<footnote n="1396">¹³⁹⁶ Dulitzky, ‘An Inter-American Constitutional Court? The Invention of the Conventionality Control by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (n 1388) 54.</footnote>
rights violations are aggravated by the failure of national courts to use effective remedies,<fnref n="1397" /> which could be explained by the absence of ACHR references and its use in national courts.<fnref n="1398" />

Under the doctrine of conventionality control, the subsidiarity principle predominates. Two approaches can be identified between Europe and America: (i) the IACtHR uses the subsidiarity principle; and (ii) the ECtHR proceeds with the MOA. For the San José Court, mobilizing the subsidiary principal and the control of conventionality, the IACtHR permitted States to appropriate the Convention.

With the direct applicability of the Convention, the San José court imposed its own interpretation and implementation of the Convention.<fnref n="1399" /> In comparison, the ECtHR allows European States to interpret the ECHR and integrate it in their national legislation.<fnref n="1400" /> With the MOA, the Strasbourg judges allow important discretionary power to the judiciary. Under this approach, the ECtHR allows States to apply the Convention whilst respecting of their own political, institutional structures and cultural values.<fnref n="1401" /> To a certain degree, the MOA permits the recognition of State sovereignty from a regional human rights perspective. But, at the level of the ECtHR, this creates distinctions between States. In contrast, the subsidiary approach with the control of conventionality establishes a more universal human rights protection as it ignores cultural specificities, and consequently brings uniformity to the protection of individuals. It focuses on the uniformity of international human rights and their application, contrary to the MOA. More generally, the ECtHR's approach relies principally on the goodwill of States and the national judiciary. The clear impact of this approach is seen in the restriction of the scope

<footnote n="1397">1397 Richard J Wilson, 'Supporting or Thwarting the Revolution - The Inter-American Human Rights System and Criminal Procedure Reform in Latin America Symposium: Abandoning the Inquisitor: Latin America's Criminal Procedure Revolution' (2007) 14 Southwestern Journal of Law and Trade in the Americas 287, 312.</footnote>

<footnote n="1398">1398 Claudio Nash Rojas, 'Control de Convencionalidad. Precisiones Conceptuales y Desafíos a La Luz de La Jurisprudencia de La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos' (2013) 1 Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano 489, 491.</footnote>

<footnote n="1399">1399 Dulitzky, 'An Inter-American Constitutional Court? The Invention of the Conventionality Control by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights' (n 1388) 55.</footnote>

<footnote n="1400">1400 Paolo Carozza, 'Subsidiarity as a Structural Principle of International Human Rights Law' (2003) 97 AJIL 38, 75.</footnote>

<footnote n="1401">1401 ibid.</footnote>
and extension of human rights protected by the ECHR.<fnref n="1402" /> The IACtHR does use the MOA in specific cases mainly because of the control of conventionality. <fnref n="1403" /> Still, it remains a marginal concept in the IACtHR jurisprudence. For the former president of the Court, Judge Cançado Trindade, the MOA does not have its place in the ACHR judicial system and is not being used by the Court.<fnref n="1404" /> In making this statement, Trindade does not recognize the 1984 advisory opinion of the Costa Rican government. However, in his broad observation, Trindade points out the type of Court cases that are linked to non-derogable rights and hence, referring to the MOA is not conceivable, mainly due to the small number of democratic States.<fnref n="1405" /> This approach relies on a strong normative premise, that is, in case of *jus cogens* human rights, States should not be given the chance to use the MOA doctrine.<fnref n="1406" /> Judge Trindade’s bold perspective is not a minority position. The traditional reluctance to apply the MOA, while based on different arguments, often relies on the fragility of South American States’ democracies. However, in recent years, this disregard of MOA’s is being highlighted by States like Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Paraguay. In April 2019, they issued a Joint Declaration to the IACmHR, in which, while reaffirming their commitment to the ACHR, they recalled the importance for the IACtHR to respect the States “legitimate space of autonomy”.<fnref n="1407" /> Evoking this angle of autonomy, these five States highlight the need for the Court to accept the MOA doctrine.

Clearly, placing the ACHR at the heart of national judicial processes promotes the idea of a
regional constitutional system.

<footnote n="1402">1402 Pablo Contreras, ‘National Discretion and International Deference in the Restriction of Human Rights: A Comparison Between the Jurisprudence of the European and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (2012) 11 JHR 28, 37.</footnote>

<footnote n="1403">¹⁴⁰³ Proposed Amendments to the Naturalisation Provisions of the Political Constitution of Costa Rica [1984] IACtHR Advisory Opinion OC-4/84, Series A, No. 4 (related to proposed amendments on naturalisation in the Costa Rica Constitution); Herrera-Ulloa v Costa Rica [2004] IACtHR Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C, No. 107 (concerning free speech).</footnote>

<footnote n="1404">1404 Antonio Cançado Trindade, ‘Reflexiones Sobre El Futuro Del Sistema Interamericano de Protección de Los Derechos Humanos’ in Juan E Méndez and Francisco Cox (eds), El futuro del sistema interamericano de protección a los derechos humanos (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas 1998) 582.</footnote>

<footnote n="1405">¹⁴⁰⁵ ibid 243.</footnote>

<footnote n="1406">¹⁴⁰⁶ ibid 583.</footnote>

<footnote n="1407">1407 Marisa Iglesias Vila, ‘The Conventionality Control and the Fontevecchia Case: Is the Margin of Appreciation the Panacea?’ [2022] Journal for Constitutional Theory and Philosophy of Law.</footnote>
In comparison to European countries with their models of democracy and independent judiciaries, South American States historically presented a notable lack of democracy.<fnref n="1408" /> The imbalance within States and systemic human rights abuses under dictatorship regimes, encouraged the IACtHR to expand influence of its jurisprudence and the universality embedded in the protection of human rights. From a general perspective, human rights should be seen as establishing universal obligations, and therefore neither relativism nor particularism should enter the equation. Even so, the IACtHR accommodated a regional distinctiveness whilst arguing for the construction of legal universalism.<fnref n="1409" />

A constant change of Constitution has politicised human rights within States. The ACHR in this context becomes a solid foundation of human rights, which contrary to national Constitutions, does not change. With the incorporation of the Convention in domestic legal systems, the Court encouraged the integration process. The Convention entered the constitutional bloc. with the doctrine of the control of conventionality and the integration process,

Curiously, the conventionality control and integration principles resemble the EU model, rather than the European human rights approach. For the EU, within the legal system, community law enjoys primacy over domestic law, and this procedure was recalled by the CJEU in 1964 and 1970.<fnref n="1410" /> The ECHR, in contrast, does not have a constitutional rank. In fact, it is the Constitution which sets the relationship between the national legal order and the ECHR or the ECtHR rulings,<fnref n="1411" /> as the Inter-American system. In reality, however, conventionality, subsidiarity and integration doctrines consolidate the ACHR's constitutional rank. The ECHR works as a supplement to national legislation protection.<fnref n="1412" /> Yet, contrary to the IAHRS, the

<footnote n="1408">¹⁴⁰⁸ See: Henry Steiner and Philip Alston, *International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals* (Clarendon Press 1996).</footnote>

<footnote n="1409">¹⁴⁰⁹ Ludovic Hennebel, ‘The Inter-American Court of Human Rights: The Ambassador of Universalism’ (2011) 1 RQDI 57, 60.</footnote>

<footnote n="1410">¹⁴¹⁰ Flaminio Costa v ENEL [1964] CJEU Case 6-64; Internationale Handelsgesellschaft mbH v Einfuhr- und Vorratsstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel [1970] CJEU Case 11-70.</footnote>

<footnote n="1411">¹⁴¹¹ Stone Sweet (n 1379) 13.</footnote>

<footnote n="1412">¹⁴¹² *ibid* 8.</footnote>
ECtHR did not establish a specific mode of incorporation. In France for instance, until 1980, the ECHR did not have a legal status in the national order.

With the two theories of conventionality control and integration, the IACtHR appears itself as an Inter-American Constitutional Court transforming the ACHR into an Inter-American Constitution.<fnref n="1413" /> This change depends on the judges’ role. They are responsible for the ACHR’s effectiveness, and as such, become not only key actors in the promotion and protection of human rights, but also in the IAHRS.<fnref n="1414" /> Constitutionalizing the regional system impelled the Court to use the constitutional language of judicial review whilst mentioning the conventionality control,<fnref n="1415" /> and it adds constitutional law doctrines at the level of IHRL.<fnref n="1416" /> In the *Barrios Alto* case (2001), the Court not only argued that Peru’s amnesty legislation was incompatible with the ACHR, but more importantly, that it “lack(ed) legal effect”.<fnref n="1417" /> With this conclusion, the IACtHR clearly invalidated a national norm, in the manner of a constitutional court.

The Mexican Judge Garcia Ramirez, sees similarity between the IACtHR and a constitutional court.<fnref n="1418" /> He argues that despite the absence of justice at the national level, the Court should not become the last resort in terms of jurisdiction.<fnref n="1419" /> Concretely, this implies that the Court should only judge a limited number of cases, and rule only therefore on “*grandes temas*” (big questions), which will frequently expand to include new aspects and perspectives.<fnref n="1420" /> Consequently, the Court should function more or less as a Constitutional Court.

<footnote n="1413">¹⁴¹³ Dulitzky, ‘An Inter-American Constitutional Court? The Invention of the Conventionality Control by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (n 1388) 64.</footnote>

<footnote n="1414">¹⁴¹⁴ *Santo Domingo Massacre v Colombia* (n 1405) paras 142–143; *Dismissed Congressional Employees (Aguado Alfaro et al) v Peru* (n 1383) para 128.</footnote>

<footnote n="1415">¹⁴¹⁵ Dulitzky, ‘An Inter-American Constitutional Court? The Invention of the Conventionality Control by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights’ (n 1388) 65.</footnote>

<footnote n="1416">¹⁴¹⁶ ibid; See: Charles Fried, ‘Constitutional Doctrine’ (1994) 107 Harv. Law Rev. 1140, 1140.</footnote>

<footnote n="1417">¹⁴¹⁷ Barrios Altos v Peru [2001] IACtHR Merits, Series C, No. 75 [51–4].</footnote>

<footnote n="1418">¹⁴¹⁸ *Dismissed Congressional Employees (Aguado Alfaro et al) v Peru* (n 1383) para 4.</footnote>

<footnote n="1419">¹⁴¹⁹ ibid 11.</footnote>

<footnote n="1420">¹⁴²⁰ Sergio Ramírez García, ‘El Control Judicial Interno de Convencionalidad’ (2011) 5 REVISTA IUS 124, 131.</footnote>
Compared to the European system, where the constitutionalisation of the ECtHR and ECHR opened a strong debate between those in favor and those against,<fnref n="1421" /> the judicialisation and constitutionalisation already occurred at the level of the IAHRS with the *Barrios Altos* and *Almonacid* cases.

**4. Conclusion**

Regrettably discrimination of minority groups is a key feature of American societies. With strong historical and ideological traditions, indigenous groups find themselves second-class citizens in these States. State ratification of international conventions and constitutional reforms have ended neither ethnic nor racial discrimination or land appropriation. However, the IACtHR jurisprudence has affirmed the importance of considering diversity and cultural particularism within the frame of universality. It thus promotes the visibility of indigenous groups, who, weighed down by their historical pasts that continues in the form of cultural differences, are often being discriminated in society and by institutions.

In comparison to other regional systems, the IACtHR approach is clearly innovative. Not only does it consider individuals in broader frames, but it nudges towards the establishment of a global community in law. While this “cross-pollination” of judicial interpretation has advanced by the lawyer Slaughter is not new,<fnref n="1422" /> the IACtHR has elaborated existing concepts with a new set of rules: conventionality control, integration, and subsidiarity. As observed the San José Court created a set of communal values based concretely on the ACHR. Furthermore, it encourages national judges to be central actors of its outreach, impelling respect. Under IHRL, States are often perceived as the first responsible actors of human rights violations. Yet, it is often the judiciary and its administration, which promotes discrimination towards minorities. Under the IACtHR, a movement towards national judges’ responsibility has begun.

<footnote n="1421">1421 Stone Sweet (n 1379) 1; Jean-Françoise Flauss, ‘La Cour Européenne Des Droits de l’homme Est-Elle Une Cour Constitutionnelle?’ (1999) 36 Revue française de droit constitutionnel 711; Stepehn Greer, *The European Convention on Human Rights* (OUP 2006).</footnote>

<footnote n="1422">1422 Anne-Marie Slaughter, ‘A Global Community of Courts Focus: Emerging Fora for International Litigation’ (2003) 44 Harv. Int. Law J. 191; D Hoadley and others, ‘A Global Community of Courts? Modelling the Use of Persuasive Authority as a Complex Network’ (2021) 9 Frontiers in Physics 1, 2.</footnote>
Despite State difficulties in compiling with the IACtHR rulings, the effects of the IAHRS remain positive, specifically for vulnerable groups. The IAHRS is a significant and progressive human rights system on the continent, and IACtHR jurisprudence is regularly used in national courts.<fnref n="1423" /> In comparison to Western Europe, where democracies with a functional judiciary prevail, to begin with the IAHRS appeared in an environment where these two elements were not present in every member State. However, the IACtHR evolved and elaborated concepts that made it impossible to ignore human rights systems.

<footnote n="1423">¹⁴²³ Engstrom, 'Introduction: Rethinking the Impact of the Inter-American Human Rights System' (n 1246) 5.</footnote>
Conclusion

In 2017 the Indian SC declared: “The narrative will then proceed to examine the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights, [...] and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. These decisions are indicative of the manner in which the right to privacy has been construed in diverse jurisdictions based on the histories of the societies they govern and the challenges before them.”1424 While this passage does not refer to the role of discrimination, it underlines the influence of regional system within the Indian judicial context and the development of a global law.

IHRL is broadly defined as laying down obligations for States. By becoming parties to international treaties States must respect, protect and fulfil human rights. Analyses focus in systematic ways on the angle of States as parties to specific convention: UN, ECHR, ACHR, etc. However, growing connections between legal systems call for setting aside this traditional approach to consider more broadly how Courts understand facts and translate them into legal settings. Naturally, differences between systems exists. For instance, while analysing the ECtHR, EU influences on national legislation are apparent. On the contrary, this parallelism does not occur in South America. On one side, the link between the ECtHR and other EU institutions, draws attention to the fact that the combination of different institutions increases protection towards minorities whilst the country's own approach can also lead to disparity of treatment. On the other side, the IACtHR establish itself as a central actor within South America States.

These analyses of the ECtHR and the IACtHR recalls the importance of regional human rights convention in the protection of individuals right to non-discrimination. Not only do they adopt regional perspectives – the ACHR for instance incorporates a collective approach – but they also integrate and recall international principles enshrined in the Charter, and the UDHR, on the right to non-discrimination. Furthermore, each regional monitoring body develops these rights through its own interpretation. However, both systems without any doubt argue that discrimination, when it targets minorities, is an important issue to be addressed. It can often be the outcome of accepted practices of social discrimination and thus lodged in the institutional

<footnote n="1424">1424 Justice KS Puttaswamy (Retd) v Union of India [2017] (n 983).</footnote>
structural discrimination system itself.<fnref n="1425" /> The IACtHR judged that such discrimination is not
only a violation of IHRL but refers to a general culture of discrimination consisting of social
stereotypes that limit opportunities of certain social groups.<fnref n="1426" /> The value and relevance of this
approach for other situations cannot be underestimated.

<footnote n="1425">1425 Dinesh Bhugra, 'Social Discrimination and Social Justice' (2016) 28 Int Rev Psychiatry 336, 336; 'General Comment No. 20: Non-Discrimination in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Art.2, Para. 2, of the ICESCR)' (n 136) para 40.</footnote>

<footnote n="1426">1426 Hélène Tigroudja, ‘Droits Des Femmes et Élimination Des Discriminations’; González et al (“Cotton Field”)
v Mexico (n 1289); Gutiérrez Hernandez et al v Guatemala [2017] IACtHR Exceptiones Preliminares, Fondo,
Reparaciones y Costas.</footnote>
# General conclusion: Invisibility is a Human Rights violation

Universalism versus particularism, North versus South, member States versus non-member States, violators versus non-violators: these divisions are only a few examples of the systemic dichotomies that beset IHRL. Divisions which can either be defended or criticised, depending upon the approach used to highlight current problems or simply human rights violations. On one side, the complexity and multiplicity of these categories creates complications in the field, where individuals must define their work and intellectual approach within specific legal settings. On the other, minority groups are caught up in these sharp divisions, moving from one category to another, experiencing not only a constant violation of their human rights but more dangerously, making it difficult to grasp the concepts under which their violations can be treated: from a historical, social, political perspective, or from all these perspectives. As their discrimination remains constant, understanding its multiple causes can help to undermine its persistence.

The complexity of the situation invites the question whether national or regional judges are armed by IHRL with the necessary tools to render discrimination faced by minorities visible. The answer to this interrogation is positive. Despite distinct approaches due to the specificity of each systems, tools to protect minority groups against discrimination are provided in legal texts and judges have developed a strong jurisprudence. This results from two elements: (i) the establishment of a universal IHRL more or less based on conventions, *jus cogens* principles, and jurisprudence flowing either from UN treaty bodies or from regional organs; (ii) and the elaboration of a global law. The first element finds its limits in States such as India, Russia or China who are not part of a regional human rights system and where therefore the influence of IHRL is restricted not only to the ratification of international human rights conventions, but also to the States' relation with UN treaty bodies. The second argument related to the globalisation of law underlines the circulation of ideas such as judicial decisions and interpretation of norms throughout the world. The thesis studied the existence of an international *corpus juris*, which can be found on specific rights. Despite IHRL's fragmentation, there is a convergence on a substantial level and a construction of this "global law". Elaborating an international *corpus juris* is based on a constant dialogue between
mechanisms and processes, revealed through a more comparative analysis of solutions and interpretation of IHRL. These elements are the key to IHRL's effectiveness. Despite different rulings and approaches, this relationship between different judicial bodies enriches the field. While the thesis did not follow a comparative methodology, an analysis of three legal systems (India, ECtHR, IACtHR) underlined the similarity of discriminatory practices and their invisibility at the judiciary's level. These systems, India, ECtHR and the IACtHR, indicated that despite its different contexts, discrimination follows the same pattern from a legal perspective. This harmonisation, whether positive or negative, results from the universality of human rights.<fnref n="1427" /> Yet, this universality which leads to a dialogue between systems is often only perceived at the level of regional systems and international mechanisms, and not from a national perspective, especially for countries outside a regional system.

To demonstrate this argument of the role of global law in protecting minority groups, the thesis focused on a country where no human rights regional system exists. It began with the hypothesis that due to the absence of a human rights regional system, individuals, and more specifically minority groups in cases of discrimination were more likely to see their human rights violated. This surmise was based on the idea that no judicial institutions filled the void of regional systems' jurisprudence and interpretation of norms, and therefore minorities faced a potentially reduced understanding of law as they could not use legal reasoning of other systems. This hypothesis can be summarised briefly as the absence of a regional system possibly increasing human rights violations and their invisibility. However, the methodical study of Indian citizenship laws application in Assam (Part 2) and the minority cases of the Roma community and indigenous groups (Part 3) led to question this hypothesis, and even introduced a change of hypotheses. These three cases testified that human rights abuses do not end with the mere existence of a regional human rights system. Undoubtedly, regional systems enrich IHRL, yet they do not announce the end of human rights abuses. India is not a member of a regional system, and this does not presuppose it to committing more human rights violations. Whilst the Indian SC remains partially silent on Assam, it displays a strong use of human rights norms and interestingly, integrates the regional system approaches. The country does not exclude legal evolution and jurisprudence of other systems is used. However, it does

<footnote n="1427">1427 Hélène Tigroudja, 'Les Systèmes Universels et Régionaux de Protection Des Droits de l'Homme: Harmonisation, Complémentarité Ou Fragmentation'.</footnote>
not consider all the existing mechanism of human rights such as the African system for instance
who does carry a unique approach to understand human rights violation and does contribute to
the real of international human rights law. The absence of consideration of the African human
right system by Indian judges pushed to include in the analysis only regional system which
were quoted by the SC. Thus, the Arab League and the African human rights system, were
despite their own set of particularities not develop. Indian judges may decide or fail to quote
the work of regional courts, yet this influence is seen. This conclusion resulted not only from
an analyses of jurisprudence, but also interviews with legal actors who were able to fill in the
current voids in literature. In fact, while there is abundant current literature on the Indian SC's
use of PIL at the SC level, academic work ignores the influence of regional system. This, despite
it being quite common to integrate a comparative analysis between judicial systems in the IHRL
field. Yet, for India the absence of a regional system called for a comparison only between
States, despite the place of regional system jurisprudence within the Indian legal system. The
hypothesis therefore changed. India does not have a regional system, yet actors of the Indian
legal system are aware of the constant evolution of IHRL. Consequently, the new hypothesis
was that if India was well inserted in the evolution of IHRL then judges' practices to render
minority discrimination invisible should be found in other procedures. Furthermore, while
India's colonial legal precedents and social realities led the country over the years to adopt a
legal approach to individuals that accommodates backward social status, religion or community
membership, or indeed geographical contexts, did other system also considered these elements?
On the contrary to the first hypothesis which turned out to be wrong, the second one proved to
be right. The answer to this hypothesis lies in the IACtHR's practice in relation to the judiciary
and the role of judges. International law historically bases itself as a state-centric field, in which
therefore the State is the main actor and solely responsible due to its legal obligations. However,
the judiciary's independence must be integrated into legal reasoning. Discrimination towards
minority groups reveals the impact of judicial rulings on practices, policies and legislations.
With the will of a global perspective – starting from Assam and finishing at the regional levels
– the analyses shows that law is not state-centric and is no more in the hands of international
law's primary actors, States. The IACtHR normative approach has made it possible to recognise
that the judiciary is primarily responsible for increasing discrimination towards minority
groups. The judiciary's independence is thus a critical element in protecting individuals. States
are responsible for protecting individuals, yet when the State is defective, the judiciary must be
paradoxically, strong.
Political, sociological and cultural identities are singular to each country, and it depends on regional or national judges to incorporate them in their rulings. Ultimately, the key issue remains the refusal of judges to analyse these elements and consider them in the light of the society's complexity. As shown through the case of Assam, India has understood the importance of considering complex historical and sociological contexts. Today, India cannot, from a legal perspective, continue to question or reject Western norms as its SC jurisprudence clearly shows the influence of regional and national courts, like UK courts for instance. India has still to free itself from its colonial heritage in specific legislations. However, as far as discrimination towards minorities is concerned, it must face and handle its own traditions, legacies and present politics.

Unequal societies are held to be more ‘advanced’ in discriminatory practices than egalitarian societies.<fnref n="1428" /> While discrimination may be embedded in traditional hierarchical structures, social customs, or practices, States and the judiciary are nonetheless required to protect individuals from the violation of their rights. Yet, despite this obligation established by international conventions, States which do not tend to identify with all its citizens, undermine the effectiveness of international conventions and laws.<fnref n="1429" /> When backed by legislation, these States legitimise discrimination, and consequently condone widespread, unquestioning acceptance of informal abuses. Openly accepted and supported by States they are then backed by its judicial machinery. Certainly, IHRL doctrines and conventions do provide judges with the necessary tools to protect minority groups. Regional systems have made significant contribution through the development of doctrines. Their approach has gone further than their own member States. UN conventions are today not the only legal instruments which can be termed international: regional jurisprudence has shown that it can also be included in this “international” category, because of its application by national jurisdiction.

Through the objective to investigate whether judges had the necessary tools to protect human rights discrimination faced by minority groups, a hitherto less explored area and

<footnote n="1428">¹⁴²⁸ Dinesh Bhugra, 'Social Discrimination and Social Justice' (2016) 28 Int Rev Psychiatry 336, 336.</footnote>

<footnote n="1429">¹⁴²⁹ Sammy Smooha, 'Ethnic Democracy: Israel as an Archetype' (1997) 2 Israel Studies 198, 199–200; Katharine Adeney, 'How Can We Model Ethnic Democracy? An Application to Contemporary India' (2021) 27 Nations Natl. 393.</footnote>
question arose: does a large democratic State require a regional judicial system over and above
the usual judicial structure? IHRL is usually examined through the medium of international
rulings and how States violate their international obligations. Reflection on law and the ways
in which legal systems operate are more often than not, conducted without deep consideration
of how interconnections operate between international conventions, rulings and national
agendas or concerns. This study has opted to consider the law not simply as state-centric,
through its production, or an existing set of institutions or corpus of rulings. Instead, it has
privileged a close to the ground approach by studying the issues where appropriations of
international rulings or regional systems' judgements are taking place in the Indian law courts.
In this way, it does not limit itself to the usual commentaries on India's constitutional openness,
or debates on its judiciary's neutrality or autonomy from executive interference. Instead, by
including a discussion of other regional systems outside India, it has chosen different field of
inquiry. Whilst other legal national systems are considered during the creation of legislation, as
analysed in the pages devoted to the CAD, scholars, though coming from different disciplines,
do not dwell on the critical questions relating to discrimination, or how minorities are being
handled and treated in other countries, or their relevance for the Indian context. This thesis has
attempted to show that judicial legislation and practices elsewhere can have a ripple effect on
the global scale. It becomes important then to tease out these effects and these unforeseen
exchanges between other regional systems and the Indian situation.
# Annex

## 1. Ambedkar proposition: Article 5 of the Constitution,

"5. At the date of commencement of this constitution, every person who has his domicile in the territory in citizenship at the date of commencement of this Constitution.

India and-

(a) who was born in the territory of India: or

(b) either of whose parents was born in the territory of India: or

(C) who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not less than five years immediately preceding the date of such commencement,

shall be a citizen of India provided that he has not voluntarily acquired the citizenship of any foreign State.

Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan.

5-A. Notwithstanding anything contained in article 5 of this Constitution, a person who has migrated to the territory of India from the territory now included in Pakistan shall be deemed to be a citizen of India at the date of commencement of this Constitution if-

(a) he or either of his parents or any of his grand-parents was born in India as defined in the Government of India Act, 1935 (as originally enacted); and

(b) (i) in the case where such person has so migrated before the nineteenth day of July 1948, he has ordinarily resided within the territory of India since the date of his migration; and

(ii) in the case where such person has so migrated on or after the nineteenth day of July 1948 he has been registered as a citizen of India by an officer appointed in this behalf by the Government of the Dominion of India on an application made by him therefore to such officer before the date of commencement of this Constitution in the form prescribed for the purpose by that Government.

Provided that no such registration shall be made unless the person making the application has resided in the territory of India for at least six months before the date of his application.
Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan.

5-AA. Notwithstanding anything contained in articles 5 and 5-A of this Constitution a person who has after the first day of March 1947, migrated from the territory of India to the territory now included in Pakistan shall not be deemed to be a citizen of India :

Provided that nothing in this article shall apply to a person who, after having so migrated to the territory now included in Pakistan has returned to the territory of India under a permit for resettlement or permanent return issued by or under the authority of any law and every such person shall for the purposes of clause (b) of article 5-A of this Constitution be deemed to have migrated to the territory of India after the nineteenth day of July 1948.

Right of citizenship of certain persons of India origin residing outside India.

5-B. Notwithstanding anything contained in article 5 and 5-A of this Constitution, any person who or either of whose parents or many of whose grandparents was born in India as defined in the Government of India Act, 1935 (as originally enacted) and who is ordinarily residing in any territory outside India as so defined shall be deemed to be a citizen of India if he has been registered as a citizen of India by the diplomatic or consular representative of India in the country where he is for the time being residing on an application made by him therefor to such diplomatic or consular representative, whether before or after the commencement of this Constitution, in the form, prescribed for the purpose buy the Government of the Dominion of India or the Government of India.

Continuance of the rights of citizenship.

5-C. Every person who is a citizen of India under any of the foregoing provisions of this Part shall subject to the provisions of any law that may be made by Parliament, continue to be such citizen.

Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.
6. Nothing in the foregoing provisions of this Part shall derogate from the power of Parliament to make any provision with respect to the acquisition and termination of citizenship and all other matters relating to citizenship."<fnref n="1430" />

## 2. Miya poetry

### 2.1. A Charuwa's Proposition, Maulana Bande Ali (1939)

Some say Bengal is my birthplace
And gloat in this bitter accusation
Well, before they came,
My father and my mother and many others
Left their homes, became country-less
How many people belonged to countries then
Who now wear the crowns and masks of leaders?
They are trapped by greed, I know
I quietly observe the language greed speaks.
But I will not tear the plate that feeds me
My faith will not allow me.
This land that I live in
I will revel in this land's well-being.
The land which my Aai, Abbajan
Left for the heavens
This land is my own, my golden Assam
This land is my holy sanctuary.
The land I scrape to build my house
Is my own land
These are words from the Quran
And in it there is no falsehood
The people of this land are simple, pure
The Assamese are our own
We will share what we have in our shared home
And raise a golden family.

I am not a *charuwa*, not a *pamua*.
We have also become *Asomiya*
Of Assam's land and air, of Assam's language
We have become equal claimants.
If Assamese dies, so do we
But why will we let it happen?
For newer tribulations we will build new weapons

<footnote n="1430">¹⁴³⁰ Constituent Assembly Debates, Volume IX, August 10, 1949, 9.115.154, 9.115.155.</footnote>
With new tools we will build a new future.
Where will we find such love, such respect
Where will we find such a place?
Where the plough cuts through earth and reveals gold
Where will we find such a land of grace?
Mother Assam feeds us at her breast
We are her frolicking children
Let us sing in one tune- we are Asomiya
We shall not be Mymensinghia
We will need no 'borders'
We will be brothers
And when outsiders come to loot us,
We will bar them with our bare chests.

## 2.2. I beg to State That, Khabir Ahmed (1985)

I beg to state that
I am a settler, a hated Miyah
Whatever be the case, my name is
Ismail Sheikh, Ramzan Ali or Majid Miyah
Subject- I am an Assamese Asomiya

I have many things to say
Stories older than Assam's folktales
Stories older than the blood
Flowing through your veins

After forty years of independence
I have no space in the words of beloved writers
The brush of your scriptwriters doesn't dip in my picture
My name left unpronounced in assemblies and parliaments
On no martyr's memorial, on no news report is my name printed
Even in tiny letters.
Besides, you haven't yet decided what to call me-
Am I Miyah, Asomiya or Neo-Asomiya?

And yet you talk of the river
The river is Assam's mother, you say
You talk of trees
Assam is the land of blue hills, you say
My spine is tough, steadfast as the trees
The shade of the trees my address...
You talk of farmers, workers
Assam is the land of rice and labour, you say
I bow before paddy, I bow before sweat
For I am a farmer's boy...

I beg to state that I am a
Settler, a dirty Miyah
Whatever be the case, my name
Is Khabir Ahmed or Mijanur Miyah
Subject- I am an Assamese Asomiya.
Sometime in the last century I lost
My address in the storms of the Padma
A merchant's boat found me drifting and dropped me here
Since then I have held close to my heart this land, this earth
And began a new journey of discovery
From Sadiya to Dhubri...

Since that day
I have flattened the red hills
Chopped forests into cities, rolled earth into bricks
From bricks built monuments
Laid stones on the earth, burnt my body black with peat
Swam rivers, stood on the bank
And dammed floods
Irrigated crops with my blood and sweat
And with the plough of my fathers, etched on the earth
A...S...S....A...M

Even I waited for freedom
Built a nest in the river reeds
Sang songs in Bhatiyali
When the Father came visiting,
I listened to the music of the Luit
In the evening stood by the Kolong, the Kopili
And saw on their banks gold.

Suddenly a rough hand brushed my face
On a burning night in '83
My nation stood on the black hearths of Nellie and screamed
The clouds caught fire at Mukalmua and Rupohi, Juria,
Saya Daka, Pakhi Daka- homes of the Miyahs
Burnt like cemeteries
The floods of '84 carried my golden harvest
In '85 a gang of gamblers auctioned me
On the floor of the Assembly.

Whatever be the case, my name
Is Ismail Sheikh, Ramzan Ali or Mazid Miyah
Subject- I am an Assamese Asomiya.

## 2.3. My Mother, Rehna Sultana (1 May 2016)

I was dropped on your lap my mother
Just as my father, grandfather, great-grandfather
And yet you detest me, my mother,
For who I am.
Yes, I was dropped on your lap as
a cursed Miyah, my mother.

You can't trust me
Because I have somehow grown this
beard.
Somehow slipped into a *lungi*
I am tired, tired of introducing myself
To you.
I bear all your insults and still shout,
Mother! I am yours!
Sometimes I wonder
What did I gain by falling in your lap?
I have no identity, no language
I have lost myself, lost everything
That could define me
And yet I hold you close
I try to melt into you
I need nothing, my mother.
Just a spot at your feet.
Open your eyes once mother
Open your lips
Tell these sons of the earth
That we are all bothers.
And yet I tell you again
I am just another child
I am not a 'Miyah cunt'
Not a 'Bangladeshi'
Miyah I am,
A Miyah.
I can't string words through poetry
Can't sing my pain in verse
This prayer, this is all I have.

2.4. Write Down 'I am Miya'”, Hafiz Ahmed

Write Down 'I am a Miyah'
Hafiz Ahmed
Write
Write Down
I am a Miya
My serial number in the NRC is 200543
I have two children
Another is coming
Next summer.
Will you hate him
As you hate me?
write
I am a Miya
I turn waste, marshy lands
To green paddy fields
To feed you.
I carry bricks
To build your buildings
Drive your car
For your comfort
Clean your drain
To keep you healthy.
I have always been
In your service
And yet
you are dissatisfied!
Write down
I am a Miya,
A citizen of a democratic, secular, Republic
Without any rights
My mother a D voter,
Though her parents are Indian.
If you wish kill me,
drive me from my village,
Snatch my green fields
hire bulldozers
To roll over me.
Your bullets
Can shatter my breast
for no crime.
Write
I am a Miya
Of the Brahamaputra
Your torture
Has burnt my body black
Reddened my eyes with fire.
Beware!
I have nothing but anger in stock.
Keep away!
Or
Turn to Ashes.

### 3. Performance of Foreigner's Tribunal members.

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>
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## Statutes

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Foreigners (Tribunals) Order, 1964

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The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 (No 47 of 2019)

The Citizenship Act, 1955

The Foreigners Act, 1946

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## Interview

Interview with Anonymous (18 October 2022), New Delhi, India

Interview with Abdul Kalam Azad (14 November 2022), Amsterdam, Netherlands

Interview with Bhaskar Barua (5 June 2022), Assam, India

Interview with Anjuman Ara Begum (24 May 2022), Assam, India

Interview with Angshuman Choudhury (21 October 2022), New Delhi, India

Interview with Anand Grover (18 October 2022), New Delhi, India

Interview with Sanjay Hedge (15 October 2022), New Delhi, India
Interview with Sanjay Hegde (26 October 2022), New Delhi, India

Interview with Ravi Hemadri (21 October 2022), New Delhi, India

Interview with Avi Singh (12 October 2022), New Delhi, India

Interview with Aman Wadud (5 October 2022), Assam, India

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