# A Multidisciplinary Perspective on the Effects of Global Climate Change on Light Exposure and Health

Christophe Martinsons, Dorothée Marchand, Emeline Bailly, Christophe

Orssaud, Claude Gronfier

► To cite this version:

Christophe Martinsons, Dorothée Marchand, Emeline Bailly, Christophe Orssaud, Claude Gronfier. A Multidisciplinary Perspective on the Effects of Global Climate Change on Light Exposure and Health. Building and Environment, 2025, pp.113676. 10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113676. hal-05252746

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# A multidisciplinary perspective on the effects of global climate change on light exposure and health

Christophe Martinsons<sup>a, *, c ID</sup>, Dorothée Marchand<sup>b</sup>, Emeline Bailly<sup>c ID</sup>, Christophe Orssaud<sup>d ID</sup>,
Claude Gronfier<sup>e</sup>

## ARTICLE INFO

Keywords:

Climate Change

Heat Waves

Adaptation

Lighting

Daylight

Light Exposure

Solar Shading

Circadian Disruption

Night Work

Sleep

Sleep Debt

Mental Health

Health and Safety

Occupational Health

Energy

Buildings

Quality of Life

Indoor Environmental Quality

## ABSTRACT

Global climate change is affecting our exposure to daylight and our use of lighting systems. Considering the increasingly frequent heat waves, the time spent indoors is predicted to increase dramatically. With more efficient solar shading, the available daylight in buildings may be reduced, possibly resulting in a deficiency in the necessary light for health. The growing use of shiftwork or nightwork during heat waves is also responsible for circadian misalignment and sleep debt. Under these conditions, lighting systems need to be adapted to promote wakefulness and the proper entrainment of the circadian timing system.

## 1. Context

Global climate change is responsible for more and more extreme weather events. In many regions of the world, heat waves are more numerous, more intense, longer and take place over an increasingly long annual period [43].

Urban environments are particularly affected by heat waves. Most existing buildings have not been designed to sufficiently mitigate their effects. In addition, the urban heat island phenomenon exacerbates the effects of heat waves by increasing outdoor temperatures compared to that observed in rural or forest areas [36]. As a result, urban populations are more vulnerable, and time spent indoors is expected to increase

accordingly.

Many states have implemented a national strategy for adapting buildings and cities to the effects of climate change [28]. New buildings and new urban spaces should now comply with stricter standards aimed toward climate resilience. Urban public policies are also being implemented to promote de artificialization and the reintroduction of water and vegetation in the city. However, the rate of renewal of buildings and urban places in developed countries is low, around 3 % [31]. The adaptation of existing buildings and urban infrastructures to heat waves is therefore the most pressing challenge to protect the population.

With global climate change, the common practice of designing daylighting with simple parameters such as the window-to-floor ratio

<footnote><sup>a</sup> Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, Saint Martin d'Hères, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> Département des Yvelines, Versailles, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment, Marne-La-Vallée, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>e</sup> Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon, INSERM U1028, CNRS UMR 5292, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author.</footnote>

<footnote>E-mail address: christophe.martinsons@cstb.fr (C. Martinsons).</footnote>
(WFR) and the daylight factor (DF) is becoming obsolete. WFR ignores the influence of the climate, and DF is based on a purely overcast sky condition [12]. Designs based on these two parameters tend to result in more glare and solar heat in sunny conditions [38]. For this reason, daylight in buildings should be assessed using climate-based metrics calculated with updated scenarios [10] and they should account for the effects of light on health [37,46].

## 2. The loss of daylight during heat waves

During heat waves, limiting temperatures necessarily involves increasing the use of solar protections and shading devices with a lower solar energy transmittance in spaces exposed to direct sunlight [6]. This can considerably reduce the available daylight in buildings along with the external views, which can compromise both the physical and mental health of occupants [9,23,42]. In uncooled buildings, completely covering windows with light-proof shutters on hot days can be stressful for occupants. To avoid this, windows and solar protections should maintain a minimum level of daylight transmittance and an unobstructed view of the outside [44]. However, it is not clear whether an optimum can be achieved between daylight requirements for health and the thermal discomfort experienced by building occupants during heat waves [14]. Studies based on wearable sensors offer the best opportunity to answer this question at the individual level, by combining individual light exposure and temperature measurements [39,41].

## 3. Heat waves increase the use of electric lighting

With more time spent indoors to avoid high outdoor temperatures [45], and less available daylight in buildings, electric lighting may be used intensively during periods of heat waves. This generates an increased energy consumption during the day and worsen the indoor thermal conditions. If lighting were to be used continuously during the day, lighting energy consumption would roughly double. In cooled buildings, this extra lighting energy would increase the cooling load and further increase the energy consumption.

In this context, the role of lighting control systems becomes critical for avoiding the unnecessary use of electric lights. During heat waves, the lights will need to be turned on and off according to different usage patterns and different luminosity conditions (e.g. unexpectedly dark environments during the day). In addition, occupancy sensors should become more reliable during heat waves, as the dominant technology - passive infrared - does not perform well with high indoor temperatures [21].

Despite the increasing use of electric lights, the current indoor lighting installations are not designed to provide healthy light exposure, which is required for an appropriate entrainment of the circadian timing system, and the physiological functions involved in wakefulness, cognition and sleep [37,40]. Improving the indoor environmental quality requires adapting lighting to provide an intensity and spectral distribution that fulfills visual and non-visual needs [7]. Initial studies in this field have revealed that lighting energy may need to be increased by about 60 % with lighting systems designed to provide circadian entrainment in the absence of daylight [46].

## 4. Heat waves promote the shift of working hours

Faced with the lag between the current pace of adaptation of urban environments and the acceleration of global warming, the population is increasingly exposed to the health effects of high temperatures [1]. Extreme heat can alter the functioning of several organs simultaneously and lead to serious consequences that can go as far as death [24]. In indoor environments, health effects of high temperatures are also observed, such as discomfort, headaches and mild cognitive difficulties. Though less critical, not everyone is able to well tolerate these effects [3].

New adaptation strategies are emerging to reduce the vulnerability of the population to the health effects of heat waves [5]. One observed trend is the adaptation of working hours to avoid the highest temperatures of the day in favor of the relatively cooler nights. Workers are encouraged or imposed to work at earlier times, either to work the night shift (and sleep during the day), or to work an early morning shift, requiring them to wake up earlier, sometimes in the middle of the night. The use of night work has already increased sharply among several categories of workers [35] including farmers and construction workers. Working at night or early in the morning reduces the most acute heat-related risks and could help maintain productivity while reducing energy consumption, due to the lower use of cooling systems. Night work is also seen as beneficial to companies looking to develop the flexibility that allows a global workforce to collaborate 24 h a day.

## 5. Outdoor lighting needs to be adapted to activities carried out during heat waves

Working at night frequently implies commuting at night. But all areas are not currently well lit. More and more street and road lighting installations are switched off after a certain time to reduce light pollution and save energy. Pedestrians walking at night under insufficient lighting are exposed to falls, collisions with a vehicle, and often to a feeling of insecurity [8]. If night work were to become more common due to global climate change, the operation schedules of outdoor lighting installations would have to be revised, allowing for more flexibility during periods of heat waves. More lighting points might also need to be installed to ensure that the access to buildings and workplaces is as safe as it is during daytime.

## 6. Consequences on sleep

When shifting the working hours towards the night, workers must sleep during the day. However, in periods of heat waves, this requires them to sleep when the temperature is highest. Sleep is greatly affected by high ambient temperatures [13,32]. The thermoregulation mechanisms are then very solicited, causing sweating, agitation, discomfort. In cases of a high body temperature, sleep is fragmented and punctuated by frequent awakenings [34]. The reduced quality and quantity of sleep aggravate the adverse effects of circadian disruptions of the biological clock caused by night work, further increasing the sleep debt of night workers. Overall, high temperatures impact physiology, sleep and circadian health, and induce a large number of outcomes, ranging from health disorders to cardiovascular mortality [2,33].

At home, adapting the bedroom is important to limit the combined negative effects of working at night and sleeping in a hot environment. Ideally, the bedroom should be quiet, cool, and equipped with shutters allowing full cutoff against daylight. Before going to bed, the ambient lighting should be dimmed and have a warm color. Telephones and displays should also be turned off to create a sleep-conducive atmosphere.

## 7. The adverse effects of nighttime work

Light is the main regulating agent of the biological circadian timing system [19]. Light exposure received throughout the day acts on a large number of biological rhythms, including melatonin secretion, the sleep-wake cycle, the rhythms of temperature and cognition, and the division of the cell cycle. Night work is associated with demonstrated negative health effects [4] because shifting the working hours disrupts the healthy light exposure pattern required to regulate the biological clock and sleep [11,37]. Regular nighttime work increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, metabolic disorders, mental health issues, decrease in cognitive performance, and cancer [4,27]. The lack of daylight is also a factor in seasonal depression [25]. Lifestyle and social organization are also perturbed by night work, creating additional
adverse effects on mental health, well-being, and motivation at work.

## 8. Workplaces need to be adapted to night work during heat waves

When workers perform night work, its negative impacts on health may be partially mitigated by a sufficiently long recovery period (several days/weeks), including days off and day work [4]. In this work condition, lighting of workplaces should be designed to maintain vigilance, to allow professional tasks to be carried out in safe conditions, and to optimize general sleep and circadian health. These lights should reduce sleep pressure and cognitive decrements at night and minimize the shift of the biological clock to facilitate the return to daytime activity [26]. Among other recommendations, the French health agency recommends increasing light intensity during the night shift [4].

With the increase in the frequency and duration of heat waves, the escalation of consecutive night work periods raises complex health questions. Worker's sleepiness and fatigue should be taken very seriously into account in the organization of nighttime work schedules and the layout of workplaces. More rest areas should be available, and breaks should be taken more frequently. Unlike work areas, rest areas should be equipped with spaces designed for resting under low light. Napping should be permitted and encouraged whenever a worker feels the need during their shift (i.e., when sleep pressure is high). It should also be recommended as an important precaution before driving home, as the risk of car accident is higher after night shifts [4].

## 9. Indoor lighting needs to be adapted to night work

Lighting of work areas should facilitate adaptation to night work activities by enhancing alertness and cognition and promoting synchronization of the biological clock with night work schedules [26]. However, glare becomes critical in lighting installations used at night for two main reasons. Without daylight, the luminance contrasts are always higher than during daytime, increasing the probability of glare. Furthermore, discomfort from glare is also influenced by the biological circadian clock [20]. People who are usually active during the day, are intrinsically more sensitive to glare at night if they are not fully adapted to nighttime work. Lighting installations that may be used at night will have to be designed with more stringent glare requirements.

Lack of daylight is also responsible for increasing the individual exposure to temporal light modulation (TLM), formerly referred to as flicker, from electric lighting systems because the perceived amplitude of these spurious luminous fluctuations is higher. Stroboscopic effects and the phantom array effect [16] are commonly observed with lighting systems exhibiting TLM and both are more visible with dark backgrounds [15]. Consequently, the probability of adverse effects such as eyestrain and headaches associated with lighting systems increases at night [29,30]. Stricter TLM limits will have to be set, especially when using dimmers based on pulse-width modulation (PWM). Such systems produce a light output consisting of fast pulses which exacerbate the adverse effects of TLM in dimmed conditions [29]. Dimmable lighting systems should rely on other technologies such as constant current dimming.

## 10. Discussion

Global climate change will affect virtually every aspect of our life, and not surprisingly our exposure to light and our use of lighting systems. We expect that this will impact our behavior and our health. Adaptation strategies for buildings and cities will have to be deployed to maintain social and economic activities, on collective and individual levels. Many adaptation schemes will include more efficient solar shading, thereby reducing the available daylight, especially in indoor environments where people will spend more time to avoid high outdoor temperatures. During heat waves, insufficient daylight can negatively

impact the quality of life and health of building occupants. This situation can be mitigated by using daylighting devices that provide adequate natural light and an outside view, even through windows that are directly exposed to the sun. However, a trade-off must be made against the risks of thermal discomfort and glare. The most advanced window technologies are likely to be necessary: multiple-layer glazing with low solar heat gain and an externally reflective shutter with adjustable louvers that allow an outside view.

The use of electric interior lighting is likely to increase to compensate the reduction of daylight indoors. During heat waves, electric lighting may therefore become the primary source of individual light exposure. In this context, next generations of luminaires and lighting controls should be designed to provide a quality and quantity of light adapted to the time of day and certified by using standard indicators, such as the melanopic equivalent daylight illuminance recommended by the International Commission on Illumination [17,18].

This paper points out that the adaptation of lighting systems in buildings and cities is likely to conflict with the existing lighting, energy and building standards and regulations. In buildings, the energy consumed by electric lighting is expected to increase, in direct relationship with increasing solar shading and time spent indoors. During heat waves, shifting the working hours towards the night means that the demand for lighting will be extended to longer periods, including the middle of the night, increasing light levels at night, potentially conflicting with the outdoor lighting codes implemented to limit both electricity consumption and light pollution [22].

With more and more people commuting and working at night, the assumptions that currently determine the usage scenarios of buildings and urban spaces need to be revised. Lighting will need to be available in more places and at different times, including in the middle of the night if required. At work, lighting systems which were originally designed to operate mainly during daytime may not be adapted to ensure wakefulness, visual performance, safety of workers during repeated periods of nighttime work, and overall sleep and circadian physiology. The combined effects of circadian disruption and poor daytime sleep quality which are known to negatively impact health, will require specific adaptations of workplaces, including that of lighting systems. Even with these adaptations, health risks may not be fully avoided. People who work at night during heat waves are a sensitive population at higher risk for health conditions. They should have the opportunity to receive special medical attention.

## Funding sources

No funding was received to subsidize this work.

## CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Christophe Martinsons:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization. **Dorothée Marchand:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization. **Emeline Bailly:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization. **Christophe Orssaud:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization. **Claude Gronfier:** Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization.

## Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
# Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

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