# A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights

Chioma Vivian Basil, Raphael Heffron

► To cite this version:

Chioma Vivian Basil, Raphael Heffron. A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2025, 221, pp.115892. 10.1016/j.rser.2025.115892. hal-05346112

HAL Id: hal-05346112

https://univ-pau.hal.science/hal-05346112v1

Submitted on 4 Nov 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

Check for
updates

# A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights

Chioma Vivian Basil<sup>a, *, b</sup>, Raphael Heffron<sup>b</sup>

## ARTICLE INFO

### Keywords:

- Energy justice

- Human rights

- Accountability

- Sustainable development

- Right to energy

- Energy access

## ABSTRACT

This article systematically reviews the relationship between energy justice and human rights, recognising the shared responsibility of equity, inclusivity, respect, acknowledgement, and accountability for historical injustices. The energy justice theory is applied to checkmate the activities of the energy sector through the energy chain to manage its adverse impact on the environment and communities. This is anchored on five principles of distributional, procedural, recognition, restorative, and cosmopolitan justice principles. These principles are equally advocated for in the human rights framework to ensure universal energy access for well-being and a healthy environment. Therefore, this article explores how these energy justice and human rights principles have converged in the energy sector to tackle energy poverty, environmental degradation, community rights violations, and accountability concerns. The aim being to establish an intersection between the justice of energy activities and fundamental rights across academic journals and policy materials. Thus, by utilising a method of systematic review, this article analyses research materials spanning from January 2000 to October 2024. To understand the evolution of the relationship between human rights and energy justice, reflecting shifts in priorities and responses to contemporary issues. In this review, we find that very few studies have begun analysing human rights violations of energy activities as an energy justice concern. Therefore, this systematic review offers insights into creating a sustainable, accountable, and equitable energy system devoid of fundamental rights violations; through inclusive energy policies and implementation mechanisms that prioritize the rights, and well-being of vulnerable populations.

## 1. Introduction

The energy sector has proven to be one of the most significant global sectors, continually growing with increasing energy demand and augmented economic growth, as most countries rely on the benefits of the energy system [1]. However, this sector has been treated as a technical and economic concern, ignoring the social concerns associated with energy activities. Energy production causes a series of problems. The energy industry has been identified as the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions, a major driver of climate change, and a detrimental impact on the lives and livelihoods of already marginalised people [2].

Sadly, the global energy system has succeeded in damaging the environment and livelihoods of local and indigenous communities, causing a magnified rate of environmental health hazards to those who barely benefit from increased and industrialised energy production.

Several energy projects have been linked and are still linked with severe human rights violations, including compulsory land acquisition, forced displacement, marginalization, exclusion and governmental repression in developing countries [3]. These human rights allegations and environmental degradation emanates not only from oil, gas, and mining industry operations [4] but also the renewable energy sector with a complex and lengthy global supply chain, associated with significant human rights and environmental harm risks [5].

As the energy transition accelerates, these concerns are becoming even more urgent and continue to pose a threat to a just and sustainable energy sector, hence the social concerns of energy justice. Energy justice is vital in reversing these issues by ensuring energy access, which is fundamental for billions of people. Therefore, it is paramount not just to secure a global energy transition but also to ensure that it is equitable, sustainable, promotes environmental integrity, and aimed at the eradication of poverty to aid the realisation of the human rights of billions,

<footnote><sup>a</sup> *Transitions Energétiques et Environnementales (TREE) Lab, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour & CNRS, France*</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> *Energy Law, Justice, the Social Contract and Sustainability, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, Pau, France*</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author.</footnote>

<footnote>E-mail addresses: chioma.basil@univ-pau.fr (C.V. Basil), raphael.heffron@univ-pau.fr (R. Heffron).</footnote>
and the achievement of the goals of the Paris Agreement [6].

The relationship between human rights and energy justice is becoming a vital issue, considering the associated concerns of energy activities. Especially the impairing effect of injustices on the human right to life, property, private life, and a clean and healthy environment [7]. Thus, energy justice continues to reflect these human rights concerns through due process, energy access, accountability, availability, and involvement in decision-making. As a result, many companies have begun to include energy justice principles in their operational activities to close the gap between issues like energy access and human rights, fair benefit sharing from energy production, and the reduction of social and environmental damages [8].

As an influential theory, energy justice exposes the inequalities, inequities, marginalization or vulnerabilities in energy transitions and activities [9]; to make the world better, based on five core justice philosophies that apply human rights across the energy life cycle [10]. Therefore, it identifies and rectifies injustices suffered by vulnerable groups and marginalised communities from the energy sector, ensuring that energy activities do not perpetrate additional inequalities and injustices [11]. In line with these, a just energy system and transition can only be achieved by integrating human rights and social applications of energy systems in the design, financing, and construction of energy projects, as well as responsibility for resource exploration and exploitation [12].

Moreover, human rights include people's empowerment to participate in policy formulation, especially vulnerable populations, the promotion of sustainability by states, and the accountability of all responsible parties [13]. Therefore, the massive gap between the high incidences of human rights violations and energy projects calls for a more transparent and accountable human rights approach to energy activities. Hence, the growing debate on energy justice recognises these necessities and expounds on how international Law could provide legal frameworks to address these impacts [14] in promotion of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7 [15]. Although the SDG is not a binding policy, it is grounded in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) [16], and international human rights treaties. This grounding solidifies the integrated and comprehensive action to achieve energy justice in line with goal 7 [17].

Against this background, this paper reviews human rights violations from energy activities as an energy justice issue that triggers a shift in poverty and inequalities. It normalises human rights issues of energy activities and the sector at all local, regional and international levels for global impact. The purpose is to establish an intersection between the justice of energy activities and fundamental rights across academic journals and policy materials, emphasising articles published between January 2000 to October 2024. This time frame is significant because it reflects the increasing global attention on the impact of the energy sector on fundamental rights with the gradual rise of literature calling for environmental justice, indigenous rights protection and energy impact on the health of people in rural areas [18].

Referring to the above-mentioned timeline, search on the Web of Science metric (WOS) [19], revealed that the first literatures to mention energy justice were those written by Hoffmann, W [20] and Lakshman G [21]. However, these literatures did not in fact apply the principles of energy justice in either the analysis of solar photovoltaics developments; or the lack of access to sustainable energy suffered by the energy oppressed. That being said, the first in-depth analysis, introduction and application of energy justice in academic literature was in 2013. Here, the authors analysed energy justice as a tool for policy and systematic revolution of the energy system to ensure safe, affordable, and sustainable energy for all; hence, the principles of distributive, recognition, and procedural justice were introduced [22].

Therefore, a systematic review spanning the period between January 2000 to October 2024 aids the understanding of the evolution of the relationship between human rights and energy justice, reflecting shifts in priorities and responses to contemporary issues. This is vital because,

until recently, little research has revealed the interplay between energy justice and human rights. As it stands, there is no review of work in this context, making this research the first to systematically review the connection between the energy justice and the framework of human rights. Moreover, this review exposes the limited examination of energy justice concerns in developing country contexts, with the primary focus being on developed nations and the effect of transition on human rights.

We see great potential in energy justice-led attention on practical implementation with the aid of the established human rights framework. Therefore, this paper seeks to advance this cause by assessing discussions and developments in the field, aiming to propose a theoretical implementation of energy justice through human rights and accountability indexes for energy stakeholders. Following, section 2 details the systematic methodological approach to the review, including the process used in sourcing and analysing literature. Section 3 discusses the discovery of the review by examining themes from the review process, Section 4 identifies the gaps in literature, as well as indications for further research for the development of the practical energy justice theory. While section 5 concludes on the purpose and relevance of this systematic review to depict energy justice as a vital theory in the social sciences to enunciate the need for human rights protection in energy activities.

## 2. Methodology

This systematic review is conducted to answer the research question of 'how energy justice can effectively provoke fundamental rights protection in the energy sector' by collating evidence that meets defined criteria to avoid bias [23]. This systematic review aims to test the universal effectiveness or otherwise of a theory like energy justice in triggering a shift in human rights violations perpetrated by energy activities, thus identifying the gap in literature [24]. The gaps identified will serve as a developmental basis for the applicability of the human rights framework as an implementation mechanism for enforcing energy justice in the energy sector. Hence, this review method is chosen to identify, select, and critically evaluate the relevant research associated with the research question and clarify its replicability and transparency [25].

However, this review type has limitations, as it does not guarantee unbiasedness because the inclusion and exclusion criteria for selecting materials may stem from researchers' biases [26]. Therefore, the search terms and elimination criteria may impact the bias. For example, it excludes literature that have not been peer-reviewed or published in journals indexed in WOS, Scopus or Google scholar. Nevertheless, the materials reviewed were obtained from relevant sources, and so do not in any way impact the validity of this research.

Furthermore, this review also includes literature on corporate accountability and governance as an extension of human rights protection to highlight its relevance to energy justice scholarship. This approach was to attain a comprehensive exploration of available resources while ensuring a focus on the research question by identifying gaps, focusing on regions, theoretical frameworks, and issues related to energy justice and human rights in various regions between January 2000 to October 2024.

Fig. 1 below provides a gradual indication of the progressive growth of publications on energy justice, rights, energy access, and energy poverty based on the WOS metric. Based on this metric, there were insignificant publications on the related matter before the 2000s, hence the irrelevance of the earlier years. This review adopts the detailed systematic review process outlined by Siddaway et al., from scoping to planning, searching, screening, and analysis of the review, as well as findings and discussion [27].

This review was restricted to studies discussing energy concerns and human rights issues, including theoretical or empirical data published in peer-reviewed journals, reputable edited volumes and book chapters. Therefore, this excluded articles and research on purely technical aspects of energy, nutrition and diet, urban planning, strict business and
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1. Final research publication year based on the search query on energy justice and human rights [25].</figcaption></figure>

economic perspectives, and others unrelated to social or rights-based
perspectives. Thus, many literatures were reviewed, including those
that engaged with or contributed to this research. Articles on conceptual
development and discussion, analysis of policies, empirical research
thinking, comparative analysis addressing diverse geographical regions
or case studies research linking energy and human rights violations.
Additionally, the findings of this review incorporate a review of litera-
ture on the topic of the synergy between energy justice and human
rights.

The review process will further be discussed in five stages.

- Stage 1: An in-depth search was conducted in different databases using keywords and phrases such as; 'energy justice', 'human rights', 'human right and energy', 'energy poverty', 'energy access', 'Indigenous rights and energy', 'energy sector', and 'sustainable development' guided the search, see Fig. 2. Additionally, there was a search of related terms for much literature coverage such as; 'corporate accountability', 'responsibility', and 'right' as reflected in Fig. 3. The primary databases that were consulted include Google Scholar, JSTOR, Scopus, and WOS Core Collection. In these databases, the focus was on reputable journals like *Energy Policy*, *Journal of Human Rights*, *Energy Research & Social Science*, *Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews*, and *Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law* for their relevant and peer-reviewed articles on the extended development of the energy justice theory. However, work in other fields was considered, although it was limited.

The articles of interest were not particular to location or technologies
because this research encompasses developing and developed countries,
fossil fuels, and renewables. The search result focused on whether there
exist justice concerns about energy activities and their impact on human
rights violation and protection = 287, while corporate accountability
and human rights = 279. After the search, the research materials un-
derwent further screening, as indicated in the next stages.

- Stage 2: The titles and keywords of the studies were screened to ensure relevance to the inclusion criteria of relation to the energy sector's impact on human rights, viewed from the justice or energy justice perspective. Therefore, materials without energy justice, justice, energy, right, energy access, and energy poverty were removed; thus, materials considered = 105; studies not relating to corporate accountability and human rights were removed, making = 142 (the corporate accountability materials were further reduced to 45, that is, open access materials). This is because corporate accountability is only studied as a subset this research, thus it is not a conceptual development that could eventually override the research purpose.

Stage 3: Where the title and keywords did not provide sufficient information based on the relevance criteria, the abstracts were studied for relevance to this study. The considered papers had to include discussions on energy justice concerning rights violation or protection, Indigenous rights resulting from energy activities, environmental damage of energy as a rights concern, and the development of energy as a human right. Thereby bringing the number to 91 materials that passed the eligibility of connecting energy to human rights issues. The excluded research included studies on intellectual property rights, right-wing politics, technological energy efficiency, corporate governance, food science, gender-based activism, strict science analysis (physics and chemistry application), and environmental engineering.

- Stage 4: The articles that passed the initial screening stages were further reviewed in full for their content relevance by identifying their key themes, methodologies applied and regions of focus. Research with unclear methodologies and insufficient analytical depths were removed because this was an important criterion for a substantial analysis of the research question, that is, energy justice and human rights = 60, and corporate accountability = 19.

- Stage 5: Further screening and reading were conducted, which resulted in the realisation that the materials discovered were insufficient to effectively tackle the research question. Therefore, further research was conducted on Google search and Google Scholar, where

Analyze Results: energy (Topic) AND rights (Title) and Energy Fuels or Environmental Studies or Law or Green Sustainable Science Technology or Water Resources or Social Issues or Social Work or Sociology (Web of Science Categories) and Environmental Sciences Ecology or Energy Fuels or Government Law or International Relations or Water Resources or Social Issues or Social Work or Sociology (Research Areas) and Environmental Sciences Ecology or Energy Fuels or Government Law or Water Resources (Research Areas) and Article or Book Chapters or Review Article (Document Types) and English (Languages) and Article or Book Chapters or Review Article (Document Types) and 2024 or 2023 or 2022 or 2020 or 2021 or 2019 or 2018 or 2017 or 2016 or 2006 or 2008 or 2009 or 2010 or 2011 or 2012 or 2013 or 2014 or 2015 or 2004 or 2002 or 2000 (Final Publication Year)

<caption>Fig. 2. Search query on Web of Science dated October 28, 2024 [28].</caption>
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3. Search query on Scopus dated November 4, 2024 [29].</figcaption></figure>

materials were adequately screened to add up to = 121 materials to this review (including energy justice/human rights and accountability). However, duplicate materials for all the search engines were discovered and removed = 17. Therefore, at this stage, the total number of materials reviewed = 183 (including energy justice/

human rights and accountability). The summary of the systematic review process is represented in the PRISMA chart flow in Table 1 below.

As reflected in the PRISMA chart, this systematic review encompassed a broad perspective and critical engagement with current

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Table 1**
PRISMA Chart created by authors [30].</figcaption></figure>
literature on the relations between energy justice and human rights, aiming to set a foundation for future research. Thus, it applied systematic selection and critical and thematic analysis to provide a detailed understanding of whether the energy justice theory can effectively inspire human rights protection in the energy sector. Other thematic concerns included energy projects encompassing renewables, fossil fuels, and other clean energy projects, as well as the global context of these human rights concerns of energy activities through the energy supply chain. Therefore, this review aims to guide research in line with developments, establish links to relevant materials, and explore theories and facts argued by various scholars, with the ability to make recommendations. The findings of this review are organised in thematic structures, as will be seen in the preceding segment.

### 3. Findings

The findings encompass both the result of the systematic review and the literature review of materials on the subject of the intersection between energy justice and human rights. Thus, from the 183 materials reviewed, there were some prevailing topics about human rights violations as a concern of energy justice and an implementation framework for the energy justice theory. Most of the studies focused more on the argument for energy as a human right, considering its nature as a basic necessity and why this is still a matter of discussion regarding access to clean, affordable and reliable energy. The other majority focused on the impact of energy transition development on human rights and questioned whether the transition process is in line with energy justice. Whereas only a few studies have begun analysing human rights violations of energy activities as an energy justice concern, the focus has been more on distributive, recognition, and procedural justice. With limited attention to restorative and cosmopolitan justices, which is one of the gaps identified in this systematic review. We will now look at the findings of the review in the following headings.

#### 3.1. *The energy sector and human rights: environmental degradation and community rights violation*

Energy is a vital daily resource encompassing oil, gas, renewables, electricity generation, and critical minerals. However, the energy sector operations have resulted in numerous human rights violations despite its role in economic development. One of the most documented ways the energy sector contributes to human rights violations is through environmental degradation from extractive activities polluting water, air, and soil, damning the health and livelihood of local and host communities. In most cases, activities like oil extraction have deprived the communities of their rights to clean water, food security, and health [31]. In these oil-rich countries, this degrading situation has been tagged a resource curse because oil exploration in this region has continuously resulted in negative externalities such as health hazards, water pollution, acute environmental degradation, and community livelihood loss [32].

Energy exploration activities have been regarded as the number one cause of widespread destruction that leads to the difficulties experienced by indigenous groups suffering from healthcare deficiencies, deprived right to education and healthy living, unresolved environmental destruction, and increased violence in the community [33]. Furthermore, the severe environmental consequences and violations of indigenous peoples' rights extend to the disruption of river ecosystems, causing deforestation, loss of species, loss of livelihood, displacement and loss of heritage and access to natural resources. Moreover, these groups are often not adequately consulted and compensated for these issues, raising serious ethical and human rights concerns [34].

Detrimental environmental disasters include the collapse of major dams that released large quantities of mine waste with significant effects to the ecosystems, claiming lives [35]; dilapidated pipelines and decaying oil refineries lead to insecurity, air pollution and

contamination of marine life, causing a drastic decrease in fishing, which is the primary source of livelihood for the coastal communities [36]; and gas explorations lead to earthquakes, which cause health challenges, insecurity, loss of property value, and threats to life [37]. Deploying the benefits of resources has been problematic, hence environmental democratisation through bottom-up community participation and community consultation [38] can alleviate the communities' environmental, economic and social conditions, reducing energy poverty and conflict in these resource areas [39].

It was observed that environmental damage resulting from energy activities is prevalent in developing economies due to industrial development. Industrial promotion is undoubtedly beneficial to a country's economic development; however, it is often associated with profound environmental impacts resulting from the exploration and production of natural resources and poor waste management that are detrimental to life, land, water, and air resources [40]. Therefore, environmental safety must not be sacrificed for economic benefits to manage these occurrences. Hence, remediation efforts and strategic preventive measures must be implemented to compensate, mitigate, and prevent future occurrences [41].

#### 3.2. *Energy transition and new human rights challenges*

Several studies have examined the extent to which renewable energy technologies have promoted the protection or otherwise of human rights, thereby highlighting the relationship between energy transition and human rights protection. Therefore, the verification and grant of Clean Development Mechanism licenses for renewable constructions must consider the respect for human rights, especially the special cultural rights of indigenous people as codified in the 2007 UN Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples [42]. The failure to recognise the human rights impact of these technologies could ultimately stall renewable energy development and mirror the energy sector's failure to meet the internationally recognised responsibility of human rights protection, thereby threatening the achievement of sustainable development and climate objectives [43].

This continuous violation of human rights from the extraction of renewables breeds more opposition and violence against unwanted energy infrastructures. These rights violation reflects the government's failure to recognise the ownership rights of ancestral lands, forced evictions [44], and rights violation of coastal and affected indigenous communities [45]. Human rights protection, economic freedom, and economic complexity stimulate the green energy transition. However, the adoption of high human rights objectives enhances environmentally friendly policies that stabilise human rights protection and increase green energy [46]. That notwithstanding, there are often dual disparities in priorities between institutional actors who are more interested in the benefits of renewable energy to energy security and the economy and local actors who are concerned about human rights during the energy life cycle [47].

Technological advancement for sustainable development is a vital step in the wake of climate change and transition. However, the supply of energy transition minerals and metals heightens the dilemma between climate change, land use, environmental values, and the rights of land-connected people (Indigenous people and peasant lands), who continue to suffer from food and water insecurity, displacement, overcrowding, and frequent outbreaks of tribal and ethnic violence over scarce resources, which undermine the UN Declaration of Human Rights and SDGs [48]. Therefore, any community that poses a clear understanding of their rights and the extent of violation of these rights will defend their rights, and the result is increased tensions, pipeline vandalism, and destruction of lives and properties of residents [49].

The relationship between resource development and human rights becomes more problematic as resources become scarcer. Thus, further research into the detrimental impact of these energy technologies on human rights can lead to the glaring identification of these violations
with hopes of a remedy or prevention. Otherwise, the scarcity of resources will result in more human rights abuses due to a lack of food, health care, or other basic needs [50]. There is no doubt that the tensions, conflicts and violence associated with renewable energy technologies are inevitable because of the scale of the technology, the directional energy flux, or the variability of renewables [51]. However, adequate regulations and governance that are well-suited and sensitive to local situations, specific to particular technologies, purposes, and geographical contexts, can manage these conflicts [52].

The exploration of new resources, minerals, or raw materials poses similar challenges. This situation has been described as critical justice, where resolving the injustices associated with developing critical raw materials inadvertently means a just transition to a low-carbon economy [51]. This theoretical conceptualisation is linked to responsible sourcing, which aims to obtain raw materials and markets as an extension of natural resource justice for just transition [53]. Therefore, to promote justice in the critical minerals industry, primarily through its supply chain, issues like environmental impact assessment, social licence to operate, taxation, waste management, and cross-border cooperation must be addressed at the international, national, and local levels [54].

### 3.3. Corporate accountability and governance

The role of energy multinational corporations in human rights violations is of critical concern, mainly as these corporations operate in countries with weak governance structures. This enables them to bypass environmental and labour standards or regulations and, in some cases, even collude with the national authorities to suppress activism. For instance, there are prevailing issues associated with legislation that are either incompatible or insufficient to regulate their energy activities based on prioritizing profit over human rights [51]. This legal insufficiency has been identified as extreme in countries like Indonesia, where the energy transition process and policies are susceptible to human rights violations [55]. Thus, literature reflects that national and international bodies have developed various mechanisms to manage the human rights impact of the energy sector, such as corporate social responsibility (CSR), reporting and accountability, and environmental impact assessment (EIA), as discussed below.

#### 3.3.1. Corporate social responsibility

Like the EIA, CSR was promoted as a way for companies to self-regulate their impacts on human rights and the environment. However, some critics argue that many multinational companies fail to prevent human rights abuse despite their CSR mechanisms, as corporations decide when and how to implement this mechanism [56]. As such, some corporations do not perceive human rights obligations within the scope of CSR since CSR is voluntary and does not provide specific directions on how the company can meet its human rights obligations [57]. For example, the legal requirement of free, prior, and informed consent has been argued to be a different and higher level of engagement with communities. However, applying it to CSR requirements would enhance the actual impact of activities on communities [58].

Authors like Simons have criticised the enhanced CSR strategy's voluntary approach in countries like Canada, emphasising that it lacks an effective mechanism for victims to redress human rights abuses in Canadian courts. Thus, Canada must implement stronger regulatory frameworks in line with the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights to prevent and address human rights violations within and outside Canada [59]. This is the same case in the Global South; hence, CSR must be reframed to address the concerns of grassroots communities in developing countries, with the aid of non-governmental organisations to fight injustices and hold corporations accountable [60].

The application of CSR is often associated with the 'business case' in which responsibility must be tied to corporate profitability. However, such an approach is too narrow and ignores broader social and ethical considerations, especially in contexts of poverty and inequality [61]. On

the other hand, the effective implementation of a social licence to operate can boost a company's CSR business case because strong social legitimacy and community trust are consistent with the company's long-term interests [62]. Therefore, some authors have argued that CSR should be an implementation tool for energy justice to tackle the socioeconomic inequalities that result from the energy and extractive industries [63].

#### 3.3.2. Environmental impact assessment

Among many other tools available to hold corporations accountable, studies have shown that EIA plays a vital role in ensuring responsibility for due diligence and sustainable development. However, despite its robust legal framework, effective implementation is often a challenge due to multiple standards for EIA procedures and a lack of interdepartmental coordination, like the case in Myanmar [64]. Additionally, EIA is often general and not project-specific, which defeats a project's social responsibility standard because many developing countries like Bangladesh often adopt the standards of other nations that are not well-suited to their context, thereby creating a deficiency in EIA guidelines [65].

Nevertheless, Glasson et al. argue that EIA provides a structured process for identifying, predicting, and mitigating negative environmental effects, particularly in large energy infrastructure projects [66]. Although it is often applied too late in decision-making, thereby limiting its ability to influence project incomes [67]; and performance capability to manage the complexities of offshore oil and gas drilling [68].

With the growing importance of sustainability in the energy sector, several scholars have proposed ways to improve the effectiveness of EIAs. They call for a more integrated approach where EIA is used not only as a regulatory requirement but as part of a broader environmental management system throughout the project lifecycle [69]. Dendena & Corsi have proposed the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment to take cognisance of social impact analysis including respect of free, prior, and informed consent; human rights protection; incorporated social performance standards by corporations; and a strengthened regard for local content with reference to supply chain management [67]. Noble & Nwanekezie suggests the integration of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) into the planning process for a more holistic assessment of the environmental impacts of energy policies, plans, and programs, rather than focusing solely on individual projects [70].

#### 3.3.3. Corporate reporting and accountability

The foundation for sustainability requires discipline and commitment from all stakeholders, and this can be implemented through effective reporting. However, a reporting benchmark is difficult because it is voluntary, except where membership of a fossil association creates an obligation; in which case, reporting becomes inconsistent [71]. The role of stakeholders in holding corporations responsible for human rights violations cannot be understated. The guide by the International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) stresses the importance of corporate responsibility in holding corporations accountable for human rights abuse through judicial and non-judicial measures [72].

Despite the emphasises by international organisations and developing countries for the need for binding standards for corporations, the legitimacy of human rights systems is continually being threatened by inconsistent and insufficient state mechanisms resulting from the conflicting interest of governments [73]. The United Nations Guide on Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights emphatically explained that it is equally the state's duty to protect citizens' rights against abuse by third parties and ensure access to adequate remedy for victims of business-related abuse [74].

This is the intended purpose of the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights that has been appraised for its clarity and assigned duties to significant stakeholders. However, it has been criticised for its lack of adequate and binding mechanism to addressing corporate human rights violations [75], and uncertainty [76].
Furthermore, Van Dam argues that the issue of redress or remedy for victims is often complicated because the victim bears the burden to prove parental control in a case of a subsidiary, and whether the parent company indeed breached its duty of care to the victim to prevent or mitigate the harm suffered [77]. Such establishment of harm is often tricky because victims of human rights abuses from corporations are defeated by denied access to justice resulting from the power imbalances between the corporation and victims [78].

Regulations like the EU Sustainability Due Diligence Directive were created to address these deficiencies. Therefore, they are beneficial to companies because their compliance would mean their recognition as sustainability leaders in addressing human rights and environmental impacts [79]. However, its effectiveness remains uncertain because its success depends on a strong enforcement mechanism and clear legal guidelines of culpability-based corporate criminal liability standards for severe human rights violations and other administrative liabilities [80]. Other authors have recommended that governments equally hold multinational corporations responsible for obligatory restoration and clean-up in any case of environmental degradation due to oil spills. Thus, there should be strict punitive punishment and criminal liability for the illegal dumping of oil and other hazardous wastes that destroy the environment and violate communities' rights [81].

Unfortunately, most of the existing accountability frameworks are voluntary and have no binding authority. Denhi and Martin-Ortega critiqued this voluntariness, arguing that corporate due diligence must be aligned with human rights and environmental standards in stronger regulatory frameworks and mandatory systems that hold companies accountable for human rights and environmental violations [82]. This stronger corporate accountability for human rights and environmental violations is also vital so that companies operating internationally will account for human rights and environmental standards beyond their home through their global supply chains [83].

Thus, according to Heffron et al., justice frameworks must be integrated into global energy governance to ensure that all concerned stakeholders, including companies, governments, and financial institutions, are held accountable for environmental and social impacts on vulnerable communities [84]. Therefore, with the growing promulgation of due diligence regulations in Global North, more attention is needed for the historical exploitation of developing nations by prioritizing their needs in global governance [85].

### 3.4. Evolution of energy justice and the right to energy

The energy justice scholarship has been a popular research area in the last decade, continuously triggering interdisciplinary research on energy justice, with divergent ideas and postulations. Many studies have investigated energy justice from a variety of angles, including studies of different countries and regions, comparison of methods, assessments in different periods and research fields, and application to various energy sources and technologies. Many of such studies have mainly targeted the expansion of the energy justice concept as an interdisciplinary framework that addresses the ethical, social, and political dimensions of energy systems [82]. McCauley et al. defined energy justice as a framework that seeks to apply principles of justice—distributional, procedural, and recognition justice—across the energy lifecycle, from production to consumption [22]. Within this framework, the “right to energy” has emerged as a vital component, recognising energy as a prerequisite for fulfilling basic human needs, promoting social inclusion, and achieving sustainable development goals [86].

Sovacool and Dworkin argue that energy is a foundational right that underpins many other socio-economic rights by highlighting that energy poverty exacerbates inequality and limits opportunities for economic and social advancement [87]. Indeed, energy justice has broadened to reflect concerns for evaluating where injustices emerge, who or which part of society is affected, and which processes are made available for remediation [88]. It is, therefore, a necessary tool to checkmate the

activities of the energy sector through the energy chain and manage its adverse impact. As in the words of Carly and Konisky, energy justice exposes the inequalities, inequities, marginalization, or vulnerability in energy transitions. Thus, energy transitions must be inclusive, ensuring that marginalised and low-income communities have access to the benefits of clean energy [9].

Hence, the emphasises on incorporating energy justice in the design and implementation of clean and/or renewable energy policies and projects, particularly in developing countries. Such that, these projects would dispel the justice concerns of perpetuating the injustices created by the traditional energy system [89]. Therefore, the deployment of green resources must comply with the principles of ‘clean energy justice’ that questions the funding for the transition, the beneficiaries of clean energy, the participants in the decision-making process during the transition, and the location for the installation of the new technologies [90]. Moreover, since energy justice applies to both fossil fuels and renewable energy, then both their policies and procedures must be more relevant to the community as important energy actors [91].

An important factor in clean energy sources is a socially oriented policy that considers energy justice to ensure transparency and responsibility in decision-making [92]; and participatory rights to local actors, civil societies and all stakeholders [93]. Otherwise, injustices increase and widens the inequality index with continued greenhouse emissions threatening intergenerational equity, and fossil fuel revenue disrupting democratic politics [94]. Therefore, in examining these perceived injustices, recourse must be given to the role of providers, especially intermediaries at local levels who serve as a ‘critical bridge’ by engaging marginalised communities [95].

In achieving these, energy justice is capable of resolving the energy trilemma of economic, political, and environmental concerns in developing energy laws. Thus, it can positively impact society and deliver energy infrastructure by balancing energy policy and a just and equitable approach [96]. However, this can only be attained if there is an energy-society order in which the evolution of energy systems is in response to social values and goals. That is, we must abolish top-down political and economic decision-making systems, technical interpretations of sustainability, specialist concepts of fairness, and path dependency in the modern energy model [97].

### 3.5. A human rights perspective of the right to energy

Modern energy access is fundamental to realising several other rights and sustainable development, this explains why many national and regional legislations recognise energy as vital to promoting the right to life, health, and education. However, none directly mention energy access, only the importance of energy services to human development through conditional electricity supply [98]. Any nation's human and economic development cannot grow without an increased paradigm of human rights. Thus, an enlarged human rights perception will hasten the development process, including recognising energy as a human right [99].

Several authors share this continuing argument on energy as a right, stressing the importance of this right to curtail the energy market's high sensitivity to crisis and instability [100]. Thus, it is a critical driver for improving quality of life, reducing poverty, fostering the right to health and education, and supporting economic development [101]. Pursuant to this, Frigo et al., in applying the capabilities, found that the human right to energy access should be reflected in energy policies, especially in energy-poor countries, to tackle the cosmopolitan dimension of procedural, distributional, and recognition justices [102]. This means improving energy efficiency and reducing energy intensity in developed nations, while in developing nations, fossil fuel consumption may be temporarily accommodated for the sustainable development of other basic infrastructures like schools, hospitals, sewage, transportation, and electrification [103].

Some authors relate the right to energy argument to the legal
framework of the right to water under international Law, arguing that energy is not just a resource but a 'developmental necessity' for enhancing the quality of life, particularly in low-income communities [102]. Hernández proposes four basic rights—the right to healthy, sustainable energy production, the right to affordable energy, the right to the best available energy infrastructure, and the right to uninterrupted energy service — by creating a link between energy and vulnerability (energy sacrifice zones, energy insecurity, and energy justice) [104]. These propositions do not suggest that human rights alone can solve the age-old problem of energy poverty and lack of access. However, they are a step toward exploring international legal mechanisms to solve the problem while considering the relation between energy, sustainable development, and existing human rights [105].

Other authors have presented the right to energy argument as a right to electricity. According to them, electricity is a derived right that is necessary to protect our fundamental rights to life, adequate housing, healthcare and education [106]; and other inter-related human rights [107]. In Graham's words, electricity and water are the main contenders for 'politics of necessity', although there are still arguments about whether to develop their legal rights under the human rights or public service frameworks [108]. This electricity can be made available to all households irrespective of their income level in attainment of universal access to energy for an egalitarian economy [109].

With energy systems evolving to meet global standards and climate targets, it is important to guarantee equitable access to clean, reliable, and affordable energy in promotion of social justice. However, there have been some criticisms of this conviction. For example, treating electricity as a right can lead to increased consumption, pricing below costs, and environmental concerns of carbon emissions and pollution [110]. Besides, the actualisation of energy as a right is faced with complexities such as the definition of energy, conversion of energy to services, access to energy supply and the components of energy right, which could create grounds for the refusal of this right entrenchment on energy [111].

Furthermore, the complexities of 'energy rights' approach must also be open to differences and similarities in energy structures of developed and developing economies. This means applying the right to satisfy basic human needs, efficient use of natural resources, promotion of clean energy [112], balanced with the prevention of climate change and environmental sustainability [111]. According to Walker & Day, the concept of the right to energy is vague because there is no universal agreement on what constitutes adequate energy access, making it difficult to define a one-size-fits-all standard for energy access [113].

The right to energy is a vital component of the energy justice framework aimed at addressing ethical and social dimensions of sustainability and energy access. However, some challenges still abound in defining and implementing the parameters of the right to energy, especially to ensure that it is legally recognised and that energy transition does not worsen existing injustices and inequalities. As it is, policymakers still struggle to manage the dilemma between ensuring universal access to affordable energy and reducing carbon emissions. Therefore, policy reform and future research should be tailored towards strengthening legal frameworks, enhancing equitable and sustainable energy transition and improving on public participation.

### 3.6. Fundamental rights application in energy justice principle

Energy justice involves respecting universal human rights and ensuring access to energy for all to guarantee a minimum level of well-being [114]. It is related to the right to energy, which forms the basis for governments and concerned stakeholders to address issues of lack of energy access, energy poverty, energy injustice, and energy democracy [115]. Since the inception of the argument of energy as a human right, several authors have continued to explore this variation in application of the energy justice framework. For instance, Mughal and Mohagheghi stressed that the energy justice approach to rural electrification is a

necessity for innovative, community-driven, and sustainable energy solutions to overcome infrastructure, financial, and policy barriers which limit the economic development and quality of life of rural communities [116].

The development of energy justice through the lens of human rights scholarship grew from the desire to move energy justice from theory to practice. Many authors have argued that energy justice lacked the implementation factor, which spiked a literature increase in energy practicality strategies. In the words of Heffron, the energy sector's lack of the 'raison d'être' necessitates increased protection of human rights through the energy life cycle, which is capable of delivering energy justice [117]. Therefore, he emphasised that national courts have a vital role in ensuring that justice is upheld throughout the energy life cycle by rectifying all injustices with the aid of the human rights protection instrument [118].

To further emphasise on the role of courts in providing legal remedies for energy injustices, Adigun argues that courts like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Court is mandated to uphold human rights associated to energy activities, and ensure that victim are granted access to justice when presenting their grievances related to energy practices [119]. Therefore, for energy justice to promote unconventional energy development, emphasis ought to be made on interconnection of individual rights, responsibility and empowerment [120]. Inevitably, the relevance of energy justice can only be easily understood and applied in policy implementation if it is recognised and communicated as a political thought seeking further societal progress through the affirmation of rights and duties, capable of empowering or limiting social group actions [121].

Furthermore, Basil argues that the application of energy justice promotes the protection of the rights of artisanal small-scale miners and communities, the redistribution of benefits, and environmental protection [122]. Energy justice should be treated as a global human rights issue, calling for international collaboration to ensure universal access to affordable and sustainable energy. The current global energy frameworks lack a robust compliance mechanism [123]. Significantly, this ethical responsibility of cosmopolitan justice, which applies to all without favour, is supported by major international statutes, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [124]. For instance, Aigbe et al. argue that activities such as gas flaring result in global externalities and that the global community has the moral obligation to address these harms to ensure energy justice on a global scale [91]. This is because such continued activity, regardless of location, has a detrimental impact on human rights, energy security, and the attainment of a net-zero and sustainable economy [125].

Human rights protection is a criterion for attaining energy justice [126], and as such, the principles of energy justice requires that this right protection is reflected in all aspects of global development and sustainability. Encompassing energy development in pursuit of energy access and human rights protection as compatible goals [127]; the recognition and acknowledgement of social and cultural differences in energy needs, uses, and governance [3]; participatory engagement and inclusion of all stakeholders that fosters the awareness of people's rights and due processes in energy planning and decision-making [113]; implementation of a strong governance and accountability structure to ensure that procedural justice is maintained through the life cycle of a project [128] to foster holding governments and energy companies accountable for any impact on the lives and rights of communities in regions like the Niger Delta of Nigeria [129].

In addition to applying energy justice principles to human rights protection, there are direct geographical adoptions of human rights strategies into energy justice. For instance, in Bangladesh, Bedi argues that the formulation of rights is fundamental to the framing of energy injustice, which in turn spurs activism for energy justice, energy poverty, climate change, and rights protection [130]. Therefore, it is vital that the government of Bangladesh conducts the extraction and control of national resources in a fashion that promotes community
rights protection and compliance with the principles of energy justice as a political discourse [130].

In Norway, Mósesdóttir argues that green transition also lead to in-
justices for some communities as the wind farm project in the Fosen
region violates the indigenous rights of the Sámi people due to lack of
consultation and respect for their indigenous land rights, thereby
threatening their livelihood and cultural heritage [131]. In
Mapuche-Williche territory Chile, Kelly et al., emphasises that renew-
able energy such as hydropower is a double-edged sword because it
promotes green transition and adversely impacts indigenous commu-
nities by perpetuating displacement, loss of livelihood, ecosystem
destruction and a long-term harm to their cultural practices and rights
[132]. Hence, in promoting clean energy development, countries like
Guatemala must ensure the attainment of energy justice as a vital
incentive for human rights protection and the success of a nation's en-
ergy policy [133]. In the same light, Delina describes how continuous
reliance on coal detrimentally impacts marginalised and vulnerable
communities in the Philippines, leading to environmental degradation
and water and air pollution that violates the community's rights to a
healthy environment, life, and health [134].

4. Discussion

4.1. Research gaps

This systematic review is intended to reveal the gaps in the appli-
cability of the human rights framework as an implementation mecha-
nism for enforcing energy justice in the energy sector. As such, a vital
prevailing realisation of this review is that most energy justice scholars
have focused on energy justice conceptualisation and re-
conceptualisation addressing applicable principles of distribution,
restoration, procedure, and recognition, rather than the practical
application of energy justice with little integration of the human rights
framework.

It is a framework that is capable of enhancing the implementation of energy justice with the aid of its legal instruments, such as International human rights instruments like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [135], the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESR) [136], and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (UNDRIP) [137] that provides robust moral and legal ground for addressing energy-related injustices and violations. Therefore, there remains a gap because the direct application of these instruments in energy justice debates, especially in national policies are still underdeveloped. Hence the need for a study to connect the energy justice theory to human rights law to ensure that energy policies align with global human rights standards.

The increased adoption of human rights instruments at international,
regional, and national levels reflects the global consensus to respect
human rights in energy development activities. However, these regimes
still lack the power to effectively curtail the adverse human rights im-
pacts resulting from energy projects and activities [138]. Nonetheless,
there is a clear link between human rights and energy justice involving
indigenous rights, due process, accountability, and the enforcement of
these rights in national and international courts as substantive and
procedural rights to private life, health, and a healthy environment [14].

Furthermore, energy is understood as a derivative of human rights because of its precondition to fulfil and promote other treaty-based human rights. Therefore, human rights as a legally binding framework can be used to operationalise energy justice, so that energy justice can move from pure academic to a policy-focused framework for enforceability of claims based on energy justice [11]. In sum, human rights can be explored as a tool for addressing justice questions to ensure an inclusive, equitable, and just transition to net zero [139].

This systematic review further revealed that energy justice research
is underrepresented in the Global South countries because most of the
literature is focused on the issues of energy poverty, the impact of

transition to renewable energy, and environmental degradation in the
Global North countries while neglecting the environmental exploitation
and neglect of communities in the Global South. Indeed, research on
how energy systems detrimentally impact populations' rights in devel-
oping countries is comparatively scarce.

Evidently, the WOS metric from January 2000 to October 2024 re-
veals that 3,651 papers had 'energy justice' in their title, 1,912 had
energy justice in their abstract, and only about 16 of them contained
both human rights and energy justice or some principles of energy jus-
tice in their abstract. Of all of them, only a handful studied the Global
South countries [140]. Hence, this research needs to explore how energy
policies, systems, and activities affect certain fundamental rights, such
as the right to land, water, and a healthy environment, and how to
address historical and continuous energy-related rights violations and
injustices.

The energy justice framework is vital to countries of the Global South, considering the historical cases of exploration and marginalization, especially in the wake of energy transition and curtailment of future emissions. Most countries in the Global South are prone to the challenges associated with energy justice issues like energy poverty, social conflict, decreased economic competitiveness, human rights violations, and energy exploitation [141]. Therefore, since there is clear unequal capability between the Global North and South in terms of vulnerability, low carbon finance and technology [142], It is important to study the question of global energy justice as it applies to the Global South and opportunities for advancement from the Global North.

Furthermore, the systematic review notes a gap in the underdevel-
opment of cosmopolitan and restorative justice principles. Interestingly,
a principle like cosmopolitan justice is often ignored, considering that it
emphasises the global or cross-border effects of energy activities [54].
By implication, 'justice duties are on a global scope and require
compliance with general principles including respect for civil and
democratic rights and substantial socioeconomic egalitarianism' [143].
Therefore, human responsibilities are not limited by borders, and ne-
cessitates international dialogue, and the employment of multinational
organisations or engines to serve as appropriate forums for resolving
potential disputes [144]. This observation necessitates further research,
especially with the growing cases of cross-border energy investment,
exploration, and human rights violations resulting from activities of
transnational corporations.

Restorative justice, on the other hand, was developed from the
criminal justice context of harm reparation and restoration [145], and
has been underutilised in the energy justice discourse. Although some
scholars have started exploring the application of restorative justice in
the energy system to address historical and ongoing harm to marginal-
ised communities, this is still an emerging research area. Therefore,
further research is needed to develop the practical application of
restorative justice in relation to long-term effects of pollution, envi-
ronmental degradation and land displacement. This brings to fore the
question of accountability as a vital factor of restoration. In essence, who
is to be held accountable for energy-related rights violations? Hence,
this systematic review is amongst the very few research that tackles
the concerns of corporate governance, responsibility, and accountability
through the human rights framework for the attainment of energy
justice.

This focus on corporate accountability is relevant because majority
of the human rights violations in the energy system are perpetrated by
private multinational corporations involved in both fossil fuel and
renewable energy activities. However, there is limited research on
mechanisms for holding these companies liable for these human rights
violations in adherence to the principles of energy justice. Therefore, the
research on corporate accountability in energy justice is necessary to
also reflect the relevance of legal frameworks such as the UN Guiding
Principles on Business and Human Rights [146], to ensure the respect
and protection of human rights while carrying out their energy activ-
ities. Hence the originality of this research focused on the practicality
and implementation of energy justice through the human rights framework, which is still a developing field.

## 4.2. Limitation of study

This systematic review is not devoid of limitations. First, there are limited number of works that expressly addresses the intersection between energy justice and human rights which may constrain the depth of the analysis. However, several authors have propounded the need for rights protection concerning activities associated with the energy sector, arguing that all governments, companies and private sectors have a responsibility to protect and respect human rights and remedy any abuse resulting from energy activities [147]. In this light, human rights can improve energy access via three elements: mainstreaming, discursive and litigation. That is, framing and incorporating human rights at all levels of decision-making, and the authoritative support that energy access is universal to the enhancement of accountability through human rights claims [148].

Furthermore, this review focuses only on English-language publications which implies that some important studies from some vital regions like Latin America, Eastern Europe or Francophone Africa are excluded despite the existence of energy challenges associated with human rights violation. In addition, most of the research are tailored towards the Global North despite the fact the gravest incidences of energy injustices, environmental degradation, and human rights abuse from energy activities are prevalent in the Global South. The newer conceptualisation of energy justice in comparison to the much established and long-standing field of human rights consists a temporal imbalance, especially in relation to this legal research. This is because, energy justice is much more a social theory than it is legal, thus, this exploration with a legal framework of human rights complicates the research, but also distinguishes this research as it is still a growing discuss.

## 5. Conclusion

This systematic review has shown the current trends in the academic field discussing human rights violations of the energy sector, corporate accountability, and energy justice conceptualised in the framework of human rights approach. It has also identified the most recognised researches that have explored a number of current connections between human rights and energy justice. Therefore, we have presented the results of this review analysis based on highly ranked academic journals found in the most relevant databases to mainstream the discussion of energy justice in relation to fundamental rights. Thus, we see that the energy sector plays a vital role when it comes to the human rights of communities and environmental impact. We see that the rights of communities can be violated irrespective of energy sources as renewables and critical minerals equally perpetrate the same injustices and violations as fossil fuels due to unsustainable practices.

Furthermore, we see the relevance of the regulatory and policy mechanisms deployed to regulate the activities of corporations who are the major actors related to human rights violations and environmental degradation. As this study has shown, these mechanisms emphasised the need for a tangible system that would not only hold energy corporations responsible for human rights violations, but also ensure that there are adequate reparations for any harm caused to communities or environment. This is where the application of the energy justice principle becomes vital, as it not only prevents, but remedies past injustices associated with the energy sector.

From this study, it is apparent that energy justice is undoubtedly a vital theory in the social sciences and humanities as it evidently co-ordinates all relevant research in this field that engages human rights violation from energy activities. As in the words of Sovacool et al., there is a need for novel ways to view the world's energy dilemmas, which is where energy justice plays a vital role [149]. Therefore, we have seen that energy justice has developed as a remedy to the ills of the energy

system, encompassing a rapid growth with over 3000 studies, focused on geographical context or technological, with scholars promoting the application of energy justice tenets across the global energy system.

Energy justice is expanding through interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary studies and going beyond national barriers. The chosen structuring of this review is to emphasise on the uniqueness of this research. In the sense that being a systematic review, we see no particular reference to countries or to conventional and non-conventional forms of energy. Rather, it exposes the lack of a more practical implementation of the energy justice theory, while testing its universality as a widely acceptable concept. It is one thing to propound a conviction or theory and another to ensure that this theory is implemented for positive outcome in the energy system.

Therefore, this systematic review is relevant because it emphasises on need for more attention towards the human rights perspective of energy justice. This is because, unlike energy justice, the human right developed framework can be explored to trigger a practical implementation of energy justice to ensure accountability of all concerned stakeholders. According to Hall, the scope of energy justice has to be widened to dislodge debates from where they currently stand for a better understanding of energy [150]. Thus, there is a critical importance of ongoing research and policy initiatives addressing the intersection between energy justice and human rights. As well as addressing how race, gender, and geography impact unequal inequalities, injustices, and vulnerability to human rights violation. Moving forward, concerted efforts are needed to develop inclusive policies and interventions that prioritize the rights and well-being of vulnerable populations, thereby fostering more justice and sustainable energy transition.

From the foregoing, other recommendations advanced include.

i. All major energy projects, investments and infrastructure should be mandated to conduct, disclose and comply with human rights impact assessment before approval and during the course of implementation.

ii. The five energy justice principles should be incorporated in existing human rights treaties, policies, sustainable development and environmental treaties to ensure that energy projects are devoid of injustices.

iii. There is need for stronger legal and institutional mechanisms to hold governments, companies, and other concerned stakeholders accountable for energy projects that violate human rights of local, indigenous, and local communities.

iv. Energy access should be recognised as a human right, and international bodies should effectively define the parameters for this right enforcement in other to tackle future challenges of enforcement.

v. Enhance transparency and public participation in energy projects like free, prior, and informed consent, to ensure that communities are genuinely involved, recognised, and their rights protected.

vi. More climate funding and financing for energy projects should incorporate energy justice and human rights goals.

## Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

## Data availability

Data will be made available on request.
## References

[1] Kahsar R. Governance and sustainability in distributed energy systems. In: Nadesan M, et al., editors. Energy democracies for sustainable futures. Academic Press; 2023. p. 17-22.

[2] Wewerinke-Singh M. A human rights approach to energy: realising the rights of billions within ecological limits. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law -RECIEL 2022;31(1):16-26.

[3] Walker G, Day R. Fuel poverty as injustice: integrating distribution, recognition and procedure in the struggle for affordable warmth. Energy Policy 2012;49: 69-75.

[4] Amnesty International. Oil, gas, and mining industries (Amnesty international. https://www.amnestyusa.org/issues/business-and-human-rights/oil-gas-and-mining-industries/. [Accessed 17 April 2025].

[5] Huber ST, Steininger KW. Critical sustainability issues in the production of wind and solar electricity generation as well as storage facilities and possible solutions. J Clean Prod 2022;339(10):130720.

[6] UN General Assembly. United Nations framework convention on climate change: resolution/adopted by the general assembly. A/RES/48/189, available at: https://www.reworld.org/docid/3b00f2770.html. [Accessed 26 April 2023].

[7] Redgwell C, Lavanya R. And justice for all? Energy justice in international law. In: Guayo Íñigo del, et al., editors. Energy justice and energy law. Oxford: online edn, Oxford Academic; 2020.

[8] Maniruzzaman AFM, Al-Saleem K. Renewable energy and energy justice in the Middle East: international human rights, environmental and climate change law and policy perspectives. J World Energy Law Bus 2024:jwae021.

[9] Carley S, Konisky DM. The justice and equity implications of the clean energy transition. Nat Energy 2020;5:569-77.

[10] Heffron RJ. The challenges for energy justice - correcting human rights abuses. Springer International Publishing; 2021. ISBN 978-3-030-80097-0 (eBook) 2021.

[11] Huhta K. Conceptualising energy justice in the context of human rights law. Nordic Journal of Human Rights 2023;41(4):378-92.

[12] Cabré MM, Vega-Araújo J. 'considerations for a just and equitable energy transition. Considerations for a just and equitable energy transition. Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) Google Scholar; 2022.

[13] UN human rights office of the high commissioner: renewable energy and the right to development: realising human rights for sustainable development at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-05/KMEnergy-EN.pdf.

[14] Redgwell C, Rajamani L. And justice for all? Energy justice in international law. Energy justice and energy law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2020. p. 48-64.

[15] United Nations, Goal 7 at goal 7 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs [accessed January 23, 2025].

[16] United Nations General Assembly. Universal declaration of human rights, vol.217; 1948. A (III).

[17] Redgwell C, Lavanya R. 'And Justice for All? Energy Justice in International Law', in Inigo del Guayo and others. Energy justice and energy law. Oxford: online edn, Oxford Academic; 2020.

[18] Karekezi S, Kithyoma W. Renewable energy strategies for rural Africa: is a PV-led renewable energy strategy the right approach for providing modern energy to the rural poor of Sub-Saharan Africa? Energy Policy 2002;30(11-12):1071-86.

[19] Search on the historical development of energy justice conducted in web of science core collection dated October. vol. 30. 2024.

[20] Hoffmann W. 'PV solar electricity industry: market growth and perspective. Solar energy materials and solar cells 2006;90(18-19):3285-311.

[21] Lakshman G. Energy justice and sustainable development. 21 Colo. J. Int'l Envtl. L. & Pol'y 2010;231.

[22] McCauley D, et al. Advancing energy justice: the triumvirate of tenets. Int. Energy Law Rev. 2013;32:107-10.

[23] Patterson D. Human rights-based approaches and the right to health: a systematic literature review. Journal of Human Rights Practice 2024;16(2):603-23.

[24] Bangdiwala SI. 'The importance of systematic reviews. Int J Inj Control Saf Promot 2024;31(3):347-9.

[25] Image generated from web of science core collection, dated December. vol. 12. 2024.

[26] Sovacool BK, Axsen J, Sorrell S. Promoting novelty, rigor, and style in energy social science: towards codes of practice for appropriate methods and research design. Energy Res Social Sci 2018;45:12-42.

[27] Siddaway A, Wood A, Hedges L. How to do a systematic review: a best practice guide for conducting and reporting narrative reviews, meta-analyses, and meta-syntheses. Annu Rev Psychol 2019;70:747-70.

[28] Screenshot image of search from Web of Science Core Collection dated October 28. 2024.

[29] Screenshot Image of search from Scopus dated November 4. 2024.

[30] Page MJ, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021;372:H171.

[31] Okonta I, Douglas O. 'Where cultures feast: Shell. Human rights, and oil in the Niger delta'. Sierra Club Books; 2001.

[32] Obuah EE, Keke RC. Mitigating the negative externalities of oil drilling activities in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Open Access Library Journal 2022;9(5):1-21.

[33] Eugenio C, et al. Environmental impacts of oil extraction in blocks 16 and 67 of the Yasuní Reserve in the Amazonian Forest: combined qualitative and Life-Cycle Assessment. Sci Total Environ 2024;950:175189.

[34] Fearnside PM. 'Belo Monte: actors and arguments in the struggle over Brazil's most controversial Amazonian dam.' DIE ERDE-Journal of the Geographical Society of Berlin 2017;148(1):14-26.

[35] Mallett A, et al. Environmental impacts of mining in Brazil and the environmental licensing process: changes needed for changing times? Extr Ind Soc 2021;8(3): 100952.

[36] Ryan CB. The role of the oil sector in Venezuela's environmental degradation and economic rebuilding. CSIS Briefs; 2021. www.csis.org.

[37] Van der Voort N, Vanclay F. Social impacts of earthquakes caused by gas extraction in the Province of Groningen, the Netherlands. Environ Impact Assess Rev 2015;50:1-15.

[38] Clavijo-Núñez S, et al. The importance of citizen participation in improving comfort and health in obsolete neighbourhoods affected by energy poverty. Energy Policy 2024;191.

[39] Abe O. Between control and confrontation: the pitfalls and potential of corporate-community participatory development in Africa's energy and extractive industries. Extr Ind Soc 2022;11.

[40] Bilgen S. Structure and environmental impact of global energy consumption. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;38:890-902.

[41] Ogolo NA, Anih OC, Onyekonwu MO. Sources and effects of environmental pollution from oil and gas industrial operations. Arabian Journal of Chemical and Environmental Research 2022;9(1):98-121.

[42] Finley-Brook M, Thomas C. Renewable energy and human rights violations: illustrative cases from Indigenous territories in Panama. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 2011;101(4):863-72.

[43] Agrawal H, et al. Enabling a just transition: protecting human rights in renewable energy projects: a briefing for policymakers. 2023. Available at: SSRN 4438576.

[44] Del Bene D, Scheidel A, Temper L. More dams, more violence? A global analysis on resistances and repression around conflictive dams through co-produced knowledge. Sustain Sci 2018;13(3):617-33.

[45] Kerr S, et al. Rights and ownership in sea country: implications of marine renewable energy for indigenous and local communities. Mar Pol 2015;52: 108-15.

[46] Aydin M, et al. Regulatory pathways to green energy transition for sustainable environment: the fostering role of human rights, banking sector development, economic complexity, and economic freedom. J Environ Manag 2024;366: 121739.

[47] Siciliano G, et al. Low-carbon energy, sustainable development, and justice: towards a just energy transition for the society and the environment. Sustainable development 2021;29(6):1049-61.

[48] Owen JR, et al. Energy transition minerals and their intersection with land-connected peoples. Nat Sustain 2023;6(2):203-11.

[49] Josiah UG, Akpuh CC. Multinational oil corporations, policy violation and environmental damage in rivers state of Nigeria: a theistic ethics approach. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 2022;9(1):1-9.

[50] Short D, et al. Extreme energy, 'fracking' and human rights: a new field for human rights impact assessments? Int J Hum Right 2015;19(6):697-736.

[51] Newell P. The political economy of global environmental governance. Rev Int Stud 2008;34(3):507-29.

[52] Vermeylen S. Resource rights and the evolution of renewable energy technologies. Renew Energy 2010;35(11):2399-405.

[53] Kügerl MT, Hitch M, Gugerell K. Responsible sourcing for energy transitions: discussing academic narratives of responsible sourcing through the lens of natural resources justice. J Environ Manag 2023;326.

[54] Heffron RJ. The role of justice in developing critical minerals. Extr Ind Soc 2020;7 (3):855-63.

[55] Nur AI. Human rights aspect in the Indonesian energy transition: the challenges of promoting the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment. Human Rights in the Global South (HRGS) 2022;1(2):95-108.

[56] Coumans C. Do no harm? Mining industry responses to the responsibility to respect human rights. Can J Dev Stud/Rev Can Études Dev 2017;38(2):272-90.

[57]TCaranac A. The connection between corporate social responsibility and corporate respect for human rights. DANUBE: Law, Economics and Social Issues Review 2019;10(2):103-27. ISSN 1804-8285, De Gruyter, Warsaw.

[58] Rodhouse T, Vanclay F. Is free, prior and informed consent a form of corporate social responsibility? J Clean Prod 2016;131:785-94.

[59] Simons P. 'Canada's enhanced CSR strategy: human rights due diligence and access to justice for victims of extraterritorial corporate human rights. Abuses'. Can. Bus. LJ 2014;56:167.

[60] Noh JE. The role of NGOs in building CSR discourse around human rights in developing countries. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies 2017;9(1):1-19.

[61] Kaplan S. Beyond the business case for social responsibility. Acad Manag Discov 2020;6(1):1-4.

[62] Zhao J, Lu X, Lin W. Promoting corporate extraterritorial sustainable responsibility through the lens of social licence to operate. Sustainability 2022;14 (13).

[63] Agbaitoro GA. Implementing energy justice through corporate social responsibility of multinational corporations in energy and extractive industries: old body in new robes. 42 Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law 2024;423.

[64] Aung TS. Evaluation of the environmental impact assessment system and implementation in Myanmar: its significance in oil and gas industry. Environ Impact Assess Rev 2017;66:24-32.

[65] Kabir Z, Khan I. Environmental impact assessment of waste to energy projects in developing countries: general guidelines in the context of Bangladesh. Sustain Energy Technol Assessments 2020;37:100619.

[66] Glasson J, Therivel R. Introduction to environmental impact assessment. Routledge; 2013.

[67] Dendena B, Corsi S. The Environmental and Social Impact Assessment: a further step towards an integrated assessment process. J Clean Prod 2015;108:965-77.
[68] Barker A, Jones C. A critique of the performance of EIA within the offshore oil and gas sector. Environ Impact Assess Rev 2013;43:31-9.

[69] Bond A, et al. Impact assessment: eroding benefits through streamlining? Environ Impact Assess Rev 2014;45:46-53.

[70] Noble B, Nwanekezie K. Conceptualizing strategic environmental assessment: principles, approaches and research directions. Environ Impact Assess Rev 2017; 62:165-73.

[71] Schneider J, et al. Towards sustainability in the oil and gas sector: benchmarking of environmental, health, and safety efforts. Journal of Environmental Sustainability 2013;3(3):6.

[72] International Federation for Human Rights. Corporate accountability for human rights abuses - a guide for victims and NGOs on recourse mechanisms. third ed. May 2016.

[73] Khoury S, Whyte D. New mechanisms of accountability for corporate violations of human rights'. University of Liverpool; 2018. ISBN: 978-1-908812-01-8.

[74] United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commission. The corporate responsibility to respect human rights. United Nations: Interpretive Guide HR/ PUB/12/02; 2012.

[75] De La Vega C, Mehra A, Wong A. 'Holding businesses accountable for human rights violations. Recent developments and next steps. Berlin: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Global Policy and Development; 2011.

[76] Götzmann N. Human rights impact assessment of business activities: key criteria for establishing a meaningful practice. Business and Human Rights Journal 2017; 2(1):87-108.

[77] Van Dam C. Corporate responsibility to respect human rights vis-à-vis legal duty of care. In: Human rights in business. Routledge; 2017. p. 131-50.

[78] Droubi S. An interdisciplinary dialogue with the business and human rights literature. Isr Law Rev 2022;55(1):64-96.

[79] Dempere J, Udjo E, Mattos P. The entrepreneurial impact of the European directive on corporate sustainability due diligence. Adm Sci 2024;14(10).

[80] Korka-Knuts H. Evaluating corporate accountability for human rights violations: the (Uncertain) efficacy of administrative sanctions under the EU sustainability due diligence directive. Eur Bus Law Rev 2024;35(3/4).

[81] Bello T, Nwaeke T. Impacts of oil exploration (oil and gas conflicts: niger Delta as a case study. 2022. Available at: SSRN 4137463.

[82] Iwińska K, Lis A, Maćkaż K. From framework to boundary object? Reviewing gaps and critical trends in global energy justice research. Energy Res Social Sci 2021; 79:102191.

[83] Gustafsson MT, Schilling-Vacaflor A, Lenschow A. Foreign corporate accountability: the contested institutionalization of mandatory due diligence in France and Germany. Regulation & Governance 2023;17(4):891-908.

[84] Heffron RJ, Foley A, Furszyfer Del Rio DD. The role of justice is set to shift accountability and responsibility in the energy sector. Nat Energy 2024:1-3.

[85] Dehbi F, Martin-Ortega O. An integrated approach to corporate due diligence from a human rights, environmental, and TWAIL perspective. Regulation & Governance 2023;17(4):927-43.

[86] Calzadilla PV, Mauger R. The UN's new sustainable development agenda and renewable energy: the challenge to reach SDG7 while achieving energy justice. J Energy Nat Resour Law 2018;36(2):233-54.

[87] Sovacool BK, Dworkin MH. Energy justice: conceptual insights and practical applications. Appl Energy 2015;142:435-44. ISSN 0306-2619.

[88] Jenkins KE, et al. The methodologies, geographies, and technologies of energy justice: a systematic and comprehensive review. Environ Res Lett 2021;16(4): 043009.

[89] Aba E. A fast and fair energy transition: how community legal action and new legislation are shaping the global shift to renewable energy. Business and Human Rights Journal 2023;8(2):252-8.

[90] Welton S, Eisen J. Clean energy justice: charting an emerging agenda. Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 2019;43:307.

[91] Aigbe GO, Cotton M, Stringer LC. Global gas flaring and energy justice: an empirical ethics analysis of stakeholder perspectives. Energy Res Social Sci 2023; 99:103064.

[92] Jenkins KE, McCauley D, Warren CR. Attributing responsibility for energy justice: a case study of the hinkley point nuclear complex. Energy Policy 2017;108: 836-43.

[93] Olofsson V. Energy justice and territory: present and futures of wind energy in Brazil. International Journal of Engineering, Social Justice and Peace 2023;10(1): 27-49.

[94] Symons J, Friederich S. Tensions within energy justice. Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung 2022;47(4):303-26.

[95] Lacey-Barnacle M, Bird CM. 'Intermediating energy justice? The role of intermediaries in the civic energy sector in a time of austerity. Applied energy 2018;226:71-81.

[96] Heffron RJ, McCauley D, Sovacool BK. Resolving society's energy trilemma through the energy justice metric. Energy Policy 2015;87:168-76.; Heffron, R.J., McCauley, D., & de Rubens, G.Z. (2018). 'Balancing the energy trilemma through the Energy Justice Metric'. Applied energy, 229, 1191-1201.

[97] Lee J, Byrne J. Expanding the conceptual and analytical basis of energy justice: beyond the three-tenet framework. Front Energy Res 2019;7:99.

[98] Bradbrook AJ, Gardam JG. Energy and poverty: a proposal to harness international law to advance universal access to modern energy services. Neth Int Law Rev 2010;57(1):1.

[99] Shankar U, Sharma S. Access to energy: looking through the prism of human rights-the Indian experience. J Energy Dev 2012;38:221.

[100] Jiglau G, et al. 'Energy and the social contract: from "energy consumers" to "people with a right to energy". Sustain Dev 2024;32(1):1321-36.

[101] United Nations. Renewable energy and the right to development: realizing human rights for sustainable development https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2 022-05/KMEnergy-EN.pdf.

[102] Quintavalla A, Kienzl F, Samkharadze I. The human right to energy: drawing lessons from the development of the human right to water. Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 2023;14(1):49-66.

[103] Frigo G, Baumann M, Hillerbrand R. Energy and the good life: capabilities as the foundation of the right to access energy services. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 2021;22(2):218-48.

[104] Hernández D. Sacrifice along the energy continuum: a call for energy justice. Environ Justice 2015;8(4):151-6.

[105] Bradbrook AJ, Gardam JG. Placing access to energy services within a human rights framework. Hum Rights Q 2006;28(2):389-415.

[106] Lofquist L. 'Is there a universal human right to electricity? Int J Hum Right 2020; 24(6):711-23.

[107] Tully S. Access to electricity as a human right. Neth Q Hum Right 2006;24(4): 557-87.

[108] Graham C. The politics of necessity: electricity and water in Great Britain. J Consum Policy 2006;29:435-48.

[109] Azad R, Chakraborty S. Green growth and the right to energy in India. Energy Policy 2020;141:111456.

[110] Burgess R, Greenstone M, Ryan N, Sudarshan A. The consequences of treating electricity as a right. J Econ Perspect 2020;34(1):145-69.

[111] Walker G. The right to energy: meaning, specification and the politics of definition. L'Europe en Formation 2015;378(4):26-38.

[112] Tully S. The human right to access clean energy. Journal of Green Building 2008;3 (2):140-8.

[113] Iwińska K, Lis A, Maćkaż K. From framework to boundary object? Reviewing gaps and critical trends in global energy justice research. Energy Res Social Sci 2021; 79:102191. Simcock, N. (2016) 'Procedural justice and the implementation of community wind energy projects: A case study from South Yorkshire, UK'. Land use policy, 59, 467-477.

[114] Islar M, Brogaard S, Lemberg-Pedersen M. Feasibility of energy justice: exploring national and local efforts for energy development in Nepal. Energy Policy 2017; 105:668-76.

[115] Shyu CW. A framework for 'right to energy' to meet UN SDG7: policy implications for meeting basic human energy needs, eradicate energy poverty, enhance energy justice, and uphold energy democracy. Energy Res Social Sci 2021;79:102199. ISSN 2214-6296.

[116] Mughal L, Mohagheghi S. Electrification of rural areas: energy justice, challenges, and possible solutions. 2023 IEEE green technologies conference (GreenTech). IEEE, 2023. p. 239-43.

[117] Heffron RJ. Applying energy justice into the energy transition. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022;156(2022):111936. ISSN 1364-0321.

[118] Heffron RJ. Implementing energy justice into the energy transition through human rights. In: The challenge for energy justice. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan; 2021.

[119] Adigun M. Legal remedies for energy injustice in the ECOWAS sub-region: the role of the ECOWAS court. J Energy Nat Resour Law 2024;42(3):363-80.

[120] Damgaard C, McCauley D, Long J. Assessing the energy justice implications of bioenergy development in Nepal. Energy Sustain Soc 2017;7:8.

[121] Pellegrini-Masini G, Pirni A, Maran S. Energy justice revisited: a critical review on the philosophical and political origins of equality. Energy Res Social Sci 2020;59: 101310.

[122] Basil CV. Energy justice concerns of artisanal and small-scale mining amidst energy transition. In: Heffron RJ, De Fontenelle L, editors. The power of energy justice & the social contract. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland; 2023. p. 209-16.

[123] Zaidan E, Ibrahim IA. Achieving energy justice: the role of supervisory and compliance mechanisms in global frameworks and the international community. Energy Strategy Rev 2024;52:101335.

[124] McCauley D, et al. Energy justice in the transition to low carbon energy systems: exploring key themes in interdisciplinary research. Applied energy 2019;233: 916-21.

[125] Babalola AA, Olawuyi DS. Overcoming regulatory failure in the design and implementation of gas flaring policies: the potential and promise of an energy justice approach. Sustainability 2022;14(11):6800.

[126] Ciplet D. From energy privilege to energy justice: a framework for embedded sustainable development. Energy Res Social Sci 2021;75:101996.

[127] Kaime T, Agbaitoro G. An energy justice approach to resolving the conflict between the development of energy access projects and human rights risks and violations in Africa: can a balance be struck? Global Energy Law and Sustainability 2022;3(1):39-71.

[128] McLaren DP. Procedural justice in carbon capture and storage. Energy Environ 2012;23(2-3):345-65.

[129] Morocco-Clarke A. In the midst of so much injustice, can there be a seat for energy justice at the Nigerian table? J World Energy Law Bus 2023;16(3):251-66.

[130] Bedi HP. Our energy, our rights': national extraction legacies and contested energy justice futures in Bangladesh. Energy Res Social Sci 2018;41:168-75.

[131] Módóttir L. Energy (in) justice in the green energy transition. The case of fosen wind farms in Norway. Technol Soc 2024;77:102563.

[132] Kelly S, Heiret, et al. Epistemic justice as energy justice: reflections from a transnational collaboration on hydropower and Indigenous rights. Clim Dev 2024:1-14.

[133] Alford-Jones K. How injustice can lead to energy policy failure: a case study from Guatemala. Energy Policy 2022;164:112849.
[134] Delina LL. Committing to coal? Scripts, sociotechnical imaginaries, and the resurgence of a coal regime in the Philippines. Energy Res Social Sci 2021;81: 102258.

[135] UN General Assembly. Universal declaration of human rights, 217 A (III). https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1948/en/11563. [Accessed 13 November 2024].

[136] UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and cultural rights, vol. 993; 1966. p. 3. United Nations, Treaty Series.

[137] UN General Assembly. United nations declaration on the rights of Indigenous Peoples: resolution/adopted by the general assembly, A/RES/61/295. 2 October 2007.

[138] Olawuyi DS. Chapter 4: ‘energy (and human rights) for all: addressing human rights risks in energy access projects. In: Salter R, et al., editors. Energy justice. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing; 2018.

[139] Savaresi A, Wewerinke-Singh M. 'A just transition?: investigating the role of human rights in the transition towards net zero societies'. EUI, LAW, AEL. Working Paper, European Society of International Law (ESIL) Paper - 2024. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/76752.

[140] The web of science core collection was used as the search engine to underscore the growing literature on energy justice dated October 10. 2024.

[141] Apergi M, et al. An energy justice index for the energy transition in the global south. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2024;192:114238.

[142] Eicke L, Goldthau A. Are we at risk of an uneven low-carbon transition? Assessing evidence from a mixed-method elite study. Environ Sci Pol 2021;124:370-9.

[143] Moellendorf D. Cosmopolitan justice. Routledge; 2018.

[144] Sokołowski MM, Heffron RJ. Defining and conceptualising energy policy failure: the when, where, why, and how. Energy Policy 2022;161:112745.

[145] Hazrati M, Heffron RJ. Conceptualising restorative justice in the energy transition: changing the perspectives of fossil fuels. Energy Res Social Sci 2021; 78:102115.

[146] UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Implementing the United Nations "Protect, Respect and Remedy" framework. UN. Office of the high commissioner for human rights. 2011.

[147] Sovacool BK, Dworkin MH. Energy and human rights. In: Global energy justice: problems, principles, and practices'. Cambridge University Press; 2014. p. 157-90.

[148] Wewerinke-Singh M. A human rights approach to energy: realizing the rights of billions within ecological limits. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law 2022;31(1):16-26.

[149] Sovacool BK, et al. New frontiers and conceptual frameworks for energy justice. Energy Policy 2017;105:677-91.

[150] Hall SM. Energy justice and ethical consumption: comparison, synthesis and lesson drawing. Local Environ 2013;18(4):422-37.

**Chioma Basil** is a lawyer, researcher and energy specialist whose career is dedicated to navigating the complex regulatory frameworks in the energy industry. She is currently a PhD Researcher with the Energy Justice and Social Contract Chair of the Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour & CNRS, France, and the Development Director & Mentorship Project Manager of the African Energy and Mineral Management Initiative (AEMI). After earning her undergraduate degree in Law from the University of Abuja, Nigeria, Chioma developed an early interest in oil, gas, and energy law. She pursued her master's degree at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands, where she specialized in Energy and Climate Law. Chioma received an Honourable Mention for her LLM thesis on 'Examining the Role of Island Energy Communities in Electricity Distribution System Operations Within the European Union' awarded by the Dutch Energy Law Association (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Energierecht) as part of the 'NeVER Thesis Award 2023'. She has equally published research in the Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law, Springer Nature, and Palgrave Macmillan. Her research interests include energy justice, energy communities, nuclear power, critical raw materials, international human rights, and artisanal mining. She is committed to continuous learning and professional development, with a genuine passion for environmental sustainability.

**Professor Raphael Heffron** is Professor in Energy Law, Justice, the Social Contract and Sustainability at the Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, Pau, France. He is also Jean Monnet Professor in the Just Transition to a Low-Carbon Economy awarded by the European Commission (2019-2022). In 2020, he was appointed as Senior Counsel at Janson law firm in Brussels (Belgium). Professor Heffron is a qualified Barrister-at-Law, and a graduate of both Oxford (MSc-Christ Church) and Cambridge (MPhil-Darwin & PhD-Trinity Hall). He also holds degrees from the University of St. Andrews (MLitt), and Trinity College Dublin (BA, MA). His work all has a principal focus on achieving a sustainable and just transition to a low-carbon economy, and combines a mix of law, policy and economics. He has published over 200 publications of different types and he is the most cited scholar in his field worldwide for energy law, energy justice and just transition worldwide (4000+ Scopus/8000+ Googlescholar - see also the Scopus-Stanford ranking) with translated work in multiple languages including Chinese, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Persian. Professor Heffron has given just over 220 keynotes or guest lectures in 64 countries worldwide. He is a reviewer for the most recent IPCC Report. Raphael is also the Consulting Editor of the current Halsbury's Laws of England volumes on Energy Law (the leading practitioner energy law series). Raphael is co-editor of the forthcoming Oxford University Press Handbook for International Energy Law. He is on the Editorial Board of the world leading international energy law and business journal the Journal of World Energy Law and Business (OUP), the legal practitioner journal International Energy Law Review, and interdisciplinary journal Oxford Open Climate Change.