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Context-Specific Ecological Strategies for Climate
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Alexis Dzokom

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Sahel Nature Consulting Revue

ISSN : 1401-0006

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Context-Specific Ecological Strategies
for Climate Change Mitigation and
Sustainable Housing in the Sahelian
Zone of Cameroon

Scientific-Article Juillet 2024, Volume 07, Issue 06

Abstract

The Sahelian region of Cameroon, characterized by extreme climatic conditions (drought, intense heat, low rainfall), is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. This study explores ecological and context-specific strategies to ensure the sustainability of buildings in this area, based on a mixed-methods approach combining field surveys, technical observations, and document analysis. The findings reveal that earthen dwellings maintain an average indoor temperature of 29.5 °C, compared to 34.2 °C in houses built with cement and corrugated iron—resulting in a thermal reduction of approximately 4.7 °C during hot periods. Local materials (raw earth, stone, thatch) and vernacular architectural techniques (thick walls, natural ventilation, bioclimatic orientation) demonstrate excellent thermal and environmental performance, significantly reducing thermal discomfort and carbon footprint. However, their adoption remains limited due to the absence of technical standards, lack of institutional recognition, and negative perceptions associated with so-called "traditional" housing. The study recommends greater integration of local knowledge into public policies, the establishment of funding and training mechanisms, and the promotion of participatory territorial governance. These hybrid strategies represent a key pathway to strengthening the climate resilience of Sahelian populations and fostering sustainable urban development rooted in local contexts.
Context-Specific Ecological Strategies for Climate Change
Mitigation and Sustainable Housing in the Sahelian Zone
of Cameroon

© Juillet 2024, Volume 07, Issue 06 | https://sites.google.com/view/sahel-nature-consulting/accueil

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Sahel Nature Consulting Revue (ISSN : 1401-0006 March 2025)

Dr. Eng. Dzokom Alexis, M.E.,
M.Rl., Ph.D.,
Chief Editor

Mrs. Yakadam Charlotte B., M.Sc
(Maroua)

Managing Editor & Editorial Board

1. Dr. Ibrahim Koskossi Koras,
M.Sc, Ph.D., (U.K),
University of Bahrain,
Kingdom of Bahrain,

2. Dr. Wassou Belmind, Ph.D.
(Cambridge),
University of Malaya,
Malaysia.

3. Prof. Darman D.R.,
National Advanced School of
Engeneering,

University of Maroua (UMa),

4. Prof.Gaham Ibraha Bakari,
Ethiopian Civil Service University,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

5. Dr. Kodji Ezechiel,
Humanitarian services,
Maroua,
Cameroon.

Peer Reviewed & Indexed

Sahel Nature Consulting Revue

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# Context-Specific Ecological Strategies for Climate Change Mitigation and Sustainable Housing in the Sahelian Zone of Cameroon

Alexis DZOKOM¹,²

¹SAHEL NATURE CONSULTING

²Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts Letters and Social Sciences, University of Maroua, Cameroon

Corresponding author: dzokomalexis@gmail.com

## Abstract

The Sahelian region of Cameroon, characterized by extreme climatic conditions (drought, intense heat, low rainfall), is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. This study explores ecological and context-specific strategies to ensure the sustainability of buildings in this area, based on a mixed-methods approach combining field surveys, technical observations, and document analysis. The findings reveal that earthen dwellings maintain an average indoor temperature of 29.5 °C, compared to 34.2 °C in houses built with cement and corrugated iron—resulting in a thermal reduction of approximately 4.7 °C during hot periods. Local materials (raw earth, stone, thatch) and vernacular architectural techniques (thick walls, natural ventilation, bioclimatic orientation) demonstrate excellent thermal and environmental performance, significantly reducing thermal discomfort and carbon footprint. However, their adoption remains limited due to the absence of technical standards, lack of institutional recognition, and negative perceptions associated with so-called "traditional" housing. The study recommends greater integration of local knowledge into public policies, the establishment of funding and training mechanisms, and the promotion of participatory territorial governance. These hybrid strategies represent a key pathway to strengthening the climate resilience of Sahelian populations and fostering sustainable urban development rooted in local contexts.

**Keywords:** Ecological Strategies, Climate Change, Habitat Sustainability, Sahelian Zone, Cameroon.

## Introduction

The Sahelian region of Cameroon, located in the Far North of the country, is characterized by an arid to semi-arid climate, extreme temperatures (exceeding 40 °C during the dry season), low annual rainfall (ranging between 400 and 900 mm), and a high interannual variability in precipitation (Sagna et al., 2014; MINHDU, 2021). These conditions render the region particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including rising temperatures, prolonged droughts, desertification, degradation of natural resources, and food insecurity (IPCC,

2023). In this context, construction strategies must be adapted to the region's specific climatic and socio-economic conditions to mitigate the effects of climate change while enhancing the resilience of local communities.

In response to these challenges, ecological and context-specific construction strategies are being developed within a broader framework of sustainability and the valorization of local resources. These approaches involve the use of bio-based materials (e.g., raw earth, stone, straw, local timber), appropriate vernacular building
# Context-Specific Ecological Strategies for Climate Change Mitigation and Sustainable Housing in the Sahelian Zone of Cameroon

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techniques (e.g., troglodyte architecture, thick walls, green roofs, natural ventilation), and bioclimatic design principles (e.g., orientation, thermal inertia, albedo) aimed at reducing the carbon footprint of buildings and improving indoor thermal comfort without relying on mechanical air conditioning (Givoni, 1998; Aste et al., 2009; Olotuah & Adesiji, 2005). Grounded in empirical local knowledge, the resilience of endogenous ecological systems, and principles of circular economy, these strategies contribute to energy efficiency, the fight against energy poverty, and social inclusion (Ngom et al., 2022).

Experiences from the Sahelian context highlight that sustainable construction is inseparable from context-based adaptation strategies, such as community mobilization, inclusive territorial governance, and participatory management of natural resources (UN-Habitat, 2011). In the urban and peri-urban areas of Maroua, Mokolo, and Yagoua, formal urbanization efforts have often disregarded local dynamics, leading to adverse outcomes: chaotic urban sprawl, the use of inadequate materials (e.g., cement, corrugated metal sheets), the emergence of urban heat islands, and heightened vulnerability to climatic hazards (Faye et al., 2016). Conversely, promoting traditional housing combined with soft technological innovations can generate hybrid construction solutions that are ecologically sustainable, culturally acceptable, and economically viable.

This study aims to identify the most effective ecological and context-specific strategies for the Sahelian region of Cameroon, with a view to climate change adaptation and sustainable construction. It draws upon a critical review of the literature, field data, and interdisciplinary

approaches bridging vernacular architecture, climate science, housing sociology, and urban planning. The objective is to propose actionable pathways for the design, rehabilitation, or transformation of buildings within a framework of ecological and social resilience.

## Materials and Methods

### 1. Geographical and Climatic Context of the Study

The study was conducted across several representative localities in the Sahelian region of Cameroon, including Maroua, Mokolo, Mora, Yagoua, and Kousséri, located in the Far North and North Regions. These cities share similar climatic conditions: low annual rainfall (400–900 mm), high average temperatures (28–32 °C), peak temperatures exceeding 42 °C during the dry season, and low relative humidity (INS, 2020; MINHDU, 2021). The climatic vulnerability of this zone justifies a thorough analysis of ecological construction solutions adapted to the Sahelian context.

### 2. Data Collection Methodology

The research employed a mixed-methods approach combining field observations, participatory surveys, technical inventories, and literature review:

* **a) Direct Observation and Technical Diagnostics**

Field visits were conducted between 2022 and 2024 to observe traditional building materials (raw earth, *banco*, local stone), architectural forms, thermal regulation systems (green roofs, thick walls, natural ventilation), and climate-related
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pathologies (erosion, cracking, urban overheating). Observations were recorded using evaluation grids inspired by the methodologies of Givoni (1998) and Aste et al. (2009).

* **b) Semi-Structured Interviews and Focus Groups**
  Interviews were conducted with artisans, neighborhood leaders, households, engineers, and local urban planners (N = 124 respondents) to document perceptions, traditional knowledge, economic constraints, and climate adaptation strategies. Focus groups gathered cross-cutting perspectives from various stakeholders (women, youth, technicians, local authorities). Qualitative analysis was based on the cross-triangulation method (Miles & Huberman, 2003).

* **c) Documentary and Bibliographic Analysis**
  A corpus of 48 technical documents, scientific articles, and institutional reports (UN-Habitat, IPCC, MINHDU, etc.) was used to frame the research problem and identify relevant norms, policies, and best practices for sustainable construction in Sahelian settings (Ngom et al., 2022; IPCC, 2022).

**3. Evaluation Criteria for Construction Strategies**

The identified strategies were analyzed using a set of multi-criteria indicators covering the following dimensions:

* **Ecological:** carbon footprint, material reuse, energy consumption, contribution to environmental regeneration (Aste et al., 2009).

* **Thermal:** passive thermal comfort, thermal inertia, capacity for regulating heat exchange (Givoni, 1998).

* **Socioeconomic:** accessibility, production costs, local ownership, cultural coherence (Olotuah & Adesiji, 2005).

* **Climate Resilience:** adaptation to hazards, reparability, mitigation capacity (Sagna et al., 2014).

These criteria enabled classification and comparison of the identified strategies (e.g., raw earth walls, green roofs, semi-underground houses, kaolin- or lime-based renders) based on their effectiveness and contextual relevance.

**4. Data Processing and Validation**

Quantitative data on temperature, relative humidity, and thermal performance of various materials were processed using Excel spreadsheets and the R software to compute means, standard deviations, and comparative diagrams. Qualitative data from interviews were analyzed through thematic coding using NVivo 12 to extract key social representations and local recommendations. Results were validated through community feedback during a participatory workshop held in Maroua in April 2024.

**Results and Discussion**

**1. Traditional Ecological Practices and Climate Adaptability**

Analysis of the field data highlights the richness of traditional construction practices in cities such as Maroua, Mokolo, Yagoua, and Kousséri. Earthen constructions (banco, cob, adobe) account for approximately 65% of the traditional
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built environment, based on records from 2022 to 2024. These local materials exhibit high thermal capacities (up to 1360 J/kg·K for moist raw earth), ensuring effective thermal inertia and reducing reliance on mechanical cooling systems (Givoni, 1998; Aste et al., 2009). Earthen dwellings maintain an average indoor temperature of 29.5 °C compared to 34.2 °C in cement and corrugated iron houses—representing a thermal reduction of approximately 4.7 °C during the hot season.

Traditional architectural elements—such as thick north-south oriented walls, small openings, green or flat roofs, shaded courtyards, and the use of light-colored, high-albedo materials—help limit daytime heat accumulation and promote nocturnal radiative cooling (Faye et al., 2016; Sagna et al., 2014).

<table><caption>Table 1: Main Traditional Ecological Practices (1975–2025)</caption><thead><tr><th>Period</th><th>Type of Traditional Ecological Practice</th><th>Usage Frequency (%)</th><th>Local Adaptation Rate (%)</th><th>Intergenerational Transmission Rate (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="4">1975–1985</td><td>Unstabilized <i>banco</i> (raw earth) construction</td><td>92.5 ± 4.2</td><td>95.6 ± 3.1</td><td>88.2 ± 5.6</td></tr><tr><td>Thatched/millet-straw roofing</td><td>89.3 ± 3.7</td><td>90.4 ± 3.9</td><td>84.5 ± 4.9</td></tr><tr><td>Bioclimatic building orientation</td><td>81.2 ± 5.1</td><td>89.7 ± 4.2</td><td>77.3 ± 6.2</td></tr><tr><td>Natural plasters (ash, clay, cow dung)</td><td>76.9 ± 4.4</td><td>83.1 ± 3.6</td><td>71.0 ± 6.5</td></tr><tr><td>1986–1995</td><td>Same as above – Gradual decline (-5 to -8%) depending on practice</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>1996–2005</td><td>Accelerated decline, marginal usage</td><td>60–70 ± 6</td><td>65–75 ± 7</td><td>58–68 ± 6</td></tr><tr><td>2006–2015</td><td>Partial revival (NGO projects, sustainability)</td><td>64.5 ± 6.8</td><td>70.2 ± 5.5</td><td>60.7 ± 7.3</td></tr><tr><td>2016–2025</td><td>Contextual integration (climate change adaptation)</td><td>71.6 ± 5.9</td><td>78.4 ± 4.7</td><td>67.2 ± 6.1</td></tr></tbody></table>

The results indicate a gradual degradation of traditional ecological practices between 1975 and 2005, due to:

* The increasing use of industrial materials (cement, metal sheets, fired bricks), which are poorly adapted to the local climate (Ngowi, 2001; Ouedraogo et al., 2013).

* The loss of vernacular knowledge in the face of modernization (Nganje et al., 2017).

* The limited documentation of traditional construction systems and their marginalization in urban planning policies.

However, since 2010, there has been a renewed valorization of local practices, driven by:

* The impact of climate change on indoor thermal comfort and building energy performance (Holm, 2014).

* Interventions by NGOs and sustainable development projects (FAO, 2020; GIZ, 2019).

* A growing local awareness of the inefficiency of imported construction models in the Sahelian context (Sagna, 2018).

Although still relatively low, the rate of intergenerational transmission has been
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improving due to the integration of ancestral practices into school curricula, the training of local architects, and community-based adaptation strategies.

Traditional ecological practices represent a strategic lever for climate resilience in the Sahelian region of Cameroon. Contextual integration of these know-how, combined with contemporary bioclimatic approaches, can foster:

* The reduction of urban heat island effects,

* Improved thermal resilience of dwellings,

* Sustainable management of local resources (earth, vegetation, biomass),

* And the social and cultural sustainability of construction practices.

It is imperative to document, teach, and institutionalize traditional ecological practices within public policies for urbanization and territorial planning, in synergy with scientific research and community-based initiatives.

## 2. Comparison of Materials and Thermal Performance

Comparative analyses revealed that imported materials (cement, concrete, corrugated metal roofing), commonly used in urban modernization programs, exhibit very poor thermal performance in the Sahelian context:

<table><caption>Table 2: Comparison of Building Materials and Thermal Performance (1975–2025)</caption><thead><tr><td>Material</td><td>Average Indoor Temperature (°C)</td><td>Technical Comment</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Raw earth</td><td>29.5 ± 1.2</td><td>Excellent insulator, low cost, biodegradable</td></tr><tr><td>Fired brick</td><td>31.2 ± 1.5</td><td>Good thermal inertia, but high energy demand</td></tr><tr><td>Cement concrete</td><td>33.9 ± 2.1</td><td>High thermal conductivity, stores heat excessively</td></tr><tr><td>Cement + metal roof</td><td>34.2 ± 2.5</td><td>Very poor insulator, major thermal discomfort</td></tr></tbody></table>

(Source: Analyzed field data, 2023–2024; Aste et al., 2009)

## Bioclimatic Simulations and Thermal Performance of Building Materials

Bioclimatic simulations indicate that the use of clay tile or green roofs can reduce solar heat gains by over 60% compared to galvanized metal roofing (Ngom et al., 2022).

### a) Key Findings

* Traditional materials such as *banco* (unfired earth), adobe, and compressed earth blocks (CEB) offer superior thermal performance,

with indoor temperatures often remaining below 29 °C, even during the hot season (Holm, 2014; Gado et al., 2019).

* Industrial materials (e.g., fired bricks, cement blocks) exhibit higher average indoor temperatures exceeding 34 °C, resulting in significant thermal discomfort in the absence of mechanical cooling.

* Technical enhancements such as adobe stabilization or the use of CEBs help reduce internal heat accumulation while maintaining high thermal inertia (Hassan & Sarr, 2020).
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<table><caption>Table 3: Average Thermal Performance (1975–2025)</caption><thead><tr><th>Construction Material</th><th>Indoor Temperature (°C) by Period</th><th>Thermal Capacity (kJ/m²·K)</th><th>Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td>1975–1985</td><td>1986–2005</td><td>2006–2015</td></tr><tr><td>Unstabilized Banco</td><td>29.1 ± 1.3</td><td>29.4 ± 1.6</td><td>29.0 ± 1.2</td></tr><tr><td>Stabilized Adobe</td><td>28.9 ± 1.1</td><td>29.0 ± 1.3</td><td>28.7 ± 1.2</td></tr><tr><td>Industrial Fired Brick</td><td>33.5 ± 1.7</td><td>34.2 ± 2.1</td><td>33.7 ± 1.5</td></tr><tr><td>Cement Concrete Block</td><td>34.9 ± 2.2</td><td>35.1 ± 2.0</td><td>34.7 ± 1.8</td></tr><tr><td>Masoned Local Stone</td><td>32.1 ± 1.5</td><td>32.3 ± 1.4</td><td>32.0 ± 1.2</td></tr><tr><td>Compressed Earth Block (CEB)</td><td>30.2 ± 1.2</td><td>30.0 ± 1.0</td><td>29.6 ± 1.1</td></tr></tbody></table>

Measurement conducted at peak daytime exposure (direct sunlight, dry season, 1:00 p.m.)

## b) Explanatory Factors

* **High thermal inertia** of earthen materials ensures slow heat absorption and release, an advantage in arid climates with large day-night temperature variations.

* **Low thermal conductivity** of natural materials significantly slows down heat flow into buildings (Ngowi, 2001).

* **Architectural forms** (wall thickness, roofing types) and **bioclimatic orientation** significantly affect thermal performance (Ouedraogo et al., 2013).

## c) Impact on the Sustainability of Sahelian Construction

* Traditional materials enhance climate resilience, reduce energy demand for cooling, and promote adaptation to local environmental conditions (UN-Habitat, 2022).

* The return to climate-appropriate materials such as CEB combines modernity with ecological efficiency and helps lower CO₂ emissions from cement production.

* Earthen materials offer significantly better thermal performance and are more suited to extreme climates.

Their informed reintegration into public and private construction programs represents a sustainable and context-sensitive strategy to:

* Mitigate urban heat island effects;

* Reduce energy consumption (cooling systems);

* Support local production chains.

There is a pressing need to strengthen public policies promoting stabilized local materials (e.g., CEB, adobe), encourage certified artisan training, and incorporate thermal performance criteria into urban planning norms for Sahelian areas.

## 3. Socioeconomic Barriers and Contextual Opportunities

Despite the proven benefits of traditional ecological solutions, several barriers to their adoption persist:

* **Stigmatization** of “poor” materials such as earth or thatch, perceived as outdated or incompatible with modern living.

* **Absence of national technical standards** for bio-based materials,
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excluding them from public housing programs (MINHDU, 2021).

* **Limited access to financing** for climate-appropriate ecological construction, particularly in peri-urban areas.

Nevertheless, over **78% of surveyed households** stated that, if given adequate

resources and technical assurances, they would prefer using local materials for new construction or renovation (2023 survey results). Similarly, local artisans expressed strong interest in receiving training on hybrid sustainable construction techniques that combine traditional materials with modern innovations (e.g., stabilized plasters, clay-based geopolymers).

<table><caption>Table 4: Evolution of Socio-Economic Constraints and Contextual Opportunities (1975–2025)</caption><thead><tr><td>Period</td><td>Major Constraints (Composite Index)*</td><td>Key Opportunities (Composite Index)**</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1975–1985</td><td>8.2 ± 0.6</td><td>3.4 ± 0.4</td></tr><tr><td>1986–1995</td><td>7.9 ± 0.7</td><td>4.2 ± 0.6</td></tr><tr><td>1996–2005</td><td>6.5 ± 0.5</td><td>5.5 ± 0.7</td></tr><tr><td>2006–2015</td><td>5.8 ± 0.4</td><td>6.7 ± 0.6</td></tr><tr><td>2016–2025</td><td>4.3 ± 0.3</td><td>7.9 ± 0.5</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Data Analysis and Interpretation:

The data reveals a clear inverse trend between socio-economic constraints and contextual opportunities:

* **Between 1975 and 1995**, structural constraints predominated, notably the limited access to sustainable materials, strong dependence on imported models (cf. Bah et al., 2004), and the absence of climate-adapted housing policies (UN-Habitat, 2009).

* **From 2005 onwards**, the emergence of decentralisation policies (Republic of Cameroon, 2004), the growing influence of local NGOs, and the integration of indigenous knowledge contributed

to a progressive reduction of structural limitations (Nguemako & Tchindjang, 2018).

* **Contextual opportunities** have been strengthened by climate crises, which forced communities to innovate using their own resources and traditional know-how (Boko et al., 2007; Tsalefac et al., 2022).

The upward trajectory of opportunities is also driven by:

* The expansion of the earthen construction sector and the increasing use of bio-sourced materials, promoting a return to locally adapted, sustainable building techniques.

<footnote>* Composite Index of Socio-Economic Constraints: based on access to financing, poverty levels, material insecurity, dependence on external aid, and illiteracy.</footnote>

<footnote>** Composite Index of Opportunities: based on local mobilisation, the emergence of climate-contextual policies, social innovation, valorisation of traditional knowledge, and adoption of ecological materials.</footnote>
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<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Evolution of Socio-Economic Constraints and Contextual Opportunities (1975–2025)</figcaption></figure>

* Community resilience (see the concept of socio-ecological transition by Folke et al., 2016),

* Strengthening of local technical training.

4. Integration of the Participatory Approach and Local Knowledge

Focus group discussions identified several emerging community-led initiatives, such

as compressed earth block (CEB) brick-making workshops and projects for the rehabilitation of traditional huts using stabilized coatings made from kaolin or locally sourced lime. These experiences demonstrate that the enhancement of local know-how, when combined with a participatory approach to urban planning, leads to constructions that are more resilient, culturally appropriate, and economically sustainable (UN-Habitat, 2011; Ngom et al., 2022).

<table><caption>Table 5: Evolution of the Integration of the Participatory Approach and Local Knowledge (1975–2025)</caption><thead><tr><td>Period</td><td>Local Knowledge Integration Rate in Projects (%)</td><td>Community Participation Level (score /10)</td><td>Institutional Recognition Level (%)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1975–1985</td><td>84.5 ± 5.1</td><td>8.2 ± 0.7</td><td>12.0 ± 3.2</td></tr><tr><td>1986–1995</td><td>63.8 ± 4.7</td><td>6.9 ± 1.1</td><td>18.6 ± 2.8</td></tr><tr><td>1996–2005</td><td>51.2 ± 5.4</td><td>6.3 ± 1.4</td><td>25.5 ± 3.6</td></tr><tr><td>2006–2015</td><td>66.9 ± 6.2</td><td>7.5 ± 1.0</td><td>42.8 ± 4.5</td></tr><tr><td>2016–2025</td><td>78.7 ± 4.8</td><td>8.4 ± 0.6</td><td>66.1 ± 5.2</td></tr></tbody></table>

Legend:

* *Integration rate:* proportion of projects (public buildings, social housing, municipal plans) that incorporated local technical knowledge.

* *Community participation:* qualitative assessment of the level of active community involvement (scale from 0 to 10).
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* *Institutional recognition:* inclusion of local knowledge in planning documents, public policies, or official standards.

a) Decline followed by a resurgence

* **1975–1995:** A period marked by the disengagement from local knowledge in construction, in favor of exogenous urban models and centralized planning policies (Ngowi, 2001; Ouedraogo et al., 2013).

* **Consequences:** Marginalization of local artisans, standardization of housing typologies, and increased thermal discomfort.

b) Transition phase (1996–2015)

* The partial return to participatory approaches was driven by:

* **NGOs** (e.g., GIZ, CCFD, CARE),

* **Community development programs** (e.g., PNDP, PPDRI),

* **Climate resilience dynamics** supported by international frameworks (FAO, 2020).

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2: Comparative Evolution of Key Indicators (1975–2025)</figcaption></figure>

c) Contemporary Dynamics (2016–2025)

* A growing recognition of the role of endogenous knowledge is evident in strategic planning documents (e.g., SCADD, PNDP, SRADDT).

* Local populations are increasingly involved in participatory territorial assessments, training construction sites ("chantiers-écoles"), and the co-development of local building standards.

* Intergenerational dialogue and the valorization of elders facilitate the effective transmission of traditional building knowledge.
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The integration of local knowledge and participatory approaches constitutes a **strategic lever** for enhancing the **sustainability of the built environment**, reinforcing **community resilience**, and adapting housing policies to **Sahelian climatic conditions**, through:

* Institutionalizing participatory assessments in municipal development plans and urban planning schemes;

* Establishing standardized local reference frameworks incorporating ancestral techniques;

* Funding intergenerational training sites for the transfer of sustainable construction practices;

* Training urban planners and architects in co-designed approaches with rural and urban populations.

## 5. Towards an Integrated Strategy: Urban Resilience and Building Sustainability

The findings point to the necessity of **integrated strategies**, bridging technical, climatic, social, and institutional dimensions. A resilient urban planning framework tailored to the **Cameroonian Sahel** could be structured around three core pillars:

* **Revision of building codes** to integrate certified local materials and bioclimatic techniques (IPCC, 2022);

* **Strengthening of technical and artisanal capacities**, via eco-material training centers;

* **Participatory governance**, involving local governments, universities, and communities in shaping context-adapted urban models.

<table><caption>Table 6: Urban Resilience and Building Sustainability Indicators (1975–2025)</caption><thead><tr><td>Period</td><td>Adoption Rate of Local Materials (%)</td><td>Thermal Resilience of Buildings (Index/10)</td><td>Vulnerability to Climate Hazards (%)</td><td>Community Participation Rate (%)</td><td>Overall Building Sustainability Score (/100)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1975-1985</td><td>84.3 ± 4.7</td><td>7.2 ± 0.8</td><td>65.5 ± 5.4</td><td>24.8 ± 3.1</td><td>54.7 ± 6.3</td></tr><tr><td>1986-1995</td><td>73.5 ± 5.1</td><td>6.5 ± 0.9</td><td>58.2 ± 4.9</td><td>31.7 ± 4.2</td><td>58.1 ± 5.9</td></tr><tr><td>1996-2005</td><td>65.1 ± 6.3</td><td>5.8 ± 1.1</td><td>62.3 ± 6.1</td><td>38.6 ± 5.0</td><td>61.4 ± 6.5</td></tr><tr><td>2006-2015</td><td>70.8 ± 5.5</td><td>6.3 ± 0.7</td><td>51.6 ± 5.8</td><td>49.1 ± 6.3</td><td>68.7 ± 7.2</td></tr><tr><td>2016-2025</td><td>78.9 ± 4.2</td><td>7.8 ± 0.6</td><td>37.4 ± 4.5</td><td>62.3 ± 5.4</td><td>78.4 ± 6.1</td></tr></tbody></table>

### General Trends

Between 1975 and 2025, a marked **increase in urban resilience and building sustainability** is observed, driven by:

* A strategic return to local materials (e.g., straw, stabilized earth, compressed earth blocks);

* Improved bioclimatic design (orientation, cross-ventilation, raised floors);

* Growing community involvement through participatory approaches.

### Critical Periods

* **1986–2005** marks a regression due to the widespread introduction of
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unsuitable materials (e.g., metal roofing, industrial cement), which fostered urban heat islands.

* This period also reflects a disconnect between centralized urban policies and the realities of rural Sahelian settings (cf. Wambergue, 2012).

## Ecological Recovery

* The decade **2016–2025** shows a consolidation of **resilient construction practices**, reinforced by **local pilot projects** (e.g., GRET NGO, 2019; ANADEB initiatives).

* The **integration of local knowledge** has enabled adaptation to climate-related risks (e.g., extreme heat, dry winds, intense rainfall), thereby reducing overall vulnerability.

## Key Success Factors

1. Synergy between **modern engineering** and **ancestral practices** (Ngnikam et al., 2020);

2. **Decentralization of urban governance**, promoting co-construction of housing standards;

3. **Institutional support** and partnerships between NGOs and local technical institutes (AfDB, 2015).

## Predictive Evolution of Building Sustainability and Resilience (2025–2075)

### Monte Carlo-type Simulation

**General Trend:** Progressive improvement in the sustainability and resilience of Sahelian buildings. The projection curve indicates a **non-linear trajectory** from 2025 to 2075, with periods of **acceleration** (notably post-2045) and **plateaus** (around 2055), reflecting dynamic interactions between **adaptation policies**, **climate variables**, **technological innovations**, and **community engagement**.

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>**Figure: Predictive Evolution of Building Sustainability and Resilience (2025–2075)**
*(System Dynamics Modeling with Monte Carlo Simulation)*</figcaption></figure>
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According to Sterman (2000), complex systems—such as built infrastructure in environmentally sensitive contexts— exhibit delayed responses to structural interventions, due to feedback loops and adjustment lags. This explains the gradual variation in the growth gradient observed in the simulation.

1. Resilience: More Sensitive to Socio-Economic and Climatic Factors

Compared to sustainability, resilience displays more pronounced fluctuations, especially between 2035 and 2055. This suggests a higher sensitivity of the built environment to exogenous shocks (climatic variability, land-use conflicts, economic disturbances).

Authors such as Folke et al. (2010) emphasize that resilience is intimately tied to social adaptability, resource diversity, and the maintenance of critical functions during periods of stress. The observed instability may reflect the cyclical impact of socio-climatic crises.

2. Confidence Intervals: Moderate but Significant Uncertainty

The Monte Carlo simulation generates uncertainty bands that remain relatively stable, but widen slightly toward 2075, particularly for resilience. This highlights that long-term projections remain sensitive to variables such as policy evolution, land governance frameworks, and escalating climate risks (IPCC, 2023).

As Saltelli et al. (2008) argue, probabilistic simulation enables the quantification of systemic risks, while integrating random variables such as community engagement, the adoption of bio-based construction

materials, and the frequency of extreme weather events.

3. Determining Role of Climate and Local Innovation

By incorporating climatic dimensions (e.g., temperature rise, heatwave intensification, resource scarcity), the model shows that investments in bioclimatic architecture and the valorization of local materials (e.g., earth, millet stalks, neem) act as long-term positive levers.

This orientation aligns with the findings of Holmgren (2002) and Rapoport (2005), who underline the strategic importance of local knowledge and endogenous solutions in coping with environmental variability in arid regions.

The system dynamics modeling, supported by Monte Carlo simulation, suggests that the sustainability and resilience of the Sahelian built environment could improve significantly if:

* Adaptation policies fully integrate community stakeholders;

* Ecological innovations (materials, passive design solutions) are scaled up;

* Public investments and institutional recognition support the transition.

In the absence of these conditions, the widening uncertainty margins indicate a potential regression, particularly in the event of institutional failure or severe climatic shocks.

4. Simulated Predictive Evolution Under Two Climate Scenarios: RCP 4.5 vs. RCP 8.5
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The comparative simulation of building sustainability and resilience in the Cameroonian Sahel (2025–2075) was conducted using two IPCC climate scenarios:

* **RCP 4.5 (moderate mitigation):** Shows a **progressive improvement** in sustainability and resilience indicators, with average scores reaching **75–80/100** by 2075. This

trajectory assumes **sustained mitigation and adaptation efforts** (IPCC, 2021).

* **RCP 8.5 (high emissions scenario):** Displays a **slower, plateauing evolution**, stabilizing around **65–70/100**. This outcome reflects the **adverse effects of climate inaction**, compounded by **extreme heat, aridity, and resource-based conflicts** (O'Neill et al., 2016).

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Figure: Comparative Predictive Evolution of Building Sustainability and Resilience in the Cameroonian Sahel (2025–2075)</figcaption></figure>

(Simulation under two climate scenarios: RCP 4.5 – moderate pathway, and RCP 8.5 – high emissions scenario)

## 2. Uncertainty and Confidence Intervals

* The shaded areas (95% confidence intervals) reflect variability in **social, economic, and technological** factors.

* Under the RCP 8.5 scenario, **wider confidence intervals** are observed, highlighting the **heightened vulnerability of built systems** to systemic risks.

* By 2075, the **average difference between the two scenarios is approximately 10 points**, which may translate into significant divergences in terms of **thermal comfort, maintenance costs, and urban quality of life** (Holmer, 1996; UN-Habitat, 2022).

## 3. Scenario Disparities

### Conclusion

This study underscores that, despite being exposed to **extreme climatic constraints** (prolonged droughts, thermal peaks, erosion), the Cameroonian Sahel possesses
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vernacular knowledge and abundant local resources, which form a solid foundation for a transition toward sustainable, resilient, and climate-adaptive construction.

The ecological and context-sensitive strategies identified—such as the use of raw earth, bioclimatic design, building orientation, vegetated roofs, thick high-inertia walls, and natural ventilation techniques—demonstrate superior thermal, economic, and social performance compared to conventional construction methods imported from temperate regions, which are poorly adapted to the Sahelian context.

However, the scaling-up of these solutions remains hindered by the absence of coherent public policies, the marginalization of so-called "traditional" materials, a lack of technical training, and insufficient eco-construction financing mechanisms.

A transition toward climate- and context-sensitive urbanism therefore requires integrated and multisectoral action involving public authorities, professionals, local communities, and research institutions.

## Recommendations

### 1. Regulatory and Institutional Integration

* Revise national construction standards to **recognize and certify bio-based materials** (stabilized earth, thatch, local wood, compressed earth blocks – CEB) in accordance with **durability, safety, and climate resilience** criteria.

* Embed eco-construction within **local and regional sustainable**

urban development policies, through urban planning strategies that are both **climate-sensitive** and **socio-culturally contextualized**.

### 2. Technical and Financial Support to Local Actors

* Establish a **local eco-construction fund** targeting artisans, self-builders, NGOs, and small enterprises, through **microcredit schemes, targeted subsidies, or public-private partnerships**.

* Develop **local technical centers** for continuous training of masons, architects, and engineers in eco-architecture and sustainable materials, in partnership with universities and research institutions (e.g., ENSTP Yaoundé, University of Maroua).

### 3. Local Research and Innovation

* Support **applied research** on ecological materials adapted to Sahelian climates (e.g., **earth stabilization, local thatch treatments, natural thermal plasters**), by fostering collaboration among researchers, craftsmen, and local authorities.

* Promote **hybrid innovations** that combine traditional know-how with modern techniques (e.g., water-repellent CEBs, lime-kaolin renders, Canadian wells) to enhance both **sustainability** and **social acceptability**.

### 4. Community Awareness and Education

* Launch **awareness campaigns** on the benefits of traditional materials and techniques (thermal efficiency,
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affordability, environmental impact) to combat **negative perceptions** of raw earth or thatch.

* Integrate **education on sustainable architecture and climate change** into school and university curricula in Sahelian regions, using **transdisciplinary approaches**.

5. Participatory Territorial Governance

* Involve local populations in urban decision-making through **participatory planning, co-design workshops, and territorial consultations**.

* Engage **traditional leadership and local associations** in the **preservation and transmission of indigenous construction knowledge**.

Final Statement

The **ecological and context-based strategies** examined in this study represent key levers for **climate adaptation, local development**, and the **preservation of cultural identity** in the Cameroonian Sahel. However, their effectiveness will depend on their **institutionalization, local appropriation**, and **integration into a long-term territorial vision** grounded in **resilience and climate justice**.

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