Physicochemical, texture, thermal, and rheological
properties of Pakistani rice grains

Shahzad Hussain, Abdulrahman Alahmed, Farah Shamim, Abdellatif A Mohamed, Mohsin Ali Raza, Mohamed A Ibraheem, Syed Sultan Ali, Aamir Shehzad

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Shahzad Hussain, Abdulrahman Alahmed, Farah Shamim, Abdellatif A Mohamed, Mohsin Ali Raza, et al.. Physicochemical, texture, thermal, and rheological properties of Pakistani rice grains. International Journal of Food Properties, 2025, 28, 10.1080/10942912.2025.2544790. hal-05421936

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# Physicochemical, texture, thermal, and rheological properties of Pakistani rice grains

Shahzad Hussain, Abdulrahman Alahmed, Farah Shamim, Abdellatif A. Mohamed, Mohsin Ali Raza, Mohamed A. Ibraheem, Syed Sultan Ali & Aamir Shehzad

**To cite this article:** Shahzad Hussain, Abdulrahman Alahmed, Farah Shamim, Abdellatif A. Mohamed, Mohsin Ali Raza, Mohamed A. Ibraheem, Syed Sultan Ali & Aamir Shehzad (2025) Physicochemical, texture, thermal, and rheological properties of Pakistani rice grains, *International Journal of Food Properties*, 28:1, 2544790, DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2025.2544790

**To link to this article:** https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2025.2544790

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Published with license by Taylor & Francis
Group, LLC.© 2025 Shahzad Hussain,
Abdulrahman Alahmed, Farah Shamim,
Abdellatif A. Mohamed, Mohsin Ali Raza,
Mohamed A. Ibraheem, Syed Sultan Ali and
Aamir Shehzad

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during gelatinization. This swelling helps to repair any existing faults in the grains. Furthermore, the pre-gelatinization of starch leads to an increase in head rice yield, improved grain translucency, and a decrease in chalkiness.[13,14] Some examples of chemical changes include a lower glycemic index, a high quantity of resistant starch, and high levels of vitamin B.[15] Additionally, certain types of customers are drawn to the aromatic and textural aspects that are created by parboiling.[16] The amount of amylose in rice flour is linked to gel formation,[17] and the crystalline shape of starch is based on the amount of amylose in rice flour. The amount of amylose in gel is positively related to its hardness but negatively related to its ability to swell, dissolve, and stick to other components. The amount of starch, protein, and lipids in rice flour also had a big effect on its ability to stick together, form a gel, and break down.[18]

The rheological properties and culinary attributes of rice exhibit significant variations based on factors such as the variety, starch gelatinization, and amylose level. It is evident that differences in the types of unprocessed rice might impact the overall quality of food items made from it.[19] Srichuwong et al.[20] reported that amylopectin with shorter branch chains resulted in a decreased gelatinization temperature. So, the lower gelatinization temperature in some rice types is related to having less amylose and more shorter-chain amylopectin branches, compared to other types that have more amylose and longer amylopectin.[18]

The shape and compactness of rice starch granules have a significant impact on the gelatinization process. When the starch swells less during this process, it results in a lower peak viscosity of the starch paste.[21] The degradation and hindrance of starch are crucial factors that determine its cooking characteristics including peak viscosity. A higher peak viscosity and breakdown, along with a lower setback value, enhance the quality of the grain. These features suggest the presence of a soft gel, which contributes to improved flavor.[22] Rice cultivars classed as inferior quality varieties have lower breakdown value, peak viscosity, and aroma measurement values.[23] Basmati is a cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain rice cultivated in the Kallar Tract, which spans both sides of the Pakistani and Indian border, with distinctive qualities like basmati fragrance, moderate amylose content, moderate gelatinization temperature, and a soft gel exhibiting about double elongation while cooking. It possesses a distinctive fluffiness and flavor. Long-grain non-basmati type kernels are elongated, measuring three to four times their width. The cooked grains are distinct, resilient, and airy, rendering them appropriate for preparations such as pilafs and biryanis. It is rice that lacks distinctive aroma and flavor. Nevertheless, the other characteristics may resemble those of basmati rice. Coarse or medium-grain rice possesses a shorter, broader kernel, whereas short-grain rice features a short, stout, nearly spherical kernel. Medium- and short-grain rice yield cooked grains that are moist, soft, and tend to adhere to one another. Medium or coarse grain rice is utilized for puddings.[24] Current research was undertaken to emphasize the important properties (physicochemical, textural, thermal, pasting, and rheological) of some well-known varieties commonly cultivated in Pakistan. In light of the fact that Pakistani rice is in high demand on a global scale, it is of the utmost importance to carry out such profiling to help both importers and consumers in picking the varieties that are best suited to fulfill their specific needs.

# Materials and methods

## Collection of rice grains

Fifteen rice varieties (9 basmati type, long grain), (2 non-basmati type, long grain) and (4, coarse grain) were obtained from the Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, Pakistan. The rice varieties were chosen based on their economic production and export potential across various global locations (Table 1). The samples (minimum 1000 g) were collected from the freshly harvested pure verities and stored in airtight containers at refrigerated temperature until further use.

## Physicochemical characterization of rice grains

The rice grains were examined for their physical and chemical properties, such as amylose, protein, weight of 1000 grains, actual grain length, cooked grain length, elongation ratio, alkali spreading ratio, and bursting percentages, following standard methods.[25] For average grain length, 10 randomly selected whole kernels of rice in three sets were taken. The average of 10 such observations was taken for final reading in millimeter
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Table 1. Rice varieties and their characteristics.</figcaption></figure>

<table><thead><tr><td></td><td>Type</td><td>Charateritics</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Super basmati</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-515</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>Kissan basmati</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>Punjab basmati</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>Chenab basmati</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>Super gold</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-2000</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>Super basmati-2019</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>PK 2021 aromatic</td><td>Long grain basmati</td><td>cylindrical, long, and extra-long grain, aroma</td></tr><tr><td>PK 1121 aromatic</td><td>long grain- non-basmati</td><td>elongated, lacks aroma</td></tr><tr><td>PK-386</td><td>long grain- non-basmati</td><td>elongated, lacks aroma</td></tr><tr><td>SK-434</td><td>Coarse</td><td>shorter, broader kernel</td></tr><tr><td>SK-133</td><td>Coarse</td><td>shorter, broader kernel</td></tr><tr><td>KS-282</td><td>Coarse</td><td>shorter, broader kernel</td></tr><tr><td>IR-6</td><td>Coarse</td><td>shorter, broader kernel</td></tr></tbody></table>

(mm) using IP67 Vernier Caliper, Insize, Suzhou New District, China. To find out how long the cooked rice grains are, we measured the length of 10 whole rice kernels after cooking them at 100 ± 2°C for 5 minutes using a micro-scale, and then we calculated the average length in millimeters (mm). The kernel elongation ratio was found by dividing the average length of the cooked kernels by the average length of the raw (uncooked) rice. The grains were soaked in 1.7% KOH for 23 hours at 32 ± 2°C and rated on a 7-point scale, where lower scores mean higher gelatinization temperatures. The kernel elongation ratio was calculated by dividing the average length of the cooked kernel by the average length of the raw (uncooked) rice. Grains were incubated in 1.7% KOH for 23 h at 32 ± 2°C and scored on a 7-point scale, with lower values indicating higher gelatinization temperatures. The grains were carefully separated from each other and incubated at ambient temperature for 23 h to allow the spreading of the grains. Grains swollen to the extent of a cottony center and a cloudy collar were given an alkali spread value (ASV) score of 4 and used as a reference for scoring the rest of the samples in the population. Grains that were unaffected were given an ASV of 1, and grains that were dispersed and disappeared completely were given a score of 7. A low ASV corresponds to a high gelatinization temperature; conversely, a high ASV indicates a low GT.[26] Amylose content (AC) of milled rice samples was measured using an automatic grain analyzer (AN-900 KETT, Kett Electric Laboratory Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) following the principle of NIRT. 20 g sample of each variety were placed in sample Cassette. Sample case was placed in the analyzer opening and amylose and protein reading was recorded from the display screen. A reference sample of known value was used for calibration purposes.

## Milling of rice grains

The rice grains were milled using the Perten Laboratory Mill 3100 (Perten Instruments, Hägersten, Sweden). Rice flour was sieved using a 60 mesh (250 µm) sieve and kept at 4°C in airtight containers until future use.

## Pasting properties of rice flour

Pasting properties of rice flours were investigated using a rapid visco analyzer (RVA, Newport Scientific, Sydney, Australia). Rice flour (3 g at 14% moisture basis) was mixed with distilled water (25 mL) in aluminum cans to weigh 28 g overall. The slurry was heated to 95°C in 4.40 min (at 10.23°C/min), incubated for 4 min at 95°C, then cooled to 50°C in 4.40 min and incubated for 2 min at 50°C. Data processing for pasting parameters, including peak viscosity (PV), final viscosity (FV), setback viscosity (SB), and pasting temperature (PT), was accomplished using thermocline window software included with the equipment.[27]

## Gel texture of rice flour

After the RVA experiment, the rice flour gels were stored at room temperature overnight in aluminum containers with a 35 mm height and a 30 mm internal diameter. The gels were pressed down twice at a speed
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /></figure>

of 0.5 mm/s until they were 10 mm deep using a Brookfield CT3 Texture Analyzer with a cylindrical probe that is 12.7 mm wide and 35 mm long. Chewiness was calculated as a product of gumminess and springiness, while textural parameters such as gel hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and adhesiveness were directly measured.[28]

## Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

DSC was used to examine the thermal behavior of rice flour samples (Q 2000, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA). The DSC was calibrated utilizing indium following the establishment of a reference point with an empty aluminum container. Samples (6–8 mg) and 10 µL of distilled water were added to aluminum pans. After being hermetically sealed, the pans were allowed to equilibrate for 4 h at ambient temperature. We used an empty pan as a reference cell. At a rate of 10°C/min, thermal scanning of sealed samples was done in a temperature range of 25 to 110°C. The onset temperature (OT), peak temperature (PT), and enthalpy ΔH (J/g) for the main melting peak and for the amylose lipid complex (ALC) associated second peak were all calculated using the Universal Analysis Software.[29]

## Steady shear, dynamic rheology and activation energy

A DHR-Hybrid Rheometer (TA Instruments, New Castle, PA, USA) was used to perform dynamic rheology measurements on RVA-cooked rice flour samples utilizing a frequency sweep test at angular frequencies ranging from 0.1 to 100 rad/s and a strain of 5%. The experimental data covered storage modulus (G'), loss modulus (G''), and dynamic mechanical loss tangent (tanδ = G''/G').

The cooked starch gels' steady shear behaviors (shear rate versus shear stress) and temperature dependence (30, 40, and 50°C) were measured at shear rates ranging from 1 to 100/s. The data were fitted to the power law model Equation (1).

$$ \tau = k\gamma^n \qquad (1) $$

where, τ = shear stress (10 dyn/cm²), K = consistency coefficient (Pa·sⁿ), γ = shear rate (s⁻¹), and n = flow behavior index (dimensionless).

The Arrhenius-type model in the form of Equation (2) was used to study the impact of temperature (30, 40, and 50°C) on the flow consistency index of rice gels at a shear rate of 1–100 s⁻¹.

$$ \ln\mu = \ln A - \frac{E_a}{R} \frac{1}{T} \qquad (2) $$

Where μ is the apparent viscosity (Pa·sⁿ) at 100 s⁻¹ at the measurement temperature, A is the pre-exponential factor, Ea is the activation energy (J/mol), R is the universal gas constant (8.314 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹), and T is the absolute temperature (Kelvins). Ea was estimated for each treatment using a linear regression analysis (Sigma plot Software, Grafiti 405 Waverley St Palo Alto, CA 94,301 m USA) of ln μ vs. 1/T.

## Statistical analysis

All the measurements were performed in triplicate and analyzed using a one-way ANOVA. Duncan's multiple range test (p ≤ .05) was used to compare means in the PASW* Statistics 18 application (SPSS Inc., Hong Kong, China).

## Results and discussion

### Physiochemical analysis

Data presented in Tables 2 and 3 is related to the physicochemical characterization of different rice varieties. Amylose contents ranged from 22.60 to 30.53% for Punjab basmati and KS-282. Interestingly, a significant disparity in amylose content was observed between the basmati and coarse rice varieties. Amylose content in rice grains is reported to vary and influence the chewing characteristics, taste, and end use.[30–32]
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>**Table 2.** Amylose content, protein content and 1000 kernel weight of rice grains.</figcaption></figure>

<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Amylose %</th><th>Protein %</th><th>1000 kernel<br>Weight (g)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Super basmati</td><td>23.47 ± 0.50<sup>ef</sup></td><td>7.30 ± 0.08<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>46.91 ± 1.01<sup>bc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-515</td><td>24.00 ± 0.22<sup>cdef</sup></td><td>7.20 ± 0.08<sup>bcde</sup></td><td>44.19 ± 1.41<sup>defg</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Kissan basmati</td><td>24.13 ± 0.17<sup>cde</sup></td><td>7.30 ± 0.08<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>66.33 ± 0.56<sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Punjab basmati</td><td>22.60 ± 0.64<sup>g</sup></td><td>7.01 ± 0.07<sup>e</sup></td><td>41.64 ± 1.01<sup>ghi</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Chenab basmati</td><td>23.27 ± 0.41<sup>fg</sup></td><td>7.43 ± 0.12<sup>ab</sup></td><td>43.43 ± 1.33<sup>efgh</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super gold</td><td>24.40 ± 0.37<sup>cd</sup></td><td>7.27 ± 0.09<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>45.38 ± 0.27<sup>bcde</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-2000</td><td>23.27 ± 0.26<sup>fg</sup></td><td>7.40 ± 0.08<sup>abc</sup></td><td>47.76 ± 2.12<sup>b</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super basmati-2019</td><td>23.43 ± 0.33<sup>ef</sup></td><td>7.27 ± 0.09<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>44.66 ± 1.92<sup>cdef</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 2021 aromatic</td><td>23.37 ± 0.33<sup>efg</sup></td><td>7.30 ± 0.08<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>46.48 ± 1.32<sup>bcd</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 1121 aromatic</td><td>24.80 ± 0.24<sup>c</sup></td><td>7.17 ± 0.12<sup>cde</sup></td><td>44.14 ± 0.22<sup>defg</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK-386</td><td>23.67 ± 0.25<sup>def</sup></td><td>7.47 ± 0.05<sup>a</sup></td><td>42.05 ± 1.23<sup>fghi</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KSK-434</td><td>29.37 ± 0.40<sup>b</sup></td><td>7.37 ± 0.09<sup>abc</sup></td><td>39.65 ± 1.05<sup>i</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KSK-133</td><td>30.27 ± 0.41<sup>a</sup></td><td>7.07 ± 0.17<sup>de</sup></td><td>42.88 ± 0.32<sup>efgh</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KS-282</td><td>30.53 ± 0.34<sup>a</sup></td><td>7.30 ± 0.08<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>45.41 ± 0.81<sup>bcde</sup></td></tr><tr><td>IR-6</td><td>29.80 ± 0.36<sup>ab</sup></td><td>7.23 ± 0.09<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>40.90 ± 0.13<sup>hi</sup></td></tr></tbody></table>

Mean carrying same letters in the columns for particular parameters are non-significantly different (one way ANOVA) from each other.

<table><caption>**Table 3.** Quality attributes of rice grains.</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Actual grain length<br>(mm)</th><th>Cooked grain length<br>(mm)</th><th>Elongation ratio</th><th>Alkali spreading value</th><th>Bursting<br>%</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Super basmati</td><td>7.46 ± 0.05<sup>de</sup></td><td>14.37 ± 0.07<sup>d</sup></td><td>1.93 ± 0.01<sup>e</sup></td><td>4.77 ± 0.12<sup>g</sup></td><td>2.67 ± 0.47<sup>abc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-515</td><td>7.39 ± 0.06<sup>e</sup></td><td>15.37 ± 0.43<sup>b</sup></td><td>2.08 ± 0.07<sup>a</sup></td><td>4.57 ± 0.09<sup>h</sup></td><td>3.00 ± 0.82<sup>abc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Kissan basmati</td><td>8.13 ± 0.04<sup>a</sup></td><td>16.61 ± 0.07<sup>a</sup></td><td>2.04 ± 0.01<sup>ab</sup></td><td>5.77 ± 0.12<sup>d</sup></td><td>4.00 ± 0.82<sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Punjab basmati</td><td>7.77 ± 0.04<sup>b</sup></td><td>14.19 ± 0.18<sup>de</sup></td><td>1.83 ± 0.01<sup>gh</sup></td><td>5.50 ± 0.08<sup>e</sup></td><td>2.67 ± 0.47<sup>abc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Chenab basmati</td><td>7.61 ± 0.09<sup>cd</sup></td><td>13.89 ± 0.05<sup>ef</sup></td><td>1.83 ± 0.02<sup>gh</sup></td><td>5.20 ± 0.08<sup>f</sup></td><td>1.33 ± 0.47<sup>c</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super gold</td><td>7.54 ± 0.04<sup>de</sup></td><td>13.99 ± 0.06<sup>ef</sup></td><td>1.86 ± 0.00<sup>f</sup></td><td>4.50 ± 0.08<sup>h</sup></td><td>2.67 ± 0.47<sup>abc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-2000</td><td>7.69 ± 0.05<sup>bc</sup></td><td>14.83 ± 0.08<sup>c</sup></td><td>1.93 ± 0.01<sup>e</sup></td><td>5.00 ± 0.08<sup>f</sup></td><td>3.00 ± 0.82<sup>abc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super basmati-2019</td><td>7.58 ± 0.05</td><td>15.00 ± 0.12<sup>c</sup></td><td>1.98 ± 0.02<sup>cd</sup></td><td>4.50 ± 0.08<sup>h</sup></td><td>2.33 ± 0.94<sup>abc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 2021 aromatic</td><td>8.22 ± 0.06<sup>a</sup></td><td>14.72 ± 0.10<sup>c</sup></td><td>1.79 ± 0.02<sup>h</sup></td><td>4.50 ± 0.14<sup>h</sup></td><td>1.67 ± 0.47<sup>c</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 1121 aromatic</td><td>8.23 ± 0.03<sup>a</sup></td><td>16.48 ± 0.07<sup>a</sup></td><td>2.00 ± 0.01<sup>bc</sup></td><td>5.07 ± 0.09<sup>f</sup></td><td>4.00 ± 0.82<sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK-386</td><td>7.05 ± 0.08<sup>fg</sup></td><td>13.70 ± 0.05<sup>f</sup></td><td>1.94 ± 0.03<sup>de</sup></td><td>4.47 ± 0.09<sup>h</sup></td><td>2.67 ± 0.47<sup>abc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KSK-434</td><td>7.01 ± 0.05<sup>g</sup></td><td>11.20 ± 0.06<sup>h</sup></td><td>1.60 ± 0.01<sup>j</sup></td><td>6.17 ± 0.05<sup>c</sup></td><td>3.67 ± 1.25<sup>ab</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KSK-133</td><td>7.08 ± 0.02<sup>fg</sup></td><td>12.24 ± 0.05<sup>g</sup></td><td>1.73 ± 0.01<sup>i</sup></td><td>6.37 ± 0.08<sup>b</sup></td><td>2.00 ± 0.82<sup>bc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KS-282</td><td>7.10 ± 0.05<sup>f</sup></td><td>12.13 ± 0.05<sup>g</sup></td><td>1.70 ± 0.02<sup>i</sup></td><td>6.57 ± 0.09<sup>a</sup></td><td>2.33 ± 0.47<sup>abc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>IR-6</td><td>6.60 ± 0.03<sup>h</sup></td><td>10.80 ± 0.09<sup>i</sup></td><td>1.64 ± 0.02<sup>j</sup></td><td>5.87 ± 0.05<sup>d</sup></td><td>2.67 ± 0.94<sup>abc</sup></td></tr></tbody></table>

Mean carrying same letters in the columns for particular parameters are non-significantly different (one way ANOVA) from each other.

varieties are generally divided into four groups based on the amount of amylose in the starch: waxy (up to 2%), very low (up to 9%), medium (up to 25%), and high (more than 25%).[33] Hence, according to this classification, the flour from coarse varieties could be considered as high amylose, whereas all the basmati varieties fall into the category of intermediate amylose. It is reported that rice cultivars with a higher percentage of amylose content present a greater volume expansion during the cooking process, and after cooking, they show a dry, less tender texture and turn hard easily upon cooling.[34] The grains with higher amylose content possess a higher content of resistant starch after cooking.[35] The rice with higher amylose contents also tends to have low gelatinization temperatures,[36] requires less cooking time,[37] and has a slower digestion rate.[38] The rice with lower amylose contents digests faster than the higher amylose counterparts.[39] This variation in the amylose contents could be attributed to genetic, agronomic, and environmental factors.

In the case of protein content, narrow variations were noticed between the studied rice varieties. The highest protein content was noticed for PK-386, with an average value of 7.47%, whereas the least (7.01%) was found in Punjab basmati flour. Proteins play a greater role in the nutritional value of the rice and contribute to the integrity of cooked rice. The variation in the protein contents in rice flour could be attributed to genetics, the growth environment, agronomic practices such as soil nutrients, and climatic conditions. The presence of protein greatly influences the taste of cooked rice by interfering with the starch gelatinization by water uptake.[40,41]

Thousand kernel weight (TKW) is a very useful criterion in estimating the quality of rice, as the rice weight is influenced by the shape and size of the rice grain. The highest TKW was noticed for Kissan Basmati with a mean weight of 66.33 g, while the least was presented by KSK-434. Generally, basmati rice
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

possesses a greater bulk density and results in higher TKW. The greater variation in the size, shape, and bulk density resulted in higher differences in the overall TKW among the rice cultivars. The apparent greater length of grain for Kissan Basmati explained the TKW, which was statistically higher than the coarse varieties. Previously, IR-8, a coarse African rice cultivar, depicted a greater TKW than Basmati-386.[42]

The grain length of the rice cultivars ranged from 7.01 mm for KSK-434, a coarse variety, to 8.23 mm for the PK-1121 aromatic variety. Similarly, the basmati-type cultivars depicted a significant enlargement after cooking, where an overall increment in the length was noticed from 4.20 to 8.48 mm for the respective coarse and basmati rice cultivars. However, the greatest improvement in the grain size was noticed for the Kissan Basmati, with 16.61 mm, which nearly spanned 2-folds in length. However, overall, the increase in length was less for the coarse rice varieties than the basmati varieties. The elongation ratio of rice cultivars defines their cooking and eating qualities; hence, Basmati rice is mostly preferred due to its elongated cylindrical shape. Similarly, Thind and Sogi[42] observed a greater elongation ratio for basmati-386 than for the coarse (IR-8) and fine (PR-106) varieties. The elongation ratio was highest for the Kissan basmati and Basmati-515, which showed a comparable elongation ratio. However, the maximum value for elongation ratio (1.73) was noticed for the KSK-133, which is higher than other coarse varieties, though all cultivars remained lower in elongation ratio. Butt et al.[43] reported a greater elongation ratio than the current observations with average values of 2.29 and 2.15 for Super Basmati and Basmati-385, respectively.

The alkali spreading value dictates the gelatinization temperature of starch in the rice flour, where it irreversibly swells and loses its crystallinity. The highest spread value of 6.57 was observed for the KS-282, and the least was noticed for the PK-386. The lower alkali spread value of basmati could be related to higher gelatinization temperatures. The temperature and storage of the rice cultivars affect the alkali spread ratio. Contrary to our results, Basmati Super and Basmati-385 showed lower alkali spread values (4.27 and 3.75, respectively).[43] It is reported that the rice grains with alkali spreading of 1–2 possess a high gelatinization temperature, but a value of 6–7 decrees a possibly low gelatinization temperature of rice starch.[43] Similarly, the highest bursting of grain was noticed in Kissan Basmati with a value of 4%, whereas the Chenab Basmati showed the lowest bursting value of 1.33%. However, coarse rice varieties depicted an intermediate trend, with the values ranging from 2.0 to 3.67%.

## Pasting properties of rice flours of different varieties

Peak viscosity (PV) shows how well starch granules can take in water and is the highest thickness reached by heated starch in water.[44] The viscosity of the rice flour suspension varied from a maximum of 3691 cP for KSK-133 to a minimum of 1912 cP for Super Gold, as shown in Table 4. The PV represents the maximum viscosity attained by a suspension when heated and agitated in the presence of water. This happens when the starch granule has absorbed as much water as possible, and at the same time, some amylose is released.[45] Among the Basmati rice varieties, Chenab Basmati had a higher peak viscosity, likely due to the stability conferred by its protein components, which safeguarded the starch granules against rupture and subsequent

<table><caption>Table 4. Pasting properties of different rice grains.</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>PV (cP)</th><th>BD (cP)</th><th>FV (cP)</th><th>SB (cP)</th><th>Peak Time (min)</th><th>Peak Temp (°C)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Super basmati</td><td>2283 ± 2.94<sup>g</sup></td><td>838 ± 11.03<sup>b</sup></td><td>3468 ± 1.63<sup>h</sup></td><td>2038 ± 12.56<sup>f</sup></td><td>5.80 ± 0.06<sup>gh</sup></td><td>83.28 ± 2.67<sup>e</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-515</td><td>2215 ± 2.87<sup>h</sup></td><td>769 ± 11.47<sup>cd</sup></td><td>3792 ± 15.69<sup>fg</sup></td><td>2341 ± 7.04<sup>de</sup></td><td>5.70 ± 0.03<sup>h</sup></td><td>86.53 ± 0.02<sup>cd</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Kissan basmati</td><td>2004 ± 24.86<sup>i</sup></td><td>610 ± 27.52<sup>j</sup></td><td>4220 ± 48.32<sup>f</sup></td><td>2830 ± 48.93<sup>c</sup></td><td>6.16 ± 0.03<sup>bc</sup></td><td>90.12 ± 0.40<sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Punjab basmati</td><td>2670 ± 8.18<sup>e</sup></td><td>739 ± 7.41<sup>d</sup></td><td>4620 ± 23.60<sup>d</sup></td><td>2693 ± 6.80<sup>c</sup></td><td>6.01 ± 0.06<sup>de</sup></td><td>80.30 ± 0.31<sup>f</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Chenab basmati</td><td>3245 ± 8.18<sup>b</sup></td><td>829 ± 7.13<sup>b</sup></td><td>4504 ± 14.17<sup>e</sup></td><td>2089 ± 15.12<sup>f</sup></td><td>6.30 ± 0.02<sup>a</sup></td><td>80.73 ± 0.02<sup>f</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super gold</td><td>1912 ± 10.62<sup>k</sup></td><td>687 ± 8.58<sup>e</sup></td><td>3719 ± 22.88<sup>fg</sup></td><td>2491 ± 3.68<sup>d</sup></td><td>5.86 ± 0.05<sup>fg</sup></td><td>88.86 ± 0.03<sup>ab</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-2000</td><td>2166 ± 8.18<sup>l</sup></td><td>744 ± 5.35<sup>d</sup></td><td>3689 ± 29.40<sup>g</sup></td><td>2265 ± 15.92<sup>e</sup></td><td>5.90 ± 0.02<sup>efg</sup></td><td>78.31 ± 0.01<sup>g</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super basmati-2019</td><td>2270 ± 13.47<sup>g</sup></td><td>814 ± 35.52<sup>bc</sup></td><td>3694 ± 12.19<sup>g</sup></td><td>2235 ± 10.62<sup>e</sup></td><td>6.07 ± 0.05<sup>cd</sup></td><td>77.51 ± 0.01<sup>g</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 2021 aromatic</td><td>2387 ± 6.94<sup>f</sup></td><td>959 ± 17.57<sup>a</sup></td><td>3465 ± 8.65<sup>h</sup></td><td>2037 ± 15.94<sup>f</sup></td><td>6.04 ± 0.03<sup>d</sup></td><td>80.00 ± 0.04<sup>f</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 1121 aromatic</td><td>1917 ± 3.30<sup>k</sup></td><td>456 ± 10.40<sup>gh</sup></td><td>3821 ± 9.84</td><td>2365 ± 22.45<sup>de</sup></td><td>5.96 ± 0.03<sup>def</sup></td><td>89.37 ± 0.29<sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK-386</td><td>3017 ± 1.25<sup>c</sup></td><td>413 ± 22.98<sup>h</sup></td><td>5970 ± 29.33<sup>b</sup></td><td>3366 ± 51.14<sup>b</sup></td><td>6.37 ± 0.03<sup>a</sup></td><td>87.33 ± 0.47<sup>bcd</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KS-434</td><td>3041 ± 4.92<sup>c</sup></td><td>932 ± 13.95<sup>a</sup></td><td>4477 ± 23.37<sup>e</sup></td><td>2378 ± 35.71<sup>de</sup></td><td>5.87 ± 0.01<sup>fg</sup></td><td>78.27 ± 0.02<sup>g</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KS-133</td><td>3691 ± 2.45<sup>a</sup></td><td>684 ± 10.27<sup>e</sup></td><td>6309 ± 37.97<sup>a</sup></td><td>3304 ± 47.51<sup>b</sup></td><td>6.37 ± 0.03<sup>a</sup></td><td>85.73 ± 0.02<sup>d</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KS-282</td><td>2966 ± 2.94<sup>d</sup></td><td>500 ± 58.40<sup>g</sup></td><td>6212 ± 184.12<sup>a</sup></td><td>3718 ± 242<sup>a</sup></td><td>6.27 ± 0.16<sup>ab</sup></td><td>87.39 ± 0.64<sup>bc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>IR-6</td><td>2957 ± 39.20<sup>d</sup></td><td>575 ± 23.17<sup>f</sup></td><td>5667 ± 51.89<sup>c</sup></td><td>3257 ± 8.73<sup>b</sup></td><td>6.27 ± 0.02<sup>ab</sup></td><td>87.00 ± 0.24<sup>cd</sup></td></tr></tbody></table>

PV= Peak viscosity; BD= Breakdown viscosity; FV= Final viscosity; SB= Setback viscosity; cP= centipoise; Mean carrying same letters in columns for particular are non-significantly (one-way ANOVA) different from each other.
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

loss of viscosity. KSK-133 exhibited the highest concentration of amylose, potentially explaining its superior peak viscosity. Kraithong et al.[46] corroborate the current investigation's findings, stating that high amylose rice exhibited elevated peak and setback viscosities. Variations in the rate of water absorption and the expansion of starch granules after heating may cause the discrepancies. The way starch granules are arranged and how they stick together comes from the bonding of the amylose part.[47] The size and shape of the starch granule also determine its adhesive capabilities. Starch degradation and peak viscosity closely correlate, with significant starch damage leading to elevated peak viscosity.[48]

The breakdown (BD) of the rice flour is an indicator of the extent of the stability of the starch granules under the applied shear and heat. The cooked starch's susceptibility to disintegration is gauged by its BD viscosity. The starch sample's resistance to heat and shear stress during cooking decreases with increasing BD.[49] The BD viscosity varied between the highest of 959 cP (PK 2021 aromatic) and the lowest of 413 cP (PK-386). The rice granule is more stable under stress because it has a higher protein content (7.47%), which helps keep the starch intact and prevents the granules from breaking apart. For the coarse rice flours, the least BD of 500 cP was represented by the KS-282. The starch grain size and the protective layer of polyphenols around the granule also contribute to the grains' stability during continuous shear and heat.[50,51] Found that TGS3 rice flour had a higher BD and suggested it was less able to handle heat and pressure compared to TGS25. The presence of crosslinking compounds in starch makes the granule swell less when it heats up, which helps keep the granule structure firm and stable even when it is swollen. A gel with higher BD will have excellent palatability during eating.[52]

Following the highest PV, the KSK-133 depicted the highest final viscosity (FV) with a value of 6309 cP, followed by the KS-282. The lowest value of FV was presented by the PK 2021 aromatic flour with a value of 3465 cP. However, the FV varied between 3465 and 5970 cP among the basmati type (fine rice varieties), indicating a difference of 2505 cP. Nevertheless, overall a lower variation in the FV was noticed for coarse rice compared to the basmati varieties. FV improves the ultimate paste viscosity by adding stiffness and stability to the swollen granule structures of rice flour. Hu et al.[53] suggested that the changes in the FV could be attributed to the amylose contents of the starch in flour.

The SB viscosity sets when the paste is cooled down and held at a lower temperature after gelatinization. The SB is calculated from the regain in the viscosity after the BD happens, resulting in the least viscosity value. The difference between the least viscosity and the viscosity at the end of the cooling period is considered as the SB. A higher SB means that the starches have changed more in the short term, with the amylose chains rearranging to form a double helix.[52] This span of the RVA profile also indicates the transition of the paste to the gel of the rice flour and is influenced by the degree of rupturing of the granule and leaching out of the amylose and the presence of other non-starch fractions, which might allow the slower development of the gel. The coarse rice KS-282 flour had the significantly highest SB viscosity (3718 ± 242) of all the kinds. The lowest SB was observed for PK 2021 aromatic, with a value of 2037 cP. Overall, the SB values for the coarse rice varieties were greater than the flour from the Basmati counterparts. SB is a helpful metric for estimating how long a product (made using flour) will last in storage.[50] Zulueta et al.[52] suggested that a lower SB viscosity is an indicator of post-cooking softness. Falade et al.[51] reported a higher amylose content of TGS3 and TGS25 starches to account for the higher SB and BD viscosities. ChangJie YC et al.[54,55] reported that varieties with higher BD and lower SB possess better eating qualities compared to those with lower BD and higher SB.

Peak temperature for the rice flour suspension ranged from 77.51°C to 90.12°C. The lowest peak temperature was noticed for the Super Basmati 2019, while the highest temperature was noticed for Kissan Basmati. In the case of coarse rice varieties, the peak temperature spanned between 78.27°C for KSK-434 and 87.39°C for KSK-282. Every coarse rice flour, with the exception of KSK-434, displayed a peak temperature above 85°C. Hu et al.[53] also found that the differences in the cooking temperature of rice flour are due to the way amylopectin is structured, which is influenced by the different crystal forms in the starch granules.

Peak time is when the PV of the suspension stabilizes due to a constant balance between water absorption and breaking of the starch granules, and it ranged from 5.70 to 6.37 minutes. This indicates the difference in the uptake of water by the starches of different rice flours. The development of PV is affected by the starch grain size, shape, and the presence of non-starch fractions such as lipids and proteins. The shortest peak time was noticed for Basmati-515, indicating the earlier development of the PV and suggesting the ease of
<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

the formation of the paste. Among the coarse rice varieties, the longest peak time was detected for KSK-133 at 6.37 min, which is at par with other coarse rice flours except for KSK-434. The shorter peak time could be suitable for cooking paste, which could minimize the energy cost.[56] These varieties have a high degree of diversity in their RVA profiles, which makes them a valuable source for useful variation in order to customize desirable cooking quality features based on customer preference. Breeders can benefit from the established correlation between amylose contents and pasting properties for selections for the future breeding of rice cultivars.[57, 58]

## Gel texture of rice flour

The hardness of the gels exhibited considerable variation (p < .05) between the coarse and basmati rice varieties, as well as within each group independently (Table 5). The maximum gel hardness of 95.0 g was recorded for coarse rice flour KSK-434, whilst the gel from PK 2021 aromatic exhibited the lowest firmness at merely 25.0 g. The firmest gel among the basmati rice varieties was derived from Chenab basmati (59.6 g), which was twice the amount of the PK 2021 aromatic gel. The gel hardness shows how much the starch, specifically the amylose part, has changed and formed a double helix shape.[59] This difference might be due to how much amylose is present, the length of the amylopectin chains in the rice flours, and the presence of other components.[60,61] The gels with lower firmness could be employed in developing gluten-free bread with slower retrogradation of the bread upon cooling. The cohesiveness of the gel is an indicator of the attractive forces between the gel and the body of the container. The most cohesive gel was obtained from PK 2021 aromatic rice flour (0.68), while the least cohesion value of 0.45 was noticed for the gel obtained from Chenab basmati. However, coarse rice gels showed almost similar cohesiveness values to basmati varieties. The more cohesive gels are chewier and are less brittle.[53] The springiness of the gel is another indicator of the possible brittleness under compression forces. The gel obtained from KSK-434, one of the coarse rice flours, was the springiest (10.57). On the other hand, the least springiness of gel (8.91) was found for the Kissan basmati, a basmati rice cultivar. The gels with greater springiness values show a higher retrogradation of starch.[59]

The most adhesive gel was obtained from KSK-282, while the least was noticed for Basmati-515. Interestingly, the adhesiveness of KSK-282 was nearly 10 times greater than the gel obtained from Basmati-515. Most of the gels from basmati rice flours showed a lower adhesiveness compared to the coarse counterparts in this study. The variation in the adhesiveness could be attributed to the ratio of amylose to amylopectin and the presence of other polyphenolic compounds.[53] It is believed that crosslinking occurs in the presence of phenols, which changes the gel texture and provides stickier gels.

The gel's gumminess varied between 17.0 and 46.2 g, where the highest gumminess was noticed for KSK-282, a coarse rice flour gel, while the least gummy gel was obtained from PK-2021 aromatic rice flour. Overall, a greater variation in gumminess was noticed for coarse rice gels compared to basmati counterparts. This variation in the gel texture was previously noticed based on the changes in the genetic

<table><caption>Table 5. Texture profile analysis of rice flour gels.</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Hardness (g)</th><th>Cohesiveness</th><th>Springiness (mm)</th><th>Adhesiveness (mJ)</th><th>Gumminess (g)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Super basmati</td><td>41.33 ± 1.25<sup>f</sup></td><td>0.54 ± 0.00<sup>b</sup></td><td>9.90 ± 0.29<sup>abc</sup></td><td>0.55 ± 0.04<sup>g</sup></td><td>22.46 ± 0.87<sup>cde</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-515</td><td>52.00 ± 0.82<sup>c</sup></td><td>0.51 ± 0.02<sup>bcd</sup></td><td>9.71 ± 0.41<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>0.11 ± 0.01<sup>i</sup></td><td>26.82 ± 1.07<sup>b</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Kissan basmati</td><td>39.33 ± 1.25<sup>fg</sup></td><td>0.52 ± 0.01<sup>bc</sup></td><td>9.67 ± 0.13<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>0.30 ± 0.08<sup>h</sup></td><td>20.57 ± 0.26<sup>def</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Punjab basmati</td><td>51.00 ± 1.82<sup>cde</sup></td><td>0.50 ± 0.01<sup>bcd</sup></td><td>8.91 ± 0.49<sup>d</sup></td><td>0.85 ± 0.04<sup>bc</sup></td><td>25.49 ± 0.41<sup>bc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Chenab basmati</td><td>59.67 ± 2.05<sup>b</sup></td><td>0.45 ± 0.04<sup>e</sup></td><td>8.94 ± 0.78<sup>cd</sup></td><td>0.75 ± 0.04<sup>cde</sup></td><td>26.93 ± 3.13<sup>b</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super gold</td><td>37.67 ± 2.05<sup>gh</sup></td><td>0.52 ± 0.01<sup>bc</sup></td><td>9.70 ± 0.57<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>0.61 ± 0.01<sup>fg</sup></td><td>19.60 ± 1.37<sup>defg</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-2000</td><td>34.33 ± 0.47<sup>i</sup></td><td>0.54 ± 0.02<sup>b</sup></td><td>10.17 ± 0.12<sup>ab</sup></td><td>0.61 ± 0.02<sup>fg</sup></td><td>18.66 ± 0.70<sup>fg</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super basmati-2019</td><td>35.67 ± 0.94<sup>hi</sup></td><td>0.54 ± 0.02<sup>b</sup></td><td>9.71 ± 0.25<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>0.65 ± 0.04<sup>efg</sup></td><td>19.26 ± 0.77<sup>efg</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 2021 aromatic</td><td>25.00 ± 0.82<sup>j</sup></td><td>0.68 ± 0.01<sup>a</sup></td><td>9.73 ± 0.33<sup>abcd</sup></td><td>0.35 ± 0.04<sup>h</sup></td><td>17.00 ± 0.68<sup>g</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 1121 aromatic</td><td>39.67 ± 2.05<sup>fg</sup></td><td>0.51 ± 0.01<sup>bcd</sup></td><td>10.30 ± 0.08<sup>ab</sup></td><td>0.60 ± 0.08<sup>fg</sup></td><td>20.25 ± 1.37<sup>defg</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK-386</td><td>51.67 ± 1.25<sup>cd</sup></td><td>0.48 ± 0.01<sup>cde</sup></td><td>9.35 ± 0.41<sup>bcd</sup></td><td>0.71 ± 0.08<sup>def</sup></td><td>24.80 ± 0.61<sup>bc</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KSK-434</td><td>95.00 ± 0.82<sup>a</sup></td><td>0.49 ± 0.03<sup>cde</sup></td><td>10.57 ± 0.29<sup>a</sup></td><td>0.81 ± 0.01<sup>bcd</sup></td><td>46.22 ± 2.57<sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KSK-133</td><td>49.00 ± 0.82<sup>de</sup></td><td>0.46 ± 0.05<sup>de</sup></td><td>9.40 ± 0.50<sup>bcd</sup></td><td>1.07 ± 0.12<sup>a</sup></td><td>22.74 ± 2.63<sup>cd</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KS-282</td><td>51.33 ± 1.25<sup>cde</sup></td><td>0.54 ± 0.03<sup>b</sup></td><td>9.51 ± 0.65<sup>bcd</sup></td><td>0.70 ± 0.08<sup>def</sup></td><td>27.85 ± 1.03<sup>b</sup></td></tr><tr><td>IR-6</td><td>48.51 ± 1.22<sup>e</sup></td><td>0.53 ± 0.01<sup>bc</sup></td><td>10.02 ± 0.08<sup>ab</sup></td><td>0.91 ± 0.01<sup>b</sup></td><td>25.56 ± 1.24<sup>bc</sup></td></tr></tbody></table>

g= grams; mm= millimeter; mJ=milli Joules; Means carrying same letters in columns for particular are non-significantly (one-way ANOVA) different from each other.
<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

variabilities, the amylopectin: amylose ratio, the presence of crosslinkers, and the growth conditions.[62] Generally, coarse rice provides more cohesive and gummy gels, while Basmati rice provides a springy texture of gels. Gels with higher gumminess and cohesiveness, such as those from coarse rice, are ideal for products requiring structural stability. Yu et al.[61] reported that the harder gels of rice flour possess greater amylose and longer chains of amylopectin. In a study, normal rice gels (Simiao rice) were found to have greater springiness and gumminess compared to waxy rice starch. Therefore, the amylose content and its short-term retrogradation primarily influence the gel mechanical properties. Yu et al.[18] reported that the flour gel texture is dependent on factors including the rheology of starch, lipids, and proteins and the interactions between the continuous and dispersed phases of the rice gel.

## Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

The DSC thermograms of rice flour from coarse and basmati varieties were evaluated for the gelatinization temperature, including onset temperature (OT), peak temperature (PT), and enthalpy (ΔH) (Table 6, Fig. 1). For Basmati rice flours, the gelatinization OT ranged from a minimum of 55°C to a maximum of

<table><caption>Table 6. Thermal properties of rice flours.</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>OT°C</th><th>ΔH J/g</th><th>PT °C</th><th>ALC-OT°C</th><th>ALC-ΔH J/g</th><th>ALC-PT °C</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Super-basmati</td><td>69.72 ± 0.02<sup>e</sup></td><td>9.10 ± 0.04<sup>cd</sup></td><td>75.12 ± 0.02<sup>g</sup></td><td>95.59 ± 0.05<sup>e</sup></td><td>0.72 ± 0.01<sup>d</sup></td><td>99.46 ± 0.01<sup>f</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-515</td><td>70.17 ± 0.02<sup>d</sup></td><td>8.92 ± 0.11<sup>de</sup></td><td>75.83 ± 0.02<sup>d</sup></td><td>94.64 ± 0.03<sup>g</sup></td><td>0.70 ± 0.02<sup>d</sup></td><td>101.91 ± 0.24<sup>ef</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Kissan-basmati</td><td>64.23 ± 0.02<sup>j</sup></td><td>8.10 ± 0.07<sup>g</sup></td><td>71.71 ± 0.04<sup>i</sup></td><td>93.44 ± 0.12<sup>lk</sup></td><td>0.83 ± 0.03<sup>c</sup></td><td>101.37 ± 0.03<sup>h</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Punjab-basmati</td><td>73.53 ± 0.09<sup>c</sup></td><td>8.05 ± 0.09<sup>gh</sup></td><td>79.15 ± 0.03<sup>a</sup></td><td>96.28 ± 0.05<sup>d</sup></td><td>0.44 ± 0.01<sup>f</sup></td><td>102.25 ± 0.05<sup>d</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Chenab-basmati</td><td>73.73 ± 0.07<sup>b</sup></td><td>9.09 ± 0.09<sup>cd</sup></td><td>78.90 ± 0.02<sup>b</sup></td><td>96.74 ± 0.08<sup>c</sup></td><td>0.53 ± 0.01<sup>e</sup></td><td>103.12 ± 0.06<sup>b</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super gold</td><td>69.26 ± 0.04<sup>f</sup></td><td>8.41 ± 0.19<sup>f</sup></td><td>75.22 ± 0.03<sup>f</sup></td><td>94.31 ± 0.11<sup>h</sup></td><td>0.97 ± 0.02<sup>b</sup></td><td>101.46 ± 0.19<sup>h</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-2000</td><td>69.8 ± 0.02<sup>f</sup></td><td>8.84 ± 0.15<sup>de</sup></td><td>75.17 ± 0.04<sup>fg</sup></td><td>99.04 ± 0.10<sup>a</sup></td><td>0.21 ± 0.03<sup>h</sup></td><td>103.19 ± 0.06<sup>b</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Super basmati-2019</td><td>69.68 ± 0.03<sup>g</sup></td><td>8.26 ± 0.09<sup>fg</sup></td><td>75.32 ± 0.02<sup>e</sup></td><td>94.83 ± 0.35<sup>g</sup></td><td>0.71 ± 0.04<sup>d</sup></td><td>101.71 ± 0.16<sup>fg</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 2021 aromatic</td><td>73.60 ± 0.10<sup>bc</sup></td><td>10.1 ± 0.10<sup>b</sup></td><td>78.60 ± 0.10<sup>c</sup></td><td>96.82 ± 0.08<sup>c</sup></td><td>0.60 ± 0.02<sup>e</sup></td><td>103.28 ± 0.11<sup>b</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK 1121 aromatic</td><td>55.93 ± 0.11<sup>l</sup></td><td>7.82 ± 0.21<sup>h</sup></td><td>64.04 ± 0.08<sup>m</sup></td><td>93.23 ± 0.11<sup>k</sup></td><td>1.20 ± 0.03<sup>a</sup></td><td>101.52 ± 0.14<sup>gh</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PK-386</td><td>63.13 ± 0.12<sup>k</sup></td><td>8.00 ± 0.13<sup>gh</sup></td><td>69.32 ± 0.07<sup>l</sup></td><td>93.51 ± 0.07<sup>l</sup></td><td>1.18 ± 0.01<sup>a</sup></td><td>101.71 ± 0.12<sup>fg</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KSK-434</td><td>74.27 ± 0.01<sup>a</sup></td><td>10.57 ± 0.15<sup>a</sup></td><td>78.52 ± 0.05<sup>c</sup></td><td>98.03 ± 0.06<sup>b</sup></td><td>0.58 ± 0.08<sup>e</sup></td><td>103.85 ± 0.08<sup>a</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KSK-133</td><td>65.13 ± 0.07<sup>i</sup></td><td>8.75 ± 0.13<sup>e</sup></td><td>70.83 ± 0.02<sup>k</sup></td><td>93.82 ± 0.07<sup>l</sup></td><td>1.20 ± 0.04<sup>a</sup></td><td>102.03 ± 0.03<sup>de</sup></td></tr><tr><td>KS-282</td><td>67.50 ± 0.04<sup>g</sup></td><td>6.85 ± 0.07<sup>l</sup></td><td>72.58 ± 0.02<sup>h</sup></td><td>94.04 ± 0.11<sup>l</sup></td><td>0.35 ± 0.02<sup>g</sup></td><td>98.83 ± 0.02<sup>j</sup></td></tr><tr><td>IR-6</td><td>65.32 ± 0.06<sup>h</sup></td><td>9.23 ± 0.08<sup>c</sup></td><td>71.20 ± 0.04<sup>j</sup></td><td>95.13 ± 0.08<sup>f</sup></td><td>1.22 ± 0.05<sup>a</sup></td><td>102.84 ± 0.06<sup>c</sup></td></tr></tbody></table>

OT= onset temperature; J/g = Joules per gram; °C= degree centigrade; ΔH= Heat capacity; PT= Peak temperature; ALC= Amylose lipid complex; Means carrying same letters in columns for particular are non-significantly (one-way ANOVA) different from each other.

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. DSC thermograms of different rice varieties.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_20.png" /></figure>

73.7°C. However, the coarse rice flours exhibited a higher onset temperature (OT) that ranged from 65.13 to 74.27°C. Nature, chemical composition, and the presence of other components, along with starch, influence the thermal properties in biomaterials.[63] The crystallinity of the rice flour is also a determinant factor for the onset and peak temperatures.[46] Gelatinization is when starch granules swell permanently, their tiny crystals melt, and substances leak out, resulting in a thicker mixture. The gelatinization temperature range represents the thermal permeability of starch granules.[64]

In the case of PT, the greater temperature was noticed for the Punjab basmati (79.15°C), which was significantly higher than the coarse rice counterparts. The peak temperature of rice flour could be attributed to the delayed hydration of starches by the presence of non-starch components and, hence, provided increased thermal stability.

The enthalpy (ΔH), which is the energy needed to break apart the structure of starch granules, was between 6.85 and 10.57 J/g. Among the basmati rice flour, the greatest ΔH was observed for PK 2021 aromatic (10.1 J/g), and the lowest was observed for PK 1121 aromatic flour. However, among the coarse rice flours, the KS-282 depicted the easiest gelatinization with the least enthalpic energy. In contrast, the highest ΔH was observed for KSK-434, suggesting the most compact structure and the delayed disordering of the molecular chains in the starch. The presence of proteins in the flour entangles starch particles and raises the temperature of gelatinization and enthalpy of melting starch granules. Rice starches with low amylose provide greater swelling and lower starch gelatinization temperature.[65] In a previous report, the ΔH of starch disintegration was found to be higher for potato starch than for loquat seed starch.[66] Strong positive relationships were seen between the gelatinization enthalpies and temperatures, as well as between the gelatinization temperatures obtained by DSC and photometry. The enthalpy of the amylose-lipid endotherm was measured at a temperature range of 90–97°C. The presence of lipids, proteins, and mineral components influenced the swelling and pasting properties of starch granules.[67] Knowing gelatinization enthalpy helps one choose the suitable cooking techniques like steaming, boiling, or pressure cooking. High-enthalpy rice reduces water absorption before gelatinizing, thus influencing hydration levels. Food producers and chefs also follow guidelines for creating rice-based recipes that achieve specific textures. High gelatinization enthalpies are associated with amylose-rich rice cultivars. They take more heat and time to properly gelatinize, yielding solid, separated grains after cooking. These kinds of rice are used in meals that require a fluffy texture, such as pilafs, biryanis, and stir-fried rice. Conversely, low gelatinization enthalpies are associated with rice with low amylose and high amylopectin content (e.g., short-grain rice, coarse-grain rice, or sticky rice). These types of rice gelatinize quickly at lower temperatures, resulting in a sticky, creamy, or chewy texture. They are ideal for risotto, sushi, rice pudding, and other meals that require a cohesive texture.

Interestingly, another minor endothermic peak was also observed in all the rice flour thermograms. This smaller peak was attributed to the amylose-lipid complexation (ALC) and required greater thermal input to dissociate. The starting temperature (ALC-OT°) and the highest temperature (ALC-PT°) for melting the amylose-lipid complex were similar to the highest temperature (PT°) seen in the main endothermic peak. The maximum peak temperature (ALC-PT°) was seen at 103.85°C for KSK-434, and the lowest was presented by KSK-282 (98.83°C). However, as observed in the minor endothermic peak, the enthalpy (ALC-ΔH) of amylose-lipid complex disintegration was almost 10 times lower than the major gelatinization peak. The highest enthalpy value (1.22 J/g) was observed for Basmati 2000, indicating the delayed dissociation of the complex, while the opposite was true for IR-6, with a value of 0.21 J/g. This variation in the enthalpy could be directly attributed to the amylose contents and the lipids and their successful complexation under the applied heating conditions. These enthalpy disparities in starches from coarse and basmati rice could be correlated with the geometry of starch granules, the amylopectin chain length, and the presence of proteinaceous fractions. A lower gelatinization temperature of rice was related to the shorter chain length of amylopectin.[39] On the other hand, the shorter chain distribution of amylopectin and the larger molecular weight of amylose could correlate with a wider range of gelatinization temperatures and a small enthalpy of rice flour.[68]

## Rheological properties

### Steady shear (shear rate vs shear stress)

The flow curves in terms of shear rate (SR, s⁻¹) against shear stress (SS, Pa) were plotted for rice gels (Fig. 2). At a low shear rate (SR), a greater change in the shear stress (SS) was depicted by the Kissan basmati flour
<figure><img src="image_21.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** Shear rate (S⁻¹) vs shear stress (Pa) plots of gels prepared from different rice varieties at 30°C.</figcaption></figure>

gels with the greatest slope while IR-6 gels showed a minimal impact on the SS suggesting that the gel structure was maintained closer to the original form of gel. The critical value of stress above which the gel starts deforming and flowing is considered a yield stress point.[⁶⁹] The lower alterations in the SS noticed for IR-6 gel dictate a minimum breakdown in the gel body under the applied shear force which is resisted by the initial stiffness of inter and inter-chain entanglement between starch fractions and proteins causing an initial particle crowding.[⁷⁰] Nonetheless, at the highest SR (100 s⁻¹), the maximum SS was seen for KSK-434, whereas IR-6 gel remained the least influenced. Kissan Basmati gels showed greater shear thinning with increasing shear and also at the maximum shear applied. This could be attributed to the restructuring of the molecular interactions and a greater extent of reorientation of relatively smaller molecular fractions of leached starch granules leading to greater thinning.

Overall, the SS varied from 13.8 to 31.5 Pa (Table 7), corresponding to the lowest for IR-6 and the highest for KSK-434 gels, respectively. With the upswing of SR, the physical gap between flow profiles enhanced, and the maximum was noticed at 100 s⁻¹. Among the coarse rice flours, the maximum shear resistance was shown by KSK434; among basmati varieties, the PK 2021 aromatic remained resistant to shear indicating gels with intensive intermolecular bonding and structural conformation with a more cohesive body.[⁷¹]

## Dynamic rheology

The mechanical spectra of the gels under oscillation were evaluated in terms of the storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G"), relating the elastic nature of the material to retaining energy and the viscous nature to dissipating energy, respectively (Figs. 3–5). The ratio of G" to G' is called tan δ, which shows whether the gel behaves more like a solid (tan δ < 1) or more like a liquid (tan δ > 1).[⁷²] The G' profiles of the rice flour gels indicate a higher value at a lower angular frequency (ω) and vice versa. Coarse rice flour gels depicted a greater physical gap at lower ω (0.1 rad/s), where the highest G' was noticed for KS-282 and the lowest was noticed for IR-6. On the other hand, at the highest ω (100 rad/s), the KSK-434 showed the highest G', and the IR-6 depicted the least. The lower physical gap was noticed in the G' profiles of rice gels at higher ω (100 rad/s) than lower ω. For the gels obtained from basmati rice varieties, at a lower angular frequency (0.1 rad/s), the Super-2019 showed the highest G', while the inverse was observed for Kissan basmati. Similarly, increasing the ω showed that the Kissan basmati has a higher G' than all gels; nonetheless, the least G' was noticed for PK-386, indicating the minimum impact of ω. The successive arrangement of the linear amylose molecules in the direction of flow resulted in the perceived decrease in G' values. For loss or viscous modulus (G") at a lower ω, the Chenab basmati showed the highest G" among all and was the least represented by the KS-282. However, increasing the strain resulted in higher G". The highest slope was shown by the gels of KS-282, indicating that changing ω had significantly impacted the G", whereas the
<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>**Table 7.** Power law model parameters of different rice gels.</figcaption></figure>

<table><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="3">30°C</th><th colspan="3">40°C</th><th colspan="3">50°C</th></tr><tr><th>n<sup>†</sup></th><th>K*</th><th>R<sup>2</sup></th><th>n<sup>†</sup></th><th>K*</th><th>R<sup>2</sup></th><th>n<sup>†</sup></th><th>K*</th><th>R<sup>2</sup></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Super basmati</td><td>0.48</td><td>2.24</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.47</td><td>1.82</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.50</td><td>1.12</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-515</td><td>0.45</td><td>2.40</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.44</td><td>1.97</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.48</td><td>1.22</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>Kissan basmati</td><td>0.28</td><td>6.93</td><td>0.96</td><td>0.29</td><td>6.09</td><td>0.96</td><td>0.30</td><td>4.94</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>Punjab basmati</td><td>0.41</td><td>3.11</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.41</td><td>2.58</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.45</td><td>1.57</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>Chenab basmati</td><td>0.43</td><td>3.50</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.43</td><td>2.90</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.43</td><td>2.22</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>Super gold</td><td>0.38</td><td>3.17</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.38</td><td>2.73</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.43</td><td>1.61</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-2000</td><td>0.45</td><td>2.47</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.45</td><td>1.99</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.48</td><td>1.22</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>Super basmati-2019</td><td>0.45</td><td>2.98</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.44</td><td>2.44</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.46</td><td>1.52</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>PK 2021 aromatic</td><td>0.49</td><td>2.68</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.47</td><td>2.34</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.47</td><td>1.68</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>PK 1121 aromatic</td><td>0.48</td><td>2.20</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.47</td><td>1.79</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.50</td><td>1.07</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>PK-386</td><td>0.44</td><td>2.08</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.44</td><td>1.71</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.52</td><td>0.91</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>KSK-434</td><td>0.44</td><td>3.88</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.46</td><td>3.05</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.48</td><td>2.11</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>KSK-133</td><td>0.40</td><td>4.01</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.41</td><td>3.24</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.46</td><td>1.92</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>KS-282</td><td>0.37</td><td>3.26</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.39</td><td>2.62</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.45</td><td>1.46</td><td>0.99</td></tr><tr><td>IR-6</td><td>0.40</td><td>2.01</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.40</td><td>1.91</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.44</td><td>1.35</td><td>0.99</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3.** Storage (elastic) modulus (G') of gels prepared from flour of different rice varieties.</figcaption></figure>

Chenab basmati depicted the least change, as the slope is very close to the horizontal axis. For the coarse rice flours, the highest G" was noticed for the KS-282, and the IR-6 showed the least G" at 100 rad/s.

The mechanical spectra of rice flour gels depicted semi-solid-like behavior due to the greater value of G' than G". However, the gel with lower G' and G" (IR-6) is found to be less influenced by the change in the applied frequencies. Moreover, gels without crossing over of G' with G" are considered physical gels where no chemical crosslinking is developed. Hu et al.[53] found that rice types with higher G' values usually had more amylose and longer amylopectin chains, making them more elastic rather than just thick. When the starch granules are entirely expanded, the leached amylose is distributed in the completely swollen amylopectin, and the exposed inner and outer chains become intertwined and increase the gel rigidity. The alterations in amylose and amylopectin produced supporting and solidifying effects, respectively, and jointly strengthened the stiff structure of the rice gel. Similarly, in a study reported by Tang et al.,[73] dissimilar gel strengths were perceived for quinoa and lentil flours obtained at a pH of 5.

The reduction in tan δ of the coarse and basmati rice flour gels suggests that G' increased greater than G". The coarse rice flour samples are less frequency dependent than the basmati rice flour; therefore, it is suggested that the coarse rice flour gels are resistant to stresses applied.[74] The upsurge in G' and G" arises due to the reduction in associative bonding within the starch granule.[75] For tan δ, a huge gap was noticed between the profiles of gels from coarse and basmati rice cultivars at a lower frequency. At the highest

<footnote>*K= (Pa.s) indices are obtained by fitting the data to power law T = Kγ·n and †n= flow behavior index (dimensionless). This Table was used for Arrhenius equation.</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>**Table 8.** Activation energy parameters of corn, sweet potato and Turkish bean starches containing Cactus and Acacia gums.</figcaption></figure>

<table><thead><tr><th>Varieties</th><th>μ<sub>c</sub> (Pa s<sup>n</sup>)</th><th>E<sub>a</sub> (J/mol K<sup>-1</sup>)</th><th>R<sup>2</sup></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Super basmati</td><td>6.39E-08</td><td>28097</td><td>0.94</td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-515</td><td>1.10E-07</td><td>27422</td><td>0.94</td></tr><tr><td>Kissan basmati</td><td>0.00356</td><td>13745</td><td>0.97</td></tr><tr><td>Punjab basmati</td><td>1.41E-07</td><td>27692</td><td>0.93</td></tr><tr><td>Chenab basmati</td><td>5.701E-05</td><td>18499</td><td>0.98</td></tr><tr><td>Super gold</td><td>1.77E-07</td><td>27416</td><td>0.89</td></tr><tr><td>Basmati-2000</td><td>5.43E-08</td><td>28596</td><td>0.94</td></tr><tr><td>Super basmati-2019</td><td>1.69E-07</td><td>27287</td><td>0.94</td></tr><tr><td>PK 2021 aromatic</td><td>2.909E-05</td><td>18927</td><td>0.94</td></tr><tr><td>PK 1121 aromatic</td><td>3.08E-08</td><td>29209</td><td>0.93</td></tr><tr><td>PK-386</td><td>1.92E-09</td><td>33465</td><td>0.90</td></tr><tr><td>KSK-434</td><td>1.266E-06</td><td>24742</td><td>0.98</td></tr><tr><td>KSK-133</td><td>5.38E-08</td><td>29,846</td><td>0.94</td></tr><tr><td>KS-282</td><td>7.00E-09</td><td>32543</td><td>0.93</td></tr><tr><td>IR-6</td><td>0.0001161</td><td>16075</td><td>0.84</td></tr></tbody></table>

μo (Pa s<sup>n</sup>) = is the frequency factor at a reference temperature (30, 40 and 50 °C); Ea = activation energy (J/mol K<sup>-1</sup>)

of hydrogen bonding at the interface of amylose-amylopectin-water, thus leading to non-Newtonian fluid attributes of gels.[77]

The *n* values for all gels remained relatively similar, with a slight shift indicating overall shear thinning as the temperature increased from 30 to 50°C. As the temperature went up, the gels started to behave more like a Newtonian fluid, especially the gel made from PK-386, which was affected the most. However, the gel least influenced by the temperature change was the Kissan basmati, with the *n* value of 0.30. The temperature impact was greater in changing the *n* of coarse rice gels, where the increase in the *n* was noticed.

On the other hand, the consistency index (*k*) value varied between 2.01 and 6.93 for the samples tested at 30°C. Kissan basmati depicted the highest *k* value, whereas the least was observed for IR-6. The higher *k* values of the gels dictate their rigid, strong structure. The higher chain length of amylopectin provides greater gel consistency. The gels from basmati rice flours showed a higher *k* than the coarse counterparts. The change in the temperature of the measurement from 30 to 50°C lowered the *k*, as this modification might have increased the molecular chain mobility by increasing the kinetic energy under the applied shear. Similarly, the *k* value of the basmati rice gels was strongly affected by the change of the temperature to 50°C compared to the coarse rice gels.

Previously, the increased *n* and reduced *k* were noticed when increasing sonication time increased the thixotropy of the Brazil nut-based drink.[78] The coefficient of determination (R<sup>2</sup>) for all the samples was very high and close to 1, showing that the power law used was effective in estimating the *n* and *k* values of the coarse and basmati rice flour gels. Lower *k* and higher *n* result in lower head losses in flow, which decreases power and manufacturing charges, suggesting the appropriateness of rice gels in food application processes.[78] Hu et al.[53] discovered that there is a positive relationship between the strong structure of rice gel and the length of amylopectin chains, which also comes with higher gelatinization enthalpy, higher pasting temperature, and greater RVA viscosity.

Activation energy (Ea) refers to the amount of energy required to initiate the flow of the rice flour gels. The Ea of gels showed a greater variation from 13,745 to 33,543 kJ/mol with the respective gel for PK-386 and Kissan Basmati. This disparity in the gel behavior could be attributed to the starch granule composition, such as the amylose-to-amylopectin ratio and other non-starch fractions and their interfacial entanglements.[53] In a previous study, Ea was evaluated for ripe and unripe loquat starches, and it was found that the Ea for unripe was greater than the ripe loquat seed starch. The higher Ea was linked to stronger connections between the starch granules.[62] Starch gels with lower Ea could be the potential source for food processing, as they require a smaller magnitude of energy to initiate the flow of a process, such as a pumping unit in the industry. Conversely, the gels with higher Ea could result in delayed initiation of flow, requiring greater work and increasing the processing and production cost. Similarly, greater variation in the frequency factor (μo) was noticed for all the gels. The coefficient of determination (R<sup>2</sup>) for the samples stayed high, showing that the Arrhenius model is a good fit for estimating the Ea of the gels at the temperatures and shear conditions we looked at.
<figure><img src="image_26.png" /></figure>

## Conclusion

The studied cultivars have a diverse array of pasting, thermal, and rheological properties, facilitating the customization of cooking quality attributes to align with consumer preferences. Breeders can utilize the correlation between amylose content and pasting characteristics to choose rice cultivars. The gels derived from basmati rice flours exhibited reduced adhesiveness relative to their coarse counterparts in this study, based on textural features. Basmati varieties are suitable for use in cooked rice meals, such as biryani, pulao, and other variations of cooked rice. The coarse varieties can be utilized as flour in various formulations such as puddings, starchy dishes, and gluten-free items.

## Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate the support from the Ongoing Research Funding Program, (ORF-2025-1458), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

## Author contributions

CRediT: **Shahzad Hussain**: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing; **Abdulrahman Alahmed**: Funding acquisition, Resources; **Farah Shamim**: Methodology, Software; **Abdellatif A. Mohamed**: Supervision, Writing – original draft; **Mohsin Ali Raza**: Data curation, Formal analysis; **Mohamed A. Ibraheem**: Formal analysis, Methodology; **Syed Sultan Ali**: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing; **Aamir Shehzad**: Software, Writing – original draft.

## Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

## Funding

The authors appreciate the support from the Ongoing Research Funding Program, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia [ORF-2025-1458].

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