<table><tr><td>02/02/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Verdict dans l'affaire des bébés bulgares achetés]</td><td>Le JT de Canal +</td><td>Canal +</td><td>Bulgarie</td><td>00:01:13</td></tr><tr><td>02/02/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Procès des trafiquants de bébés bulgares]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Brulgarie</td><td>00:01:40</td></tr><tr><td>02/02/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Le jugement : [six ans de prison pour avoir vendu des bébés]</td><td>Six'</td><td>M6</td><td>Bulgarie</td><td>00:01:15</td></tr><tr><td>02/02/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Procès de trafiquants d'enfants bulgares]</td><td>TF1 20 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Bulgarie</td><td>00:01:34</td></tr><tr><td>07/02/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Maltraitance orphelinat en Russie]</td><td>TF1 20 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Russie</td><td>00:01:31</td></tr><tr><td>14/02/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Adoption de Céline un bébé volé]</td><td>Vie privée vie publique</td><td>France 3</td><td>Pérou</td><td>00:04:40</td></tr><tr><td>17/05/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Les visiteurs du jour : émission du 17 mai 2007</td><td>Les visiteurs du jour</td><td>RFI</td><td>Brésil, Madagascar</td><td>01:20:00</td></tr><tr><td>15/08/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Orphelinat clandestin au Guatemala]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>00:01:31</td></tr><tr><td>25/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Tchad : détournement d'enfants au Darfour]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:17</td></tr><tr><td>25/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Des bénévoles d'une ONG arrêtés au Tchad]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:35</td></tr><tr><td>25/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Arrestation au Tchad de membres de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>TF1 20 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:00</td></tr><tr><td>25/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Orphelins du Darfour: 9 français soupçonnés de trafic d'enfants arrêtés au Tchad</td><td>Soir 3 journal</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:11</td></tr><tr><td>25/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:07</td></tr><tr><td>25/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Trafic d'enfants au Tchad</td><td>Inter soir 19h00</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:00</td></tr><tr><td>26/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>ONG : arrestation de 9 français accusés de trafic d'enfants au Tchad</td><td>Soir 3 journal</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:10</td></tr><tr><td>26/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Polémique : les enfants du Darfour]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:53</td></tr><tr><td>26/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Neuf français retenus au Tchad]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:33</td></tr><tr><td>26/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>L'embrouille : [L'association "Arche de Zoé"]</td><td>Six'</td><td>M6</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:07</td></tr><tr><td>26/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Une ONG française soupçonnée de trafic d'enfant pour adoption</td><td>12 13 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:55</td></tr><tr><td>26/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>France. Soudan. Tchad - l'arche de Zoé soupçonne de complicité d'enlèvement d'enfants</td><td>TF1 13 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:15</td></tr><tr><td>26/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Le 25 octobre 2007, six Français membres de l'association l'Arche de Zoé sont arrêtés</td><td>Inter treize</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:00</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>27/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>L'arche de Zoe : 9 arrestations au Tchad pour trafic d'enfants</td><td>12 13 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:12</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>L'Arche de Zoé : l'armée française mise en cause</td><td>Soir 3 journal</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:14</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Tchad : Les membres de L'arche de Zoé et l'équipage en garde à vue]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:51</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>L'image : [arrestation au Tchad des membres de "L'arche de Zoé"]</td><td>Six'</td><td>M6</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:00</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Garde à vue pour les membres de "L'Arche de Zoé"]</td><td>TF1 20 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:55</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>France soudan Tchad. Polémique arche de Zoé - témoignage d'un de leur pilote</td><td>TF1 13 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:43</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Correspondance : l'Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:00:43</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Studio papier : l'affaire Arche de Zoé</td><td>Inter soir 19h00</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:09</td></tr><tr><td>28/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Arche de Zoé : 17 européens en garde à vue au Tchad]</td><td>Arte info</td><td>ARTE</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:01</td></tr><tr><td>28/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Idriss Deby et les membres de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:15</td></tr><tr><td>28/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>"L'arche de Zoé" en mauvaise posture]</td><td>TF1 20 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:23</td></tr><tr><td>28/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Enfants Tchad/suite</td><td>13 heures le journal</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:54</td></tr><tr><td>28/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>L'Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad, Europe</td><td>00:00:48</td></tr><tr><td>29/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[L'audition des bénévoles de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:58</td></tr><tr><td>29/10/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[témoignage d'une victime d'un scandale lié à l'adoption]</td><td>C dans l'air</td><td>France 5</td><td>Pérou</td><td>00:04:25</td></tr><tr><td>29/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Interview maître Padaré : l'Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:00:53</td></tr><tr><td>29/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Réaction Madrid affaire Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad, Espagne</td><td>00:01:06</td></tr><tr><td>29/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>L'Arche de Zoé : une affaire gênante pour toute l'Europe !</td><td>Revue de presse européenne</td><td>France Culture</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:05:00</td></tr><tr><td>30/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Rama Yade</td><td>L'invité</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:08:20</td></tr><tr><td>30/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Interview de Rama Yade, l'affaire Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:01</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>31/10/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>L'affaire de l'Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:16</td></tr><tr><td>01/11/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Arche de Zoé : Sarkozy demande à Déby la libération des journalistes</td><td>12 13 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:00:20</td></tr><tr><td>01/11/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Affaire de l'Arche de Zoé, invitée : Marie Claude Arnauld</td><td>12 13 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:03:00</td></tr><tr><td>01/11/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Arche de Zoé : possible libération des journalistes et des hôtesses</td><td>Soir 3 journal</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:07</td></tr><tr><td>01/11/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Correspondance : l'affaire de l'Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:02</td></tr><tr><td>02/11/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Interview de maître Collard : l'affaire de l'Arche de Zoé</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:00:46</td></tr><tr><td>02/11/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Le 25 octobre 2007, au Tchad, neuf Français (six membres de l'association")</td><td>Journal 07h30</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:00</td></tr><tr><td>03/11/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Tchad/Auditions</td><td>13 heures le journal</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:49</td></tr><tr><td>04/11/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>François Hollande demande que les membres de l'Arche de Zoé soient jugés</td><td>12 13 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:00:23</td></tr><tr><td>09/11/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Arche de Zoé: Libération de l'équipage et perquisition à l'agence Capa]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:51</td></tr><tr><td>20/11/2007</td><td>Radio</td><td>Comment des familles tchadiennes ont accepté de donner leur enfant à l'Arche de Zoé</td><td>Reporters</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:05:40</td></tr><tr><td>14/12/2007</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Arche de Zoé/comité soutien/médecin</td><td>13 heures le journal</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:34</td></tr><tr><td>13/01/2008</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Procès de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>TF1 20 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:43</td></tr><tr><td>01/04/2008</td><td>Télévision</td><td>4 membres d'ADZ n'en ont pas fini avec la justice Française</td><td>Soir 3 journal</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:50</td></tr><tr><td>13/12/2008</td><td>Radio</td><td>Cambodge, enfants à vendre</td><td>Le magazine de la rédaction</td><td>France Culture</td><td>Cambodge</td><td>00:19:40</td></tr><tr><td>23/06/2009</td><td>Radio</td><td>Le marathon de l'adoption internationale</td><td>Et pourtant, elle tourne</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Cambodge, Philippines</td><td>00:42:35</td></tr><tr><td>22/01/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Haïti : Le problème des adoptions]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:01:47</td></tr><tr><td>22/01/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>33 enfants haïtiens adoptés par des familles françaises sont attendus ce soir</td><td>Journal 18h00</td><td>BFM</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:00:21</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>22/01/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>33 enfants haïtiens adoptés par des familles françaises sont attendus ce soir</td><td>Journal 18h30</td><td>BFM</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:00:23</td></tr><tr><td>22/01/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>Haïti : une quinzaine d'enfants ont disparu des hôpitaux</td><td>RTL Midi deuxième édition</td><td>RTL</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:00:20</td></tr><tr><td>23/01/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>Yves Nicolin</td><td>L'invité de RTL</td><td>RTL</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:04:16</td></tr><tr><td>23/01/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>Haïti : l'UNICEF indique que des enfants ont disparu des hôpitaux</td><td>Journal 08h30</td><td>France Info</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:00:12</td></tr><tr><td>23/01/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>En Haïti, le dernier bilan fait état de 111 000 morts et 200 000 blessés</td><td>Journal 09h00</td><td>RFI</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:03:52</td></tr><tr><td>26/01/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Haïti : les enfants en voie d'adoption par la France]</td><td>Arte journal</td><td>ARTE</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:03:37</td></tr><tr><td>31/01/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Haïti : Soupçon de trafic d'enfants]</td><td>Arte journal</td><td>ARTE</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:01:12</td></tr><tr><td>31/01/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Haïti : arrestation d'Américains pour trafic d'enfants]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:01:48</td></tr><tr><td>31/01/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Haïti : un trafic d'enfants démantelé]</td><td>Le 1945</td><td>M6</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:01:30</td></tr><tr><td>31/01/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Haïti: arrestations de missionnaires américains soupçonnés de vol d'enfants</td><td>12 13 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:01:50</td></tr><tr><td>31/01/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>Interviews : l'adoption d'urgence d'enfants haïtiens</td><td>Inter soir 19h00</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:01:56</td></tr><tr><td>01/02/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>Studio extérieur : Port au Prince</td><td>Inter soir 19h00</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:02:03</td></tr><tr><td>01/02/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>10 Américains soupçonnés de trafic d'enfants ont été arrêtés en Haïti</td><td>Journal 08h30</td><td>France Info</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:01:16</td></tr><tr><td>01/02/2010</td><td>Radio</td><td>10 Américains ont été arrêtés pour trafic d'enfants en Haïti</td><td>Journal 09h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:01:12</td></tr><tr><td>02/02/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Retour dans leurs familles des enfants haïtiens enlevés]</td><td>TF1 20 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:02:00</td></tr><tr><td>05/02/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Brève : Haïti : des Américains inculpés pour trafic d'enfants]</td><td>Le 1945</td><td>M6</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:00:26</td></tr><tr><td>21/02/2010</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Polémique autour de l'adoption des enfants haïtiens]</td><td>TF1 20 heures</td><td>TF1</td><td>Haïti</td><td>00:03:39</td></tr><tr><td>30/05/2011</td><td>Radio</td><td>Faut-il ouvrir les adoptions internationales en Roumanie</td><td>RFI</td><td>RFI</td><td>Roumanie</td><td>00:04:07</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>24/07/2011</td><td>Radio</td><td>Mexique : la police fédéral a arrêté un millier de personnes lié à un réseau de</td><td>Journal 19h00</td><td>RFI</td><td>Mexique</td><td>00:01:26</td></tr><tr><td>27/07/2011</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[80 secondes : Trafic d'enfants en Chine]</td><td>Le JT de Canal +</td><td>Canal +</td><td>Chine</td><td>00:00:44</td></tr><tr><td>07/12/2011</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Chine : démantèlement d'un réseau de trafic d'enfants]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Chine</td><td>00:01:48</td></tr><tr><td>26/03/2012</td><td>Radio</td><td>Le débat africain</td><td>Le débat africain</td><td>RFI</td><td>Cameroun</td><td>00:20:00</td></tr><tr><td>05/07/2012</td><td>Radio</td><td>Cameroun : trafic de bébés et affaire Vanessa</td><td>Appels sur l'actualité</td><td>RFI</td><td>Cameroun</td><td>00:48:57</td></tr><tr><td>02/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Procès de l'Arche de Zoé : interview du père d'un des enfants]</td><td>Le JT de Canal +</td><td>Canal +</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:00:11</td></tr><tr><td>02/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Affaire de l'Arche de Zoé : rappel des faits]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:03:13</td></tr><tr><td>02/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Procès de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>Le 1945</td><td>M6</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:09</td></tr><tr><td>02/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Retour sur l'affaire de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>LE 20H</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:24</td></tr><tr><td>03/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Première journée du procès de l'Arche de Zoé : les réactions]</td><td>Le JT de Canal +</td><td>Canal +</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:00:39</td></tr><tr><td>03/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Procès de l'affaire de l'association l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:02:26</td></tr><tr><td>03/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Premier jour du procès de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:52</td></tr><tr><td>03/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Arche de Zoé : procès d'un naufrage]</td><td>Le 1945</td><td>M6</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:34</td></tr><tr><td>03/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Procès de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>LE 20H</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:35</td></tr><tr><td>05/12/2012</td><td>Radio</td><td>L'adoption en France d'enfants étrangers</td><td></td><td>France Info</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>07/12/2012</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Procès des bénévoles de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>C dans l'air</td><td>France 5</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:03:27</td></tr><tr><td>25/01/2013</td><td>Radio</td><td>De Madrid au Caire, de Tel Aviv à Los Angeles</td><td>Partout ailleurs</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Israël, Espagne</td><td>00:39:33</td></tr><tr><td>12/02/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Délibéré affaire Arche de Zoé]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:27</td></tr><tr><td>12/02/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[L'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:32</td></tr><tr><td>12/02/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Verdict du procès de l'Arche de Zoé]</td><td>LE 20H</td><td>TF1</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:01:25</td></tr><tr><td>17/02/2013</td><td>Radio</td><td>Algérie - Procès d'un trafic d'enfants avec la France</td><td>Journal 07h30</td><td>France Info</td><td>Algérie</td><td>00:01:00</td></tr><tr><td>17/02/2013</td><td>Radio</td><td>Algérie : 13 personnes accusées d'avoir participé à un réseau de trafic d'enfants</td><td>Journal 12h00</td><td>RFI</td><td>Algérie</td><td>00:01:21</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>19/03/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Argentine, les 500 bébés volés de la dictature</td><td></td><td>France 5</td><td>Argentine</td><td>01:33:15</td></tr><tr><td>31/08/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Fait divers : démantèlement d'un réseau de trafic de bébés]</td><td>19 20 Edition nationale</td><td>France 3</td><td>France</td><td>00:01:42</td></tr><tr><td>12/09/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Etats-Unis : découverte d'un trafic d'enfants adoptés]</td><td>Le JT de Canal +</td><td>Canal +</td><td>Etats-Unis</td><td>00:01:28</td></tr><tr><td>13/09/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Etats-Unis : rejetés après avoir été adoptés</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Etats-Unis</td><td>00:01:59</td></tr><tr><td>14/09/2013</td><td>Radio</td><td>C'est arrivé cette semaine</td><td>C'est arrivé cette semaine</td><td>Europe 1</td><td></td><td>00:47:07</td></tr><tr><td>20/11/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Arche de Zoé : début du procès en appel</td><td>Le 1945</td><td>M6</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:00:42</td></tr><tr><td>01/12/2013</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Le procès de l'Arche de Zoé</td><td>Le supplément</td><td>Canal +</td><td>Tchad</td><td>00:07:41</td></tr><tr><td>09/01/2014</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Espagne : le scandale des bébés volés</td><td>Complément d'enquête</td><td>France 2</td><td></td><td>00:15:25</td></tr><tr><td>02/04/2014</td><td>Radio</td><td>En Chine, Internet sert aussi à acheter des bébés</td><td>L'actualité numérique</td><td>MOUV</td><td>Chine</td><td>00:05:00</td></tr><tr><td>17/12/2014</td><td>Radio</td><td>Les nourrissons volés du Chili</td><td>Grand reportage</td><td>RFI</td><td>Chili</td><td>00:18:30</td></tr><tr><td>29/03/2015</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Trafic de bébés</td><td>Sept à huit</td><td>TF1</td><td>France</td><td>00:12:10</td></tr><tr><td>07/04/2015</td><td>Radio</td><td>Procès pour trafic de bébés et traite d'êtres humains dans les Bouches-du-Rhône</td><td>Journal 08h00</td><td>RMC</td><td>Roumanie</td><td>00:01:19</td></tr><tr><td>03/07/2015</td><td>Radio</td><td>Adoption illégale et vols de bébés en Inde : 'Vous vouliez un enfant ? Vous en aviez un aussitôt sur les genoux ?'</td><td>RTL Info</td><td>RTL</td><td>Inde</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>13/08/2015</td><td>Radio</td><td>Depuis 2013, 300 enfants adoptés légalement par des couples français en RDC</td><td></td><td>RTL</td><td>RDC</td><td>00:05:15</td></tr><tr><td>08/09/2015</td><td>Radio</td><td>Kinshasa interdit aux enfants adoptifs de 1300 familles de quitter le territoire</td><td>Ailleurs</td><td>France Inter</td><td>RDC</td><td>00:03:00</td></tr><tr><td>05/12/2015</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Adoption : soupçons de trafic d'enfants</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>France</td><td>00:02:42</td></tr><tr><td>06/12/2015</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Les enfants de l'ombre</td><td>13h15 le dimanche</td><td>France 2</td><td>France</td><td>00:38:50</td></tr><tr><td>08/06/2016</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Nés dans le mensonge</td><td>Dans les yeux d'Olivier</td><td>France 2</td><td>Pérou</td><td>01:43:24</td></tr><tr><td>15/11/2016</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Les enfants volés d'Angleterre</td><td></td><td>France 5</td><td>Angleterre</td><td>01:06:07</td></tr><tr><td>01/12/2016</td><td>Radio</td><td>Panique chez des familles belges qui ont adopté un enfant congolais : une juriste vient d'être arrêtée pour prise d'otages et trafic d'êtres humains</td><td>RTL Info</td><td>RTL</td><td>République démocratique du Congo</td><td></td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>21/12/2016</td><td>Radio</td><td>Vers la fin des adoptions à l'étranger ?</td><td>Du grain à moudre</td><td>France Culture</td><td>République démocratique du Congo</td><td>00:39:50</td></tr><tr><td>30/04/2017</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Belgique : le drame des enfants métisses]</td><td>Arte journal</td><td>ARTE</td><td>Israël</td><td>00:02:38</td></tr><tr><td>05/10/2017</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Israël : les enfants enlevés</td><td>Complément d'enquête</td><td>France 2</td><td>Israël</td><td>00:18:54</td></tr><tr><td>04/06/2018</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Les enfants volés d'Allemagne de l'Est]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Allemagne</td><td>00:04:57</td></tr><tr><td>18/07/2018</td><td>Radio</td><td>Correspondance : Inde, enquête organisation des missionnaires de la charité</td><td>Journal 08h00</td><td>RFI</td><td>Inde</td><td>00:00:00</td></tr><tr><td>19/07/2018</td><td>Radio</td><td>Inde : un foyer de Mère Teresa accusé de trafic d'enfants</td><td>Journal 08h00</td><td>France Info</td><td>Inde</td><td>00:01:24</td></tr><tr><td>15/11/2018</td><td>Télévision</td><td>[Chine : le marché des enfants volés]</td><td>20 heures</td><td>France 2</td><td>Chine</td><td>00:04:21</td></tr><tr><td>24/02/2019</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Enquête : Pologne : les dérives de l'adoption privée</td><td>Vox pop</td><td>ARTE</td><td>Pologne</td><td>00:09:14</td></tr><tr><td>23/05/2019</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Les enfants vendus du Sri Lanka</td><td>Envoyé spécial</td><td>France 2</td><td>Sri Lanka</td><td>00:34:08</td></tr><tr><td>11/08/2019</td><td>Radio</td><td>Vaste trafic à l'adoption au Sri Lanka dévoilé</td><td>Journal 07h00</td><td>RFI</td><td>Sri Lanka</td><td>00:01:36</td></tr><tr><td>18/09/2019</td><td>Radio</td><td>Adoptée, Emilie Ducrot soutient que l'adoption internationale n'est 'pas une chance'</td><td></td><td>France Info</td><td>Sri Lanka</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10/06/2020</td><td>Radio</td><td>Soupçons d'adoptions irrégulières au Mali : Rayon de soleil déjà impliqué dans une autre affaire</td><td></td><td>France Inter</td><td>Mali</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10/06/2020</td><td>Radio</td><td>Plainte de Maliens adoptés en France pour 'escroquerie' et 'abus de confiance'</td><td></td><td>RFI</td><td>Mali</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>12/06/2020</td><td>Radio</td><td>Enfants maliens adoptés en France : le témoignage de Pauline</td><td></td><td>RFI</td><td>Mali</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>08/07/2020</td><td>Radio</td><td>France : une plainte contre une association d'adoption d'enfants étrangers classée sans suite</td><td></td><td>RFI</td><td>Mali</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>19/08/2020</td><td>Radio</td><td>Le Trésor américain sanctionne des Ougandais accusés de trafic d'adoptions illégales</td><td></td><td>RFI</td><td>Ouganda, Etats-Unis</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>25/03/2021</td><td>Radio</td><td>Les dérives de l'adoption internationale</td><td>Accents d'Europe</td><td>RFI</td><td></td><td>00:19:30</td></tr><tr><td>04/03/2021</td><td>Radio</td><td>Au Chili, ces mères à la recherche de leur bébé volé sous la dictature de Pinochet</td><td></td><td>Europe 1</td><td>Chili</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>08/04/2021</td><td>Radio</td><td>Etats-Unis : le périple de Pacual, venu du Guatemala et séparé de sa famille pendant 2 ans</td><td></td><td>RTL</td><td>Chili, Etats-Unis</td><td></td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>22/12/2021</td><td>Radio</td><td>Le débat du jour : émission du 22 décembre 2021</td><td>Le débat du jour</td><td>RFI</td><td></td><td>00:29:32</td></tr><tr><td>08/01/2022</td><td>Radio</td><td>Vers la fin de l'adoption internationale ?</td><td>L'interview de Secrets d'info</td><td>France Inter</td><td></td><td>00:08:08</td></tr><tr><td>23/03/2022</td><td>Télévision</td><td>J'ai découvert que j'avais été kidnappée à la naissance</td><td>La maison des maternelles</td><td>France 2</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>00:27:18</td></tr><tr><td>03/07/2022</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Philomena Lee, une mère sacrifiée</td><td>D'après une histoire vraie</td><td>ARTE</td><td>Irlande, Etats-Unis</td><td>00:26:02</td></tr><tr><td>08/12/2022</td><td>Radio</td><td>En Corée du Sud, une commission va enquêter sur des adoptions supposées illégales</td><td></td><td>RFI</td><td>Corée du Sud</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>16/12/2022</td><td>Radio</td><td>Les enfants volés du Sri Lanka</td><td>L'invité de 9h10</td><td>France Inter</td><td>Sri Lanka</td><td>00:21:22</td></tr><tr><td>08/01/2023</td><td>Télévision</td><td>Sept à huit Life : [émission du 08 janvier 2023]</td><td></td><td>TF1</td><td>Sri Lanka</td><td>01:00:38</td></tr><tr><td>18/01/2023</td><td>Radio</td><td>Adoptions internationales illégales</td><td>8 milliards de voisins</td><td>RFI</td><td>Sri Lanka, Inde, Guatemala</td><td>00:50:00</td></tr></table>
C – Revue de presse audiovisuelle étrangère

Toutes ces références sont dans une base de données, construite dans le cadre de cette étude, qui a vocation à s'enrichir d'autres références passées et futures.
Pour ce faire, dans une démarche de science participative, toute personne consultant la base peut participer à son enrichissement en envoyant des données nouvelles
à yves.denechere@univ-angers.fr et fabio.macedo@univ-angers.fr, elles seront rapidement intégrées à la base.

<table><tr><td>15-mars-01</td><td>Royaume-Uni</td><td>New penalties on overseas adoptions</td><td>BBC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>22-janv-04</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>Canadian report on baby-traffickin at centre of Guatemala trial</td><td>CBS News</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>02-nov-07</td><td>Soudan ; Etats-Unis</td><td>Agencies : most children in adoption dispute not Sudanese orphans</td><td>CNN</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>21-févr-08</td><td>Vietnam</td><td>Vietnam "baby-smugglers" arrested</td><td>BBC news</td><td>PHAM Nga</td></tr><tr><td>09-avr-08</td><td>Vietnam</td><td>Vietnam gang "smuggled 30 babies"</td><td>BBC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>28-avr-08</td><td>Vietnam</td><td>Vietnam to end US adoption scheme</td><td>BBC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>30-avr-09</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>U.S. adoptions fueled by Guatemalan kidnappings</td><td>ABC News</td><td>MARTINEZ Haroldo, GOLDMAN Russell</td></tr><tr><td>02-juil-09</td><td>China</td><td>China babies "sold for adoption"</td><td>BBC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>29-sept-09</td><td>Vietnam</td><td>Vietnam jails 6 for adoption fraud</td><td>Taiwan news</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>31-janv-10</td><td>République dominicaine</td><td>Arrestation de dix Américains soupçonnés de trafic d'enfants</td><td>France 24</td><td>DEFERT Valérie</td></tr><tr><td>15-févr-11</td><td>Ethiopie</td><td>Ethiopia : U.S. Adoption Agency Involved in Child Trafficking</td><td>CBS evening news</td><td>REY Michael</td></tr><tr><td>18-sept-13</td><td>Cambodge</td><td>International adoption: saving orphans or child trafficking?</td><td>CNN</td><td>VOIGT Kevin</td></tr><tr><td>08-sept-15</td><td>Inde</td><td>Foreign adoptions "make children commodities", NGO challenges definition of human trafficking</td><td>ABC News</td><td>BETIGERI Aarti</td></tr><tr><td>20-mars-16</td><td>Québec</td><td>Real Talk on Race: How transracial adoptees find their identity</td><td>CBC</td><td>FUNDIRA Melissa</td></tr><tr><td>24-nov-17</td><td>Sri Lanka ; Suisse</td><td>Les enfants volés du Sri Lanka demandent justice en Suisse</td><td>RTS</td><td>ALLGOWER Marc</td></tr><tr><td>29-janv-19</td><td>Sri Lanka ; Suisse</td><td>Des centaines de Sri-Lankais adoptés illégalement dans les années 1980</td><td>RTS</td><td>ARNAUD Alain</td></tr><tr><td>13-mai-19</td><td>Guatemala ; Belgique</td><td>Affaire des adoptions au Guatemala : « Pour ma mère biologique, je suis morte un 7 novembre »</td><td>Rtbf</td><td>BRICHARD David</td></tr><tr><td>20-oct-19</td><td>Etats-Unis</td><td>'Purest form of human trafficking': Arizona official charged in adoption fraud scheme</td><td>CTV News</td><td>COOPER Jonathan J.</td></tr><tr><td>08-déc-19</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>A painful truth: Guatemalan adoptees learn they were fraudulently given away</td><td>NBC News</td><td>ACEVEDO Nicole</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>08-janv-20</td><td>Guatemala ; Belgique</td><td>Guatemala, trafiquants d'âmes : des milliers d'enfants arrachés à leurs familles et adoptés illégalement (Devoir d'enquête)</td><td>RTBF</td><td>WARLOP Quentin</td></tr><tr><td>19-févr-20</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>Au Guatemala, les enfants adoptés durant la guerre civile recherchent leur famille biologique</td><td>France 24</td><td>HESHMATI Mandi</td></tr><tr><td>27-févr-20</td><td>Sri Lanka ; Suisse</td><td>Adoptions illégales d'enfants srilankais : les autorités suisses ont détourné le regard</td><td>RJB</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>27-févr-20</td><td>Sri Lanka ; Suisse</td><td>La Suisse a fermé les yeux sur les adoptions illégales d'enfants srilankais</td><td>RTS</td><td>OANG</td></tr><tr><td>12-juin-20</td><td>Mali ; Tchad</td><td>Adoption internationale au Mali et au Tchad : que dit la loi ?</td><td>TV5monde</td><td>GAY-PADOAN Luna</td></tr><tr><td>22-déc-20</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>Vol de bébés déguisés en adoption : « Mes parents adoptifs pensaient avoir fait un acte d'amour »</td><td>BBC news</td><td>DIEZ Beatriz</td></tr><tr><td>25-févr-21</td><td>Guatemala</td><td>Guatemala : des enfants adoptés de la guerre civile unissent leurs forces</td><td>France 24</td><td>HESHMATI Mandi</td></tr><tr><td>16-avr-21</td><td>Guatemala ; Belgique</td><td>« Ils m'ont dit que tu étais morte » : adoptée au Guatemala, elle avait été kidnappée à la naissance</td><td>7 sur 7</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>04-mai-21</td><td>Italie</td><td>Comment une nigériane s'est battue pour garder son enfant en Italie</td><td>BBC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>31-mai-21</td><td>Chine</td><td>Origin story : the truth behind an international adoption</td><td>NHK</td><td>KOHEI Tsuji</td></tr><tr><td>24-juin-21</td><td>Belgique</td><td>Adoptions illégales : reconnaître un statut de victime aux "enfants volés", le Parlement s'apprête à en débattre</td><td>Rtbf</td><td>MICHALLE Patrick</td></tr><tr><td>08-oct-22</td><td>Corée du Sud</td><td>Les irrégularités lors d'adoptions en Corée du Sud désormais dénoncées</td><td>RTS</td><td></td></tr></table>
# D – Films documentaires télévisés

Cette recherche a été menée par Jean-Paul Diboues, responsable documentaire INA Bretagne-Ouest.

Pour la télévision, la recherche a été menée dans la base TV Nationale (chaînes hertziennes, voir le détail sur : http://www.inatheque.fr/fonds-audiovisuels/fonds-tele.html)

Toutes ces références sont dans une base de données, construite dans le cadre de cette étude, qui a vocation à s'enrichir d'autres références passées et futures. Pour ce faire, dans une démarche de science participative, toute personne consultant la base peut participer à son enrichissement en envoyant des données nouvelles à yves.denechere@univ-angers.fr et fabio.macedo@univ-angers.fr elles seront rapidement intégrées à la base.

Une recherche complémentaire sur les films documentaires qui n'ont pas été télévisés est à mener.

<table><thead><tr><td>Date de diffusion</td><td>Pays</td><td>Titre</td><td>Titre programme</td><td>Canal</td><td>Durée</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>31/01/1969</td><td></td><td>Autour de l'enfance nue</td><td>Choses vues</td><td>1ère chaîne</td><td>00:50:00</td></tr><tr><td>17/03/1980</td><td></td><td>Enfants et violences</td><td>Fenêtre sur</td><td>Antenne 2</td><td>00:25:55</td></tr><tr><td>18/05/1981</td><td></td><td>Histoires de familles : L'arche de NOE</td><td></td><td>Antenne 2</td><td>00:38:53</td></tr><tr><td>01/12/1986</td><td>Etats-Unis</td><td>L'autre choix</td><td></td><td>Antenne 2</td><td>00:58:19</td></tr><tr><td>16/11/1988</td><td></td><td>L'adoption. Le chemin des parents vers l'enfant</td><td></td><td>Antenne 2</td><td>00:58:48</td></tr><tr><td>23/11/1988</td><td></td><td>L'adoption. Lorsque l'enfant apparaît ou les vraies questions sur l'adoption</td><td></td><td>Antenne 2</td><td>00:59:13</td></tr><tr><td>08/10/1990</td><td>Colombie, Etats-Unis</td><td>Octavio</td><td></td><td>Antenne 2</td><td>00:55:30</td></tr><tr><td>18/09/1994</td><td>Colombie, Etats-Unis</td><td>Les enfants de Medellin</td><td>Première ligne</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:50:01</td></tr><tr><td>13/11/1994</td><td>Réunion</td><td>Adoption : les enfants noirs de La Creuse</td><td>Première ligne</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:48:15</td></tr><tr><td>12/01/1995</td><td>Réunion</td><td>Imagine on a survécu</td><td>Faits de société</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:51:52</td></tr><tr><td>20/01/1996</td><td>Ethiopie, Roumanie, Sri Lanka, Corée du Sud</td><td>L'adoption : une autre vie</td><td>La 25ème heure</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:51:00</td></tr><tr><td>10/05/1996</td><td></td><td>Ces mères que l'on oublie</td><td>Le bébé est un combat</td><td>TF1</td><td>00:59:08</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>23/12/1996</td><td></td><td>En quête de famille</td><td>Est-ce ainsi que les hommes vivent</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:52:55</td></tr><tr><td>18/05/1997</td><td>Madagascar, Ethiopie</td><td>Les chemins de l'adoption</td><td>Zone interdite. Les documents de Zone interdite</td><td>M6</td><td>02:06:51</td></tr><tr><td>14/09/1997</td><td>Vietnam, Inde</td><td>Dieu quelles familles</td><td>Lignes de vie</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:53:40</td></tr><tr><td>08/03/1998</td><td>Brésil</td><td>Les enfants de cœur</td><td>Lignes de vie</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:57:41</td></tr><tr><td>10/12/1998</td><td></td><td>L'Europe en mal d'enfants = Adoption in Europa</td><td></td><td>ARTE</td><td>01:08:08</td></tr><tr><td>10/12/1998</td><td>Russie</td><td>La chance de notre vie = die Chance unseres Lebens</td><td>Thema. Adoption : l'Europe en mal d'enfants</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:53:57</td></tr><tr><td>22/03/1999</td><td>Europe</td><td>Nos traces silencieuses</td><td>Thema. Adoption : l'Europe en mal d'enfants</td><td>France 3</td><td>00:56:04</td></tr><tr><td>05/11/1999</td><td>Corée du sud</td><td>Les enfants de cœur</td><td>La case de l'oncle Doc</td><td>La Cinquième</td><td>00:56:52</td></tr><tr><td>23/05/2000</td><td>Brésil</td><td>Une famille pour un enfant</td><td>La cinquième rencontre. Famille, école</td><td>La Cinquième</td><td>00:13:20</td></tr><tr><td>02/10/2000</td><td></td><td>A la recherche de Xose</td><td>Les écrans du savoir</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:24:44</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2000</td><td>Mozambique, Portugal</td><td>Je veux un bébé, pas son père</td><td>La danse des peuples</td><td>La Cinquième</td><td>00:56:08</td></tr><tr><td>13/02/2001</td><td>Corée du Sud</td><td>Séparées = Getrennt</td><td>Famille perdue, famille retrouvée</td><td>ARTE</td><td>01:23:16</td></tr><tr><td>01/12/2001</td><td>Japon</td><td>Dans ses bras = Ni Tsutsumarete</td><td>La lucarne</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:40:13</td></tr><tr><td>02/02/2002</td><td>Côte d'Ivoire</td><td>Petit Paul à Korhogo</td><td></td><td>France 3</td><td>00:51:27</td></tr><tr><td>08/04/2002</td><td>Colombie, Roumanie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Un enfant d'ailleurs</td><td>La vie en feuilleton = Das Leben eine Serie</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:00</td></tr><tr><td>08/04/2002</td><td>Colombie, Roumanie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Deux petits frères</td><td>La vie en feuilleton = Das Leben eine Serie</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:10</td></tr><tr><td>09/04/2002</td><td>Colombie, Roumanie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>La première photo</td><td>La vie en feuilleton = Das Leben eine Serie</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:17</td></tr><tr><td>10/04/2002</td><td>Colombie, Roumanie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Direction : la Colombie</td><td>La vie en feuilleton = Das Leben eine Serie</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:13</td></tr><tr><td>11/04/2002</td><td>Colombie, Roumanie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>La dernière attente</td><td>La vie en feuilleton = Das Leben eine Serie</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:12</td></tr><tr><td>12/04/2002</td><td>Colombie, Roumanie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Une nouvelle vie</td><td>La vie en feuilleton = Das Leben eine Serie</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:02</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>29/09/2002</td><td>Réunion</td><td>Arrachée à son île</td><td>Documents x 2. Société</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:52:04</td></tr><tr><td>14/10/2002</td><td></td><td>Thérèse</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Journal d'une mère</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:05</td></tr><tr><td>16/04/2004</td><td>Amérique Latine</td><td>Les orphelins du Condor</td><td>Contrecourant</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:56:17</td></tr><tr><td>07/09/2004</td><td>Brésil</td><td>Adoption grand format</td><td></td><td>France 3</td><td>01:32:02</td></tr><tr><td>13/09/2004</td><td>Guatemala, Madagascar, Roumanie</td><td>Adoption : les dessous du trafic</td><td>Lundi investigation</td><td>Canal +</td><td>00:56:07</td></tr><tr><td>16/10/2004</td><td>Corée du Sud</td><td>Corps étranger</td><td>La Lucarne</td><td>ARTE</td><td>01:08:07</td></tr><tr><td>08/12/2004</td><td>Haïti, Corée du Sud</td><td>L'enfant d'une autre...deux ans après</td><td>Des racines & des ailes L'enfant d'une autre... deux ans après</td><td>France 3</td><td>01:54:55</td></tr><tr><td>01/04/2005</td><td>Afrique</td><td>Le sceau du dragon</td><td>Contrecourant</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:51:29</td></tr><tr><td>12/04/2005</td><td>Haïti</td><td>Le bébé qui va changer ma vie</td><td>Les documentaires de la vie</td><td>M6</td><td>01:41:43</td></tr><tr><td>19/05/2005</td><td>République démocratique du Congo</td><td>Gaspard de la nuit</td><td>Lignes de vie</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:53:52</td></tr><tr><td>21/11/2006</td><td>Bhoutan</td><td>Le voyage de Chencho</td><td>Documents x 3</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:52:21</td></tr><tr><td>07/04/2007</td><td>Colombie</td><td>Si toi aussi, tu m'abandonnes...</td><td>La case de l'oncle Doc</td><td>France 3</td><td>00:47:55</td></tr><tr><td>30/04/2007</td><td>Népal, Corée du Sud, Roumanie, Colombie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Un enfant d'ailleurs = Ein Kind aus der Ferne</td><td>Feuilleton documentaire = Doku Soap</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:25:00</td></tr><tr><td>30/04/2007</td><td>Népal, Corée du Sud, Roumanie, Colombie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Retour aux sources</td><td>Feuilleton documentaire = Doku Soap</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:25:50</td></tr><tr><td>01/05/2007</td><td>Népal, Corée du Sud, Roumanie, Colombie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Lueurs d'espoir</td><td>Feuilleton documentaire = Doku Soap</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:04</td></tr><tr><td>02/05/2007</td><td>Népal, Corée du Sud, Roumanie, Colombie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Aller simple, retour difficile</td><td>Feuilleton documentaire = Doku Soap</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:08</td></tr><tr><td>03/05/2007</td><td>Népal, Corée du Sud, Roumanie, Colombie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Une famille engagée</td><td>Feuilleton documentaire = Doku Soap</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:05</td></tr><tr><td>04/05/2007</td><td>Népal, Corée du Sud, Roumanie, Colombie, Ukraine, Allemagne</td><td>Grands enfants, grands tourments</td><td>Feuilleton documentaire = Doku Soap</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:09</td></tr><tr><td>09/07/2007</td><td>Suisse</td><td>L'arrivée</td><td>Premier jour</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:10:00</td></tr><tr><td>05/02/2008</td><td>Tchad</td><td>AFP, profession photographe : 2ème partie</td><td>Mardi société AFP, profession photographe</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:51:08</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>10/03/2008</td><td>Cambodge, Vietnam, Haïti, Ethiopie</td><td>Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:08</td></tr><tr><td>10/03/2008</td><td>Vietnam, Haïti</td><td>Nathalie et Emmanuel se souviennent</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:08</td></tr><tr><td>11/03/2008</td><td>Cambodge</td><td>C'est où le Cambodge</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:19</td></tr><tr><td>13/03/2008</td><td>Haïti</td><td>Appel en Haïti...</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:16</td></tr><tr><td>14/03/2008</td><td>Cambodge, Vietnam, Haïti, Ethiopie</td><td>Retrouvailles d'Elisa, Emma et les autres</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:12:42</td></tr><tr><td>17/03/2008</td><td>Ethiopie</td><td>Nathalie, future maman de Yohanes et Mickaël</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:12:47</td></tr><tr><td>18/03/2008</td><td>Cambodge, Vietnam, Haïti, Ethiopie</td><td>10 mois d'attente et de nouvelles photos</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:11</td></tr><tr><td>20/03/2008</td><td>Ethiopie, Cambodge</td><td>Retour à Paris</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:12:47</td></tr><tr><td>21/03/2008</td><td>Cambodge, Vietnam, Haïti, Ethiopie</td><td>Première rencontre ...</td><td>Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:08</td></tr><tr><td>24/03/2008</td><td>Cambodge, Vietnam, Haïti, Ethiopie</td><td>Goûter chez les cousins de Mickaël et Yohanes</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:12:49</td></tr><tr><td>25/03/2008</td><td>Cambodge, Vietnam, Haïti, Ethiopie</td><td>Première visite de l'éducatrice spécialisée, 1 mois après l'arrivée de Kim</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:09</td></tr><tr><td>27/03/2008</td><td>Vietnam</td><td>Souvenirs du Vietnam</td><td>Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:12:58</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>28/03/2008</td><td>Cambodge, Vietnam, Haïti, Ethiopie</td><td>2 mois après l'arrivée en France de Mickaël et Yohanes</td><td>Les maternelles. La série doc Naître là-bas et grandir ici</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:13:11</td></tr><tr><td>25/04/2008</td><td>Rwanda</td><td>Clavel, l'enfant n°13</td><td></td><td>France 3</td><td>00:51:52</td></tr><tr><td>27/04/2008</td><td>Rwanda</td><td>Clavel l'enfant n°13</td><td></td><td>France 3</td><td>00:52:26</td></tr><tr><td>26/07/2008</td><td>Ethiopie, Pologne, Vietnam, Brésil</td><td>Je suis un adopté</td><td>KD2A</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:26:00</td></tr><tr><td>21/09/2008</td><td>Chine</td><td>C'est quand le bonheur : 3ème épisode</td><td>C'est quand le bonheur</td><td>France 3</td><td>00:50:29</td></tr><tr><td>21/09/2008</td><td>Chine</td><td>C'est quand le bonheur : 4ème épisode</td><td>C'est quand le bonheur</td><td>France 3</td><td>00:52:19</td></tr><tr><td>28/11/2008</td><td>Lesotho, Suisse</td><td>Rêves d'Afrique</td><td>Sur les traces du passé Berchtold & Archassal</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:43:15</td></tr><tr><td>30/11/2008</td><td>Cambodge</td><td>Histoires d'adoption, récits du Cambodge</td><td>Les nuits de France 5</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:52:48</td></tr><tr><td>23/02/2009</td><td></td><td>Un bébé à tout prix : [1ère partie]</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix</td><td>M6</td><td>00:53:35</td></tr><tr><td>23/02/2009</td><td></td><td>Un bébé à tout prix : [2ème partie]</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix</td><td>M6</td><td>01:00:39</td></tr><tr><td>17/03/2009</td><td>Burkina Faso</td><td>Adopte-moi : épisode 1</td><td>Mardi société</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:52:57</td></tr><tr><td>17/03/2009</td><td>Burkina Faso</td><td>Adopte-moi : épisode 2</td><td>Mardi société</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:52:55</td></tr><tr><td>24/03/2009</td><td>Burkina Faso</td><td>Adopte-moi : épisode 3</td><td>Mardi société</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:53:30</td></tr><tr><td>24/03/2009</td><td>Burkina Faso</td><td>Adopte-moi : épisode 4</td><td>Mardi société</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:53:15</td></tr><tr><td>27/04/2010</td><td>Polynésie</td><td>Terre natale : retour à Rurutu</td><td>Le monde en face</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:52:48</td></tr><tr><td>03/04/2011</td><td>Brésil</td><td>Les deux arbres de Débora</td><td>Les chemins de la foi</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:25:33</td></tr><tr><td>01/05/2011</td><td>Ethiopie</td><td>Adoption : blessures secrètes</td><td></td><td>France 3</td><td>01:30:56</td></tr><tr><td>19/06/2011</td><td>France</td><td>Nés abandonnés</td><td></td><td>France 3</td><td>00:58:48</td></tr><tr><td>15/11/2011</td><td>Haïti</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix, deux ans après : 1er épisode</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix</td><td>M6</td><td>01:11:10</td></tr><tr><td>15/11/2011</td><td>Haïti</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix, deux ans après : 2e épisode</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix</td><td>M6</td><td>01:02:53</td></tr><tr><td>14/01/2013</td><td>Grande-Bretagne</td><td>Angleterre : le royaume des enfants perdus</td><td>Spécial investigation</td><td>Canal +</td><td>00:52:17</td></tr><tr><td>19/03/2013</td><td>Argentine</td><td>Argentine, les 500 bébés volés de la dictature</td><td>Le monde en face</td><td>France 5</td><td>01:33:15</td></tr><tr><td>10/09/2013</td><td>Haïti</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix, 4 ans après : 1ère partie</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix, 4 ans après</td><td>M6</td><td>01:22:13</td></tr><tr><td>10/09/2013</td><td>Haïti</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix, 4 ans après : 2ème partie</td><td>Un bébé à tout prix, 4 ans après</td><td>M6</td><td>01:07:03</td></tr><tr><td>27/10/2015</td><td>International</td><td>Adoption, le choix des nations</td><td>Thema</td><td>ARTE</td><td>01:26:19</td></tr><tr><td>06/12/2015</td><td>France</td><td>Les enfants de l'ombre</td><td>Les enfants de l'ombre</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:38:50</td></tr><tr><td>12/04/2016</td><td>Etats-Unis</td><td>Etats Unis, enfants jetables</td><td>Le monde en face</td><td>France 5</td><td>00:53:06</td></tr><tr><td>15/11/2016</td><td>Grande-Bretagne</td><td>Les enfants volés d'Angleterre</td><td>Le monde en face</td><td>France 5</td><td>01:06:07</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>25/10/2017</td><td>Colombie, Chili, Inde, Russie, Ukraine, Bulgarie</td><td>Adoption, je t'aime... moi non plus</td><td>Le monde en face</td><td>France 5</td><td>01:13:27</td></tr><tr><td>19/07/2018</td><td>Vietnam, Etats-Unis</td><td>Des équilibres</td><td>L'heure D</td><td>France 3</td><td>20:51:18</td></tr><tr><td>23/04/2019</td><td>Allemagne</td><td>Secrets de famille, l'héritage invisible</td><td>Le monde en face</td><td>France 5</td><td>01:10:03</td></tr><tr><td>07/04/2020</td><td>Roumanie, Belgique</td><td>Valentin enfant d'Europe</td><td>25 nuances de doc</td><td>France 2</td><td>00:54:59</td></tr><tr><td>15/06/2021</td><td>Brésil</td><td>Le roman de Renan</td><td>Infrarouge</td><td>France 2</td><td>01:03:25</td></tr><tr><td>10/01/2022</td><td>Réunion</td><td>Enfants perdus de la Réunion : le temps de la réconciliation</td><td>Outremer.ledoc</td><td>France 3</td><td>00:51:57</td></tr><tr><td>18/01/2022</td><td>Allemagne, France</td><td>Nés sous l'occupation : des bébés pour la France</td><td>Thema</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:52:12</td></tr><tr><td>03/07/2022</td><td>Irlande</td><td>Philomena Lee, une mère sacrifiée</td><td>D'après une histoire vraie</td><td>ARTE</td><td>00:26:02</td></tr><tr><td>06/07/2022</td><td>Sri Lanka</td><td>Sri landaise</td><td></td><td>France 3</td><td>01:14:19</td></tr></table>
La nécessité de croiser les sources

Dans ce guide, le respect de l’intégrité des fonds d’archives, principe fondamental en
archivistique, entraine la dissémination d’éléments portant sur un même pays, un même
intermédiaire, une même période. Une gymnastique est donc nécessaire pour récolter
l’ensemble des informations relatives à un fait.

Les descriptions des contenus des cartons d'archives ne permettent pas à ce stade des
investigations précises et pointues, en revanche, elles donnent à voir l'ampleur du phénomène
des pratiques illicites, ainsi que le nombre d'acteurs et de pays concernés. En fait, chaque carton
– ou presque – qui a été ouvert a donné lieu à la découverte de faits, a constitué matière à
réflexion. Et pourtant, ce guide est loin d'être exhaustif. D'abord parce que de nombreuses
archives ne sont pas encore consultables, ensuite parce que celles qui le sont sur dérogation ne
peuvent pas être totalement décryptées publiquement.

Il faut aussi rappeler que les dossiers individuels d'adoption, relatifs aux adoptants et aux adoptés, n'ont pas été concernés par cette recension des sources. Il est cependant évident – pour en avoir vu un certain nombre depuis que les auteurs de ce compte-rendu travaillent sur l'adoption internationale – que certains d'entre eux sont très riches en documents relatifs aux modalités de l'adoption. Les archives départementales constituent de ce point de vue un réservoir considérable. Une enquête sera menée ce printemps auprès de tous les services départementaux afin de faire un état de leurs fonds relatifs à l'adoption. Le colloque « Un siècle d'adoption des enfants, 1923-2023 » qui se tiendra à Angers les 20 et 21 juin 2023 sera l'occasion de partager les résultats de cette enquête.

Toute histoire du temps présent doit aussi privilégier les interactions avec les personnes concernées. Les témoignages de tous les protagonistes de l'adoption internationale méritent d'être entendus et analysés avec l'esprit critique de la méthode historique. Il faudrait organiser une grande campagne de constitution des sources orales visant à recueillir la parole des personnes adoptées, des parents adoptants, des familles biologiques (ce qui est plus complexe à mettre en œuvre), des responsables associatifs d'OAA, d'APPO, d'associations départementales EFA, de responsables politiques et d'agents de l'État français, d'observateurs internationaux, de journalistes, d'enquêteurs et de lanceurs d'alerte. En suivant une démarche construite scientifiquement, en appliquant une méthodologie désormais bien établie sur les sources orales et en mobilisant des moyens conséquents, il serait possible de réunir une somme d'informations considérable. Ainsi, les archives pourraient être croisées avec d'autres sources complémentaires.

Il est aussi indispensable de ne pas se contenter des sources françaises. Comme le montre la revue de littérature scientifique, la question des pratiques illégales dans l'adoption entre pays doit être abordée, par essence, à l'échelle au moins bilatérale et même internationale et multilatérale. Le point de vue de la France doit être croisé avec les points de vue complexes de tous les pays de départ envoyant des enfants en France (effets d'interactions) et de tous les autres pays d'accueil (effets de concurrence). Ainsi, certaines réalités de l'adoption internationale dans certains pays d'accueil peuvent tout à fait éclairer les pratiques qui ont eu cours en France, puisque parfois les mêmes intermédiaires étaient à l'œuvre dans les pays de départ.

Les archives des pays d'origine constituent des sources qui sont rarement mobilisées, mais il est vrai que, lorsqu'elles existent, elles ne sont pas très accessibles, à la différence des archives de la presse étrangère. Les dossiers des adoptés peuvent être consultés, selon les cas et les procédures, en interrogeant les archives des orphelinats, des tribunaux ou de l'autorité centrale des pays d'origine. Sur place, des éléments supplémentaires relatifs au recueil de l'enfant peuvent être découverts. Le dossier peut aussi contenir des éléments sur la famille de naissance : le consentement à l'adoption des parents et leur identité, l'existence de frères et
sœurs, l'état civil et le prénom d'origine de l'enfant ou encore des éléments complémentaires comme un examen médical ou des photos. Les dossiers peuvent aussi être vides ou introuvables.

L'histoire de l'adoption internationale est trop souvent celle d'une relation Nord/Sud déséquilibrée, rédigée du point de vue des pays d'accueil. La réalisation d'une histoire connectée et « à parts égales » entre la France et les pays d'origine est indispensable pour s'affranchir des rapports inégaux entre les États et de la condescendance entre les peuples, ou au moins prendre en considération ces mécanismes. Cela nécessite de pouvoir mener à l'étranger de vraies recherches, en allant dans les pays de départ, en travaillant avec les chercheurs du pays, en rencontrant les familles de naissance, les intermédiaires et les services locaux. Tout cela n'est pas simple à réaliser. Les difficultés liées à la langue, aux structures politiques et administratives spécifiques, parfois dans des contextes aléatoires, contraignent souvent les chercheurs à renoncer. De leur côté, les personnes concernées, surtout adoptées, individuellement ou collectivement obtiennent parfois des résultats. C'est pourquoi, chercheurs, personnes concernées et autres acteurs doivent unir leurs efforts pour parvenir à une meilleure connaissance des réalités passées et présentes de l'adoption internationale.
Part Four: Analyses and Directions for Future Research

The constructive and critical review provided here of the scientific literature (part one), bibliography (part two), and available sources identified (part three) allows us to propose several historical analyses of illicit practices in international adoption in France over several decades. What has already been written on the phenomenon comprises a very significant set of documentation, which seems to be too infrequently mobilized by those who are interested in its various aspects. By drawing on the commentated guide to sources (archives consulted or identified; press sources; audiovisual sources), it is possible to define problematics that constitute research directions to be taken in order better identify the realities of the phenomenon. The job of historians is to reconstruct the past using sources and the historical method in order to produce a narrative. In this respect, the present work can contribute to the reflection that is obligatory today, by specifying how the normative framework has developed and noting constants between illicit practices. Without referring systematically to the information detailed in part 3, we will seek to shed light on past situations as well as those closer to us, within their specific contexts—not by evaluating them in the light of current norms, but rather by trying to untangle complex webs of responsibilities.

In order to remain attentive to historical context, before setting out we should recall that until 1985 adoptions of foreign children escaped what might be called the policing of adoptive families, since there was oversight over the administrative procedure (prior to the child's placement) only in cases of adoption of wards of the state. Foreign children could be placed in adoption via multiple channels and according to highly varied modalities. The turn that occurred in the mid-1980s, seeking to better establish a framework for such adoptions, was essential. The law of July 25, 1985 indicated—finally—that "those persons who wish to take in a foreign child in view of adopting it must request the authorization stipulated in Article 63 of the present code"—that is, the authorization required to adopt a ward of the state. This authorization became indispensable for acquiring a child's entry visa into France.

Administrative hesitancy in the realm of transnational adoption encouraged the development of an area with little oversight, where adoptive families could be formed without respect for certain rules, even after 1985. When adoption candidates turned toward foreign adoption, certain administrative services applied abbreviated, more rapid procedures. Thus, international adoption represented a space of possibility for creating a family. This gray zone, which regulatory authorities neglected for some time, beyond offering options for "unusual" candidates, perpetuated the idea that anything (or a great deal) was both possible and easier internationally.

In the 1980s, with the expansion of international adoption, intermediaries and channels multiplied, and it became impossible to have a command, or even knowledge of, all the practices in place in Asia, South America, and Africa. Thus, there was a wide spectrum: some individuals operated illicitly with full awareness of the facts, while others simple did not know the rules, and others were victims of misdemeanors and crimes. In the late 1980s, international adoptions regulations became a necessity in the face practices that were not framed by international standards and the inefficient policies of states. This led to the Hague Adoption Convention (1993), which followed the International Convention on the Rights of Children (1989), but whose erratic application has failed to prevent breaches, through to the present day.

What do we know about illicit practices during various periods? Have international adoption agents done what was required to eradicate them? Can we, today, assign responsibility? The following sections begin to address these questions.
# 1 – Numerous and frequent reports

Our study confirmed that since the 1980s there have been many, frequent indications of breaches in general (both moral and normative) and of illicit practices, such as those defined in our introduction. The recurrence and repetition of these breaches shows that the phenomenon remained significant at least through the 2000s. Archives are not accessible for more recent years, but other sources prove that it persists, albeit at somewhat lesser rates. These alarm signals have been raised by all the actors in the international adoption field, and the present study has traced their chronology.

French diplomats posted in foreign embassies and consulates were the first to raise the question of how to respond to the new phenomenon of intercountry adoptions, beginning in the 1960s. Examining the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is enough to show the intensification of the phenomenon and to trace its developments. Ambassadors and consuls alerted the Ministry with great regularity and in some cases with admirable consistency regarding procedures that did not respect the laws of the countries in which they had been authorized, nor French regulations. All these breaches indeed constituted illicit practices, and officials identified by name the institutions, associations, and individual implicated in them, both French and foreign. They informed the Ministry of police and legal procedures in place in the countries of their posts. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs acknowledged receipt of this information and relayed it to the other ministries involved as well as to international adoption actors.

Beginning in the 1980s, adoptive parents' associations—particularly the departmental associations and national federation of the EFA (Enfance et Familles d'Adoption)—frequently wrote to and called the ministerial services involved as well as the MAI (which was created in 1987 and went into operation in 1988) to report irregularities, breaches, abuses, and infractions. Aware that these "affairs" or "scandals" tarnished the whole of international adoption, these associations zealously denounced the most heinous illicit practices (fraudulent attributions of parenthood; lack of mothers' consent; trafficking), the focus was on demonstrating that adoption associations did not tolerate these practices and that bad actors had no place within them. Most of these reports were based on information that came from adoption candidates and adoptive parents. Many of them had to do with the exorbitant sums of money demanded by French or foreign intermediaries or with illegal practices by adoption intermediaries. The commercialization of adoption was denounced both for its immorality and for creating the risk of crimes and misdemeanors due to the promise of profits.

To a lesser extent, OAAs also reported dubious practices of intermediaries to the authorities. They clearly focused on adoption procedures by individuals that they encountered in the countries in which they operated, and with whom they were in a sense in competition. These reports were in fact denunciations of unauthorized intermediaries who, according to the OAAs, prospered while they themselves were subject to the strict control of French authorities. The EFA, OAAs, and other international adoption actors came together under the umbrella of the Conseil supérieur de l'adoption (CSA) which, beginning with its creation in 1975, raised questions about international adoption practices and in the 1980s released various reports on the illicit acts it identified.

Beginning in the 1980s, the written and audiovisual press, both French and foreign, published leading articles—which sometimes veered into sensationalism—questioning the ethics of international adoption and relaying scandals that had come to the attention of the legal system. Beginning in the 1990s, and then increasingly in the 2000s and especially recently, true journalistic investigations were carried out, sometimes highly documented, revealing to the public realities that had hitherto been known only within the small world of adoption.

Since the 1990s, the HAC and the ISS have sounded multiple alarms, with reports on illicit practices and illegal adoptions. These well-documented publications, which were often easy to access and were written by experts in human rights and child protection, were known to actors, and were available to anyone seeking information on the question. With the development of the Internet, both the
accessibility and amount of information on the topic in general increased greatly. A debate even took
place between those for and those against international adoption, no doubt blurring the message on illicit
practices, which were used as a blunt weapon by those ideologically opposed to international adoption.
This was the case with NGOs such as Terre des Hommes-France, which practiced international adoption
before giving it up and fighting against it.

Finally, since the 2000s, and particularly over the past few years, associations and groups for adoptees (VDA beginning in 2005; AFOR, etc.; RAIF, Collectif des adoptés français du Mali, VAIA, IAM...) have played and continued to play a determining role in shedding light on exemplary cases, both individual and collective. The recentness of these revelations and their impact can be explained by a clear generational effect—adoptees have reached adulthood, and are now at an age to themselves become parents—and to the ease of communication and resonance offered by social medial. Investigations carried out by adoptees themselves—often beginning as origins searches, have turned up families and witnesses, uncovered documents, revealed inconsistency, and established proof of illegal practices. In certain instances, these individuals interacted with researchers in the human and social sciences who began working on the questions in the 2000s.

There were so many such reports that we may wonder whether illicit practices were ordinary or systematic. Analysis of the correspondence of French diplomats posted in Guatemala (1980s-2000s), in Nepal (2000s), in El Salvador (1980s-1990s), in Sri Lanka (1980s-1990s), and in Vietnam (1990s) show how common illicit practices were in these countries during these periods. They reveal the existence of enduring delinquent or criminal networks involved in the “trade” of children, which receiving states struggled to effectively punish. Beginning at least in the 1980s, and thanks in particular to major scandals in Peru and Brazil that came to the attention of both legal systems and media, all structural actors in international adoption were aware of illicit practices. They thus could not have been unaware of the risks of infraction that went along with international adoptions.

The many illicit practices brought to light in certain countries at certain moments and involving certain intermediaries indeed constituted specific cases, but they also revealed general truths about the ordinary reality of international adoption. Unscrupulous channels and actors, the influence of money, and the problem of consent were recurrent issues, even if they are not generalizable to all periods and places. It thus seems legitimate to raise the question of the systemic nature of illicit practices in international adoption: were such practices inextricably linked to the phenomenon itself? It is tempting to conclude that anywhere international adoption was found, there was the possibility of illicit practices. Which, of course, does not mean that all international adoptions were marred by illicit practices.

2 - *The logics of various actors*

As we have seen, there were many reports from all the various the actors in international adoption, each of whom suggested more or less explicitly that the breaches observed were the fault of others. For EFA, the primary responsibility for these breaches lay with intermediaries, especially within independent adoptions, but also with certain unscrupulous OAAs. As for the OAAs, when questioned by French authorities, they made a point of placing the blame on the intermediaries with whom they worked in adoptees' countries of origin, while maintaining that they themselves were unaware of any problems, had trusted these intermediaries, that no sign could have indicated any procedural irregularities, etc.

This raises the question of the various logics applied by different protagonists within the “grey
zone” of international adoption, a zone that includes a wide register of actions ranging from mere
irregularity to crime. Each actor or group of actors in international adoption acts according to a logic of its own. These logics are sometimes in contradiction to one another, and sometimes converge, depending on the situation and context. Such logics on the part of actors imply positions, sometimes postures, with regard to illicit practices—either denouncing them (always publicly) or, occasionally, accepting them. Adoption candidates operated within a results-based logic: find a child. In the 1980s, many candidates from Northern countries were in competition and some were ready to satisfy their desire for a child “at all costs.” In countries where poverty and corruption were endemic, the law of the market applied. Demand created supply. Surely adoptive parents traveling to such countries could have been expected to raise questions around intermediaries who were determined to find a child corresponding exactly to their expectations, in exchange for a large sum of money.

This results-oriented logic pushed some adoptive parents to be complicit in, or even to instigate, illicit acts. For example, in the late 1980s, the French ambassador to Sri Lanka continuously criticized indelicate adoption candidates, as well as all the actors involved and the entire system. Humanitarian activism, whether ideological or religious, compelled some adoptive parents to take the view that ends justified means. A few activists—who are today fewer and fewer, given the current acuity of the problem—more or less acknowledge having been aware of practices at the margins of what was legal; practices that they themselves employed or encouraged in others, without it having posed a problem for them at the time. Other adoptive parents were simply victims of criminal practices, which were all the more difficult to identify since they sometimes bore all the trappings of legality—for example, if a stolen child was later “legally” abandoned by a fake mother. After the initial crime, the procedure was followed perfectly, and even the most attentive and rule-following adoptive parents suspected nothing. To prevent such practices, the embassies of the United States and Canada in Guatemala established DNA tests for children and their presumed mothers, while French diplomats there organized interviews with mothers and their lawyers in order to identify such potential frauds.

Intermediaries followed a logic of action, and can be divided into two different groups. On the one hand, French OAAs, approved by local and departmental councils, were authorized by the MAI to work in a particular country. They were thus recognized and monitored by state departments, in accordance with Decree 89-95 of February 10, 1989 relating to adoption societies. Beginning in 2005, the AFA became the official adoption agency of the French state, and found itself in competition with OAAs. On the other hand, there are also other associations and individuals that operate in France or abroad and play a role in the process of matching children with adoption candidates, in particular in the case of independent adoptions. Archives show that the French authorities fought against illicit actions by these intermediaries, who had no authorization to play such a role. In the early 1990s, the Association pour l'adoption internationale (AAI) was among the associations that authorities had to ban and which were legally convicted. Other associations such as Kasih Bunda and Une famille pour un enfant were eventually authorized by the MAI after operating outside the law for years; the former in 1998—after 13 years of being in operation—for Sri Lanka, and the second in 1994 for Vietnam, before losing its authorization in 1997 in the wake of dysfunctions such as charging exorbitant adoption fees according to the MAI and processing adoptive families in *départements* where the association was not authorized.

The motivations driving the various intermediaries were very diverse, ranging from rescue missions for children to pure profit motive. Undoubtedly, each actor thought it mastered the risks better than the others and was convinced that its own intermediaries were the most trustworthy, including in countries considered “risky” by the MAI. This was the case in particular with Familles du monde, Arc en ciel, and other OAAs operating in Brazil through the mid-1990s; with those working in Guatemala through the early 2000s (where the children did not necessarily come from public orphanages which were in principle considered more certain but rather from networks that local agents—notably “notary-lawyers”—tapped); in Vietnam in the 1990s; and in Sri Lanka in the 2000s. The OAAs held the extraordinary power of being able to give a child to adoption candidates who were desperate for one. This power occasionally went to the head of some agency supervisors, causing them to lower their guard
ethically and leading to some very serious dysfunctions and abuses of power, evidence of which can be
seen in the internal power struggles within some OAA们.

International or intercountry adoption necessarily implies the heavy involvement of states. In
children's countries of departure, state and administrative apparatuses are front-line. When the state is
all-powerful, as in Pinochet's Chile and Ceausescu's Romania, its responsibility for illicit practices
cannot be exonerated. In most cases, departure states were weakened due to war, underdevelopment,
and natural catastrophes—as was the case in Haiti, Guatemala, Nepal, El Salvador, Sri Lanka, and
Vietnam—and thus unable to confront the commercialization of international adoption and the
corruption it led to. In contrast, in Brazil prior to the 1990s, where oversight varied widely depending
on federative state and even within the same state, the administration oscillated between firmness,
complicity, and a laissez-faire attitude towards foreigners. South Korea is a unique case, because it
dep delegated its power over children to a private foreign organization, the Holt Organization, giving it a
near-monopoly between the 1950s and 1980s. Columbia was also a special case; despite the instability
caused by guerillas, drug trafficking, and state repression, it created a central authority in 1969, the
Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar (ICBF), as well as a system of authorization for Columbian
associations beginning in the early 1970s. Foreign candidates (physical and moral persons alike) were
required to go through the ICBF or an authorized association—which did not mean that illicit practices
disappeared.

The French state positioned itself within a logic of regulation, seeing international adoption as
a unique form of migration that could have a strong impact on bilateral relations with countries of origin.
Beginning in the 1960s, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs took a very circumspect attitude with regard to
intercountry adoptions, considering—rightly so—that it could give rise to many legal conflicts. The
formal position adopted in 1975 after a debate within the Conseil supérieur de l'adoption was thus to
“neither prevent nor encourage” such adoptions. Apart from a few brief periods of hesitancy and the
declaration of an international adoption development policy in the 1980s and during a part of Nicholas
Sarkozy's presidency, in 2009, France established a convention on objectives and procedures for
international adoption—this position has remained nearly unchanged until today. One particularity of
the French model is that under it the Ministry of Foreign Affairs plays a leading role over all the other
Ministries involved. Thus, the Ministry for International Adoption, which was created in in 1987, has,
since 1988, operated under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Following France's ratification of the HAC,
the central authority over international adoption provided for in the convention took the form of the
Service de l'adoption international, which operates under the administrative supervision of the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs. With the creation of the AFA in 2005, the state itself became an adoption
intermediary.

3 - The state, private interests, and responsibilities

The state, as a regulating body, is of course the primary actor involved in the question of determining
responsibility, given that illicit practices were known and regularly denounced—first and foremost by
its own agents. What has it done? What has it not done? What could it have done? Why have illicit
practices endured?

Since 1989, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has authorized and overseen OAA们 seeking to
operate abroad, and thus is responsible for their actions. It is also the body that issues entry visas to
France for children adopted abroad, whether independently or through an OAA, in accordance with
procedures it has established and for which it is responsible. It is thus responsible for this very important
element of the adoption process. Visas can only be issued once adoption files have been verified.
Multiple exchanges between the Ministry and diplomats posted abroad show that this represents a fundamental question at the heart of international adoption and the state's responsibility.

Some adoptive parents and international adoption intermediaries continue to this day to maintain—notably, within the context of the present study—that they were never aware of any illicit practices. (It is not a question in these instances of having performed illicit actions, but simply of having been aware of their existence). Such denial is both untenable and irresponsible. One would have had to have been blind and deaf to what was being said, shared, written, and published. Such a position is even less defensible coming from individuals and associations who claimed to have experience and expertise in international adoption, to have rigorously chosen their partners, and to have detailed knowledge of the contexts and procedures of the origin countries with whom they work. In this way, they bear an undeniable share of the responsibility for certain breaches. But exactly when, and on the basis of which act, can it be considered that a breach has occurred within international adoption—that is, an individual or collective behavior that deviates from the norm? The notion of a breach implies a kind of relativism: what constitutes a breach for a certain person or society does not necessarily for another; what is considered deviant at one point may no longer be so in a later period, and vice versa—what was not considered deviant at a given point may become so several years later in light of the evolution of the normative framework. For example, whereas the crime of fraudulent parental attribution was largely tolerated by Brazil's society and legal system within the context of adoption, the arrival of foreign adoptive parents beginning in the 1970s called the practice fundamentally into question: what was accepted between Brazilians was not necessarily with foreigners, especially when scandals followed. Whereas the normative dimension of ethics establishes what a society does or does not accept at a given moment—whence the need for a historical approach—good and evil are always defined, at both the collective and individual level, by weighing acts and their consequences.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs both can both grant and revoke authorization to OAAs to operate in certain countries. Beginning in the early 1990s, the MAE revoked 117 authorizations. In the overwhelming majority of cases, these were decisions that had been requested by an OAA once it had ceased operations in a country for three years, as, for example, the NGO Médecins du Monde did in 2020 when it halted its adoption mission in the 17 countries where it was authorized as an OAA. This trend is connected to the decline in international adoption since 2005, which led to a reduction in the activities of OAAs. However, we should specify that there were also incidences in which OAAs chose to halt their activities in a country in the wake of scandals that called them into question.

Thus, out of 117 authorization revocations, we consider only 7 to have been punishments. Some were the result of international adoption having been suspended in certain countries; this was the case with the OAA Vivre en Famille, whose authorization to operate in the Democratic Republic of Congo was revoked in August 2016; international adoptions were suspended there in November of that year. The archives we consulted show that relations between the MAI and certain organizations were occasionally tense. For example, reprimands of the OAAs Solidarité fraternité and De Pauline à Anaëlle in 1995 and of Emmanuel in 1997 prove that in the 1990s, at a time when France was capable of conforming to the modalities defined in the HAC, irregular practices still occurred.
<caption>Figure 11 – Authorization Revocations of OAAs due to insufficient safeguards</caption>

Source: Mission de l'adoption internationale

<table><thead><tr><td>OAA</td><td>Pays</td><td>Arrêté d'habilitation</td><td>Arrêté de retrait d'habilitation</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Entraide des femmes françaises</td><td>Russia</td><td>13/08/93</td><td>07/04/1999</td></tr><tr><td>Vivre en famille</td><td>Democratic Republic of Congo</td><td>25/08/08</td><td>24/11/2016</td></tr><tr><td>Accueil aux enfants du monde</td><td>Madagascar</td><td>26/04/90</td><td>24/10/2022</td></tr><tr><td>Accueil aux enfants du monde</td><td>Romania</td><td>13/12/90</td><td>24/10/2022</td></tr><tr><td>Accueil aux enfants du monde</td><td>Burkina Faso</td><td>20/06/06</td><td>24/10/2022</td></tr><tr><td>Rayon de Soleil Enfant étranger</td><td>Chile</td><td>18/06/92</td><td>21/12/2022</td></tr><tr><td>Rayon de Soleil Enfant étranger</td><td>South Korea</td><td>18/04/90</td><td>21/12/2022</td></tr></tbody></table>

The state, through its various departments, has the power not just to make adoption candidates aware of illegal activities on the part of intermediary individuals and associations but also to compel such entities to cease their activities and to bring them to court. This was the case in the early 1990s with the association Adoption Internationale. The source material contains numerous traces of actions against such intermediaries, who most often play a role in facilitating the adoptions of children without admitting it.

Should the state have done more?

Other international adoption actors' assignment of all responsibility to the state might seem to contradict the expertise they claimed. For example, OAAs always selected from among authorized candidates, as if authorization alone did not suffice; but in terms of procedures, they claim to have handed exclusive control over to the state. Some international adoption protagonists (OAAs, heads of associations, adoptive parents) today claim the status of victims of breaches, claiming not to have seen, heard, or suspected anything, and to have had total confidence in intermediaries about whose ways of operating they knew nothing, to have not raised questions about the sums of money they asked for, etc. But, they imply, state departments should have seen and known everything, even that which was expertly hidden from them.

In addition, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has the power to forbid adoption candidates from looking for adoptees within countries whose internal contexts and general adoption economy cannot guarantee the regularity and legality of the process. This absence of guarantee might be linked to country context or to the adoptability of children.
<caption>Figure 12 – Suspensions of International Adoption Procedures with Source Countries</caption>

Source : Mission de l'adoption internationale

<table><thead><tr><td>Country</td><td>Date of decree suspending international adoption procedures</td><td>Reasons and objectives</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Central African Republic</td><td>10 January 2014</td><td>Insufficient legal and human security conditions, in particular: lack of any identified local authority over international adoption and over partner orphanages; untrustworthy local civil registries<br>To prevent eventual breaches and in particular to ensure that children whose families were displaced or who had been temporarily separated from their parents not be offered for international adoption without guarantee of their origin and adoptability</td></tr><tr><td>Democratic Republic of Congo</td><td>November 23, 2016</td><td>Serious irregularities in adoption procedures stemming from children's civil status and adoptability<br>In parallel, the DRC's suspension of international adoptions with the law of July 15, 2016 making the resumption of adoptions continent upon the creation of a Congolese public body in charge of adoption, which has not yet occurred</td></tr><tr><td>Dominican Republic</td><td>16 December 2016</td><td>The ethical principles and public policy rules that govern international adoption are not respected. Procedures do not correspond to the fundamental principles defined by the Convention on the Rights of the Child.</td></tr><tr><td>Haiti</td><td>11 March 2020, extended through decress on 9 June, 31 August and 18 December 2020 and 7 and 18 June 2021</td><td>The context of insecurity and general degradation of the national situation constitute major risk factors for both the security of Haitian nationals and for the ethics of adoptions procedures, whose regularity, in light of the requirements stipulated by the Hague Adoption Convention of 29 May 1993, can no longer be guaranteed</td></tr><tr><td>Niger</td><td>24 September 2020</td><td>Questions surrounding the regularity of adoption procedures, the reliability of local civil registries, as well as the country's severely degraded security situation<br>To prevent a future scenario in which Niger's adherence to the Hague Adoption Convention is not acknowledged</td></tr><tr><td>Russia</td><td>7 March 2022<br>Extended by the decrees of 7 June and 22 December 2022</td><td>Contexts of crisis or armed conflicted are fertile ground for violations of children's rights and more particularly for illicit practices in international adoption. In such contexts, given the difficulty of determining whether children who may appear to be orphans or to be without parental protection are truly eligible for adoption, no procedure of international adoption can be initiated.<br>Moreover, since Russia's invasion of Ukraine, any travel to these two countries is formally discouraged.<br>In these circumstances, conditions for pursuing adoption procedures cannot be met.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Ukraine</td><td>7 March 2022, extended by the decrees of 7 June and 22 December 2022.</td><td>Contexts of crisis or armed conflicted are fertile ground for violations of children's rights and more particularly for illicit practices in international adoption. In such contexts, given the difficulty of determining whether children who may appear to be orphans or to be without parental protection are truly eligible for adoption, no procedure of international adoption can be initiated.<br/>Moreover, since Russia's invasion of Ukraine, any travel to these two countries is formally discouraged.<br/>In these circumstances, conditions for pursuing adoption procedures cannot be met.</td></tr><tr><td>Madagascar</td><td>24 October 2022</td><td>Fragility of the Madagascar Central Adoption authority highlighted by the March 9 2022 report from the UN's Committee on the Rights of the Child.<br/>There are risks of potential child trafficking, and more assurances are needed in terms of the security and ethics of adoptions procedures, as well as of the validity of civil registry documents.<br/>To give Malgache authorities the time needed to strengthen procedural guardrails, in particular through a decree implementing the 2017 law on adoption</td></tr></table>

Unfortunately, the MAI does not keep such a precise list for suspension decisions made prior to 2014, yet archival work reveals many that were made in earlier periods: Peru (1982), El Salvador (1986), Chile (1992), Madagascar (1992), Sri Lanka (de facto 1995), Vietnam (1999), Haiti (2010), etc.

There was great pressure put on the state to reduce its regulation efforts ahead of such suspension decisions. Such pressure was constant from two major actors in international adoption: adoptive parents/adoption candidates and intermediaries. The sources consulted in the context of the present study prove that adoptive parents and their associations—often via elected officials, both mayors and legislators—as well as OAAs regularly acted to have adoption suspensions deferred for a given country. Influential figures in politics and business exerted strong pressure so that international adoption would continue to develop; for example, François de Combret and his association Solidarité Enfants Roumains Abandonnés (SERA) in Romania. The cases of Vietnam in 1999 (suspension by the MAI) and of Nepal in 2007 (suspension by Nepalese authorities) are very clear-cut in this respect, and led to significant opposition on the part of these actors.

Reading the archives sometimes gives the impression of a sort of co-administration of international adoption shared between the state, the MAI, and other actors. For example, in the early 2000s, the EFA took part in missions to foreign countries, and adoptive parents who belonged to activist associations contributed heavily to the writing of reports on adoption in the 1990s and 2000s.

In 2001, in Guatemala, following the publication by the UN and UNICEF of two reports condemning breaches in international adoptions there, the MAI—likely on the defensive following the episode in Vietnam—considered the possibility of suspending adoptions, on the condition of not arousing “negative reactions” among adopting families and adoption associations and organizations. Ultimately, the MAI limited itself to issuing a series of recommendations, whereas the French Embassy and the Hague Adoption Convention called for suspension.

The argument made by adoption candidates, adoptive parents, and associations was almost always the same: any adoption processes already underway must be allowed to come to completion, in the interest of the children and the families awaiting them. In short, the state was seen as always intervening a bit too soon. Or too late; it is easy to criticize a decision after the fact, even when a delay
had been requested by those very parties who later maintained that it was came too late. Such postures
on the part of these actors must be further analyzed by researchers in order to better understand the
mechanisms and general operation of international adoption in France.

Nevertheless, the responsibility of the state comes into play for those affected by illicit practices that de facto made an adoption illegal. In recent years, complaints have been lodged by individuals adopted in Mali, Guatemala, and Ethiopia. In addition to the MAE, which was supposed to have verified visa authorizations, the MAI, which was supposed to have overseen OAAs' modes of operation, and the Ministries of Social Affairs and of Justice have been accused of not having done their parts. Often in the name of the interest of the child (spelled out in the 1959 Declaration of the Rights of the Child and later formalized in the 1989 Convention)—a convenient façade for retroactively ignoring dubious procedures—social services made decisions and courts granted adoptions in cases where not all steps of the process had been followed.

The question of French international adoption actors' responsibilities for observed illicit practices is very complex. It can only be discussed if generalizations are avoided. The established facts and the historical truth are incompatible with the quest for a single, exclusive responsibility. All the actors within international adoption must examine their past attitudes in light of this question.

4 - *The visibility or invisibility of the phenomenon and its actors*

Sources demonstrate that certain departure countries of children adopted in France were fertile ground for illicit practices. We should point out from the outset that when sources do or do not note such practices in a given country, this was the result not only the facts of the situation but also of the zeal for or lack of interest in international adoption on the part of French diplomatic and consular staff or ministry agents accredited in that country.

In the early 2000s, African countries were regularly singled out: Ethiopia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Mali. And, for practices located further in the past: Chile, Brazil, Peru, El Salvador, Vietnam, Romania, etc. More recently, Sri Lanka, Guatemala, and Mali once again have been the focus of the adoption world, press investigations, testimonial books, and legal actions. The archival studies undertaken within the context of the present study shows that many countries, at one moment or another, were affected by illicit practices. The categories of “at-risk countries” and “reliable countries” must therefore be re-examined with chronology, reforms, and national developments in mind. The prevailing situations in at least the 60 or so countries that contributed significantly to international adoption flows into France (50 or more children) must be studied. This does not mean that those countries who sent only a few children to France were not affected by illicit practices; the source material shows that this was the case in particular with Argentina and the Dominican Republic.

In contrast to the most visible and most targeted countries, South Korea, which, since the 1950s
has constituted the most significant source of children in international adoption—and since the 1960s
for France—has long served as a model. Its centralized adoption procedures, the rigor which its
children’s files were kept, and its efficient system that contained no bad surprises, were vaunted within
the world of international adoption. Thus, we find no mention of illicit practices in the diplomatic
archives for South Korea of the 1980s and 1990s. The South Korean state, which had long since
delegated the administration of international adoptions to a private organization, Holt International, later
took a very open policy toward adopted individuals, considering them ambassadors to the world, and in
particular making it easy for them to return to Korea. But in the late 1980s, the foreign press—American
in particular—began to question whether the children sent abroad were truly orphans. In 1999, Françoise
Maury, doctor of psychology and former head of Terre des Hommes-France reported in detail on the
criticisms made of the South Korean adoption system but framed them as political accusations and fantasies.

Nevertheless, over the past several years, adopted individuals have called into question South Korea's "model" status. In 2017, the group Korean Adoptees of the Diaspora (KAD) petitioned the South Korean president to put an "immediate end to South Korea's industrial international adoption system." Foreign press articles relayed information regarding individual investigations and the transnational movement initiated by adoptees in Denmark who came together to form the Danish Korean Rights Group (DKRG). The Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which was charged with investigating South Korean state abuses between 1953 and the early 1990s agreed in December 2022 to examine the adoption files of children who had been presented as orphans or as abandoned and who, as adults, had managed to find their parents. In France, this process was not widely reported on, perhaps because Racines Coréennes, the oldest adoptee association in France (created in 1995), in a report in September 2022, dissociated itself from the DKRG's effort. The association preferred such processes to be undertaken with the International Korean Adoptee Association (IKAA), a federation of associations of Korean original adoptees created in 2004. The issue represents the kind of struggle for power and representation that we have witnessed over the past several years between adoptee organizations that use different, uncoordinated, and sometimes opposing means to advance awareness of illegal adoptions.

In the case of intermediaries, there is a magnifying effect that must be counteracted. Since the 2000s, OAAs have been in the crosshairs of the press and adoptees. We may cite here the examples of Rayon de Soleil de l'enfant étranger for scandals in Peru, Mali, and other countries; Enfants de reine de miséricorde in Ethiopia; Amis des enfants du monde in Guatemala. But there are few that have not been singled out at one moment or another. Indeed, it is much easier to target such official intermediaries, which are authorized and must give accounts of themselves, or at least answer the state's questions, rather than identify the multitude of intermediaries who facilitated independent international adoptions, and were most often located in countries of origin. While justified, the current focus on OAAs can also be seen as a way of diverting attention from practices within independent adoption. The attitudes of various actors must be studied over the course of time in light of revelations of illicit practices, in order to clearly grasp the pendulum trend we observe, that swings between focusing suspicion on OAAs at certain moments and on independent adoptions at others.

## 5 - The connection between origin searches and the discovery of illicit practices

The question of illicit adoptions is closely linked to that of adoptees' origin searches. Adoptees' legitimate demands and their desire to learn about their own histories and identities must be understood through the lens of the illicit practices that may have affected them. Confirmed cases of illicit practices have often been discovered as the result of origin searches and adoptees have often been the ones to sound the alarm.

In France, two things must be noted. First, the over 120,000 international adoptions carried out to date are today marred by suspicions of illicit practices. Second, among the demands voiced by some of the main adoptee associations, such as la Voix des adoptés (VDA), Reconnaissance des adoptions illégales à l'international en France (RAIF), and Enfance et familles d'adoption (EFA) there is a noteworthy demand to re-contextualize origin searches. That is, beyond seeing them as a personal undertaking having to do with knowledge of oneself, there is a call to understand them as fundamental tools for allowing thousands of individuals to better understand the processes that brought them to France as children.

By reminding us of how such uprootings—even if well-intentioned—can leave significant scars on the individuals affected by them, the current moment calls into question the idea of international
adoption as a measure to protect children. Beginning with its legal authorization in 1923, the question
of adoption has been centered primarily around the right of the family rather than protecting the child.
Demands by adopting families for legal security around the act of adoption quickly emerged, in
particular due to a fear of losing a child to its biological family. The risk of adoption being shadowed
by irregularities led to the phenomenon being included as part of the governance of families and
populations. The concept of risk intersected with that of the vulnerability of the child, understood not
only in relation to the family of origin that abandoned it but also in relation to its adoptive family, in
order to ensure that the new family not become a risk to the child in terms of physical, psychological,
or material violence. In their origin searches, adoptees come face-to-face with another risk: the opacity
of the adoptive procedure, which is significant enough to perturb their sense of self.

The Conseil national pour l'accès aux origines personnelles (CNAOP), created in 2002, does not appear to be well suited to international adoptees—an audience for which it was not created. Its website makes no mention of international adoption, nor does the welcome booklet it provides. Only the questionnaire for filing a request includes an item that hints at the phenomenon: “orphanage or foreign adoption agency.” But the CNAOP does not disclose the number of requests from international adoptees, whereas it does provide the total number of requests filed (11,496 between 2002 and 2020), the proportion of individuals born in secret who have appealed to it (between 3% and 5% between 2002 and 2018), as well as success rates in identifying and locating birth parents (58% between 2002 and 2018).

In a context where international adoptees in France find themselves caught between doubt as to
the modalities of their adoption and a lack of official procedural channels for their origin searches, we
must understand and measure the proportion of international adoptees who are interested in searching
for their origins. In the Netherlands, a poll carried out by the committee investigating international
adoption showed that “over four-fifths of adoptees believe they should be authorized to research their
origins,” that “half have already begun this process,” and that among the other half, “a third hope to do
so in the future.” In France, out of 120,000 international adoptees, how many would like to do the same
(or have already)? In a poll of 268 international adoptees, the association Voix des adoptés states that
29% of their respondents note irregular elements in the practices leading up to their adoption. If one
were to take a larger and more diverse sample size than that of the VDA’s activist network, how many
international adoptees would have doubts about the legality of their adoption procedures?

Furthermore, it is also necessary to measure and comprehend the methods currently used for
origin searches. What individual initiatives do adoptees themselves take (use of social media, DNA tests,
private investigators, travel to origin countries, etc.), and what initiatives are carried out or encouraged
by associations? Faced with gaps in the archives in question and unable to find their origin families and
the reasons for their adoption, adoptees sometimes turn to backup solutions that are illegal in France,
such as so-called “recreational” genetic testing. These tests offer to provide a “genealogy” through an
identification of ethnic origins. According to the VDA, 55% of the 268 individuals in their sample “have
found or searched for their biological family”, while 39% “state they have used social media and/or
DNA tests.”

At the same time, there are more and more ways to disseminate knowledge. In particular, in the
case of origin searches, information is spread via associations and the social media groups created by
adoptees themselves, which operate primarily on the principle of mutual aid.

*

This study, co-written by two historians, does not claim to provide the answers to all the
questions raised regarding illicit practices in international adoption. The historical approach we have
laid out here is primarily based on available public archives that are classified, inventoried, and
consultable. The many other sources in France and abroad (personal files, adoption decision files,
administrative files, OAAs, AFAs, parents' associations, adoptee associations, intermediary groups and
individuals), which are more or less available, as well as those which, like oral sources, are yet to be
created, have only been mentioned in passing and certainly merit deeper historical work. For example,
at the margins of international adoption, there is also work to be done on illicit practices in national
adoption.

We have avoided all caricature, simplism, and simplification in our study. Without trying to artificially complicate things, we have sought to present, beyond the facts, the complexity of the contexts, stakes, and interactions between actors. All the actors involved in international adoption have encountered illicit practices: some performed them; others covered them up or allowed them to happen; still others fought against them with greater or lesser success.

Given the nature of the historical method, it is difficult to understand more recent years. Within
the sciences, sociologists, anthropologists, psychologist, and jurists can provide elements of an answer
to the question that comes to mind after reading this study: have illicit practices existed in recent years,
and do they still today? Although the answer is clearly yes in light of what has been denounced and
documented by foreign reports, whistleblowers, and the press, the scope of the phenomenon is nothing
like what it was in the past. Today, the number of adopted foreign children arriving in France is one-
twentieth of what it was 20 years ago. Oversight of international adoption is thus far more achievable,
with more efficient means and a well-established international framework of standards.

Open, participatory science can come to the aid of researchers to better identify illicit practices
today. In addition to the open-access publication of this research report, the database created as part of
our study can serve as a tool for creating new knowledge. Anyone interested in the subject can take
advantage of the database, not only by consulting and querying it but also enriching it by notifying us
of new pieces of data that will be regularly added to it.

We hope that reading this study will allow for greater awareness of illicit practices in
international adoption, and that those affected will be able to resituate their own unique personal stories
within the more global context of international adoption.

January 2023

Yves Denéchère

yves.denechere@univ-angers.fr

Fabio Macedo

fabio.macedo@univ-angers.fr

TEMOS – UMR CNRS 9016
Maison de la Recherche Germaine Tillion
5 bis boulevard Lavoisier
49045 ANGERS cedex 01