# First-Generation Highly Skilled Migrants from a South-Asian Country

Vathsala Wickramasinghe, M. Eleperuma

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## To cite this version:

Vathsala Wickramasinghe, M. Eleperuma. First-Generation Highly Skilled Migrants from a South-Asian Country. Glocalism: Journal of Culture, Politics and Innovation, 2022, 2, pp.1-33. 10.12893/gjcpi.2022.2.10. hal-05484651

HAL Id: hal-05484651

https://hal.science/hal-05484651v1

Submitted on 30 Jan 2026

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FIRST-GENERATION HIGHLY SKILLED MIGRANTS FROM A SOUTH
ASIAN COUNTRY

V. WICKRAMASINGHE

*Department of Management of Technology, University of Moratuwa (Sri Lanka)*

M. ELEPERUMA

*Department of Management of Technology, University of Moratuwa (Sri Lanka)*

*Abstract:* This paper presents findings of a study that investigated causes for migration, the expectations of migration and post-migration experience of IT professionals from Sri Lanka. The paper also discusses effects of education qualification from abroad, past work experience from abroad, and homeownership before migration on skilled migration. For the study, survey methodology was used, and two different sample groups were selected- migrants and prospective migrants from the information technology sector. The results indicated two domains of causes and four domains of expectations. There were significant differences between expectations and post-migration experience of migrants; there were significant differences in some causes for migration and expectations and post-migration experience by homeownership before migration. The paper concludes with a discussion on implications of the findings for theory and practice.

*Key words:* highly skilled migrants, international migration, migrant, post-migration experience, prospective migrant.

INTRODUCTION

Integration of national economies into a global economy opened opportunities for increasing numbers of world population to directly connect with capitalist labour markets creating one global labour market, where people as a factor of production has been subjected to commodification. Expectations of globalised labour market are realised through migration of people, and it has been identified as a “structural necessity” for the developed West (Cohen 1987: 137). However, migrant receiving countries have taken measures to manage migration flows, which Castles (2011: 311) identified as “neoliberal dream is dualistic: a cosmopolitan, mobile world for elites; a world of barriers, exploitation, and security controls for the rest”. In the battle for talent, developed countries compete for highly skilled labour for the realization of profit maximization dream of businesses firms. For this process, developed countries have introduced country specific and sector specific extensive immigration policies and schemes identifying mechanisms of deploying highly skilled migrants. The country specific
immigration policy directives assume that these are capable in control and selective admittance of skilled migrants. However, when migrant receiving countries face similar labour shortages, they may “no longer be able to select from a seemingly endless flow of migrants. Instead, highly skilled migrants can choose the location of their choice” (Liebig 2003: 2).

The literature supports the argument that highly skilled migrants are the active selectors of the host country among different potential destinations, i.e., self-selection by migrants (Borjas 1987). In selecting best possible destination that fulfils their expectations migrants evaluate not only income but also many other dimensions such as working conditions, tax incentives, security, and well-being of family members (see Florida 2005; Krupka 2009; Mincer 1978; Sjaastad 1962; Stark, Bloom 1985; Todaro 1969). However, the available literature on international migration suggests that migration theory and empirical findings have yet to fully realise the need of considering highly skilled migrants as the destination selector rather than the selected.

PURPOSE AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE PAPER

The paper presents findings of an empirical study conducted to understand causes for migration, expectations and post-migration experience of highly skilled migrants and prospective migrants from information technology (IT) sector in Sri Lanka. Therefore, the paper presents findings on 1) differences between migrants and prospective migrants in their migration expectations, 2) differences between migrants and prospective migrants in their causes for migration, 3) the association between the existence of education qualification and past work experience from abroad with respect to each group- migrants and prospective migrants, 4) differences between the expectations of migration and post-migration experience of migrants, and 5) differences in causes for migration, expectations and post-migration experience by homeownership before migration.

The current study makes two specific distinctions, i.e., first, between causes for migration and expectations about future opportunities of migration, and second, the perception of first-generation migrants. An understanding of causes for migration is vital for migrant sending countries for strategy and policy making. Further, knowledge on expectations and post-migration experience is vital for migrants, prospective migrants and migrants receiving countries alike. On the one hand, higher levels of expectations or unrealistic expectations with compared to reality affect migrants’ mental health (Pernice et al 2009). The realization of expectations or the closure of the difference between expectations and post-migration experience, on the other hand, increases the well-being of migrants, and implies success in the integration of highly skilled migrants into any host country. Regarding first-generation migrants, the study is confined to investigate the perception of first-generation, i.e., the foreign-born, migrants to host countries. The perception of migrants is identified to reflect a generational effect, i.e., first versus second generation (Verkuyten 2008; Vohra, Adair 2000). For example, Vohra and Adair (2000) found that first-generation migrants are more satisfied with their lives in the host country than in their native country. However, being a first-generation migrant itself is a reason for less satisfaction with their lives in the host country (Verkuyten, 2008). The integration of migrants into any host country is vital since the nationwide statistic for the level of life satisfaction of the host society is conditioned by the level of life satisfaction of migrants.

Our study makes a novel approach to the literature on international skilled migration on four spheres. First, we investigated expectations of migration from the perspective of both highly skilled migrants and prospective migrants in a single study. Second, we have not come
across studies that compared expectations and post-migration experience in a single study that
allows to make interpretations on the level of migrant integration in the receiving country.
Third, building on previous studies that will be reviewed in the latter part of this paper (such
as Bartolini et al 2017; Koikkalainen 2014), we explored the influence of the existence of
education qualification and past work experience from abroad on the migration of highly
skilled workers. Fourth, the literature on migration accepts homeownership as an important
symbol of the standard of living of an individual or family (Fischer, Malmberg 2001;
Helderman et al 2006; Myers, Lee 1998). The migration literature discusses two types of
homeownership, i.e., homeownership before migration and after migration. Of these two types,
most publications were on homeownership after migration (such as Myers, Lee 1998), and less
attention has been paid to homeownership before migration. The present study intended to
bridge this gap in the literature by examining differences in causes for migration, expectations,
and post-migration experience by homeownership before migration.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definitions of highly skilled migrant incorporate two important criteria, namely qualification and work experience. For instance, Iredale (2001: 8) defined a highly skilled migrant as an individual with “a university degree or extensive experience in a given field”. Further, highly skilled migrants are in search of either a permanent relocation, short-term career move or an adventure (Agarwal et al 2011; Koikkalainen 2014). In the present study, we investigated voluntary migration of highly skilled individuals for permanent relocation. Consistent with the objectives, the theoretical background of the study is reviewed in the following sections.

EXPECTATIONS OF SKILLED MIGRANTS, CAUSES FOR MIGRATION, AND THE
EXISTENCE OF PAST EXPERIENCE FROM ABROAD

The term expectation is used in the migration literature to express the perception of skilled migrants on future economic and non-economic opportunities with respect to their experience in the country of origin (Bartolini et al 2017; Florida 2005; Krupka 2009; Mincer 1978; Sjaastad 1962; Stark, Bloom 1985; Todaro 1969; Törngren, Holbrow 2016). Although the neoclassical theory of migration (Todaro, 1969) argues that migration is tied to a higher wage level (income), an individual is viewed as a utility maximizing agent, who expects a higher utility in a host country by way of several dimensions such as living conditions, area amenities, security, upward social mobility, a sense of belonging and the efficiency of civic institutions (Massey et al 1993; Sjaastad 1962). In the specific context of IT professionals, scientists and engineers, previous studies identified the importance of achieving a better skill match on the job, involvement in research and development, reputation for labour market openness, meritocracy, and prospects for upward professional mobility at the destination (Bartolini et al 2017). As mentioned earlier, and as detailed in the section on Sample, we have selected two samples - migrants and prospective migrants since Hammarstedt (2001) implied that the time at which immigrants leave their country of origin may reflect their expectations of migration. Therefore, it is hypothesised:

H1: There are differences between migrants and prospective migrants in their migration expectations
In our study, we intend to investigate not only the expectations of migration but also
causes for migration. Hence, we make a differentiation between the “expectations of
migration” and “causes for migration”. The term expectation is used to denote strong hopes or
beliefs that something will happen, or an individual will get something that he/she want, where
synonyms include anticipation and hope. Accordingly, all most all previous studies reviewed
above discuss the expectations of migration. The term cause is used to denote a fact or situation
which explains why it happened, where synonyms include reason and ground. There are very
few previous studies that discussed about causes for migration (e.g., Bartolini et al 2017;
Koikkalainen 2014). For instance, Bartolini et al (2017) identify a recession condition as a
cause for highly skilled individuals to migrate. Building on these two strands of literature, in
the present study, we argue that a cause originates an internal desire through which an
individual will be directed towards gratifying its purpose whereas expectations are born
because of causes and are more likely to act as the ways of gratifying a cause. In other words,
a cause ignites a desire where an individual will be channelled to pursue its purpose through
expectations. We believe that an understanding on specific causes for migration is important
since our research context is highly skilled migrants, their migration is voluntary, and they may
have several alternative destinations to choose from. Building on the argument of Hammarstedt
(2001), we propose that causes for migration could vary between migrants, who had left the
country of origin, and prospective migrants, who are in the process of leaving the country of
origin. Therefore, it is hypothesised:

H2: There are differences between migrants and prospective migrants in their causes for migration

Previous studies report the role of the existence of past experience from abroad prior to the migration event through work experience, education, internship, and student exchange schemes on skilled migration (Koikkalainen 2014). Past experience from abroad facilitates individuals to acquire transnational and transversal skills such as, fluency in another language, (Western) habituate, ability to settle and adapt in a new environment, and labour market skills that are not country specific (Koikkalainen 2014). This suggests that individuals with experience from abroad are more migration savvy compared to individuals without past experience from abroad. Therefore, it is hypothesised:

H3: There is an association between the existence of education qualification and past work experience from abroad prior to the migration event with respect to each group- migrants and prospective migrants

POST-MIGRATION EXPERIENCE OF SKILLED MIGRANTS

Migrants experience an abrupt change of one's surrounding once they arrived at a new country and their involvement in the host country is identified to have material as well as imaginative significance (Hercog, Tejada 2013). Material significance involves the actual movement of goods, services and people who get in contact with migrants in the host country whereas imaginative significance involves ideas, norms and symbols through which migrants explain the world around them (Hercog, Tejada 2013: 3). Therefore, the literature on transnationalism (such as Pedraza 2006: 15) suggests that the extent to which migrants assimilates culturally and structurally in the host country largely impact on their perceptions of post-migration experience. Further, Portes (2003) provide evidence that transnationalism is in the domain of more educated migrants than otherwise. Furthermore, it is important to maintain a high level of life satisfaction in migrants for the overall well-being of fellow citizens of any
migrant receiving country. Therefore, from the receiving country's point of view, the integration of migrants is a challenging task (Törngren, Holbrow 2016). We investigated the post-migration experience of highly skilled migrants at their destinations.

Several socioeconomic domains can be used for the assessment of post-migration experience. Some of such domains are labour market participation or employment, safety and future security, a sense of community, cultural adaptation, and involvement in civil society (see Cheung, Phillimore 2014; Hercog, Tejada 2013; Massey et al 1993; Sjaastad 1962). In this regard, any assessment of post-migration experience is closely tied to the daily life experience of skilled migrants and contemplates the expectations of migration (Genova 2017; Törngren, Holbrow 2016). Of post-migration experience, labour market-related experience is identified as the most important for skilled migrants since it “facilitates access to new social networks, increases prospects for learning, and provides opportunities to regain confidence and economic independence” (Cheung, Phillimore 2014: 521). In this regard, Pernice et al. (2009) stated that the failure of skilled migrants to obtain appropriate employment is linked to several consequences such as low levels of mental health, social isolation, and resentment towards the new society at the destination. Therefore, it is hypothesised:

H4: There are significant differences between the expectations of migration and post-migration experience of migrants

HOMEOWNERSHIP PRIOR TO MIGRATION

Homeownership assumes an important place in peoples' lifestyle (Bourassa, Shi 2017). Becoming a homeowner involves an utmost important decision of a lifetime for most households (Acolin et al 2019), and homeowners build equity in their homes (McCabe 2016). The literature on housing economics, demography and sociology identifies homeownership as the most visible symbol of an individual's or family's wealth accumulation, upward mobility, and material well-being (Helderman et al 2006; Myers, Lee 1998). Although homeownership is primarily identified as an economic transaction, buying a home is a complex process since homeownership defines an individual's space of belonging and authenticity outside of social roles (Saunders 1990: 311). Further, the sustained homeownership over time provides residential stability for homeowners allowing them to accumulate more assets with compared to renters (see Aarland, Reid 2019 for review). In this regard, Fischer and Malmberg (2001) state that homeownership makes a specific local tie between a person and a certain location. Homeowners are more likely to engage civically, experience a sense of collective efficacy, enjoy better physical and mental health due to greater sense of control over one's life, experience higher levels of residential satisfaction, and experience better educational attainment of children (see Aarland, Reid 2019; Fesselmeyer, Seah 2018; Manturuk et al 2017 for review). For example, Fesselmeyer and Seah (2018: 59) state that with compared to homeowners, renters may not invest in civic and political engagement and may not be committed to one's neighborhood and community since "any pecuniary payoff from community-specific investments accrues only to landlords". Still, such findings are not conclusive; McCabe (2016) provides evidence to suggest that the contribution of homeownership to civic engagement as marginal while Aaronson (2000) suggests that even with residential stability, life events experienced by homeowners could force them to move. Further, although homeownership assumes an important place in an individual's life due to a myriad of possibilities associated with it, more recent studies showed that the homeownership rate has been declining (Bourassa, Shi 2017; Ceritoglu 2019; Kaas et al 2019). For example, Kaas et al (2019) showed that owning a home reduces the net holdings of financial and other
real wealth suggesting a negative effect of homeownership on household wealth. Further, Ceritoglu (2019) showed that the global financial crisis led to rise house price with compared to rent revealing a lower rent inflation, which encourages households to remain as renters suggesting a decrease in the profitability of investing in housing.

In the context of migration, the Harris-Todaro model supposes that migration is driven by the "desire for individual income maximization based on rational comparison of the relative costs and benefits of remaining at home or moving" (Castles 2010). Helderman et al (2006: 107) state "people do not generally take the decision to migrate very lightly". Homeownership prior to migration is identified to have a negative effect on the migration decision since transaction cost of moving from an owner-occupied home is higher than that of a rented house (Fischer, Malmberg 2001). Valsecchi (2014), when investigating land ownership in Mexico, found that land property rights operate as an impeding factor in international migration decisions. Adams (1993: 164) investigated the economic and demographic determinants of international migration and found that individuals who are most deprived in terms of both current (that is, income) and permanent (that is, land) economic status are the most likely to migrate in Egypt. Helderman et al (2006), however, suggest that the importance of homeownership prior to migration as a deciding criterion in migration decision-making might be decreasing. Building on the above reviewed literature, our argument is that the rate at which migrants and prospective migrants evaluate their causes for migration will be different in terms of homeownership before migration. Further, migrants' expectations and the evaluation of post-migration experiences regarding their incorporation into the mainstream society of the host country and its residential assimilation will also be different. Therefore, it is hypothesised:

H5: There are differences between migrants and prospective migrants in causes for migration by homeownership in Sri Lanka before migration

H6: There are differences between expectations and post-migration experience of migrants by homeownership in Sri Lanka before migration

# METHOD

## SAMPLE AND METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

For the fulfilment of the objectives of the study, we defined two sample frames of interest- migrants and prospective migrants. A migrant was defined as follows.

An individual aged between 25 to 45 years with at least a bachelor's degree in the broad disciplines of Computer Science or Information Technology. He/she should be a Sri Lankan born (first-generation) migrant permanently residing in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, or United Kingdom voluntarily for at least two years, and engaged in full-time employment in the broad disciplines of Computer Science or Information Technology since migration.

A prospective migrant was defined as follows.

An individual aged between 25 to 45 years with at least a bachelor's degree in the broad disciplines of Computer Science or Information Technology. He/she should be a Sri Lankan citizen by birth and residing in Sri Lanka with full-time employment in the related field. He/she should have started the process of migration to permanently reside in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, or United
Kingdom, and intend to engage in full-time employment in the broad disciplines of Computer Science or Information Technology upon migration.

As defined above, we confined to migrants/prospective migrants from Sri Lanka to four countries. In this regard, the migration systems theory (Fawcett 1989) and the structuralist theory (Goss, Lindquist 1995) suggest that ties between migrant receiving and sending countries are important in explaining migrant flows. Like Sri Lanka, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand are former colonies of the United Kingdom. As a result, countries experience less barriers in linguistic and education qualification transfer; can overcome information asymmetries. Further, while Sri Lanka belonging to the South these four countries belonging to the North. In addition, as defined above, we confined to economic immigration, and excluded other inflows such as family reunification. The method of data collection was through a self-report survey. Two non-probability sampling techniques of snowball and purposive sampling were used to identify survey participants. The data collection technique was an online questionnaire. The survey participation was voluntary and anonymous. Thirty-one migrants and 30 prospective migrants responded to the survey, which were included in the final analysis. Table 1 describes the characteristics of the two samples. In addition to the characteristics described in Table 1, it was also found that all migrants and prospective migrants were in full-time employment in private sector firms in the receiving country and in Sri Lanka, respectively.

## MEASURES

The main measures used in the study are listed in Appendix 1. The 14-item measure was developed to assess the expectations of migrants and prospective migrants. Since post-migration experience contemplate the expectations of migration (see Genova 2017; Gunasekara et al 2014; Pernice et al 2009; Törngren, Holbrow 2016), we used the same 14-item measure to assess the post-migration experience of migrants. The 10-item measure was developed to assess the causes for migration of migrants and prospective migrants. In addition to above mentioned main measures, data were collected on the following:

* the highest education qualification of migrants and prospective migrants using a question on a nominal scale.

* the existence of bachelor's degree or above level education qualification obtained from abroad prior to the occurrence of the migration event (for migrants) or prior to the commencement of the migration process (for prospective migrants) using a dichotomous (yes/no) question.

* the existence of at least 6 months uninterrupted work experience in a developed country (in the West) prior to the occurrence of the migration event (for migrants) or prior to the commencement of the migration process (for prospective migrants) using a dichotomous (yes/no) question.

* homeownership in Sri Lanka prior to the occurrence of the migration event (for migrants) or prior to the commencement of the migration process (for prospective migrants) using a dichotomous (yes/no) question.

* socio-demographic data shown in Table 1.
<table><caption>Table 1. Characteristics of the samples</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Migrant</th><th>Prospective migrant</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Age (mean and standard deviation)</td><td>36 yrs (S.D =3.78)</td><td>30 yrs (SD = 3.61)</td></tr><tr><td>Sex:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Male</td><td>90</td><td>93</td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>10</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Marital status:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Single <sup>‡</sup></td><td>32</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>Married</td><td>68</td><td>73</td></tr><tr><td>Highest educational qualification:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Postgraduate degree</td><td>37</td><td>40</td></tr><tr><td>Bachelor's degree</td><td>63</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>Hold qualifications from abroad:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yes <sup>†</sup></td><td>45</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>55</td><td>57</td></tr><tr><td>Professional qualifications:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yes ◊</td><td>64</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>36</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>Job held in Sri Lanka matched with qualifications:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yes, matched</td><td>81</td><td>93</td></tr><tr><td>No, below the qualifications</td><td>19</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Total job-related experience:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3 &lt; yrs</td><td>0</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>5 &lt; 3 yrs</td><td>16</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>10 &lt; 5 yrs</td><td>45</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td>15 &lt; 10 yrs</td><td>32</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>20 &lt; 15 yrs</td><td>6</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Hold prior work experience abroad:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yes <sup>‡</sup></td><td>81</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>19</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>Homeownership in Sri Lanka:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yes <sup>#</sup></td><td>20</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>80</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td>Owned a motor vehicle in Sri Lanka:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yes <sup>#</sup></td><td>78</td><td>80</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>22</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>Dependents (when migrated to the receiving country /when started the process of migration):</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>52</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>48</td><td>70</td></tr><tr><td>Country of migration/intend to migrate:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Australia</td><td>51</td><td>49</td></tr><tr><td>New Zealand</td><td>17</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>United Kingdom</td><td>19</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>Canada</td><td>13</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>Duration residing in migrated country:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&gt; 5 years</td><td>29</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>5 &lt; 3 years</td><td>48</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3 &lt; 2 years</td><td>23</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Remittances:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Yes <sup>□</sup></td><td>23</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>77</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Notes: All values are in percentages except age

‡ Includes never married, separated, divorced, or widowed
† Bachelor's or Postgraduate degree from non-Sri Lankan degree awarding university/institute. This includes obtaining foreign degree while residing the entire period in Sri Lanka, while residing the entire period in the foreign degree awarding country or a combination (while residing a certain time period during the candidature in both countries)

◊ Such as British Computer Society (BCS) and Project Management Professional (PMP)

‡ Excludes any work experience abroad on student visa

# Legal owner

☐ Remitted a cumulative value of at least 556 US Dollars (equivalent to 100,000 Sri Lankan Rupees) on a periodic basis to relatives in Sri Lanka since migration. The government-mandated national minimum monthly wage for any worker in any industry or service is 10,000 Sri Lankan Rupees.

## METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS

Principal component factor analysis was performed for appropriate internal consistency reliability, factor structure, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and construct reliability (CR) to identify any issues with multicollinearity and response bias. Convergent validity was measured by average variance extracted (AVE) and discriminant validity was measured by the square root of AVE. Independent sample t-test, paired sample t-test and chi-square test of independence were used for the testing of hypotheses.

## RESULTS

### EXPECTATIONS

The 14-item measure had Cronbach's alpha reliability of 0.876. Principal component factor analysis yielded a set of four factors, which explained 74% (74.23) of the variance. As shown in Table 2, these were named as work-related aspirations, life-related aspirations, society-related aspirations, and orderliness-related aspirations.

Results of the independent sample t-test for differences in expectations between migrants and prospective migrants are shown in Table 3. Standard deviation values for the 14 items ranged from 0.56 to 0.93. Three items showed significant differences between migrants and prospective migrants. Therefore, H1 is partially supported.

### CAUSES FOR MIGRATION

The 10-item measure was subjected to Principal component factor analysis. Five items failed to load into factors satisfactorily, and therefore removed from the analysis. Principal component factor analysis yielded a set of two factors, which explained 67% (66.86) of the variance; these two factors were named as career aspirations and attributes at origin. The results are shown in Table 4.

Results of the independent sample t-test for differences in causes for migration between migrants and prospective migrants are shown in Table 5. Standard deviation values for these items ranged from 0.78 to 1.06. Analysis had not yielded significant differences for any of the items. Therefore, H2 is not supported by the data.
<table><caption>Table 2. Expectations of migration – factor analysis</caption><thead><tr><th>Item</th><th>Work-related<br>aspirations</th><th>Life-related<br>aspirations</th><th>Society-related<br>aspirations</th><th>Orderliness-related<br>aspirations</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Find a job that matches with the expectation</td><td>0.864</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Find a well-paid job</td><td>0.811</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that fits qualification</td><td>0.702</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that recognizes prior experience in<br>the same field</td><td>0.602</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Appreciable work culture, in general</td><td>0.570</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Have optimistic future, in general</td><td></td><td>0.832</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Have secure future, in general</td><td></td><td>0.788</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Live the life expected</td><td></td><td>0.763</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Have better education for children</td><td></td><td>0.755</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Social respect irrespective of the job performed</td><td></td><td></td><td>0.870</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Social freedom with less social norms and<br>restrictions</td><td></td><td></td><td>0.841</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Connections with others to feel like home</td><td></td><td></td><td>0.838</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Adoption of standard systems</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>0.763</td></tr><tr><td>Easier way of life due to well-developed<br>infrastructure facilities</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>0.760</td></tr><tr><td>Eigenvalue</td><td>3.059</td><td>2.965</td><td>2.661</td><td>1.708</td></tr><tr><td>Explained variation</td><td>21.849</td><td>21.181</td><td>19.006</td><td>12.197</td></tr><tr><td>Cronbach's alpha</td><td>0.775</td><td>0.808</td><td>0.765</td><td>0.657</td></tr><tr><td>Construct reliability</td><td>0.8391</td><td>0.8651</td><td>0.722</td><td>0.7340</td></tr><tr><td>AVE</td><td>0.5168</td><td>0.6163</td><td>0.886</td><td>0.5798</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 3. Differences in expectations – independent sample t-test</caption><thead><tr><th>Expectations of migration</th><th>Prospective<br>migrants<br>Mean</th><th>Migrants<br>Mean</th><th>t</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Factor 1: Work-related aspirations</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that matches with the expectation</td><td>2.91</td><td>4.50</td><td>-3.780**</td></tr><tr><td>Find a well-paid job</td><td>4.27</td><td>3.52</td><td>2.589*</td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that fits qualification</td><td>4.21</td><td>4.03</td><td>0.631</td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that recognizes prior experience in the<br>same field</td><td>3.88</td><td>4.16</td><td>-0.907</td></tr><tr><td>Appreciable work culture, in general</td><td>3.97</td><td>3.28</td><td>1.865</td></tr><tr><td>Factor 2: Life-related aspirations</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Have optimistic future, in general</td><td>4.17</td><td>3.96</td><td>0.681</td></tr><tr><td>Have secure future, in general</td><td>3.79</td><td>4.00</td><td>-0.676</td></tr><tr><td>Live the life expected</td><td>3.93</td><td>4.06</td><td>-0.402</td></tr><tr><td>Have better education for children</td><td>4.37</td><td>4.48</td><td>-0.434</td></tr><tr><td>Factor 3: Society-related aspirations</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Social respect irrespective of the job performed</td><td>3.51</td><td>3.97</td><td>-1.523</td></tr><tr><td>Social freedom with less social norms and restrictions</td><td>4.21</td><td>3.67</td><td>1.608</td></tr><tr><td>Connections with others to feel like home</td><td>3.42</td><td>4.42</td><td>-3.256**</td></tr><tr><td>Factor 4: Orderliness-related aspirations</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Adoption of standard systems</td><td>3.93</td><td>4.45</td><td>-1.766</td></tr><tr><td>Easier way of life due to well-developed<br>infrastructure facilities</td><td>3.89</td><td>3.81</td><td>0.231</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01
<table><caption>Table 4. Causes for migration - factor analysis</caption><thead><tr><th>Causes for migration</th><th>Career aspirations</th><th>Attributes at origin</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Career goals have not been achieved within the expected timeframe</td><td>0.881</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Need for a new career adventure</td><td>0.797</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Earning is not sufficient to live the life to the fullest</td><td>0.627</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Development of the country is not up to the expectation</td><td></td><td>0.866</td></tr><tr><td>Difficult to see brighter future for the country</td><td></td><td>0.818</td></tr><tr><td>Eigenvalue</td><td>1.856</td><td>1.487</td></tr><tr><td>Explained variation</td><td>37.120</td><td>29.741</td></tr><tr><td>Cronbach's alpha</td><td>0.688</td><td>0.677</td></tr><tr><td>Construct reliability</td><td>0.8163</td><td>0.820</td></tr><tr><td>AVE</td><td>0.6015</td><td>0.7095</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 5. Differences in causes - independent sample t-test</caption><thead><tr><th>Causes for migration</th><th>Prospective migrants Mean</th><th>Migrants Mean</th><th>t</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Career goals have not been achieved within the expected timeframe</td><td>3.86</td><td>3.91</td><td>-0.123</td></tr><tr><td>Need for a new career adventure</td><td>1.96</td><td>1.83</td><td>0.246</td></tr><tr><td>Earning is not sufficient to live the life to the fullest</td><td>3.62</td><td>3.73</td><td>-0.297</td></tr><tr><td>Development of the country is not up to the expectation</td><td>3.23</td><td>3.48</td><td>-0.666</td></tr><tr><td>Difficult to see brighter future for the country</td><td>3.00</td><td>3.44</td><td>-0.980</td></tr></tbody></table>

## EXISTENCE OF EDUCATION QUALIFICATION AND PAST WORK EXPERIENCE FROM ABROAD

Frequency analysis for migrants revealed that 37% had postgraduate degree while 63% had bachelor's degree as the highest education qualification (Table 1). Results of cross-tabulation for migrants holding education qualification and past work experience from abroad prior to the migration are shown in Table 6. The result of Pearson Chi-square test does not reveal a significant association between education qualification and past work experience from abroad prior to migration (Pearson Chi Square = 0.621, p > 0.05).

<table><caption>Table 6. Education qualification and past work experience from abroad for migrants</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Education qualification abroad</th><th colspan="2">Past work experience abroad</th><th rowspan="2">Total</th></tr><tr><th>No</th><th>Yes</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>No</td><td>% within education qualification abroad</td><td>47.1</td><td>52.9</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>% of total</td><td>26.7</td><td>30.0</td><td>56.7</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>% within education qualification abroad</td><td>61.5</td><td>38.5</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>% of total</td><td>26.7</td><td>16.7</td><td>43.3</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>% within education qualification abroad</td><td>53.3</td><td>46.7</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>% of total</td><td>53.3</td><td>46.7</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table>

Frequency analysis for prospective migrants revealed that 60% had postgraduate degree while 40% had bachelor's degree as the highest education qualification (Table 1). Results of cross-tabulation for migrants holding education qualification and past work experience from
abroad prior to the commencement of the migration process are shown in Table 7. The result of Pearson Chi-square test does not reveal a significant association between education qualification and past work experience from abroad for prospective migrants (Pearson Chi Square = 2.172, p > 0.05).

<table><caption>Table 7. Education qualification and past work experience from abroad for prospective migrants</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Education qualification abroad</th><th colspan="2">Past work experience abroad</th><th rowspan="2">Total</th></tr><tr><th>No</th><th>Yes</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>No</td><td>% within education qualification abroad</td><td>29.4</td><td>70.6</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>% of total</td><td>16.7</td><td>40.0</td><td>56.7</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>% within education qualification abroad</td><td>7.7</td><td>92.3</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>% of total</td><td>3.3</td><td>40.0</td><td>43.3</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>% within education qualification abroad</td><td>20.0</td><td>80.0</td><td>100</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>% of total</td><td>20</td><td>80.0</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table>

When the results of Pearson Chi-square tests for migrants and prospective migrants are taken together (Table 6 and 7), H3 is not supported, i.e., the results have not revealed significant associations between the existence of education qualification and past work experience from abroad with respect to each group- migrants and prospective migrants.

## POST-MIGRATION EXPERIENCE

Table 8 shows the results of the paired sample t-test for differences between migrants' expectations and post-migration experience. Four items revealed significant differences. Overall, H4 is partially supported.

<table><caption>Table 8. Differences in migrants' expectations and post-migration experience - paired sample t-test</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Item</th><th colspan="2">Paired differences</th><th rowspan="2">t</th></tr><tr><th>Mean</th><th>SD</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Factor 1: Work-related aspirations</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that matches with the expectation</td><td>-1.64</td><td>2.17</td><td>-3.530<sup>**</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Find a well-paid job</td><td>0.80</td><td>1.52</td><td>2.887<sup>**</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that fits qualification</td><td>-0.07</td><td>1.82</td><td>-0.201</td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that recognizes prior experience in the same field</td><td>-0.63</td><td>1.97</td><td>-1.758</td></tr><tr><td>Appreciable work culture, in general</td><td>1.27</td><td>2.26</td><td>3.072<sup>**</sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Factor 2: Life-related aspirations</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Have optimistic future, in general</td><td>0.50</td><td>2.17</td><td>1.258</td></tr><tr><td>Have secure future, in general</td><td>-0.23</td><td>2.13</td><td>-0.600</td></tr><tr><td>Live the life expected</td><td>-0.10</td><td>1.64</td><td>-0.332</td></tr><tr><td>Have better education for children</td><td>-1.79</td><td>1.52</td><td>-0.623</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Factor 3: Society-related aspirations</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Social respect irrespective of the job performed</td><td>-0.53</td><td>1.66</td><td>-1.765</td></tr><tr><td>Social freedom with less social norms and restrictions</td><td>0.39</td><td>1.88</td><td>0.876</td></tr><tr><td>Connections with others to feel like home</td><td>-1.83</td><td>1.63</td><td>-4.039<sup>***</sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Factor 4: Orderliness-related aspirations</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Adoption of standard systems</td><td>-0.67</td><td>1.78</td><td>-2.043</td></tr><tr><td>Easier way of life due to well-developed infrastructure facilities</td><td>-0.06</td><td>1.55</td><td>-0.152</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: mean = the average difference between the two paired variables (i.e., expectations minus post-migration experience); SD = the standard deviation of the difference scores; **p < 0.01 and ***p < 0.001
HOMEOWNERSHIP IN SRI LANKA PRIOR TO MIGRATION

Table 9 shows results of independent sample t-test for differences in causes for migration between migrants and prospective migrants by homeownership before migration. Three items showed significant differences partially supporting H5.

<table><caption>Table 9. Differences in causes for migration by homeownership</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Causes for migration</th><th colspan="3">Migrant</th><th colspan="3">Potential migrant</th><th colspan="3">Total</th></tr><tr><th colspan="3">Homeownership</th><th colspan="3">Homeownership</th><th colspan="3">Homeownership</th></tr><tr><th>Yes Mean</th><th>No Mean</th><th>t</th><th>Yes Mean</th><th>No Mean</th><th>t</th><th>Yes Mean</th><th>No Mean</th><th>t</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Career goals have not been achieved within the expected timeframe</td><td>3.67</td><td>3.88</td><td>-0.342</td><td>4.15</td><td>3.63</td><td>1.007</td><td>4.00</td><td>3.76</td><td>0.620</td></tr><tr><td>Need for a new career adventure</td><td>3.00</td><td>1.91</td><td>0.820</td><td>1.86</td><td>2.06</td><td>-0.344</td><td>2.00</td><td>2.18</td><td>-0.060</td></tr><tr><td>Earning is not sufficient to live the life to the fullest</td><td>3.09</td><td>2.89</td><td>0.499</td><td>2.35</td><td>3.42</td><td>-2.102*</td><td>3.03</td><td>3.34</td><td>-0.741</td></tr><tr><td>Development of the country is not up to the expectation</td><td>3.40</td><td>3.48</td><td>-0.136</td><td>3.14</td><td>3.31</td><td>-0.283</td><td>3.21</td><td>3.41</td><td>-0.493</td></tr><tr><td>Difficult to see brighter future for the country</td><td>3.60</td><td>3.29</td><td>0.378</td><td>2.82</td><td>3.13</td><td>-0.467</td><td>3.06</td><td>3.21</td><td>-0.313</td></tr><tr><td>Prefer to live the life in a Western culture</td><td>2.70</td><td>3.89</td><td>-1.698*</td><td>3.10</td><td>3.92</td><td>-1.845*</td><td>2.89</td><td>3.81</td><td>-2.132*</td></tr><tr><td>Infrastructure development in the country makes difficulties to live</td><td>3.33</td><td>3.31</td><td>0.024</td><td>3.89</td><td>2.88</td><td>0.697</td><td>3.42</td><td>2.99</td><td>1.257</td></tr><tr><td>Need to escape from family issues</td><td>3.00</td><td>2.53</td><td>0.468</td><td>1.36</td><td>1.13</td><td>0.388</td><td>1.72</td><td>1.85</td><td>-0.237</td></tr><tr><td>Frustrated with organizational politics experienced at the workplace</td><td>1.57</td><td>1.75</td><td>-0.299</td><td>4.00</td><td>3.36</td><td>.723</td><td>2.00</td><td>2.68</td><td>-1.349</td></tr><tr><td>Political instability in the country does not support healthy living</td><td>2.81</td><td>3.91</td><td>-1.886*</td><td>3.75</td><td>3.53</td><td>0.285</td><td>3.18</td><td>3.72</td><td>1.328</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: *p < 0.05

Table 10 shows results of the independent sample t-test for differences between expectations and post-migration experience of migrants by homeownership before migration. Three items showed significant differences partially supporting H6. Table 11 summarises the results of hypotheses tests.
<table><caption>Table 10. Differences in migrants' expectations and post-migration experience by homeownership</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Item</th><th colspan="3">Expectation</th><th colspan="3">Post-migration experience</th></tr><tr><th colspan="3">Homeownership</th><th colspan="3">Homeownership</th></tr><tr><th>Yes Mean</th><th>No Mean</th><th>t</th><th>Yes Mean</th><th>No Mean</th><th>t</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="7"><strong>Factor 1: Work-related aspirations</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that matches with the expectation</td><td>4.00</td><td>3.42</td><td>0.809</td><td>4.00</td><td>4.04</td><td>-0.063</td></tr><tr><td>Find a well-paid job</td><td>4.50</td><td>4.38</td><td>0.301</td><td>4.50</td><td>4.21</td><td>0.538</td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that fits qualification</td><td>4.33</td><td>3.92</td><td>0.894</td><td>4.50</td><td>3.79</td><td>0.985</td></tr><tr><td>Find a job that recognizes prior experience in the same field</td><td>4.33</td><td>4.03</td><td>0.537</td><td>3.33</td><td>3.54</td><td>-0.265</td></tr><tr><td>Appreciable work culture, in general</td><td>2.17</td><td>2.83</td><td>-0.772</td><td>4.33</td><td>3.88</td><td>0.801</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7"><strong>Factor 2: Life-related aspirations</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Have optimistic future, in general</td><td>3.98</td><td>4.83</td><td>-1.956*</td><td>3.80</td><td>2.53</td><td>1.364</td></tr><tr><td>Have secure future, in general</td><td>4.17</td><td>3.67</td><td>0.702</td><td>3.50</td><td>3.54</td><td>-0.060</td></tr><tr><td>Live the life expected</td><td>3.88</td><td>4.67</td><td>-2.378*</td><td>4.50</td><td>3.63</td><td>2.281*</td></tr><tr><td>Have better education for children</td><td>4.00</td><td>4.21</td><td>-0.063</td><td>4.33</td><td>4.35</td><td>-0.026</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7"><strong>Factor 3: Society-related aspirations</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Social respect irrespective of the job performed</td><td>2.83</td><td>3.93</td><td>-1.863*</td><td>4.00</td><td>3.00</td><td>2.003*</td></tr><tr><td>Social freedom with less social norms and restrictions</td><td>3.60</td><td>3.69</td><td>-0.144</td><td>4.50</td><td>4.09</td><td>0.716</td></tr><tr><td>Connections with others to feel like home</td><td>4.00</td><td>3.92</td><td>0.198</td><td>3.67</td><td>3.33</td><td>0.496</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7"><strong>Factor 4: Orderliness-related aspirations</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Adoption of standard systems</td><td>4.33</td><td>4.50</td><td>-0.345</td><td>4.00</td><td>3.92</td><td>0.132</td></tr><tr><td>Easier way of life due to well-developed infrastructure facilities</td><td>3.67</td><td>3.87</td><td>-0.393</td><td>4.00</td><td>3.81</td><td>0.433</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: *p < 0.05

<table><caption>Table 11. Summary of hypotheses testing</caption><thead><tr><th>Hypothesis</th><th>Result</th><th>Description</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>H1</td><td>Partially supported</td><td>Of the 14 aspects investigated, 3 aspects showed significant differences</td></tr><tr><td>H2</td><td>Not supported</td><td>There were no significant differences between migrants and prospective migrants</td></tr><tr><td>H3</td><td>Not supported</td><td>There were no significant associations between education qualification and past work experience from abroad for migrants and prospective migrants</td></tr><tr><td>H4</td><td>Partially supported</td><td>Of the 14 aspects investigated, 4 aspects showed significant differences</td></tr><tr><td>H5</td><td>Partially supported</td><td>Of the 10 aspects investigated, 3 aspects showed significant differences</td></tr><tr><td>H6</td><td>Partially supported</td><td>Of the 14 aspects investigated, 3 aspects showed significant differences</td></tr></tbody></table>

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Using survey data of two different samples of first-generation highly skilled migrants and prospective migrants from Sri Lanka, we investigated 1) the expectations of migration with respect to each group, 2) causes for migration with respect to each group, 3) the association between the existence of education qualification and past work experience from abroad with
respect to each group, 4) differences in the expectations of migration and post-migration experience of migrants, and 5) differences in causes for migration, expectations and post-migration experience by homeownership before migration.

Concerning the first objective, the analysis led to identify four different domains of migrant expectations, namely, work-related aspirations, life-related aspirations, society-related aspirations, and orderliness-related aspirations. Regarding work-related aspirations, being a highly skilled migrant, our respondents may possess above average levels of education, job related skills and capability to successfully negotiate their credentials in the migratory context with compared many other migrant categories. This supports that migrants' work-related aspirations mainly revolve around their human capital (see Sjaastad 1962). Further, low transaction costs (see Stark, Bloom 1985) due to the recognition of migrants' education/professional qualifications and job-related experience is also shown to be important. Regarding life-related aspirations, as suggested in the theory of economics of family migration (see Mincer 1978) and new economics of labour migration (see Stark, Bloom 1985), migrants had expectations in connection to well-being of the family and migration may not be a sole individual decision but a family decision. Further, life-related aspirations suggest migrants' interest in diversifying risk through social security provisions for migrants and their families in the host country. Regarding society related aspirations, "connections with others to feel like home" and "social respect irrespective of the job performed" were found to be important. These findings, on the one hand, suggest that access to social networks in the host country is important (see Massey et al 1993). On the other hand, the new economics of labour migration argues that utility is dependent upon the relative position, that is the "relative deprivation", compared to others (see Stark, Taylor 1991: 1177). When this argument of relative deprivation is carried forward, migrants' status in the host country is an important expectation. Orderliness-related aspirations emphasise the importance of local characteristics at the host country that can be referred to as amenities (Florida 2005; Krupka 2009). Overall, the findings imply that migrants as well as prospective migrants held a pessimistic view that future opportunities in relation to work-related, life-related, society-related and orderliness-related domains in migrant receiving countries were better than in Sri Lanka. The study tested for any differences between migrants and prospective migrants in their migration expectations. We found significant differences in three out of 14 items of migration expectations between migrants and prospective migrants (H1).

Concerning the second objective, the analysis yielded two different domains of causes for migration, namely, career aspirations and attributes at origin. Results imply that overcoming work-related hindrances are vital and these operate as push factors prevailing in the country of origin. In this regard, Iredale (2001) stated that career prospects operate as an important push factor when deciding whether to stay in the country. Regarding attributes of origin, Bartolini et al (2017: 669) stated that "clientelism, corruption, nepotism, rigid social hierarchies and gerontocracy" are important conditions that operate as push factors prevailing in the country of origin. The study tested for any differences between migrants and prospective migrants in their causes for migration. However, there were no significant differences between migrants and prospective migrants in their causes for migration (H2).

Concerning the third objective, i.e., the association between education qualification and past work experience from abroad on migration decisions, the results did not support an association between these two with respect to migrants and prospective migrants (H3). However, when data for the highest education qualification were compared for migrants and prospective migrants, the percentage of prospective migrants holding postgraduate degree as the highest education qualification (60%) is higher than that of migrants (37%). When data for past work experience from abroad were compared for migrants and prospective migrants, the
percentage of prospective migrants with past work experience from abroad (80%) is higher than that of migrants (46.7%). This implies an increasing trend in youth in Sri Lanka obtaining education qualification and work experience from abroad.

Concerning the fourth objective, it investigated differences between the expectations of migration and post-migration experience of migrants. We found significant differences in four out of 14 items between the expectations of migration and post-migration experience of migrants (H4). These items were "find a job that matches with the expectation", "find a well-paid job", "appreciable work culture, in general", and "connections with others to feel like home". Concerning the item "connections with others to feel like home", a migrant is expected to feel and accept the host country as the home. Home includes both material and an affective space, where Blunt and Dowling (2006: 2) describe home as "a set of intersecting and variable ideas and feelings, which are related to context, and which construct places, extend across spaces and scales, and connect places". However, the extent to which a migrant has integrated into the host society could be expressed by the connections the migrant has with others to feel like home or to have a sense of belonging in the host country. For this, migrants should have participated fully in the domains of labor market, housing, inter and intra-group social relations, cultural adaptation, and civil society or political activities (refer to Ager and Strang 2008; Castles 2010; Valtonen 2004 for review) to become a part of economic, social, institutional, and cultural fabric of the host country. Our finding suggests that the sense of belonging is significantly below the expectations. In this regard, previous studies of Gunasekara et al (2014, 2019) also reported low levels of sense of belonging to the greater community and moderate level of acculturation by both Sri Lankan and Indian skilled migrants in Australia. Verkuyten (2008) also reported low levels of sense of belonging to the host society by the first-generation Turkish migrants in the Netherlands, which was not observed for the second-generation migrants. On the one hand, our finding implies that although migrants had more positive experience in work and life-related domains, they may have a feeling of exclusion from the wider community of the host country. However, the feeling of sense of belonging is vital for the long-term commitment of skilled migrants at the receiving end. Hence, migrant host countries should take steps to increase the integration of migrants in the host society. For example, Guarnizo et al. (2003: 1239) suggest the importance of providing them with a "renewed sense of efficacy and self-worth" to increase their civil society or political activities. On the other hand, when building on the ideas of transnationalism (such as Pedraza 2006; Portes 2003), it is also possible to argue that migrants, who do not find connections with others to feel like home, maintain simultaneous membership in migrant sending and receiving countries for their sense of belongingness and attachment. For example, Portes (2003) states that high-income skilled-migrants economically and socially engage in their home countries or actively participate in associations involving diaspora of their home countries. However, such transnational activities could hinder migrants' integration in the host country. Still, more research is needed for this line of reasoning.

Concerning the last objective, it investigated differences in causes for migration, expectations, and post-migration experience by homeownership before migration. As reviewed above when proposing H5 and H6, homeownership prior to migration could contribute to an individual's decision for migration. To summarize, homeownership from an economic point-of-view operates as a symbol of an individual's or family's accumulated wealth while from an emotional point-of-view demarcates an individual's space of belonging (Helderman et al 2006; Saunders 1990). The residential stability accrued by sustaining homeownership overtime could be attributed to a myriad of benefits for homeowners (Aarland, Reid 2019; Fesselmeyer, Seah 2018; Manturuk et al 2017). Still, due to economic conditions, such as global financial crisis, and the increase in house price with compared to rent price implies that remaining as renters
could be more profitable than investing in housing (Ceritoglu 2019; Kaas et al 2019). In the context of migration, an individual's migration decision is based on the relative costs and benefits of remaining or moving. The literature suggests that the transaction cost of moving from an owner-occupied home is higher than that of a rented house (Castles, 2010; Fischer, Malmberg 2001; Helderman et al., 2006;). Those who are more deprived of income and homeownership are more likely to migrate (Adams 1993). Concerning the findings of our study, H5 predicted significant differences between migrants and prospective migrants in causes for migration by homeownership in Sri Lanka before migration. We found significant differences in three out of 10 items of causes for migration between migrants and prospective migrants by homeownership in Sri Lanka before migration. These three items were "earning is not sufficient to live the life to the fullest", "prefer to live the life in a Western culture", and "political instability in the country does not support healthy living" (Table 9). Hypothesis 6 predicted significant differences between expectations and post-migration experience of migrants by homeownership in Sri Lanka before migration. We found significant differences in three out of 14 items of expectations and post-migration experience of migrants by homeownership in Sri Lanka before migration. These three items were "have optimistic future, in general", "live the life expected", and "social respect irrespective of the job performed" (Table 10). On the one hand, as discussed in the below two sections on "contributions to literature" and "implications to practice", these findings have implications for both theory and practice. On the other hand, as shown in Table 1, we collected data on whether migrants (prior to the occurrence of the migration event) and prospective migrants (prior to the commencement of the migration process) owned a house in Sri Lanka. Further, it is evident from Table 1 that both migrants and prospective migrants were young. These observations suggest the importance of collecting data on the place/nature of residence until migration and income in home country in future research.

Overall, our findings, in general, support the contention that highly skilled migrants and prospective migrants are mainly interested in work-related aspirations. Since respondents being highly skilled and entry into host countries is based on their right to employment, this may not be an unexpected result in any host country context. Therefore, causes for migration, the expectations of migration and post-migration experience revolve around their success in the labour market in the host country, implying that the job comes first. This supports the contention that highly skilled migration is ultimately about the strenuous relationship between employee and employer in the migratory context.

## CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE LITERATURE

First, homeownership prior to migration is a symbol of a migrant's or prospective migrant's wealth accumulation, upward mobility and material well-being at the migrant sending country. Results showed that when migrants owned homes prior to migration, the rate at which migrants and prospective migrants evaluate their causes for migration were different. Further, we showed that migrants' evaluation of expectations and post-migration experiences regarding their incorporation into the mainstream society of the host country and residential assimilation were also different. Since homeownership makes a tie between an individual and a certain location, this could have influenced some low evaluations for post-migration experience of migrants in our study. Our findings on homeownership are important contributions to the existing literature on international migration since less research attention has been paid to understand dynamics of homeownership at migrant sending countries on the perceptions of migrants and/or prospective migrants.
Second, our study contributes to the growing discourse on higher education, international higher education, employment, and migration. The literature on international migration argues that highly skilled migration fosters investment in education. This can be true for the Sri Lankan context. The number of students qualifying for tertiary education in Sri Lanka increases year by year (Wickramasinghe 2018). The State-owned universities serve for a tiny fraction of them. Hence, there is an increase in the willingness of parents to pay for higher education within the country at private sector higher education institutions that are affiliated to overseas universities of repute or at overseas universities due to increasing household income of the citizens (Wickramasinghe 2018). The major streams of study can be identified as medical, engineering, information technology, science, accounting, and finance. In this regard, migrants and prospective migrants in our sample were highly educated with considerable percentage with postgraduate degrees and had education qualification from abroad prior to migration (see Table 1). Hence, we focused on individuals who had improved their labour market prospects, and highly attracted to the migration strategies of countries that welcome highly skilled migrants as an investment of their human capital. Further, our inquiry on causes for migration led to reveal that their main concerns revolve around the “job”. Therefore, we inclined to argue, on the one hand, that if these individuals failed to find employment in the country of origin to match their desires, return from their higher education could be less than its cost. This would induce them to migrate. However, all educated individuals do not migrate. Being in a developing country, if the remaining individuals failed to find employment to match their desires, again, return from their higher education could be less than its cost, and development prospects of the country will get affected. It can also be argued, on the other hand, that the prospect of migration induces to acquire higher education; their selection of study streams is closely tied to the desire of migration.

Third, the migration of highly skilled workers leads to a reduction in the ‘stock’ of individuals, who are better educated and valuable, of the migrant sending country. As reviewed earlier (such as Agarwal et al 2011), loosing highly skilled IT professionals may hinder the innovation and development process of the migrant sending country. Balancing of this concern is remittances sent by migrants to their relatives in the country of origin. Although investigating remittances is beyond the scope of the study, as part of the collection of socio-demographic data we inquired whether migrants had made remittances to relatives in Sri Lanka, using a dichotomous (yes/no) question (refer to measures – socio-demographic data). As shown in Table 1, only 23% reported such remittances. Therefore, this implies that the migrant sending country has not benefitted much from remittances from IT professionals in our sample. Therefore, the findings of our study provide some support for the argument that migrant sending developing countries face disadvantaged situation, on the one hand from skilled migration, and on the other hand from the lack of receipt of remittances.

## IMPLICATIONS TO PRACTICE

Regarding the contribution of the study to practice, first, all the migrants and prospective migrants in our samples were highly educated with at least a bachelor's degree in the broad disciplines of Computer Science or Information Technology; migrants and prospective migrants had past work experience from abroad. Although compensation cost for employees in the Sri Lankan IT sector is high in comparison to national averages, their compensation cost is maintained at a comparatively low level to attract foreign direct investment into the country. At the same time, individuals with similar credentials enjoy better labour market prospects in the countries that are in need of and welcome highly skilled
migrants. Our findings provide an understanding on the conditions prevailing in the country of origin that induce highly skilled migration. The findings are useful for strategists, policy makers and employers to think about the future direction of IT sector in Sri Lanka.

Second, findings showed the importance of residential assimilation as an important dimension in the evaluation of migration-related expectations and post-migration experiences. Therefore, if migrant sending countries could provide an environment for highly skilled individuals to have sustained advancement into homeownership, there is a possibility to get the number of migrants reduced. Further, in the self-selection process (Borjas 1987), the tax system of the migrant sending country is an important consideration. Therefore, one of the ways to discourage migration of highly skilled individuals is to introduce favourable tax regime for them.

Third, migrants had reported that their experience of connecting with others to feel like home is low, where the average difference between the two variables- expectations and post-migration experience is at its highest (-1.83), suggesting post-migration experience is low and significant (p < 0.001). On the one hand, this suggests that migrant welcoming countries should take more effort to integrate them to their adopted society to make them a part of its social fabric. This is vital when migrant receiving countries are changing their interests towards highly skilled migrants limiting the inflow of migrants from other categories. Any attempt by a migrant receiving country to close the gap between expectations and post-migration experience can be considered as an attempt to increase the overall well-being of its fellow citizens. On the other hand, when building on the arguments of transnationalism (such as Pedraza, 2006), our migrants could have a dual orientation, and may navigate between sending and receiving countries and negotiate both spaces to meet their needs.

Finally, the comparison of expectations and post-migration experience showed that migrants reported a higher level of expectations than that of their post-migration experience for most areas investigated, yielding negative values for the average difference between each pair of variables. Previous studies (such as Pernice et al 2009) suggested that higher levels of expectations or unrealistic expectations may affect mental health of migrants. Therefore, prospective migrants obtaining knowledge on prevailing opportunities and conditions in host countries may help them to develop realistic expectations. Therefore, our findings are useful for migration consultants and prospective future migrants, who fall into the category of highly skilled migrant.

## CONCLUSION

Sri Lanka is experiencing a growing number of highly skilled individuals, engaged in newly established industries such as IT, taking their expertise to other countries to realize their aspirations. Still, there is limited knowledge on their expectations of migration, causes for migration as well as their post-migration experience. We sought to understand these by analyzing data collected from migrants and prospective migrants. Therefore, we attempted to provide a complete but general picture of the phenomena. In doing so, we also attempted to capture specific differences between groups. Specifically, we investigated (1) differences between migrants and prospective migrants on causes for migration and the expectations of migration, (2) differences between expectations and post-migration experience of migrants, (3) the association between educational qualification and past work experience from abroad with respect to each group- migrants and prospective migrants, and (4) differences in causes for migration, expectations and post-migration experience by homeownership before migration. Through our novel approach we attempted to offer an important new perspective on the
migration of highly skilled workers. We believe that debates on the migration of highly skilled
workers can be taken forward through closer articulation of our findings. Therefore, as
discussed in the previous sections, the findings of our study have implications for both theory
and practice.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The current study is confined to IT professionals. Being an IT professional may have
operated as an advantage on their post-migration experience, especially on their work and life-
related domains. Therefore, future research could be extended to individuals belonging to other
groups of highly skilled migrants. Further, being first-generation migrants, individuals may
face challenges when integrating into the host society. This may have led to record a lower
average score for the item “connections with others to feel like home”, and it may be of interest
to know how, for example, second-generation migrants rate their experience. In relation to the
above, it may be interesting to know the nature of support first-generation migrants receive
from their own ethnic groups living in the host country. Furthermore, the causes of migration
as well as migrant integration could be investigated under the methodological framework of
transnationalism. Hence, future research of both quantitative and qualitative nature could
investigate whether highly skilled migrants navigate between the migrant sending and
receiving countries to meet their needs as suggested in transnationalism, and the ways in which
these multiple ties are exploited.

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## Appendix 1. Measures

All the measures are on a five-point Likert response scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree), where higher scores indicate a higher level of agreement.

### *Expectations of migration*

- Find a job that matches with the expectation

- Find a well-paid job

- Find a job that fits qualification

- Find a job that recognizes prior experience in the same field

- Appreciable work culture, in general

- Have optimistic future, in general

- Have secure future, in general

- Live the life expected

- Have better education for children

- Social respect irrespective of the job performed

- Social Freedom with less social norms and restrictions

- Connections with others to feel like home

- Adoption of standard systems

- Easier way of life due to well-developed infrastructure facilities

### *Causes for migration*

- Career goals have not been achieved within the expected timeframe

- Need for a new career adventure

- Earning is not sufficient to live the life to the fullest

- Development of the country is not up to the expectation

- Difficult to see brighter future for the country

- Prefer to live the life in a Western culture

- Infrastructure development in the country makes difficulties to live

- Need to escape from family issues

- Frustrated with organizational politics experienced at the workplace

- Political instability in the country does not support healthy living
*Post-migration experience*

- Find a job that matches with the expectation

- Find a well-paid job

- Find a job that fits qualification

- Find a job that recognizes prior experience in the same field

- Appreciable work culture, in general

- Have optimistic future, in general

- Have secure future, in general

- Live the life expected

- Have better education for children

- Social respect irrespective of the job performed

- Social freedom with less social norms and restrictions

- Connections with others to feel like home

- Adoption of standard systems

- Easier way of life due to well-developed infrastructure facilities