# Where humid and arid meet: Sedimentology of coastal siliciclastic successions deposited in apparently contrasting climates

Sonia Campos-Soto, M. Isabel Benito, Nigel Mountney, Piret Plink-Björklund, I. Emma Quijada, Pablo Suarez-Gonzalez, Alberto Cobos

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Sonia Campos-Soto, M. Isabel Benito, Nigel Mountney, Piret Plink-Björklund, I. Emma Quijada, et al. Where humid and arid meet: Sedimentology of coastal siliciclastic successions deposited in apparently contrasting climates. Sedimentology, 2022, 69 (3), pp.975-1027. 10.1111/sed.12958. hal-03946672

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**Article:**

Campos-Soto, S., Benito, M.I., Mountney, N.P. orcid.org/0000-0002-8356-9889 et al. (4 more authors) (Cover date: April 2022) Where humid and arid meet: Sedimentology of coastal siliciclastic successions deposited in apparently contrasting climates. Sedimentology, 69 (3). pp. 975-1027. ISSN 0037-0746

https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12958

© 2021 International Association of Sedimentologists. This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Campos-Soto, S., Benito, M.I., Mountney, N.P., Plink-Björklund, P., Quijada, I.E., Suarez-Gonzalez, P. and Cobos, A. (2022), Where humid and arid meet: Sedimentology of coastal siliciclastic successions deposited in apparently contrasting climates. Sedimentology, 69: 975-1027, which has been published in final form at https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12958. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Use of Self-Archived Versions. This article may not be enhanced, enriched or otherwise transformed into a derivative work, without express permission from Wiley or by statutory rights under applicable legislation. Copyright notices must not be removed, obscured or modified. The article must be linked to Wiley's version of record on Wiley Online Library and any embedding, framing or otherwise making available the article or pages thereof by third parties from platforms, services and websites other than Wiley Online Library must be prohibited.

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1 **Where humid and arid meet: Sedimentology of coastal siliciclastic successions deposited in**

2 apparently contrasting climates

3

4 Sonia Campos-Soto<sup>a*</sup>, M. Isabel Benito<sup>b,c</sup>, Nigel P. Mountney<sup>d</sup>, Piret Plink-Björklund<sup>e</sup>, I. Emma

5 Quijada<sup>f</sup>, Pablo Suarez-Gonzalez<sup>b</sup>, Alberto Cobos<sup>g</sup>

6

7 a Laboratoire Morphodynamique Continentale et Côtière, Université de Caen Normandie, Caen,

8 14000, France.

9 b Departamento de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencias

10 Geológicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, 28040, Spain.

11 c Instituto de Geociencias IGEO (CSIC, UCM), Madrid, 28040, Spain

12 d Fluvial & Eolian Research Group, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds,

13 Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom.

14 e Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO

15 80401, USA.

16 f Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, 33005, Spain.

17 g Fundación Conjunto Paleontológico de Teruel-Dinópolis, Teruel, 44002, Spain

18

19 *Corresponding author. Email: sonia.campos-soto@unicaen.fr

20

21 **Running title:** Successions of apparently contrasting climates

22
23 ABSTRACT

24 Deciphering the palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic setting of ancient successions
25 that include deposits typical of different climates can be challenging. This is the case in the Late
26 Jurassic succession cropping out in eastern Spain (South-Iberian and western Maestrazgo
27 basins), where deposits characteristic of both arid to semiarid and humid to subhumid settings
28 have been identified through a detailed analysis of eight stratigraphic sections. These sections
29 comprise shallow marine carbonates changing upwards and laterally to a predominantly
30 siliciclastic coastal and alluvial succession, including abundant dinosaur remains. Deposition of
31 coastal and alluvial sediments occurred in flood plains, ephemeral and perennial fluvial
32 channels, aeolian dunes, deltas, distributary mouth-bars and associated distributary channels,
33 and shallow water bodies influenced by both fresh and marine waters. Some of these deposits,
34 notably those of aeolian and ephemeral fluvial origin, are characteristic of arid to semiarid
35 climates. However, there are also abundant deposits that can be demonstrably shown to have a
36 coeval origin, which are indicative of permanent water courses: 1) sediments of seasonal
37 discharge fluvial channels with perennial to semi-perennial flow, displaying subcritical and
38 supercritical flow sedimentary structures; 2) deltaic sediments deposited in permanent
39 freshwater bodies; and 3) abundant plant and dinosaur remains, especially of herbivorous
40 dinosaurs, which required the presence of permanent water sources and abundant vegetation.
41 These apparently contrasting sedimentary features indicate that deposition occurred under a
42 seasonal climate controlled by monsoonal-type precipitation. These deposits are analogous to
43 those observed nowadays in the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park (NE Brazil), where a
44 subhumid tropical climate with a seasonal precipitation pattern prevails. Thus, this study shows
45 that only through careful facies analysis and interpretation of depositional processes that can be
46 shown to be occurring concurrently in neighbouring and related depositional systems can the
47 detailed palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic setting of complex coastal sedimentary
48 successions be confidently reconstructed in detail.

49 KEYWORDS
50 Kimmeridgian-Tithonian, eastern Iberia, aeolian dunes, deltaic deposits, fluvial channels,
51 supercritical flow bedforms.

52 INTRODUCTION

53 Sedimentological analyses of ancient successions, supported by comparison to analogous
54 modern environments, provide a valuable technique with which to reconstruct ancient
55 environmental and climatic settings. The sedimentary analysis of modern environments has
56 allowed the recognition of certain deposits that predominate in different climate regimes (i.e.
57 climatically significant rocks *sensu* Hallam, 1984, climate-indicative lithologies *sensu* Holz and
58 Scherer, 2000, or climate-sensitive sediments *sensu* Gibbs *et al.*, 2002). The inferred
59 significance of such deposits has been widely employed to interpret the palaeoclimatic setting of
60 the fossil record. For example, the occurrence of evaporites, deposits of ephemeral channels (i.e.
61 wadis), aeolian dunes and ephemeral lakes, among others, has been used to interpret arid to
62 semiarid climates in the fossil record (e.g. Tucker and Benton, 1982; Stear, 1983; 1985; Hallam,
63 1984; 1985; Zharkov *et al.*, 1998; Holz and Scherer, 2000; Rees *et al.*, 2004; Rodríguez-López
64 *et al.*, 2010; Priddy and Clarke, 2020). Nevertheless, in the case of aeolian dunes, it is also
65 important to remark that they are also widely reported from modern humid to subhumid settings
66 (e.g. Mountney and Russell, 2009; Al-Masrahy and Mountney, 2015; dos Santos and dos
67 Santos, 2015). In contrast, the presence of abundant coal, plant remains and permanent water
68 courses has been used as the basis for interpreting humid to subhumid climates (e.g. Tucker and
69 Benton, 1982; Hallam, 1984; Collinson, 1996; Zharkov *et al.*, 1998; Rees *et al.*, 2004).

70 A significant challenge arises when trying to reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental and
71 palaeoclimatic setting of sedimentary successions that include features typical of both arid and
72 humid settings. This is the case of the Late Jurassic Villar del Arzobispo Fm, which crops out in
73 eastern Spain (western Maestrazgo and South-Iberian basins; Teruel and Valencia provinces;
74 Fig. 1). This succession comprises mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sediments deposited in shallow
75 marine, coastal and alluvial settings (e.g. Meléndez *et al.*, 1979; Mas and Alonso, 1981; Mas *et
al., 1984; Luque et al., 2005; Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2017a, 2019), and it is internationally renowned for its abundance of dinosaur remains of theropods, sauropods, thyreophoran and ornithopods (e.g. Suñer et al., 2008; Alcalá et al., 2009; 2018; Campos-Soto et al., 2017a and references therein; Cobos et al., 2020; Royo-Torres et al., 2020), including the fossils of the largest dinosaur found in Europe, *Turiasaurus riodevensis* Royo-Torres, Cobos and Alcalá, 2006. The stratal arrangement of siliciclastic coastal and alluvial deposits of this unit indicates the apparently contemporaneous development of a variety of subaqueous and subaerial depositional settings (Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2017a, 2019). They include aeolian dune and ephemeral channel deposits, which are apparently indicative of arid to semiarid climates.

However, the succession additionally comprises other coeval deposits that are apparently indicative of a humid to subhumid climate, such as those of deltas with abundant plant remains, as well as diverse and abundant large dinosaur faunas, which would require the availability of permanent water sources and abundant vegetation. Moreover, this succession includes deposits of perennial to semi-perennial fluvial channels with evidence of seasonal discharge, which commonly develop nowadays in monsoonal domains, but which could also conceivably occur in arid to semiarid settings if their catchment area is located in the monsoonal domain (Plink-Björklund, 2015). Thus, sedimentological features characteristic of both arid and humid climatic end-members are present in deposits of sub-environments that were apparently active contemporaneously; the palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic interpretation of this succession is therefore challenging.

The aim of this study is to show how a detailed lithofacies analysis of a dominantly siliciclastic coastal and alluvial-plain succession can be applied to demonstrate the co-existence of a range of sub-environments that are variably indicative of both arid and humid climatic settings. Specific research objectives are to: i) analyse the subaqueous and subaerial depositional settings and document their interactions; ii) compare these deposits with modern analogues; iii) reconstruct the palaeoenvironments, palaeogeography and palaeoclimate of
102 eastern Iberia during deposition; and iv) demonstrate how the deposits of coeval sub-environments with evidence for apparently contrasting climates can co-exist.
103

104 GEOLOGICAL SETTING

105 The South-Iberian and Maestrazgo basins are two of the extensional basins in the Mesozoic Iberian Extensional System (also referred to as the Iberian Basin) developed in eastern Iberia during the Late Oxfordian-Middle Albian (Fig. 1A-C), and inverted during the Cenozoic Alpine Orogeny (e.g. Salas et al., 2001; Mas et al., 2004; Martín-Chivelet et al., 2019). During their extensional development, these basins were surrounded to the W and NE by the Iberian and Ebro massifs, respectively, while marine areas were located to the E-SE and N of Iberia (Tethys and Boreal realms, respectively; Fig. 1D; e.g. Salas et al., 2001; Mas et al., 2004). These basins were separated by the Valencian Massif, a NW-SE emergent area developed in the position where the Javalambre Range is now located (Fig. 1B, D; e.g. Mas and Alonso, 1981; Mas et al., 2004; Campos-Soto et al., 2019). The Maestrazgo Basin comprises several sub-basins separated by tectonic structures (e.g. Salas and Guimerà, 1996, 1997; Salas et al., 2001; Martín-Chivelet et al., 2019). The sedimentary record analysed in this paper crops out in the western Peñagolosa sub-basin, located to the SW of the Maestrazgo basin (Fig. 1B).

118 The deposits documented herein belong to the Villar del Arzobispo Fm (sensu Campos-Soto et al., 2019; Figs. 1C, 2, 3), a mixed siliciclastic-carbonate succession dated as Kimmeridgian-Tithonian (Campos-Soto et al., 2016a; 2016b; 2017a, 2019). This succession was deposited in a shallow marine carbonate platform setting that evolved into essentially siliciclastic coastal and alluvial environments, expressed as an overall regressive trend (Figs. 2, 3; e.g. Meléndez et al., 1979; Mas and Alonso, 1981; Mas et al., 1984, 2004; Hernández et al., 1985; Luque et al., 2005; Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2017a, 2019; Pacios et al., 2018). However, Campos-Soto et al. (2016b, 2017a, 2019) documented evidence for a marine transgression in the Tithonian, during the deposition of the uppermost part of the unit (Figs. 2, 3). Additionally, marked thickness variations of the studied succession were largely controlled
128 by the development of syn-sedimentary extensional faults (Figs. 2 and 3 and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material; see Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2017a, 2019).

130 The Villar del Arzobispo Fm conformably overlies the Higueruelas Fm (Figs. 1C, 2, 3), an oncolitic limestone unit dated as Kimmeridgian (Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a; Pacios *et al.*, 2018) and deposited in a mid to inner carbonate platform setting (e.g. Gómez, 1979; Gómez and Goy, 1979; Aurell *et al.*, 1994; Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2015a, 2016a). The Villar del Arzobispo Fm is unconformably overlain by Lower Cretaceous siliciclastic and/or carbonate units (Figs. 1C, 2, 3), deposited in shallow marine to coastal and alluvial environments (e.g. Vilas *et al.*, 1982; Canerot *et al.*, 1982; Salas, 1987; Mas *et al.*, 2004; Fernandez-Labrador, 2016).

138 The Villar del Arzobispo Fm has been studied in different areas of the South-Iberian and western Maestrazgo basins (Figs. 1C, 2, 3). In all areas, its sedimentary record is equivalent and comprises two informal parts (Fig. 2; Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2016b, 2017a, 2019): 1) a Kimmeridgian, essentially carbonate lower part (CLP); and 2) a Kimmeridgian-Tithonian, essentially siliciclastic upper part (SUP). The thickness and facies distribution differ in sections located to the E-SE and sections located to the N and W (Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2017a, 2019; Figs. 1C, 2, 3). The eastern and south-eastern sections, located closer to the Tethys Ocean, occupied a part of the basin subject to relatively high subsidence rates during sedimentation; here, the accumulated succession is thicker and deposits display greater marine influence than in the northern and western sections, which themselves occupied more landward and slowly subsiding areas (Figs. 1D, 2, 3; Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2017a, 2019).

149 In all areas, the CLP comprises bioclastic and/or oolitic limestone with abundant marine fossils alternating with non-channelized sandstone, siliciclastic mudstone, marl and minor channelized sandstone and conglomerate (Figs. 2 and 3); this part of the succession, Kimmeridgian in age, has been interpreted as deposited in a shallow marine carbonate platform that received siliciclastic sediments from nearby emergent areas (Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2016a,
2017a, 2019). Shallow marine deposits of the CLP change upwards to deposits of the SUP, which mainly comprises reddish siliciclastic mudstone interbedded with non-channelized sandstone and channelized sandstone and conglomerate, interpreted as deposited in a coastal and alluvial plain during a regressive stage during the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian (Figs. 1D, 2, 3, 4; Campos-Soto et al., 2015b, 2016a, 2017a, 2017b, 2019). Siliciclastic deposits are interbedded and laterally related with limestone and marl, mainly towards the upper part of the SUP, during which a marine transgression took place during the Tithonian (Figs. 2, 3, 5 and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material; Campos-Soto et al., 2016b, 2017a, 2019). Some limestone beds are peloidal and/or micritic, include very scattered marine fossils, and display tidal structures and abundant subaerial exposure features (including abundant dinosaur tracks). Collectively, these features indicate sedimentation in inter- to supratidal carbonate flats (Campos-Soto et al. 2017a, 2019). Other limestone beds are bioclastic and/or oolitic and include abundant marine fossils (Fig. 2). These limestone beds are progressively more abundant and include a higher proportion of fossils characteristic of normal marine salinities (such as echinoderms, dasyclads, red algae and corals) towards the east and south-eastern sections (Figs. 2, 5 and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material), indicating that the coastal setting was laterally connected to the E-SE to a shallow marine carbonate platform (Campos-Soto et al., 2017a, 2019).

## 171 MATERIALS AND METHODS

This paper is based on the detailed stratigraphic and sedimentological study, and geological mapping, of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm (Figs. 1C, 2). Geological mapping was performed by field observations, supported by analysis of aerial photographs and data (stratigraphic units and tectonic structures) provided by the Spanish Geological Survey (GEODE, scale 1:50.000; López-Olmedo et al., 2018). The map shown in Figure 1C was generated with the ArcGIS software.

Eight stratigraphic sections were measured and logged at cm- to m-scale in the areas with best outcrop exposures: the total cumulative length of measured sections is 5072 m of (Fig.
2). Four sections were logged in the western Maestrazgo Basin (Cedrillas, El Castellar, Formiche Alto and Mora de Rubielos); the other four in the South-Iberian Basin (Riodeva, Losilla-Alpuente, Benagéber and Villar del Arzobispo). One-hundred-and-forty-six additional outcrops of the studied succession were also analysed to study the composition, texture, sedimentary structures, fossil content, facies relationships, geometry and lateral continuity of beds that make up larger-scale architectural elements (see details of the additional studied outcrops in Campos Soto, 2020). Three-hundred-and-forty-eight palaeocurrent measurements were obtained from the studied siliciclastic deposits, mainly from the dip azimuth of large-scale cross strata and clinoforms, and also from small-scale ripple structures. Palaeocurrents obtained from supercritical flow sedimentary structures have not been taken into consideration for palaeocurrent analysis, as these bedforms could migrate downstream and upstream (e.g. Alexander et al., 2001; Cartigny et al., 2014; Ono et al., 2020). Paleocurrent data were plotted as rose diagrams using the PAST software (Hammer et al., 2001). Rose diagrams were constructed for architectural elements to show mean palaeocurrent directions and their variability, grouped in classes of 24°, in which the length of each sector represents the relative abundance of measurements. The number of readings has been indicated with the letter "n".

Four-hundred-and-fifty-five rock samples were systematically collected throughout the stratigraphic sections and from the additional studied outcrops. A 30 µm-thick, polished and uncovered thin section was prepared for each sample to perform petrographic analysis under transmitted light microscopy. The terminology used for siliciclastic rocks follows the Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale classification (Udden, 1914; Wentworth, 1922) modified by Blair and McPherson (1999) and the classifications of Folk (1968) and Powers (1953) for sorting and roundness, respectively. Carbonate rocks were classified following the classification of Dunham (1962).

This research also includes the analysis of Google Earth's satellite images of modern coastal settings deemed to be analogous to the studied ancient succession, principally that located at the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park (NE Brazil), in which the different
subenvironments (aeolian dunes, interdunes, fluvial and tidal channels, shallow water bodies, deltas, flood plains) and the interactions observed between them have been analysed in detail in this study.

## 210 RESULTS

This research focuses on the sedimentological analysis of the siliciclastic deposits of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm, which form 65-85% of the succession, depending on the location (Figs. 2, 3). The other 15-35% are the shallow marine and tide-influenced limestone deposits (Figs. 2, 3). The siliciclastic deposits are more abundant in the SUP and towards the landward sections located to the N and W (Riodeva and Benagéber sections in the South-Iberian Basin; Cedrillas and El Castellar sections in the western Maestrazgo Basin) (Figs. 2, 3, 4). They are less abundant towards the seaward sections located to the E-SE (Losilla-Alpuente and Villar del Arzobispo sections in the South-Iberian Basin; Formiche Alto and Mora de Rubielos sections in the western Maestrazgo Basin) (Figs. 2, 3, 5). Through sedimentological analysis, eleven siliciclastic architectural elements have been identified, each of them comprising a distinctive facies assemblage and geometric arrangement; these correspond to elements deposited in four primary depositional settings: (i) fluvial, (ii) deltaic, (iii) coastal to shallow marine and (iv) aeolian (Table 1).

## 224 Fluvial depositional setting

Fluvial deposits are observed along the SUP and rarely in the CLP (Fig. 2). They are interbedded and laterally related with the aeolian and deltaic elements (Figs. 2, 4) and with the coastal to shallow marine elements (Fig. 2). Three fluvial architectural elements have been distinguished.

## 229 Ephemeral fluvial channel architectural element

*Description.* This element typically forms less than 1% of the studied unit, although in the landward areas of the South-Iberian Basin it forms up to 3% of the succession (Fig. 2). It is
232 interbedded with the flood plain, aeolian dune and deltaic elements (Figs. 2, 6A-C). It comprises
233 decimetre to metre-thick conglomerate lenses (up to 3 m-thick) displaying erosive bases, sharp
234 flat tops and short lateral extent (commonly <10 m; Fig. 6A-C). Erosive bases are commonly
235 symmetrical and slightly incisive (1:7 height/width ratios; Fig. 6B) or, locally, they are
236 asymmetrical, displaying one very steep margin and another less steep one, and incising up to 3
237 m into the underlying deposits (1:3 height/width ratios; Fig. 6C). Conglomerate lenses may be
238 massive or may display a large-scale (up to 3 m-thick) cross strata set (Fig. 6B-C). In the case of
239 the asymmetrical lenses, strata are conformable to the less steep margin of the erosive surface
240 (Fig. 6C). Conglomerate is very poorly sorted and mostly clast-supported, though locally
241 matrix-supported, and comprises subangular to subrounded pebbles and cobbles within a
242 medium- to coarse-grained sandy matrix (Fig. 6D-F). Conglomerate clasts mainly consist of
243 siliciclastic mudstone, carbonate and sandstone (Fig. 6E-F), ranging from 0.4 to 10 cm in
244 diameter, although larger clasts up to 20 cm in diameter locally occur. Rounded quartzite
245 pebbles, up to 6 cm in diameter, are rarely observed (Fig. 6D), although they become relatively
246 abundant upwards in the SUP in the South-Iberian Basin. In places, conglomerate includes
247 fragments of tree trunks (up to 12 cm in length) and some incomplete dinosaur teeth and bones
248 (up to 20 cm in length; Fig. 6G).

249 Palaeocurrents in the South-Iberian Basin indicate transport directions towards the SW-
250 NW and the NE-SE, whereas the scarce palaeocurrents obtained in the western Maestrazgo
251 Basin indicate a main transport towards the S-SW and the SE (Figs. 2, 6A).

252 Interpretation. Clast- or locally matrix-supported fabrics, sandy matrix and the very
253 poor sorting of conglomerates, suggest deposition by flash flows, which transported high
254 concentrations of sediment (sand and gravels) in suspension (Costa, 1988; DeCelles et al., 1991;
255 Pierson, 2005). The erosive bases and the short lateral extent of the conglomerates, and their
256 relation to flood plain and aeolian deposits indicates their likely deposition in ephemeral
257 channels under episodic and high velocity currents, similar to those observed in other ancient
258 (e.g. Cain and Mountney, 2009; Banham and Mountney, 2014) and modern settings (e.g.
259 Glennie, 1970; Picard and High, 1973). In present-day settings, ephemeral channels develop during seasonal rainfalls and are characterized by short periods of flow (Picard and High, 1973).

260 The fact that these deposits are commonly characterised by a single set of cross strata indicates that channel development may have occurred in a single scour and fill event. This is also interpreted for conglomerates displaying massive fabrics, as they do not show internal erosive surfaces, grain size variations or other evidence of flow fluctuation or interruption. The asymmetrical erosive bases with strata that are conformable to their less steep margin, and the upstream-dipping cross strata are similar to experimentally produced hydraulic jump deposits in Froude supercritical flow conditions, where upstream dipping backset strata formed during upstream migration of hydraulic jumps, and the infilling of hydraulic jump scours resulted in conformable strata (Ono et al., 2020). Similar strata have been documented in ancient fluvial deposits and interpreted as chute and pool and cyclic step deposits (e.g. Fielding, 2006; Plink-Björklund, 2015; Wang and Plink-Björklund, 2020).

272 Paleocurrents directed to the NE-SE in the South-Iberian Basin and to the S-SW and SE in the western Maestrazgo Basin suggest that these deposits were derived from erosion of the Iberian and Ebro massifs, located to the NW-SW and to the N-NE, respectively (Fig. 1D), which were the main emergent areas in Iberia during the Late Jurassic (e.g. Salas et al., 2001; Mas et al., 2004). Nevertheless, palaeocurrents of the South-Iberian Basin also indicate transport directions to the SW-NW, which are more difficult to interpret. They could indicate that these deposits were also derived from the Valencian Massif, located to the NE-SE (Fig. 1D). Alternatively, they could correspond to palaeocurrents measured in the backsets produced by hydraulic jump migration (e.g. Alexander et al., 2001; Cartigny et al., 2014; Ono et al., 2020).

282 The very poorly sorted siliciclastic mudstone, carbonate and sandstone pebbles and cobbles are interpreted as intraformational clasts derived from the erosion and reworking of compacted sediments located in nearby flood plain areas, as similarly interpreted in other ancient fluvial deposits (e.g. North and Taylor, 1996; Deluca and Eriksson, 1989; Hinds et al., 2015).
286 2004; Cain and Mountney, 2006; Banham and Mountney, 2014). The fact that conglomerates
287 contain a greater abundance of quartzite pebbles upwards in the SUP in the South-Iberian Basin
288 suggests that older rocks were successively eroded, i.e. Jurassic carbonate rocks in the earlier
289 stages of erosion and Paleozoic to Triassic rocks in the later stages. Nevertheless, further
290 provenance studies are necessary to determine the specific source area of these clasts.

291 *Multistorey fluvial channel architectural element*

292 *Description.* This element forms 10 to 25% of the studied succession in the South-
293 Iberian Basin (Fig. 2) and 5 to 10% in the western Maestrazgo Basin (Fig. 2). It is more
294 abundant in the landwards sections of both basins. In all areas, this element is more abundant in
295 the SUP, although rare examples are observed in the CLP (Fig. 2). It is interbedded with the
296 flood plain element (Figs. 4, 7A-E) and with the aeolian dune elements (Fig. 4). It comprises
297 sandstone or sandstone and conglomerate arranged in metre-thick multistorey bodies (in some
298 cases up to 15 m thick, Figs. 4, 7A-E) displaying erosive bases and a large lateral extent, in
299 some exposures in excess of 250 m.

300 Sandstone is moderately to poorly sorted and displays medium to coarse grain sizes,
301 although fine grain sizes are also observed in some bodies. Sandstone shows large-scale sets of
302 cross strata (rarely trough cross strata) up to 1.5 m-thick (Fig. 7B-C, E). Set thickness decreases
303 upwards in some bodies (Fig. 7B-C). Locally, mm- to cm-thick layers of siliciclastic mudstone,
304 which may contain abundant carbonaceous detritus, occur between cross sets (Fig. 7E-F) and/or
305 at the lower part of the foresets and bottomsets.

306 A distinctive feature of this element is the common occurrence of large internal erosive
307 surfaces that locally incise downwards up to 2.4 m (Fig. 7B-F). Another distinctive feature is
308 the occurrence of sandstone displaying convex-up low-angle cross strata (Fig. 8A-B) and scour-
309 and-fill structures, which are filled by backset or foreset strata that, in places, gradually flatten
310 upwards (Figs. 7B-C, 8C-D). Locally, flattening-upwards strata show wavelengths of several
311 metres (Fig. 7B-C). In addition, sandstone locally includes fragments of fossilized wood and
312 tree trunks up to a few metres long.

313 Conglomerate, where present, overlies the erosive base of bodies and/or the internal
314 erosive surfaces (Fig. 7B-D) and may be up to 2 m thick. Conglomerate is very poorly sorted
315 and comprises subangular to subrounded pebbles and cobbles (up to 8 cm in diameter), and
316 fragments of fossilised wood up to 10 cm long in places. Composition of conglomerate is
317 identical to that reported in the ephemeral channel element. Conglomerate is structureless or
318 displays large-scale cross strata with sets up to 1.5 m thick. In some bodies, conglomerate
319 displays scour-and-fill structures comprising asymmetrical scours, with a steeper upstream
320 margin, and are filled by backset strata that gradually flatten upwards and fine upwards to
321 medium- to coarse-grained sandstone (Fig. 7B-C).

322 Palaeocurrents measured in the South-Iberian Basin indicate main transport directions to
323 the NE-S and, less commonly, to the SW-N, whereas in the western Maestrazgo Basin, data
324 indicate main transport directions to the NE and, less commonly, to the N and E-S (Fig. 7A).

325 Interpretation. The erosive bases and large lateral extent of these deposits and their
326 interbedding with flood plain deposits, are features typical of fluvial channels that migrated
327 across a flood plain. The internal erosive surfaces filled by very poorly-sorted conglomerate or
328 sandstone, are interpreted to develop during episodes of intense precipitation that produced a
329 rapid rise in flow discharge and velocity within the channels, causing the partial erosion of
330 earlier deposits of the channels and the subsequent deposition of intraformational clasts
331 (siliciclastic mudstone, carbonate and sandstone clasts) and fragments of tree trunks and other
332 plant remains, which were eroded and transported from nearby flood plain areas. Similar
333 sedimentary features have been reported in other ancient and modern fluvial channels
334 characterized by a seasonally highly variable discharge (Abdullatif, 1989; Deluca and Eriksson,
335 1989; Browne and Plint, 1994; North and Taylor, 1996; McKie, 2011; Fielding et al., 2009,
336 2011, 2018; Plink-Björklund, 2015). In these seasonal rivers, intraformational conglomerates
are locally derived (i.e. from flood plains) and their deposits are associated with a rapid decrease of water level occurring during early phases of the waning stage of floods, when upper flow regime conditions occur (e.g. Singh et al., 1993; North and Taylor, 1996; Gible and Tandom, 1997; Plink-Björklund, 2015). Fragments of tree trunks and plant remains similar to those of the studied deposits have been described in other ancient and modern seasonal rivers, especially in those developed in subhumid subtropics (e.g. Fielding and Alexander, 1996; Alexander et al., 1999; Fielding et al., 1997, 2009, 2011; Allen et al., 2014; Plink-Björklund, 2015 and references therein), and are derived from the destruction of trees or other plants, during floods, that grow in the channel margins or in areas of channel bed that get exposed during periods of non-flood discharges (Fielding et al., 1997; Alexander et al., 1999).

The convex-up low-angle cross strata resemble antidune structures formed under supercritical flow in flume experiments (e.g. Alexander et al., 2001; Cartigny et al., 2014), and in other ancient fluvial deposits (e.g. Fielding, 2006; Fielding et al., 2009; Plink-Björklund, 2015; Wang and Plink-Björklund, 2020). The asymmetrical scour-and-fill structures with backset or foreset strata that in places flatten and fine upwards are similar to the structures produced during the infilling of hydraulic jump scours under supercritical flow conditions in chutes and pools and cyclic steps in flume experiments (e.g. Alexander et al., 2001; Cartigny et al., 2014; Ono et al., 2020), in numerical simulations (Vellinga et al., 2018), and in other ancient seasonal fluvial channels (e.g. Fielding, 2006; Fielding et al., 2009; Plink-Björklund, 2015; Wang and Plink-Björklund, 2020). Backset strata have also been reported in bar head deposits of some Pliocene alluvial sediments in SE Spain (Viseras and Fernández, 1994, 1995). However, bar deposits have not been identified in the studied fluvial channel deposits. In fact, the occurrence of poorly developed barforms, or even their absence, is a common characteristic that has been reported in many ancient and modern examples of seasonal discharge rivers (e.g., Fielding et al., 2009; Plink-Björklund, 2015 and references therein).

Regarding the recent experimental work performed on the study of supercritical flow bedforms, it has been observed that antidunes develop downstream of chutes and pools
364 (Cartigny *et al.*, 2014), and convex-up low-angle strata and scour-and-fill structures have been
365 observed developing coevally by the upstream migration of cyclic steps (Ono *et al.*, 2020).

366 Thus, these authors highlight that, although these structures are produced under supercritical
367 flows, caution must be used when trying to assign specific structures observed at the outcrop to
368 specific supercritical flow bedforms.

369 During periods of non-flood discharges, sand would have been deposited through the
370 migration of subaqueous dunes, as indicated by the occurrence of sandstone displaying large-
371 scale cross strata (occasionally trough cross strata). This is similarly observed in some channels
372 developed in settings with seasonal rainfall, such as in the Gash River in Sudan (Abdullatif,
373 1989), in which subaqueous dunes and ripples migrate during periods of non-flood discharges
374 or during less intense flood phases (Plink-Björklund, 2015).

375 In addition, the local occurrence of thin layers of siliciclastic mudstone containing
376 abundant carbonaceous detritus between sandstone cross sets and/or at the lower part of the
377 foresets and at the bottomsets has been similarly identified in other modern and ancient seasonal
378 fluvial channels, where they are deposited during the rapid waning stage that occur after high
379 magnitude floods (e.g. Williams, 1971; Abdullatif, 1989; Singh *et al.*, 1993; Shukla *et al.*, 2001;
380 Allen *et al.*, 2011; Plink-Björklund, 2015 and references therein).

381 Thus, this element is interpreted as deposited in fluvial channels occupied by perennial
382 or semi-perennial flow and characterized by episodic and seasonal discharge. Palaeocurrents
383 measured in the South-Iberian Basin indicate that these deposits were mainly derived from the
384 Iberian Massif and, in minor proportion, from the Valencian Massif, located to the SW-N and
385 NE-S, respectively (Fig. 1D). By contrast, in the western Maestrazgo Basin, these deposits were
386 derived from the Valencian Massif and, in minor proportion, from the Iberian and Ebro massifs
387 (Fig. 1D).

388 *Flood plain architectural element*
389 *Description.* This is the most abundant element of the succession, especially in the SUP
390 (Fig. 2). Depending on the section, it forms 40 to 70% of the studied succession in both basins,
391 although in the most seaward section of the western Maestrazgo Basin (Mora de Rubielos
392 section) it only forms around 15% of the studied succession. It is interbedded with the
393 ephemeral and multistorey fluvial channel, deltaic, aeolian and coastal to shallow marine
394 elements (Figs. 2, 4). Towards the seaward sections it is also interbedded with limestone of tidal
395 and shallow marine origin (Fig. 2). It is composed of siliciclastic mudstone alternating with
396 non-channelized sandstone and locally oncolitic and stromatolitic limestone (Fig. 9A).

397 Siliciclastic mudstone is typically reddish in colour and displays greenish or greyish mottling,
398 carbonate nodules and root traces (Fig. 9B). In places, it includes dinosaur bones, which are
399 commonly associated, disarticulated and/or articulated (Royo-Torres *et al.*, 2009; Cobos *et al.*,
400 2010; Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2017a and references therein).

401 Non-channelized sandstones comprise very fine- to medium-grained sandstone,
402 arranged in dm-thick strata (up to 60 cm-thick), displaying tabular geometries (Fig. 9C-D) or,
403 locally, flat bases and convex-up tops (Fig. 9E), and short lateral extent (up to 40 m). Tabular
404 sandstone may be massive or display large-scale cross strata or parallel lamination, followed
405 upwards by current ripple strata (commonly climbing ripple strata), which are rarely overlain by
406 wave ripple strata (Fig. 9D). Tabular sandstone in places is arranged in thickening- and
407 coarsening- upwards bodies up to 1.5 m-thick (Fig. 9C). Sigmoidal cross strata have been also
408 observed in sandstone (Fig. 9E).

409 Palaeocurrents indicate the main transport direction to the E-NE in the western
410 Maestrazgo Basin and in the South-Iberian Basin to the W-SW, and less commonly to the NE
411 (Fig. 9A).

412 Sandstone locally includes plant remains and large fragments of dinosaur bones, which
413 are associated and/or articulated in places (see Royo-Torres *et al.*, 2009, 2020; Cobos *et al.*,
414 2010). Dinosaur tracks have locally been observed at the base of some sandstone bodies,
415 preserved as convex hyporeliefs or natural track casts (Fig. 9F), and locally at the top, preserved
416 as concave epirreliefs (see Campos-Soto et al., 2017a). In places, sandstone shows vertical and
417 horizontal burrowing traces at the top. Some of the vertical traces are observed as paired circular
418 openings at the top of sandstone (Fig. 9G). Sandstone of this element may also display edaphic
419 features at the top, such as reddish, orange, yellowish and/or greenish mottling and root traces.

420 Locally, limestone up to 30 cm-thick and displaying very limited lateral extension (less
421 than 100 m) is sparsely interbedded with deposits of this element (Fig. 9A, H). Limestone
422 includes oncoids (Fig. 9I), stromatolites, variable amounts of quartz grains and may be
423 associated with poorly sorted fragments of bivalves, including ostreids, up to 4 cm (Fig. 9J).
424 Very rarely limestone includes benthic foraminifera, echinoid spines, gastropods, ostracods,
425 charophytes and very scarce fragments of corals and ooids (Fig. 9K). Locally, limestone made
426 up of oncoids is arranged in bodies with erosive bases and short lateral extent (up to 3 metres).

427 Interpretation. This element is interpreted as deposited in a flood plain located in
428 alluvial to coastal areas. Specifically, reddish siliciclastic mudstone displaying carbonate
429 nodules, green mottling and root traces is interpreted as deposited on a flood plain (e.g. Miall,
430 1996; Selley, 2000; Viseras et al., 2006) subject to subaerial exposure periods and palaeosol
431 development (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Alonso-Zarza and Wright, 2010; Soares et al., 2020;
432 Yeste et al., 2020). Non-channelized sandstone displaying parallel lamination at the base and
433 current or, commonly, climbing ripple strata at the top is interpreted as splay lobe deposits
434 (Burns et al., 2017, 2019; Yeste et al., 2020), which developed due to the spreading out of an
435 unconfined flow as a result of the breaking of a levee of a fluvial channel during flood events
436 (Coleman, 1969; Miall, 2010). During these flood events, ephemeral currents transported large
437 dinosaur bone remains, as similarly reported in other ancient settings (e.g. González Riga and
438 Astini, 2007; Vogt et al., 2016; Coram et al., 2017). Repeated flooding episodes produced the
439 progradation of the splay deposits, giving rise to the coarsening- and thickening-upwards
440 bodies, which are common in this type of deposits (e.g. Farrell, 1987; Bridge, 2006; Yeste et al.,
441 2020). Moreover, the sigmodial cross strata observed in some bodies is interpreted as the result
442 of progradation of splay lobes into standing water bodies (cf. Mutti, 1996; Turner and Tester,
443 2006).

444 Following deposition, the upper parts of splay lobes were reworked by waves and 445 colonized by burrowers, as evidenced by the occurrence of wave ripple strata and burrows at the 446 top of sandstone. Bioturbation observed as paired circular openings at the top of sandstone may 447 correspond to U- or Y-shaped burrows, which are common in marginal-marine environments 448 (Buatois and Mangano, 2011), as similarly occurs in the deposits of the fluvial-tidal transition in 449 the Upper Cretaceous Tremp Fm, in the Pyrenees (Díez-Canseco et al., 2014; 2016), for 450 example. Splay lobes underwent subaerial exposure as indicated by the occurrence of edaphic 451 features, as similarly reported in other ancient deposits (Yeste et al., 2020), as well as by the 452 local occurrence of dinosaur tracks at the top of sandstone. The occurrence of natural track casts 453 at the base of sandstone indicates that dinosaurs passed across the flood plain, producing tracks 454 in the underlying muddy sediment, as interpreted by Campos-Soto et al. (2017a) for the natural 455 track casts present in sandstone in the western Maestrazgo Basin.

456 Limestone including oncoids and stromatolites and interbedded with siliciclastic 457 deposits, is interpreted as deposited in shallow water bodies where benthic microbial 458 communities interacted with detrital sediments and/or produced calcium carbonate precipitation 459 (Burne and Moore, 1987; Riding, 1999; 2000). These shallow water bodies received siliciclastic 460 and freshwater inputs, as limestone includes quartz grains, which may be abundant, and locally 461 charophytes, and were also influenced by brackish and marine waters, as limestone locally 462 includes poorly sorted brackish and marine bioclasts that were transported by storms and/or 463 spring tides (Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2019). Oncolitic limestone bodies displaying erosive 464 bases and short lateral extent are interpreted as oncoid channels, similar to those reported in 465 other ancient coastal (Suarez-Gonzalez et al., 2015) and fluvio-lacustrine settings (Arenas-Abad 466 et al., 2010).

467 **Deltaic depositional setting**
468 *Description.* Deltaic deposits are mainly observed in the SUP of the South-Iberian Basin, where they form 2 to 6% of the studied succession. In the western Maestrazgo Basin, these deposits form less than 1% of the studied succession (Fig. 2). They are interbedded and laterally related with the fluvial and aeolian elements (Figs. 2, 4). Deltaic deposits comprise sandstone with minor proportions of carbonaceous detritus and carbonaceous-rich, dark grey siliciclastic mudstone, displaying a coarsening- and thickening-upwards succession. Each succession displays dm to m thicknesses (up to 2 m), an exposed lateral extent of up to 100 m (Figs. 10, 11) and includes, from base to top, three architectural elements that are intimately related: the *delta-toe*, *delta-front* and *delta distributary channel elements*. Several deltaic successions may be vertically stacked giving rise to composite bodies up to 10 m thick, with an exposed lateral extension of up to 200m (Fig. 10A-C).

479 The *delta-toe element* comprises carbonaceous-rich, dark grey siliciclastic mudstone, interbedded upwards with mm- to cm-thick layers of very fine-grained and rippled sandstone, which display a very low angle-inclination and a great lateral extent (Fig. 10A-D).

482 Deposits of the *delta-toe element* change laterally and upwards to the *delta-front element*, comprising sandstone displaying clinoforms, which have a sigmoidal outline in a flow-parallel direction (Fig. 11A-B). The lower part of the *delta-front element* comprises the lower part of foresets of clinoforms, which display a very low angle-inclination and pass laterally and downwards, along the bottomsets, to the delta-toe deposits (Fig.10B-C). The lower part of foresets comprise cm-thick, very fine- to fine-grained, well-sorted sandstone layers that alternate with mm- to cm-thick layers of carbonaceous detritus (Figs. 10B-C, E, 11B). Locally, sandstone layers at the lowermost part of the delta-front element, along the bottomsets, display poorly preserved dinosaur tracks, recorded as convex hyporeliefs or natural track casts, which show elongated shapes with irregular and deformed outlines and penetrate downwards into the underlying delta-toe deposits (Fig. 10F). The upper part of the *delta-front element* comprises the upper part of foresets and the topsets of clinoforms, which are made up of fine- to medium-
494 grained, well-sorted sandstone that locally display bioturbation. Locally, drapes of carbonaceous
detritus may extend up to the topsets (Figs. 10A, 11B).
495

496 The upper part of the *delta-front element* deposits may be truncated by erosive surfaces
497 (Figs. 10B-C, 11C-E), which become progressively more abundant and more incisive upwards
498 and eventually are overlain by deposits of the *delta terminal distributary channel element* (Fig.
499 11C-E). The *delta terminal distributary channel element* comprises dm- to m-thick sandstone
500 bodies (up to 1.5 m) displaying erosive bases and a lateral extent of up to 10 m (Figs. 10A-C,
501 11C-E). Sandstone is well-sorted and displays fine to medium grain sizes (Fig. 11F). Sandstone
502 displays large-scale cross-strata with sets up to 1 m-thick (Figs. 11C-E). In places, sandstone
503 displays backset strata or upwards flattening strata (Fig. 10B-C).

504 Palaeocurrents measured in the South-Iberian Basin, mainly in the clinoforms of delta-
505 front element and, in less proportion, in the cross-bedded sets of the delta terminal distributary
506 channel element, indicate main transport directions to the S, to the W-NW and to the NE (Fig.
507 10A).

508 Interpretation. The coarsening- and thickening- upwards trend and the clinoforms
509 observed in these deposits likely record the progradation of deltaic sediments into standing
510 water bodies (e.g. Bhattacharya, 2006, 2010; Enge et al., 2010a; Legler et al., 2013; Gugliotta et
511 al., 2015, 2016; Kurcinka et al., 2018).

512 Carbonaceous-rich, dark grey siliciclastic mudstone located in the lower part of the
513 element, along the *delta-toe* (Fig. 10A-D), is interpreted to have been deposited by settling of
514 suspension load during periods of low flow (Bhattacharya, 2010; Legler *et al.*, 2013; Enge *et
515 al.*, 2010a). The thin layers of very fine-grained rippled sandstone interbedded with
516 carbonaceous-rich, dark grey siliciclastic mudstone at the delta-toe indicate the episodic influx
517 of siliciclastic discharges into the delta toes.

518 *Delta-toe* deposits change laterally and upwards to *delta-front* sandstone displaying
519 clinoforms characterized by low-angle and laterally-continuous foresets with drapes of
carbonaceous detritus that may extend up to the lower part of foresets, as similarly reported in other ancient and modern deltaic deposits (e.g. Bhattacharya, 2006, 2010; Enge et al., 2010a, 2010b; Schomacker et al., 2010; Bayet-Goll and de Carvalho, 2013; Legler et al., 2013; Ahmed et al., 2014; Kurcinka et al., 2018). Sandstone is interpreted to be deposited by unconfined flows during flood episodes and carbonaceous detritus by settling down from suspension during periods of low flow (interflood periods sensu Gugliotta et al., 2015, 2016). During periods of low flow delta-front deposits were occasionally burrowed, as suggested by bioturbation present locally at the top of sandstone.

The large-scale cross-strata sandstone infilling the erosive surfaces that incise downwards into the upper part of the *delta-front* sediments are interpreted as the infill of *deltaic terminal distributary channels* that migrated in a deltaic plain, as similarly observed in other ancient deltaic deposits (Olariu and Bhattacharya, 2006; Bhattacharya, 2010). In places, sandstone displays backset or flattening upwards strata (Fig. 10B-C). Similar structures have been observed in experimentally produced deltaic deposits (Muto et al., 2012) due to the development of hydraulic jumps at the channel mouth, and have also been identified in other ancient deltaic successions (e.g. Massari, 1996, Lang et al., 2017). Thus, it is possible that, during episodes of intense rainfall, supercritical flow conditions were achieved in the *delta terminal distributary channels*, leading to the formation of hydraulic jumps and the infilling of associated scours.

Palaeocurrents obtained in the South-Iberian Basin indicate that deltaic deposits were mainly associated with fluvial channels flowing to the W-NW, to the S and to the NE, which coincides with some of the transport directions of the multistorey fluvial channel deposits of this basin (see Figs. 7A, 10A). The standing water bodies where deltaic sediments were deposited occupied positions on a flood plain, as the deltaic deposits are commonly interbedded with the flood plain element. These water bodies were shallow, as evidenced by the height of clinoforms (from dm to up to 2 m) and by the occurrence of dinosaur tracks at the base of thinly bedded sandstone layers overlying delta toe deposits (Fig. 10F). The poor preservation of dinosaur
tracks, showing irregular and deformed outlines, suggests that the delta-toe sediments had a
high-water content and a low yield strength at the moment when the tracks were made (Allen,
1997; Marty *et al.*, 2009). The scarcity of evidence for subaerial exposure and edaphic features,
which are common in the flood plain and splay lobe deposits, but have been only observed
locally at the top of the *delta-toe* to *delta-front element* (see flood plain architectural element),
suggests that the water bodies were also relatively permanent.

The salinity of the water bodies is difficult to determine as no fossils or sedimentary
structures indicative of salinity have been observed within the deltaic deposits. If these water
bodies received some marine influence during their deposition, it would be expected to observe
brackish or marine fossils, as they occur in the sediments deposited in the shallow marine- to
brackish-influenced water bodies located in the flood plain (see limestone of flood plain
element). It would be also expected to observe tidal structures, such as the occurrence of a
cyclical pattern in the distribution of carbonaceous detritus within the delta-front deposits, for
instance. However, none of these sedimentary structures or fossils have been observed within
the deltaic elements. It cannot be discarded that the studied deltaic sediments were deposited in
freshwater bodies, as dinosaurs would require the presence of permanent water sources and
abundant vegetation; in fact, freshwater fossils of turtles (Pérez-García *et al.*, 2014) and bivalves
(Delvene *et al.*, 2013) have been reported in the fluvial deposits of the studied succession in the
South-Iberian Basin. Nevertheless, given the coastal setting of the studied succession, mixing of
fresh and marine waters or local tidal influence is conceivable for some water bodies.

In addition, the occurrence of vertically stacked coarsening and thickening upwards
deltaic successions, of up to 2m-thick, leading to composite bodies of up to 10m-thick, is
interpreted as a result of the combination of subsidence and high sedimentation rates, which
would have produced the vertical superposition of the deltaic deposits.

**Coastal to shallow marine depositional setting**
Coastal to shallow marine siliciclastic deposits are observed both in the CLP and SUP interbedded and laterally related with tidal or shallow marine limestone and with marl, which includes brackish to marine bioclasts (osteids, trigonioids and other bivalves, and large benthic foraminifera) and charophytes and was deposited in shallow marine to brackish areas that received freshwater inputs (Figs. 2, 5; Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2016a, 2019). Coastal to shallow marine deposits form less than 3% to 6% of the studied succession in the landward sections of the South-Iberian and western Maestrazgo basins, respectively (Fig. 2). In the seaward sections, they form up to 15 and 20% of the studied succession in the South-Iberian and western Maestrazgo basins respectively (Figs. 2, 5). Two elements have been distinguished:

### Coastal terminal distributary channel architectural element

*Description.* This element occurs interbedded with the distributary mouth-bar element and with marl (Figs. 5, 12A-B). It comprises fine- to medium-grained sandstone arranged in meter-thick bodies (up to 3 m thick), with erosive bases and an exposed lateral extent of 50 m (Figs. 5, 12A-C). Sandstone displays large-scale cross strata (Fig. 12D-E) and rarely includes mm- to cm-thick layers of carbonaceous-rich marl between cross sets (Fig. 12D-F). These thin layers of carbonaceous-rich marl may be also present at the bottomsets and the lower part of the foresets of large-scale cross strata (Fig. 12E). In addition, some sandstone bodies may show internal erosive surfaces (Fig. 12C, F), similar to those described in the multistorey fluvial channel element.

Locally, poorly sorted conglomerate is observed overlying the basal erosive surface of sandstone bodies or the internal erosive surfaces (Fig. 12F-G). It is made up by subangular to subrounded mudstone pebbles (up to 2.5 cm in diameter), within a coarse-grained sandy matrix, similar to those described in the multistorey fluvial channel element, although in this case, it also includes scarce fragments of bivalves (Fig. 12G).

The scarce palaeocurrent data obtained in the W Maestrazgo Basin indicate main transport directions to the E-SE (Fig. 12B).
598 Interpretation. Channelized sandstone of this element, interbedded with distributary
599 mouth-bar element and marl, represents the infill of terminal distributary channels flowing into
600 coastal and shallow marine areas and feeding distributary mouth-bar deposits, as similarly
601 reported in other ancient examples (e.g. Olariu and Bhattacharya, 2006; Bhattacharya, 2010).
602 The palaeocurrent data obtained in the W Maestrazgo Basin also support this interpretation, as
603 they indicate that these distributary channels were flowing to the E-SE, which coincides with
604 the location of the Tethys Ocean during the Late Jurassic (Fig. 1D), as well as with the transport
605 directions obtained in some of the distributary mouth-bar deposits of this basin (Figs. 12B and
606 13A). The thin layers of carbonaceous-rich marl occurring between large-scale cross sets and at
607 the lower part of foresets and bottomsets are interpreted to be deposited by settling down from
608 suspension during periods of low river discharge. Nevertheless, tidal influence could not be
discarded, as these deposits were debouching into shallow marine areas. Moreover, the internal
609 erosion surfaces observed within sandstone are interpreted to develop during periods of intense
610 precipitation, which led to an increase of flow velocity and the erosion of the sediments of the
611 channels, as similarly occurs in the multistorey fluvial channel architectural element. This
612 process was followed by deposition of poorly sorted mudstone conglomerates eroded and
613 transported from upstream flood plain areas, as well as of fragments of bivalves, which were
614 transported from nearby shallow marine areas.
615

616 Distributary mouth-bar architectural element

617 Description. This element occurs commonly interbedded with the coastal terminal
618 distributary channel element and marl or with tidal limestone, including tidal sedimentary
619 structures or with shallow marine limestone, which contains marine fossils, including locally
620 corals in life position (Figs. 12A, 13A-F). It is made up of fine- to medium-grained sandstone
621 commonly arranged in decimetre- to metre-thick bodies (from 10 cm to 2.50 m), which display
622 flat bases and flat or convex-up tops, commonly show short lateral extent (<20 m; Figs. 12A,
623 13A-D) and rare thickening- and coarsening-upwards trend (Fig. 13B). Sandstone may be
624 massive or display large-scale cross strata, which may be sigmoidal (Fig. 13C-D), and rare
current and/or wave ripple strata at the top. Cross-bedded sandstone bodies pass seawards to centimetre-thick bodies displaying current and/or wave ripple strata at the top, which alternate with marl, giving rise to wavy bedding (Fig. 13G). Sandstone may include carbonate intraclasts, ooids, brackish and marine bioclasts (Fig. 13H, Table 1) and plant remains. In places, sandstone displays bioturbation at the top (Fig. 13I).

Palaeocurrents measured in the South-Iberian Basin indicate main transport directions to the E, and less commonly to the N and SE, and palaeocurrents measured in the western Maestrazgo Basin indicate main transport directions to the NE and E and less commonly to the N and S (Fig. 13A).

*Interpretation.* These sandstone bodies are interpreted as distributary mouth-bars (*sensu* Wright, 1977; Bhattacharya, 2010) that were formed by the dispersal of unconfined flows at the mouth of terminal distributary channels debouching into coastal to shallow marine areas (e.g. Roberts, 1998; DuMars, 2002; Bhattacharya, 2010; Li *et al.*, 2013; Allgöver and Lignum, 2019). This interpretation is supported by palaeocurrent data, indicating that sediment was mainly transported to the NE-SE (Fig. 13A), where the Tethys Ocean was located at the time (Fig. 1D). These sediments were deposited in shallow marine areas where even coral reefs developed (Fig. 13C-F). This has been similarly observed in some Upper Miocene deposits of SE Spain, interpreted as the result of distributary mouth-bars flowing into an interdistributary bay where coral reef patches developed (García-García *et al.*, 2006). Another example of this relationship is observed in the Indonesian Mahakam River Delta, although at a much larger scale, where large siliciclastic lobes of sediment are debouching into shallow marine areas where Halimeda bioherms are present (Storms *et al.*, 2005; Roberts and Sydow, 2010).

At the mouth of terminal distributary channels, sediment was deposited through the migration of subaqueous dunes and, progressively seawards, through the migration of ripples, as a consequence of the decrease of flow velocity. This is indicated by the occurrence of dm- to m-thick sandstone bodies displaying large-scale cross strata, which passes seawards to cm-thick
651 rippled sandstone bodies. The repeated arrival of sand at the distributary mouth would have
652 produced the progradation of these unconfined sediment bodies, giving rise to the coarsening-
653 and thickening upwards trend observed in this element. After deposition, these sediment bodies
654 were prone to reworking by waves, as indicated by the occurrence of wave ripple strata at the
655 top of sandstone and by tidal currents, as indicated by the occurrence of wavy bedding and the
656 fact that these deposits occur interbedded with inter- to supratidal limestone including tidal
657 sedimentary structures also indicates that they were deposited in a setting influenced by tides.
658 Locally, these deposits were also reworked by storms, as interpreted by Campos-Soto et al.
659 (2016a) in the Benagéber area (Fig. 1C).

660 Aeolian depositional setting

661 Aeolian deposits are observed in the SUP of the South-Iberian Basin, being more
662 abundant in the landward sections (Figs. 2, 4), where they form up to 5% of the studied
663 succession. They occur interbedded and laterally related with the fluvial and deltaic elements
664 (Figs. 2, 4). Three types of architectural elements have been distinguished:

665 Simple aeolian dune architectural element

666 *Description.* This element occurs interbedded with the flood plain element or locally
667 overlies the ephemeral fluvial channel or deltaic elements (Figs. 2, 14). This element is
668 composed of fine- to medium-grained, sub-angular to rounded and well-sorted sandstone, which
669 is arranged in bodies up to 6 m thick (Fig. 14A-E, G-H), with flat bases and tops, and exposed
670 lateral extents up to 100 m. Sandstone bodies characteristically comprise a single large-scale
671 cross-stratified set up to 6 m-thick, whose foresets are inclined up to 36° (Fig. 14A-E). A
672 distinctive feature of this element is that, in some sandstone bodies, foresets display a convex-
673 up outline and pass upwards to low-angle inclined topsets (Fig. 14B-C). In detail, foreset
674 deposits are made up of successive mm- to cm-thick stratal packages (Fig. 14F). Each stratum
675 may show inverse grain size grading (from very fine to fine grain sizes at the bottom to medium
676 grain sizes at the top, Fig. 14H). The contact between each stratum is sharp. Very rarely,
677 scattered rounded to subrounded muddy-soft pebbles and rounded quartzite pebbles (up to 1.4 cm in diameter) have been observed but are confined exclusively to the lower part of foresets (in the lowermost 70 cm of sets). Palaeocurrents indicate transport directions towards the SE, W-SW, or the NW, depending on the sandstone body measured (Fig. 14A).

681 Interpretation. Features of this element, notably the well-sorted nature of the sandstone, the characteristic occurrence of very large-scale cross-stratified sets up to 6 m-thick with foresets inclined at angles up to 36°, its geometry (flat bases and tops) and exposed lateral extent of up to 100 m, lead most logically to the interpretation of migratory aeolian dunes (Ahlbrandt and Fryberger, 1982; McKee, 1966; Mountney, 2006).

686 The internal structure of foresets, made up of mm- to cm-thick strata displaying inverse grain size grading, is interpreted as the result of accumulation of grainflow deposits, as similarly reported from other ancient and modern aeolian dunes (McKee et al., 1971; Hunter, 1977; Kocurek and Dott, 1981; Fryberger and Schenk, 1988), in which they are explained as the result of the repeated avalanching of sand in the lee side of dunes exceeding the angle of repose (Hunter, 1977; Ahlbrandt and Fryberger, 1982; Kocurek, 1991; Mountney, 2006).
687
688
689
690
691 Palaeocurrents indicate transport of sand towards the W-SW, the NW or the SE, depending on the sandstone body measured (Fig. 14A; see interpretation of wind palaeocurrents in Discussion). This suggests that aeolian dunes migrated under the influence of prevailing unidirectional winds, which is characteristic of transverse aeolian dunes (sensu Fryberger and Dean, 1979; Mountney 2006). The style of the cross strata observed in some bodies, characterized by convex-up foresets with preserved topsets, together with their vertical scale (Fig. 14B-C), is very similar to the features described in recent dome-shaped aeolian dunes by McKee (1966, 1979) in the White Sand National Monument (USA). According to this author, dome-shaped aeolian dunes initially begin as transverse or other type of dunes that are controlled by one dominant wind direction and are subsequently affected by episodes of strong winds. Therefore, the studied aeolian sandstone likely represents one of the few examples of well-preserved dome-shaped aeolian dunes in the pre-Quaternary fossil record; the few other
704 examples are those of the Proterozoic of Greenland (Clemmensen, 1988) and India

705 (Chakraborty, 1991), the Devonian of Australia (Jones, 1972) and the Triassic of the Cheshire

706 Basin, UK (Thompson, 1969). In addition, the fact that aeolian dune deposits of this element are
707 formed by one single set of large-scale cross strata, suggests that they were formed under
708 relatively low rates of sediment supply that merely allowed the migration, but not the climb, of
709 one single transverse or dome-shaped aeolian dunes (Kocurek and Havholm, 1993; Mountney,
710 2006).

711 Sandstone of this element is well sorted and made up of sub-angular to rounded grains.

712 The occurrence of sub-angular (rarely even angular) grains has been identified in modern and
713 ancient aeolian dune deposits (e.g. Kiersch, 1950; Thompson, 1969; Glennie, 1970; McKee,

714 1979; Rodríguez-López et al., 2008; Galán-Abellán et al., 2013), and some authors have even
715 reported aeolian dune deposits displaying moderate (Mountney et al., 1998) to poor sorting
716 (McKee, 1966; Ahlbrandt, 1979), due to the short time of reworking and the close proximity to
717 the source of sand.

718 The occurrence of pebbles in the lower parts of aeolian dune sets has been described in
719 ancient and modern aeolian deposits. Mader (1981) and Turner and Makhlouf (2005) identified
720 pebbles up to 1 cm long and chert pebbles up to 5 cm long along the foresets of Triassic and

721 Quaternary aeolian dune deposits of Germany and Jordan, respectively. Kiersch (1950) reported
722 small pebbles and coarse grains of quartz and chalcedony along several cross strata planes in the
723 Jurassic Navajo Sandstone (Utah, USA). Rodríguez-López et al. (2010) identified scattered

724 quartzite pebbles in the toesets of mid-Cretaceous aeolian dune deposits of Spain and
725 interpreted them as derived from adjacent deflated wadis. These authors cite the work Glennie
726 (1970), who reported pebbles in the foresets of small recent aeolian dune deposits and

727 interpreted them as derived from an adjacent wadi bank by rolling or sliding. Additionally,
728 pebbles of up to 1.5 cm and 2.3 cm in diameter have been recorded lodged in telephone poles at
729 1.6 m and 0.8 m heights, respectively; these were interpreted as having been transported by
730 saltation during an intense windstorm in California, USA (Sakamoto-Arnold, 1981).
731 Massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune architectural element

732 *Description.* This element overlies the flood plain element and is overlain by the
733 multistorey fluvial channel element (Fig. 15A-C). This element may occur interbedded with
734 ephemeral fluvial channelized conglomerate bodies, which display 90 cm- to 3 m of thickness
735 and up to 20 m of lateral extent (Fig. 15C-D; see ephemeral fluvial channel architectural
736 element).

737 This element is made up of fine- to medium-grained, sub-angular to rounded, well-
738 sorted sandstone arranged in up to 25 m-thick bodies, displaying flat bases and tops and an
739 exposed lateral extent of up to 80 m (Fig. 15B-E). Sandstone mostly shows a massive
740 appearance, although locally displays poorly preserved large-scale cross strata with sets of up to
741 7 m-thick (Fig. 15C-D), and with foresets inclined up to 30° (Fig. 15D, G-H). In some cross
742 stratified sets, foresets pass downwards to laterally continuous bottomsets (Fig. 15B, E, G-H).
743 Locally, the bottomsets and, less commonly, the lowermost part of foresets are draped by mm-
744 to cm-thick layers of carbonaceous detritus and mica flakes (Fig. 15G-H). Palaeocurrents
745 indicate main transport directions to the W-NW and, in minor proportion, to the SW (Fig. 15A).

746 *Interpretation.* The homogeneous and well-sorted sandstone of this element, together
747 with its massive appearance, its large thickness (up to 25 m-thick), its flat base and great
748 exposed lateral extent (up to 80 m), suggest an aeolian origin. The homogeneity of grain size
749 and the good sorting are features typically described in aeolian deposits, such as in the Lower
750 Jurassic Navajo Sandstone (e.g. Kiersch, 1950; Prothero and Schab, 1996; McKee, 1979),
751 which, in places, characteristically exhibits a massive appearance (e.g. Ekdale *et al.*, 2007).
752 Moreover, the occurrence of poorly preserved, large-scale cross strata with sets of up to 7 m
753 thick, displaying foresets inclined up to 30°, further supports an aeolian dune origin.
754 Palaeocurrents indicate aeolian dune migration to the NW-SW (Fig. 15A; see more details of
755 wind palaeocurrents in Discussion).
The drapes of carbonaceous detritus and mica flakes locally observed in the bottomsets and in the lowermost part of foresets are interpreted to have settled from suspension in wet interdunes subject to episodic floods (Ahlbrandt and Fryberger, 1981; 1982; Mountney, 2006).

The occurrence of drapes in the lower part of the foresets indicates that the water level reached the lower part of aeolian dune flanks, and likely fluctuated. A similar process has been reported in the Great Sand Dunes (USA) and in the Namib Desert (Skeleton Coast), where episodic fluvial floods cause the inundation of interdune areas, where clays and/or wood detritus settle down and drape the interdune floor and the lower part of dune flanks (Langford, 1989 and Stanistreet and Stollhofen, 2002, respectively). Repeated interdune flooding and aeolian dune migration produced the successive interfingering of drapes and grainflows within the same cross strata set (Langford and Chan, 1989; Langford, 1989; Cain and Mountney, 2011). This type of draping (i.e. mud layers, carbonaceous/wood detritus and mica flakes) has been reported in other ancient (e.g. Thompson, 1969; Gradziński et al., 1979; Pulvertaft, 1985; Langford and Chan, 1988; Veiga and Spalletti, 2007; Rodríguez-López et al., 2008, 2012) and modern aeolian dune deposits (e.g. Ahlbrandt and Fryberger, 1981; Fryberger et al., 1990; García-Hidalgo et al., 2002; Mountney and Russell, 2006; 2009; Kocurek et al., 2020).

The occurrence of ephemeral fluvial deposits interbedded with massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune deposits (Fig. 15C-D) is interpreted as the result of development of ephemeral channels between aeolian dunes during periods of intense precipitation, which would have led to the erosion of aeolian dune deposits. This type of fluvial-aeolian interaction has similarly been documented in other arid to semiarid modern (e.g. Glennie, 1970; Al-Masrahy and Mountney, 2015) and ancient settings (e.g. Herries, 1992; de Witt, 1999; Mountney et al., 1998; Veiga et al., 2002; Mountney and Jagger, 2004; Jordan and Mountney, 2010, 2012; Rodríguez-López et al., 2010; 2014 and references therein; Soria et al., 2011; Tripaldi et al., 2011), as a result of development of wadis between aeolian dunes during flash-flood events. In the studied succession, aeolian dune deposits overlie those of ephemeral fluvial channels, indicating that, once the flood episode had finished, aeolian dunes would have migrated over the
783 deposits of the once-again dry ephemeral channels, a process that similarly occurs in modern
784 desert settings (Al-Masrahy and Mountney, 2015; Liu and Coulthard, 2015).

785 *Climbing aeolian dune architectural element*

786 *Description.* This element is interbedded with the deltaic and fluvial channel elements,
787 and is overlain by the flood plain element (Figs. 4, 16). It comprises sub-angular to rounded,
788 fine- to medium-grained, well-sorted sandstone, which is arranged in metre-thick bodies (up to
789 5 m-thick) with an exposed lateral extent of around 100 m (Fig. 16A-D). Sandstone displays
790 large-scale cross strata with sets up to 2 m-thick (Fig. 16B), which are stacked in cosets (Fig.
791 16C-D). A characteristic feature of this element is the occurrence of bounding surfaces
792 delimiting individual sets of cross strata, which are inclined at low angles (<10°) relative to the
793 master coset bedding surface and dip in the opposite direction to the foreset dip (Fig. 16C-D). In
794 some outcrops parallel to transport direction, these surfaces can be laterally traced at least for 50
795 m. Large-scale cross strata comprises tangential foresets inclined at angles up to 32° (Fig. 16B-
796 E), which occasionally are slightly deformed (Fig. 16E). In detail, foreset deposits comprise
797 mm- to cm-thick strata, made up of fine- to medium-grained well-sorted sandstone, which pinch
798 out towards the bottomsets (Fig. 16F-H). Towards the bottomsets, these strata are interbedded
799 with other mm- to cm-thick strata comprised of very fine- to fine-grained and well-sorted
800 sandstone, which pinch out upwards (Fig. 16G-H).

801 Pseudomorphs after gypsum crystals, forming desert roses (Fig. 16I), have been locally
802 observed within the sandstone. Additionally, very scattered subrounded muddy pebbles and
803 rounded quartzite pebbles (up to 1.5 cm in diameter) are locally observed towards the lower part
804 of sandstone bodies that overlie fluvial channelized elements, similarly to those described in the
805 simple aeolian dune architectural element. These pebbles mostly occur along the tangential
806 foresets, preferentially towards the bottomsets.
807 Palaeocurrents measured in the tangential cross strata sets indicate main transport directions towards the SE in some sandstone bodies and towards the NW in other sandstone bodies located in different stratigraphic positions (Fig. 16A).

810 Interpretation. Features of these deposits, such as the well-sorted grain texture, the occurrence of large-scale cross strata sets comprising tangential foresets, which might be locally slightly deformed, and the occurrence of low-angle inclined bounding surfaces delimiting sets of cross strata, indicate that this element records the downwind migration and accumulation of aeolian dunes, as has been similarly described in other ancient aeolian dune deposits (e.g. Kocurek, 1981; Ahlbrant and Fryberger, 1982; Spalletti and Colombo Piñol, 2005; Scherer and Lavina, 2005; Mountney, 2006; Spalletti et al., 2010).

817 The internal structure of tangential cross strata sandstone, comprising mm- to cm-thick strata pinching out downwards, is very similar to the sandflow cross strata described by Hunter (1977) in modern aeolian dunes (here referred to as grainflow cross strata sensu Kocurek and Dott, 1981, and Kocurek, 1991, 1996), which develop due to the successive avalanching of sand in aeolian dune slipfaces. The very fine- to fine-grained sandstone strata located at the bottomsets pinching out upwards are interpreted as wind ripples that migrated over the plinth of aeolian dunes and dry interdunes (Hunter, 1977; Ahlbrant and Fryberger, 1982; Kocurek, 1991).
820
821
822
823
824 The occurrence of slightly deformed foresets is interpreted as the result of slumping of cohesive, semi-consolidated sand in the lee side of dunes wetted by rains or dews (e.g. McKee et al., 1971; Due and Dott, 1980; Loope et al., 2001). Similarly to what occurs in the simple aeolian dune architectural element, palaeocurrents show a unidirectional transport pattern for each sandstone body measured in different stratigraphic positions, indicating aeolian dune migration to the SE for some bodies or the NW for others (Fig. 16A; see interpretation of wind palaeocurrents in Discussion) and suggesting that deposition occurred in transverse aeolian dunes (sensu Fryberger and Dean, 1979; Mountney 2006).
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
The low-angle-inclined bounding surfaces that delimit individual sets of cross strata are very similar to the interdune surfaces defined by Kocurek (1981, 1996) and described in many ancient aeolian deposits (e.g. Mountney and Thompson, 2002; Scherer and Lavina, 2005; Mountney and Jagger, 2004; Rodríguez-López et al., 2008; Bállico et al., 2017). Interdune surfaces result from the downwind migration of an interdune trough over the stoss side of the preceding aeolian dune, producing the partial erosion and truncation of its upper part (Rubin and Hunter, 1982; Kocurek, 1981; 1991; 1996; Mountney, 2006). Climbing transverse aeolian dune bedforms migrated over these surfaces, as they are overlain by tangential cross strata sandstone. The fact that these deposits were formed by the accumulation of climbing aeolian bedforms indicates that the sediment supply during their deposition was high (Kocurek and Havholm, 1993; Mountney, 2006).

The occurrence of pseudomorphs after gypsum crystals, forming desert roses, similar to those locally observed within this element, have been reported in other aeolian deposits (e.g. Loope, 1988; Simpson and Erikson, 1993; Tripaldi et al., 2011; Rodríguez-López et al., 2013) and are interpreted as intrasediment gypsum crystals that grew in the pore spaces of aeolian sand located close to the water table (Warren, 2016).

## 848 DISCUSSION

### 849 Palaeoenvironmental setting of eastern Iberia during the Late Jurassic

Siliciclastic sediments of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm were deposited in fluvial, deltaic, aeolian and coastal to shallow marine depositional environments that developed in eastern Iberia during the Late Jurassic (Figs. 1D, 17). These deposits are interbedded and laterally related with each other and possess stratal relationships to indicate that they developed coevally (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 17 and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material). During the first steps of evolution of the studied succession (during sedimentation of the CLP), deposition of siliciclastic sediments was scarce and mainly occurred in coastal to shallow marine marly and carbonate areas (Figs. 2, 3; Campos-Soto et al., 2016a, 2017a, 2019). Upwards, during sedimentation of the SUP, a large
abundance of siliciclastic sediments was deposited in a coastal and alluvial plain (Figs. 2, 3, 17; Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2016a, 2017a, 2019 Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2016a, 2017a, 2019). Landwards, deposition mainly took place in fluvial, deltaic and aeolian environments that were laterally and vertically related (Figs. 3, 4, 17), while seawards, it progressively occurred in coastal to shallow marine environments located in areas with high subsidence rates, where siliciclastics are interbedded to the E-SE with shallow water marl, with inter- to supratidal peloidal and/or micritic limestone and with shallow marine bioclastic and oolitic limestone (Figs. 2, 3, 5, 17 and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material; Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2016a, 2017a, 2019).

The coastal and alluvial plain was formed by broad and vegetated flood plains (see Flood plain architectural element), which were crossed by ephemeral and perennial to semi-perennial fluvial channels that had a highly seasonal discharge (see Ephemeral and Multi-storey fluvial channel architectural elements, respectively; Fig. 17). During flood events, flood plain areas underwent deposition of splay lobes as a result of the breaking of channel levees (see Flood plain architectural element). Fluvial channels flowed into shallow water bodies located in the flood plain that were probably freshwater, leading to deposition of small deltas (see Deltaic architectural elements). Some fluvial channels ultimately flowed into coastal to shallow marine areas (see Coastal terminal distributary channel architectural element), resulting in the deposition of distributary mouth-bars (see Distributary mouth-bar architectural element; Figs. 5, 17). Some of the shallow water bodies located in the flood plain underwent carbonate precipitation and development of oncoids and stromatolites (see Flood plain architectural element). Some of these water bodies were influenced by freshwater and received siliciclastic input, as limestone includes abundant quartz grains and locally charophytes. Other water bodies were also influenced by brackish and marine waters, as limestone locally includes brackish and marine fossils that were probably transported from shallow marine areas by storms and/or spring tides (see Flood plain architectural element; Fig. 17).

During periods of non-flood discharges, subaqueous siliciclastic deposits likely underwent periods of subaerial exposure. Subsequently, sand of these deposits was reworked by
885 wind and deposited in aeolian dunes that migrated over the coastal and alluvial plain, as
886 reported in modern (e.g. Glennie, 1970; Langford, 1989; Singh *et al.*, 1993; Collinson, 1996)
887 and ancient settings (e.g. Thompson, 1969; Mountney *et al.*, 1998). Aeolian dunes developed
888 next to deltas and eventually migrated over their deltaic plain, as evidenced by the occurrence of
889 aeolian deposits overlying the deltaic elements (Figs. 2, 4, 10A, 16C-D, 17). Aeolian dunes
890 could also migrate over deposits of fluvial channels that became subaerially exposed during
891 periods of non-flood discharges, as indicated by the occurrence of aeolian dune deposits
892 overlying fluvial channel sediments (Figs. 4, 15C-D). Aeolian deposits are only preserved in the
893 landward sections of the South-Iberian Basin (Riodeva and Benagéber sections; Figs. 1C-D, 2,
894 4), which contain a greater proportion of subaqueous siliciclastic deposits than sections of the
895 western Maestrazgo Basin. The South-Iberian Basin was largely surrounded by emergent areas
896 (Iberian and Valencian massifs), whereas the western Maestrazgo Basin only had emergent
897 areas towards the SW (Fig. 1D). In this way, the South-Iberian Basin received greater input of
898 siliciclastic detritus. Subaerial exposure was common, and deposits were repeatedly reworked
899 by the wind. In contrast, broader coastal plains developed in the western Maestrazgo Basin and
900 received relatively less siliciclastic input.

901 Palaeocurrents of the aeolian dune deposits indicate predominant wind transport
902 directions to the W (ranging between NW-SW) and rarely to the SE (Figs. 14A, 15A, 16A).
903 This is based on the interpretation of perfectly transverse dune types migrating under the
904 influence of a unidirectional wind (cf. Rubin, 1987). Palaeocurrents pointing to the W (NW-
905 SW) are in agreement with palaeowind directions shown in the palaeogeographic models of
906 eastern Iberia during the Late Jurassic (Fig. 1D), which interpret winds approaching eastern
907 Iberia from the E and S (from the Tethys Ocean; Fig. 1D) during the winter and summer,
908 respectively (Sellwood and Valdes, 2008), as well as hurricanes and storms also coming from
909 the Tethys Ocean (Marsaglia and Klein, 1983). Winds approaching the South-Iberian Basin
910 from the Tethys Ocean might have been deflected by the surrounding Iberian and Valencian
911 massifs, resulting in them blowing parallel to the NW-SE oriented Valencian Massif, thereby
producing winds blowing to the SE in the basin and, thus, leading to the migration of aeolian dunes to the SE. This similarly occurs in some present-day mountain ranges, which act as barriers to prevailing wind currents, causing their deflection, so they blow parallel to the trend of the mountain ranges (e.g. O'Connor *et al.*, 1994; McCauley and Sturman, 1999; Neiman *et al.*, 2010). Moreover, other investigations interpret that winds also approached Iberia from the N (from the Boreal realm; Fig. 1D) during the Kimmeridgian (Benito *et al.*, 2005). These northerly winds could have penetrated along the Iberian Basin and increased their velocity, as a consequence of its southwards narrowing (Fig. 1D), leading to the occurrence of south-eastwards winds in the SE Iberian Basin.

## 921 Deciphering the palaeoclimate of eastern Iberia during the Late Jurassic

Palaeoclimatic and palaeogeographic reconstructions for the Late Jurassic show that Iberia was located in the subtropics (Fig. 1D) and that its climate was warm (Valdes, 1993; Valdes and Sellwood, 1992), seasonal (Rees *et al.*, 2000; Diéguez *et al.*, 2010) and subject to seasonal rainfalls (Valdes and Sellwood, 1992) and hurricanes coming from the Tethys Ocean (Marsaglia and Klein, 1983). Models also show a trend of increasing aridity during the Late Jurassic (Hallam, 1984, 1985; Hallam *et al.*, 1993). However, recent studies place the limit between the arid and the tropical-subtropical belts at the eastern margin of Iberia, from where more humid conditions prevailed (Sellwood and Valdes, 2008; Boucot *et al.*, 2013). In this context, the fact that the siliciclastic sediments of the studied succession include coeval deposits that are common of both arid to semiarid and humid to subhumid settings makes it difficult to discern the specific palaeoclimatic setting that prevailed during deposition.

The studied succession includes ephemeral fluvial channels and aeolian dune deposits, locally containing desert roses, which are features commonly linked to arid to semiarid settings (e.g. Tucker and Benton, 1982; Holz and Scherer, 2000; Spalletti and Colombo Piñol, 2005; Boucot *et al.*, 2013; Priddy and Clarke, 2020). In fact, the fluvial-aeolian interactions recorded in the studied deposits, such as the development of ephemeral fluvial channels between aeolian
938 dunes and the presence of standing water bodies in interdunes during periods of rainfalls, are

939 similar to those reported in many present-day and ancient arid to semiarid environments (e.g.

940 Glennie, 1970; Langford, 1989; Stanistreet and Stollhofen, 2002; Veiga et al., 2002; Veiga and

941 Spalletti, 2007; Rodríguez-López et al., 2014 and references therein; Al-Masrahy and

942 Mountney, 2015; Liu and Coulthard, 2015; Kocurek et al., 2020; see Massive and indistinctly

943 stratified aeolian dune architectural element; Fig. 15). Nevertheless, similar fluvial-aeolian

944 interactions can also occur in humid to subhumid climates in present-day settings (e.g.

945 Mountney and Russell, 2009; Al-Masrahy and Mountney, 2015; dos Santos and dos Santos,

946 2015). Aeolian dunes, accumulated through the process of bedform climbing, have been widely

947 documented in many ancient examples developed in arid to semiarid settings (e.g. Kocurek,

948 1981; Clemmensen, 1989; Mountney et al., 1999; Mountney and Thompson, 2002), but they

949 also occur nowadays in modern humid to subhumid climates, such as in the coastal plains of

950 Oregon (USA; Cooper, 1958; Hunter et al., 1983; Peterson et al., 2007). In these coastal plains

951 of Oregon, aeolian dune fields of relatively modest size (from 7 to 15 km² approximately)

952 develop next to coastal lakes and vegetated areas, which are crossed by rivers (Cooper, 1958;

953 Hunter et al., 1983; Peterson et al., 2007). These aeolian dunes develop in areas with high

954 sediment supply, where aeolian sand comes from wind reworking of a local source of subaerial

955 exposed sand; this is similar to the interpreted setting for the climbing aeolian dune deposits of

956 the studied succession. In the case of the coastal aeolian dunes of Oregon, aeolian sand comes

957 predominantly from the reworking of sandy beach sediments (Peterson et al., 2007), whereas in

958 the case of the Late Jurassic succession it was predominantly derived from the sandy fluvial and

959 deltaic sediments that underwent subaerial exposure after periods seasonal rainfalls (see

960 Palaeoenvironmental setting of eastern Iberia during the Late Jurassic).

961 The studied unit also includes abundant deposits indicative of permanent water courses

962 that occur laterally and vertically related with those of the aeolian and ephemeral fluvial

963 channels (Figs. 2, 4). Some of them correspond to those deposited in perennial to semi-perennial

964 fluvial channels that had a seasonal discharge. Variable discharge rivers nowadays occur in
areas controlled by monsoonal-type precipitation (e.g. Fielding et al., 2011; Plink-Björklund, 2015), which is coherent with the interpretation of common development of seasonal storms and hurricanes in Iberia during the Late Jurassic (Marsaglia and Klein, 1983; Valdes and Sellwood, 1992). In present-day settings, seasonal rivers transmit a perennial discharge in monsoonal domains, whereas in subtropical arid to semiarid settings they typically only transmit flow during the monsoonal season and could even be dry the rest of time, unless their catchment area is located in the monsoonal domain (e.g. Nile River; Plink-Björklund, 2015). Other deposits indicative of permanent water courses correspond to the deltaic sediments, which were deposited in permanent to semi-permanent water bodies, as well as the abundant vegetation.
Although vegetation can locally develop in arid to semiarid settings in low-lying areas with a high water table, the occurrence of plant remains (carbonaceous detritus, fragments of fossil trunks and other remains) and/or edaphic features occurs widespread in all the studied deposits (fluvial channels, distributary mouth-bars, deltaic, flood plain, splay lobes, wet interdunes of the Massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian element) in both basins (Fig. 2; Table 1).
Furthermore, the studied deposits include a great abundance of dinosaur remains and, especially, of herbivorous dinosaurs (sauropods, stegosaurs and scarce ornithopods; e.g. Casanovas-Cladellas et al., 1999, 2001; Cobos et al., 2010, 2020; Royo-Torres et al., 2006, 2009, 2020; Alcalá et al., 2009, 2018; Company et al., 2010; Suñer et al., 2014). These observations reinforce the interpretation of a setting with availability of abundant vegetation and permanent freshwater sources. Therefore, collectively these features indicate a more humid and seasonal setting that was controlled by monsoonal-type precipitation during deposition of the studied succession. This interpretation is coherent with that recently made for the coeval Late Jurassic Lourinhã Fm in Portugal, which points to a warm subhumid climate with a strongly seasonal precipitation pattern (Myers et al., 2012).

## Comparison with modern analogous systems

A modern coastal setting that includes a wide variety of depositional subenvironments characteristic of arid to semiarid and humid to subhumid settings, similarly to what occurs in the
992 Villar del Arzobispo Fm, is developed in the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park in NE Brazil (Fig. 18). It comprises an aeolian dune field located next to an estuary (Fig. 18A), where flood plains, intermittent interdune ponds, perennial and ephemeral rivers, tidal plains (e.g. Gonçalves et al., 2003; Parteli et al., 2006; dos Santos and dos Santos, 2015; Ielpi, 2017) and deltas develop. This system forms in a tropical subhumid climate in which 90% of annual rainfall occurs during the wet season (Parteli et al., 2006; dos Santos and dos Santos, 2015). During seasonal rainfalls, interdune ponds are flooded by rainwater or by the upwelling of groundwater (dos Santos and dos Santos, 2015), giving rise to standing water bodies in the interdunes areas (Fig. 18B), as similarly interpreted for the studied aeolian deposits (see Massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune architectural element). In Lençóis Maranhenses, sand of aeolian dunes developing next to tidal channels is reworked by tides (Fig. 18C). This process cannot be discarded in the studied deposits, as aeolian interdunes might have been flooded by storms and/or spring tides, since they developed in a coastal setting.

1005 In Lençóis Maranhenses, semi-perennial rivers cross the flood plain areas and flow into shallow water bodies where deltaic sediments are deposited (Fig. 18D), as similarly interpreted for the studied deposits (see Deltaic architectural elements). In this system, rivers also transect the aeolian dune field (Fig. 18E-G; Ielpi, 2017). In some cases, rivers erode aeolian dune flanks (Fig. 18F) and, in other cases, aeolian dunes migrate over fluvial channels that are dried out or transmit a very low discharge (Fig. 18G), as similarly interpreted for the studied succession (see Massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune architectural element). Furthermore, in Lençóis Maranhenses, aeolian dunes migrate over small shallow deltas (Fig. 18E, H-I). Similarly, the studied fossil aeolian dunes locally overlie deltaic deposits (Figs. 4, 10A, 16C-D), indicating that aeolian dunes developed next to a delta and migrated over the deltaic plain. In Lençóis Maranhenses, aeolian dunes are reworked by distributary channels (Fig. 18I). A similar process would explain the generally well-sorted texture of sandstone deposited in the delta terminal distributary channels and the delta fronts of the studied deposits (Fig. 11F).
Nevertheless, although the Late Jurassic and the Brazilian systems have numerous similarities, they also show differences regarding their geotectonic setting, which influence the sedimentary features of their fluvial deposits. The presently active Brazilian system is developed in a stable tectonic setting. By contrast, the Late Jurassic succession was deposited in a tectonically-active extensional basin, which would have led to the development of steeper topographic gradients. This would have favoured the incision of streams, as occurs in nowadays tectonically-active settings (e.g. Bull, 2007; Allen and Allen, 2013), which could transport very poorly sorted conglomerates displaying clasts of large sizes and subangular shapes and deposit them in the ephemeral and perennial to semi-perennial fluvial channels during periods of intense rainfalls (Figs. 1D, 2, 17), as those observed in the studied succession. Another difference is that, in the Late Jurassic system, aeolian dunes did not form an extensive dune field like in Lençóis Maranhenses. The ancient system was likely similar to the transition zone located between the tidal flats of the estuary and the aeolian field of the Brazilian analogue (Fig. 18A). Aeolian dunes were apparently more abundant towards the landward areas of the South-Iberian Basin (Fig. 1D).

Moreover, the studied succession locally includes desert roses in the aeolian deposits (see Climbing aeolian dune architectural element), which, to our knowledge, have not been reported in the Brazilian aeolian dunes. Nevertheless, although the occurrence of evaporites has traditionally been linked to arid or semiarid settings (e.g. Hallam, 1984; Warren, 2016), they have also been locally identified in humid (see Argentinean Rio de la Plata estuary in Carol *et al.*, 2016) and subhumid settings (see Australian Burdekin River Delta in Fielding *et al.*, 2006).

Thus, the comparison made between deposits of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm and those of present-day settings highlights that deposits that characteristically develop under the influence of contrasting climate regimes (arid and humid) could appear laterally and vertically interbedded in the fossil record as a result of deposition in intermediate climates. This study highlights the importance of carrying out a careful and thorough sedimentological analysis when interpreting the palaeoclimatic significance of ancient successions, taking into account all
1045 available evidence from deposits that represent multiple coeval sub-environments in the rock record.
1046 record.

1047 CONCLUSIONS

1048 This work presents the sedimentological analysis of the siliciclastic deposits of the Late Jurassic Villar del Arzobispo Fm cropping out in the South-Iberian and western Maestrazgo basins. Detailed lithofacies analysis has enabled establishment of the palaeoenvironmental, palaeogeographical and palaeoclimatic setting of eastern Iberia during the Late Jurassic.

1052 The siliciclastic studied succession was deposited in a coastal and alluvial plain crossed by ephemeral and perennial to semi-perennial fluvial channels that had a seasonal discharge and underwent deposition of splay lobes during flood events. Fluvial channels flowed into shallow freshwater bodies located in the flood plain, leading to the accumulation of small deltas.
1053
1054
1055 Seawards, fluvial channels bifurcated in distributary channels, which flowed into coastal and shallow marine areas, leading to the development of distributary mouth-bars. Some water bodies located in the flood plain were connected to the sea, allowing transport of brackish and marine bioclasts from shallow marine areas during storms and/or spring tides. Siliciclastic sediments underwent periods of subaerial exposure, causing the wind-reworking of sand to form aeolian dunes; this led to the preservation of one of the few known examples of dome-shaped aeolian dunes in the fossil record. The coastal and alluvial plain was laterally connected to the E-SE to tidal flats and shallow marine areas, which underwent deposition of peloidal and/or micritic limestone and bioclastic and/or oolitic limestone, respectively.

1065 The studied coastal and alluvial succession includes deposits that are typical of arid to semiarid settings, such as aeolian dunes and ephemeral channel deposits. However, the coeval occurrence of deposits indicative of permanent water courses, such as perennial to semi-perennial fluvial channel deposits and deltaic sediments deposited in permanent water bodies, as well as abundant plant remains and large dinosaur faunas, suggests a more humid and seasonal setting controlled by monsoonal-type precipitation.
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071 A comparison performed between these Late Jurassic deposits and those developing
1072 nowadays in the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park (NE Brazil) – a coastal system located in a
1073 subhumid tropical setting with a seasonal precipitation pattern that includes very similar aeolian,
1074 fluvial and deltaic environments to those interpreted in the studied succession – has revealed
1075 that deposits characteristic of contrasting climate regimes (arid and humid) could be laterally
1076 and vertically related in ancient successions as a result of deposition in complex coevally active
1077 coastal environments present in intermediate climates.

1078 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1079 This research was funded by the Spanish projects PGC2018-094034-B-C21 and
1080 PGC2018-094034-B-C22 of the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities and the
1081 project CGL2014-52670-P of the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, by the
1082 Department of Education, Culture and Sport of the Government of Aragón, by the Research
1083 Group E04_20R FOCONTUR (financed by the Department of Science, University and Society
1084 of Knowledge of the Government of Aragón and FEDER funds 'Construyendo Europa desde
1085 Aragón'), by the Instituto Aragonés de Fomento and Dinópolis. The authors also thank the
1086 "Sedimentary Geology, Paleoclimate and Environmental Change" UCM Research Group (Ref.
1087 910198). We thank to reviewers Claiton Scherer, Valentina Rossi and César Viseras and to the
1088 associate editor Gonzalo Veiga for their suggestions, which have improved the paper. We are
1089 thankful to Beatriz Moral, Juan Carlos Salamanca and Aitor Antón for thin-section preparation
1090 and laboratory support and to Valle López for helping with ArcGIS.

1091 DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

1092 The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding
1093 author upon reasonable request.

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1786 FIGURE CAPTIONS

1787 **Fig. 1.** A) Simplified geological map of the Iberian Peninsula indicating the location of the

1788 South-Iberian and Maestrazgo basins within the Mesozoic Iberian Extensional System

1789 (modified from Mas *et al.*, 2004). The red square indicates the location of the map shown in Fig.

1790 1B. B) Geological map of eastern Spain showing the limits of the deposits of the Maestrazgo

1791 Basin and its sub-basins -sb- (modified from Salas and Guimerà, 1996, 1997, Salas *et al.*, 2001;

1792 Bover-Arnal and Salas, 2019) and the South-Iberian Basin. The geological information of this

1793 map was obtained and modified from the geological map of the Iberian Peninsula and the

1794 Balearic and Canary Islands (1995 edition, scale 1:1.000.000, Caride de Liñan, 1995). C)

1795 Geological map of the study area of the South-Iberian and the western Maestrazgo basins

1796 (modified from Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2019), showing the location of the stratigraphic sections,

1797 the main areas where additional outcrops have been studied for this work (for more details on

1798 the additional studied outcrops see Campos Soto, 2020) and the panels shown in Figs. 4 and 5.

1799 The geological data were obtained and modified from the geological map Z1700 of the

1800 Geological Spanish Survey (GEODE, scale 1:50.000; López-Olmedo *et al.*, 2018). D)

1801 Palaeogeographic reconstruction of eastern and northern Iberia during the Tithonian, to the left

1802 (palaeogeography and palaeocurrents obtained and modified from Thierry *et al.*, 2000 and

1803 Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2019 and references therein). To the right detailed palaeogeography of the

1804 South-Iberian and western Maestrazgo basins (data obtained and modified from Campos-Soto *et

1805 *al.*, 2019). The line that represents the 30°N latitude in the palaeogeographic reconstruction of
1806 eastern and northern Iberia has been modified according to data published by Sellwood and Valdes (2008) and Boucot *et al.* (2013). Tracks of hurricanes and storms for the Late Jurassic are based on Marsaglia and Klein (1983) and wind tracks blowing from the Tethys and the Boreal realms are based on Sellwood and Valdes (2008) and Benito *et al.* (2005), respectively.

1810 Palaeocurrents obtained in this work from the subaquatic and aeolian deposits in the different studied areas of both basins have been represented in the palaeogeographic map with blue and orange arrows, respectively. The length of the arrows corresponds to the abundance of measurements. The palaeogeographic reconstruction of the South-Iberian and the western

1814 Maestrazgo Basin, to the right, shows the location of the specific areas studied here: CE (Cedrillas), CAS (El Castellar), FA (Formiche Alto) and MO (Mora de Rubielos) in the western Maestrazgo Basin, and RI (Riodeva), LO-AL (Losilla-Alpuente), BE (Benagéber) and VI (Villar del Arzobispo) in the South-Iberian Basin.

1818 **Fig. 2.** Stratigraphic sections of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm logged in the western Maestrazgo (Cedrillas, El Castellar, Formiche Alto and Mora de Rubielos) and in the South-Iberian basins
1819 (Riodeva, Losilla-Alpuente, Benagéber and Villar del Arzobispo). Modified from Campos-Soto
1820 *et al.* (2019). This figure also includes a simplified map showing the location of the sections at
1821 the studied areas (see also Fig. 1C). All the sections show, at their right part, the main
1822 sedimentary structures and paleontological data, including the dinosaur remains (for more
1823 information on dinosaur fossil sites see Figs. 2 and 3 of Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2017a and Fig. 3A
1824 of Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2019). The Losilla-Alpuente section also shows, at its right part, some
1825 partial stratigraphic sections logged in laterally related outcrops.

1827 **Fig. 3.** A) Diagrams showing the different stages of system evolution during sedimentation of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm. These stages comprise: i) the deposition of shallow marine deposits of the CLP during the Kimmeridgian; ii) deposition of the essentially siliciclastic deposits of the SUP during a regressive stage during the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian; during this stage, fluvial, aeolian and deltaic depositional settings manly developed landwards; these settings passed gradually seawards to coastal to shallow marine settings; iii) deposition of the
1833 upper part of the SUP during the Tithonian marine transgression. The reconstruction of the different stages of evolution is based on the data obtained from the stratigraphic sections (Fig. 1834 2), the geological mapping (see Fig. 1C and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material), and the ages obtained through the analysis of the larger benthic foraminifera (see Campos-Soto et al. (2016a; 1837 2016b; 2017a; 2019). Deposits of each studied area are delimited by syn-sedimentary faults, which have been represented with vertical lines. In the Formiche Alto area, sedimentation took place in two different blocks delimited by syn-sedimentary faults (F1 and F2; see location on geological maps of Figs. 3C and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material). Note that the block located to the southeast of F2 corresponds to the stratigraphic section shown in Fig. 2 for the Formiche Alto area. Areas with no outcrop control correspond to the areas where no Upper Jurassic deposits have been identified (see details in geological map of Fig. 1B). B) Simplified palaeogeographic reconstruction of eastern Iberia during the Late Jurassic (see Fig. 1D for details), showing the location of the studied areas and the correlation line displayed in diagrams of Fig. 3A. The blue dashed line shows the position of the geological map of the Peñagolosa sub-basin shown in Fig. 3C. C) Simplified geological map of the Peñagolosa sub-basin (western Maestrazgo basin) showing the location of the stratigraphic sections and the faults F1 and F2, which bound the two sedimentation blocks of the Formiche Alto area represented in Fig. 3A (modified from Campos-Soto et al., 2017a). For more details of this geological map, see Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material.

1852 **Fig. 4.** A-B) Panoramic field photograph (A) and line drawing (B) of deposits of the SUP of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm at the most landward area of the South-Iberian Basin (see Fig. 1C for location). The SUP comprises flood plain, fluvial channel, aeolian dune and deltaic deposits that are interbedded and laterally related.

1856 **Fig. 5.** A-B) Panoramic field photograph (A) and line drawing (B) of deposits of the uppermost part of the SUP of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm at the most seawards area of the W Maestrazgo Basin (Mora de Rubielos area; see Fig. 1C and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material for location).
1857
1858
1859 Note that siliciclastic deposits (coastal terminal distributary channel and distributary-mouth bar
1860 deposits) and marl are interbedded and pass laterally to the S to shallow marine bioclastic and
1861 oolitic limestone, which, in turn, gets progressively thicker and more abundant southwards.

1862 **Fig. 6.** Ephemeral fluvial channel architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the
1863 ephemeral fluvial channel architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of
1864 the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents. B) Field photograph (Riodeva area) of
1865 channelized conglomerate displaying large-scale cross strata and a slightly incisive erosive base.

1866 Hammer for scale (white circle). C) Field photograph (Riodeva area) of a conglomerate lens
1867 displaying an asymmetric and incisive erosive base, with a very steep margin, to the right, and a
1868 less steep one, to the left. Conglomerate displays a unique set of cross strata that is conformable
1869 to the less steep margin of the erosive base. D) Field photograph (Riodeva area) of a very
1870 poorly-sorted and clast-supported conglomerate made by rounded quartzite (white arrows) and
1871 sandstone clasts (red arrow). E-F) Field photographs (Cedrillas and Riodeva areas, respectively)
1872 of poorly-sorted and clast-supported conglomerates made up of subangular to subrounded,
1873 muddy and carbonate soft clasts. G) Dinosaur bone (red arrow) observed within conglomerate in
1874 the Riodeva area.

1875 **Fig. 7.** Multistorey fluvial channel architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the
1876 multistorey fluvial channel architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of
1877 the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents. B-C) Field photograph (B) and line drawing
1878 (C) of channelized sandstone and conglomerate element at the Riodeva area. Sandstone displays
1879 large internal erosive surfaces filled by conglomerate or sandstone (red arrows). Sandstone
1880 displays scour and fill structures (blue arrows) filled by foresets and backsets (green arrows)
1881 strata that flatten upwards in places. In the lower part of the body, sandstone displays upwards
1882 flattening strata with long wavelength (blue bracket). Sandstone also displays sets of large-scale
1883 cross strata at the upper part of the body (pink arrows), whose thickness decreases upwards (red
1884 bracket). Conglomerate displays scour and fill structures filled by backset strata (white arrows).
1885 Note the asymmetrical scour filled by conglomerate in the lower part of the body, displaying
1886 backset strata that flatten upwards and fine upwards to sandstone (green bracket). D) Field
1887 photograph (Riodeva area) of a multistorey fluvial channel element composed of sandstone and conglomerate. Note that sandstone displays internal erosive surfaces (red dotted lines), which are filled by sandstone or conglomerate (white arrow and orange-shaded area). E) Channelized sandstone (El Castellar area) displaying a basal and internal erosive surfaces (red-dotted lines), which are filled by large-scale cross strata sandstone. Locally there is a thin layer of siliciclastic mudstone containing abundant carbonaceous detritus interbedded with sandstone (yellow arrows). F) Detail of the thin layers of siliciclastic mudstone containing carbonaceous detritus (yellow arrows) observed in Fig. 7E.

1895 **Fig. 8.** Upper flow regime sedimentary structures observed within the multistorey fluvial channel architectural element (El Castellar area). A-B) Field photograph (A) and line drawing (B) of a sandstone body displaying convex-up low-angle cross strata (red bracket; blue arrows). C-D) Field photograph (C) and line drawing (D) of sandstone displaying scour and fill structures, which is directly overlying the convex-up low-angle cross strata sandstone of Fig. 8A (red asterisk marks the same point in both pictures). Note that scours are filled by foreset and backset strata (yellow and red arrows, respectively) that flatten upwards in places (blue bracket). In the upper part of the body, a large-scale cross strata set is observed (white arrow), in which the inclination of foresets indicates the flow direction.

1904 **Fig. 9.** Flood plain architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the flood plain architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents measured in the non-channelized sandstone deposits included in this element. B) Field photograph (Formiche Alto area) of reddish siliciclastic mudstone displaying green mottling (red arrows). C) Non-channelized sandstone body (El Castellar area) displaying a coarsening- and thickening-upwards trend (yellow bracket). The lower part is made up of decimetre-thick sandstone beds, which include a fragment of a dinosaur bone (white arrow) and which are interbedded with greyish-greenish siliciclastic mudstone. D) Non-channelized sandstone (Riodeva area) displaying parallel lamination followed upwards by small-scale cross strata. Wave ripple cross strata are observed at the top. E) Non-channelized sandstone
1914 displaying large-scale sigmoidal cross strata (Benagéber area). F) Dinosaur track observed at the base of a non-channelized sandstone bed (dotted yellow line) at the Riodeva area. The dinosaur track is preserved as a convex hyporelief (natural track cast) and shows slide marks (parallel striations, white arrow) made by skin scales. G) Bioturbation observed as paired circular openings at the top of a non-channelized sandstone bed at the Riodeva area. H) Field photograph of limestone (red arrow) interbedded with reddish siliciclastic mudstone (Riodeva area). I) Limestone made up of oncoids (white arrows) that are up to 6-7 cm large at the Riodeva area. J) Field photograph of bioclastic limestone containing poorly-sorted bivalve fragments (Losilla-Alpuente area). K) Photomicrograph of poorly-sorted bioclastic limestone, which includes quartz grains, fragments of bivalves (green arrow), gastropods (yellow arrow), echinoderms (blue arrow), ostracods (white arrow), miliolids (red arrow) and ooids (orange arrows).

1926 **Fig. 10.** Deltaic architectural elements. A) Schematic diagram and log of the deltaic elements (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents obtained in clinoforms of the delta-front element and in cross-bedded sets of the delta terminal distributary channel element. B-C) Field photograph (B) and line drawing (C) of four coarsening- and thickening-upwards deltaic successions (marked with blue brackets). Note that the lower and uppermost deltaic successions do not crop out completely. The first three deltaic successions, starting from the base, are made up of laterally-extensive cm-thick, very fine-to fine-grained sandstone layers showing a very low angle inclination and alternating with mm-thick carbonaceous detritus layers, which are interpreted as deposits of the delta front element (see text for details). In the two lowermost deltaic successions, the delta-font deposits are truncated at their uppermost part by the delta terminal distributary channel element (orange arrows). The delta terminal distributary channel element displays erosive surfaces and is filled by sandstone displaying upwards flattening strata or backset strata (purple and green arrows, respectively). The uppermost deltaic succession is made up of carbonaceous-rich, dark-grey siliciclastic mudstone (delta-toe element, blue colour), which changes upwards to alternating
1941 sandstone and carbonaceous detritus layers (delta front element). D) Field photograph of the delta-toe element comprising carbonaceous-rich, dark-grey siliciclastic mudstone interbedded with very fine-grained rippled sandstone. E) Field photograph of cm-thick sandstone layers alternating with mm to cm-thick carbonaceous detritus layers at the lower part of foresets of the delta-front element. F) Field photograph of a sandstone layer at the lowermost part of the delta-front element displaying poorly-preserved dinosaur tracks at the base, which are preserved as convex hyporeliefs or natural casts (white arrows and black dotted line). The dinosaur tracks display elongated shapes, with irregular and deformed outlines and their infill is massive. They penetrate up to 70 cm into the underlying deposit, made up of alternating carbonaceous-rich, dark-grey siliciclastic mudstone and rippled sandstone layers, interpreted as delta toe deposits (see text for details). All photographs were taken at the Riodeva area.

1952 **Fig. 11.** Deltaic architectural elements. A) Field photograph of sandstone displaying clinoforms. B) Detail of three coarsening- and thickening-upwards deltaic successions (marked with blue brackets) displaying clinoforms. Note that the lower part of foresets are draped by carbonaceous detritus (red arrow) and, locally, these drapes extend upwards to the topsets (white arrow). C-D) Field photograph (C) and line-drawing (D) of three coarsening- and thickening-upwards deltaic successions (marked with blue brackets). Note that deposits of the lowermost succession are truncated by an erosive surface, which incises 1.30 m downwards into the underlying sediments, made up of thinly-bedded sandstone and carbonaceous detritus layers (delta-front element), and it is filled by sandstone displaying large-scale cross strata (delta terminal distributary channel element). The yellow start indicates the position of the sample shown in Fig. 11F. E) Detail of deposits of the delta terminal distributary channel element observed in Fig. 11C-D, displaying an erosive base and formed by large-scale cross strata sandstone. F) Transmitted light photomicrograph of a well-sorted sandstone. The location of the sample is indicated in Fig. 11C-D with a yellow star. All photographs were taken at the Riodeva area.

1966 **Fig. 12.** Coastal to shallow marine architectural elements. A) Schematic diagram of the coastal to shallow marine architectural elements indicating the position of the logs shown in Fig. 12B
1968 and 13A. B) Log of the coastal terminal distributary channel architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log in Fig. 12A; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents obtained in the W Maestrazgo Basin. C-D) Channelized sandstone (Formiche Alto area) displaying a basal erosive base (red dotted line) and large-scale cross strata. This body is interbedded with marl (white arrows), which, in turn, is interbedded with shallow marine limestone (blue arrow) and distributary mouth-bar sandstone (orange arrows). Note that sandstone displays an internal erosive surface (pink dotted line) filled by poorly-sorted conglomerate and also includes thin layers of carbonaceous-rich marl between the large-scale cross strata sets (yellow arrows). E) Detail of the thin layers of carbonaceous-rich marl located between large-scale cross-strata sets (yellow arrow) and draping the bottomsets and the lower part of foresets (white arrows). See location in Fig. 12D. F) Detail of the internal erosive surface (pink dotted line) filled by poorly-sorted conglomerate (see location in Fig. 12C). G) Field photograph of poorly-sorted mudstone pebbles including fragments of bivalves overlaying the internal erosive surface (pink dotted line). See location in Fig. 12F.

1982 **Fig. 13.** Coastal to shallow marine architectural elements. A) Log of the distributary mouth-bar element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log in Fig. 12A; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents. B) Field photograph (Benagéber area) of a sandstone body displaying a coarsening- and thickening-upwards trend (yellow bracket) and interbedded with shallow marine limestone (greyish strata below and above yellow bracket). C-D) Field photograph (C) and line drawing (D) of the distributary mouth-bar element (Mora de Rubielos area) comprising a non-channelized sandstone body interbedded with marl that includes corals in life position (black arrow indicates location of corals). Note that sandstone displays large-scale and sigmoidal cross strata (white arrows). Hammer for scale. E) Field photograph of colonial corals observed in life position at the Mora de Rubielos area. Note that the white arrows point to its growth lines. See location of the coral at Fig. 13C-D. F) Detail of the septa of the coral shown in Fig. 13E. G) Field photograph (Mora de Rubielos area) of cm-thick sandstone displaying wave ripple strata at the top (white arrows) and interbedded with marl, giving rise to wavy bedding.
1995 H) Trigonoioids and ostreids observed within a sandstone body (white and blue arrows, respectively) at the Mora de Rubielos area. I) Burrowing traces observed at the top of a sandstone body in the Formiche Alto area.

1998 **Fig. 14.** Simple aeolian dune architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the simple aeolian dune architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log, see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents. B-C) Field photograph (B) and line drawing (C) of a sandstone body displaying a 6 m-thick large-scale cross strata set. Large-scale cross strata set is made up of convex-up foresets passing upwards to low-angle inclined topsets. D) Field photograph of a metre-thick sandstone body displaying a single set of large-scale cross strata. E) Metre-thick sandstone body comprising a 4 m-thick large-scale cross strata set. Hammer for scale (black circle). F) Detail of large-scale cross strata set observed in Fig. 14E. Large-scale cross strata set is made up of successive cm-thick inversely graded strata. Note that the contact between each stratum is sharp (red arrows). Hammer for scale. G) Transmitted light photomicrograph of simple dune aeolian sandstone displaying well-sorted subrounded to subangular grains. H) Transmitted light photomicrograph of sandstone strata displaying inverse grain size grading. All photographs were taken at the Riodeva area.

2011 **Fig. 15.** Massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents. B) Field photograph of massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune sandstone overlain by the multistorey fluvial channel architectural element (its base is indicated with a yellow line). Black lines represent faults. C) Field photograph of massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune sandstone, which is laterally interbedded with conglomerate bodies of the ephemeral fluvial channel architectural element (delimited by red lines). D) Field photograph of massive and indistinctly stratified sandstone interbedded with conglomerate bodies (delimited by red lines). Sandstone displays poorly preserved large-scale cross strata (foresets are outlined with black lines). Note that the blue circle shows a 2 m large pocket rule (white line). E) Field
2022 photograph of massive and indistinctly stratified aeolian dune sandstone overlain by the multistorey fluvial channel architectural element (its base is indicated with a yellow line). F)
2023 Transmitted light photomicrograph of sandstone displaying subangular to subrounded and well-sorted grains. G-H) Field photograph (G) and line drawing (H) of sandstone displaying large-scale cross strata in which foresets pass downwards to laterally continuous bottomsets.
2024
2025
2026 Carbonaceous detritus and mica flakes drape some bottomsets and the lowermost part of some foresets. Note the high-angle foresets displayed by the cross strata set to the right of the photograph (blue arrow). All photographs were taken at the Riodeva area.
2027
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2029

2030 **Fig. 16.** Climbing aeolian dune architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the climbing aeolian dune architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents. B) Field photograph of sandstone displaying a large-scale cross stratified set, at least 2 m thick (note that the person in the photograph is 1.65 m tall). C-D) Field photograph (C) and line drawing (D) of sandstone displaying large-scale tangential cross strata sets. Individual sets are delimited by low-angle inclined bounding surfaces, which dip in the opposite direction to the foresets dip. E) Field photograph of large-scale and high-angle cross strata sandstone whose foresets are slightly deformed (yellow arrows). F) Field photograph of tangential cross strata sandstone. G) Detail of the lower part of foresets and bottomsets of large-scale cross strata sandstone. Foresets comprise cm-thick strata pinching out downwards, which correspond to grainflow strata (gf). Grainflow strata are interbedded with cm-thick strata pinching out upwards, corresponding to wind ripple strata (wr).
2031
2032
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2042 H) Detail of grainflow strata made up of fine- to medium-grained sandstone (blue bracket) and wind ripple strata made up of very fine- to fine-grained sandstone (red brackets). I) Sandstone pseudomorph after gypsum (desert rose formed by a rosette-like crystal aggregate). All photographs were taken at the Riodeva area.
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2046 **Fig. 17.** Reconstruction of the different palaeoenvironments inhabited by dinosaurs of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm and of the lateral relationships between them (not at scale).
2047
**Fig. 18.** Interactions between fluvial, tidal, deltaic, and aeolian environments observed in the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park (NE Brazil). Satellite images were taken from Google Earth in 2019. A) The coastal dune field of the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park (to the right) is located next to the estuary of the Mearim River (to the left). B) Aeolian dunes developing in a flooded area, at the end of the dune field. Note that stagnant water bodies develop in the interdune areas (blue arrows). C) Aeolian dunes approaching a tidal channel (blue arrows). Note how the aeolian interdunes may get flooded (red arrows). D) The coastal flood plain is crossed by the Grande River, which flows into a shallow water body in which deltaic sediments are deposited (red arrow). E) The coastal dune field is penetrated by the Negro River (blue arrows) and in its margin small deltas develop in stagnant water bodies (red squares). F-G) Interdune areas crossed by the Negro River. Note that the fluvial channel erodes the aeolian dune sediments in F (pink arrow) and that aeolian dunes migrate over the fluvial channel in G (blue arrow). Note that small deltas develop in the interdune areas (red arrows). H-I) Deltas developing in the margins of the dune field. Note that the aeolian dunes migrate over the delta plain in H (blue arrows) and that the distributary channels rework the aeolian dune sediments in I (red arrow).

**Table 1.** Summary of the essentially siliciclastic coastal and alluvial architectural elements of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm in the South-Iberian and western Maestrazgo basins. See Fig. 2 for location of the architectural elements. The references are cited in the main text.

**Supplementary Material**

**S1.** A) Geological map of western Maestrazgo and South-Iberian Basins (modified from Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2019). The blue dotted rectangle indicates the location of the map shown in Fig. S1B. B) Geological map of western Maestrazgo Basin (modified from Campos-Soto *et al.*, 2017a), showing the location of the stratigraphic sections of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm included in Fig. 2 and the position of the panel shown in Fig. 5. The map includes the detailed mapping of the shallow marine bioclastic and oolitic limestone (dark blue lines) and the inter- to
2074 supratidal peloidal and micritic limestone (light blue lines) of the studied succession, as well as

2075 the mapping of the syn-extensional faults that controlled its thickness variations. Note how

2076 shallow marine bioclastic and oolitic limestone gets progressively thinner and less abundant

2077 towards the north and gets thicker and more abundant towards the SE of the study area, where

2078 the thickness of the studied succession significantly increases.
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1. A) Simplified geological map of the Iberian Peninsula indicating the location of the South-Iberian and Maestrazgo basins within the Mesozoic Iberian Extensional System (modified from Mas et al., 2004). The red square indicates the location of the map shown in Fig. 1B. B) Geological map of eastern Spain showing the limits of the deposits of the Maestrazgo Basin and its sub-basins -sb- (modified from Salas and Guimerà, 1996, 1997, Salas et al., 2001; Bover-Arnal and Salas, 2019) and the South-Iberian Basin. The geological information of this map was obtained and modified from the geological map of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic and Canary Islands (1995 edition, scale 1:1.000.000, Caride de Liñan, 1995). C) Geological map of the study area of the South-Iberian and the western Maestrazgo basins (modified from Campos-Soto et al., 2019), showing the location of the stratigraphic sections, the main areas where additional outcrops have been studied for this work (for more details on the additional studied outcrops see Campos Soto, 2020) and the panels shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The geological data were obtained and modified from the geological map Z1700 of the Geological Spanish Survey (GEODE, scale 1:50.000; López-Olmedo et al., 2018). D)</figcaption></figure>

Palaeogeographic reconstruction of eastern and northern Iberia during the Tithonian, to the left (palaeogeography and palaeocurrents obtained and modified from Thierry et al., 2000 and Campos-Soto et
al., 2019 and references therein). To the right detailed palaeogeography of the South-Iberian and western Maestrazgo basins (data obtained and modified from Campos-Soto et al., 2019). The line that represents the 30°N latitude in the palaeogeographic reconstruction of eastern and northern Iberia has been modified according to data published by Sellwood and Valdes (2008) and Boucot et al. (2013). Tracks of hurricanes and storms for the Late Jurassic are based on Marsaglia and Klein (1983) and wind tracks blowing from the Tethys and the Boreal realms are based on Sellwood and Valdes (2008) and Benito et al. (2005), respectively. Palaeocurrents obtained in this work from the subaquatic and aeolian deposits in the different studied areas of both basins have been represented in the palaeogeographic map with blue and orange arrows, respectively. The length of the arrows corresponds to the abundance of measurements. The palaeogeographic reconstruction of the South-Iberian and the western Maestrazgo Basin, to the right, shows the location of the specific areas studied here: CE (Cedrillas), CAS (El Castellar), FA (Formiche Alto) and MO (Mora de Rubielos) in the western Maestrazgo Basin, and RI (Riodeva), LO-AL (Losilla-Alpuente), BE (Benagéber) and VI (Villar del Arzobispo) in the South-Iberian Basin.

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Fig. 2. Stratigraphic sections of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm logged in the western Maestrazgo (Cedrillas, El Castellar, Formiche Alto and Mora de Rubielos) and in the South-Iberian basins (Riodeva, Losilla-Alpuente, Benagéber and Villar del Arzobispo). Modified from Campos-Soto et al. (2019). This figure also includes a simplified map showing the location of the sections at the studied areas (see also Fig. 1C). All the sections show, at their right part, the main sedimentary structures and paleontological data, including the dinosaur remains (for more information on dinosaur fossil sites see Figs. 2 and 3 of Campos-Soto et al., 2017a and Fig. 3A of Campos-Soto et al., 2019). The Losilla-Alpuente section also shows, at its right part, some partial stratigraphic sections logged in laterally related outcrops.
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3. A) Diagrams showing the different stages of system evolution during sedimentation of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm. These stages comprise: i) the deposition of shallow marine deposits of the CLP during the Kimmeridgian; ii) deposition of the essentially siliciclastic deposits of the SUP during a regressive stage during the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian; during this stage, fluvial, aeolian and deltaic depositional settings manly developed landwards; these settings passed gradually seawards to coastal to shallow marine settings; iii) deposition of the upper part of the SUP during the Tithonian marine transgression. The reconstruction of the different stages of evolution is based on the data obtained from the stratigraphic sections (Fig. 2), the geological mapping (see Fig. 1C and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material), and the ages obtained through the analysis of the larger benthic foraminifera (see Campos-Soto et al. (2016a; 2016b; 2017a; 2019). Deposits of each studied area are delimited by syn-sedimentary faults, which have been represented with vertical lines. In the Formiche Alto area, sedimentation took place in two different blocks delimited by syn-sedimentary faults (F1 and F2; see location on geological maps of Figs. 3C and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material). Note that the block located to the southeast of F2 corresponds to the stratigraphic section shown in Fig. 2 for the Formiche Alto area. Areas with no outcrop control correspond to the areas where no Upper</figcaption></figure>
Jurassic deposits have been identified (see details in geological map of Fig. 1B). B) Simplified palaeogeographic reconstruction of eastern Iberia during the Late Jurassic (see Fig. 1D for details), showing the location of the studied areas and the correlation line displayed in diagrams of Fig. 3A. The blue dashed line shows the position of the geological map of the Peñagolosa sub-basin shown in Fig. 3C. C) Simplified geological map of the Peñagolosa sub-basin (western Maestrazgo basin) showing the location of the stratigraphic sections and the faults F1 and F2, which bound the two sedimentation blocks of the Formiche Alto area represented in Fig. 3A (modified from Campos-Soto et al., 2017a). For more details of this geological map, see Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material.

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Fig. 4. A-B) Panoramic field photograph (A) and line drawing (B) of deposits of the SUP of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm at the most landward area of the South-Iberian Basin (see Fig. 1C for location). The SUP comprises flood plain, fluvial channel, aeolian dune and deltaic deposits that are interbedded and laterally related.

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Fig. 5. A-B) Panoramic field photograph (A) and line drawing (B) of deposits of the uppermost part of the SUP of the Villar del Arzobispo Fm at the most seawards area of the W Maestrazgo Basin (Mora de Rubielos area; see Fig. 1C and Fig. S1 of Supplementary Material for location). Note that siliciclastic deposits (coastal terminal distributary channel and distributary-mouth bar deposits) and marl are interbedded and pass laterally to the S to shallow marine bioclastic and oolitic limestone, which, in turn, gets progressively thicker and more abundant southwards.

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Fig. 6. Ephemeral fluvial channel architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the ephemeral fluvial channel architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents. B) Field photograph (Riodeva area) of channelized conglomerate displaying large-scale cross strata and a slightly incisive erosive base. Hammer for scale (white circle). C) Field photograph (Riodeva area) of a conglomerate lens displaying an asymmetric and incisive erosive base, with a very steep margin, to the right, and a less steep one, to the left. Conglomerate displays a unique set of cross strata that is conformable to the less steep margin of the erosive base. D) Field photograph (Riodeva area) of a very poorly-sorted and clast-supported conglomerate made by rounded quartzite (white arrows) and sandstone clasts (red arrow). E-F) Field photographs (Cedrillas and Riodeva areas, respectively) of poorly-sorted and clast-supported conglomerates made up of subangular to subrounded, muddy and carbonate soft clasts. G) Dinosaur bone (red arrow) observed within conglomerate in the Riodeva area.
<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 7. Multistorey fluvial channel architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the multistorey fluvial channel architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents. B-C) Field photograph (B) and line drawing (C) of channelized sandstone and conglomerate element at the Riodeva area. Sandstone displays large internal erosive surfaces filled by conglomerate or sandstone (red arrows). Sandstone displays scour and fill structures (blue arrows) filled by foresets and backsets (green arrows) strata that flatten upwards in places. In the lower part of the body, sandstone displays upwards flattening strata with long wavelength (blue bracket). Sandstone also displays sets of large-scale cross strata at the upper part of the body (pink arrows), whose thickness decreases upwards (red bracket). Conglomerate displays scour and fill structures filled by backset strata (white arrows). Note the asymmetrical scour filled by conglomerate in the lower part of the body, displaying backset strata that flatten upwards and fine upwards to sandstone (green bracket). D) Field photograph (Riodeva area) of a multistorey fluvial channel element composed of sandstone and conglomerate. Note that sandstone displays internal erosive surfaces (red dotted lines), which are filled by sandstone or conglomerate (white arrow and orange-shaded area). E) Channelized sandstone (El Castellar area)</figcaption></figure>
displaying a basal and internal erosive surfaces (red-dotted lines), which are filled by large-scale cross strata sandstone. Locally there is a thin layer of siliciclastic mudstone containing abundant carbonaceous detritus interbedded with sandstone (yellow arrows). F) Detail of the thin layers of siliciclastic mudstone containing carbonaceous detritus (yellow arrows) observed in Fig. 7E.

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Fig. 8. Upper flow regime sedimentary structures observed within the multistorey fluvial channel architectural element (El Castellar area). A-B) Field photograph (A) and line drawing (B) of a sandstone body displaying convex-up low-angle cross strata (red bracket; blue arrows). C-D) Field photograph (C) and line drawing (D) of sandstone displaying scour and fill structures, which is directly overlying the convex-up low-angle cross strata sandstone of Fig. 8A (red asterisk marks the same point in both pictures). Note that scours are filled by foreset and backset strata (yellow and red arrows, respectively) that flatten upwards in places (blue bracket). In the upper part of the body, a large-scale cross strata set is observed (white arrow), in which the inclination of foresets indicates the flow direction.
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 9. Flood plain architectural element. A) Schematic diagram and log of the flood plain architectural element (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents measured in the non-channelized sandstone deposits included in this element. B) Field photograph (Formiche Alto area) of reddish siliciclastic mudstone displaying green mottling (red arrows). C) Non-channelized sandstone body (El Castellar area) displaying a coarsening- and thickening-upwards trend (yellow bracket). The lower part is made up of decimetre-thick sandstone beds, which include a fragment of a dinosaur bone (white arrow) and which are interbedded with greyish-greenish siliciclastic mudstone. D) Non-channelized sandstone (Riodeva area) displaying parallel lamination followed upwards by small-scale cross strata. Wave ripple cross strata are observed at the top. E) Non-channelized sandstone displaying large-scale sigmoidal cross strata (Benagéber area). F) Dinosaur track observed at the base of a non-channelized sandstone bed (dotted yellow line) at the Riodeva area. The dinosaur track is preserved as a convex hyporelief (natural track cast) and shows slide marks (parallel striations, white arrow) made by skin scales. G) Bioturbation observed as paired circular openings at the top of a non-channelized sandstone bed at the Riodeva area. H) Field photograph of limestone (red arrow) interbedded with reddish siliciclastic mudstone (Riodeva area). I) Limestone made up of oncoids (white arrows) that are up to 6-7 cm large at the Riodeva area. J) Field photograph of bioclastic limestone containing poorly-sorted bivalve fragments (Losilla-Alpuente area). K) Photomicrograph of poorly-sorted bioclastic limestone, which includes quartz grains, fragments of bivalves (green arrow), gastropods (yellow arrow), echinoderms (blue arrow), ostracods (white arrow), miliolids (red arrow) and ooids (orange arrows).</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 10. Deltaic architectural elements. A) Schematic diagram and log of the deltaic elements (bracket in the diagram shows the location of the log; see Fig. 2 for legend) and palaeocurrents obtained in clinoforms of the delta-front element and in cross-bedded sets of the delta terminal distributary channel element. B-C) Field photograph (B) and line drawing (C) of four coarsening- and thickening-upwards deltaic successions (marked with blue brackets). Note that the lower and uppermost deltaic successions do not crop out completely. The first three deltaic successions, starting from the base, are made up of laterally-extensive cm-thick, very fine-to fine-grained sandstone layers showing a very low angle inclination and alternating with mm-thick carbonaceous detritus layers, which are interpreted as deposits of the delta front element (see text for details). In the two lowermost deltaic successions, the delta-front deposits are truncated at their uppermost part by the delta terminal distributary channel element (orange arrows). The delta terminal distributary channel element displays erosive surfaces and is filled by sandstone displaying upwards flattening strata or backset strata (purple and green arrows, respectively). The uppermost deltaic succession is made up of carbonaceous-rich, dark-grey siliciclastic mudstone (delta-toe element, blue colour), which changes upwards to alternating sandstone and carbonaceous detritus layers (delta front element). D) Field photograph of the delta-toe element comprising carbonaceous-rich, dark-grey siliciclastic mudstone</figcaption></figure>
interbedded with very fine-grained rippled sandstone. E) Field photograph of cm-thick sandstone layers alternating with mm to cm-thick carbonaceous detritus layers at the lower part of foresets of the delta-front element. F) Field photograph of a sandstone layer at the lowermost part of the delta-front element displaying poorly-preserved dinosaur tracks at the base, which are preserved as convex hyporeliefs or natural casts (white arrows and black dotted line). The dinosaur tracks display elongated shapes, with irregular and deformed outlines and their infill is massive. They penetrate up to 70 cm into the underlying deposit, made up of alternating carbonaceous-rich, dark-grey siliciclastic mudstone and rippled sandstone layers, interpreted as delta toe deposits (see text for details). All photographs were taken at the Riodeva area.

170x197mm (300 x 300 DPI)