# Any resurgence of leprosy cases in the Togo's post-elimination period? Trend analysis of reported leprosy cases from 2010 to 2022

Akila Wimima Bakoubayi, Falapalaki Haliba, Wendpouiré Ida C. Zida-Compaore, P'tanam P'kontème Bando, Yao Rodion Konu, Latame Komla Adoli, Kodjo Akpadja, Kamevor Alaglo, Maweke Tchalim, P'niwè Patchali, et al.

► To cite this version:

Akila Wimima Bakoubayi, Falapalaki Haliba, Wendpouiré Ida C. Zida-Compaore, P'tanam P'kontème Bando, Yao Rodion Konu, et al. Any resurgence of leprosy cases in the Togo's post-elimination period? Trend analysis of reported leprosy cases from 2010 to 2022. BMC Infectious Diseases, 2024, 24 (1), pp.588. 10.1186/s12879-024-09492-w. hal-04951584

HAL Id: hal-04951584

https://ehesp.hal.science/hal-04951584v1

Submitted on 17 Feb 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
RESEARCH

Open Access

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Check for
updates

# Any resurgence of leprosy cases in the Togo's post-elimination period? Trend analysis of reported leprosy cases from 2010 to 2022

Akila Wimima Bakoubayi¹,²*, Falapalaki Haliba¹, Wendpouiré Ida C. Zida-Compaore³, P'tanam P'kontème Bando¹, Yao Rodion Konu²,³, Latame komla Adoli², Kodjo Akpadja⁴, Kamevor Alaglo⁵, Maweke Tchalim⁵, P'niwè Patchali⁵, Yaovi Djakpa¹, Komi Amekuse¹, Piham Gnossike⁵, Denis A. Yawovi Gadah¹ and Didier Koumavi Ekouevi²,³

**Abstract**

**Background** Leprosy, or Hansen's disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by *Mycobacterium leprae*. Togo achieved the target of eliminating leprosy as a public health problem in 2000 (less than 1 case/10 000 population). However, new cases of leprosy are still being reported. The aim of this study was to describe and map trends of leprosy cases notified in Togo from 2010 to 2022.

**Methods** This was a descriptive cross-sectional study covering a thirteen-year period from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2022. The data of the study were leprosy surveillance system's data collected monthly between 2010 and 2022. The estimated number of leprosy cases and the incidence rate of leprosy cases were reported for the whole population by region, by district, by calendar year (2010–2022) and by target sub-population (children under 15, women and people with disabilities). Observed case incidence rates were mapped by health district and by year.

**Results** From January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2022, 1031 new cases of leprosy were diagnosed in Togo. The median age of subjects was 46 years (interquartile range: 33–60), with extremes from 4 to 96 years. Half the subjects were women (50.7%). Variations in the leprosy incidence rate by year show an increase between 2010 and 2022, from 0.7 cases/100,000 population to 1.1/100,000 population respectively. From 2010 to 2022, the proportion of cases in children remained low, between 0 and 9%. The proportion of women fluctuated between 39.7% and 67.2% between 2010 and 2017, then stabilized at an average of 50% between 2018 and 2022. The proportion of multi-bacillary leprosy cases increased quasi-linearly between 2010 and 2022, from 70 to 96.6%. Mapping of leprosy cases showed that leprosy was notified in all Togo health districts during the study period, apart from the Lacs district, which reported no leprosy cases.

**Conclusion** Togo has achieved the elimination of leprosy as a public health problem. However, the increase in the number of new leprosy cases and the proportion of leprosy cases in children indicate that transmission of the disease is continuing and that supplementary measures are needed.

**Keywords** Epidemiology, Leprosy, Spatiotemporal, Togo

Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

<footnote>*Correspondence:
Akila Wimima Bakoubayi
bakoubayiakila@gmail.com</footnote>
## Background

Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by *Mycobacterium leprae*, mainly affecting the skin and peripheral nerves [1]. The exact mode of transmission of leprosy is not yet known. Transmission is thought to occur via nasal droplets or prolonged skin contact with an untreated patient [2, 3]. Untreated or late-diagnosed patients develop irreversible disabilities and disfiguring complications [3]. These physical complications of leprosy are responsible for stigmatization and social exclusion [4].

In 1991, the World Health Assembly adopted a resolution to “eliminate” leprosy as a public health problem by the year 2000 [5]. Elimination, defined as an incidence rate of less than 1 case per 10 000 population/year, was achieved worldwide by the year 2000 in 107 countries (including Togo) out of 122 considered endemic in 1985 [6]. However, new cases of leprosy continue to be detected in all World Health Organization (WHO) regions [7]. In 2022, 174,087 new cases were reported worldwide, representing a detection rate of 21.8 cases per million inhabitants, an increase of 23.8% on 2021 (140,594 new cases). Most new cases were in the Southeast Asian region (66.5%), followed by the African region (15.1%). New cases among children indicate recent transmission [8]. In 2022, 10,302 new paediatric cases (5.9% of the total number of new cases) were reported worldwide, representing a rate of 5.1 cases per million children. The case detection rate of cases among children has risen by 14.6% compared to 2021 [7]. This means that leprosy persists, and its transmission continues in these different regions despite the availability of effective, free antibacterial treatment.

In Togo, the threshold for the elimination of leprosy as a public health problem (less than one case per 10,000 inhabitants/year) was reached in 2000 [6]. However, new cases of leprosy are still being reported. Togo, like other countries, has signed up to the WHO 2030 roadmap, which aims to eliminate leprosy (defined as interruption of transmission) by 2030 [9, 10]. To achieve this, it is important to review the evolution of leprosy over time and space, to know the current situation and to define or readjust control strategies to achieve the elimination (interruption of transmission) of leprosy. The present study aims to describe and map trends of leprosy cases notified in Togo from 2010 to 2022.

## Methods

### Study setting

Togo is a West African country with a total surface area of 56,785 km² and a population of 8.09 million in 2022 [11].

The Togolese healthcare system has a three-tier pyramid structure at three level: the central level, comprising

the National Program for Neglected Tropical Diseases; the regional level, comprising the health regions; and the peripheral level, comprising the health districts and peripheral care units. Togo has six health regions (from north to south: Savana, Kara, Centrale, Plateaux, Maritime and Lomé-commune) and 39 health districts. An overview of Togo's health regions and districts is provided in Fig. 1.

### Type of study

It was a descriptive cross-sectional study covering a thirteen-year period from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2022.

### Data sources and data collection

The data analysed in this study were routine leprosy surveillance data collected monthly between 2010 and 2022 by the National Program for Neglected Tropical Diseases. Throughout this period, and in accordance with the guideline of the national neglected tropical diseases program, all clinically validated leprosy cases under treatment are systematically notified to the focal points of the 39 districts, which record these data in registers. The district focal points transmit these data to the regional level. These data are then compiled, checked, and validated at regional level before being transmitted to central level. National data validation meetings are held once a year, attended by all regional and district focal points for neglected tropical diseases, technical teams from the National Program for Neglected Tropical Diseases and non-governmental organizations involved in the fight against neglected tropical diseases. For the purposes of this study, data available at central level from 2010 to 2022 were extracted.

### Variables included

Variables collected for the study included demographic variables (age and sex of patients, regions and districts of patient residence) and clinical data: clinical forms of leprosy (pauci bacillary and multi bacillary), degree of disability of patients at the time of diagnosis according to WHO classification (0, 1, 2) of all new cases registered during the same period.

### Operational definitions

WHO classifies leprosy patients' disabilities at the time of diagnosis into three degrees [12].

* Disability grade 0: No disability caused by leprosy in the eyes, hands, and feet.

* Disability grade 1: Eye problem caused by leprosy, but vision is not severely affected (equal to 6/60 or better; fingers can be counted from six meters); loss of sensitivity of hands or feet.
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1** Maps of Togo's health regions and districts</figcaption></figure>

* Disability grade 2: Eyes: lagophthalmos and/or ectropion; trichiasis; visual impairment (fingers not counted at 6 m). Hands and feet: with visible lesions, i.e. clawed hands, drooping feet, relapses, etc. clawed hands, drooping feet, reabsorption of fingers.

Two clinical forms of leprosy are distinguished:

* Pauci-bacillary: Five or fewer lesions with no bacteria detected in the skin smear (sample taken from the area).

* Multi-bacillary: More than five lesions or detection of bacteria in the skin smear.

**Data processing and analysis**

Numbers and incidence rates of leprosy cases were reported for the whole population by region, by district, by calendar year (2010–2022) and by target sub-population (children under 15, women and people with disabilities). Case incidence rates per 100,000 population were estimated as the ratio of the number of cases to the number of inhabitants. Observed case incidence rates were mapped by health district and year. Demographic data were provided by the Togo health statistics directory under the Ministry of Health.

**Ethical and regulatory aspects**

This study was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Togo's Ministry of Health (No 025/2022/CBRS).
<table><caption>**Table 1** Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of new leprosy cases in Togo from 2010–2022 (N = 1031)</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>n</th><th>Proportion (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Age (years)</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Median [IQR]</td><td>46 [33–60]</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mean (SD)</td><td>46 (17)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Minimum-Maximum</td><td>4–96</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><strong>Age groups (years)</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;15</td><td>38</td><td>3.7</td></tr><tr><td>≥15</td><td>993</td><td>96.3</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Gender</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>523</td><td>50.7</td></tr><tr><td>Male</td><td>508</td><td>49.3</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Health region</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Grand-Lome</td><td>70</td><td>6.9</td></tr><tr><td>Maritime</td><td>159</td><td>15.4</td></tr><tr><td>Plateaux</td><td>232</td><td>22.5</td></tr><tr><td>Centrale</td><td>154</td><td>14.9</td></tr><tr><td>Kara</td><td>227</td><td>22.0</td></tr><tr><td>Savanes</td><td>189</td><td>18.3</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Type of leprosy</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Multibacillary</td><td>889</td><td>86.2</td></tr><tr><td>Paucibacillary</td><td>142</td><td>13.8</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Degree of disability</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>0</td><td>571</td><td>55.4</td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td>152</td><td>14.7</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>308</td><td>29.9</td></tr></tbody></table>

IQR=Interquartile Range; SD=Standard Deviation

Access to the database was authorized by the Ministry of Health through the National Program for Neglected

Tropical Diseases. All data were anonymized, and confidentiality was strictly respected in data processing and analysis.

## Results

### Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of leprosy patients

From January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2022, 1031 new cases of leprosy were diagnosed in Togo (Table 1). The median age of patients was 46 years (inter-quartile range: 33–60), with extremes from 4 to 96 years. Half of the patients were women (50.7%). Cases were diagnosed in all health regions of Togo (Plateaux 12.5% and Kara 12.0%). The majority (86.2%) of cases had multi-bacillary leprosy. At the time of diagnosis, 29.9% of cases had a grade 2 of disability.

### Trends in new leprosy cases

Overall, since 2018, Togo has recorded at least 1 case per 100 000 population each year (Fig. 2). For the year 2022, Togo recorded 1.1 leprosy cases per 100,000 population at national level. Variations in the leprosy incidence rate by year show an increase between 2010 and 2022, from 0.7 cases /100,000 population to 1.1 /100,000 population respectively.

### Trends in new leprosy cases by health region

Over the study period, all health regions registered at least 1 case/100 000 inhabitants, apart from Greater Lomé, which recorded fewer than 1 case/100 000

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2** Evolution of the leprosy incidence rate in Togo, 2010–2022 (N = 1031)</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 3** Trends in new leprosy cases by target population in Togo, 2010–2022: (a) Proportion of children affected by leprosy among new cases; (b) Proportion of persons with infirmity among new cases; (c) Proportion of multi-bacillary leprosy among new cases; (d) Proportion of women affected by leprosy among new cases. MB = multibacillary</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 4** Map of new leprosy cases by health district in Togo, 2010–2022</figcaption></figure>

of leprosy cases in children under 15. The proportion of multi-bacillary leprosy cases increased almost linearly between 2010 and 2022, rising from 70 to 96.6%. The proportion of new cases with disability was 37.9% in 2022,

with a peak of 60% in 2021. Mapping leprosy cases by district and year showed that, apart from the Lacs district, which registered no leprosy cases over the study period, leprosy was reported in all Togo's health districts. The
number of health districts affected by leprosy rose from 10 in 2010 to 26 in 2022, with variations from one year to the other.

The incidence rates observed confirm the elimination of leprosy as a public health problem in Togo. The elimination of leprosy, defined as an incidence rate of less than 1 case per 10,000 population/year, was achieved in Togo since 2000 [6]. However, new cases of leprosy continue to be detected. Variations in the national leprosy incidence rate by year show an increase between 2010 and 2022. This means that leprosy persists, and its transmission continues despite the progress made in the fight against the disease. The study we have conducted, based on data collected at district level, does not allow us to explain this increase. However, the increased competence of health personnel in leprosy diagnosis and the strengthening of awareness-raising and screening activities in recent years could explain the increase in new leprosy cases observed. The jagged reporting of leprosy cases may be explained by the discontinuity of funding because funding for leprosy control activities in Togo comes mainly from external sources.

In our study, both sexes were equally affected (50.7% in women and 49.7% in men). This result is contrary to what is frequently described in the literature. A study realized in South-East Ethiopia found a male predominance of 64.5% [13]. In Nigeria, a similar study found a male/female sex ratio of 2.1 [14]. This male predominance may be partly explained by the fact that men have easier access to health services in rural area in Togo [15].

The mean age of patients at diagnosis was 46 years. Kabo et al. in Chad and Gnimavo, al. in Benin reported a mean age of 38 years [16, 17]. Martins et al. in Brazil reported an average age of 47 [18]. Leprosy is therefore mainly reported in young people. Thus, leprosy in this segment of the population can have negative repercussions on the individual, his or her family and the country's economy in the long term [18, 19]. This also implies transmission at younger ages, therefore probably transmission is still a problem.

The geographical distribution of cases highlights the elimination of leprosy as a public health problem at sub-national level. Cumulatively over the entire study period, all health regions recorded at least 1 case per 100 000 inhabitants, apart from Grand Lome (Togo's capital), which recorded 0.3 cases per 100 000 inhabitants. This difference may be explained by limited access to drinking water and/or ineffective hygiene measures outside the capital, which are important determinants for the occurrence of leprosy [20]. These factors alone cannot explain this difference. Indeed, limited access to care outside the capital Lome and the way in which cases are detected may also explain this difference. It would therefore be important to initiate prospective studies to identify all

the factors associated with the unequal distribution of leprosy in other health regions outside the capital Lome.

In the present study, we also noted that 96.3% of patients were aged 15 and over. Children (under the age of 15) accounted for only 3.7% of patients. These findings are like those of studies carried out by Ghunawat et al. in Dehli. Wangara et al. in Kenya and Gnimavo et al. in Benin, who found that children's leprosy cases accounted for 7.1%, 7.5% and 10.1% of total recorded leprosy cases [17, 21, 22]. An increase in the proportion of cases in children under 15 years of age from 0 to 5.7% was observed in our study. As the proportion of children is considered an indicator of recent transmission of the disease, the increase observed in this study period is evidence that, until 2022, there was persistent transmission of the infection in the communities.

Our results show that multi-bacillary forms were the most frequent (86.3%). A high proportion of multi-bacillary leprosy cases has also been reported in other studies in Benin, Brazil, and China [17, 23, 24]. The high proportion of multi-bacillary forms increases the risk of contagiousness of the disease as well as the duration of treatment, and may lead to patients abandoning treatment, thereby contributing to the spread of the disease and the development of resistant forms [25]. Particular attention must be given to monitoring these indicators (loss of follow up, re-treatment, resistance cases) in Togo.

The proportion of new cases with disability was 37.9% in 2022. This proportion was 32% in Benin in 2018 and 19.1% in Chad in 2019 [16, 17]. This result indicates late diagnosis of leprosy and/or delayed management with multidrug therapy. High disability rates have a negative socio-economic impact on the communities [26]. In Togo, this delay in diagnosis is due to a lack of knowledge of the signs of the disease by the patients and health professionals, and to the stigma attached to leprosy patients. The commitment of countries to ensure early diagnosis, institute multidrug therapy and combat stigma has been suggested as a means of reducing the psychosocial and economic impact of leprosy [27]. Therefore, it is possible that the adoption of similar strategies could have an impact on reducing disability in highly endemic communities in Togo.

One of the limitations of this study is its retrospective nature, based on data collected at district level. An analysis of data quality shows missing data on management cases, follow-up cases, treatment failures, repeat treatments, resistance cases and side-effects management. These indicators provide information on the quality of screening, treatment, and follow-up cases. The availability of those information should enable us to carry out a holistic analysis of all the key indicators as defined by the WHO. The National Program for Neglected Tropical Diseases needs to reflect on how to improve the quality
of data collection and use digital tools for data reporting. Another limit is the type of case detection which may partly explain the trends observed. In Togo, leprosy cases finding is passive in routine. However, as, and when the national program for neglected tropical diseases receives financial support from a partner, active integrated case finding activities are implemented over the funding period. Given the study period and the changes in the program's staff, it was not possible for us to trace all the projects that have enabled active case-finding and their duration of execution since 2010, to establish a link with the trends observed.

## Conclusion

Togo has achieved the elimination of leprosy as a public health problem according to the WHO definition. However, the increase in the number of new leprosy cases, the predominance of multi-bacillary forms, the proportion of leprosy cases in children and the high number of grade 2 disabilities demonstrate that transmission of the disease is continuing. Additional measures such as strengthening the capacity of health personnel to diagnose leprosy, raising public awareness of the early signs of the disease and combating the stigmatization of leprosy patients are needed to achieve the WHO goal of eliminating (interrupting transmission of) leprosy by 2030.

## Abbreviations

<table><tr><td>WHO</td><td>World Health Organization</td></tr><tr><td>IQR</td><td>Interquartile Range</td></tr><tr><td>SD</td><td>Standard Deviation</td></tr><tr><td>IC</td><td>Confidence Interval</td></tr><tr><td>MB</td><td>Multibacillary</td></tr></table>

## Acknowledgements

We thank the Coordinator of the National Program for Neglected Tropical Diseases for providing us with routine leprosy surveillance data collected monthly between 2010 and 2022 and the German Association for the Fight against Leprosy and Tuberculosis for its support of leprosy control in Togo. We would also like to thank the Department of Public Health at the University of Lomé and the African Centre for Research in Epidemiology and Public Health for their technical support.

## Author contributions

AWB, FH, WICZC, PG, DAYG and DKE were involved in the design of the study. Analysis, interpretation, and writing were done by AWB and FH. PPB, YRK, LKA, KA, KA, MT, PP, YD, KA have revised the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

## Funding

The authors received no specific funding for this study.

## Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed in the current study are available from the corresponding author upon request with valid justification.

## Declarations

### Ethics approval and consent to participate

This retrospective study was conducted with the approval and authorization of the Ministry of Health through the National Program for Neglected Tropical Diseases. Data used for this study was collected as part of the routine leprosy

control programme. Access to the database was authorized by the Ministry of Health through the National Program for Neglected Tropical Diseases and all data analysed were anonymized. Ethical clearance for this study was also obtained from the Bioethics Committee of the Togo's Ministry of Health (No 025/2022/CBRS).

### Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

### Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

### Author details

¹German Leprosy and Tuberculosis Association, Lome, BP 2271, Togo

²Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Lome, Lomé, Togo

³African Center for Research in Epidemiology and Public Health, Lome, Togo

⁴National Tuberculosis Control Program, Lome, Togo

⁵National Program for Neglected Tropical Diseases, Lome, Togo

Received: 30 March 2024 / Accepted: 11 June 2024

Published online: 16 June 2024

## References

1. Hastings RC, Gillis TP, Krahenbuhl JL. Franzblau SG. Leprosy. Clin Microbiol Rev Juill. 1988;1(3):330-48.

2. Bratschi MW, Steinmann P, Wickenden A, Gillis TP. Current knowledge on Mycobacterium leprae transmission: a systematic literature review. Lepr Rev juin. 2015;86(2):142-55.

3. Lastória JC, de Abreu MAMM. Leprosy: review of the epidemiological. Clinical. And etiopathogenic aspects - part 1. Bras Dermatol. 2014;89(2):205-18.

4. Trautman JR. A brief history of Hansen's disease. Bull N Y Acad Med sept. 1984;60(7):689-95.

5. Assembly WH. Leprosy resolution WHA 44.9: forty-fourth World Health Assembly. 13 may 1991. World Health Organization Geneva; 1991.

6. World Health Organization. World situation of leprosy. WER. 2001;76:173-80.

7. World Health Organization. Weekly Epidemiological Record. 15 September 2023, Vol. 98, No 37. 2023, pp. 409-430.

8. Dioussé P, Dione H, Bammo M, Gueye N, Diallo TAA, Seck F, et al. La lèpre De L'enfant à Thiès/Sénégal: signal d'une recrudescence? Pan Afr Med J S Juill. 2017;27:174.

9. World Health Organization. Towards zero leprosy.Global Leprosy (Hansen's disease) strategy 2021-2030. New Delhi: WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia; 2021.

10. World Health Organization. Ending the neglect to attain the Sustainable Development Goals-A Road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021-2030. Geneva; 2020.

11. INSED. Résultats définitifs du Recensement de 2022. https://inseed.tg/statistiques-demographiques/.

12. World Health Organisation. Global Strategy for Further Reducing the Leprosy Burden and Sustaining Leprosy Control Activities. Operational Guidelines. 2006. http://www.who.int/lep/resources/SEAGLP20062.pdf [cited 22 October 2022].

13. Ramos JM, Martínez-Martín M, Reyes F, Lemma D, Belinchón F. oct. Gender differential on characteristics and outcome of leprosy patients admitted to a long-term care rural hospital in South-Eastern Ethiopia. Int J Equity Health. 4 2012;11:56.

14. Peters ES, Eshiet AL. Male-female (sex) differences in leprosy patients in south eastern Nigeria: females present late for diagnosis and treatment and have higher rates of deformity. Lepr Rev sept. 2002;73(3):262-7.

15. Price VG. Factors preventing early case detection for women affected by leprosy: a review of the literature. Glob Health Action 30 août. 2017;10(sup2):1360550.

16. Kabo AK, Kaman K, Doungous DM, Ouedraogo L, Abakar M, Godreuil S et al. Epidémiologie de la lèpre au Tchad de 2015 à 2019. Pan Afr Med J [Internet]. 10 févr 2022 [cité 29 sept 2023];41(120). Disponible sur: https://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/41/120/full.
17. Gnimavo RS, Djossou P, Sopoh GE, Anagonou GE, Barogui YT, Wadagni AAC, et al. Trends of the leprosy control indicators in Benin from 2006 to 2018. BMC Public Health 18 août. 2020;20(1):1254.

18. Martins RJ, Carloni MEOG, Moimaz SAS, Garbin CAS, Garbin AJf. Sociodemographic and epidemiological profile of leprosy patients in an endemic region in Brazil. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2016;49(6):777-80.

19. Chisi JE, Nkhoma A, Zverev Y, Misiri H, Komolafe OO. Leprosy in Nkhotakota District Hospital. East Afr Med J déc. 2003;80(12):635-9.

20. Musso D, Rcovery C, Loukil A, Vialette V, Nguyen NL. Leprosy in French Polynesia. New Microbes New Infect Mai. 2019;29:100514.

21. Ghunawat S, Relhan V, Mittal S, Sandhu J, Garg VK. Childhood leprosy: a Retrospective descriptive study from Delhi. Indian J Dermatol. 2018;63(6):455-8.

22. Wangara F, Kipruto H, Ngesa O, Kayima J, Masini E, Sitienei J, et al. The spatial epidemiology of leprosy in Kenya: a retrospective study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 22 avr. 2019;13(4):e0007329.

23. Nazario AP, Ferreira J, Schuler-Faccini L, Fiegenbaum M, Artigalás O, Vianna FSL. Leprosy in Southern Brazil: a twenty-year epidemiological profile. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2017;50(2):251-5.

24. J H, H D, S WL, Y. Z W, Y J, et al. Monitoring and detection of leprosy patients in Southwest China: A retrospective study. 2010-2014. Sci Rep [Internet]. 30 juill

2018 [cité 29 sept 2023];8(1). Disponible sur: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30061618/.

25. BOUSHAB BM, YANOGO PK, BARRY D. MAHAM MH. TRAORÉ AMK, KANE EM. Analyse des données nationales de surveillance de la lèpre en Mauritanie de 2009 à 2019. Médecine Trop Santé Int. 20 avr. 2023;3(2):mtsi.v3i2.2023.361.

26. van Brakel WH, Sihombing B, Djarir H, Beise K, Kusumawardhani L, Yulihane R, et al. Disability in people affected by leprosy: the role of impairment. Activity. Social participation. Stigma and discrimination. Glob Health Action 20 Juill. 2012;5. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v5i0.18394.

27. Rao PSS. Perspectives on the impact of stigma in leprosy: strategies to improve access to health care. Res Rep Trop Med. sept 2015;18:6:49-57.

**Publisher's Note**

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.