# Implications for Computer Science Curricula in Primary School: A Comparative Study of Sequences in England, South Korea, and New Zealand

Michiyo Oda, Yoko Noborimoto, Tatsuya Horita

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Michiyo Oda, Yoko Noborimoto, Tatsuya Horita. Implications for Computer Science Curricula in Primary School: A Comparative Study of Sequences in England, South Korea, and New Zealand. IFIP World Conference on Computers in Education (WCCE), Aug 2022, Hiroshima, Japan. pp.641-652, 10.1007/978-3-031-43393-1_57. hal-05533317

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# Implications for Computer Science Curricula
in Primary School: A Comparative Study
of Sequences in England, South Korea, and New
Zealand

Michiyo Oda<fnref n="1" />(✉) ID, Yoko Noborimoto<fnref n="2" /> ID, and Tatsuya Horita<fnref n="1" /> ID

**Abstract.** This study aimed to gain insights into the design of computer science curricula in primary schools in Japan by analyzing K-12 computer science curriculum sequences in England, South Korea, and New Zealand. This study focuses on the progression of key areas of computer science learning in K-12 education. This study identified trends in the sequence of computer science concepts and practices in K-12 education in the three countries. The trends were classified into three categories: (1) learning the concept itself is limited below Grade 6 and learning related to advanced concepts becomes extensive above Grade 7, (2) learning about the concepts becomes progressively more advanced and extensive throughout K-12 education, and (3) learning about the concepts becomes more advanced in scope and complexity throughout K-12 education as the context in which concepts are applied becomes more advanced. These implications can be applied to K-12 computer science curriculum design in Japan and also in other countries around the world.

**Keywords:** Computer science education · curricula · K-12 education

# 1 Introduction

## 1.1 Background

The rapid advancement of information technology in the last few decades has significantly impacted society. Upon recognizing the impact, academics and policymakers in Europe and America focused on K-12 computer science education and published several reports in which they advocate for transforming computer science education from ICT application or computer use into a rigorous academic subject. Bocconi et al. [1] reported that based on a combination of desk research and information from ministries of education surveys, 24 countries in Europe either renewed curricula to introduce computer science, planned to introduce computer science, or had built a long-standing computer science tradition in their compulsory education.

<footnote n="1">¹ Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan</footnote>

<footnote>oda.michiyo.r4@alumni.tohoku.ac.jp, horita@horilab.info</footnote>

<footnote n="2">² Tokyo Gakugei University, Tokyo, Japan</footnote>

<footnote>noborimt@u-gakugei.ac.jp</footnote>
Given the growing interest around introducing computer science into K-12 educa-
tion, research efforts have been made in this area to examine and promote development
of the K-12 computer science curricula. These efforts include but are not limited to the
following: (a) situation analysis on the introduction of K-12 computer science curricu-
lum (e.g., [2, 3]); (b) policy recommendations on the introduction of K-12 computer
science curriculum (e.g., [4]), and (c) K-12 computer science curriculum analysis (e.g.,
[5]). These studies provide insight about the scope of skills and understanding that stu-
dents should acquire in computer science at K-12 levels. For example, Oda et al. [6]
summarized the trends of the similarities and differences of the K-12 computer science
curriculum in England, South Korea, and New Zealand. However, there is still room for
further research in terms of sequencing, such as when and in what order computer sci-
ence should be taught based on grade level. In this regard, the Association for Computing
Machinery et al. [7] acknowledge that students need explicit support to connect new ideas
to previously learned ideas, and therefore they recommend that curricula be organized
in a coherent way to support student progress across multiple grade levels. However,
Webb et al. [3] referred to the limited empirical evidence available for designing K-12
computer science curricula and suggested epistemological considerations followed by
empirical evidence should be used to design the curricula. Therefore, examining the
computer science curricula of countries that have introduced and established computer
science curricula ahead of other countries may contribute to existing research on how to
structure the curriculum.

## 1.2 Computer Science Education in Japan

The Japanese school system includes six years of primary school, three years of middle school, and three years of high school. The nine years of primary and middle school education is compulsory, but more than 97% of students go on to complete the additional three years of high school. In Japan, computer science has been integrated as a part of compulsory technology and home economics in middle school since 2000 and as part of the individual compulsory information in high school since 2001. The revised curriculum guidelines (announced in 2017 for primary and middle schools and in 2018 for high schools), which were sequentially executed from the primary level in 2020, enhanced computer science education, covering approximately 6.2 million primary school students, 3.2 million middle school students, and 3 million high school students (2021).

The general provision of the primary school curriculum guidelines shows that com-
puter science education at the primary level includes “learning activities to foster log-
ical reasoning skills for children through experiencing programming” [8: p. 22]. The
programming activities include drawing regular polygons in fifth-grade mathematics,
learning efficient use of electricity through contorting conditions in sixth-grade science,
and conducting an integrated study as a part of project-based learning [8]. In middle
schools, computer science education was incorporated into the information technology
unit of the technology and home economics subject. The previous curriculum already
included computer science concepts in the unit, but the new curriculum, which began in
2021, became more rigorous, increasing teaching hours and incorporating more com-
plex programming activities into the unit. The previous curriculum of the high school
information subject included two subjects: Information Study for Participating Community, focusing on the effects of information technology on society without programming, and Information Study by Scientific Approach, focusing on computer science. Although 80% of high schools chose the former subject, the new compulsory Information I, implemented in 2022, incorporated rigorous computer science, meaning all high school students will learn to program. Schools can add Information II, which is more challenging than Information I and includes data science and designing information systems.

Under these guidelines, computer science subjects differ across school stages. Since different subjects have different learning goals and the curriculum is organized according to learning goals, consistency across school levels from primary to high school is challenging for computer science education in Japan. In primary schools, computer science education is not an independent subject, so the teaching concepts and skills for computer science tend to be particularly unclear.

As Webb et al. [9] explained, the terminology for computer science as a curriculum subject differs from country to country. This study defined computer science as the scientific discipline encompassing principles such as algorithms, data structures, programming, and problem-solving [3, 4]. The length of the school year also varies between countries, so K-12 referred to primary and secondary education in this study. Furthermore, although the school year is referred to as a student's year in England and New Zealand and a student's grade to denote grade levels in South Korea uses, this study applied universal term grades in a unified manner.

## 1.3 Research Purpose

This study aims to gain insights to inform the computer science curriculum in primary education in Japan by finding sequence trends on computer science curricula in K-12 education in countries with existing K-12 computer science education. To this end, this research focuses on the progression of key areas of computer science learning through K-12 to draw meaningful implications for elementary education.

# 2 Related Work

## 2.1 Curriculum Research

Print [10: p. xvii] defined curriculum as “all the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the educational institution and the experiences learners encounter when the curriculum is implemented”. Curriculum has been perceived as a multi-layered learning experience provided to learners. This multi-layered structure includes the intended curriculum established by the state and district, the taught curriculum that is taught in classrooms and in schools, and the learned curriculum, which is what students actually learn [11]. Cuban [11] argued that there is a gap between the three. This study examines the intended curriculum to identify the scope of skills and understanding that each nation expects students to acquire. Therefore, one of this study’s limitations is that it does not explore the information that is conveyed in the taught curriculum or learned curriculum.
## 2.2 Curriculum Design Research

Curriculum design organizes a curriculum's components along two basic organizational dimensions: horizontal and vertical [12]. The horizontal dimension is called the scope and is usually represented by units [12]. The vertical dimension is known as the sequence, and it represents how content and experiences build on and deepen previous learned content and experiences [12]. Therefore, this study focused on the sequence of computer science curricula to assess how content and experiences are deepened throughout students' K-12 education.

# 3 Research Method

## 3.1 Analytical Framework

Analyzing the national curriculum in multiple countries requires a high-level, globally applicable, and evidence-informed framework that illustrates literacy foundations to be gained in K-12 computer science education. The K-12 Computer Science Framework [7] was used for the curriculum analysis to address these aspects. The framework provides a baseline literacy in computer science that all students should possess. The framework is organized into computer science concepts (five core concepts further divided into 17 sub-concepts) that represent “major content areas in the field of computer science” (p. 3) and practices (seven core practices divided into 23 achievement levels by the end of Grade 12) that represent “the behaviors that computationally literate students use to fully engage with the core concepts of computer science” [7: p. 3].

The reasons for applying this framework in light of the criteria are as follows. First, the concept and practice statements are big ideas [7] that are intellectual priorities and the basis for the transfer of learning [13]. In this regard, the framework is unique in providing a high-level guide for teaching K-12 computer science based on structural knowledge that identifies key areas of computer science learning in the curriculum. Second, this framework is applicable globally. For example, although the framework was developed in the U.S., it benchmarked against the curricula in other advanced countries, such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Poland, and New Zealand, referencing multiple countries' perspectives [7]. In addition, the framework is broadly applied both in the U.S. and other countries. For example, computer science standards exist in 43 of the 50 U.S. states, many of which refer to CSTA's K-12 Computer Science Standards developed based on this framework [14]. The framework has also been introduced in primary schools in Japan [15]. Third, it is evidence-informed. According to the Association for Computing Machinery [7], the framework was designed based on the existing research, interview with experts in the field, and the collective expertise of the computer science education and research communities.

Computer science concepts that are essential to the K-12 Computer Science Framework include the following:

* Computing Systems (Devices, Hardware and Software, Troubleshooting)

* Networks and the Internet (Network Communication and Organization, Cybersecurity)
* Data and Analysis (Collection, Storage, Visualization and Transformation, Inference and Models)

* Algorithms and Programming (Algorithms, Variables, Control, Modularity, Program Development)

* Impact of Computing (Culture, Social Interactions, Safety, Law, and Ethics)

The K–12 Computer Science Framework also identifies seven core practices that should be included in computer science curricula:

* Practice 1: Fostering an Inclusive Computing Culture

* Practice 2: Collaborating Around Computing

* Practice 3: Recognizing and Defining Computational Problems

* Practice 4: Developing and Using Abstractions

* Practice 5: Creating Computational Artifacts

* Practice 6: Testing and Refining Computational Artifacts

* Practice 7: Communicating About Computing

## 3.2 Country Selection

This study covered England, South Korea, and New Zealand. To gain meaningful findings useful not only in Japan but also internationally, this study set the following criteria in addition to the introduction of computer science into their K–12 education: (1) unbiased inclusion of computer science concepts and practices in the curriculum [16], and (2) introduction of curricula countrywide. The first criterion was established since designing a computer science curriculum requires facilitating meaningful learning experiences that include concepts and practices, according to the Association for Computing Machinery [7]. The second criterion was established to align the Japanese education system with this study’s purpose. Because the Japanese curriculum requirements are legally obligatory, this study focused on countries that implement the curriculum at the national level rather than the state level, which is as close to the Japanese educational system as possible. The study examined 10 countries implementing computer science curricula in K–12 education [16] to identify whether they meet the two criteria. Geographic diversity, such as Europe, Oceania, and Asia, were also considered while selecting from 10 nations, some of which were in the same region. For example, England, France, Poland, and Portugal met the two criteria in Europe. England was selected over the other countries because England has advanced in this area, having been one of the first to implement computer science education in primary schools and to publish a comprehensive report on its implementation [17]. South Korea and Hong Kong met the criteria in Asia. South Korea was chosen because its educational system is more aligned with that of Japan.

## 3.3 Curricula Selection

This study examined the computer science curricula that has been introduced in England, South Korea, and New Zealand. Print [10] suggested four essential components of curriculum: (1) aims, goals, and objectives; (2) subject matter or content; (3) learning activities; and (4) evaluation. Since this study aimed to gain insights into designing the computer science curriculum for primary education in Japan, it focused on the first
three components: (1) aims, goals, and objectives; (2) subject matter or content; and (3) learning activities. Curriculum evaluation was not included as part of this study. The collection of national curricula was conducted from May to September 2019.

In England, computer science has been introduced in Grades 1–12 as Computing, a compulsory subject. This study investigated *subject content* in *Computing programmes of study: key stages 1 and 2 National curriculum in England* [18] and *Computing programmes of study: key stages 3 and 4 National curriculum in England* [19]. The grade levels within the curriculum are divided into Key Stage 1 (Grades 1–2), Key Stage 2 (Grades 3–6), Key Stage 3 (Grades 7–9) and Key Stage 4 (Grades 10 and 11).

In South Korea, computer science has been introduced in Grades 5 and 6 as a compulsory subject in Practical Arts; in Grade 7–9 as the compulsory subject Informatics; and in Grade 10–12 as the elective subject Informatics. This study investigated *performance standard* of the target subjects in *Elementary School Curriculum and Education Notice No. 2015-74* [20], *Middle School Curriculum and Education Notice No. 2015-74* [21], and *High School Curriculum (I, II, III)* [22]. The grade levels within the curriculum are divided into elementary school (Grades 1–6), middle school (Grades 7–9), and high school (Grades 10–12).

In New Zealand, computer science has been introduced as a compulsory subject within Technology for Grade 1–10 and an elective subject for Grades 11–13. This study investigated *progress outcomes* (POs) in *Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum* [23]. The grade levels of the technological area “computational thinking for digital technologies” are divided into PO1 (Grades 1–3), PO2 (Grades 4–6), PO3 (Grades 7, 8), PO4 · 5 (Grades 9, 10), PO6 (Grade 11), PO7 (Grade 12), and PO8 (Grade 13). The grade levels of the technological area “designing and developing digital outcomes” are divided into PO1 (Grades 1–4), PO2 (Grades 5–8), PO3 (Grades 9, 10), PO4 (Grade 11), PO5 (Grade 12), and PO6 (Grade 13).

## 3.4 Curriculum Analysis

This study adopted the curriculum analysis methodology by the previous works [6, 16], which references content analysis methodology by Cohen et al. [24]. Since the South Korean curriculum was written in Korean, Google Translate was used to translate the curriculum from Korean to English. In sections where the translation was not clear, an education researcher who is a native Korean speaker verified the translation.

First, the text in the curriculum was separated into individual sentences. Next, the divided sentences were further subdivided into units that retained their meaning. For example, in New Zealand PO2 (Grades 4–6) [23], the sentence was subdivided into two units by shading, as in “In authentic contexts and taking account of end-users, / students give, follow and debug simple algorithms in computerised and non-computerised contexts.” Finally, the units were coded into computer science concepts (17 sub-concepts) and practices (23 achievement levels) according to the K–12 Computer Science Framework. For example, the definition of concepts and practices in the K–12 Computer Science Framework was used as a reference and compared with the units. As a result, when the unit was applicable to the definitions of concepts and practices, concepts (17 subconcepts) and practices (23 achievement levels) were tagged. Coding was not applied to units whose meanings did not correspond to the definitions of concepts and practices
in the K–12 Computer Science Framework. In cases where more than one concept or practice was included in a unit, multiple coding was performed. The coding was conducted by the first author, and the accuracy of the coding was reviewed by the second author, who has experience teaching high school computer science. If there were any disagreements regarding coding, the authors discussed until they reached a consensus.

# 4 Results and Findings

## 4.1 Sequence Trends on Computer Science Curricula in K–12 Education

Tables 1 and 2 display the trends in the sequence of curriculum descriptions of computer science concepts (five core concepts, which are divided into 17 sub-concepts) and practices (seven core practices, which are divided into 23 achievement levels), with trends shown for concepts or practices found both below Grade 6 and above Grade 7. Based on the results presented in Tables 1 and 2, the main features of the sequence of concepts in relation to practice were classified into the three types. These three classifications are not exclusive; all concepts and practices have more or less of these three characteristics: (1) learning the concept itself is limited below Grade 6 and learning related to advanced concepts becomes extensive above Grade 7, (2) learning about the concepts becomes progressively more advanced and extensive throughout K–12 education, and (3) learning about the concepts becomes more advanced in scope and complexity throughout K–12 education as the context in which concepts are applied becomes more advanced. Classifications are based on the concept or practice's most prominent features.

Regarding the first classification, while learning about hardware and software, algorithms, and program development concepts was limited to Grade 6 and below, learning related to advanced concepts became extensive in Grade 7 and above. Oda et al. [25] analyzed K–12 computer science curricula in seven countries, including England, South Korea, and New Zealand, and reported that computer science concepts and practices tend to be described together. The computer science concepts in this classification tended to be described together with multiple practices below Grade 6 and above Grade 7. For example, hardware and software descriptions are described together with Practice 3, Practice 5, and Practice 6 below Grade 6 and Practice 5, Practice 6, and Practice 7 above Grade 7 [25]. *Algorithms* are described together with Practice 3, Practice 5, and Practice 6 below Grade 6 and Practice 3, Practice 4, Practice 5, Practice 6, and Practice 7 above Grade 7 [25]. Therefore, in this classification, learning activities that combine multiple practices with limited concepts are the primary focus below Grade 6, whereas learning related to advanced concepts, combined with practices, becomes extensive above Grade 7.

In the countries examined in this study, for the second classification, learning about *variables* and *control* became more advanced throughout K–12 education, with students learning about and then building on the sequence, selection, iteration, and variables to acquire knowledge of nested control and data structures. Therefore, it is likely that in this classification, students gradually learn advanced concepts through K–12 education. In addition, *variables* and *control* tended to be described together with limited computer science practices below Grade 6 and an increased number of practices above Grade 7. For example, *variables* and *control* were described together with Practice 5 below
<table><caption>**Table 1.** Sequence trends of computer science concepts in curriculum descriptions.</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Below Grade 6</th><th>Above Grade 7</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Hardware and software</td><td>The curricula descriptions were combined with practices, such as controlling physical systems, in England and South Korea. However, in New Zealand, the content is mainly related to understanding the underlying mechanism, including identifying the inputs and outputs of a system</td><td>Beginning with the characteristics of digital information and the roles of hardware and software, understanding of operating systems and resource management increased with grade level</td></tr><tr><td>Network Communication and Organization</td><td>The focus was on recognizing and understanding the basic concepts of the internet</td><td>Understanding the characteristics of networks and setting up network environments were also covered</td></tr><tr><td>Collection and visualization and transformation</td><td>The curriculum included collecting, analyzing, evaluating, and presenting data and information to achieve goals</td><td>The curriculum included collecting, analyzing, and presenting data and information to achieve challenging goals</td></tr><tr><td>Storage</td><td colspan="2">All grade levels focused on an understanding of storing content on digital devices</td></tr><tr><td>Algorithms</td><td>The curriculum began with the definition of algorithms and their characteristics. As the grade level increased, the curriculum descriptions were combined with practices, such as designing and debugging algorithms</td><td>The curriculum included advanced algorithms, such as sorting and searching, understanding the existence of alternative algorithms for the same problem, and comparing and evaluating their effectiveness</td></tr><tr><td>Variables and Control</td><td>The curriculum included sequence, selection, iteration, and variables combined with program development</td><td>The curriculum included nested control structures and data structures</td></tr><tr><td>Program development</td><td>Education started by creating simple programs, and as the grade level increased, the curriculum descriptions became more advanced and combined with other sub-concepts</td><td>The curriculum included multiple programming languages, understanding the development environment of programming languages, and programming with advanced variables and control structures</td></tr></tbody></table>

(continued)
<table><caption>**Table 1. (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Below Grade 6</th><th>Above Grade 7</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><em>Culture</em></td><td>Beginning with an understanding that humans make digital devices, followed by describing how people use information technology, and as the grade level increased, clarifying the effects of digital devices and software on people's lives</td><td>Beginning with how information technology affects individuals and society, and as the grade level increased, understanding of the effects of data and advanced technology on society</td></tr><tr><td><em>Social interactions</em></td><td>The curriculum included information technology's role in society, such as providing opportunities for communication and collaboration</td><td>Beginning with the influence of information technology on work, and as the grade level increased, materials also included identifying social effects and career paths in the field of information science</td></tr><tr><td><em>Safety, law, and ethics</em></td><td>The curriculum included safe use of technology and understanding of personal information</td><td>Beginning with the protection of personal information and copyright, and as the grade level increased, the materials focused on using personal information</td></tr></tbody></table>

Grade 6 and Practices 4, 5, 6, and 7 above Grade 7 [25]. Therefore, it is assumed that students learn these concepts gradually, become more advanced over time, and deepen their knowledge by combining limited practices below Grade 6 and broad practices above Grade 7.

For the third classification, the application of *collection, visualization and transformation, storage, culture, social interactions, safety, law, and ethics* concepts changed in K–12 education. Different trends in the association of these concepts with the practice were identified. For example, *collection, visualization and transformation* were described together with limited practices below Grade 6 and above Grade 7 [25]. Therefore, it is assumed that these concepts are learned by themselves rather than in connection with practices. As in the first classification, *storage* tended to be described with multiple practices below Grade 6 and above Grade 7 [25]. Since *storage* descriptions were found only in New Zealand among the three countries, more curricula descriptions should be investigated to understand the trends in the concept. *Culture, social interactions, safety, law, and ethics* tended to be described with limited practices below Grade 6 and more practices above Grade 7 [25], similar to the second classification. Thus, learning activities, such as *collection, visualization and transformation*, changed in the contexts that excluded practices, whereas *storage, culture, social interactions, safety, law, and ethics* changed in the contexts that included practices.
<table><caption>**Table 2.** Sequence trends of computer science practices in curriculum descriptions.</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">Below Grade 6</th><th>Above Grade 7</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Practice 1</td><td>Practice 1.2</td><td>All grade levels considered end-users in authentic contexts.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Practice 3</td><td>Practice 3.1</td><td>The curriculum descriptions were related to the application of problem-solving procedures.</td><td>Beginning with an understanding of the status and goals of the problem, and as the grade level increased, the materials included the status and goals of complex problems.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Practice 3.2</td><td>The curriculum included decomposing problems and tasks.</td><td>The curriculum included problem decomposition and classification of necessary and unnecessary elements for problem-solving.</td></tr><tr><td>Practice 4</td><td>Practice 4.2</td><td>The curriculum included selecting necessary technologies according to their purpose.</td><td>Beginning with identifying the key features of the software and selecting software to develop digital content, and as the grade level increased, educational materials incorporated the analysis and evaluation of digital technologies.</td></tr><tr><td>Practice 5</td><td>Practice 5.1</td><td>The curriculum included designing simple programs.</td><td>The curriculum included the design of programs and algorithms.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Practice 5.2</td><td>The curriculum included creating simple programs.</td><td>The curriculum included creating complex programs.</td></tr><tr><td>Practice 6</td><td>Practice 6.1</td><td>All grade levels included digital content testing.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Practice 6.2</td><td>Debugging was included to find and fix errors in programs and algorithms, both with and without computers.</td><td>The curriculum included debugging and modifying programs and algorithms and being able to express their cause and solution.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Practice 6.3</td><td>The curriculum included the evaluation of information to achieve objectives.</td><td>Beginning with the evaluation of digital content, and as the grade level increased, evaluation expanded to include social and ethical considerations and the intended purpose.</td></tr><tr><td>Practice 7</td><td>Practice 7.3</td><td>The curriculum included the meaning of intellectual property and its application in daily life.</td><td>The curriculum included respecting technology and applying personal information and copyright knowledge to the real world.</td></tr></tbody></table>

## 4.2 Suggestions for Designing Computer Science Curricula for Primary Level

Two suggestions for designing computer science curricula for primary education are outlined.

First, this study classified the computer science curriculum sequence in K–12 education into the three categories described above. The trends of these three computer science concepts could be applied to the Grade 6 and below curriculum while considering curriculum coherence above Grade 7. Second, rather than changing the computer science practices throughout K–12 education, they were changing in combination with computer science concepts. Since the above analysis also showed trends in the computer science practices described together with the computer science concepts, these trends could be incorporated into the curriculum design of computer science in primary education.

In addition, using the K–12 Computer Science Framework, Oda et al. [26] examined the Japanese curriculum and indicated that the computer science concepts or practices had not changed coherently in primary education. The findings of this study can be used to consider coherence when examining the computer science curriculum in Japanese primary schools.
# 5 Conclusion

To gain information for designing the computer science curriculum in primary education in Japan, this study analyzed the trends of computer science curricula sequences in K-12 education in England, South Korea, and New Zealand, because these three countries have established computer science curricula. The main trends of the sequences were classified into three categories: (1) learning the concept itself is limited below Grade 6 and learning related to advanced concepts becomes extensive above Grade 7, (2) learning about the concepts becomes progressively more advanced and extensive throughout K-12 education, and (3) learning about the concepts becomes more advanced in scope and complexity throughout K-12 education as the context in which concepts are applied becomes more advanced. The implications from this study can be applied to K-12 computer science curriculum design in Japan and also in other countries around the world. This study focused on the intended curriculum and did not include the taught curriculum or learned curriculum. Since there is a gap between these curricula, further research on taught curriculum and learned curriculum is necessary.

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