# Environmental stress on sedentary livestock farming and adaptation strategies in urban and peri-urban areas of the Cameroonian Sahel

Alexis Dzokom, Yakouba Blama, Roger Djouldé Darman

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Alexis Dzokom, Yakouba Blama, Roger Djouldé Darman. Environmental stress on sedentary livestock farming and adaptation strategies in urban and peri-urban areas of the Cameroonian Sahel. Sahel Nature Consulting Revue, In press, Environmental stress on sedentary livestock farming, 9 (12), pp.1-20. hal-05011446

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Submitted on 7 Apr 2025

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# Environmental stress on sedentary livestock farming and adaptation strategies in urban and peri-urban areas of the Cameroonian Sahel

Alexis DZOKOM<fnref n="1" />, Yakouba BLAMA<fnref n="2" />, Roger Djouldé DARMAN<fnref n="3" />

## Abstract

Sedentary livestock farming in urban and peri-urban areas of the Sahel region of Cameroon faces various environmental stresses exacerbated by climate change and rapid urbanization. This article examines the main challenges, including natural resource degradation, reduced pasture, water insecurity and high temperatures. These constraints compromise not only livestock productivity but also the livelihoods of livestock keepers, who are often marginalized in expanding urban spaces. The objective of this study was to diagnose the environmental stresses related to sedentary livestock farming and traditional adaptation strategies in order to identify the main constraints hindering its development and to formulate recommendations for a contribution to the improvement of these types of livestock farming. The study is based on a mixed approach combining field surveys among sedentary livestock keepers, climate analyses, an assessment of local resources and the carbon footprint of this activity. The results show that livestock farmers adopt various adaptation strategies, such as the diversification of feed sources (use of industrial feed and agricultural residues) in the dry season, with fodder crops consumed (86.54±00.75 kg/Ha) generating an ecological footprint of 0.042±0.007 m<fnref n="2" />. In 2010, 58.28±02.07% of women mainly practice sedentary livestock farming in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel while 71.15±07.14% of men mainly practice sedentary livestock farming in the humid plain zone of the Sahel. The main socio-economic characteristic of households in the Cameroonian Sahel is the coexistence between agriculture and livestock farming, the integration of agriculture and livestock farming, the development of semi-intensive systems, and the improvement of mixed-use water points. In the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the average annual CO2 emission generated by sedentary livestock farming is 75,146±9187.39 ppm/farm. However, these strategies remain limited by unequal access to resources, lack of institutional support and land use conflicts between livestock farmers and other urban actors. The article recommends better urban planning, promotion of agro ecological practices and capacity building of livestock farmers to improve the resilience of sedentary livestock farming to environmental and socio-economic challenges.

Keywords: Sedentary livestock farming, environmental stresses, adaptation strategies, Sahel, Cameroon

## 1. Introduction

The world population is growing and will increase from 7.2 billion people today to 9.6 billion in 2050 (GERBER et al., 2014). According to FAO forecasts (2011), the emergence of a global middle class and the diversification of diets are resulting in a sharp increase in demand for animal products (meat and milk), which is expected to increase by 73% and 58% respectively between 2010 and 2050. The worst impact of climate change is felt by livestock farming because it negatively impacts animal production (TODARO and SMITH, 2009) and the natural resources necessary

for its growth are constantly decreasing from year to year (APATA et al., 2009; DERESSA et al., 2009; IUCN, 2010) because of its strong dependence on natural resources, specifically fodder and water (SEO and MENDELSOHN, 2008; IUCN, 2010), the availability of which depends on the climate. The number of agricultural households in Cameroon was nearly 2 million in 2009, including 550 lived exclusively from livestock and fishing (ONDOA and AYONG 2013).

Due to growing insecurity in remote grazing areas (security crisis due to Boko Haram), practices such as housing in goat farms and

<footnote n="1">¹Department of Environmental Sciences, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry and By-Products, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry and By-Products, Faculty of Sciences, University of Garoua, Cameroon</footnote>
feeding with fodder crops come together
and synthesize a desire of breeders to
"stabilize" their goats year-round, in a goat
farm close to home (SOW et al., 2022).
Finally, intensive breeding tends to be
concentrated in areas where production
costs are lower (often near cities or ports)
but where there is not enough land to allow
waste recycling, which leads to pollution
and overload (GERBER et al., 2014). It is
also a significant user of fresh water, if we
include the production of food consumed by
animals (BLANFORT et al., 2011;
DZOKOM, 2021; DZOKOM and
DJOULDÉ, 2024; DZOKOM, &
DJOULDE, 2025).

In the northern regions of Cameroon, cattle (Zebu Bororo, Kapsiki, etc.) were maintained by pastoral societies, which owned the majority of the cattle herd, and by certain groups of farmers who made sacrificial and cultural use of them (fattening of the bull slaughtered during the Maray festival in the Mandara Mountains; means of payment of the dowry among the Toupouri, the Massa and the Moundang) (BLAMA et al., 2016). These semi-extensive systems are essentially based on the free exploitation of natural resources (fodder, water), which does not allow for the optimal expression of zootechnical performances (BLAMA et al., 2016). The adaptation strategies identified will constitute a basic reference for measuring the impact of actions on both the environment and the animal in several areas of the Cameroonian Sahel. This study, conducted in the Cameroonian Sahel, aims to diagnose environmental stresses related to livestock farming and traditional adaptation strategies. In other words, it aims to identify the main constraints hindering its development and to formulate recommendations for a contribution to the improvement of some livestock farms.

**2. Materials and methods**

**2.1. Presentation of the study area**

The study area is located in the Sahelian
mountainous areas in the far north of
Cameroon and covers 7,129 km² or 1.49% of
the national territory. It is bordered to the
north by Chad and to the west by Nigeria.
It has two (2) seasons, including a rainy
season. The use of environmental mapping
according to the Ramsar distributions of
the Sahelian zone made it possible to
categorize the study area as follows:

**2.1.1. The Sahelian arid mountainous zone**

Zone 1 (open pastoral zone) extends from east to west in the Far North region. The soils are sandy-clayey and sensitive to wind erosion. The low annual rainfall makes the area very marginal for rainfed farming in favor of livestock farming, which is the basic economic activity. There is a low population density (17 inhabitants/km²) behind which hides a high animal density of 28 UBT/km², or 5 hectares/UBT/year. The mobility of men and animals is explained by the permanent search for pastures.

**2.1.2. The Sahelian humid plain zone**

Zone 2 (agro-pastoral zone in the process of saturation) is made up of the valleys of the Bénoué and its tributaries Faro and Maya Kebbi. Here there has been peneplanation of ancient and sedimentary lands from the Cretaceous and large Quaternary alluvial deposits along the watercourses. The overall slope is from east to west. The lowest part is between 170 and 250 m above sea level; it is bordered to the north and south by sandstone plateaus of 400 to 500 m above sea level. With a low population density (35 inhabitants/km²), the area is mainly sedentary. Currently (as elsewhere in the country), there is a struggle for individualized land appropriation, which makes relations between sedentary and transhumant populations more conflictual.

**2.1.3. The Sahelian Arid Plain Zone**

Zone 3 (saturated agro-pastoral zone) is
made up of the Chad basin. It is a vast area
of tertiary, quaternary and current alluvial
spreading centered on Lake Chad and varying from 260 to 350 m in altitude. It is particularly characterized by the vast plains of the lower Chari and the Lower Logone, of which the Yaéré constitutes one of the typical landscapes of the far north of Cameroon. Sedentarization is increasingly advanced while animal mortality remains almost permanent. The resource management method is marked by a tendency towards land appropriation after the extension of cultivated areas.

## 2.2. Sampling of livestock farms

Two hundred and twenty (220) households belonging to ten (10) villages spread across the three (3) pastoral zones were surveyed over the period from February 2012 to May 2024. Data collection was carried out on farms on a sample of 10 animals/farm (poultry, goats and cattle). The village selection criteria were as follows:

i) the relative importance of pastoral activity in socio-economic activities;

ii) accessibility of villages;

iii) availability of livestock farmers;

iv) proximity to major markets in the area.

Based on these criteria, the following villages were selected: Mokolo, Mogodé, Mémé and Mora in the northern zone of the Far North (Sahelian arid mountainous zone). Bogo, Mindif and Yagoua (Sahelian wet plain zone) in the central zone of the Far North. Guider, Lagdo and Tcholiré (Sahelian arid plain zone) in the southern zone of the Far North. At the level of each of the villages selected, the criteria concerning the size of the livestock population present at the time of the surveys was predominant (households with a minimum of between 5 and 50 heads, taking into account those with more than 50 individuals). Based on these criteria, the distribution of the study sample in the zones is as follows: 113 households (Northern zone), 54 households (central zone) and 53 households (Southern zone). (Table 1).

<table><caption>**Table 1:** Number of individuals raised according to the villages and households surveyed over the period February 2014-May 2024</caption><thead><tr><th>Data collection area</th><th>Average number of households/villages surveyed</th><th>Total households surveyed / Zone</th><th>Number of poultry farms / villages surveyed</th><th>Number of goat farmers / villages surveyed</th><th>Number of cattle farms / villages surveyed</th><th>Total workforce / area</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Zone 1</td><td>28.25</td><td>113</td><td>177.5</td><td>383.25</td><td>262.5</td><td>3293</td></tr><tr><td>Zone 2</td><td>18.03</td><td>54</td><td>124.02</td><td>281.92</td><td>278.29</td><td>2732</td></tr><tr><td>Zone 3</td><td>17.57</td><td>53</td><td>123.25</td><td>277.71</td><td>226.75</td><td>2508</td></tr></tbody></table>

### 2.2.1. Feed sampling on farms

The sampling of basic feed was inspired by Regulation (EU) No 619/2011, as direct sampling followed by weighing of each feed sample for the trials was conducted:

- 3000±100 g for maize bran was sampled and weighed

- 2000±65 g for soya spent grains was sampled and weighed

- 500±05 g of the mixture of millet bran and rice husk, corresponding to an average of 10,000±187 seeds

- 5000±50 kg of the mixture of roughage

- 1000±35 g of the mixture of stones and licks was sampled and weighed

- From 1 to 400 units of feed (solid and liquid) packed in bags, sacks, boxes, barrels (weighing from 50±05 g to more than 500 kg or liters)

- collected and weighed 2500±250 kg of the mixture of bulk solid food/food leftovers
- measured 2500±250 litres of bulk liquid food

## 2.3. Data collection

The Active Research and Participatory Planning Method (MARPP) used in this work consisted of more or less structured interviews. This socio-economic data collection tool aims to obtain information in person, individually (Individual questionnaire submitted to the head of household) or in small groups, through a series of questions asked (DZOKOM, 2021). A pre-test of the questionnaires was administered at the start of the breeding. The information (as a pre-test of the questionnaires) collected from the farms on a sample of 10 animals/farm (poultry, goats and cattle) is recorded in a sheet serving as a conversation guide with the possibility of readjusting the questions during the interview. The information was collected using a formal questionnaire developed. The questionnaire itself was administered at mid-livestock growth. The post-test was conducted towards the end of the year or at the end of the breeding season. The studies and data collections were conducted for 10 years (2012-2022), in order to better specify the information deemed relevant. In parallel with the surveys, a zootechnical monitoring, having covered at least two (2) production cycles, allowed the monthly recording of different parameters: mortalities, farrowings, resistant forms after each season (Survival rate, Weight recovery rate, Prevalence of parasitic diseases, Prevalence of respiratory diseases, Feed conversion ratio) and cycles of occurrence of climatic events, etc., in sedentary farms in northern Cameroon.

## 2.4. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions assessment

The environmental impact assessment was conducted on farms on a sample of 10 animals/farm (poultry, goats and cattle). The assessment of the “greenhouse effect” environmental impact consists of taking stock of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and compensations (carbon storage)

observed at the different stages of production (GAC et al. 2010):

$$ \text{GHG balance} = \text{GHG\_direct} + \text{GHG\_indirect} - \text{Storage C} \quad \text{(Equation 1)} $$

With: Direct GHGs correspond to emissions occurring on the farm, Indirect GHGs are linked to inputs and Storage C, is the storage of carbon under meadows and hedges.

## 2.5. Gas emissions from sedentary livestock farming

Methane ($CH_4$), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) are the main GHGs emitted by agriculture. These emissions are most commonly established by combining information on a “quantity” of activity (activity data, DA) and coefficients that quantify emissions per unit of activity (emission factors, EF) (GAC et al. 2010):

$$ \text{Emissions} = \text{FE} \times \text{DA} \quad \text{(Equation 2)} $$

Emission factors, adapted to the agro-pastoral production conditions of the Cameroonian Sahel

## 2.6. Carbon footprint due to the sedentary livestock environment

The implementation of the carbon footprint calculation mobilizes a set of variables (equation 3) (GAC et al. 2010):

- Technical data, called primary, directly accessible at the farm scale (livestock, areas, production, etc.);

- Secondary technical data, calculated from primary data on the basis of reference or hypotheses (nitrogen excreted, quantities of droppings, etc.);

- Emission factors (EF), which will make it possible to translate activity data into greenhouse gas emissions ($CH_4$, CO and $CO_2$);

- Characterization factors (CF), which make it possible to translate all contributions of gases to the greenhouse effect into impact on the greenhouse effect, expressed in a common unit: the $CO_2$ equivalent.
We use the global warming potentials (GWP) of each gas (CH₄: 25; CO: 2; CO₂: 1).

Equation 3 Steps for calculating the carbon footprint and example of N₂O, CO, CH₄

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

(Equation 3)

**2.7. Statistical analysis of data**

The data obtained were organized using
Microsoft Office Excel 2011 software.

Statistical analyses were carried out using SPSS (Statistical Package For Social Sciences) software and focused on descriptive statistics (frequency, mean).

**3. Results and discussion**

**3.1. Characteristics of the study sample**

The age of the herders varies between 30 and 80 years for 63.53±06.48% of herders from the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel (zone 1), 85.69±04.93% of herders from the humid plain zone of the Sahel (zone 2) and 92.77±09.44% of herders from the arid plain zone of the Sahel (zone 3). Agriculture and livestock farming are their main occupations, followed by trade and crafts. In pastoral zone 1, livestock farming is the main activity followed by crafts and trade. 98.72% of the total number of herders surveyed indicate that sedentary livestock farming remains a secondary activity although they have been practicing it for more than ten (10) years. Poultry farming is mainly practiced by women (79.37% in zone 1, 89.44% in zone 2 and 79.88% in zone 3). The level of education is also low; more than 86.75% of farmers interviewed did not attend school in the North (zone 1), 96.64% in the Center (zone 2) and 76.82% in the South (zone 3) of the study area. Overall, 86.73% of peasant farmers are not educated and only 13.26% of farmers interviewed are educated. Farm managers in the three zones are mainly men (93.88±04.93%) with an average age of 43.09±05.76 years.

**3.2. Socio-ecological and socio-economic characteristics of the livestock system in the Cameroonian Sahel**

**3.2.1. Social characteristics of sedentary livestock farmers**

The socio-economic characteristics are specific to each zone. In the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the main activity of family sedentary livestock farms is primarily livestock farming (67.83%) and agriculture (22.79%). In the humid plain zone of the Sahel, the main activity is agriculture (41.47%) and livestock farming follows closely (40.89%). In the arid plain zone of the Sahel, the main activity is agriculture (45.66%), followed by livestock farming (39.73%). Overall, the main socio-economic characteristic of households in the Cameroonian Sahel is the coexistence of agriculture and livestock farming. Other activities such as crafts, trade, and other services remain secondary activities.

**3.3. Ecological impacts of sedentary livestock**

**3.3.1. Resistant forms after each season in sedentary livestock in northern Cameroon**

The table below presents data on the forms of resistance of sedentary livestock after each season in three agroecological zones of the Sahel in Cameroon:

* Sahelian arid mountainous zone (SAMZ)

* Sahelian humid plain zone (SHPZ)
* Sahelian arid plain zone (SAPZ)

<table><caption>Table: Resistant forms after each season</caption><thead><tr><th>Parameters assessed</th><th>After dry season</th><th>After rainy season</th><th>After cold season (harmattan)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="3">Animal survival rate (%)</td><td>SAMZ: 76.8 ± 5.4</td><td>SAMZ: 80.5 ± 4.9</td><td>SAMZ: 73.4 ± 6.1</td></tr><tr><td>SHPZ: 83.2 ± 4.6</td><td>SHPZ: 86.7 ± 4.2</td><td>SHPZ: 79.5 ± 5.0</td></tr><tr><td>SAPZ: 74.5 ± 6.0</td><td>SAPZ: 78.2 ± 5.5</td><td>SAPZ: 71.8 ± 6.7</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Weight recovery rate (%)</td><td>SAMZ: 62.7 ± 7.5</td><td>SAMZ: 68.9 ± 6.2</td><td>SAMZ: 60.2 ± 7.8</td></tr><tr><td>SHPZ: 71.5 ± 6.8</td><td>SHPZ: 76.4 ± 5.7</td><td>SHPZ: 67.8 ± 6.5</td></tr><tr><td>SAPZ: 59.8 ± 8.0</td><td>SAPZ: 64.5 ± 7.3</td><td>SAPZ: 57.6 ± 8.1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Prevalence of parasitic diseases (%)</td><td>SAMZ: 10.2 ± 2.3</td><td>SAMZ: 25.8 ± 4.6</td><td>SAMZ: 8.5 ± 2.0</td></tr><tr><td>SHPZ: 15.6 ± 3.1</td><td>SHPZ: 30.5 ± 4.3</td><td>SHPZ: 12.3 ± 2.7</td></tr><tr><td>SAPZ: 9.4 ± 2.5</td><td>SAPZ: 22.9 ± 4.9</td><td>SAPZ: 7.9 ± 2.4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Prevalence of respiratory diseases (%)</td><td>SAMZ: 9.3 ± 1.7</td><td>SAMZ: 6.8 ± 1.4</td><td>SAMZ: 14.9 ± 3.0</td></tr><tr><td>SHPZ: 6.5 ± 1.3</td><td>SHPZ: 4.9 ± 1.2</td><td>SHPZ: 10.4 ± 2.5</td></tr><tr><td>SAPZ: 11.2 ± 1.9</td><td>SAPZ: 8.1 ± 1.6</td><td>SAPZ: 18.5 ± 3.6</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Feed conversion ratio (kg feed/kg weight gain)</td><td>SAMZ: 7.3 ± 1.0</td><td>SAMZ: 5.8 ± 0.7</td><td>SAMZ: 7.9 ± 1.1</td></tr><tr><td>SHPZ: 6.2 ± 0.9</td><td>SHPZ: 4.9 ± 0.6</td><td>SHPZ: 6.5 ± 0.9</td></tr><tr><td>SAPZ: 7.8 ± 1.2</td><td>SAPZ: 6.4 ± 0.8</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

### 3.3.1.1. Impact of season on survival and weight recovery

Survival is highest in the Sahelian humid plain zone (SHPZ) after each season, suggesting higher food availability and better access to water resources.

The Sahelian arid plain zone (SAPZ) shows the lowest survival, which may be related to the scarcity of water and pasture resources.

After the dry season, weight recovery is better in SHPZ (71.5 ± 6.8%) than in SAPZ (59.8 ± 8.0%), indicating lower resilience of dryland animals to prolonged food shortages.

### 3.3.1.2. Disease prevalence

Parasitic diseases increase after the rainy season, especially in SHPZ (30.5 ± 4.3%), which is consistent with the increase in humidity favoring the proliferation of parasites (strongylosis, trypanosomiasis, flukes).

Respiratory diseases have a higher prevalence rate after the harmattan, especially in SAPZ (18.5 ± 3.6%), due to

increased exposure to dust and cold wind, factors aggravating respiratory infections.

### 3.3.1.3. Feed efficiency and metabolic resilience

The feed conversion ratio is lower in SHPZ after each season, indicating a better use of food resources for the production of body weight. In SAPZ, the index is higher (8.2 ± 1.3 after the harmattan), reflecting a higher food consumption for a lower weight gain, confirming an increased nutritional stress.

In summary, SHPZ herds are generally more resilient, with better weight performance and higher survival rates, but they are exposed to an increased risk of parasitic diseases. SAPZ herds experience more nutritional and climatic stress, resulting in higher mortality and low weight recovery rates. SAMZ herds show intermediate resilience, with adaptation to heat stress, but vulnerability to respiratory infections after the harmattan. These results suggest that specific adaptation strategies must be implemented by zone such as in:

* SHPZ, parasite prevention and improved pasture management must be strengthened.
• SAPZ, food resources and access to water must be improved to minimize nutritional stress.

• SAMZ, protective measures against respiratory diseases must be implemented during the harmattan.

### 3.3.2. Impacts of perceived temperatures and the quantity of water consumed on reproduction in sedentary livestock farming

In the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the birth rate that can reach more than 04 weeks on farms is 54.89±04.74% while the quantity of water consumed by young animals is 05.23±01.90 L/Day/Farm (65.25±02.00% for small males and 34.19±02.22% for females). In the humid plain zone of the Sahel, the birth rate that can reach more than 04 weeks on farms is 54.85±04.50% with a quantity of water consumed by young animals of 07.19±01.93 L/Day/Farm (57.11±02.24% for males and 42.97±01.79% for females). In the arid plain zone of the Sahel, the birth rate that can reach more than 04 weeks on farms is 54.85±03.44% with a quantity of water consumed by young animals of 10.18±01.72 L/Day/Farm (42.29±03.16% for males and 57.41±06.76% for females). The proximity of water points has only a limited long-term effect on the composition and structure of the herbaceous layer, except for the first few hundred meters around the water point, which are subject to intense trampling and significant deposits of livestock excretions (BAZIN et al., 2013). Overall, it appears that between 2012 and 2022, the perceived temperatures varied from one year to another, with a maximum (44.16±02.43°C) reached in 2022 with a calving rate of 72.70±3.76% in the same year. The minimum perceived temperature (42.72±00.76°C) was observed in 2016 with a calving rate of 51.47±02.28% in the same year. Thus, in the arid-mountainous zone of the Cameroonian Sahel, the average

temperature felt annually was 42.06±00.69°C with an average calving rate of 53.19±05.14%. In the humid plain zone of the Sahel, the average temperature felt annually was 43.56±00.55°C with an average calving rate of 56.83±06.08%. In the arid plain zone of the Sahel, the average temperature felt annually was 44.50±00.69°C with an average calving rate of 52.29±03.16%. Breeders constantly adjust grazing pressure to the availability of local and seasonal fodder, in order to guarantee good animal health, high reproduction rates and milk production which largely ensures its food security (BAZIN et al., 2013). Furthermore, it is noted that when perceived temperatures are high, the overall birth rate decreases and when perceived temperatures are low, the overall birth rate increases due to the high heat felt by animals in sedentary breeding situations. This high heat would be due to the low variation in daytime and nighttime heat observed in sedentary breeding pens. Heat stress also impacts reproduction, by reducing the length and intensity of heat, but also fertility and embryo survival (BAZIN et al., 2013).

### 3.3.3. Impacts of the proximity of the breeding site with the natural environment/Bush on the lifespan of animals in sedentary breeding situations

Within a radius of [0-1000] meters in the dry season, 70.53±13.99% of sedentary breeding is carried out in the humid plain zone of the Sahel (zone 2), 16.85±2.66% of sedentary breeding is carried out in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel and 12.53±12.35% of sedentary breeding is carried out in the arid plain zone of the Sahel. In pastoral areas, the short-term impact of high grazing pressures in the rainy season explains the low standing grass masses observed at the end of the winter and the impacts on woody stands are contradictory (BAZIN et al., 2013).
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5:** Proximity of the breeding site to the natural environment as a function of the lifespan of animals in sedentary breeding situations</figcaption></figure>

In the same radius in the rainy season, 55.56±08.35% of sedentary livestock farming is carried out in the humid plain zone of the Sahel, 37.40±11.81% of sedentary livestock farming is carried out in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel and 07.04±04.75% of sedentary livestock farming is carried out in the arid plain zone of the Sahel. It appears that the low livestock farming in zone 3 is due to the fact that in this zone, the surroundings of the farm are dedicated either to intensive agriculture or to the built environment not suitable for grazing for sedentary livestock farming. Good regeneration is observed for species whose seed dispersal is favored by livestock, others regenerate poorly (BAZIN et al., 2013). On the other hand, it is noted that the wetland of the Sahel is more suitable for livestock farming and where animals can also develop privileged contacts with nature within a radius of [0-1000] meters in all seasons. Longer-term

negative effects on soils and rangeland productivity are rarely observed and correspond to sites where livestock farming has settled (BAZIN et al., 2013). The average lifespan of poultry in sedentary farming is higher (148.79±0.92 weeks) in the wet plain zone of the Sahel, medium (14.95±02.56 weeks) in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel and low (147.93±01.16 weeks) in the arid plain zone of the Sahel. The average lifespan of goats in sedentary farming is higher (336.22±0.88 weeks) in the humid plain zone of the Sahel, medium (335.56±0.92 weeks) in the arid plain zone of the Sahel and low (332.15±05.18 weeks) in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel. The average lifespan of cattle in sedentary farming is higher (692.67±10.97 weeks) in the humid plain zone of the Sahel, medium (683.27±8.93 weeks) in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel and low (618.79±00.92 weeks) in the arid plain zone
of the Sahel. It appears that the average lifespan of animals in sedentary breeding is higher in the humid plain zone of the Cameroonian Sahel because they are more in contact with nature, and lower in the arid plain zone of the Sahel because they are least in contact with nature. In traditional African breeding, it is difficult to define with any precision an average age of culling; it can, however, be located according to the surveys on herd structures that have been carried out: around 10-12 years for zebus, around 12-14 years for taurines, around 7 years for sheep and goats (COULOMB et al., 1980).

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

DEVELOPMENT

TECHNICAL

ECONOMIC
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1:** Level of education and schooling of farmers' children</figcaption></figure>
### 3.3.6. Cleaning frequency, waste management and digestive diseases recorded in the herd

In the Sahel region, in the dry season, 84.95±03.46% of sedentary breeders clean the breeding site at least twice a week and waste is predominantly at 49.25±02.54%. This waste, in the dry season, is the cause of 42.56±06.87% of digestive diseases recorded in the herd.

In the rainy season, 84.95±09.28% of sedentary breeders clean the breeding site at least more than 3 times a week and waste is reused at 80.17±06.57%. These wastes, during the rainy season, are the cause of 46.99±06.97% of digestive diseases recorded in livestock.

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 9:** Relationship between cleaning frequency, waste management and the frequency of occurrence of digestive diseases recorded in the herd</figcaption></figure>

In Africa or India, near water points, water pollution is linked to animal droppings which are added to human waste and to varying degrees, mixed agriculture-livestock systems allow the use of waste produced by the other activity (by-products, organic matter) (BLANFORT et al., 2011; DZOKOM, 2021; DZOKOM and DJOULDÉ, 2024; DZOKOM, & DJOULDE, 2025).

### 3.3.4. Gas emissions, Carbon footprint due to the sedentary livestock environment

In the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the average annual net emission of CO2 in the sedentary livestock environment is 75,146±9187.39 ppm/farm, the average annual net emission of CH4 is 81,839±2878.82 ppm/farm and the average annual net emission of CO is 48±02.32 ppm/farm. In the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the carbon footprint per farm per year in the sedentary livestock environment is 0.034±0.002 Hag/farm. In the humid plain zone of the Sahel, the carbon footprint per farm per year in the sedentary livestock environment is 0.033±0.002 Hag/farm. In the arid plain zone of the Sahel, the carbon footprint per farm per year in the sedentary livestock environment is 0.040±0.004 Hag/farm (Figure 12). According to the IPCC calculation methods (IPCC 2007a, b) which only include emissions directly attributable to the agricultural sector, these would be responsible for 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions, 31% of which would be attributable to the livestock subsector alone. In Africa, arid zones would contain nearly 60% of the continent's carbon stock and although the carbon sequestration rate in pastures is lower than that of cultivated soils, the overall carbon
storage potential in pastoral ecosystems is very high given the large areas of pastures (BAZIN et al., 2013). In the more arid Sahelian zone, where annual herbaceous vegetation dominates, the biomass located above ground is limited and most of the carbon is stored below ground (BAZIN et al., 2013).

### 3.3.5. Carbon balance due to the sedentary livestock environment

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 12:** Relationship between carbon balance, gas emissions and annual carbon footprint due to sedentary livestock farming environment</figcaption></figure>

Agriculture, and in particular cattle breeding, is one of the sectors that emits the most GHGs, responsible for climate change on a global scale. However, it is also in this sector that lies a large capacity for carbon capture (SAUMADE, 2023).

### 3.3.3.6. Economic impacts of sedentary livestock farming

In the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the average seasonal carbon balance per farm in the sedentary livestock environment is 27060.04±438.42 tons of CO2/season/farm, 26610.31±8852.61 tons in the humid plain zone of the Sahel and 30620.28±353.87 tons of CO2/season/farm in the arid plain zone of the Sahel.

Women mainly carry out sedentary livestock farming in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel at 58.28±02.07%, while in the humid plain zone of the Sahel, men mainly carry out sedentary livestock farming (71.15±07.14%), and this same gender mainly carries out sedentary livestock farming in the arid plain zone of the Sahel at 53.95±07.14%. Sedentary livestock farming is a socio-economic
activity existing in rural and peri-urban areas (BLAMA et al., 2016).

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 14:** Main sources of average income for sedentary breeders according to the main activities carried out between 2012 and 2022</figcaption></figure>

Ruminant fattening is a socio-economic activity that can significantly improve the income of rural and semi-urban producers on the one hand, and on the other hand, the development of sedentary livestock farming would therefore go through this activity which is essentially economic and where the producer seeks to make the funds invested profitable (BLAMA et al., 2016).

### 3.3.6.1. Impacts of feeding with fodder crops in sedentary livestock farming

In the Sahel zone, during sedentary livestock farming in the dry season, feeding with fodder crops made it possible to determine the quantity of fodder consumed in the feed is $86.54 \pm 0.75$ kg / Ha generating an ecological footprint linked to the cultivation and consumption of fodder included in the feed $0.042 \pm 0.007$ Hag. In the rainy season, feeding with fodder crops made it possible to determine the quantity of fodder consumed in the diet is

$36.24 \pm 24.17$ kg/Ha generating an ecological footprint linked to the cultivation and consumption of fodder included in the diet $0.029 \pm 0.008$ Hag.

<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 15:** Ecological footprint based on the average quantity of fodder crops consumed between 2012 and 2022</figcaption></figure>

In the arid plain zone of the Sahel, the ecological footprint related to the cultivation and consumption of fodder included in the diet in zone 3 of sedentary livestock farming is higher ($0.049 \pm 0.004$ Hag) due to the use of artificial methods for fodder production despite the high aridity. However, this ecological footprint is lower in the humid plain zone of the Sahel ($0.023 \pm 0.001$ HaG) due to the use of natural methods to produce fodder. (Figure 15)

### 3.3.6.2. Impacts of feeding with industrial or pre-composed inputs in sedentary livestock farming

In the Sahel region, during sedentary livestock farming in the dry season, feeding with fodder crops made it possible to determine the quantity of fodder consumed in the diet is $83.16 \pm 05.86$ kg/Ha generating an ecological footprint linked to the cultivation and consumption of fodder included in the diet $0.029 \pm 0.008$ Hag. In the rainy season, feeding with fodder crops made it possible to determine the quantity of fodder consumed in the diet is $67.62 \pm 17.42$ kg/Ha generating an ecological footprint linked to the cultivation and consumption of fodder included in the diet
0.046±0.003 Hag. In the arid plain zone of the Sahel, the ecological footprint related to the cultivation and consumption of fodder included in the diet is higher (0.049±0.005 Hag) due to the use of artificial methods for fodder production despite the high aridity. However, this ecological footprint is higher during the rainy season than in the wet season with nuances such that it is low in the humid plain zone of the Sahel (0.023±0.003HaG) due to the use of natural methods to produce fodder. (Figure 16).

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 16:** Ecological footprint based on the quantity of average industrial or pre-composed inputs consumed between 2012 and 2022</figcaption></figure>

Access to free fodder resources such as natural rangelands is limited (KANOUN et al., 2015) and the variation in the price of

livestock feed on the local market is a factor that is not controlled by sedentary breeders and yet greatly influences the externalization of the genetic potential of local breeds (BLAMA et al., 2016). This has led to strong pressure on woody fodder species for the maintenance of urban and peri-urban livestock farming (SAKATAI, et al., 2021). In the forage plains of the Far North region of Cameroon, it has also been proven that the intensity of pruning is high to very high carried out on the same woody species indicated in this study (BALNA et al., 2015).

## 3.4. Cultural impacts of sedentary livestock farming

### 3.4.1. Cultural practice of sedentary livestock farming

Overall, in the Sahel, the cultural practice of sedentary livestock farming is more carried out in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel (57.81±00.96%), followed by the humid plain zone of the Sahel (56.07±01.08%) and the arid plain zone of the Sahel (50.25±03.01%). Production for family self-consumption, slaughter during socio-cultural and religious events (visits, weddings, baptisms, charity or tabaski, etc.) (SOW, 2022). Goats play important socio-economic, cultural, religious and nutritional (animal protein) roles for rural populations (MISSOHOU et al. 2016, 2004; DIOUF, 2012). Furthermore, studies have unanimously highlighted the important socio-cultural, religious and nutritional functions of goat farming and its cash flow role for rural households (GILLEROT, 2018; MISSOHOU et al., 2016; DIOUF 2012).
<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>Figure 18: Cultural practice, Cultural objective of sedentary livestock farming between 2012 and 2022</figcaption></figure>

### 3.4.2. Main cultural objective of sedentary livestock farming

Overall, in the Sahel, the cultural objective of sedentary livestock farming varies from one place to another. Indeed, in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the cultural objective of sedentary livestock farming is centered on slaughter for cultural purposes (Cultural Rites) at 83.51±03.25% with 51.77±05.89% of animals from sedentary livestock farming intended for sale and 46.91±02.45% of animals from sedentary livestock farming intended to increase the herd (Expression of social notoriety). In the humid plain zone of the Sahel, the cultural objective of sedentary livestock farming is focused on increasing the livestock (Expression of social awareness) to 64.86±05.52% with 51.92±05.79% of animals from sedentary livestock farming intended for slaughter for cultural purposes (Cultural Rites) and 50.01±02.64% of animals from sedentary livestock farming intended for sale. In the arid plain zone of the Sahel, the cultural objective of sedentary livestock farming is focused on 85.79±04.85% to increase the livestock population (Expression of social awareness) with 49.98±01.79% of animals from sedentary livestock farming intended for sale and 43.45±01.44% of animals from sedentary livestock farming intended for slaughter for cultural purposes (Cultural Rites). Thus, ruminant farming, although a major emitter of greenhouse gases, contributes to the regulation of ecosystems rich in biodiversity, carbon sinks,

contributing to soil structuring and the water cycle and being an integral part of our cultural and landscape heritage (SAUMADE, 2023). Biodiversity also covers zoogenetic resources: species, breeds and lines of economic, scientific and cultural interest to humanity for the purposes of agriculture, in the present and in the future (BLANFORT et al., 2011; DZOKOM, 2021; DZOKOM and DJOULDÉ, 2024; DZOKOM, & DJOULDE, 2025)

### 3.4.3. Improvements desired by households surveyed for the development of sedentary and traditional livestock farming in the Sahel

Overall, in the Sahel, 06.47±0.74% of households are victims of Noah's syndrome due to sedentary livestock farming while 13.57±0.49% of households have a high level of cleanliness in the livestock. 18.45±3.91 households need new varieties of animals resistant to environmental changes, with only 7.86±4.67% having access to water and 4.25±0.53% having access to pasture.
<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Figure 20: Factors for improving sedentary livestock farming by households</figcaption></figure>

However, the improvements desired by the households surveyed for the development of sedentary and traditional livestock farming in the Sahel vary from one place to another (figure). In this context of changes and uncertainties, achieving poverty reduction and improving food and nutritional security requires mobilizing a set of adaptive capacities to deal with the various hazards and trends (ICKOWICZ and MOULIN, 2021). However, recognizing that traditional livestock farming practices are in some cases economically favorable, research has focused more on the genetic improvement of animals than on reducing their impacts on nature (BURBANO, 2018).

Conclusion

The adaptation strategies identified are among others of an economic, food and environmental nature. These strategies impact actions both on the living environment and on the animal in the mountainous, humid and arid areas of the Cameroonian Sahel. The objective of this study was to make a diagnosis of

environmental stresses linked to sedentary livestock farming and traditional adaptation strategies in order to identify the main constraints hindering its development and to formulate recommendations for a contribution to the improvement of these types of livestock farming. Overall, 86.73% of peasant livestock farmers are not educated and only 13.26% of livestock farmers surveyed are educated. Livestock managers in the three areas are mainly men (93.88±04.93%) with an average age of 43.09±05.76 years. Between 2012 and 2022, the perceived temperatures varied from one year to another with a maximum (44.16±2.43°C) reached in 2022 with a calving rate of 72.70±3.76% the same year. Within a radius of [0-1000] meters in the dry season, 70.53±13.99% of sedentary livestock farming is carried out in the humid plain zone of the Sahel (zone 2), 16.85±2.66% of sedentary livestock farming is carried out in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel and 12.53±12.35% of sedentary livestock farming is carried out in the arid plain zone of the Sahel. In the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the average annual net emission of CO2 in the sedentary livestock environment is 75,146±9187.39 ppm/farm with an average seasonal carbon balance of 27,060.04±438.42 tons of CO2/season/farm. The average annual net emission of CH4 is 81,839±2878.82 ppm/farm and the average annual net emission of CO is 48±02.32 ppm/farm. Women mainly carry out sedentary livestock farming in the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel is 58.28±02.07%, while in the humid plain zone of the Sahel, men mainly carry out (71.15±07.14%) sedentary livestock farming, and this same gender mainly carry out sedentary livestock farming in the arid plain zone of the Sahel at 53.95±07.14%. During sedentary livestock farming in the dry season, feeding with fodder crops made it possible to determine the quantity of fodder consumed in the diet is 86.54±00.75 kg/Ha/farm
generating an ecological footprint linked to the cultivation and consumption of fodder included in the diet 0.042±0.007 Hag. In the arid plain zone of the Sahel, the ecological footprint related to the cultivation and consumption of fodder included in the diet in zone 3 of sedentary livestock farming is higher (0.049±0.005 Hag) due to the use of artificial methods for fodder production despite the high aridity. However, this ecological footprint is lower in the humid plain zone of the Sahel (0.023±0.003HaG) due to the use of natural methods to produce fodder. In the arid-mountainous zone of the Sahel, the cultural objective of sedentary livestock farming is centered on slaughter for cultural purposes (Cultural Rites) at 83.51±03.25% with 51.77±05.89% of animals from sedentary livestock farming intended for sale and 46.91±02.45% of animals from sedentary livestock farming intended to increase the livestock (Expression of social notoriety). In the Sahel, 06.47±0.74% of households are victims of Noah's syndrome due to sedentary livestock farming while 13.57±0.49% of households have a high level of cleanliness in the livestock. 18.45±3.91 households need new varieties of animals resistant to environmental changes, with only 7.86±4.67% having access to water and 4.25±0.53% having access to pasture. Because only 12.84±0.68% of households have access to veterinary care, 16.88±3.29% of households express their need for new varieties of animals resistant to diseases.

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