Relatively significant weight has been placed on the production process in the evaluation since this, more than media analysis, is a fairly new element in media education. However some teachers have downgraded analysis or even rendered it superfluous in favour of production. But production in itself is not sufficient. It is hi the interplay of production and analysis, both of pupils' own and of professional productions, that the critical approach is developed and media competence acquired.

## Media Education of the Future

At an organizational level, the basis for a future model for media education could be to define media education as a separate area in which teaching could take various forms, and where one form does not necessarily exclude the other. These forms could include:

- media education as a separate discipline;

- cross curricular collaboration (integrated into different subjects and in collaboration with these) throughout the whole school year;

- day or week-long courses;

- both day or week-long courses and cross curricular (integrated) with several existing subjects.

The consecutive course type sequence would afford both specific in-depth study of the time-consuming production processes and also give pupils the necessary time to grasp new concepts and theories. The cross curricular model allows the possibility of working within a particular theme in a problem-oriented and less fragmentary way. There is thus an emerging model which embraces an interplay between the subject specific and the cross curricular, and which is profitable for media education.

Media education must comprise work with pupils' own production, their discovery, analysis and assessment of it as well as that of others, from both practical and theoretical perspectives. All types of media must be included (print media, radio, photography, sound/slides, TV, video, film and computer graphics).

From a democratic perspective, importance should be attached to the experience gained in the development projects, which have worked in collaboration with local TV and radio. Wherever possible, collaboration should be set up with local TV and radio so that pupils get the chance to produce for a larger public, which hi turn would enable them to experience first hand the conditions for public media production and an idea of its significance in the democratic process.

Any outline for future media education should also include a media workshop, with the permanent assistance of one or more teachers with special expertise in media and media education. The media workshop should provide the framework for the use of technical equipment and for teaching, and could, for instance, be established in close connection with the school library.

A recurring theme, in interviews with teachers on the media education of the future, was that teachers felt ill-equipped to teach media, particularly the
electronic media. Teachers have repeatedly pointed out that competent teaching of media studies would require them to have had training in the subject at a qualified level as part of their basic training - that is, in the form of longer courses or specialization. A widespread need for in-service courses has also been emphasized.

## CONCLUSION

Future media education must be based on a theoretical and methodical overall understanding of the function, structure and history of the media: an understanding which involves communication and media from the perspective of sender, content and recipient, with an emphasis on the last of these, and with focus on media production and media analysis. Media education in the school should be combined with media education in the local community. Based on the thirty-five media education development projects, the conclusion is that the overall goal of future media education is that the pupils obtain knowledge of the function and role of the mass media; the ability to use the media as a way of expression and a means of communication; and that media education should be defined as basic knowledge along with reading and writing.

At the beginning of this article I indicated that media education has gamed status during the past few years, although the status is not yet formalized in the school systems of all countries. In Denmark many committed teachers have been teaching media for several years, and the evaluation of these development projects point to various models and pedagogical approaches. While there is a great amount of experience regarding media education, media education is not yet compulsory as part of the curriculum in Denmark.

A new education bill is being debated at the present time in Denmark. We do not yet know if the educational decision-makers will continue to regard the media as the enemy to be fought with the book - and only the book - or if they are going to listen to the media education teachers and take into account the findings of the project experiences. We do not yet know if the decision-makers realize that the media education movement, internationally and nationally, is a new kind of grassroots movement that N. F. S. Grundtvig, our national father of pedagogy, would have enjoyed.

## REFERENCES

* Alvarado, M., Gutch, R., and Wollen, T. (1987). *Learning the media*. London: Macmillan.

* Bazalgette, C., Bevort, E., and Savino, J. (1992). *L'Éducation aux médias dans le monde: Nouvelles orientations*. British Film Institute. London/Paris: Clemi.

* Masterman, L. (1980). *Teaching about television*. London: Macmillan.

* Masterman, L. (1985). *Teaching the media*. London: Comedia Publishing.
Media Development, 1 (1991). *Journal of the World Association for Christian Communication*. Vol. XXVII.

Tufte, B., Sorensen, B. H., Schoubye, J. Løkkegaard, F., Cornelius, H., & Arnov, J. (1991). *Medieundervisning*. Copenhagen: Danmarks Laererhojskole.

## AUTHOR

Birgitte Tufte is Associate Professor of Media Education and Communication at the Royal Danish School of Educational Studies, Emdrupvej 101, DK 2400 Copenhagen NV, Denmark.
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# Mediaware Review

## *Teaching, Learning and Technology:*
*A Planning Guide*

L. F. (Len) Proctor, Editor

Teaching, Learning & Technology is a two part, interactive, multimedia kit that has been designed to guide teachers and administrators in planning how to use current technology to enhance classroom teaching and learning. Part one contains a step-by-step guide to planning. Part two contains a library of audio and visual examples that are used to illustrate the planning process in action. Collectively, parts one and two do an excellent job of presenting a model for planning and modeling how multimedia can be used to support learning about and implementing a planning process.

### *Kit Description*

The main components of the kit include a CAV videodisc, CD-ROM disc, spiral bound workbook, workbook duplication masters, a 3.5 in. disk full of planning templates, and a map. The map displays the layout of the program and the interactive nature of the audio, video and text components. The videodisc contains classroom examples of active learning, cooperative learning, interdisciplinary learning and individualized learning. The CD contains over 10 meg. of HyperCard stacks to control the flow of all the text, audio clips and reference lists, an interactive plan book, audio interviews, and an assembly tool for creating customized presentations. The workbook has been divided into several sections. It starts with a focus on envisioning the future, and continues on to assessing where you are, setting goals, planning how to achieve the goals, making the plan happen, and evaluating the plan. Copies of the HyperCard-based reference lists and planning templates have been reproduced at the end of the workbook.

### *Hardware and Software Requirements*

A CD-ROM drive with a speaker or headphones, Macintosh LC or Mac II with a color monitor, videodisc player, and videodisc monitor are required in order to use this kit. The program will run under later versions of System 6 or current versions of System 7. At least 2 megabytes of RAM are required
for system 6 and 4 or more for System 7 operation. Mac Write II is not included
in the kit but it is required in order to use the planning templates on the floppy
disk. The kit is available from Intellimation in the U.S. ($150.00 U.S.) or from
Perceptix Inc. in Canada ($180.00 CDN.).

Program Operation

To get the program up and running, the T, L & T Program folder must be
copied onto the hard disk. The HyperCard stacks will crash if they are run
directly from the CD-ROM. They will also crash if they are loaded onto a hard
drive in older black & white Macintosh. Assuming that all physical connec-
tions have been properly made, a sufficient amount of memory is available,
and there are no conflicts with older versions of HyperCard or resident INITS,
the title card will appear on the screen soon after clicking on the Main Program
HyperCard stack. This is a welcome sight. When the title card appears, the
users must then select an appropriate videodisc player from the set-up list.
Having made this choice, they then must specify a communications port and
a baud rate that is compatible with the videodisc player. Once communication
has been established with the videodisc player, the Main Menu will appear.
This is home base. From here, it is easy to gain access to and from all segments
of the program.

For the information browser, the navigation system is a joy to use. In
addition to the usual Next, Previous and Back arrow buttons, the control panel
facilitates easy access to the utility tools, help files, and the program map.
Given any point in the stack, at no time is the user more than two or three
mouse clicks away from any of the program's resources. Both audio and visual
feedback are given to the user to indicate the program's acceptance of the
button choice. While the audio feedback is effective, the constant "clicking"
noise can become a bit tedious after using the program for an extended length
of time.

Each major section of program is further divided into sub-components. In
each sub-component, there is a brief audio overview of what is contained in the
sub-component. Then one or more video clips are available to illustrate real-
life examples of the topic being explained. Radio programs, which are actually
audio interviews with key teachers or administrators, compliment the video
clips. In addition to the audio and video clips, clicking on "hot text" brings up
a dialog box with additional information pertinent to the highlighted text.
Finally, links can be made to the technical details associated with the
production of each audio and video clip, appropriate help files, and the support
materials associated with the sub-component.

Because the program has been organized in this manner many different
types of user style can be accommodated. For example, users who feel most
comfortable accessing and using the information in a linear manner can do so.
Similarly, those users who feel most constrained by a linear approach to
learning can choose their own paths. Each type of user is able to start from
wherever they feel comfortable. For both user types, the constant use of real-
world metaphors, reversible actions, and internal command consistency goes a long way to help develop the illusion of, "gee whiz, it feels like I've been here before. I know how to do this stuff!"

## *Teacher Professionalism*

While there have been many books written on teacher professionalism, it is unusual to find this topic addressed in a multimedia kit. Teacher professionalism has been defined in the kit as "the sum of what teachers do both inside and outside of the classroom to orchestrate student learning, contribute to the art and craft of teaching, and influence educational policy making." Examples are drawn from case studies showing how teachers can use computer-based resources to create instructional materials and to collect, store, and exchange information for efficient decision making. While it is never stated explicitly in the program, implicit in examples provided in this section is the suggestion that by putting program decisions into the hands of motivated teachers and giving them access to a modest amount of current technology, the learning environment will improve for students and teachers will experience greater levels of satisfaction. "The dignity you have as a professional is very high because your decisions are given credence.. you can fulfill them.. you make a decision and see it implemented. You are respected for your ideas, for your knowledge, and for your experience. You have helped to reconstruct something."

## *Conclusions*

In conclusion, it is important to note that models and examples contained in this kit are not prescriptive. This is important because the use of any planning model is often context dependent. This package is sufficiently flexible and customizable to be of help to almost any school staff who wishes to integrate technology into almost any subject area of the curriculum. The benefit of being able to actually see and hear what other teachers have been able to do in their classrooms provides a good starting point to begin discussing what is possible in one's own setting. And finally, once the plan has been formulated, the program provides the necessary printer support to assist the planning team in producing their presentation materials. A good plan should not only be good, it should also look good. The more care and attention that has been put into creating good audio, visual and print resources, the more effective the presenters are likely be in sharing their vision of the future with their colleagues, school officials, and parents.

## EDITOR

Dr. Len Proctor is Associate Professor in the Department of Communication, Continuing and Vocational Education, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0.
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Book Reviews

Diane P. Janes, Editor

*Instructional Design Strategies and Tactics* by Cynthia B. Leshin, Joellyn Pollock, and Charles M. Reigeluth. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1992, 331 pp. ISBN 0-87778-240-7 (CDN$44.40)

Reviewed by Earl R. Misanchuk

The need addressed by this book, according to the authors' introduction, is for guidance in selecting and using instructional strategies, areas often given short shrift in other articulations of the instructional systems design (ISD) process. A large format (81/2X11) soft-cover book, it is comprised of five units, some of which are further subdivided into two "steps."

Unit 1 - Analyzing Needs, is composed of two steps - Analyze the Problem and Analyze the Domains (Jobs or Subject Areas). The introduction to the book points out that Unit 1 will be of greatest interest to trainers, while educators may well decide to skip it with impunity. The distinction between training and education is maintained throughout the book: where prescrip- tions differ for the two concerns the authors make a point of distinguishing between them. Unit Two - Selecting and Sequencing Content also consists of two steps - Analyze Each Task and Sequence Its Major Components, and Analyze and Sequence Supporting Content. Developing Lessons - Unit Three, is composed of a single step, Design and Write Each Lesson. This step has several sections based on the kind of learning involved in a particular situation: memorization of information, application of skills, understanding relationships, and higher level skills. Unit Four - Media Utilization, has one step - Perform Interactive Message Design, again with several sections based this time on the delivery method: human-based systems, print-based systems, visual-based systems, audiovisual-based systems, and computer-based sys- tems. The final unit (and step) is Evaluation. Needless to say, such compre- hensive and complex subject-matter makes the arrangement of the contents of the book itself an interesting object lesson in instructional design,
The first thing that struck this reviewer was the rather odd grouping of subjects described above, with single sub-sections of sections having related but different names. It makes one wonder why the use of units was necessary. Perhaps the organization of the material into seven steps would have been more functional.

Be that as it may, the authors have gone out of their way to elucidate the structure of the subject-matter of the book, and to ensure that the reader is constantly aware of where a particular section of the book fits into "the big picture." A graphic organizer, or content map, is the device they rely upon heavily throughout the book, generally to good effect. Actually there are two graphic organizers, one corresponding to the major headings (the units and sections referred to earlier), and the other corresponding to more subordinate headings. For lack of better terms, I shall refer to the two types of maps as major maps and minor maps, respectively.

The major map that concludes the Introduction and provides an overview of the ISD process doesn't quite match the arrangement of the topics in the table of contents, which unfortunately does not help in getting the reader oriented. The same graphic organizer, with different parts highlighted, is also used at the beginning of each step, but once again the terminology used in the figure does not always match the headings. This makes it a little confusing to keep track of where one is—exactly the opposite of the intended purpose of the graphic organizer. For example, one page displays the heading "STEP 5: DESIGN AND WRITE EACH LESSON," while the facing page (the one showing the major map) says "STEP 5: SPECIFY LEARNING EVENTS AND ACTIVITIES."

A copy of the minor map, with the appropriate section name highlighted, appears at the beginning of each sub-section in the text. The fact that the heading itself (which is, of course, the same as the highlighted portion of the map) appears directly below the map makes for considerable redundancy.

Supplementing the graphic organizer/content map in attempting to keep the reader apprised of the context is a rational, although complex, numeration scheme for the various steps in the ISD process. At times however (and perhaps this is purely an idiosyncratic reaction) I found myself actually distracted by the orientation devices. Reading section labels such as 5B.2.3(U) is not terribly informative per se. Aside from telling me the obvious—that it is a step between 5B.2.2(U) and 5B.2.4(U) — the only function it seemed to serve (for me) was to cause me to flip back several pages to find out what steps 5B.1 and 5B.2 were. Unfortunately even that knowledge didn't seem to help me in contextualizing the information in 5B.2.3(U).

The layout and typography used in the book unfortunately also do little to aid the reader in keeping oriented. While there is consistency in the use of headings of various orders and a perceptible if not obvious differentiation in size among orders, there is frequent opportunity for confusion between various elements comprising the text. The book is primarily composed of four types of information (the labels are rather arbitrary, and mine): steps in the process,
elaboration of theory underlying the steps, guidelines, and examples. Unfortunately the same typography is used for all four elements, making it difficult to distinguish one from the next (although guidelines are always boxed). The consequence is somewhat reminiscent of being lost in a hypertext segment, and despite the best efforts of the authors to provide orientation devices, the devices do not always work as well as they might.

Perhaps the problem really lies in the choice of the medium. As I read this book I kept wishing it was in electronic form, so that I could switch into outline mode and collapse and expand topics and headings, like my word processor allows me to do. Or to be able to click a mouse to obtain a display of guidelines. Or examples. And, with another click, to make them go away, leaving me with the outline structure of the theory and prescriptions. Although the prospect of reading 300 pages' worth of text from a screen is daunting, I kept feeling that if I had the capacity to expand and collapse I would be much more at ease in terms of contextuality. Perhaps this book could have been published as a HyperCard stack? But I probably ask too much.

It is quite unfair of me to have dwelled so long on the shortcomings, because despite them I liked the book and found it useful; moreover, I believe I will continue to find it useful. As I noted earlier, the sheer complexity of the subject-matter posed a significant sequencing and display challenge, and I found it very instructive to contemplate how I might have done it differently (alas, with little success!). Furthermore, the straightforward arrangement of the lucid text that actually comprises the substance of the book more than makes up for the problems described, and once the reader gets into the steps themselves, the chunking of subject-matter is rational and easy to follow.

The advice and the theory offered is pithy and succinct, and provides something for both the neophyte and the experienced designer. The beginner will be able to extract advice that is up-to-date (in terms of both theory and research) and that can be applied immediately to instructional design, while the more experienced designer can use the text almost like a check-list to ensure that nothing has been overlooked. Teachers of instructional design will likely not find much in the book that they do not already know, but they will find many things that they might occasionally forget to pass on to their students. Thus the book's potential check-list quality is a strength, and I would encourage the authors, in a subsequent edition, to take greater pains to point out to readers how it could thus be profitably employed.

The strongest parts of the book, in my opinion, are Step 5 (Design and Write Each Lesson) and Step 6 (Perform Interactive Message Design), which are, after all, what the book promised to be about. Once again the complexity of the subject-matter structure (with four kinds of learning in Step 5 and five classes of media in Step 6 being addressed) makes for a certain amount of redundancy in presentation. Still the suggestions provided are generally valuable. I plan to incorporate at least those portions of the book into an instructional design course that I teach, and I expect that I will find myself often reaching for them while designing instructional materials myself. I recommend you take more
than a cursory look at this book.

REVIEWER

Earl R. Misanchuk is Professor of Extension, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0.

*Distance Education: A Practical Guide*, by B. Willis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1993. ISBN 0-87778-255-5,138pp. (CDN$38.95)

Reviewed by Richard A. Schwier

In deference to the writing style Barry Willis uses in this book, I would like to make three recommendations before the substance of the review:

* If your professional life touches distance education in any way, buy this book;

* If your professional life does not touch distance education in any way, buy this book for someone else whose life does;

* If you are looking for an expansive treatment of the philosophy and issues surrounding distance education, buy a different book and put it on your shelf. Then buy this economical treatment, and read it.

The remainder of this review will describe Distance Education: A Practical Guide and discuss why I make these recommendations.

Willis wrote this book for two primary audiences. The first is faculty engaged in distance education, presumably in post-secondary institutions. Most of us have encountered faculty who are superb scholars, yet know little about teaching and next to nothing about distance education. The bulk of this book addresses their needs. The second target group is administrators involved in policy and program development. Although administrators will be interested in most of the same information as faculty, the book also treats several important organizational and policy issues for this group, such as academic legitimacy and tenure. After reading this book a couple of times, I would add at least two secondary audiences for the book not mentioned by Willis. One is instructional designers who often work very closely with subject matter experts in the design and delivery of distance education courses. They will find
this a valuable reference tool for finding quick answers to many difficult questions SME's ask. The other is teacher educators. Many teacher education programs now include a brief treatment of distance education, usually as an elective or as a portion of a general pedagogy course. This compact book would be an excellent reference for instructors in these programs.

Willis includes two stated purposes for the book:

"To provide a practical foundation for planning, developing, and implementing effective distance education programs.

To offer suggestions, advice, and encouragement for those accepting the challenge offered by this potentially effective form of instructional delivery." (p. 4)

*Distance Education: A Practical Guide* has eight succinct chapters and a brief "Glossary of Selected Distance Education and Telecommunication Terms."

Chapter 1 provides a definition and overview of distance education. The chapter includes arguments for how distance education differs from traditional teaching models and why it is an important approach for modern institutions. Chapter 1 further acknowledges the historical and international roots of distance education—a discussion in which Canadian initiatives figure prominently.

Chapter 2 discusses research in distance learning, first summarizing a few general principles derived from research. It then describes some of the comparative media research and why it uncovered few significant performance differences. After discounting this avenue of research, Willis provides 17 very useful factors which do influence instructional effectiveness.

Chapter 3 offers advice about the key players in a distance education program, from students to administrators. Willis emphasizes integrated participation and communication among members of the distance education process.

Chapter 4 discusses the important component of faculty development and especially factors which can improve the effectiveness of in-service training.

Chapter 5 deals with the systematic instructional development and evaluation of distance delivered instruction. Willis offers a generic model of instructional development in the chapter and outlines the major points one would consider in the process.

Chapter 6 describes media — the teaching tools of distance education. Various media are listed, and Willis suggests that only by selecting media which meet student and instructional needs can the unfortunate and expensive cycle of technological growth, demise and revival be avoided.

Chapter 7 briefly summarizes strategies for teaching effectively at a distance. The chapter offers advice for meeting student needs, course planning and organization, teaching strategies, and interaction and feedback.
Chapter 8, "The Future of Distance Education" discusses trends and needs in the areas of research, delivery, evaluation, technological integration and academic policy.

Throughout the book, in both statement and tone, Willis emphasizes the importance of examining technologies of learning over electronic technologies —especially whiz-bang delivery technologies. I found it especially inviting and refreshing to find a treatment of distance education which made only passing reference to satellites. In fact, Willis rails against being distracted by the trappings of distance education because teaching and learning will inevitably suffer if the focus of the learning enterprise drifts away from the learner. He warns vocally of the danger of selecting and purchasing hardware and then attempting to fit instruction to it. He also suggests that while distance education is often considered unique, successful distance education differs little in substance from other approaches. He states, "In reality, the novelty of distance education is more perception than reality." (pp. 40-41)

Another refreshing aspect of the book is the homage Willis pays to international players in distance education, and the contributions made by countries other than the United States. One might speculate that this is because an author from Alaska is geographically separated from most of the rest of the United States. More likely, it is a tribute to a scholar who is vitally interested in what makes distance education work. Willis specifically mentions the Open University (United Kingdom), Athabasca University (Alberta), the Open Learning Institute and the Knowledge Network (British Columbia), the Alberta Educational Communications Corporation, the University of Quebec, and the University of Queensland (Australia).

Much of the material in this book will be familiar to readers with a background in educational technology. For example, the instructional development model Willis proposes is well-worn territory for instructional designers, and there is not much new offered here. But it is an important component of the book for his stated audiences. Many administrators and faculty have little acquaintance with models of systematic instructional design, and Willis' model offers a useful compression of ideas.

Readers familiar with Fleming and Levie's (1978) *Instructional Message Design* from the same publisher will find Willis' approach to be reminiscent of that earlier work. Willis often offers statements of general principle, followed by brief explanations or elaborations. This format is extremely readable. A reader can scan major points, and stop to graze on additional information from time to time. In other places, bullet-form lists pepper the pages with key points. In few places will the reader find extensive prose, elaborate arguments or extended discussion.

These approaches result in a crisp and highly approachable treatment of distance education. Willis' writing style is unpresumptuous and economical. His tone is optimistic, yet realistic. Willis does what so few of us have the courage to do: he makes a point and then shuts up. I'll demonstrate what I've learned from his book and do the same.
REVIEWER

Richard A. Schwier is Professor in the Department of Communication, Con-
tinuing and Vocational Education at the University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N OWO. He is currently on sabbatical leave.
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**Information for Authors**

CJEC welcomes papers on all aspects of educational communication and technology. Topics include, but are not limited to: media and computer applications in education, learning resource centers, communication and instructional theory, instructional design, simulation, gaming and other aspects of the use of technology in the learning process. These may take the form of reviews of literature, descriptions of approaches or procedures, descriptions of new applications, theoretical discussions and reports of research.

**Manuscript Categories**

Manuscripts may fall into one of two classes: *General*, dealing with a topic or issue at a general level (although reference to specific instances or examples may be included), and *Profiles*, dealing with or describing only a specific instance of an approach, technique, program, project, etc. A Profile may be thought of as a descriptive case study.

Most manuscripts dealing with a topic in general should include reference to supportive literature, while manuscripts submitted to the Profile category may or may not. The Editor reserves the right to change the designation of a manuscript or to make a designation, if none has been made previously by the author. Authors interested in determining the suitability of materials should consult past issues of CJEC or contact the Editor.

All manuscripts received by the Editor (either general or profile) will be judged for suitability, contribution, accuracy, etc. by a panel of anonymous reviewers designated at the time of submission. Normally, the review process requires about eight weeks. There are no deadlines for the submission of manuscripts.

**Manuscript Preparation**

Manuscripts should be typed on 8 1/2 x 11-inch ordinary white paper. All materials must be double-spaced, including quotations and references. Include a title page on which appears the title of the manuscript, the full name of the author(s) along with position and institutional affiliation, mailing address and telephone number of the contact author, An abstract of 75-150 words should be placed on a separate sheet following the title page. While the title should appear at the top of the first manuscript page, no reference to the author(s) should appear there or any other place in the manuscript. Elements of style, including headings, tables, figures and references should be prepared according to the *Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 3rd Edition*, 1983. Figures *must* be camera-ready.

**Submission of Manuscripts**

Send four copies of the manuscript to the Editor along with a letter stating that the manuscript is original material that has not been published and is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. If the manuscript contains copyright materials, the author should note this in the cover letter and indicate when letters of permission will be forwarded to the Editor, Manuscripts and editorial correspondence should be sent to: Mary F. Kennedy, *Canadian Journal of Educational Communication*, 155 Joseph Street, Victoria, British Columbia V8S3H6.
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