# Transient climate simulations of the deglaciation 21-9 thousand years before present; PMIP4 Core experiment design and boundary conditions

R. F. Ivanovic, L. J. Gregoire, M. Kageyama, Didier M. Roche, P. J. Valdes, A. Burke, R. Drummond, W. R. Peltier, L. Tarasov

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>

To cite this version:

R. F. Ivanovic, L. J. Gregoire, M. Kageyama, Didier M. Roche, P. J. Valdes, et al.. Transient climate simulations of the deglaciation 21-9 thousand years before present; PMIP4 Core experiment design and boundary conditions. 2025. hal-04114710

HAL Id: hal-04114710

https://hal.science/hal-04114710v1

Preprint submitted on 22 May 2025

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

# Transient climate simulations of the deglaciation 21–9 thousand years before present (version 1) – PMIP4 Core experiment design and boundary conditions

Ruza F. Ivanovic<fnref n="1" />, Lauren J. Gregoire<fnref n="1" />, Masa Kageyama<fnref n="2" />, Didier M. Roche<fnref n="2" />,<fnref n="3" />, Paul J. Valdes<fnref n="4" />, Andrea Burke<fnref n="5" />, Rosemarie Drummond<fnref n="6" />, W. Richard Peltier<fnref n="6" />, and Lev Tarasov<fnref n="7" />

*Correspondence to:* Ruza F. Ivanovic (r.ivanovic@leeds.ac.uk)

Received: 21 September 2015 – Published in Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss.: 21 October 2015

Revised: 5 July 2016 – Accepted: 8 July 2016 – Published: 29 July 2016

**Abstract.** The last deglaciation, which marked the transition between the last glacial and present interglacial periods, was punctuated by a series of rapid (centennial and decadal) climate changes. Numerical climate models are useful for investigating mechanisms that underpin the climate change events, especially now that some of the complex models can be run for multiple millennia. We have set up a Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) working group to coordinate efforts to run transient simulations of the last deglaciation, and to facilitate the dissemination of expertise between modellers and those engaged with reconstructing the climate of the last 21 000 years. Here, we present the design of a coordinated Core experiment over the period 21–9 thousand years before present (ka) with time-varying orbital forcing, greenhouse gases, ice sheets and other geographical changes. A choice of two ice sheet reconstructions is given, and we make recommendations for prescribing ice meltwater (or not) in the Core experiment. Additional focussed simulations will also be coordinated on an ad hoc basis by the working group, for example to investigate more thoroughly the effect of ice meltwater on climate system evolution, and to examine the uncertainty in other forcings.

Some of these focussed simulations will target shorter durations around specific events in order to understand them in more detail and allow for the more computationally expensive models to take part.

# 1 Introduction

## 1.1 Climate evolution over the last deglaciation

The last deglaciation is a period of major climate change, when Earth transitioned from its last full glacial state to the current interglacial climate. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) marked the culmination of the last glacial cycle when vast ice sheets covered large regions of the Northern Hemisphere, stretching over North America and Eurasia (e.g. Boulton et al., 2001; Dyke et al., 2002; Peltier et al., 2015; Svendsen et al., 2004; Tarasov et al., 2012), and the Antarctic Ice Sheet expanded to the edge of the continental shelf (Argus et al., 2014; Briggs et al., 2014; Lambeck et al., 2014 and references therein). Changes in the ice sheets resulted in a total sea-level rise of ~115–130 m between LGM and the

<footnote n="1">¹School of Earth & Environment, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="2">²Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, LSCE/IPSL, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France</footnote>

<footnote n="3">³Earth and Climate Cluster, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands</footnote>

<footnote n="4">⁴School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, University Road, Bristol, BS8 1SS, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="5">⁵Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Irvine Building, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, KY16 9AL, UK</footnote>

<footnote n="6">⁶Department of Physics, University of Toronto, 60 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 1A7</footnote>

<footnote n="7">⁷Department of Physics and Physical Oceanography, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Labrador, St. John's, NL, Canada A1B 3X7</footnote>
late Holocene (Lambeck et al., 2014; Peltier and Fairbanks, 2006) depending upon the time assumed to correspond to the LGM, and ~100 m from 21 to 9 thousand years before present (ka; the period of focus for this manuscript).

Historically, the EPILOG group defined the LGM as hav-
ing occurred 23–19 ka (21 ka centre point), when climate
was generally cool and ice sheets were more or less at their
largest, based on ice-core and sea-level records (Mix et al.,
2001). It represents the time of maximum terrestrial ice vol-
ume. More recently, the last sea-level lowstand has been
found to have occurred either around 26 ka (Peltier and Fair-
banks, 2006) or 21 ka (Lambeck et al., 2014) with relatively
stable (low) sea level between those dates. Nearly all ice
sheets were at or close to their maximum extent between 26
and 19 ka (Clark et al., 2009).

During the LGM, global annual mean surface tempera-
tures are estimated to have been around 4.0 ± 0.8 °C colder
than today (Annan and Hargreaves, 2013). The Earth began
warming towards its present state from around 19 ka (Fig. 1h;
Buizert et al., 2014; Jouzel et al., 2007), as summer insolation
at northern high latitudes and global atmospheric greenhouse
gas concentrations gradually increased (Fig. 1c–f; Bereiter et
al., 2015; Berger, 1978; Loulergue et al., 2008; Marcott et al.,
2014). By 9 ka, although the northern ice sheets had not quite
retreated (or disappeared) to their present-day configuration,
most of the Northern Hemisphere deglaciation had taken
place (Clark et al., 2012; Lambeck et al., 2014; Peltier et al.,
2015; Tarasov et al., 2012; Figs. 1g and 2), with both sur-
face air temperatures (Fig. 1h–i) and atmospheric greenhouse
gases (Fig. 1d–f) approaching present-day values. However,
much of Antarctica remained heavily glaciated well into the
Holocene, with the majority of its deglacial ice loss taking
place between 12 and 6 ka (Argus et al., 2014; Briggs et al.,
2014; Mackintosh et al., 2014). Antarctica’s total contribu-
tion to post-glacial eustatic sea level is poorly constrained,
but recent studies have not supported LGM contributions
greater than about 15 m eustatic sea-level equivalent (Bent-
ley et al., 2014; Briggs et al., 2014; Golledge et al., 2013;
Mackintosh et al., 2011; Philippon et al., 2006; Whitehouse
et al., 2012), emphasising the dominance of North Ameri-
can and Eurasian Ice Sheet dynamics in the global sea-level
record during the last deglaciation (Argus et al., 2014; Lam-
beck et al., 2014; Peltier et al., 2015). It should be noted that
there is some controversy over whether deglacial ice sheet
reconstructions close the global sea-level budget (Clark and
Tarasov, 2014), with a potential LGM shortfall of “missing
ice”.

The last deglaciation is not only an interesting case
study for understanding multi-millennial scale processes of
deglaciation, but also provides the opportunity to study
shorter and more dramatic climate changes. Superimposed
over the gradual warming trend (EPICA Community Mem-
bers, 2004; Jouzel et al., 2007; Petit et al., 1999; Stenni et
al., 2011) are several abrupt climate transitions lasting from
a few years to a few centuries (examples of which are given

below) and it remains a challenge to reconstruct or under-
stand the chain of events surrounding these instances of rapid
cooling and warming.

Heinrich Event 1 (approx. 16.8 ka; Hemming, 2004) oc-
curred during the relatively cool Northern Hemisphere Hein-
rich Stadial 1 (~18–14.7 ka). It was characterised by the re-
lease of a vast number of icebergs from the North American
and Eurasian ice sheets into the open North Atlantic, where
they melted. The existence of these iceberg “armadas” is ev-
idenced by a high proportion of ice rafted debris in North
Atlantic sediments between 40 and 55°N, predominantly of
Laurentide (Hudson Strait) provenance (Hemming, 2004 and
references therein). There are several competing theories for
the cause of Heinrich Event 1. There is a substantial body
of evidence suggesting that it occurred during or was precur-
sory to a period of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circula-
tion (AMOC) slow down (e.g. Hall et al., 2006; Hemming,
2004; McManus et al., 2004) and weak North Atlantic Deep
Water (NADW) formation (e.g. Keigwin and Boyle, 2008;
Roberts et al., 2010) under a relatively cold, Northern Hemi-
sphere surface climate (Shakun et al., 2012). Even though
the interpretation of a cause and effect link between Hein-
rich Event 1 and the diminished strength of the AMOC re-
mains rather compelling (e.g. Kageyama et al., 2013), it is
increasingly being suggested that the melting icebergs might
not have caused the recorded AMOC slow down, but may
have provided a positive feedback to amplify or prolong
AMOC weakening and widespread North Atlantic cooling
(e.g. Álvarez-Solas et al., 2011; Barker et al., 2015).

During the subsequent 14.2–14.7 ka interval, Northern
Hemisphere temperatures are seen to have risen by as much
as 14.4 ± 1.9 °C in just a few decades (Buizert et al., 2014;
Goujon et al., 2003; Kindler et al., 2014; Lea et al., 2003;
Severinghaus and Brook, 1999), with a dramatic shift in
some components of Greenland climate taking place in as
little as 1 to 3 years (Steffensen et al., 2008). This abrupt
event is termed the Bølling Warming or Bølling Transition
(Severinghaus and Brook, 1999). At roughly the same time
(~ 14.6 ka), there was a rapid jump in global sea level of
12–22 m in around 350 years or less, known as Meltwater
Pulse 1a (MWP1a; Deschamps et al., 2012). It is not known
exactly which ice mass(es) contributed this 40 mm yr⁻¹ (or
greater) flux of water to the oceans (e.g. Lambeck et al.,
2014; Peltier, 2005). Some studies have mainly attributed
it to a southern source (Bassett et al., 2005, 2007; Carlson,
2009; Clark et al., 1996, 2002; Weaver et al., 2003), whereas
more recent work has suggested that at most, less than 4.3 m
eustatic sea-level equivalent of meltwater could have come
from Antarctica (Argus et al., 2014; Bentley et al., 2010,
2014; Briggs et al., 2014; Golledge et al., 2012, 2013, 2014;
Licht, 2004; Mackintosh et al., 2011, 2014; Whitehouse et
al., 2012) and that Northern Hemisphere ice was the pri-
mary contributor (Aharon, 2006; Gregoire et al., 2012; Keig-
win et al., 1991; Marshall and Clarke, 1999; Peltier, 2005;
Tarasov et al., 2012; Tarasov and Peltier, 2005). Exactly how
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /></figure>

**Figure 1.** The last deglaciation: forcings and events. (a) The three phases of the Core experiment version 1 (Sect. 4). (b) Climate events/periods discussed in the text; Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 23–19 ka as according to the EPILOG definition; Mix et al., 2001), Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1), Heinrich Event 1 (H1), Bølling Warming (BW) and Meltwater Pulse 1a (MWP1a), Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR) and the Younger Dryas cooling (YD). (c) June insolation at 60° N and December insolation at 60° S (Berger, 1978). (d) Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (recent composite of EPICA Dome C, Vostok, Taylor Dome, Siple Dome and West Antarctic Ice Sheet Divide records, Antarctica; Bereiter et al., 2015); black dashed line shows preindustrial concentration. (e) Atmospheric methane concentration (EPICA Dome C, Antarctica; Louergue et al., 2008); green dashed line shows preindustrial concentration. (f) Atmospheric nitrous oxide concentration (Talos Dome, Antarctica; Schilt et al., 2010); brown dashed line shows preindustrial concentration. (g) Volume of the ice sheets according to the ICE-6G_C reconstruction (solid lines; Argus et al., 2014; Peltier et al., 2015) and the GLAC-1D reconstruction (dashed lines; Briggs et al., 2014; Tarasov et al., 2012; Tarasov and Peltier, 2002). Associated meltwater scenarios *melt-uniform* and *melt-routed* (see Sect. 2.5) are consistent with these; all ice mass loss shown is supplied as freshwater to the ocean. (h) Greenland temperature reconstruction with ±1σ shaded (averaged GISP2, NEEM and NGRIP records; Buizert et al., 2014). (i) Antarctic δD (EPICA Dome C; Jouzel et al., 2007). Panels (d–f, h–i) are given on the AICC2012 timescale (Veres et al., 2013).
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** Northern Hemisphere ice sheet elevation at 21, 18, 15, 12 and 9 ka for (a) the ICE-6G_C reconstruction at 10 arcmin horizontal resolution, elevation is plotted where the fractional ice mask is more than 0.5 (Peltier et al., 2015); (b) the GLAC-1D reconstruction at 1° (longitude) × 0.5° (latitude) horizontal resolution, elevation is plotted where the fractional ice mask is more than 0.5 (Briggs et al., 2014; Tarasov et al., 2012; Tarasov and Peltier, 2002; this study); (c) the difference in elevation above sea level between the two reconstructions where there is ice present in both (ICE-6G_C minus GLAC-1D).</figcaption></figure>
the Bølling Warming and MWP1a are linked, or what triggered either, remains uncertain.

Ice-core records of δD indicate that from around 14.5 to 12.8 ka, the general trend of increasing Southern Hemisphere warming, temporarily stalled (Jouzel et al., 2007; ice-core chronology from Veres et al., 2013) for a period known as the Antarctic Cold Reversal (Jouzel et al., 1995). Southern Hemisphere cooling is thought to have been relatively widespread, extending from the South Pole to the southern mid-latitudes, with glacial readvance (or stall in glacial retreat) recorded to have peaked 13.0–14.2 ka in Patagonia (García et al., 2012; Kaplan et al., 2011; Strelin et al., 2011) and ~13.0 ka in New Zealand (Putnam et al., 2010; Rother et al., 2014). There are several hypotheses for the cause of the Antarctic Cold Reversal. For example, some have linked it to a change in ocean circulation induced by the delivery of Antarctic ice melt to the Southern Ocean (Menviel et al., 2010, 2011), or possibly as a bipolar response to AMOC recovery and Northern Hemisphere warming during the Bølling Warming (Menviel et al., 2011; Stocker, 1998). Using a Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) level coupled atmosphere-ocean model, Peltier and Vettoretti (2014) and Vettoretti and Peltier (2015) have recently shown that ice-core inferred Southern Hemisphere cooling and Northern Hemisphere warming could have been caused by a non-linear salt oscillator mechanism. Others have argued that a change in Southern Hemisphere winds and ocean circulation is the explanation; for example, a simultaneous northward migration of the southern Subtropical Front and northward expansion of cold water originating in the Southern Ocean (Putnam et al., 2010). The ongoing disagreement over the timing, duration and extent of the Antarctic Cold Reversal means that its cause is difficult to pin down.

The next event of particular interest is the Younger Dryas cooling, when Northern Hemisphere temperatures are thought to have dropped by several degrees at 12.8–11.7 ka and most prominently in high latitudes (Buizert et al., 2014; Heiri et al., 2007; Lea et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2012; Simon sen et al., 2011; Steffensen et al., 2008). The event presents a conceptual paradox; the magnitude of the cooling is diffi cult to reconcile with rising atmospheric CO2 (approximately +10 ppm compared to the earlier Bølling period ~ 14.5 ka; Bereiter et al., 2015) and increasing boreal summer insola tion (Berger and Loutre, 1991). It is possible that changes in the atmospheric hydrological cycle, such as a shift in source moisture region, could be partly responsible for the δ18O sig nal, requiring a smaller temperature anomaly to match the records (Liu et al., 2012). For the climate cooling itself, a re routing of North American freshwater discharge to the Arc tic and/or Atlantic oceans might have caused a reduction in NADW formation (Broecker et al., 1989; Condron and Wins sor, 2012; Tarasov and Peltier, 2005). Simulating this period within the context of the preceding climate evolution could be key to understanding exactly what the surface climate and deep ocean changes were during the Younger Dryas, and how

these relate to contemporaneous proxy records (e.g. Buizert et al., 2014).

In this description, we have sought to capture some of the last deglaciation’s main climatic events, but there are others that could shape the focus of further study in the working group. For example, early on in the period there is evidence of around 10 m sea-level rise taking place in 500–800 years around 20–19 ka (Clark et al., 2004; Clark and Mix, 2002; De Deckker and Yokoyama, 2009; Yokoyama et al., 2001a, b). Whilst the event itself remains somewhat controversial (Cabioch et al., 2003; Hanebuth et al., 2000, 2009; Peltier and Fairbanks, 2006; Shennan and Milne, 2003), it could be the expression of accelerating deglacial ice melt following the Last Glacial Maximum. More recently, the Barbados record of relative sea-level history indicates that following the Younger Dryas cooling episode, there may have been another meltwater pulse (Fairbanks, 1989; Peltier and Fairbanks, 2006), referred to as Meltwater Pulse 1b. Significant debate surrounds the magnitude and timing of Meltwater Pulse 1b (Bard et al., 1996; Cabioch et al., 2003; Cutler et al., 2003; Edwards et al., 1993; Shennan, 1999; Stanford et al., 2011) and even its existence, because similar to the 19 ka event, it is not seen in all sea-level records spanning the interval (e.g. Bard et al., 1996, 2010; Hanebuth et al., 2000). However, evidence of rapid Antarctic retreat around the time of the event could provide a possible cause for this late deglacial rapid sea-level rise (Argus et al., 2014).

## 1.2 Transient modelling of the last deglaciation

Transient modelling of the last deglaciation is valuable for examining dynamic and threshold behaviours (Braconnot et al., 2012) endemic to the Earth’s non-stationary climate system, especially ice-ocean-atmosphere interactions. It is the best tool for reaching a comprehensive understanding of complex and interrelating climate processes with specific regard to chains of events.

Such simulations are useful for examining the effect of temporally varying climate forcings across the globe and in different environmental systems: what geographical patterns arise and how are they connected, how do these vary through time from seasonal to millennial timescales, and how long does it take before a change in forcing is manifested in a climate response? The spatial coherency of specific events can be investigated to identify processes for simultaneous change as well as lead/lag mechanisms. For example, Roche et al. (2011) investigated patterns of spatial variability in the deglaciation as caused by long-term changes in orbital parameters, atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, and ice sheet extent/topography. The results indicated a simultaneous onset of hemispheric warming in the north and south, showing that obliquity forcing was the main driver of the early deglacial warming. In the same investigation, it was found that sea-ice covered regions were the first parts of the world to exhibit significant rises in tem-
perature, implying that a better knowledge of sea-ice evo-
lution could be key to fully understanding the trigger for
widespread deglaciation and warming feedbacks. A further
example of the insights available into lead-lag relationships
provided by long, transient climate simulations under glacial
boundary conditions is provided by the previously referenced
Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillation-related analyses of Peltier
and Vettoretti (2014) and Vettoretti and Peltier (2015), which
appear to mimic the Heinrich Stadial 1 to Bølling transition.

Through comparison to geological time series data, tran-
sient simulations enable the “fingerprinting” of specific cli-
mate processes to find out what mechanisms (in the model)
can cause recorded climate signals. Comparing complex,
global-scale models to combined geological records can pro-
vide multiple “fingerprints” in different variables from dif-
ferent archives and in different locations to help narrow
down plausible scenarios. For example, Menviel et al. (2011)
ran a suite of simulations, varying oceanic meltwater fluxes
through the last deglaciation in order to identify which
freshwater-forcing scenarios reproduce the Atlantic Ocean
circulation state implied by sedimentary records of AMOC
strength/depth and ventilation age (Gherardi et al., 2005; Mc-
Manus et al., 2004 with ages shifted as per Alley, 2000;
Thornalley et al., 2011) as well as the Northern Hemisphere
surface climate (Alley, 2000; Bard, 2002; Bard et al., 2000;
Heiri et al., 2007; Lea et al., 2003; Martrat et al., 2004, 2007).
It was argued that such climate simulations could be used to
improve constraints on the timing, duration, magnitude and
location of meltwater inputs to the global ocean.

Liu et al. (e.g. 2009) used climate “fingerprinting” to iden-
tify possible mechanisms for the abrupt Bølling Warming
event, finding that in their model, a forced cessation of fresh-
water inputs to the North Atlantic (representing ice sheet
melt) superimposed on a steady increase in atmospheric CO2
caused an abrupt resumption in the strength of the AMOC
(almost matching a record produced by McManus et al.,
2004). This in turn induced a rapid warming in Northern
Hemisphere surface climate (close to records from Bard et
al., 2000; Cuffey and Clow, 1997; and Waelbroeck et al.,
1998) and an increase in tropical rainfall over the Cariaco
Basin (comparable to Lea et al., 2003), whilst Antarctic
surface temperatures remained relatively stable (similar to
Jouzel et al., 2007). Using a suite of simulations from the
same model, Otto-Bliesner et al. (2014) went on to suggest
that a combination of rapid strengthening of NADW seen by
Liu et al. (e.g. 2009) and rising greenhouse gas concentra-
tions was responsible for increased African humidity around
14.7 ka, matching the model output to a range of regional
climate proxies (including deMenocal et al., 2000; Tierney
et al., 2008; Tjallingii et al., 2008; Verschuren et al., 2009;
Weijers et al., 2007).

Thus, climate proxy fingerprinting can be useful for un-
derstanding the spatial coherency of climatic changes and
their underlying mechanisms. However, correlation between
model and geological data does not guarantee that the correct

processes have been simulated; there is always the problem
of equifinality, whereby the same end state can be reached
by multiple means. In a process sense, this may be partic-
ularly uncertain when a model does not reproduce the full
chain of events that led to a distinguishable climatic signal.
For example, mechanisms for many of the major changes in
oceanic freshwater inputs proposed by Liu et al. (2009) and
Menviel et al. (2011) have not yet been directly simulated
(e.g. by dynamic ice sheet models). In both studies, they are
imposed as model boundary conditions. Further simulations
with different forcing scenarios and from a range of models
would help to address such uncertainties.

Transient simulations of the last deglaciation also pro-
vide necessary boundary conditions for modelling a vari-
ety of Earth system components that may not be interac-
tively coupled to the climate model being used. For exam-
ple, Gregoire et al. (2015) drove a dynamic ice sheet model
with climate data produced by a similar set of simulations
to Roche et al. (2011). Using a low-resolution general circu-
lation model, individual climate forcings – including orbit,
greenhouse gases, and meltwater fluxes – were isolated so
that their relative contribution to melting the modelled North
American ice sheets could be examined. The work concluded
that the last deglaciation was primarily driven by changes in
Northern Hemisphere insolation, causing around 60% of the
North American Ice Sheet melt, whilst increasing CO2 levels
were responsible for most of the remaining changes (Gre-
goire et al., 2015). The sufficiency of these two forcings for
North American glaciation/deglaciation had previously also
been identified with fully coupled glaciological and energy
balance climate models (Tarasov and Peltier, 1997). Gregoire
et al. (2012) were also able to highlight a “saddle-collapse”
mechanism, whereby gradual warming trends could result
in abrupt ice sheet melting events, when a threshold in ice
mass balance was crossed, which could have occurred dur-
ing MWP1a and the 8.2 kyr event.

A further example is given by Liu et al. (2012), who car-
ried out an asynchronous (or “offline”) coupling between
simulated sea surface temperatures and an isotope-enabled
atmospheric model to investigate the Younger Dryas cooling
event (~12 ka). The results revised the presupposed Green-
land temperatures at this time by 5°C, demonstrating that
changes in moisture source must be an important considera-
tion for the robust interpretation of Greenland ice-core δ¹⁸O
records and our understanding of high-latitude climate sen-
sitivity. More recently, the same methodology was applied to
understanding Chinese cave records of the East Asian Sum-
mer Monsoon 21–0 ka (Liu et al., 2014), not only to better in-
terpret what the speleothem δ¹⁸O tells us about regional hy-
droclimate variability, but also to understand the wider tele-
connections controlling those patterns.

In addition, there are now transient simulations of the last
deglaciation from climate models that have been interactively
coupled with dynamic ice sheet models (Bonelli et al., 2009;
Heinemann et al., 2014) and isotope systems (Caley et al.,
2014). Furthermore, a fast Earth system model of interme-
diate complexity (EMIC), which includes an interactive ice
sheet model has been used to look at Earth system dynamics
(the role of orbital cycles, aeolian dust, subglacial regolith
properties, the carbon cycle, and atmospheric trace gases)
on much longer, glacial-interglacial timescales > 120 ka and
encompassing the last deglaciation (Bauer and Ganopolski,
2014; Brovkin et al., 2012; Ganopolski et al., 2010; Ganopol-
ski and Calov, 2011). However, the older, uncoupled climate-
ice sheet model approach discussed above remains useful be-
cause it enables a wider suite of models to be employed than
would otherwise be feasible due to limited computational ef-
ficiency (e.g. of state-of-the-art, high-resolution/complexity
models) or software engineering capability. It may also al-
low for the same Earth system component model (e.g. of ice
sheets or δ¹⁸O) to be driven by multiple climate models, in
order to examine the range of responses and assess (climate)
model performance.

With sufficient computational power to make long simu-
lations of the last deglaciation a feasible undertaking, it is
timely to coordinate new efforts to ensure that a framework
exists to (i) utilise the cutting edge science in climate mod-
elling and palaeoclimate reconstruction, and (ii) robustly in-
tercompare simulations run with different models by differ-
ent groups and palaeoclimatic data.

1.3 Establishing a new PMIP working group

For more than 20 years, the Paleoclimate Modeling Inter-
comparison Project (PMIP) has been internationally coordi-
nating multi-model simulations with complex climate mod-
els in order to evaluate model performance and better under-
stand (past) climate changes (Braconnot et al., 2007, 2012;
PMIP website, 2007). Currently entering its fourth phase,
PMIP is a growing organisation that continues to contribute
towards other coordinated efforts to understand present-day
climate change, including the CMIP (Taylor et al., 2011a;
e.g. 2011b) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Assessment Reports (e.g. the Fifth Assess-
ment Report; Flato et al., 2013; Masson-Delmotte et al.,
2013). It encompasses a broad range of models, from very
fast, lower resolution EMICS, through a range of coupled
general circulation models to the latest generation of higher-
resolution and complexity Earth system models. Thus, the
main challenges for the fourth phase of PMIP include design-
ing experiments that are suitable for all of its participants,
addressing sufficiently fundamental questions to be of inter-
est to the EMIC community, defining adequately focussed
scope for the feasible participation of the latest generation
of Earth system models, and prescribing flexible model set-
ups that can be implemented in this range of models, whilst
maintaining the ability to robustly compare results. In addi-
tion, a continuing challenge for PMIP is to assemble suitable
palaeoclimatic data sets for comparison to model results.

One of the most recent working groups to be established in PMIP is the Last Deglaciation Working Group. With the aim of coordinating transient simulations of the last deglaciation, the challenge of including the full range of PMIP models is at the forefront of our experiment design. The experiment will be partitioned into three phases (Fig. 1b and Sect. 4), which will form milestones for managing its long duration (12 000 years) as well as for scheduling any shorter, alternative simulations to the Core.

The aim of this paper is to outline the model set-up for the
transient Core experiment for the last deglaciation, specifi-
cally for the sub-period of 21–9 ka. Prescribed boundary con-
ditions include orbital parameters, atmospheric trace gases
and ice sheets. In association with the ice sheet reconstruc-
tions, we also provide bathymetric, orographic and land-sea
mask evolution as well as make recommendations for fresh-
water forcing (or global ocean salinity changes) through the
period.

1.4 Approach

One of the roles of PMIP has been to systematically study
the ability of climate models to retrodict different past cli-
mates for which there are “observational” data from geo-
logical archives (e.g. Braconnot et al., 2000, 2007, 2012;
Haywood et al., 2010; Joussaume et al., 1999; Kageyama
et al., 2006; Kohfeld and Harrison, 2000; Masson-Delmotte
et al., 2006; Otto-Bliesner et al., 2009; Weber et al., 2007).
In this vein, many palaeoclimate model intercomparison
projects have been designed to facilitate the robust compar-
ison of results from the same “experiment” (i.e. simulation
set) across a range of different models, usually taking a pre-
scriptive approach to model set-up to ensure that any differ-
ences observed in the results are attributable to differences
in model structure and not to differences in chosen “bound-
ary conditions” and climate forcings. However, as Schmidt et
al. (2011) pointed out, the choice of one particular configura-
tion from a range of plausible boundary conditions and forc-
ings is often arbitrary and does not account for uncertainties
in the data used for developing the forcings/boundary condi-
tions. Moreover, in designing the PMIP last deglaciation ex-
periment, we have attempted to strike a balance between es-
tablishing a framework within which to assess model differ-
ences and performance, and taking the opportunity to utilise
the full range of PMIP climate models (Earth system, gen-
eral circulation and intermediate complexity) to examine un-
certainties in deglacial forcings, trigger mechanisms and dy-
namic feedbacks. In short, when we do not precisely know
the climate forcing for an event, or the temporal evolution of
model boundary conditions, it is more efficient to compare
the results from models that use different forcings with geo-
logical and palaeoclimatic data than to run one scenario with
all models and all scenarios with all models. The aim is to
use the results of the comparison to narrow down the range
of uncertainty in the forcings/boundary conditions and reach a better understanding of underlying climate mechanisms.

Consequently, forcings/boundary conditions that are relatively well established (atmospheric trace gases and orbital parameters) are tightly constrained in the Core experiment design. Others are given with multiple precisely described possibilities to choose from (ice sheet reconstructions) and the remainder (e.g. freshwater/salinity, aerosols and vegetation) are left to the discretion of individual participants. Recommendations will be made for the latter grouping of forcings/boundary conditions, for example, freshwater/global salinity fluxes that are consistent with the provided ice sheet evolutions, and the use of preindustrial aerosol and/or vegetation values when they are not model prognostics, but a flexible approach is advantageous not only scientifically (i.e. for examining the climatic response to uncertain forcings, see above), but also practically (for accommodating the wide range of participating models). Further to this, it will be left to the expert user to decide how often to make manual updates to those boundary conditions that cannot evolve automatically in the model, such as bathymetry, orography and land-sea mask. This is also necessary because of the specific technical and resource requirements associated with setting up and running each participant model.

In addition to the Core, we will coordinate a series of experiments that are designed to

i. explore uncertainties in the boundary conditions and climate forcings;

ii. test specific hypotheses for mechanisms of climate change and to explain individual events;

iii. focus on shorter time periods (for example, abrupt events) and thus include computationally expensive models for which a 12 000 year simulation is unfeasible.

These optional simulations will be referred to as focussed experiments, and participants are encouraged to contribute towards the design and coordination of these simulations within the working group (there is a dedicated wiki page to coordinate these: PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016; https://pmip4.lsce.ipsl.fr/doku.php/exp design:degla).

The start date for the experiment has been chosen to be in line with PMIP's historical definition of the LGM: 21 ka (Abe-Ouchi et al., 2015; e.g. Braconnot et al., 2000; Kohfeld and Harrison, 2000). However, we are aware that some groups may prefer to begin their simulations from the earlier date of 26 ka (around the last sea-level lowstand; Clark et al., 2009; Lambeck et al., 2014; Peltier and Fairbanks, 2006) and both orbital and atmospheric trace gas parameters will be provided from this earlier date. Although the working group's focus will at least initially be 21–9 ka, boundary conditions for the Core simulations will be provided from 21 ka to the preindustrial (26 ka to the preindustrial for orbital insolation and trace gases).

The following is not meant to be an exhaustive review of climate forcing reconstructions through the last deglaciation. Instead, our intention is to consolidate the current knowledge in a practical experiment design for a range of climate models. Within this coordinated context, the aim is to explore the forcings and underlying feedback mechanisms for the rapid climate events that punctuated the gradual warming and deglaciation of the Earth.

The paper is structured so that Sect. 2 outlines the model boundary conditions and climate forcings for the Core experiment. Section 3 presents how we will ensure the feasible participation of a range of climate models with different complexity and computational efficiency, as well as the plan to run additional, targeted, hypothesis- and sensitivity-led simulations. Section 4 discusses the three phases of the long Core experiment.

## 2 Core experiment (21 to 9 ka), version 1

The Core simulations of the last deglaciation (version 1) will focus on the period from 21 to 9 ka, although there will also be the option to spin-up the simulation with time-evolving orbital and trace gas parameters from 26 ka and all boundary conditions will be available from 21 ka to the preindustrial. Recommendations for the initialisation state at 21 ka are summarised in Table 1 and described below (Sect. 2.1). Prescribed boundary conditions include insolation via the Earth's astronomical parameters (Sect. 2.2), atmospheric trace gases (Sect. 2.3), ice sheets (Sect. 2.4), meltwater fluxes (Sect. 2.5), and orography/bathymetry (Sect. 2.6), as summarised in Table 2. Boundary condition data for version 1 of the Core experiment are provided on the PMIP4 wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016; https://pmip4.lsce.ipsl.fr/doku.php/exp design:degla).

### 2.1 Last Glacial Maximum spin-up

There is a choice of two possibilities for starting the last deglaciation Core simulations. Either the simulation should be initialised from the end of a spun-up, PMIP-compliant LGM (21 ka) simulation, or a simulation with transient orbital and trace gas forcing should be run from an earlier time period (orbital and trace gas parameters will be provided from 26 ka onwards). Whichever method is applied, we require that it is comprehensively documented along with information on the model's state of spin-up at 21 ka (e.g. time series of surface climates, maximum strength of the North Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation stream function, net radiation at the top of the atmosphere).

#### 2.1.1 Equilibrium-type spin-up (21 ka)

For setting up an equilibrium-type spin-up, please make sure to use the following constraints, which may differ from other PMIP 21 ka simulation protocols:
<table><caption>**Table 1.** Summary of recommended model boundary conditions to spin-up the last deglaciation Core experiment version 1 (pre 21 ka); see text for details. Participants are not required to follow the recommendation for these boundary conditions, but must document the method used, including information on the simulation's state of spin-up at the point when the Core is started. Data are available from PMIP4 last deglaciation wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016). Boundary condition group headings are in bold.</caption><thead><tr><th>Spin-up type</th><th>Boundary condition</th><th>Description</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 21 ka)</td><td><strong>Insolation</strong></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Solar constant</td><td>Preindustrial (e.g. 1361.0 ± 0.5 W m<sup>-2</sup>)</td></tr><tr><td>Eccentricity</td><td>0.018994</td></tr><tr><td>Obliquity</td><td>22.949°</td></tr><tr><td>Perihelion–180°</td><td>114.42°</td></tr><tr><td>Vernal equinox</td><td>Noon, 21 March</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Trace gases</strong></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>)</td><td>190 ppm</td></tr><tr><td>Methane (CH<sub>4</sub>)</td><td>375 ppb</td></tr><tr><td>Nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O)</td><td>200 ppb</td></tr><tr><td>Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Ozone (O<sub>3</sub>)</td><td>Preindustrial (e.g. 10 DU)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Ice sheets, orography and coastlines</strong></td><td>21 ka data from either:<br/>– ICE-6G_C (references in text)<br/>– GLAC-1D (references in text)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Bathymetry</strong></td><td>Keep consistent with the coastlines, using either:<br/>– Data associated with the ice sheet<br/>– Preindustrial bathymetry</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Global ocean salinity</strong></td><td>+1 psu, relative to preindustrial</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Transient orbit and trace gases (26–21 ka)</td><td><strong>Orbital parameters</strong></td><td>All orbital parameters should be transient, as per Berger (1978) 26–21 ka</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Trace gases</strong></td><td>Adjusted to the AICC2012 (Veres et al., 2013)</td></tr><tr><td>Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>)</td><td>Transient, as per Bereiter et al. (2015)</td></tr><tr><td>Methane (CH<sub>4</sub>)</td><td>Transient, as per Louergue et al. (2008)</td></tr><tr><td>Nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O)</td><td>Transient, as per Schilt et al. (2010)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>All others</strong></td><td>As per LGM (21 ka) spin-up type.</td></tr></tbody></table>

- Insolation should be set so that eccentricity is 0.018994, obliquity is 22.949°, perihelion–180° is 114.42°, the date of the vernal equinox is 21 March at noon. These data are consistent with previous PMIP LGM boundary conditions (PMIP LGM Working Group, 2010). The solar constant is the same as for the preindustrial (e.g. 1361.0 ± 0.5 W m⁻², Mamajek et al., 2015; as per CMIP6 version 3.1, Matthes et al., 2016).

- Prescribed atmospheric trace gases should be as follows: CO₂ at 190 ppm, CH₄ at 375 ppb, N₂O at 200 ppb (Fig. 3), with CFCs at 0 and O₃ at the PMIP3-CMIP5 preindustrial value (e.g. 10 DU). This is to be compatible with the time-evolving boundary conditions for the Core simulations (Sect. 2.3). Note that the LGM atmospheric CO₂ and CH₄ concentrations have changed slightly from earlier LGM experiments (e.g. PMIP3, which used 185 ppm and 350 ppb, respectively; PMIP LGM Working Group, 2010). However, N₂O remains at 200 ppb, which is more representative of the longer glacial period than the 187 ppb concentration recorded at 21 ka (Fig. 3c). These updates are in line with the lat-

est ice-core age model (AICC2012; Veres et al., 2013) and records (Bereiter et al., 2015; Schilt et al., 2010), which are also used for the transient forcings described below (Sect. 2.3).

- Prescribed ice sheets should use either the GLAC-1D or ICE-6G_C (VM5a; hereafter simply “ICE-6G_C”) reconstruction at 21 ka (see Sect. 2.4). The associated topography and coastlines should be used as per the chosen ice sheet reconstruction. Beyond maintaining consistency with the coastlines, it is optional whether or not to implement the associated bathymetry and participants should adapt the bathymetry according to their model’s capabilities (for example, depending on whether the spatial resolution allows for it or makes this a useful adaptation). These data will be provided with the ice sheet reconstructions. Whichever ice sheet reconstruction is chosen for the LGM spin-up should be carried through to the Core transient simulation.

- Global ocean salinity should be +1 psu, compared to preindustrial, to account for the increased terrestrial ice mass at the LGM (PMIP LGM Working Group, 2015).
<table><caption>**Table 2.** Summary of required model boundary conditions for the last deglaciation Core experiment 21–9 ka version 1; optional boundary conditions are labelled as such. Data are available from PMIP4 last deglaciation wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016). See text for details. Boundary condition group headings are in bold.</caption><thead><tr><th>Boundary condition</th><th>Description</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Initial conditions</strong><br>(pre-21 ka)</td><td>Recommended (optional) to use either:<br>- Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 21 ka) equilibrium simulation, including +1 psu global ocean salinity<br>- Transient orbit and trace gases (26–21 ka) and all other boundary conditions fixed as per equilibrium LGM<br>See Table 1 for details. The method must be documented, including information on the state of spin-up</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Insolation</strong></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Solar constant</td><td>Preindustrial (e.g. 1361.0 ± 0.5 W m<sup>-2</sup>)</td></tr><tr><td>Orbital parameters</td><td>Transient, as per Berger (1978)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Trace gases</strong></td><td>Adjusted to the AICC2012 age model (Veres et al., 2013):</td></tr><tr><td>Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>)</td><td>Transient, as per Bereiter et al. (2015)</td></tr><tr><td>Methane (CH<sub>4</sub>)</td><td>Transient, as per Loulergue et al. (2008)</td></tr><tr><td>Nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O)</td><td>Transient, as per Schilt et al. (2010)</td></tr><tr><td>Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Ozone (O<sub>3</sub>)</td><td>Preindustrial (e.g. 10 DU)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Ice sheet</strong></td><td>Transient, with a choice of either:<br>- ICE-6G_C reconstruction (references in text)<br>- GLAC-1D reconstruction (references in text)<br>How often to update the ice sheet is optional</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Orography and coastlines</strong></td><td>Transient. To be consistent with the choice of ice sheet.<br>Orography is updated on the same time step as the ice sheet. It is optional how often the land-sea mask is updated, but ensure consistency with the ice sheet reconstruction is maintained</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Bathymetry</strong></td><td>Keep consistent with the coastlines and otherwise use either:<br>- Transient data associated with the chosen ice sheet; it is optional how often the bathymetry is updated<br>- Preindustrial bathymetry</td></tr><tr><td><strong>River routing</strong></td><td>Ensure that rivers reach the coastline<br>It is recommended (optional) to use one of the following:<br>- Preindustrial configuration for the model<br>- Transient routing provided with the ice sheet reconstruction (if available)<br>- Manual/model calculation of river network to match topography</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Freshwater fluxes</strong></td><td>At participant discretion. Three options are melt-uniform, melt-routed and no-melt (see text). It is recommended (optional) to run at least one Core simulation with a scenario consistent with the chosen ice sheet reconstruction to conserve salinity (e.g. as provided). See text for full details (Sect. 2.5)</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Other (optional)</strong></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vegetation and land cover</td><td>Prescribed preindustrial cover or dynamic vegetation model</td></tr><tr><td>Aerosols (dust)</td><td>Prescribed preindustrial distribution or prognostic aerosols</td></tr></tbody></table>

- Any other boundary conditions should be set to be consistent with the Core transient simulation to follow (Sect. 2.2–2.7).

On the freshwater budget, PMIP advises groups to “carefully check the fresh water budget in their LGM experiments in order to avoid unnecessary drifts of the ocean salinity. It can be necessary to route the snow which has fallen in excess on the ice sheets to the ocean. Given the change in coastlines, it is also sometimes necessary to relocate the large river estuaries on the coast” (PMIP LGM Working Group, 2015). Tarasov and Peltier (2006) provided a glaciological example of the possible re-routings for North America. As they become available, routing maps for the Last Glacial Maximum continents will be provided on the PMIP4 last deglaciation wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016).

The integration time required for spinning up the LGM climate state should be decided on a case-by-case basis by

the user (see comments by Kageyama et al., 2016, on spin-up and duration of experiments). Groups may choose to initialise their equilibrium-type simulation from other PMIP LGM runs. However, caution is advised. Some of the boundary conditions for previous PMIP LGM simulations are different to the set-up outlined here, specifically in relation to ice sheets and trace gases concentrations, and therefore need to be adapted to match these requirements. The protocol for the PMIP4-CMIP6 (being finalised at the time of writing) is currently compatible with the LGM spin-up described here. Therefore, provided that either the ICE-6G_C or GLAC-1D ice sheet reconstruction is used for both the LGM spin-up and transient run, the PMIP4-CMIP6 LGM simulation can be used to initialise transient simulations of the last deglaciation without alteration. Please provide time series data for the diagnosis of model (dis)equilibrium at 21 ka (introduction to Sect. 2.1).
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

**Figure 3.** Atmospheric trace gases through the last deglaciation from Antarctic ice cores. (a) Core experiment carbon dioxide according to a recent composite record from EPICA Dome C (EDC), West Antarctic Ice Sheet Divide (WDC), Vostok, Taylor Dome and Siple Dome (thick black line; Bereiter et al., 2015), which was produced on the AICC2012 chronology (Veres et al., 2013). Also shown for comparison is an older composite record from EDC, Vostok and Taylor Dome (thin blue line; Lüthi et al., 2008, adjusted to the AICC2012 chronology), as well as the original EDC CO₂ record (green line; Monnin et al., 2004) and the recent, higher-resolution WDC CO₂ record (dark red line; Marcott et al., 2014); which were incorporated into the newer composite by Bereiter et al. (2015). (b) Methane according to the EPICA Dome C (EDC) record (Loulergue et al., 2008), shown both on the original EDC1 chronology (green line; Spahni et al., 2005) and adjusted to the more recent AICC2012 chronology for the Core experiment (thick black line; Veres et al., 2013). (c) Nitrous oxide according to the Talos Dome (TALDICE) record (Schilt et al., 2010), adjusted to the AICC2012 chronology for the Core experiment (thick black line; Veres et al., 2013). For comparison, the earlier EPICA Dome C (EDC) record on the EDC1 chronology is also shown (green line; Spahni et al., 2005). The nearest measured N₂O concentration to 21 ka is from 21.089 ka; hence, there is a small offset between the slightly earlier concentration (187 ppb) used for the Core and the interpolated value plotted at 21 ka. For panels (a-c) 21 ka concentrations according to the AICC2012 age model (red dots) are shown in contrast to previous PMIP3 LGM concentrations (blue dots; PMIP LGM Working Group, 2010). If using an equilibrium-type spin-up for the start of a transient Core simulation at 21 ka (Sect. 2.1.1), use 190 ppm CO₂, 375 ppb CH₄ and 200 ppb N₂O.

## 2.1.2 Transient orbital and trace gas parameters (26–21 ka)

If this is the preferred option to initialise the Core, it is recommended that the simulation is set up as per Sect. 2.1.1, but with time-evolving orbital and trace gas parameters instead of fixed ones. Specifically for orbit, the eccentricity, obliquity, perihelion–180° and date of the vernal equinox values listed above should be replaced with their transient equivalents, as per Berger (1978). For the atmospheric trace gases, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide values should be replaced with the transient equivalents provided on the PMIP4 last deglaciation wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016), which are set according to Bereiter et al. (2015), Loulergue et al. (2008) and Schilt et al. (2010), respectively, on the AICC2012 chronology (Veres et al., 2013); Fig. 3.

In this case, all other boundary conditions should remain fixed in line with the LGM equilibrium-type experiment design until 21 ka, when the fully transient Core simulations begin. This transient spin-up can be initialised from a spun-up previous LGM, cold ocean, preindustrial or observed present-day ocean simulation.

## 2.2 Insolation (21–9 ka)

As per Sect. 2.1, the solar constant should be fixed to the established preindustrial conditions (e.g. $1361.0 \pm 0.5$ W m⁻²; Mamajek et al., 2015; Matthes et al., 2016) throughout the run, which is in line with the PMIP preindustrial experiment set-up (PMIP LGM Working Group, 2015). However, the orbital parameters should be time evolving through the deglaciation to follow Berger (1978); see e.g. Fig. 1c.

## 2.3 Atmospheric trace gases (21–9 ka)

For the deglaciation, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) should be fixed at 0, and O₃ should be set to PMIP3-CMIP5 preindustrial values (e.g. 10 DU), as used for the LGM. When a model is not running with dynamic atmospheric chemistry, the remaining trace gases should be time evolving, with CO₂ following Bereiter et al. (2015), CH₄ following Loulergue et al. (2008) and N₂O following Schilt et al. (2010), all adjusted to the AICC2012 chronology (Veres et al., 2013); see Fig. 1d–f.

The atmospheric CO₂ concentrations provided by Bereiter et al. (2015) is a composite data set, combining previous Antarctic ice-core records and composites (for the period 26–0 ka: Ahn and Brook, 2014; Lüthi et al., 2008; MacFarling Meure et al., 2006; Marcott et al., 2014; Rubino et al., 2013; Siegenthaler et al., 2005) on the AICC2012 timescale of Veres et al. (2013) to produce a high-resolution record that is consistent with the other, lower-resolution trace gas records used in this experiment (CH₄ and N₂O as discussed above). Groups are free to decide on the temporal resolution.
tion of trace gas model inputs based on these records and if lower resolution is employed, the method used to smooth or create a spline through the data should be fully documented. Exploring the influence of CO₂ resolution on the climate system may form the basis of a coordinated additional simulation that will be optional for participant groups. The details of the set-up for such focussed simulations (also discussed in Sect. 3) will be discussed and determined at a later date.

It is noted that the N₂O value from Schilt et al. (2010) and Veres et al. (2013) does not match the previously defined LGM N₂O concentration (Sect. 2.1.1): 187 ppb compared to 200 ppb (Fig. 3c). This is because the N₂O record is highly variable during the last glacial lowstand (26–21 ka), with a range of ~33 ppb (183–216 ppb) and a mean of 201 ppb. Thus, 200 ppb seems a reasonably representative N₂O concentration for the spin-up phase of the simulation, although the Core simulations will start with the more chronologically accurate value of 187 ppb.

## 2.4 Ice sheet reconstructions (21–9 ka)

For the Core experiment, ice sheet extent and topography should be prescribed from one of two possible reconstructions: ICE-6G_C (Figs. 2a and 4a) and GLAC-1D (Figs. 2b and 4b).

The ICE-6G_C model has been designed such that its total mass and local thickness variations provide excellent fits to most of the data that may be invoked to constrain it. In particular the total mass is constrained by the globally averaged (eustatic) rise of sea level that is well approximated by the coral-based record of relative sea-level history from the island of Barbados in the Caribbean Sea (Peltier and Fairbanks, 2006). On the other hand, the local variations of ice thickness are constrained to fit not only the very large number of radiocarbon dated histories of relative sea level change from the regions that were once ice covered, but also by the voluminous records of present-day vertical motion of the crust that are now available from North America, Eurasia and Antarctica, based upon space-based Global Positioning System measurements. This fit is obtained through iterative space domain refinement, as fully described by Argus et al. (2014) and Peltier et al. (2015). Furthermore, the reconstruction includes a history of Antarctic glaciation that correctly includes the expansion of ice cover in the Ross Sea and Weddell Sea embayments and out to the shelf break at the LGM. Stuhne and Peltier (2015) assess the compatibility of ICE-6G_C with current understanding of ice dynamical processes using data assimilation methods. The model is unique internationally insofar as the range of observational constraints that it has been shown to reconcile. Since the ICE-6G_C reconstruction is fully published (Argus et al., 2014; Peltier et al., 2015), the reader is directed to this literature for further detailed information.

The GLAC-1D reconstruction is combined from different sources (Briggs et al., 2014; Tarasov et al., 2012; Tarasov

and Peltier, 2002) and whilst it is mostly published, there are some new components; therefore, a short description follows. The Eurasian and North American components are from Bayesian calibrations of a glaciological model (Tarasov et al., 2012; this study), the Antarctic component is from a scored ensemble of 3344 glaciological model runs (Briggs et al., 2014) and the Greenland component is the hand-tuned glaciological model of Tarasov and Peltier (2002) updated to the GICC05 age chronology (Rasmussen et al., 2006). All four of the GLAC-1D ice sheet components employ dynamical ice sheet models that have been constrained with relative sea-level data. Where available, they have also been constrained by geologically inferred deglacial ice margin chronologies, pro-glacial lake levels, ice-core temperature profiles, present-day vertical velocities, past ice thickness, and present-day ice configuration. Details of exactly how these constraints were derived and applied are given in the relevant references above. The four components (North America, Eurasia, Antarctica and Greenland) were combined under glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) post-processing for a near-gravitationally self-consistent solution (Tarasov and Peltier, 2004), which was tested against complete GIA solutions. The topography in the global combined solution was adjusted in Patagonia and Iceland following ICE-5G (Peltier, 2004), but the changes in these ice caps are not reflected in the ice mask.

Compared to ICE-6G_C, GLAC-1D is derived with fewer degrees of freedom given the internal constraints of glacial physics and assumptions in the climate forcing (which in part depends on climatologies derived from PMIP2 and PMIP3 results). GLAC-1D incorporates additional constraints that are inapplicable to purely geophysically constrained models. These include inferred pro-glacial lake levels for North America as well as proximity to the present-day observed Antarctic Ice Sheet after a transient, multi-glacial cycle simulation with the underlying ice-earth model. Furthermore, GLAC-1D is subject to the critical physical feedbacks/constraints of ice (and bed) thermodynamics and bed surficial geology on ice streaming, which has a major impact on ice sheet topography. However, all these extra constraints and physics come at the cost of a 10 to 22 m shortfall in GLAC-1D relative to far-field relative sea-level proxies (a 10 to 15 m shortfall compared to ICE-6G_C). This is part of the so-called “missing ice” problem (Clark and Tarasov, 2014), with the upper bound also accounting for the local viscous slab effect of Austerman et al. (2013). Both ICE-6G_C and GLAC-1D are subject to as yet unquantified uncertainties, such as the impact of lateral inhomogeneity in the viscous structure of the Earth.

The two reconstructions incorporate similar constraints for North American ice sheet extent (i.e. Dyke, 2004). For Eurasia, ICE-6G_C follows the ice extent provided by Gyllencreutz et al. (2007), whereas GLAC-1D uses data from Hughes et al. (2015). The reconstructions only differ slightly in their ice extent evolution (Figs. 2 and 4), for example the
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 4.** Southern Hemisphere ice sheet elevation at 21, 12 and 9 ka for (a) the ICE-6G_C reconstruction at 10 arcmin horizontal resolution, ice elevation is plotted where the fractional ice mask is more than 0.5 (Argus et al., 2014; Peltier et al., 2015); (b) the GLAC-1D reconstruction at 1° (longitude) × 0.5° (latitude) horizontal resolution, ice elevation is plotted where fractional ice mask is more than 0.5 (Briggs et al., 2014; Tarasov et al., 2012; Tarasov and Peltier, 2002); (c) the difference in elevation above sea level between the two reconstructions where there is ice present in both (ICE-6G_C minus GLAC-1D).</figcaption></figure>

Barents Sea deglaciates earlier in GLAC-1D than in ICE-6G_C (Fig. 2). The main differences between the reconstructions are in the shape and volume of individual ice sheets. In particular, the North American Ice Sheet reaches an elevation of 4000 m in ICE-6G_C, but is only 3500 m high in GLAC-1D. Similarly, the shape and thickness of the Barents Sea Ice Sheet are not the same in the two reconstructions.

The ICE-6G_C data set is provided at both 1° horizontal resolution and 10 arcmin horizontal resolution, GLAC-1D is provided at 1° (longitude) × 0.5° (latitude) horizontal resolution. Both data sets include ice extent and topography at intervals of 1000 years or less through the deglaciation. Specifically, the ICE-6G_C reconstruction is provided at 1000-year intervals for the period spanning 26–21 ka and 500-year intervals for 21–0 ka. For GLAC-1D, the data are at 100-year intervals for 21–0 ka. In both reconstructions, ice extent is provided as a fractional ice mask.

Ice surface elevation (topography) should be implemented as an anomaly from present-day topography and added to the model’s present-day topography after regridding onto the model resolution, following the previous LGM experimental protocol (PMIP LGM Working Group, 2010, 2015). Land surface properties will need to be adjusted for changes in ice extent. Where ice retreats, land surface should be initialised
as bare soil if a dynamic vegetation model is used, otherwise use prescribed vegetation (see Sect. 2.7) with appropriate consideration of soil characteristics. Where ice is replaced by ocean, it is advised to follow the procedure for changing coastlines described in Sect. 2.7. Inland lakes can be prescribed based on the ice sheet and topography reconstructions, but this is not compulsory. It is also optional whether to include changes in river routing basins (i.e. catchments) and outlets, which can either be calculated from the provided topography and land-sea mask data (see Sect. 2.6), or can be manually set to follow routing maps provided on the PMIP4 last deglaciation wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016).

Groups are free to choose how often to update ice extent and elevation. This could be done at regular intervals (e.g. the sub-1000-year time slices provided) or at specific times during the deglaciation, as was done in the TraCE-21 ka experiment (Liu et al., 2009). Changes in ice extent can have a large impact on climate through ice albedo changes and feedbacks. We thus recommend that when possible, ice sheets are not updated at times of abrupt regional or global climate change, particularly the events that the working group will focus on, as this could artificially introduce stepped shifts in climate. Groups are also advised to consider that ice sheet associated boundary conditions (ice extent and elevation, land-sea mask, bathymetry) may need to be updated more often at times of rapid ice retreat. The timing and way in which land ice changes are implemented must be documented.

Alternative ice sheet reconstructions or simulations can be used to test the sensitivity of climate to this boundary condition. Simulations with coupled ice sheet-climate models are also welcomed. Although these will not form part of the Core, for which ICE-6G_C or GLAC-1D should be used, they will be coordinated as important supplementary focussed simulations.

For technical notes advising on the implementation of the ice sheet reconstructions in palaeoclimate models, see Kageyama et al. (2016).

## 2.5 Ice meltwater

The Core experiment protocol is flexible on whether or not to include prescribed ice melt (i.e. freshwater fluxes) delivered from the ice sheets to the ocean and how to do it. It is recommended to run at least one version of the Core experiment with ice melt included, since around 110 m of ice-volume equivalent sea level is thought to have melted 26–9 ka (e.g. Lambeck et al., 2014) and considering the historical importance attached to the influence of (de)glacial freshwater fluxes on climate (e.g. Broecker et al., 1989; Condron and Winsor, 2012; Ganopolski and Rahmstorf, 2001; Liu et al., 2009; Rahmstorf, 1995, 1996; Teller et al., 2002; Thornalley et al., 2010; Weaver et al., 2003). However, it is also important to note the ongoing debate over the extent to which catastrophic freshwater fluxes brought about abrupt deglacial

climate change; several alternative or complementary mechanisms have been proposed (e.g. Adkins et al., 2005; Álvarez-Solas et al., 2011; Barker et al., 2010, 2015; Broecker, 2003; Hall et al., 2006; Knorr and Lohmann, 2003, 2007; Roche et al., 2007; Rogerson et al., 2010; Thiagarajan et al., 2014). Moreover, a thorough investigation of the extent to which non-freshwater-forced climate evolution matches the geological records has merit in its own right; can abrupt deglacial changes be simulated without ice-meltwater? To what extent can “observed” patterns be attributed to better constrained forcings, such as atmospheric CO₂ and Earth’s orbit? It is for all of these reasons that a flexible protocol is required.

Freshwater forcing scenarios consistent with the ice sheet reconstructions and which hence conserve salinity throughout the deglacial experiment are provided in two formats (the *melt* scenarios described below). In addition, there is the option to run without any ice meltwater (*no-melt*) to provide a robust reference for simulations that include uncertain meltwater fluxes. Thus, at least one Core simulation should be run using one of the following ice sheet meltwater scenarios:

- *Melt-uniform*: a globally uniform freshwater flux (or salinity target) through time, designed to conserve ocean salinity based on changing terrestrial ice mass. Fluxes consistent with the ice sheet reconstructions are provided.

- *Melt-routed*: a distributed routing that is consistent with the geographic evolution of the ice sheet reconstructions (GLAC-1D and ICE-6G_C; Sect. 2.4) and gives the flux through time at individual meltwater river outlets along the coast. Again, versions of this scenario are provided.

- *No-melt*: no ice meltwater is included in the core; neither a globally integrated ocean salinity target (*melt-uniform*) nor a distributed routing at the coastlines (*melt-routed*) is implemented. This is best implemented as a sensitivity-type experiment to account for model specificness and meltwater flux uncertainty when also implementing *melt* scenarios in accompanying versions of the Core simulation.

Multiple Core simulations exploring more than one of these scenarios are welcomed.

Data for the *melt* scenarios will be available from the PMIP4 last deglaciation wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016). The data for *melt-uniform* are available at the time of writing (following the respective ice volume changes from ICE-6G_C and GLAC1-D; Fig. 1g), data for *melt-routed* will be made available as they are produced (anticipated by August/September 2016). These *melt* scenarios represent a “best-estimate” approach to resolving the yet unknown geographically and temporally precise freshwater fluxes of the last deglaciation, and they are also consistent with the ice sheet reconstructions employed in the core. As such, they provide robust and justifiable boundary conditions
for simulations that will be assessed against palaeoclimate reconstructions.

However, participants do not have to use the (recommended) versions of *melt-uniform* or *melt-routed* that are consistent with ICE-6G_C and GLAC-1D, and can instead use their own scenarios to explore uncertainty in the ice sheet meltwater flux forcing. This is because the working group aims to use the full suite of PMIP climate models to examine forcing/boundary condition uncertainty (see discussion of model intercomparison project approaches in Sect. 1.4). Please note that in some ice melt (including *no-melt*) scenarios, global water budget may not be balanced through time. Therefore, it is advised to also use at least one scenario that falls within geological constraints (such as the ICE-6G_C or GLAC-1D consistent scenarios for *melt-uniform* and *melt-routed*).

Regardless of which scenario is employed, it is important that meltwater fluxes are prescribed as time-evolving model boundary conditions; rather than as stepwise adjustments at the same time as the ice sheets are updated, for example. Unless they are intentional conditions of the scenario, there should be no sudden jumps in the freshwater being applied. Furthermore, we invite participants to upload the boundary condition data for other freshwater flux scenarios along with appropriate documentation as/when they become available, and to contribute towards the coordination of focussed experiments (see Sect. 3) that will test specific hypotheses associated with model and climate sensitivity to the location, duration and magnitude of freshwater fluxes.

## 2.6 Topography, bathymetry, coastlines and rivers

Participants are recommended to note the advice set out by Kageyama et al. (2016) for implementing these boundary conditions in PMIP4-CMIP6 Last Glacial Maximum and Pliocene equilibrium-type experiments.

Changes in the ice sheets and their glacial eustatic and isostatic influence affected continental topography and ocean bathymetry, which in turn shifted the coordinates of river mouths and the coastal outline throughout the deglaciation. Hence, time-varying topographic, bathymetric and land-sea mask fields that match the chosen ice sheet from Sect. 2.4 (i.e. ICE-6G_C or GLAC-1D) should be used; moreover, these are provided within the ice sheet reconstruction data sets.

Topography should be updated at the same time as the model's ice sheet is updated; this is mainly implicit to implementing the ice sheet reconstruction because the major orographic changes through the deglaciation relate directly to ice sheet evolution. This said, due to glacial isostatic adjustment components in the ice sheet reconstructions, there is evolution in continental topography that is not directly the lowering/heightening of the ice surface, and it is up to individuals whether they incorporate this or mask only the changes in ice sheet orography.

Ocean bathymetry will be provided. When deemed possible, this boundary condition should be varied through time. Where differences in the land-sea mask require extra land to fill up coastal regions, or land to be cut away into ocean as sea-level rises (see next paragraph on coastlines), the model must be changed accordingly, because it is important to adequately represent the changing land-sea mask; for example, in order to include overlying grounded ice.

Following on from this, coastlines will need to be varied according to changes in global sea level (and each model's horizontal grid resolution). It will be left to the discretion of participants to decide how often to update either boundary condition, and when deciding on their frequency it is recommended that groups consider the implications for opening/closing seaways and their effect on ocean circulation and climate. Furthermore, the frequency need not be regular and may instead focus on key "events" in the marine (gateway) realm. However, whenever possible and foreseeable, groups are encouraged to avoid making stepwise changes to model boundary conditions that would interfere with signals of abrupt climate change; particularly those events that the working group aims to focus on (Heinrich Event 1, the Bølling Warming, MWP1a, the Younger Dryas etc.) unless the forcing (e.g. opening of a gateway) is assumed to be linked with the event.

If groups wish, model river networks can be remapped to be consistent with this and updated on the same time step as the ice sheet reconstruction, either manually or by the model. However, it is appreciated that the technical challenges associated with such a methodology would be impractical for many. Therefore, following the recommendation of the PMIP3 LGM Working Group (2010) and Kageyama et al. (2016), "river pathways and basins should be at least adjusted so that fresh water is conserved at the Earth's surface and care should be taken that rivers reach the ocean" at every time step that the bathymetry is adjusted; for example, when sea levels were lower, some river mouths may need to be displaced towards the (new) coastline to make sure they reach the ocean.

## 2.7 Vegetation, land surface and other forcings

In this section, recommendations are made for last deglaciation vegetation, land surface and aerosol (dust) parameters in the model.

There are three recommended options for setting up the Core experiment's vegetation and land surface parameters, they can either be (i) computed using a dynamical vegetation model (e.g. coupled to the atmospheric component of the model), (ii) prescribed to match the CMIP5 preindustrial set-up (Taylor et al., 2011a, b) with fixed vegetation types and fixed plant physiology (including leaf area index) or (iii) prescribed to match the CMIP5 preindustrial set-up (Taylor et al., 2011a, b) with fixed vegetation types and interactive plant physiology if running with an enabled carbon cycle. If pre-
scribing vegetation and land surface, i.e. using option (ii) and (iii), groups should be aware that coastal land will be emerged compared to preindustrial because of the increased terrestrial ice volume and associated lower eustatic sea level (with the maximum during the early stages of the Core). Therefore, vegetation/land surface will need to be interpo- lated onto the emerged land from preindustrial grid cells, for example using the nearest neighbour methods.

For models with prognostic aerosols, the parameters for dust (forcing) can be computed dynamically. Alternatively, it is recommended that Core simulations fix the associated parameters according to the CMIP5 preindustrial simulation (Taylor et al., 2011a, b), with no temporal variation. Examining the influence of different transient aerosol scenarios (for those models that do not include prognostic dust, for example) could constitute a further suite of sensitivity simulations for comparison with the Core.

There is no last deglaciation protocol for setting up other forcings, transient or fixed in time. For all simulations, groups are required to fully document their methods, includ- ing experiment design and especially when different or with additional components to the set-up described here.

## 3 Coordinating further simulations

As already discussed, we are faced with the challenge of de- signing an experiment that is suitable to be run with a wide range of models, from the more computationally efficient class of intermediate complexity models, to state-of-the-art Earth system models. One particular difficulty is enabling the most complex and the highest resolution climate models to participate in this 12 000-year-long experiment when for some, even the integration to reach the LGM spin-up state demands a large number of computational resources. There is no easy solution and our approach will be to augment the Core simulations with shorter focussed simulations that tar- get specific questions, mechanisms and time periods. Whilst the most computationally expensive models (e.g. the latest generation of Earth system models) may not be able to partic- ipate in the Core, they will be included in the shorter subset of focussed simulations. Similarly, alternative full-deglaciation simulations can be coordinated for the less computationally expensive models in the working group (e.g. low-resolution general circulation models, and Earth system models of in- termediate complexity).

One line of investigation relating to meltwater inputs from ice sheets and icebergs is to carry out a suite of sensitivity simulations examining different injection sites. These sim- ulations would help to address some of the uncertainty in freshwater flux scenarios. For example, geochemical evi- dence suggests that smaller and more localised discharges of freshwater than have traditionally been considered in climate models may have an important influence on ocean circula- tion (e.g. Hall et al., 2006), implying that precise freshwa-

ter fluxes are needed in the models to examine their effect. Certainly, others have shown that the location of injection is a controlling factor on the impact of freshwater delivery to the ocean, not just laterally (e.g. Condron and Winsor, 2012; Smith and Gregory, 2009), but also in terms of depth (e.g. Roche et al., 2007). A set of coordinated simulations explor- ing a range of uncertainty in the freshwater forcing (location, depth, duration, magnitude, and physical characteristics such as temperature and density) would be well suited for the fo- cussed experiments, thus building on the Core simulations, which may themselves indicate interesting avenues for inves- tigation; partly the purpose of a flexible meltwater approach.

However, freshwater is not the only issue and other fo- cussed experiments could include the influence of green- house gas records, differences in ice sheet reconstructions (e.g. the PMIP3 merged ice sheet from Abe-Ouchi et al., 2015; ICE-6G_C; GLAC-1D) or simulations with (coupled) ice-sheet models, the relative importance of different forc- ings (e.g. insolation vs. trace gases vs. ice sheet evolution), sensitivity to dust-forcing scenarios, the influence of changes in tidal energy dissipation (Schmittner et al., 2015), event- specific hypothesis testing and shorter-term variability within the climate system.

Based on ongoing discussions, it is likely that the first sets of focussed simulations will be

- sensitivity and hypothesis-driven simulations that com- pare results from uniformly distributed meltwater fluxes to results from river-routed meltwater fluxes to examine the impact of the regional specificity of freshwater forc- ing upon climate system evolution;

- sensitivity simulations that are free from ice meltwater fluxes to provide information on what climate evolution was caused by processes other than freshwater fluxes to the ocean;

- a hypothesis-driven investigation of the possible mech- anisms for preconditioning the glacial ocean for the rel- atively cool Heinrich Stadial 1 and ensuing catastrophic iceberg discharge (Barker et al., 2015);

- sensitivity experiments examining the role of trace gas forcing resolution on climate evolution, for example, smoothing the record provided by Bereiter et al. (2015).

We have described the plans for focussed simulations to highlight the depth of the working group's aims and to prop- erly contextualise the Core simulations, but the purpose of this manuscript is to outline the model set-up for the Core experiment. The design for subsequent focussed simulations will be described at a later date on the PMIP4 last deglacia- tion wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, 2016) and we welcome contributions to the discussion of what fur- ther simulations to coordinate there.
## 4 Working group phases

The experiment will be split into three phases that are designed to run seamlessly into each other (Fig. 1a). Phase one begins at the LGM (21 ka) and will finish at the abrupt Bølling Warming event, which is where phase 2 picks up, encompassing the Bølling Warming. Phase 3 begins at the start of the Younger Dryas cooling and is currently planned to continue through to the end of the Core experiment at 9 ka.

Perhaps most importantly, this affords near-future milestones for managing the ultimate completion of the long full deglacial simulation across all participant groups. It will provide a timetabled framework for beginning and continuing the longer simulations; for scheduling shorter, event-or challenge-specific transient simulations by more computationally expensive models (see discussion in Sect. 3); and for the analysis and publication of results as the milestones are reached. Another motivation is to ensure that the experiment design for later periods of the last deglaciation is updated according to knowledge gained from simulations of the preceding time period; for example, changes in ocean and climate states, which have previously been shown to have a strong influence on climate trajectories (e.g. Kageyama et al., 2010; Timm and Timmermann, 2007). This is particularly important for setting up shorter, event-specific focussed simulations, but it is not planned to be explicitly used to influence the Core. Splitting the period into phases also provides the opportunity to update model boundary conditions and climate forcing data with cutting edge palaeoclimate reconstructions, as they emerge during the lifespan of the multi-model experiment. However, care will be taken to ensure that these are physically consistent between phases, and these updates will not compromise the Core simulations described in this manuscript. This is so as not to disadvantage more computationally efficient models that may have already completed simulating the full 21–9 ka (or beyond) period. Instead, the information will be incorporated into focussed versions of the last deglaciation simulations; possibly spun-off sub-periods that do not have to start again at the LGM.

Each phase will encompass at least one distinguishable climate event; Heinrich Stadial 1 and Heinrich Event 1 in phase 1 following on from the LGM; MWP1a, the Bølling Warming and the Antarctic Cold Reversal in phase 2; and the Younger Dryas cooling in phase 3 (Fig. 1b). As outlined in Sect. 3, simulations of these shorter events can be coordinated in the focussed simulations. This is to engage the higher complexity/resolution models, which are unable to run longer simulations, but can use the wider framework of the working group to provide valuable knowledge on rapid climate changes known to have taken place in the last 21 ka.

## 5 Summary

The last deglaciation presents a host of exciting opportunities to study the Earth system and in particular, to try to understand a range of abrupt climate changes that occurred over just a few years to centuries within the context of more gradual trends. Numerical climate models provide useful tools to investigate the mechanisms that underpin the events of this well-studied time period, especially now that technological and scientific advances make it possible to run multi-millennium simulations with some of the most complex models. Several recent modelling studies have begun this task, but many questions and untested hypotheses remain. Therefore, under the auspices of the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP), we have set up an initiative to coordinate efforts to run transient simulations of the last deglaciation, and to facilitate the dissemination of expertise between modellers and those engaged with reconstructing the climate of the last 21 000 years.

The first step has been to design a Core experiment suitable for a range of PMIP models: from relatively fast and coarse resolution Earth system models of intermediate complexity, to new generations of the more complex and higher-resolution general circulation and Earth system models. The set-up for this Core experiment is based on an approach that tries to combine a traditional Model Intercomparison Project method of strictly prescribing boundary conditions across all models, and the philosophy of utilising the breadth of participants to address outstanding uncertainty in the climate forcings, model structure and palaeoclimate reconstructions. Accordingly, we have made recommendations for the initialisation conditions for the simulation and have stated our minimum requirements for the transient experiment design, as summarised in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.

However, there are some uncertainties that the Core is not designed to deal with directly or exhaustively; two examples discussed in this manuscript being the effect of trace gas record resolution and the influence of ice melt on the oceans and climate, respectively. We know that the Core simulations will not tackle all of our questions, and are likely to give rise to others. Therefore, additional focussed simulations will also be coordinated on an ad hoc basis by the working group. Many of these will build on and be centred around the Core; often taking shorter snapshots in time, thus including the most computationally expensive models in the experiment, or presenting 12 000 year alternatives to the Core for faster models to contribute. Not all simulations will be suitable for all models, but the aim is that taken as a whole, the experiment can utilise the wide range of PMIP model strengths and hence minimise individual weaknesses.

Essentially, the Core experiment has been designed to be inclusive, taking into account the best compromise between uncertainties in the geological data and model limitations. The hypothesis-driven focussed experiments will go further than the Core to target the questions that remain. It is hoped
that this exciting initiative will improve our individual ef-
forts, providing new opportunities to drive the science for-
wards towards understanding this fascinating time period,
specific mechanisms of rapid climate warming, cooling and
sea-level change and Earth's climate system more broadly.

6 Data availability

All boundary condition data required for running the last
deglaciation Core experiment version 1 (summarised by Ta-
bles 1 and 2) can be downloaded from the PMIP4 last
deglaciation wiki (PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group,
2016; https://pmip4.lsce.ipsl.fr/doku.php/exp design:degla).

*Author contributions.* Ruza F. Ivanovic and Lauren J. Gregoire lead the PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group, for which Andrea Burke, Masa Kageyama, Didier M. Roche and Paul J. Valdes act as the advisory group. Ruza F. Ivanovic, Lauren J. Gregoire, Masa Kageyama, Didier M. Roche, Paul J. Valdes and Andrea Burke collaboratively designed the working group's aims, structure, Core experiment and additional experiments in consultation with the wider community. Rosemarie Drummond, W. Richard Peltier and Lev Tarasov provided the ice sheet reconstructions, plus associated boundary conditions. Ruza F. Ivanovic and Lauren J. Gregoire collated these and all other boundary condition data for the simulations. Ruza F. Ivanovic and Lauren J. Gregoire wrote the manuscript and produced the figures with contributions from all authors.

*Acknowledgements.* Ruza F. Ivanovic is funded by a NERC Independent Research Fellowship (no. NE/K008536/1). Data processing for boundary condition preparation was carried out using the computational facilities of the Palaeo@Leeds modelling group, University of Leeds, UK. All authors would like to thank everyone who has taken the time to discuss the Working Group's aims and experiments with us. We are especially grateful to Jean-Yves Peterschmitt (Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, France) for managing and archiving the boundary conditions, as well as setting up and maintaining the PMIP wiki pages; to Emilie Capron (British Antarctic Survey, UK) for help with the ice-core data and to Bette Otto-Bliesner (National Center for Atmospheric Research, USA) for useful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. Specific thanks also go to Anders Carlson, Eric Wolff, Andreas Schmittner, Shawn Marshall and an anonymous reviewer for valuable comments on the manuscript, as well as to Jeremy Fyke for editing.

Edited by: J. Fyke

Reviewed by: S. J. Marshall and one anonymous referee

References

Abe-Ouchi, A., Saito, F., Kageyama, M., Braconnot, P., Harrison, S. P., Lambeck, K., Otto-Bliesner, B. L., Peltier, W. R., Tarasov, L., Peterschmitt, J.-Y., and Takahashi, K.: Ice-sheet configuration in the CMIP5/PMIP3 Last Glacial Maximum experiments, Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 3621–3637, doi:10.5194/gmd-8-3621-2015, 2015.

Adkins, J. F., Ingersoll, A. P., and Pasquero, C.: Rapid climate change and conditional instability of the glacial deep ocean from the thermobaric effect and geothermal heating, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 24, 581–594, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.11.005, 2005.

Aharon, P.: Entrainment of meltwaters in hyperpycnal flows during deglaciation superfloods in the Gulf of Mexico, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 241, 260–270, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.10.034, 2006.

Ahn, J. and Brook, E. J.: Siple Dome ice reveals two modes of mil-
lennial CO₂ change during the last ice age, Nat. Commun., 5,
3723, doi:10.1038/ncomms4723, 2014.

Alley, R. B.: The Younger Dryas cold interval as viewed from central Greenland, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 19, 213–226, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00062-1, 2000.

Álvarez-Solas, J., Montoya, M., Ritz, C., Ramstein, G., Charbit, S., Dumas, C., Nisancioglu, K., Dokken, T., and Ganopolski, A.: Heinrich event 1: an example of dynamical ice-sheet reaction to oceanic changes, Clim. Past, 7, 1297–1306, doi:10.5194/cp-7-1297-2011, 2011.

Annan, J. D. and Hargreaves, J. C.: A new global reconstruction of temperature changes at the Last Glacial Maximum, Clim. Past, 9, 367–376, doi:10.5194/cp-9-367-2013, 2013.

Argus, D. F., Peltier, W. R., Drummond, R., and Moore, A. W.: The Antarctica component of postglacial rebound model ICE-6G_C (VM5a) based on GPS positioning, exposure age dating of ice thicknesses, and relative sea level histories, Geophys. J. Int., 198, 537–563, doi:10.1093/gji/ggu140, 2014.

Austermann, J., Mitrovica, J. X., Latychev, K., and Milne, G. A.: Barbados-based estimate of ice volume at Last Glacial Maximum affected by subducted plate, Nat. Geosci., 6, 553–557, doi:10.1038/ngeo1859, 2013.

Bard, E.: Climate shock – Abrupt changes over millenial time scales, Phys. Today, 55, 32–38, 2002.

Bard, E., Hamelin, B., Arnold, M., Montaggioni, L., Cabioch, G., Faure, G., and Rougerie, F.: Deglacial sea-level record from Tahiti corals and the timing of global meltwater discharge, Nature, 382, 241–244, doi:10.1038/382241a0, 1996.

Bard, E., Rostek, F., Turon, J.-L., and Gendreau, S.: Hydrological Impact of Heinrich Events in the Subtropical Northeast Atlantic, Science, 289, 1321–1324, doi:10.1126/science.289.5483.1321, 2000.

Bard, E., Hamelin, B., and Delanghe-Sabatier, D.: Deglacial Meltwater Pulse 1B and Younger Dryas Sea Levels Revisited with Boreholes at Tahiti, Science, 327, 1235–1237, doi:10.1126/science.1180557, 2010.

Barker, S., Knorr, G., Vautravers, M. J., Diz, P., and Skinner, L. C.: Extreme deepening of the Atlantic overturning circulation during deglaciation, Nat. Geosci., 3, 567–571, doi:10.1038/ngeo921, 2010.

Barker, S., Chen, J., Gong, X., Jonkers, L., Knorr, G., and Thornal-
ley, D.: Icebergs not the trigger for North Atlantic cold events,
Nature, 520, 333–336, doi:10.1038/nature14330, 2015.
Bassett, S. E., Milne, G. A., Mitrovica, J. X., and Clark, P. U.: Ice Sheet and Solid Earth Influences on Far-Field Sea-Level Histories, Science, 309, 925–928, doi:10.1126/science.1111575, 2005.

Bassett, S. E., Milne, G. A., Bentley, M. J., and Huybrechts, P.: Modelling Antarctic sea-level data to explore the possibility of a dominant Antarctic contribution to meltwater pulse IA, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 26, 2113–2127, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.06.011, 2007.

Bauer, E. and Ganopolski, A.: Sensitivity simulations with direct shortwave radiative forcing by aeolian dust during glacial cycles, Clim. Past, 10, 1333–1348, doi:10.5194/cp-10-1333-2014, 2014.

Bentley, M. J., Fogwill, C. J., Brocq, A. M. L., Hubbard, A. L., Sugden, D. E., Dunai, T. J., and Freeman, S. P. H. T.: Deglacial history of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Weddell Sea em-bayment: Constraints on past ice volume change, Geology, 38, 411–414, doi:10.1130/G30754.1, 2010.

Bentley, M. J., Ó Cofaigh, C., Anderson, J. B., Conway, H., Davies, B., Graham, A. G. C., Hillenbrand, C.-D., Hodgson, D. A., Jamieson, S. S. R., Larter, R. D., Mackintosh, A., Smith, J. A., Verleyen, E., Ackert, R. P., Bart, P. J., Berg, S., Brunstein, D., Canals, M., Colhoun, E. A., Crosta, X., Dickens, W. A., Domack, E., Dowdeswell, J. A., Dunbar, R., Ehrmann, W., Evans, J., Favier, V., Fink, D., Fogwill, C. J., Glasser, N. F., Gohl, K., Golledge, N. R., Goodwin, I., Gore, D. B., Greenwood, S. L., Hall, B. L., Hall, K., Hedding, D. W., Hein, A. S., Hocking, E. P., Jakobsson, M., Johnson, J. S., Jomelli, V., Jones, R. S., Klages, J. P., Kristoffersen, Y., Kuhn, G., Leventer, A., Licht, K., Lilly, K., Lindow, J., Livingstone, S. J., Massé, G., McGlone, M. S., McKay, R. M., Melles, M., Miura, H., Mulvaney, R., Nel, W., Nitsche, F. O., O’Brien, P. E., Post, A. L., Roberts, S. J., Saunders, K. M., Selkirk, P. M., Simms, A. R., Spiegel, C., Stolldorf, T. D., Sugden, D. E., van der Putten, N., van Ommen, T., Verfaillie, D., Vyverman, W., Wagner, B., White, D. A., Witus, A. E., and Zwartz, D.: A community-based geo-logical reconstruction of Antarctic Ice Sheet deglaciation since the Last Glacial Maximum, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 100, 1–9, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.06.025, 2014.

Bereiter, B., Eggleston, S., Schmitt, J., Nehrbass-Ahles, C., Stocker, T. F., Fischer, H., Kipfstuhl, S., and Chappellaz, J.: Revision of the EPICA Dome C CO₂ record from 800 to 600 kyr before present, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 542–549, doi:10.1002/2014GL061957, 2015.

Berger, A.: Long-Term Variations of Daily Insolation and Quaternary Climatic Changes, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2362–2367, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1978)035<2362:LTVODI>2.0.CO;2, 1978.

Berger, A. and Loutre, M. F.: Insolation values for the climate of the last 10 million years, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 10, 297–317, doi:10.1016/0277-3791(91)90033-Q, 1991.

Bonelli, S., Charbit, S., Kageyama, M., Woillez, M.-N., Ramstein, G., Dumas, C., and Quiquet, A.: Investigating the evolution of major Northern Hemisphere ice sheets during the last glacial-interglacial cycle, Clim. Past, 5, 329–345, doi:10.5194/cp-5-329-2009, 2009.

Boulton, G. S., Dongelmans, P., Punkari, M., and Broadgate, M.: Palaeoglaciology of an ice sheet through a glacial cycle: the European ice sheet through the Weichselian, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 20, 591–625, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00160-8, 2001.

Braconnot, P., Joussaume, S., de Noblet, N., and Ramstein, G.: Mid-Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum African monsoon changes as simulated within the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project, Global Planet. Change, 26, 51–66, doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00033-3, 2000.

Braconnot, P., Otto-Bliesner, B., Harrison, S., Joussaume, S., Peterchmitt, J.-Y., Abe-Ouchi, A., Crucifix, M., Driesschaert, E., Fichefet, Th., Hewitt, C. D., Kageyama, M., Kitoh, A., Laîné, A., Loutre, M.-F., Marti, O., Merkel, U., Ramstein, G., Valdes, P., Weber, S. L., Yu, Y., and Zhao, Y.: Results of PMIP2 coupled simulations of the Mid-Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum – Part 1: experiments and large-scale features, Clim. Past, 3, 261–277, doi:10.5194/cp-3-261-2007, 2007.

Braconnot, P., Harrison, S. P., Kageyama, M., Bartlein, P. J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Abe-Ouchi, A., Otto-Bliesner, B., and Zhao, Y.: Evaluation of climate models using palaeoclimatic data, Nat. Clim. Change, 2, 417–424, doi:10.1038/nclimate1456, 2012.

Briggs, R. D., Pollard, D., and Tarasov, L.: A data-constrained large ensemble analysis of Antarctic evolution since the Eemian, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 103, 91–115, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.09.003, 2014.

Broecker, W. S.: Does the Trigger for Abrupt Climate Change Reside in the Ocean or in the Atmosphere?, Science, 300, 1519–1522, doi:10.1126/science.1083797, 2003.

Broecker, W. S., Kennett, J. P., Flower, B. P., Teller, J. T., Trumbore, S., Bonani, G., and Wolfl, W.: Routing of meltwater from the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Younger Dryas cold episode, Nature, 341, 318–321, doi:10.1038/341318a0, 1989.

Brovkin, V., Ganopolski, A., Archer, D., and Munhoven, G.: Glacial CO₂ cycle as a succession of key physical and biogeochemical processes, Clim. Past, 8, 251–264, doi:10.5194/cp-8-251-2012, 2012.

Buizert, C., Gkinis, V., Severinghaus, J. P., He, F., Lecavalier, B. S., Kindler, P., Leuenberger, M., Carlson, A. E., Vinther, B., Masson-Delmotte, V., White, J. W. C., Liu, Z., Otto-Bliesner, B., and Brook, E. J.: Greenland temperature response to climate forcing during the last deglaciation, Science, 345, 1177–1180, doi:10.1126/science.1254961, 2014.

Cabioch, G., Banks-Cutler, K. A., Beck, W. J., Burr, G. S., Corrège, T., Lawrence Edwards, R., and Taylor, F. W.: Continuous reef growth during the last 23 cal kyr BP in a tectonically active zone (Vanuatu, SouthWest Pacific), Quaternary Sci. Rev., 22, 1771–1786, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00170-7, 2003.

Caley, T., Roche, D. M., and Renssen, H.: Orbital Asian summer monsoon dynamics revealed using an isotope-enabled global climate model, Nat. Commun., 5, 5371, doi:10.1038/ncomms6371, 2014.

Carlson, A. E.: Geochemical constraints on the Laurentide Ice Sheet contribution to Meltwater Pulse 1A, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 28, 1625–1630, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.02.011, 2009.

Clark, P. U. and Mix, A. C.: Ice sheets and sea level of the Last Glacial Maximum, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21, 1–7, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00118-4, 2002.

Clark, P. U. and Tarasov, L.: Closing the sea level budget at the Last Glacial Maximum, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 111, 15861–15862, doi:10.1073/pnas.1418970111, 2014.

Clark, P. U., Alley, R. B., Keigwin, L. D., Licciardi, J. M., Johnsen, S. J., and Wang, H.: Origin of the first global meltwater pulse fol-
lowing the Last Glacial Maximum, Paleooceanography, 11, 563–577, doi:10.1029/96PA01419, 1996.

Clark, P. U., Mitrovica, J. X., Milne, G. A., and Tamisiea, M. E.: Sea-Level Fingerprinting as a Direct Test for the Source of Global Meltwater Pulse IA, Science, 295, 2438–2441, doi:10.1126/science.1068797, 2002.

Clark, P. U., McCabe, A. M., Mix, A. C., and Weaver, A. J.: Rapid Rise of Sea Level 19 000 Years Ago and Its Global Implications, Science, 304, 1141–1144, doi:10.1126/science.1094449, 2004.

Clark, P. U., Dyke, A. S., Shakun, J. D., Carlson, A. E., Clark, J., Wohlfarth, B., Mitrovica, J. X., Hostetler, S. W., and McCabe, A. M.: The Last Glacial Maximum, Science, 325, 710–714, doi:10.1126/science.1172873, 2009.

Clark, P. U., Shakun, J. D., Baker, P. A., Bartlein, P. J., Brewer, S., Brook, E., Carlson, A. E., Cheng, H., Kaufman, D. S., Liu, Z., Marchitto, T. M., Mix, A. C., Morrill, C., Otto-Bliesner, B. L., Pahnke, K., Russell, J. M., Whitlock, C., Adkins, J. F., Blois, J. L., Clark, J., Colman, S. M., Curry, W. B., Flower, B. P., He, F., Johnson, T. C., Lynch-Stieglitz, J., Markgraf, V., McManus, J., Mitrovica, J. X., Moreno, P. I., and Williams, J. W.: Global climate evolution during the last deglaciation, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 109, E1134–E1142, doi:10.1073/pnas.1116619109, 2012.

Condron, A. and Winsor, P.: Meltwater routing and the Younger Dryas, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 109, 19928–19933, doi:10.1073/pnas.1207381109, 2012.

Cuffey, K. M. and Clow, G. D.: Temperature, accumulation, and ice sheet elevation in central Greenland through the last deglacial transition, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 26383–26396, doi:10.1029/96JC03981, 1997.

Cutler, K. B., Edwards, R. L., Taylor, F. W., Cheng, H., Adkins, J., Gallup, C. D., Cutler, P. M., Burr, G. S., and Bloom, A. L.: Rapid sea-level fall and deep-ocean temperature change since the last interglacial period, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 206, 253–271, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)01107-X, 2003.

De Deckker, P. and Yokoyama, Y.: Micropalaeontological evidence for Late Quaternary sea-level changes in Bona-parte Gulf, Australia, Global Planet. Change, 66, 85–92, doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.03.012, 2009.

deMenocal, P., Ortiz, J., Guilderson, T., Adkins, J., Sarnthein, M., Baker, L., and Yarusinsky, M.: Abrupt onset and termination of the African Humid Period: rapid climate responses to gradual insolation forcing, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 19, 347–361, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00081-5, 2000.

Deschamps, P., Durand, N., Bard, E., Hamelin, B., Camoin, G., Thomas, A. L., Henderson, G. M., Okuno, J., and Yokoyama, Y.: Ice-sheet collapse and sea-level rise at the Bolling warming 14 600 years ago, Nature, 483, 559–564, doi:10.1038/nature10902, 2012.

Dyke, A. S.: An outline of North American deglaciation with emphasis on central and northern Canada, in: Quaternary Glaciations-Extent and Chronology – Part II: North America, vol. 2, Part 2, 373–424, Elsevier, available at: https://www.lakeheadu.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/53/outlines/2014-15/NECU5311/Dyke_2004_DeglaciationOutline.pdf (last access: 20 October 2015), 2004.

Dyke, A. S., Andrews, J. T., Clark, P. U., England, J. H., Miller, G. H., Shaw, J., and Veillette, J. J.: The Laurentide and Innuitian ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21, 9–31, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00095-6, 2002.

Edwards, R. L., Beck, J. W., Burr, G. S., Donahue, D. J., Chappell, J. M. A., Bloom, A. L., Druffel, E. R. M., and Taylor, F. W.: A Large Drop in Atmospheric $^{14}$C/$^{12}$C and Reduced Melting in the Younger Dryas, Documented with $^{230}$Th Ages of Corals, Science, 260, 962–968, doi:10.1126/science.260.5110.962, 1993.

EPICA Community Members: Eight glacial cycles from an Antarctic ice core, Nature, 429, 623–628, doi:10.1038/nature02599, 2004.

Fairbanks, R. G.: A 17 000-year glacio-eustatic sea level record: influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation, Nature, 342, 637–642, doi:10.1038/342637a0, 1989.

Flato, G., Marotzke, J., Abiodun, B., Braconnot, P., Chou, S. C., Collins, W., Cox, P., Driouech, F., Emori, S., Eyring, V., Forest, C., Glecker, P., Guilyardi, E., Jackob, C., Kattsov, V., Reason, C., and Rummukainen, M.: Evaluation of Climate Models, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Plattner, G. K., Tignor, M., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P. M., 741–866, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter09_FINAL.pdf (last access: 20 October 2015), 2013.

Ganopolski, A. and Calov, R.: The role of orbital forcing, carbon dioxide and regolith in 100 kyr glacial cycles, Clim. Past, 7, 1415–1425, doi:10.5194/cp-7-1415-2011, 2011.

Ganopolski, A. and Rahmstorf, S.: Rapid changes of glacial climate simulated in a coupled climate model, Nature, 409, 153–158, doi:10.1038/35051500, 2001.

Ganopolski, A., Calov, R., and Claussen, M.: Simulation of the last glacial cycle with a coupled climate ice-sheet model of intermediate complexity, Clim. Past, 6, 229–244, doi:10.5194/cp-6-229-2010, 2010.

García, J. L., Kaplan, M. R., Hall, B. L., Schaefer, J. M., Vega, R. M., Schwartz, R., and Finkel, R.: Glacier expansion in southern Patagonia throughout the Antarctic cold reversal, Geology, 40, 859–862, doi:10.1130/G33164.1, 2012.

Gherardi, J.-M., Labeyrie, L., McManus, J. F., Francois, R., Skinner, L. C. and Cortijo, E.: Evidence from the Northeastern Atlantic basin for variability in the rate of the meridional overturning circulation through the last deglaciation, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 240, 710–723, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.09.061, 2005.

Golledge, N. R., Fogwill, C. J., Mackintosh, A. N., and Buckley, K. M.: Dynamics of the last glacial maximum Antarctic ice-sheet and its response to ocean forcing, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 109, 16052–16056, doi:10.1073/pnas.1205385109, 2012.

Golledge, N. R., Levy, R. H., McKay, R. M., Fogwill, C. J., White, D. A., Graham, A. G. C., Smith, J. A., Hillenbrand, C.-D., Licht, K. J., Denton, G. H., Ackert Jr., R. P., Maas, S. M., and Hall, B. L.: Glaciology and geological signature of the Last Glacial Maximum Antarctic ice sheet, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 78, 225–247, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.08.011, 2013.

Golledge, N. R., Menviel, L., Carter, L., Fogwill, C. J., England, M. H., Cortese, G., and Levy, R. H.: Antarctic contribution to meltwater pulse 1A from reduced Southern Ocean overturning, Nat. Commun., 5, 5107, doi:10.1038/ncomms6107, 2014.
Goujon, C., Barnola, J.-M., and Ritz, C.: Modeling the densification of polar firn including heat diffusion: Application to close-off characteristics and gas isotopic fractionation for Antarc-tica and Greenland sites, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4792, doi:10.1029/2002JD003319, 2003.

Gregoire, L. J., Payne, A. J., and Valdes, P. J.: Deglacial rapid sea level rises caused by ice-sheet saddle collapses, Nature, 487, 219–222, doi:10.1038/nature11257, 2012.

Gregoire, L. J., Valdes, P. J., and Payne, A. J.: The relative con-tribution of orbital forcing and greenhouse gases to the North American deglaciation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 9970–9979, doi:10.1002/2015GL066005, 2015.

Gyllencreutz, R., Mangerud, J., Svendsen, J.-I., and Lohne, Ø.: DATED – a GIS-based reconstruction and dating database of the Eurasian deglaciation, Appl. Quat. Res. Cent. Part Glaciat. Ter-rain Geol. Surv. Finl. Spec. Pap., 46, 113–120, 2007.

Hall, I. R., Moran, S. B., Zahn, R., Knutz, P. C., Shen, C.-C., and Edwards, R. L.: Accelerated drawdown of meridional over-turning in the late-glacial Atlantic triggered by transient pre-H event freshwater perturbation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L16616, doi:10.1029/2006GL026239, 2006.

Hanebuth, T., Stattegger, K., and Grootes, P. M.: Rapid Flooding of the Sunda Shelf: A Late-Glacial Sea-Level Record, Science, 288, 1033–1035, doi:10.1126/science.288.5468.1033, 2000.

Hanebuth, T. J. J., Stattegger, K., and Bojanowski, A.: Termi-nation of the Last Glacial Maximum sea-level lowstand: The Sunda-Shelf data revisited, Global Planet. Change, 66, 76–84, doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.03.011, 2009.

Haywood, A. M., Dowsett, H. J., Otto-Bliesner, B., Chandler, M. A., Dolan, A. M., Hill, D. J., Lunt, D. J., Robinson, M. M., Rosen-bloom, N., Salzmann, U., and Sohl, L. E.: Pliocene Model Inter-comparison Project (PlioMIP): experimental design and bound-ary conditions (Experiment 1), Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 227–242, doi:10.5194/gmd-3-227-2010, 2010.

Heinemann, M., Timmermann, A., Elison Timm, O., Saito, F., and Abe-Ouchi, A.: Deglacial ice sheet meltdown: orbital pacemak-ing and CO₂ effects, Clim. Past, 10, 1567–1579, doi:10.5194/cp-10-1567-2014, 2014.

Heiri, O., Cremer, H., Engels, S., Hoek, W. Z., Peeters, W., and Lotter, A. F.: Lateglacial summer temperatures in the North-west European lowlands: a chironomid record from Hijker-meer, the Netherlands, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 26, 2420–2437, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.06.017, 2007.

Hemming, S. R.: Heinrich events: Massive late Pleistocene detritus layers of the North Atlantic and their global climate imprint, Rev. Geophys., 42, RG1005, doi:10.1029/2003RG000128, 2004.

Hughes, A. L. C., Gyllencreutz, R., Lohne, Ø. S., Mangerud, J., and Svendsen, J. I.: The last Eurasian ice sheets – a chronological database and time-slice reconstruction, DATED-1, Boreas, 45, 1–45, doi:10.1111/bor.12142, 2015.

Joussaume, S., Taylor, K. E., Braconnot, P., Mitchell, J. F. B., Kutzbach, J. E., Harrison, S. P., Prentice, I. C., Broccoli, A. J., Abe-Ouchi, A., Bartlein, P. J., Bonfils, C., Dong, B., Guiot, J., Herterich, K., Hewitt, C. D., Jolly, D., Kim, J. W., Kislov, A., Kitoh, A., Loutre, M. F., Masson, V., McAvaney, B., Mc-Farlane, N., de Noblet, N., Peltier, W. R., Peterschmitt, J. Y., Pollard, D., Rind, D., Royer, J. F., Schlesinger, M. E., Syk-tus, J., Thompson, S., Valdes, P., Vettoretti, G., Webb, R. S., and Wyputta, U.: Monsoon changes for 6000 years ago: Re-

sults of 18 simulations from the Paleoclimate Modeling Inter-comparison Project (PMIP), Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 859–862, doi:10.1029/1999GL900126, 1999.

Jouzel, J., Vaikmae, R., Petit, J. R., Martin, M., Duclos, Y., Stieve-nard, M., Lorius, C., Toots, M., Mélières, M. A., Burckle, L. H., Barkov, N. I., and Kotlyakov, V. M.: The two-step shape and tim-ing of the last deglaciation in Antarctica, Clim. Dynam., 11, 151–161, doi:10.1007/BF00223498, 1995.

Jouzel, J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Cattani, O., Dreyfus, G., Falourd, S., Hoffmann, G., Minster, B., Nouet, J., Barnola, J. M., Chap-pellaz, J., Fischer, H., Gallet, J. C., Johnsen, S., Leuenberger, M., Loulergue, L., Luethi, D., Oerter, H., Parrenin, F., Raisbeck, G., Raynaud, D., Schilt, A., Schwander, J., Selmo, E., Souchez, R., Spahni, R., Stauffer, B., Steffensen, J. P., Stenni, B., Stocker, T. F., Tison, J. L., Werner, M., and Wolff, E. W.: Orbital and Mil-lennial Antarctic Climate Variability over the Past 800 000 Years, Science, 317, 793–796, doi:10.1126/science.1141038, 2007.

Kageyama, M., Laîné, A., Abe-Ouchi, A., Braconnot, P., Cortijo, E., Crucifix, M., de Vernal, A., Guiot, J., Hewitt, C. D., Ki-toh, A., Kucera, M., Marti, O., Ohgaito, R., Otto-Bliesner, B., Peltier, W. R., Rosell-Melé, A., Vettoretti, G., Weber, S. L., and Yu, Y.: Last Glacial Maximum temperatures over the North Atlantic, Europe and western Siberia: a comparison between PMIP models, MARGO sea–surface temperatures and pollen-based reconstructions, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 25, 2082–2102, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.02.010, 2006.

Kageyama, M., Paul, A., Roche, D. M., and Van Meerbeeck, C. J.: Modelling glacial climatic millennial-scale variabil-ity related to changes in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation: a review, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 2931–2956, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.05.029, 2010.

Kageyama, M., Merkel, U., Otto-Bliesner, B., Prange, M., Abe-Ouchi, A., Lohmann, G., Ohgaito, R., Roche, D. M., Singarayer, J., Swingedouw, D., and Zhang, X.: Climatic impacts of fresh water hosing under Last Glacial Maximum conditions: a multi-model study, Clim. Past, 9, 935–953, doi:10.5194/cp-9-935-2013, 2013.

Kageyama, M., Braconnot, P., Harrison, S. P., Haywood, A. M., Jungclaus, J., Otto-Bliesner, B. L., Peterschmitt, J.-Y., Abe-Ouchi, A., Albani, S., Bartlein, P. J., Brierley, C., Crucifix, M., Dolan, A., Fernandez-Donado, L., Fischer, H., Hopcroft, P. O., Ivanovic, R. F., Lambert, F., Lunt, D. J., Mahowald, N. M., Peltier, W. R., Phipps, S. J., Roche, D. M., Schmidt, G. A., Tarasov, L., Valdes, P. J., Zhang, Q., and Zhou, T.: PMIP4-CMIP6: the contribution of the Paleoclimate Modelling Inter-comparison Project to CMIP6, Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., doi:10.5194/gmd-2016-106, in review, 2016.

Kaplan, M. R., Strelin, J. A., Schaefer, J. M., Denton, G. H., Finkel, R. C., Schwartz, R., Putnam, A. E., Vandergoes, M. J., Goehring, B. M., and Travis, S. G.: In-situ cosmogenic $^{10}$Be pro-duction rate at Lago Argentino, Patagonia: Implications for late-glacial climate chronology, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 309, 21–32, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.06.018, 2011.

Keigwin, L. D. and Boyle, E. A.: Did North Atlantic overturn-ing halt 17 000 years ago?, Paleooceanography, 23, PA1101, doi:10.1029/2007PA001500, 2008.

Keigwin, L. D., Jones, G. A., Lehman, S. J., and Boyle, E. A.: Deglacial meltwater discharge, North Atlantic Deep Circulation,
and abrupt climate change, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 96, 16811-16826, doi:10.1029/91JC01624, 1991.

Kindler, P., Guillevic, M., Baumgartner, M., Schwander, J., Landais, A., and Leuenberger, M.: Temperature reconstruction from 10 to 120 kyr b2k from the NGRIP ice core, Clim. Past, 10, 887–902, doi:10.5194/cp-10-887-2014, 2014.

Knorr, G. and Lohmann, G.: Southern Ocean origin for the resumption of Atlantic thermohaline circulation during deglaciation, Nature, 424, 532–536, doi:10.1038/nature01855, 2003.

Knorr, G. and Lohmann, G.: Rapid transitions in the Atlantic thermohaline circulation triggered by global warming and meltwater during the last deglaciation, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 8, Q12006, doi:10.1029/2007GC001604, 2007.

Kohfeld, K. and Harrison, S.: How well can we simulate past climates? Evaluating the models using global palaeoenvironmental datasets, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 19, 321–346, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00068-2, 2000.

Lambeck, K., Rouby, H., Purcell, A., Sun, Y., and Sambridge, M.: Sea level and global ice volumes from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 111, 15296–15303, doi:10.1073/pnas.1411762111, 2014.

Lea, D. W., Pak, D. K., Peterson, L. C., and Hughen, K. A.: Synchroneity of Tropical and High-Latitude Atlantic Temperatures over the Last Glacial Termination, Science, 301, 1361–1364, doi:10.1126/science.1088470, 2003.

Licht, K. J.: The Ross Sea's contribution to eustatic sea level during meltwater pulse 1A, Sediment. Geol., 165, 343–353, doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2003.11.020, 2004.

Liu, Z., Otto-Bliesner, B. L., He, F., Brady, E. C., Tomas, R., Clark, P. U., Carlson, A. E., Lynch-Stieglitz, J., Curry, W., Brook, E., Erickson, D., Jacob, R., Kutzbach, J., and Cheng, J.: Transient Simulation of Last Deglaciation with a New Mechanism for Bølling-Allerød Warming, Science, 325, 310–314, doi:10.1126/science.1171041, 2009.

Liu, Z., Carlson, A. E., He, F., Brady, E. C., Otto-Bliesner, B. L., Briegleb, B. P., Wehrenberg, M., Clark, P. U., Wu, S., Cheng, J., Zhang, J., Noone, D., and Zhu, J.: Younger Dryas cooling and the Greenland climate response to CO₂, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 109, 11101–11104, doi:10.1073/pnas.1202183109, 2012.

Liu, Z., Wen, X., Brady, E. C., Otto-Bliesner, B., Yu, G., Lu, H., Cheng, H., Wang, Y., Zheng, W., Ding, Y., Edwards, R. L., Cheng, J., Liu, W., and Yang, H.: Chinese cave records and the East Asia Summer Monsoon, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 83, 115–128, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.10.021, 2014.

Loulergue, L., Schilt, A., Spahni, R., Masson-Delmotte, V., Blunier, T., Lemieux, B., Barnola, J.-M., Raynaud, D., Stocker, T. F., and Chappellaz, J.: Orbital and millennial-scale features of atmospheric CH₄ over the past 800 000 years, Nature, 453, 383–386, doi:10.1038/nature06950, 2008.

Lüthi, D., Le Floch, M., Bereiter, B., Blunier, T., Barnola, J.-M., Siegenthaler, U., Raynaud, D., Jouzel, J., Fischer, H., Kawamura, K., and Stocker, T. F.: High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650 000–800 000 years before present, Nature, 453, 379–382, doi:10.1038/nature06949, 2008.

MacFarlen Meure, C., Etheridge, D., Trudinger, C., Steele, P., Langenfelds, R., van Ommen, T., Smith, A., and Elkins, J.: Law Dome CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O ice core records extended to 2000 years BP, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L14810, doi:10.1029/2006GL026152, 2006.

Mackintosh, A., Golledge, N., Domack, E., Dunbar, R., Leventer, A., White, D., Pollard, D., DeConto, R., Fink, D., Zwartz, D., Gore, D., and Lavoie, C.: Retreat of the East Antarctic ice sheet during the last glacial termination, Nat. Geosci., 4, 195–202, doi:10.1038/ngeo1061, 2011.

Mackintosh, A. N., Verleyen, E., O'Brien, P. E., White, D. A., Jones, R. S., McKay, R., Dunbar, R., Gore, D. B., Fink, D., Post, A. L., Miura, H., Leventer, A., Goodwin, I., Hodgson, D. A., Lilly, K., Crosta, X., Golledge, N. R., Wagner, B., Berg, S., van Ommen, T., Zwartz, D., Roberts, S. J., Vyverman, W., and Masse, G.: Retreat history of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet since the Last Glacial Maximum, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 100, 10–30, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.07.024, 2014.

Mamajek, E. E., Prsa, A., Torres, G., Harmanec, P., Asplund, M., Bennett, P. D., Capitaine, N., Christensen-Dalsgaard, J., Depagne, E., Folkner, W. M., Haberreiter, M., Hekker, S., Hilton, J. L., Kostov, V., Kurtz, D. W., Laskar, J., Mason, B. D., Milone, E. F., Montgomery, M. M., Richards, M. T., Schou, J., and Stewart, S. G.: IAU 2015 Resolution B3 on Recommended Nominal Conversion Constants for Selected Solar and Planetary Properties, ArXiv151007674 Astro-Ph, available at: http://arxiv.org/abs/1510.07674 (last access: 19 May 2016), 2015.

Marcott, S. A., Bauska, T. K., Buizert, C., Steig, E. J., Rosen, J. L., Cuffey, K. M., Fudge, T. J., Severinghaus, J. P., Ahn, J., Kalk, M. L., McConnell, J. R., Sowers, T., Taylor, K. C., White, J. W. C., and Brook, E. J.: Centennial-scale changes in the global carbon cycle during the last deglaciation, Nature, 514, 616–619, doi:10.1038/nature13799, 2014.

Marshall, S. J. and Clarke, G. K. C.: Modeling North American Freshwater Runoff through the Last Glacial Cycle, Quaternary Res., 52, 300–315, doi:10.1006/qres.1999.2079, 1999.

Martrat, B., Grimalt, J. O., Lopez-Martinez, C., Cacho, I., Sierro, F. J., Flores, J. A., Zahn, R., Canals, M., Curtis, J. H., and Hodell, D. A.: Abrupt Temperature Changes in the Western Mediterranean over the Past 250 000 Years, Science, 306, 1762–1765, doi:10.1126/science.1101706, 2004.

Martrat, B., Grimalt, J. O., Shackleton, N. J., Abreu, L. de, Huterli, M. A., and Stocker, T. F.: Four Climate Cycles of Recurring Deep and Surface Water Destabilizations on the Iberian Margin, Science, 317, 502–507, doi:10.1126/science.1139994, 2007.

Masson-Delmotte, V., Kageyama, M., Braconnot, P., Charbit, S., Krinner, G., Ritz, C., Guilyardi, E., Jouzel, J., Abe-Ouchi, A., Crucifix, M., Gladstone, R. M., Hewitt, C. D., Kitoh, A., LeGrande, A. N., Marti, O., Merkel, U., Motoi, T., Ohgaito, R., Otto-Bliesner, B., Peltier, W. R., Ross, I., Valdes, P. J., Vettoretti, G., Weber, S. L., Wolk, F., and Yu, Y.: Past and future polar amplification of climate change: climate model comparisons and ice-core constraints, Clim. Dynam., 26, 513–529, doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0081-9, 2006.

Masson-Delmotte, V., Schulz, M., Abe-Ouchi, A., Beer, J., Ganopolsk, A., González Rouco, J. F., Jansen, E., Lambeck, K., Luterbacher, J., Naish, T., Osborn, T., Otto-Bliesner, B., Quinn, T., Ramesh, R., Rojas, M., Shao, X., and Timmermann, A.: Information from Paleoclimate Archives, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Plattner, G. K., Tignor, M., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P. M., 383–464, Cam-
bridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter05_FINAL.pdf (last access: 20 October 2015), 2013.

Matthes, K., Funke, B., Anderson, M. E., Barnard, L., Beer, J., Charbonneau, P., Clilverd, M. A., Dudok de Wit, T., Haberreiter, M., Hendry, A., Jackman, C. H., Kretschmar, M., Kruschke, T., Kunze, M., Langematz, U., Marsh, D. R., Maycock, A., Misios, S., Rodger, C. J., Scaife, A. A., Seppälä, A., Shangguan, M., Sinnhuber, M., Tourpali, K., Usoskin, I., van de Kamp, M., Verronen, P. T., and Versick, S.: Solar Forcing for CMIP6 (v3.1), Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., doi:10.5194/gmd-2016-91, in review, 2016.

McManus, J. F., Francois, R., Gherardi, J.-M., Keigwin, L. D., and Brown-Leger, S.: Collapse and rapid resumption of Atlantic meridional circulation linked to deglacial climate changes, Nature, 428, 834–837, doi:10.1038/nature02494, 2004.

Menviel, L., Timmermann, A., Timm, O. E., and Mouchet, A.: Climate and biogeochemical response to a rapid melting of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet during interglacials and implications for future climate, Paleooceanography, 25, PA4231, doi:10.1029/2009PA001892, 2010.

Menviel, L., Timmermann, A., Timm, O. E., and Mouchet, A.: Deconstructing the Last Glacial termination: the role of millennial and orbital-scale forcings, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 30, 1155–1172, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.02.005, 2011.

Mix, A. C., Bard, E., and Schneider, R.: Environmental processes of the ice age: land, oceans, glaciers (EPILOG), Quaternary Sci. Rev., 20, 627–657, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00145-1, 2001.

Monnin, E., Steig, E. J., Siegenthaler, U., Kawamura, K., Schwander, J., Stauffer, B., Stocker, T. F., Morse, D. L., Barnola, J.-M., Bellier, B., Raynaud, D., and Fischer, H.: Evidence for substantial accumulation rate variability in Antarctica during the Holocene, through synchronization of CO₂ in the Taylor Dome, Dome C and DML ice cores, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 224, 45–54, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.05.007, 2004.

Otto-Bliesner, B. L., Schneider, R., Brady, E. C., Kucera, M., Abe-Ouchi, A., Bard, E., Braconnot, P., Crucifix, M., Hewitt, C. D., Kageyama, M., Marti, O., Paul, A., Rosell-Melé, A., Waelbroeck, C., Weber, S. L., Weinelt, M., and Yu, Y.: A comparison of PMIP2 model simulations and the MARGO proxy reconstruction for tropical sea surface temperatures at last glacial maximum, Clim. Dynam., 32, 799–815, doi:10.1007/s00382-008-0509-0, 2009.

Otto-Bliesner, B. L., Russell, J. M., Clark, P. U., Liu, Z., Overpeck, J. T., Konecky, B., deMenocal, P., Nicholson, S. E., He, F., and Lu, Z.: Coherent changes of southeastern equatorial and northern African rainfall during the last deglaciation, Science, 346, 1223–1227, doi:10.1126/science.1259531, 2014.

Peltier, W. R.: Global glacial isostasy and the surface of the Ice-Age Earth: The ICE-5G (VM2) model and GRACE, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 32, 111–149, doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.32.082503.144359, 2004.

Peltier, W. R.: On the hemispheric origins of meltwater pulse 1a, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 24, 1655–1671, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.06.023, 2005.

Peltier, W. R. and Fairbanks, R. G.: Global glacial ice volume and Last Glacial Maximum duration from an extended Bar-

bados sea level record, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 25, 3322–3337, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.04.010, 2006.

Peltier, W. R. and Vettoretti, G.: Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillations predicted in a comprehensive model of glacial climate: A “kicked” salt oscillator in the Atlantic, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 7306–7313, doi:10.1002/2014GL061413, 2014.

Peltier, W. R., Argus, D. F., and Drummond, R.: Space geodesy constrains ice age terminal deglaciation: The global ICE-6G_C (VM5a) model, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 120, 450–487, doi:10.1002/2014JB011176, 2015.

Petit, J. R., Jouzel, J., Raynaud, D., Barkov, N. I., Barnola, J.-M., Basile, I., Bender, M., Chappellaz, J., Davis, M., Delaygue, G., Delmotte, M., Kotlyakov, V. M., Legrand, M., Lipenkov, V. Y., Lorius, C., PÉpin, L., Ritz, C., Saltzman, E., and Stievenard, M.: Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420 000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica, Nature, 399, 429–436, doi:10.1038/20859, 1999.

Philippon, G., Ramstein, G., Charbit, S., Kageyama, M., Ritz, C., and Dumas, C.: Evolution of the Antarctic ice sheet throughout the last deglaciation: A study with a new coupled climate—north and south hemisphere ice sheet model, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 248, 750–758, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.06.017, 2006.

PMIP Last Deglaciation Working Group: PMIP4 Last Deglaciation experiment Design Wiki, available at: https://pmip4.lsce.ipsl.fr/doku.php/exp design:degla, last access: 2 June 2016.

PMIP LGM Working Group: PMIP3-CMIP5 Last Glacial Maximum experiment design, available at: https://wiki.lsce.ipsl.fr/pmip3/doku.php/pmip3:design:21k:final (last access: 9 April 2015), 2010.

PMIP LGM Working Group: PMIP-CMIP6 Last Glacial Maximum experiment design, available at: https://wiki.lsce.ipsl.fr/pmip3/doku.php/pmip3:cmip6:design:21k:index, last access: 9 April 2015.

PMIP website: Paleoclimate Model Intercomparison Project, available at: http://pmip.lsce.ipsl.fr/ (last access: 13 November 2014), 2007.

Putnam, A. E., Denton, G. H., Schaefer, J. M., Barrell, D. J. A., Andersen, B. G., Finkel, R. C., Schwartz, R., Doughty, A. M., Kaplan, M. R., and Schlüchter, C.: Glacier advance in southern middle-latitudes during the Antarctic Cold Reversal, Nat. Geosci., 3, 700–704, doi:10.1038/ngeo962, 2010.

Rahmstorf, S.: Bifurcations of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation in response to changes in the hydrological cycle, Nature, 378, 145–149, doi:10.1038/378145a0, 1995.

Rahmstorf, S.: On the freshwater forcing and transport of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation, Clim. Dynam., 12, 799–811, doi:10.1007/s003820050144, 1996.

Rasmussen, S. O., Andersen, K. K., Svensson, A. M., Steffensen, J. P., Vinther, B. M., Clausen, H. B., Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L., Johnsen, S. J., Larsen, L. B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Bigler, M., Röthlisberger, R., Fischer, H., Goto-Azuma, K., Hansson, M. E., and Ruth, U.: A new Greenland ice core chronology for the last glacial termination, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 111, D06102, doi:10.1029/2005JD006079, 2006.

Roberts, N. L., Piotrowski, A. M., McManus, J. F., and Keigwin, L. D.: Synchronous Deglacial Overturning and Water Mass Source Changes, Science, 327, 75–78, doi:10.1126/science.1178068, 2010.
Roche, D. M., Renssen, H., Weber, S. L., and Goosse, H.: Could meltwater pulses have been sneaked unnoticed into the deep ocean during the last glacial?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L24708, doi:10.1029/2007GL032064, 2007.

Roche, D. M., Renssen, H., Paillard, D., and Levavasseur, G.: Deciphering the spatio-temporal complexity of climate change of the last deglaciation: a model analysis, Clim. Past, 7, 591–602, doi:10.5194/cp-7-591-2011, 2011.

Rogerson, M., Colmenero-Hidalgo, E., Levine, R. C., Rohling, E. J., Voelker, A. H. L., Bigg, G. R., Schönfeld, J., Cacho, I., Sierro, F. J., Löwemark, L., Reguera, M. I., de Abreu, L., and Garrick, K.: Enhanced Mediterranean-Atlantic exchange during Atlantic freshening phases, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy, 11, Q08013, doi:10.1029/2009GC002931, 2010.

Rother, H., Fink, D., Shulmeister, J., Mifsud, C., Evans, M., and Pugh, J.: The early rise and late demise of New Zealand’s last glacial maximum, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 111, 11630–11635, doi:10.1073/pnas.1401547111, 2014.

Rubino, M., Etheridge, D. M., Trudinger, C. M., Allison, C. E., Battle, M. O., Langenfelds, R. L., Steele, L. P., Curran, M., Bender, M., White, J. W. C., Jenk, T. M., Blunier, T., and Francey, R. J.: A revised 1000 year atmospheric δ¹³C-CO₂ record from Law Dome and South Pole, Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 8482–8499, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50668, 2013.

Schilt, A., Baumgartner, M., Schwander, J., Buiron, D., Capron, E., Chappellaz, J., Loulergue, L., Schüpbach, S., Spahni, R., Fischer, H., and Stocker, T. F.: Atmospheric nitrous oxide during the last 140 000 years, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 300, 33–43, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.09.027, 2010.

Schmidt, G. A., Jungclaus, J. H., Ammann, C. M., Bard, E., Bracnot, P., Crowley, T. J., Delaygue, G., Joos, F., Krivova, N. A., Muscheler, R., Otto-Bliesner, B. L., Pongratz, J., Shindell, D. T., Solanki, S. K., Steinhilber, F., and Vieira, L. E. A.: Climate forcing reconstructions for use in PMIP simulations of the last mil- lennium (v1.0), Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 33–45, doi:10.5194/gmd- 4-33-2011, 2011.

Schmittner, A., Green, J. A. M., and Wilmes, S.-B.: Glacial ocean overturning intensified by tidal mixing in a global circulation model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 4014–4022, doi:10.1002/2015GL063561, 2015.

Severinghaus, J. P. and Brook, E. J.: Abrupt Climate Change at the End of the Last Glacial Period Inferred from Trapped Air in Polar Ice, Science, 286, 930–934, doi:10.1126/science.286.5441.930, 1999.

Shakun, J. D., Clark, P. U., He, F., Marcott, S. A., Mix, A. C., Liu, Z., Otto-Bliesner, B., Schmittner, A., and Bard, E.: Global warming preceded by increasing carbon dioxide concentrations during the last deglaciation, Nature, 484, 49–54, doi:10.1038/nature10915, 2012.

Shennan, I.: Global meltwater discharge and the deglacial sea-level record from northwest Scotland, J. Quaternary Sci., 14, 715–719, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1417(199912)14:7<715::AID-JQS511>3.0.CO;2-G, 1999.

Shennan, I. and Milne, G.: Sea-level observations around the Last Glacial Maximum from the Bonaparte Gulf, NW Australia, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 22, 1543–1547, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00088-X, 2003.

Siegenthaler, U., Stocker, T. F., Monnin, E., Lüthi, D., Schwander, J., Stauffer, B., Raynaud, D., Barnola, J.-M., Fischer, H.,

Masson-Delmotte, V., and Jouzel, J.: Stable Carbon Cycle-Climate Relationship During the Late Pleistocene, Science, 310, 1313–1317, doi:10.1126/science.1120130, 2005.

Simonsen, S. B., Johnsen, S. J., Popp, T. J., Vinther, B. M., Gki-nis, V., and Steen-Larsen, H. C.: Past surface temperatures at the NorthGRIP drill site from the difference in firn diffusion of wa-ter isotopes, Clim. Past, 7, 1327–1335, doi:10.5194/cp-7-1327-2011, 2011.

Smith, R. S. and Gregory, J. M.: A study of the sensitivity of ocean overturning circulation and climate to freshwater input in dif-ferent regions of the North Atlantic, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L15701, doi:10.1029/2009GL038607, 2009.

Spahni, R., Chappellaz, J., Stocker, T. F., Loulergue, L., Hausam-mann, G., Kawamura, K., Flückiger, J., Schwander, J., Raynaud, D., Masson-Delmotte, V., and Jouzel, J.: Atmospheric Methane and Nitrous Oxide of the Late Pleistocene from Antarctic Ice Cores, Science, 310, 1317–1321, doi:10.1126/science.1120132, 2005.

Stanford, J. D., Hemingway, R., Rohling, E. J., Challenor, P. G., Medina-Elizalde, M., and Lester, A. J.: Sea-level probability for the last deglaciation: A statistical analysis of far-field records, Global Planet. Change, 79, 193–203, doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.11.002, 2011.

Steffensen, J. P., Andersen, K. K., Bigler, M., Clausen, H. B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Fischer, H., Goto-Azuma, K., Hansson, M., Johnsen, S. J., Jouzel, J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Popp, T., Rasmussen, S. O., Röthlisberger, R., Ruth, U., Stauffer, B., Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L., Sveinbjörnsdóttir, Á. E., Svensson, A., and White, J. W. C.: High-Resolution Greenland Ice Core Data Show Abrupt Climate Change Happens in Few Years, Science, 321, 680–684, doi:10.1126/science.1157707, 2008.

Stenni, B., Buiron, D., Frezzotti, M., Albani, S., Barbante, C., Bard, E., Barnola, J. M., Baroni, M., Baumgartner, M., Bonazza, M., Capron, E., Castellano, E., Chappellaz, J., Delmonte, B., Falourd, S., Genoni, L., Iacumin, P., Jouzel, J., Kipfstuhl, S., Landais, A., Lemieux-Dudon, B., Maggi, V., Masson-Delmotte, V., Maz-zola, C., Minster, B., Montagnat, M., Mulvaney, R., Narcisi, B., Oerter, H., Parrenin, F., Petit, J. R., Ritz, C., Scarchilli, C., Schilt, A., Schüpbach, S., Schwander, J., Selmo, E., Severi, M., Stocker, T. F., and Udisti, R.: Expression of the bipolar see-saw in Antarctic climate records during the last deglaciation, Nat. Geosci., 4, 46–49, doi:10.1038/ngeo1026, 2011.

Stocker, T. F.: The Seesaw Effect, Science, 282, 61–62, doi:10.1126/science.282.5386.61, 1998.

Strelin, J. A., Denton, G. H., Vandergoes, M. J., Ninnemann, U. S., and Putnam, A. E.: Radiocarbon chronology of the late-glacial Puerto Bandera moraines, Southern Patagonian Icefield, Argentina, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 30, 2551–2569, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.05.004, 2011.

Stuhne, G. R. and Peltier, W. R.: Reconciling the ICE-6G_C re- construction of glacial chronology with ice sheet dynamics: The cases of Greenland and Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 120, 1841–1865, doi:10.1002/2015JF003580, 2015.

Svendsen, J. I., Alexanderson, H., Astakhov, V. I., Demidov, I., Dowdeswell, J. A., Funder, S., Gataullin, V., Henriksen, M., Hjort, C., Houmark-Nielsen, M., Hubberten, H. W., Ingólfsson, Ó., Jakobsson, M., Kjær, K. H., Larsen, E., Lokrantz, H., Lunkka, J. P., Lyså, A., Mangerud, J., Matiouchkov, A., Murray, A., Möller, P., Niessen, F., Nikolskaya, O., Polyak, L., Saarnisto, M.,
Siegert, C., Siegert, M. J., Spielhagen, R. F., and Stein, R.: Late Quaternary ice sheet history of northern Eurasia, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 23, 1229–1271, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.12.008, 2004.

Tarasov, L. and Peltier, W. R.: Terminating the 100 kyr ice age cycle, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 21665–21693, doi:10.1029/97JD01766, 1997.

Tarasov, L. and Peltier, W. R.: Greenland glacial history and local geodynamic consequences, Geophys. J. Int., 150, 198–229, doi:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2002.01702.x, 2002.

Tarasov, L. and Peltier, W. R.: A geophysically constrained large ensemble analysis of the deglacial history of the North American ice-sheet complex, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 23, 359–388, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.08.004, 2004.

Tarasov, L. and Peltier, W. R.: Arctic freshwater forcing of the Younger Dryas cold reversal, Nature, 435, 662–665, doi:10.1038/nature03617, 2005.

Tarasov, L. and Peltier, W. R.: A calibrated deglacial drainage chronology for the North American continent: evidence of an Arctic trigger for the Younger Dryas, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 25, 659–688, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.12.006, 2006.

Tarasov, L., Dyke, A. S., Neal, R. M., and Peltier, W. R.: A data-calibrated distribution of deglacial chronologies for the North American ice complex from glaciological modeling, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 315–316, 30–40, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.09.010, 2012.

Taylor, K. E., Stouffer, R. J., and Meehl, G. A.: An Overview of CMIP5 and the Experiment Design, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 93, 485–498, doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1, 2011a.

Taylor, K. E., Stouffer, R. J., and Meehl, G. A.: A Summary of the CMIP5 Experiment Design, available at: http://cmip-pcmdi.llnl.gov/cmip5/docs/Taylor_CMIP5 design.pdf (last access: 13 November 2014), 2011b.

Teller, J. T., Leverington, D. W., and Mann, J. D.: Freshwater outbursts to the oceans from glacial Lake Agassiz and their role in climate change during the last deglaciation, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21, 879–887, doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00145-7, 2002.

Thiagarajan, N., Subhas, A. V., Southon, J. R., Eiler, J. M., and Adkins, J. F.: Abrupt pre-Bolling-Allerød warming and circulation changes in the deep ocean, Nature, 511, 75–78, doi:10.1038/nature13472, 2014.

Thornalley, D. J. R., McCave, I. N., and Elderfield, H.: Freshwater input and abrupt deglacial climate change in the North Atlantic, Paleooceanography, 25, PA1201, doi:10.1029/2009PA001772, 2010.

Thornalley, D. J. R., Barker, S., Broecker, W. S., Elderfield, H., and McCave, I. N.: The Deglacial Evolution of North Atlantic Deep Convection, Science, 331, 202–205, doi:10.1126/science.1196812, 2011.

Tierney, J. E., Russell, J. M., Huang, Y., Damsté, J. S. S., Hopmans, E. C., and Cohen, A. S.: Northern Hemisphere Controls on Tropical Southeast African Climate During the Past 60 000 Years, Science, 322, 252–255, doi:10.1126/science.1160485, 2008.

Timm, O. and Timmermann, A.: Simulation of the Last 21 000 Years Using Accelerated Transient Boundary Conditions, J. Climate, 20, 4377–4401, doi:10.1175/JCLI4237.1, 2007.

Tjallingii, R., Claussen, M., Stuut, J.-B. W., Fohlmeister, J., Jahn, A., Bickert, T., Lamy, F., and Röhl, U.: Coherent high- and low-latitude control of the northwest African hydrological balance, Nat. Geosci., 1, 670–675, doi:10.1038/ngeo289, 2008.

Veres, D., Bazin, L., Landais, A., Toyé Mahamadou Kele, H., Lemieux-Dudon, B., Parrenin, F., Martinerie, P., Blayo, E., Blunier, T., Capron, E., Chappellaz, J., Rasmussen, S. O., Severi, M., Svensson, A., Vinther, B., and Wolff, E. W.: The Antarctic ice core chronology (AICC2012): an optimized multi-parameter and multi-site dating approach for the last 120 thousand years, Clim. Past, 9, 1733–1748, doi:10.5194/cp-9-1733-2013, 2013.

Verschuren, D., Sinninghe Damsté, J. S., Moernaut, J., Kristen, I., Blaauw, M., Fagot, M., Haug, G. H., Geel, B. van, Batist, M. D., Barker, P., Vuille, M., Conley, D. J., Olago, D. O., Milne, I., Plessen, B., Eggermont, H., Wolff, C., Hurrell, E., Ossebaar, J., Lyaruu, A., Plicht, J. van der, Cumming, B. F., Brauer, A., Rucina, S. M., Russell, J. M., Keppens, E., Hus, J., Bradley, R. S., Leng, M., Mingram, J., and Nowaczyk, N. R.: Half-precessional dynamics of monsoon rainfall near the East African Equator, Nature, 462, 637–641, doi:10.1038/nature08520, 2009.

Vettoretti, G. and Peltier, W. R.: Interhemispheric air temperature phase relationships in the nonlinear Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 1180–1189, doi:10.1002/2014GL06289, 2015.

Waelbroeck, C., Labeyrie, L., Duplessy, J. C., Guiot, J., Labracherie, M., Leclaire, H., and Duprat, J.: Improving past sea surface temperature estimates based on planktonic fossil faunas, Paleooceanography, 13, 272–283, doi:10.1029/98PA00071, 1998.

Weaver, A. J., Saenko, O. A., Clark, P. U., and Mitrovica, J. X.: Meltwater Pulse 1A from Antarctica as a Trigger of the Bølling-Allerød Warm Interval, Science, 299, 1709–1713, doi:10.1126/science.1081002, 2003.

Weber, S. L., Drijfhout, S. S., Abe-Ouchi, A., Crucifix, M., Eby, M., Ganopolski, A., Murakami, S., Otto-Bliesner, B., and Peltier, W. R.: The modern and glacial overturning circulation in the Atlantic ocean in PMIP coupled model simulations, Clim. Past, 3, 51–64, doi:10.5194/cp-3-51-2007, 2007.

Weijers, J. W. H., Schefuß, E., Schouten, S., and Damsté, J. S. S.: Coupled Thermal and Hydrological Evolution of Tropical Africa over the Last Deglaciation, Science, 315, 1701–1704, doi:10.1126/science.1138131, 2007.

Whitehouse, P. L., Bentley, M. J., and Le Brocq, A. M.: A deglacial model for Antarctica: geological constraints and glaciological modelling as a basis for a new model of Antarctic glacial isostatic adjustment, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 32, 1–24, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.11.016, 2012.

Yokoyama, Y., Esat, T. M., and Lambeck, K.: Last glacial sea-level change deduced from uplifted coral terraces of Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea, Quatern. Int., 83–85, 275–283, doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(01)00045-3, 2001a.

Yokoyama, Y., De Deckker, P., Lambeck, K., Johnston, P., and Fifield, L. K.: Sea-level at the Last Glacial Maximum: evidence from northwestern Australia to constrain ice volumes for oxygen isotope stage 2, Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl., 165, 281–297, doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00164-4, 2001b.