# A Preliminary Archaeological Investigation of Usambe Hills, South-Eastern Tivland, Central Nigeria

Terngu S Nomishan

► To cite this version:

Terngu S Nomishan. A Preliminary Archaeological Investigation of Usambe Hills, South-Eastern Tivland, Central Nigeria. Nsukka Journal of the Humanities, 2020, 28 (2), pp.72-88. 10.2139/ssrn.3949689 . hal-03548326

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<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>
# A Preliminary Archaeological Investigation of Usambe Hills, South-Eastern Tivland, Central Nigeria

Terngu S. Nomishan

Department of Archaeology and Museum Studies,
Federal University Lokoja,
Kogi State, Nigeria.

## Abstract

This paper is a presentation of the result of a preliminary archaeological investigation of part of Usambe Area (with specific emphasis on Bako and Kpe Hills), Kwande Local Government Area, Benue State. The paper is aimed at contributing more archaeological evidence to the study of the occupational history of the Tiv of Central Nigeria. Consequently, the research elicited data through empirical investigation (employing archaeological and ethnographic surveys), while written documents were also used to collaborate surveyed information for the interpretation and explanation of the data recovered from the various archaeological sites studied. This was done in conjunction with other data like those on the environment of Bako and Kpe Hills, as well as the settlement morphology of the Usambe people. Thus, findings in the research include remains of pottery objects, relics of stone artefacts (like grindstone and stone ball), settlement structures (such as foundations of granaries and houses or huts) a water cistern and fortified stone walls. Consequently, this research revealed close similarities in the overall characteristics of artefacts identified during the investigation. It also revealed that the past Usambe/Tiv people who lived in the area understood their environmental opportunities and utilized them for their wellbeing. The research also confirmed a clear cultural continuity amongst the past and present Usambe/Tiv people through a comparative analysis of the archaeological and ethnographic data acquired in the area.

**Keywords:** Ethnoarchaeology, Investigation, Usambe Hills, Finds/Features, Interpretation.

## Introduction

This research is stem from a preliminary archaeological investigation of Bako and Kpe hill-top settlement sites in Usambe district, Ikyurav-ya, Kwande Local Government Area, Benue State. The report is part of a long term research design aimed at contributing to the

settlement history, economic and socio-cultural life of the Tiv of Central Nigeria. Traces of past human habitation that aroused the researcher's interest in the area were circular stone arrangements indicating foundations of ancient huts, long stretches of stone arrangements in the form of ancient defensive walls,
granary foundations, grindstones and potsherdsmongst others.

The research was initially informed by the paucity of archaeological research of this kind in the area. More so, having knowledge of the importance of the study area to the history of Tiv people, the researcher made enquiries from Mr Nomishan Demenongo Geoffrey and a great hunter in Usambe village, Papa Apolo Jiki, which led to the identification of Kpe hill. Therefore, ground reconnaissance of the site was conducted in 2014. However, after the initial investigation of the site, the researcher revisited the area again in 2018 and discovered that Kpe hill site had two clusters (Kpe-sha and Kpe-shin). This visit also led to the identification of another hill known as Bako, which also had two clusters (Bako-vesen and Bako-chuku). This development formed the basis for the commencement of the on-going investigation in the area.

**Location of the Study Area**

Bako and Kpe are hill-top settlement sites amongst Usambe Mba-shahua and Usambe Mba-shin kindreds of Usambe district, Ikyurav-ya, Kwande Local Government Area, Benue State, Nigeria. Usambe is bordered to the north by Nyiev District, to the east by Maav District, all in Turan. While the

south and western parts of Usambe are bordered by Iwanev and Mbaza respectively. As noted earlier, Bako hill-top settlement is divided into two clusters known as Bako-vesen and Bako-chuku. Both Bako-vesen and Bako-chuku are located in the south eastern part of Achia, a clustered settlement in Usambe. The distance between the two hills to each other is just about 1km. Taking route from Achia, one can reach Bako-chuku before proceeding to Bako-vesen. Also in the same vein, Kpe hill is subdivided into two clusters known as Kpe-sha and Kpe-shin. Kpe-sha is located at the borderline between Usambe mba-shahua and Usambe mbashin, while Kpe-shin is in Usambe Mba-shin and is the closest hill to Achia settlement (see figure 1).

Furthermore, Bako-vesen hill is situated between 06° 47' 19.4''N to 06° 47' 21.0''N and 09° 28' 13.7''E to 09° 28' 47.8''E, Bako-chuku is between 06° 47' 15.1''N to 06° 47' 17.6''N and 09° 27' 45.4''E to 09° 27' 47.9''E, Kpe-sha is between 06° 45' 36.4''N to 06° 45' 42.3''N and 09° 28' 47.8''E to 09° 28' 53.1''E, while Kpe-shin is between 06° 46' 51.9''N to 06° 46' 54.4''N and 09° 27' 34.5''E to 09° 27' 37.6''E, with an average elevation of about 851m above sea level.
<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Map of Kwande L.G.A. showing Bako and Kpe Hills</figcaption></figure>

Source: Map Gallery, Geography Department, ABU Zaria

## Research Objectives

The general oral traditions of the Tiv people posits that, Usambe hills and other hills located in the South-eastern Tivland, down to the Nigeria-Cameroon border were amongst the first set of hills on which the Tiv people settled in their various groups and camps continuously as they spread over the plains of the Middle Benue Valley (Folorunso, 1998; Gundu, 1999; Ogundele, 2006; Ndera, 2009; Chia, 2014; and Nomishan, 2014). Therefore, this location is of paramount importance in tracing the occupational and/or settlement history of the Tiv people. Several ancient settlements are still found on hills in this area without any archaeological investigation. Thus, the choice of Usambe as the location for

this investigation became timely and apt.

Consequently, the research was directed towards the contribution of new and more data for the study of the occupational and/or settlement history of the Tiv people through the archaeological investigation of Bako and Kpe Hills. There have been several archaeological investigations in the South-eastern Tivland and a good percentage of it took place in part of Usambe district, with particular emphasis on Ibinda hills. However, these efforts did not cover the entire archaeological sites in the area. This is because in the Usambe district alone, there are several archaeological sites like Ibinda, Kpe, and Bako amongst others that demands archaeological engagement. Therefore, this research became highly
significant and it result has
contributed new/more archaeological
evidence needed for the establishment
of a complete archaeological record on
the occupational and/or settlement
history of the Tiv people.

**Research Methodology**

Ethnoarchaeological method was
employed in carrying out this
research. Ethnoarchaeology is a term
used to describe studies of
contemporary societies undertaken in
order to see how material culture
relates to other aspects of society such
as social, ideological, economic,
environmental, and technical (Shaw &
Jameson, 1999). The term is considered
as a sub-discipline of anthropology,
encompassing all the theoretical and
methodological aspects of comparing
ethnographic and archaeological data
including the use of the ethnographic
analogy and archaeological
ethnography (Stile, 1977, cited from
Itanyi & Okonkwo, 2010). The
interfaces between ethnography and
archaeology reflect the potency that
"the past" holds for living peoples and
amount to much more than
ethnography's "traditional" role of
supplying archaeologists with
additional sources of data for the
purpose of interpretation and/or
explanation of past cultural
phenomena (Edgeworth 2006; Meskell
& Pels 2005; cited from Castañeda &
Matthews, 2008).

Therefore, ethnoarchaeological
approach was adopted for the purpose
of understanding the processes by
which the archaeological materials
recovered on the various sites were
made, used/discarded, and also to test
the degree of the cultural continuity
amongst the extinct and the extant

Usambe/Tiv people in the area. Also,
secondary sources like books, journal
and unpublished thesis/dissertations
were used to corroborate field data for
the purpose of clarity. More so, tables,
charts, and figures were used in the
presentation and analysis of data for
the purpose of clarity and to achieve a
logical conclusion.

Consequently, the approach
helped in providing direct historical
analogies that assisted in answering
the question about the relationship
between Usambe people and their
material world; past material culture
and the natural/social environment of
the people, how such relations
influenced changes amongst the past
Usambe people, and the impact of
these changes on both the extinct and
extant Usambe people/societies.

**Archaeological Survey**

The archaeological survey of Bako-
vesen, Bako-chuku, Kpe-sha and Kpe-
shin led to the identification of past
cultural evidence such as potsherds,
stone materials (like grindstones and a
stone ball), and architectural remains
(such as relics of granaries,
huts/houses and fortified stone walls).
Thus, detail about the past cultural
record is presented as follows.

**Pottery Remains**

Pottery making in Nigeria, is believed
to be an indigenous craft. The craft is
no doubt one tradition embraced in all
parts of the country starting from the
prehistoric period when man became
sedentary (Sempil, 1969). The value of
pottery remains to archaeology cannot
be measured only by the role it plays
in this part of the world where
climatic conditions inhibit the
preservation of organic archaeological
materials. The value can also be seen
in the fact that, since pottery cannot be
easily destroyed by natural means,
potsherds become so valuable to the
archaeologists, who may find in them
the only evidence of some extinct
group of people (Billington, 1962).

Thus, a total of 230 potsherds were
collected during the survey of Bako-

vesen, Bako-chuku, Kpe-sha and Kpe-
shin hills and studied. Out of the
number, 82 were collected from Bako-
vesen, 40 from Bako-chuku, 38 from
Kpe-sha, and 70 from Kpe-shin hills
respectively (see figure 2). The
potsherds were classified and
analysed as given below.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2: Pie chart of Collected Potsherds from Bako-vesen, Bako-chuku, Kpe-sha and Kpe-shin Hills</figcaption></figure>

Thus, a comparative analysis of the
potsherds from the various sites
indicates that they had similar surface
treatments, rim formations, paste
characteristics and decorative motifs.
They were two rims analysed and
grouped as those of bowls. The rims
were collected from Kpe-sha and Kpe-
shin hills and were measured to be

18cm and 19cm in diameters, while
their thickness were measured to be
9mm and 16mm. Apart from the two
rims, all the other rim forms collected
were of pots and indicated high
similarity in their workability. The
rims had diameters that ranged from
9cm to 27cm and thicknesses of 7mm
to 1cm.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3: Everted Rim with Round Lip</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /></figure>

Therefore, figures 3, 4 and 5 above are a sample representation of the rim forms collected from Bako and Kpe hills. While figure 6 below is an illustration of the rim form that was classified as belonging to a bowl.

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>
<figure><img src="image_8.png" /></figure>

Also, the decorative motifs on the potsherds collected from the four sites overlapped greatly. Though some of the decorations were absent in other sites, majority of them appeared in all the four sites as illustrated in Table 1.

<table><caption>Table 1: Summary of Comparative Analysis of Decorative Motifs of Potsherds from Bako-vesen, Bako-chuku, Kpe-sha and Kpe-shin</caption><thead><tr><td>S/No</td><td>Decorative motifs</td><td>Bako-vesen</td><td>Bako-chuku</td><td>Kpe-sha</td><td>Kpe-shin</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Grooves</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Incision</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Notching</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Stamping</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Chevron</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Herringbone</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Cord roulettes</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Cuneiform stamps</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Available</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Punctures</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Available</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Braided cord roulettes</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Twisted cord roulettes</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Folded strip roulettes</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Braided strip roulettes</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Cross-braided strip roulettes</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Available</td><td>Not Available</td></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>Eroded string roulettes</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Not Available</td><td>Available</td></tr></tbody></table>

The various decorations presented in table 1 above are hereby represented in pictorial form as follows.
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>Plate 1: Channel of grooves</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /><figcaption>Plate 2: Incision</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>Plate 3: Cross braided strip roulettes</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Plate 4: Braided strip roulette in criss-crossed line pattern</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>Plate 5: Twisted cord roulette</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>Plate 6: Braided cord roulettes</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>Plate 7: Punctures with zigzag incision</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>Plate 8: Notching with braided strip roulettes</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>Plate 9: Stamping with horizontal incision</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>Plate 10: Cross-braided strip roulettes with herringbone</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>Plate 11: Chevron with folded strip roulettes</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>Plate 12: Cuneiform stamps with eroded string roulettes</figcaption></figure>

Consequently, a study on pottery tradition both in the extinct and extant Usambe Communities enabled the researcher to support the established fact that there is a clear cultural continuity amongst the people of the two societies (extinct and extant) in Tivland (Ogundele 2006; Nomishan, 2018).

Oral traditions collected during the research also posits that, the pottery material remains and other cultural indicators identified on the hills of Usambe were made and used by the past Tiv generations that settled on the hills (Jiki, Pers. Comm., 2013). Thus, the abundance of potsherds on the hilltops reveals a well-established society, observed to have achieved such height of cultural development using an advanced scientific and/or

technological know-how (Nomishan, 2018).

## Stone Artefacts

The stone artefacts identified during the research were basically domestic stone objects; a stone ball, lower and upper grindstones. The stone ball was identified on Kpe-shin hill, the closest hill to the clustered settlement of Achia. According to oral traditions, the stone ball was used for grinding herbs and some soup ingredients amongst others. It was also revealed that stone balls were used to manipulate the drum sound by placing and removing the stone at regular and appropriate intervals to produce a desired sound (Jiki, Pers. Comm., 2019). The grindstones on the other hand were of irregular shapes. Some had depression on their tops,
explaining how intensive they were
used, while others were flat or had
insignificant depression on their tops,

suggestive of how less intensive they
were put to use (see plate, 13).

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /><figcaption>Plate 13: Some of lower grinding stone in the study area</figcaption></figure>

Relics of house foundations

The presence of these features on Bako
and Kpe hills is an indication that
Usambe/Tiv people lived a sedentary
life style. Thus, thirty-eight house
foundations of great similarities were
identified on Bako-vesen, Bako-chuku,
Kpe-sha and Kpe-shin hills. These
similarities were seen in their
construction materials and sizes. They
were constructed using broken

rocks/stones and had average
diameters ranging from 3m to 4m. All
the structures were rounded in shape.

Oral traditions and ethnographic
information in Usambe community
indicate that, these houses were built
to completion using mud block, a
mixture of mud and grasses, and
roofed with bamboo and woven
grasses.
<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>Plate 14: Relics of house foundations from Bako and Kpe Hills</figcaption></figure>

**Relics of Granary Foundations**

In the archaeological survey of Bako-vesen and Kpe-sha hills, 13 granary foundations were identified. The granary foundations also exhibited similarities in terms of sizes and materials used in their construction. Their sizes range from 1.5m to 2.8m in

diameter. The granaries on Bako-vesen hill are scattered around the sloped north western part of the hill, while on Kpe-sha hill, the granaries were found at the central part of the old settlement.

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>Plate 15: Relics of Granary Foundations from Bako and Kpe Hills</figcaption></figure>
## Relic of a Water Cistern

A water cistern is a hole or shaft that is excavated, drilled, bored, or cut into the earth so as to tap a supply of water or other substances (Driscoll 1986; Raymond 1995). In the course of the archaeological survey of Kpe-sha hill, a water cistern was identified.

Oral traditions also posited that, the cistern is believed to have been a source of water to the past inhabitants of the Kpe-sha hill. It was however observed that some streams ran on the sides of the hill but could only be

accessed through a difficult stress or burden of moving down the hill sides. This must have influenced the deliberate digging of the water cistern on the hill to aid easy access to water during wet seasons. More so, there exist some rivers in the area that supported the cultural development of the early Usambe/Tiv people. These rivers include Mkomon, Tuum, Amire-tamen as well as Katsina-ala, and their tributaries.

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /><figcaption>Plate 16: Relics of a water cistern from Kpe Hill</figcaption></figure>

## Ruins of Fortified Stone Walls

Fortified stone walls were built in the past based on the security consciousness of a group of people. According to oral traditions, the early Tiv groups built fortified stone walls on the hills to prevent constant attacks from their enemies known as the “Bushmen” (*Atoatiev*). These *Atoatiev* include *Iyon*, *Ugee*, *Ukwese* amongst

others (Akiga, 1939; Gbor, 1974; Orkar, 1979; Makar, 1994; Gundu, 1999; Aboh, 2005; Dzurgba, 2007; Ndera, 2009, 2013). It is therefore probable that the past inhabitants of Usambe/Tiv land understood security strategies and utilized them by making good use of their environmental provision.
<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>Plate 17: Ruins of fortified stone walls from Bako and Kpe Hills</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>Table 2: Summary of finds and features from Bako-vesen, Bako-chuku, Kpe-sha and Kpe-shin hills.</caption><thead><tr><td>S/N</td><td>Find/Feature</td><td>Bako-vesen</td><td>Bako-chuku</td><td>Kpe-sha</td><td>Kpe-shin</td><td>Quantity</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>Potsherds</td><td>82</td><td>40</td><td>38</td><td>70</td><td>230</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Stone Ball</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Grindstones</td><td>6</td><td>4</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>24</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Granary Foundation</td><td>11</td><td></td><td>2</td><td></td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>House foundation</td><td>23</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>7</td><td>36</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Water Cistern</td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td><td></td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Fortified Stone Wall</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr></tbody></table>

## Discussion

Archaeology has undoubtedly assumed the scientific role of investigating past human culture and behaviour, from origins of humans to the present (Hussaini, Nomishan & Haruna, 2018; Itanyi, 2018). This is usually achieved through the examination of material remains of previous human societies. These remains include fossils (petrified

organic materials like preserved bones of humans and animals), food remains, the ruins of buildings, and other human artefacts such as tools, pottery and jewellery amongst others (Itanyi, 2018). Thus, in this investigation, several artefacts like relics of buildings, fortified stone walls, stone tools, a water cistern and pottery remains were identified and studied.
Therefore, studies on the cultural material remains identified during the investigation have revealed important information concerning the past cultural practices of the Usambe/Tiv people. For instance, the presence of pottery material remains on Bako-vesen, Bako-chuku, Kpe-sha and Kpe-shin hills indicates that clay soil was available in the past settlements and the people also had the knowledge of pottery making/made and used same (see Nomishan, 2018). Just as reported by Folorunso (1993), it would be paramount to state that, pottery objects may have largely been used by the past inhabitants of these archaeological sites in several ways like fetching and storage of water, cooking, storage of farm produce, eating, and ritual practices amongst other uses.

Also, the grindstones identified on the various hills were used for grinding of such things like grains, soup ingredients, herbs, and clay amongst others (see Folorunso, 1993). Thus, the presence of potsherds in the various sites investigated further confirms the fact that people once inhabited such places and were able to manipulate their environmental provisions for their daily needs.

More so, it was also observed that, there were concentrations of potsherds around some of the structures, which suggest that the structures could have been used as kitchens. This is to support Folorunso (1993), who argued that factors that should be considered in deciding whether a feature is a kitchen on the archaeological site should include the presence of grindstones and concentration of pottery. Similarly, many of the house foundations identified on all the hills

were used as sleeping huts and rest places as well as ritual houses amongst others. Though the foundations of the huts/houses were constructed using rocks/stones, one cannot clearly state what constituted the role materials used in building the structures to completion. However, information from ethnographic survey indicates that, the foundations of a lot of houses in the area is done using stones, and build with mud blocks to completion, while the roofing is done with bamboo and woven grasses. The traditional house foundations in the contemporary Usambe/Tiv communities are round in shape, same as those on the hills (See Ogundele, 2005).

As stated earlier, the granaries on Bako-vesen hill, were scattered around the steep sloped north western part of the settlement while those on Kpe-sha hill, were found at the central part of the ancient settlement. This must have been because of the people's quest for adequate security; since enemies could not access Bako-vesen settlement from the steep sloped part of the hill, just as it was practically difficult to access the granaries been in the middle of the Kpe-sha settlement.

The Oral traditions of the Usambe/Tiv people also claims that granaries served as places in which the people stored their farm produce like grains and tubers. This point was also substantiated with ethnographic information on the study of storage of farm produce in the contemporary Usambe community. However, this culture has also been affected by modernization which has necessitated innovation from granaries to store houses.
Also, the oral traditions of the people claims that, the early Tiv groups built fortified stone walls on the hills to prevent constant attacks from their enemies known as the “Bushmen” (*Atoatiev*). These *Atoatiev* include *Iyon*, *Ugee*, and *Ukwese* amongst others. Seemingly, the interface between Tiv people and these hostile and crude groups during the early days must have influenced their galvanization into defensive people ready to repel possible attacks from the *Atoatiev* (Bohannan & Bohannan, 1954). The massive defensive walls identified on the hills of Usambe were built with rock boulders and are basically seen at the steady sloped parts of the hills, leaving the steep sloped parts unfortified. This is because it is highly impossible to easily access the hills from such steep sloped areas. Therefore, this research has established that, the ancient Tiv people who lived in this area understood security strategies and utilized them.

Furthermore, the people were able to also manage the natural/environmental resources at their disposal judiciously. This has been revealed through the identification and further studies on the water cistern on Kpe-sha hill. As explained earlier, the cistern was dug and used as a water reservoir to hold rain water, in order to escape the stress of going down the hill side to fetch water in the wet seasons.

**Conclusion and Recommendations**

This archaeological research has helped in the understanding of the cultural achievements of the past Usambe/Tiv people through the

investigation of Bako and Kpe hills. The cultural material evidence identified on the various hills were made using the available environmental resources like hills, stones, soil, plants, animals and water amongst others. The presence of human imprints/archaeological potentials on all the sites have largely proven the claims of oral traditions that people once lived and developed sophisticated cultural practices on the Usambe hills.

More so, the empirical data collected during this research indicate that Bako-vesen, Bako-chuku, Kpe-sha and Kpe-shin amongst other hills in the south-eastern Tivland have great antiquity that should be preserved for future generations. Also, harmonised data from the archaeological survey and ethnographic studies have revealed a considerable level of cultural continuity amongst the extinct and extant Usambe/Tiv people.

As stated earlier, previous researches in this area have been limited to Ibinda hill, with rigorous archaeological investigation in the recent time. The only work outside Ibinda hill was that of Gundu (1999) which partly involved a reconnaissance of hills in Usambe community. All the other sites in Usambe did not enjoy this privilege until the beginning of research in the area by the present researcher in 2014. The research is still on-going and has so far covered archaeological survey of Kpe and Bako hills, leaving Ngokugh and others hills uninvestigated.

Therefore, more and sustained archaeological investigations that will include excavation should be sponsored in the Usambe area. This should also include the entire south
eastern Tivland and areas down to the
Nigeria-Cameroon border in order to
discover, preserve, protect and
promote the cultural heritage of the
Tiv of Central Nigeria. Thus if these
sites are rigorously researched and
packaged properly, they can promise a
robust cultural tourism in the area
(Nomishan, et al., 2020).

Also, the government and other
cultural heritage stakeholders in the
Nigeria should properly educated the
leaders and members of these
communities on how to protect and
preserve these historical sites. This is
because the sites are presently facing
wanton destruction from activities
such as indiscriminate falling of trees
for timbers (popularly known as
Madrid in the area). This has resulted
in the creation of paths for vehicles
that pack these timbers from the hills
to nearby towns like Adikpo and Jato-
Aka where they are sold to Chinese
companies. This is in addition to other
human/natural threats like farming,
grazing and erosion amongst others.

References

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