# Globalization and Diversity Requirement in Higher Education

Osama Marzouk

► To cite this version:

Osama Marzouk. Globalization and Diversity Requirement in Higher Education. 11th World Multi-Conference on Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics (WMSCI 2007), International Institute of Informatics and Systemics (IIIS), Jul 2007, Orlando, Florida (USA), United States. pp.101-106, 10.1108/k.2008.06737aab.007 . hal-04935870

HAL Id: hal-04935870

https://hal.science/hal-04935870v1

Submitted on 7 Feb 2025

**HAL** is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci-
entific research documents, whether they are pub-
lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.

L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.

<figure><img src="image_1.png" /></figure>
# Globalization and Diversity Requirement in Higher Education

Osama A. MARZOUK

Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, MC 0219

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA

## ABSTRACT

In order to prepare college students for a world with increasing globalization, several universities implemented a diversity requirement program for undergraduate students. This study discusses the importance and impact of diversity in higher education, and then presents several surveys and studies that have been conducted at the national level or within an individual university regarding diversity and diversity requirement programs. The study also compares various models of these programs and investigates some of them in details, including their mission, theme, and implementation.

**Keywords:** Diversity, Diversity Requirement, Higher Education, Undergraduate.

## 1. INTRODUCTION

Higher education is a critical phase in students' life. College students gain a lot of knowledge and skills, and develop their cognitive, conceptual, and even emotional attitudes during this phase. It is also the last stage before they go out in the real world, making strong commitment to their jobs, neighbors, families, and the whole society. This stage is characterized by high levels of freedom, self-dependence, and interaction with a broad range of people. In this process of exposure to a new environment and to other people, diversity plays an important role in shaping and enhancing the students experience during their higher education, and improves their educational process. It is very demanding that higher education institutions provide structured and well-designed ways for students to raise their awareness about diversity in today's diverse society and global world. While college students will have some unavoidable interaction with members with diverse backgrounds in the campus community (students, faculty, staff), they should have a designated program at the beginning of their study that introduces them to diversity and globalization, their impact on the local and global communities, and how to react be a positively reacting member in the society to the increasing existence of diversity and globalization. In this study, we first shed some light on the significance of diversity in higher education. Then, we enforce this through relevant results of published surveys and empirical analyses. This part also reflects a movement among higher education institutions toward acquainting their students with diversity and how they should react to it. Then, we present selected examples of currently implemented diversity-awareness program.

## 2. IMPORTANCE OF DIVERSITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

The following is a list of some points that justify the importance of diversity in higher education, and how it can be beneficial, if

employed properly, to the learning process. Many of these points are not just assumptions but rather conclusions with evidence from multiple parallel empirical analyses of university students, as well as from existing social science theories and research.

* One of the main goals of higher education is to prepare the students to be successful over their lifetime, not just to prepare them for a job after graduation. So, giving students the awareness of other groups in the nation and the world is an aim itself. This helps students, who will be the future active members of the society, to understand people who are different from them.

* Students learn more and think in deeper and more complex ways in a diverse educational environment. Diversity in higher education helps graduates to succeed in the workplace, especially in a society with increasing diversity as the U.S., and helps them become better prepared for life in a diverse democracy and increasingly interconnected world.

* Social diversity, in particular, is likely to increase active thinking when institutions of higher education capitalize on it. It provides a classroom climate in which students from diverse backgrounds frequently interact with each other.

* Diversity experience during college has impressive effects on the extent of racial and ethnical integration in the post-college period.

* Diversity in higher education helps students to have more tolerant racial, religious, and gender attitudes; and enhances students' ideas toward accepting differences within the nation, and even outside.

* Diversity in higher education helps students to show appreciation and respect to other groups, especially groups of minority, and to think from their perspectives rather than considering their own points of view, as the majority, all the time.

## 3. SURVEYS AND EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS

There are multiple surveys related to diversity at universities and colleges in the U.S. Some of them are at the national level; others are at the level of an individual campus. There are also opinion polls about diversity, its importance, and suggested diversity requirements in higher education. In this section, some of the conducted surveys and polls about these points are presented along with the associated empirical analyses.

### Overview of Higher Education Institutions in the U.S.

It is useful to start by investigating the structure of higher education institutions in the U.S. Table 1 shows an updated breakdown of these institutions (total of 3,941) based on the 2000 edition of Carnegie classification of institutions of higher education.

The table is followed by definitions of the institutions categories. Under each category, there are subcategories; but
this is beyond the interest of the present study. The reader can find more details about this classification system in [1]. The given numbers here are slightly different from the earlier 1994 classification (with 3,595 institutions at that time).

<table><caption>Table 1. Updated breakdown of the higher education institution in the U.S. (based on the 2000 Carnegie classification)</caption><thead><tr><th>Institutional Type</th><th>Number of Institutions</th><th>National Percentages</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>AA (two years)</td><td>1,669</td><td>42.4%</td></tr><tr><td>Bacc</td><td>606</td><td>15.4%</td></tr><tr><td>Mas</td><td>611</td><td>15.5%</td></tr><tr><td>Doc/Res</td><td>261</td><td>6.6%</td></tr><tr><td>Specialized</td><td>766</td><td>19.4%</td></tr><tr><td>Tribal</td><td>28</td><td>0.7%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>3,941</td><td>100%</td></tr></tbody></table>

AA (two years) institutions offer associate's degree and certificate programs but, with few exceptions, award no baccalaureate degrees.

Bacc institutions are primarily undergraduate colleges with major emphasis on baccalaureate programs.

Mas institutions award 20 or more master's degrees annually in one or more disciplines.

Doc/Res institutions award at least 10 doctoral degrees per year across three or more disciplines, or at least 20 doctoral degrees per year overall.

Specialized institutions award a majority of degrees in a single discipline (like medical schools, schools of technology, schools of business, schools of law, teachers colleges, and theological seminaries).

Tribal Colleges and Universities are, with few exceptions, tribally controlled and located on reservations. They are all members of the American Indian Higher Education Consortium.

## National Survey by AAC&U

Probably the most famous and broad study till now is the one administered by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) in August 2000 [3], which was supported by funds from the James Irvine Foundation.

## Overview

The survey was sent to every accredited college and university in the country (based on Carnegie classification of 1994). Completed surveys were received from 543 colleges and universities (15% of the 3,595 invited institutions) representing every region of the country and a wide array of institutional types.

This survey clearly demonstrates that colleges and universities across the country are taking seriously the challenge of educating students for life in a diverse democracy and increasingly interconnected world.

We start with a breakdown of the participated institutions according to the Carnegie classification of 1994 (the 29 tribal institutions, at that time, are augmented with the specialized ones) in Table 2; and according to the regional area in Table 3.

<table><caption>Table 2. Carnegie classification (1994) of the participated institutions in the AAC&U survey</caption><thead><tr><th>Carnegie Classification</th><th>National Sample</th><th>% of Total Institutions</th><th>Surveys Received</th><th>Response Rate %</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>AA</td><td>1,471</td><td>40.9%</td><td>109</td><td>7.4%</td></tr><tr><td>Bacc</td><td>637</td><td>17.7%</td><td>155</td><td>24.3%</td></tr><tr><td>Mas</td><td>529</td><td>14.7%</td><td>174</td><td>32.9%</td></tr><tr><td>Doc/Res</td><td>236</td><td>6.6%</td><td>90</td><td>38.1%</td></tr><tr><td>Specialized + Tribal</td><td>722</td><td>20.1%</td><td>15</td><td>2.1%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>3,595</td><td>100%</td><td>543</td><td>15.1%</td></tr></tbody></table>

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. Carnegie classification (1994) of the participated institutions in the AAC&U Survey</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>Table 3. Regional classification of the participated institutions in the AAC&U survey (excluding two Canadian schools)</caption><thead><tr><th>Region</th><th>Surveys Received</th><th>% of Total Received</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1 - Middle States</td><td>103</td><td>19.0%</td></tr><tr><td>2 - New England</td><td>38</td><td>7.0%</td></tr><tr><td>3 - North Central</td><td>200</td><td>37.0%</td></tr><tr><td>4 - Northwest</td><td>26</td><td>4.8%</td></tr><tr><td>5 - Southern</td><td>129</td><td>23.9%</td></tr><tr><td>6 - Western</td><td>45</td><td>8.3%</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>541</td><td>100%</td></tr></tbody></table>

The following lists the states/areas associated with each region.

Middle States Region includes DE, DC, MD, NJ, NY, PA, and Virgin Islands.

New England Region includes CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, and VT.

North Central Region includes AZ, AR, CO, IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, NE, NM, ND, OH, OK, SD, WV, WI, and WY.

Northwest Region includes AK, ID, MT, NV, OR, UT, and WA.

Southern Region includes AL, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, SC, TN, TX, and VA.

Western Region includes CA, HI, American Samoa, Guam, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, and Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
## General Findings

* 63% of colleges and universities reported that they either have in place a diversity requirement or they are in the process of developing one; 55% had diversity requirements in place; another 8% were in the process of developing them; while the rest, 37%, do not have any diversity requirements or plans in place.

* Of those schools with diversity requirements, 25% have had them in place for more than 10 years; 45% had put them in place in the past 5-10 years; the remaining 30% reported having their requirements in place for less than 5 years.

* Of those schools with diversity requirements, 44% allowed students to fulfill the requirements without addressing issues of diversity in the U.S.

* 59% of responding Research or Doctoral institutions reported having diversity requirements.

* 63% of responding Master's level institutions reported having diversity requirements.

* 58% of responding Baccalaureate institutions reported having requirements.

* 32% percent of responding Associate degree-granting institutions (AA institutions) reported having diversity requirements.

Some of these findings are presented in Figure 2.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2. Diversity requirements and participation in the AAC&U survey by institution type</figcaption></figure>

## Models for Diversity Requirements

* Of those schools with diversity requirements, the most common model is the one in which students are required to take one course among a list of different approved diversity courses. This was the model chosen by 68%. While 17% require all students to take a single course with a shared syllabus; 12% percent reported having a diversity requirement within one or more major.

* Of those schools with diversity requirements, a majority of 58% require only one course, while 42% require two or more diversity courses.

* Of those schools with diversity requirements, 83% offer one or more course addressing diversity in the U.S.; 65% offer one or more course addressing diversity outside the U.S.; and 76% offer one or more non-Western cultures course.

## Differences across Regions

* 78% of the Western region reported having requirements.

* 68% of the Middle States Region reported having requirements.

* 60% of the North Central Region reported having requirements.

* 45% of the New England Region reported having diversity requirements.

* 36% of the Southern Region reported having requirements.

* 35% of the Northwest Region reported having requirements. These results are summarized in Figure 3.

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3. Diversity Requirements and Participation in the AAC&U Survey by Region (excluding two Canadian schools)</figcaption></figure>

## A National Opinion Poll of Registered Voters

This poll was sponsored by the Ford Foundation Campus Diversity Initiative in the Fall of 1998. The results show strong support of diversity in higher education and general awareness of its importance and its positive influence in the learning process, where

* 68% of those polled supported "requiring students to take at least one cultural and ethnic diversity course in order to graduate."

* A larger majority of 94% even agreed that "America's growing diversity makes it more important than ever for all of us to understand people who are different than ourselves."

## Research from Pennsylvania State University

This research was performed by Betsy Palmer [4], Assistant Professor of Higher Education at the University of Alabama, with support from the Vice Provost for Educational Equity. Penn State requires that all undergraduate students complete a minimum of one diversity-focused course as part of their general education course requirements. Over 1,000 students completed surveys at the beginning and end of the Spring semester of 1998. The research shows general interest among the students in learning about diversity; it also shows that this short experience has positive impact on the attitude of the students beyond the classroom.

## General Findings

* Nearly 90% indicated that they would have taken courses with diversity content even if the requirement did not exist.
* A few students suggested that they would support strengthening the requirement.

* Only a small minority (less than 1%) were strongly opposed to the requirement.

## Reason for Taking a Diversity-Focused Course

* 41% (the largest slice) of the students surveyed were taking it to fulfill the cultural diversity requirement.

* 32% were taking it to fulfill another general education or major requirement.

* 18% were taking it to fulfill multiple requirements.

## Impact beyond the Classroom (Perspectives and Behaviors)

* Nearly 60% of the students suggested that their experience in a diversity course has motivated them to look at multiple perspectives in other courses and to rethink history from the perspectives of a targeted diversity group.

* Nearly 40% of the students suggested that their class experiences made them more aware of racial intolerance on campus.

### Impact beyond the Classroom (Personal)

* 40% had become more aware of inequality in their personal relationships as a result of their class experiences.

* Over 50% responded that they had learned about themselves through their discussions in class.

## 4. DIVERSITY REQUIREMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Given the changing demographics of the U.S. and the importance of issues of diversity in this nation's history, The Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) recommended that college students should learn about issues of diversity in the U.S. as part of their undergraduate curriculum. Universities and colleges adopt different diversity requirement programs. They follow different approaches which vary in some aspects; some of these aspects are given below.

### The Content

The program content may be oriented to one or more theme, with more attention given to some of them. So, diversity requirement programs may focus on:

* Global diversity, national diversity in the U.S., or both (as in Iowa State University and Illinois Wesleyan University).

* Race and ethnicity only (as in the University of Michigan and UNC-Chapel Hill), or race and ethnicity plus gender, class, and sexual orientation (as in Kent State University and St. Edward's University).

* Culture and societal characters, inequality and discrimination, or both.

### The Structuring

The program's structure can be:

* One required course, particularly designed by a faculty board (as in the University of Michigan and UNC-Chapel Hill).

* One required course from an approved list (as in Oregon State University).

* Two required courses, sequential or parallel (as in Iowa State University,).

* Two required sequential courses (as in Colloquium and Seminar, and Occidental College).

* Four required courses (as in Fairleigh Dickinson University).

* Six core required courses (as in Cultural Foundations Program, and St. Edward's University).

* Diversity-related activities, such as being a member of a diversity-focused student organization or attending diversity-related seminars can be used to fulfill the diversity requirement (as in the Presidential Campus Enrichment Grant Program at Virginia Tech).

### Mission and Goals

* The diversity requirement program can be developed for undergraduate students only (as in Iowa State University, and the University of Michigan) or for students plus faculty and staff (as in Oregon State University), where the goal of raising the awareness of diversity issues among student is extended to the whole campus community.

* The main goal of the program can be to help student gain knowledge and scholarly awareness about diversity issues, to prepare students for the live in a diverse society, to foster tolerance and respect for other group, or a combination.

### Criteria and Procedures

In implementing diversity requirement programs, each program may have some particular rules, for example:

* Study abroad credits can be used toward fulfilling the diversity requirements (as in Iowa State University) or they may not be used (as in Oregon State University).

* Students may have to fulfill the diversity requirements during their first year (as in Oregon State University) or at any time before graduation (as in the University of Michigan and Iowa State University).

## 5. SOME DIVERSITY REQUIREMENT MODELS

Now, we present some examples of diversity requirement programs at different American universities.

### Iowa State University (ISU)

The program is called "U.S. Diversity/International Perspectives Requirement." It was approved by the ISU Faculty Senate Curriculum Committee (FSCC) in October 1996 [6].

### Mission

The program's goal is to prepare students of ISU to meet the challenges of responsible citizenship and effective professional roles in a culturally diverse global community.

### Criteria

Some rules of the program are:

* All undergraduate students must fulfill graduation requirements in two areas: U.S. Diversity and International Perspectives.

* The specific standards used to certify students' fulfillment of these requirements vary from major to major, but all require three credits of course work (or the equivalent in some alternative academic experience) for each of the two required areas.

* In most cases, courses used to meet the U.S. Diversity and International Perspectives requirements can also be used to fulfill general education requirements of the student's college or requirements of the student's major.
* An approved ISU Study Abroad course involving international travel for less than 3 weeks will also meet the International Perspectives requirement regardless of the content of the course if it carries 3 or more academic credits.

* High school foreign language study will not, by itself, fulfill the International Perspectives requirement.

* Once a student has met the U.S. Diversity and/or the International Perspectives requirements of their currently declared major, the requirement is satisfied for their degree requirement. If they subsequently change majors, where the requirements may be different, the requirement has been fulfilled and additional courses in this area are not needed.

## Oregon State University (OSU)

The program is called “Difference, Power & Discrimination (DPD).” It was approved by the OSU Faculty Senate in 1992 [7].

### Founding

This program has a quite special motivation. It was proposed by students themselves, rather than being mandated by the university. Because of incidents of discrimination and harassment that had heightened tensions among various groups at OSU during the Fall of 1990, concerned students delivered a letter to OSU President asking for action on November 3 of that year. One of the students' proposals requested that the university develop a mandatory course for undergraduate students that would focus on cultural and ethnic diversity, as well as various forms of discrimination and their origins.

The program's mandate is to aid faculty in developing a number of classes that address issues of diversity and discrimination. By the Fall of 1994, enough DPD courses were in place for the DPD requirement to become a part of the Baccalaureate Core for all incoming first-year students. Since 1994, the DPD program is fulfilling its mandate by making course development training and resources available to OSU faculty. In addition, DPD sponsors a range of activities, including local/national guest speakers and noon brown bag seminars that encourage participants to engage each other in stimulating and lively exchanges about issues of diversity and equity.

### Mission

The DPD program works to create a more inclusive curriculum that addresses issues of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other institutionalized systems of inequality. The program provides faculty and staff with the training and resources needed to develop or modify comparative diversity courses.

### Criteria

DPD courses shall:

* Be at least three credits.

* Emphasize elements of critical thinking.

* Have as their central focus the study of the unequal distribution of power within the framework of particular disciplines and course content.

* Focus primarily on the U.S., although global contexts are encouraged.

* Provide illustrations of ways in which structural, institutional, and ideological discrimination arise from socially defined meanings attributed to difference.

* Provide historical and contemporary examples of difference, power, and discrimination across cultural, economic, social, and political institutions in the U.S.

* Provide illustrations of ways in which the interactions of social categories, such as race, ethnicity, social class, gender, religion, sexual orientation, disability, and age, are related to difference, power, and discrimination in the U.S.

* Provide a multidisciplinary perspective on issues of difference, power, and discrimination.

* Incorporate interactive learning activities (e.g., ungraded in-class writing exercises; classroom discussions; peer-reviews of written material; web-based discussion groups).

## University of Buffalo: The State University of New York (SUNY)

The program, and the required course, is called “American Pluralism and the Search for Equality.” It was approved by the SUNY American Pluralism Subcommittee in November 1990 [8].

### Mission

Focusing on contemporary and historical issues of race, ethnicity, gender, social class, and religious sectarianism in American life, the purpose of this course is to examine the multicultural, multiethnic nature of the American society from the viewpoints of both men and women and of people of diverse ethnicities, social classes, and religious creeds.

The intention behind the course is to provide undergraduate students with an intellectual awareness of the causes and effects of structured inequalities and prejudicial exclusion in the U.S. and of processes leading to a more equitable society.

### Goals for Student

* One of the course goals is to develop a sense of informed, active citizenship within students as they enter an American society of increasing diversity by focusing on contemporary and historical issues of race, ethnicity, gender, social class, and religious sectarianism in American life.

* A curriculum on diversity must bring about an awareness of the enriching aspects of cultural pluralism as well as mutual respect for the integrity of other people's life experiences.

### Procedures and Rules

* The one-semester course is targeted for students' sophomore year.

* Students are required to take the designated American Pluralism and the Search for Equality course, or another approved one.

* Approval of courses as fulfilling the American Pluralism requirement for students shall be the responsibility of the Undergraduate College Curriculum Committee.

* It shall be the responsibility of the American Pluralism Course Committee to develop and maintain a set of core readings covering the five categories of American experience with diversity (race, gender, ethnicity, social class, religious sectarianism) and to make these available to faculty who wish to use some or all of the core readings in teaching American Pluralism and the Search for Equality as well as to the students enrolled in the course.

## University of Michigan (U-M)

The program is called “Race and Ethnicity Requirement.” It was instituted in the Fall of 1991 by the Literature, Science, and the Arts (LS&A) faculty of U-M [9].
## Mission

The program aims at providing opportunities for students to gain an intellectual understanding of the meaning of racism and ethnicity, racial and ethnic intolerance, and resulting inequality in the U.S. or elsewhere. It also compares discrimination based on race, ethnicity, religion, social class, or gender.

## Criteria

* The Race and Ethnicity requirement requires all undergraduate students to take a designated diversity course "Race and Ethnicity" to graduate.

## Presidential Campus Enrichment Grant Program at Virginia Tech

There is no core diversity requirement currently at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech). However, some specialized requirements exist in some particular disciplines. One of these requirement programs is presented her. It is sponsored by the Office of Multicultural Affairs at Virginia Tech [10]. This program offers a wide range of activities to fulfill its diversity requirement.

## Overview

The program is actually a study grant for students, called the Presidential Campus Enrichment Grant (PCEG). It was established in the Spring of 2001 as a cross-college effort at enhancing diversity at Virginia Tech. Selection criteria include diversity activities of the candidates and their commitment to educational diversity. Academic achievement, financial status, and family educational background are also. The grant is an award ranging from $1,200 to $1,500 per year.

## Eligibility Requirements

The student should:

* Be a U.S. citizen.

* Maintain a 2.5 QCA.

* Participate in diversity activities in the amount of 12 merits per academic year (see the next subsection for samples).

* Keep a journal where they reflect on events and activities in which they participate.

## Diversity Activities

In order to fulfill the required diversity merits, a student may:

* Become an active member of a student organization that has racially/ethnically diverse membership and/or has a focus on diversity and multicultural issues – 3 merits.

* Be an active participant in a planning committee/group focused on diversity and multicultural issues – 3 merits.

* Take a class (from a list of eligible) for credit that focuses on diversity and multicultural issues – 3 merits.

* Attend lectures/presentations focused on diversity and multicultural issues – 1 merit for each attended event.

## 6. CONCLUSIONS

Researches and opinion polls show the importance of diversity awareness and diverse campuses in higher education, especially within the diverse American society. In response to that, many universities and colleges have established diversity requirement programs so that every student has some amount of knowledge about diversity and diversity-related issues. We discussed the potential gains of diversity in higher education and presented several supporting surveys and empirical analyses related to

diversity and diversity requirement programs. Then, we gave some aspects in which these programs can vary from one institution to another. After that, we examined sample diversity requirement programs at different American universities, either core programs or specialized ones. According to the national survey done in August 2000 by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U), 63% of the surveyed colleges and universities either have a diversity requirement already or in the process of developing one. We expect this percentage to increase in the future as colleges and universities realize the gains from such programs.

## REFERENCES

[1] The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching http://www.carnegiefoundation.org

[2] P. Gurin, "New Research on the Benefits of Diversity in College and Beyond: An Empirical Analysis", Diversity Digest, Spring, 1999.

[3] Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) - Survey on Diversity Requirements - available online at http://www.aacu.org/index.cfm

[4] B. Palmer, "The Impact of Diversity Courses: Research from Pennsylvania State University", Diversity Digest, Winter, 2000.

[5] Report on Diversity Requirement at Model Institutions - Curriculum Research Team at the University of North Carolina at Asheville (UNCA) - available online at http://www.unca.edu/genedrev/curriculum.team_diversity_report.htm

[6] U.S. Diversity/International Requirement at Iowa State University (ISU) http://www.iastate.edu/~registrar/courses/div-ip-guide.html

[7] Difference, Power & Discrimination (DPD) program at Oregon State University (OSU) http://oregonstate.edu/dept/dpd/

[8] American Pluralism and the Search for Equality program at the University of Buffalo - The State University of New York (SUNY) http://gened.buffalo.edu/documents/Amer_Plur_Goals_and_Standards.pdf

[9] Race and Ethnicity Requirement at the University of Michigan (U-M) http://www.umich.edu/~urecord/9495/Apr10_95/card.htm

[10] Presidential Campus Enrichment Grant Program at Virginia Tech http://www.multicultural.vt.edu/pceg

[11] S. Jaschik, "Next Generation Diversity", Inside Higher Education, October 2006.

[12] "Diversity in the Age of Globalization", anthology of articles from the Earthwatch Journal http://www.wadsworth.com/anthropology_d/special_features/ext/earthwatch/index.html

[13] L.C. Bollinger, "Why Diversity Matters", The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 2007.

[14] P. Gurin, E.L. Dey, S. Hurtado, and G. Gurin, "Diversity and Higher Education: Theory and Impact on Educational Outcomes", Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 72, No. 3, pp. 330-366.

[15] J.F. Milem, "The Educational Benefits of Diversity: Evidence from Multiple Sectors". In: M.J. Chang, D. Witt, J. Jones, and K. Hakuta "Compelling Interest: Examining the Evidence on Racial Dynamics in Colleges and Universities", Stanford University Press, pp. 127-211, 2003.