# Impacts of Surface Water and Vegetation Cover Contamination from Bird and Locust Hunting in the Sahelian Region: Ecological Damage and Economic Challenge

Alexis Dzokom, Roger Darman Djouldé

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Alexis Dzokom, Roger Darman Djouldé. Impacts of Surface Water and Vegetation Cover Contamination from Bird and Locust Hunting in the Sahelian Region: Ecological Damage and Economic Challenge. Sahel Nature Consulting Revue, In press, Water and Pollutions, 05 (02), pp.1-15. hal-05070796

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# Sahel Nature Consulting Revue

ISSN: 1401-0006

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## Impacts of Surface Water and Vegetation Cover Contamination from Bird and Locust Hunting in the Sahelian Region: Ecological Damage and Economic Challenges

Scientific-Article May 2025, Volume 05, Issue 2

### Abstract

The Sahelian zone, inherently fragile, is increasingly affected by anthropogenic activities such as the intensive hunting of birds and locusts, often involving the widespread use of chemical products. This study analyzes the direct and indirect impacts of these practices on surface water quality and vegetation cover. Based on field surveys, physico-chemical analyses of water samples, and observations of local flora, the results reveal that this seasonal activity has led, according to our data, to an average loss of 70% of local woody cover in hunting areas over a five-year period, particularly in the Mayo-Kani region (Cameroon). Field investigations also indicate a 35% decline in avian diversity over ten years in zones heavily exposed to chemical hunting campaigns. Captured animals are sold fresh, dried, or smoked in local markets (up to 250 FCFA per bundle of locusts). The cost of lost ecosystem services (pollination, natural fertilization, pest regulation) is estimated at 69,941.8 FCFA/ha/year, which largely offsets the economic gains from hunting. The findings thus call for a revision of pest wildlife management strategies in the Sahel, towards a more integrated and sustainable approach.
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Sahel Nature Consulting Revue (ISSN : 1401-0006 March 2025)

Dr. Eng. Dzokom Alexis, M.E.,
M.Rl., Ph.D.,
Chief Editor

Mrs. Yakadam Charlotte B., M.Sc
(Maroua)

Managing Editor & Editorial Board

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(Cambridge),
University of Malaya,
Malaysia.

3. Prof. Darman D.R.,
National Advanced School of
Engeneering,

University of Maroua (UMa),

4. Prof.Gaham Ibraha Bakari,
Ethiopian Civil Service University,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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Maroua,
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# Impacts of Surface Water and Vegetation Cover Contamination from Bird and Locust Hunting in the Sahelian Region: Ecological Damage and Economic Challenge

Alexis DZOKOM¹, ², Roger Djouldé DARMAN³,

¹Sahel Nature Consulting

²Department of Environmental Sciences, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon

³Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry and By-Products, Faculty of Sciences, University of Garoua, Cameroon

Corresponding author: dzokomalexis@gmail.com

## Abstract

The Sahelian zone, inherently fragile, is increasingly affected by anthropogenic activities such as the intensive hunting of birds and locusts, often involving the widespread use of chemical products. This study analyzes the direct and indirect impacts of these practices on surface water quality and vegetation cover. Based on field surveys, physico-chemical analyses of water samples, and observations of local flora, the results reveal that this seasonal activity has led, according to our data, to an average loss of 70% of local woody cover in hunting areas over a five-year period, particularly in the Mayo-Kani region (Cameroon). Field investigations also indicate a 35% decline in avian diversity over ten years in zones heavily exposed to chemical hunting campaigns. Captured animals are sold fresh, dried, or smoked in local markets (up to 250 FCFA per bundle of locusts). The cost of lost ecosystem services (pollination, natural fertilization, pest regulation) is estimated at 69,941.8 FCFA/ha/year, which largely offsets the economic gains from hunting. The findings thus call for a revision of pest wildlife management strategies in the Sahel, towards a more integrated and sustainable approach.

**Keywords:** Hunting, Locusts, Birds, Contamination, Surface water, Vegetation cover, Sahelian zone, Ecology, Rural economy

## Introduction

The hunting of granivorous birds and locusts, although often perceived as a response to agricultural threats in the Sahelian region, is now raising serious ecological concerns. Hunting practices, frequently intensive and poorly regulated, are commonly accompanied by the widespread use of chemical substances—particularly pesticides and toxic baits—that contaminate surface waters and hinder the regeneration of vegetation cover (Dzokom et al., 2025a). These substances, once introduced into aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, disrupt biological balances, harm biodiversity, and undermine the resilience of already fragile Sahelian ecosystems (Sagna et al., 2020).

The impact of such pollution extends beyond the environment. It also affects local economic activities, notably through the degradation of water quality used for irrigation, livestock watering, and small-scale fishing (Abasse et al., 2023; Rodier et al., 2009; Rodríguez et al., 2006). In addition, the depletion of vegetation cover reduces the availability of fodder, weakens agro-sylvo-pastoral productivity, and consequently jeopardizes food security and rural livelihoods (Bationo et al., 2021; Goula et al., 2006).

Furthermore, although bird and locust hunting may be agronomically justified—particularly in protecting crops from acridid invasions or bird attacks—it is often
conducted without a regulatory framework
and without consideration for its negative
externalities (FAO, 2015). The dynamics of
Sahelian ecosystems, already strained by
climate change, are further exacerbated by
these anthropogenic pressures, thereby
undermining conservation efforts and
sustainable natural resource management.

This study aims to analyze the
environmental and economic consequences
of surface water and vegetation cover
contamination associated with bird and
locust hunting in the Sahelian zone. It
highlights the conflicts between local pest
control practices, biodiversity conservation,
and the economic sustainability of rural
activities.

# Materials and Methods

## 1. Study Area

The study was conducted in three Sahelian
regions representative of both the
ecological gradient and anthropogenic
pressures: the Far North Region (Blangoua
and Hile Alifa in the Lake Chad area,
Diamaré, and Mayo-Kani) and the North
Region of Cameroon (Lagdo, Touboro, and
the surroundings of the Bénoué National
Park). These areas are characterized by a
semi-arid climate, with annual rainfall
ranging from 300 to 600 mm, a prolonged
dry season, and vegetation dominated by
shrub and herbaceous savannahs
(Nicholson, 2013; Camara, 2022).

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Study Area</figcaption></figure>

(2024a) and Dzokom, (2021) on local
perceptions of environmental change.

## 2. Data Collection Methodology

### a) Socioeconomic Surveys

Semi-structured interviews were conducted
with 150 farming households,
environmental service officers, and
traditional hunters in each study area. The
objective was to assess the frequency and
methods of hunting practices, as well as
local perceptions of their environmental and
economic impacts. Interview guides were
adapted from the work of Solly et al.
(2020), Gueye et al., (2023), Dzokom et al.,

### b) Surface Water Sampling and Analysis

Water samples were collected monthly for
six months from ponds, rivers, and water
points used for livestock watering and
irrigation. The analyses focused on:

* Residues of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides (analyzed by GC-MS according to the AFNOR T90-114 method);
Physico-chemical parameters (pH, conductivity, BOD<sub>5</sub>, nitrates, phosphates) following the protocols recommended by Rodier et al. (2009). Sampling sites were located near areas known for locust hunting using chemical sprays or poisoned baits (FAO, 2015; Maiga, 2008; Caudron, et al., 1992; Mariko, 1996).

### c) Vegetation Cover Degradation Assessment

Vegetation dynamics were analyzed using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery over a five-year period (2018–2023). The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to quantify biomass loss in zones targeted by hunting or pesticide spraying. This remote sensing approach was validated by ground-truthing using botanical surveys and 1-km transects to assess species richness and herbaceous cover density (Bationo et al., 2021; Zakari et al., 2015; Dzokom, 2024a,b,c; Dzokom et al., 2025a,b,c; Dzokom et al., 2025; Dzokom, 2025a,b,c).

### d) Economic Analysis

A participatory diagnostic approach was used to estimate indirect economic losses related to vegetation cover degradation (e.g., loss of pasture and non-timber forest products) and water pollution (e.g., increased costs of clean water supply, reduced agricultural productivity). Data were analyzed using a cost–benefit analysis framework adapted to Sahelian rural contexts (Zongo et al., 2019; Dzokom et al., 2024a,b,c; Dzokom et al., 2025a,b,c; Dzokom, 2019; Dzokom, 2021).

Quantitative data were analyzed using R software (version 4.2) for descriptive statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and correlations between contamination indices and vegetation degradation indicators. Qualitative data from surveys were coded and thematically analyzed using Nvivo 12.

## Results and Discussion

### 1. Surface Water Contamination: Increasing Impacts Linked to Biocides

The collected data indicate high concentrations of organophosphate and carbamate pesticide residues in temporary ponds, *ouadis*, and small streams, particularly during periods of intense locust and granivorous bird hunting activity. These biocides are commonly applied via aerial or manual spraying, often without protective measures for aquatic ecosystems. According to Kpan et al. (2019), insecticides such as malathion and chlorpyrifos exhibit relatively long half-lives in water (up to 30 days), facilitating their accumulation in trophic chains. Physico-chemical analyses reveal increased chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrates, and phosphates, indicating the onset of eutrophication processes.

“Intensive spraying campaigns against desert locusts directly impact water quality and threaten the endorheic aquatic ecosystems of the Sahel” (FAO, 2020a,b,c). Local populations also report abnormal mortality of fish, amphibians, and small mammals that drink from contaminated water sources, corroborating the observations of Martin, (2013) regarding the lethality of biocides in the wetland areas of northern Cameroon.

## 2. Data Processing

<table><caption>Table 1: Concentrations of Biocides in Surface Waters of Sahelian Zones (n = 30)</caption><thead><tr><th>Sampling Sites</th><th>Organophosphates (µg/L)</th><th>Pyrethroids (µg/L)</th><th>Neonicotinoids (µg/L)</th><th>pH</th><th>Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)</th><th>Conductivity (µS/cm)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Zone A (near hunting site)</td><td>5.34 ± 0.88</td><td>2.76 ± 0.41</td><td>4.21 ± 0.67</td><td>6.5 ± 0.3</td><td>4.1 ± 0.6</td><td>830 ± 55</td></tr><tr><td>Zone B (upstream, control)</td><td>0.94 ± 0.21</td><td>0.31 ± 0.10</td><td>0.48 ± 0.15</td><td>7.0 ± 0.2</td><td>6.8 ± 0.4</td><td>520 ± 32</td></tr><tr><td>Zone C (downstream)</td><td>3.12 ± 0.66</td><td>1.94 ± 0.37</td><td>3.66 ± 0.52</td><td>6.2 ± 0.4</td><td>4.5 ± 0.7</td><td>765 ± 48</td></tr></tbody></table>
The results show significant surface water contamination in areas exposed to intensive insect and bird hunting, particularly in Zone A, located near spraying sites. Organophosphate concentrations in this zone are five times higher than those in the control zone (Zone B), reflecting unregulated pesticide use during anti-locust control campaigns (FAO, 2020d,e).

The decline in dissolved oxygen levels in the contaminated zones (Zones A and C) suggests a probable impact on aquatic life, as biocides reduce aerobic microbial activity and affect sensitive organisms

## 2. Vegetation Cover Degradation: A Major Collateral Impact of Hunting Practices

The hunting of locusts and birds often involves bushfires, uprooting of shrubs, and felling of small trees to clear land and facilitate drives and trapping activities. According to our field data, this seasonal activity has led to an average loss of 23% of local woody vegetation cover over a five-year period, particularly in the regions of

(Beketov et al., 2013; Mawussi, 2008). Furthermore, localized pH acidification (values around 6.2–6.5) increases the toxicity of certain chemical compounds, further compromising the ecological functions of aquatic environments (Schäfer et al., 2011).

The elevated conductivity values in these zones indicate an increased ionic load, which is typical of chemical contamination from pesticide formulations containing solvents, surfactants, or metals (Zhou et al., 2021).

Hile Alifa (Lake Chad), Benoue National Park, and Mayo-Kani (Cameroon).

Ozer et al. (2010) report that such vegetation loss decreases soil retention capacity, accelerates wind erosion, and undermines ecological resilience to drought.

"Even shrub-based vegetation cover serves as an essential buffer in semi-arid landscapes, and its destruction disrupts local hydrological cycles" (Bégué et al., 1996; Tourneux et al., 2017).

<table><caption>Table 2: Data on Vegetation Cover Degradation Linked to Hunting Practices (3 Study Areas – n = 20 samples per area)</caption><thead><tr><th>Study Area (Location)</th><th>Vegetation Density (stems/m²)</th><th>Vegetation Cover (%)</th><th>Dry Biomass (kg/m²)</th><th>Natural Regeneration Rate (%)</th><th>Dominant Woody Species</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Area A (intensive hunting)</td><td>12.4 ± 3.1</td><td>21.6 ± 4.2</td><td>0.48 ± 0.09</td><td>15.2 ± 3.5</td><td>Guiera senegalensis, Combretum micranthum</td></tr><tr><td>Area B (moderate hunting)</td><td>28.7 ± 4.9</td><td>48.1 ± 6.7</td><td>1.12 ± 0.15</td><td>32.4 ± 5.2</td><td>Annona senegalensis, Piliostigma reticulatum</td></tr><tr><td>Area C (protected control zone)</td><td>44.3 ± 5.3</td><td>71.8 ± 7.1</td><td>2.03 ± 0.21</td><td>58.7 ± 4.6</td><td>Parkia biglobosa, Faidherbia albida</td></tr></tbody></table>

The data show that areas subjected to intensive locust and bird hunting (especially those involving chemical agents or controlled fires) exhibit a significant decline in vegetation cover. Area A, for instance, shows a loss of over 70% of plant biomass and a 50% reduction in natural

regeneration compared to the control zone (Area C).

This phenomenon is largely attributed to destructive anti-locust practices such as burning, spraying of non-selective insecticides, and trampling by motorized vehicles or humans. These actions critically undermine the ecological resilience of
Sahelian ecosystems by causing the loss of medicinal, fodder, and soil-stabilizing plant species (Ickowicz et al., 2012; Hiernaux et al., 2016).

Species diversity is also impacted, with an increasing dominance of pioneer or ruderal species (Guiera, Combretum) in degraded areas, to the detriment of economically and ecologically valuable species such as Parkia biglobosa and Faidherbia albida (Wezel & Lykke, 2006).

### Ecological and Economic Consequences

* Decline in plant biodiversity affecting pollinators, herbivores, and granivorous or frugivorous birds.

* Loss of local resources for animal feed, traditional medicine, fuelwood, and erosion control.

* Indirect economic cost: reduced agricultural yields due to the lack of natural mulching or vegetative fertilization (Diallo et al., 2022).

### 3. Cascading Ecological Damage: Alteration of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions

Habitat degradation caused by pesticide application and vegetation loss directly impacts non-target fauna, including insectivorous birds, reptiles, and pollinators. Field surveys report a 35% decline in avian diversity over the past decade in areas heavily exposed to chemical locust and bird control campaigns.

Sagna (2024) and O.M.S. (2017) highlight that the disappearance of certain small raptor and granivorous bird species disrupts predator-prey dynamics, indirectly promoting subsequent outbreaks of locusts and rodents.

"The massive use of biocides as a control method creates a vicious cycle of ecological imbalances" (UNEP, 2021).

<table><caption>Table 3: Biodiversity Indices and Alteration of Ecosystem Functions in Three Sahelian Zones (n = 15 samples per zone)</caption><thead><tr><td>Study Zone</td><td>Species Richness (number of species)</td><td>Shannon Diversity Index (H')</td><td>Abundance of Insectivorous Birds (/ha)</td><td>Invertebrate Biomass (g/m²)</td><td>Pollination Rate (%)</td><td>Litter Decomposition Rate (%)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Zone A (intensive hunting)</td><td>7.4 ± 1.2</td><td>1.16 ± 0.24</td><td>4.8 ± 1.1</td><td>12.3 ± 3.5</td><td>23.1 ± 4.8</td><td>28.4 ± 6.2</td></tr><tr><td>Zone B (moderate hunting)</td><td>12.1 ± 1.6</td><td>1.98 ± 0.31</td><td>9.7 ± 2.3</td><td>24.8 ± 4.1</td><td>46.7 ± 5.2</td><td>49.2 ± 7.1</td></tr><tr><td>Zone C (control area)</td><td>16.5 ± 2.2</td><td>2.61 ± 0.28</td><td>15.4 ± 2.7</td><td>37.9 ± 4.6</td><td>72.4 ± 6.5</td><td>71.8 ± 8.3</td></tr></tbody></table>

Comparative analysis reveals a marked degradation of biodiversity and ecosystem functions in areas affected by locust and bird hunting (Zone A), especially when combined with intensive biocide use.

* **Species richness** (average number of species per sample) declined by over 55% between the control zone (C) and the heavily disturbed area (A).

* The **Shannon Diversity Index (H')**, which reflects both species richness and evenness, showed a significant drop in degraded zones, indicating a loss of ecological complexity (Magurran, 2004).

* **Insectivorous birds**, which play a crucial role in regulating locust populations, were severely affected, undermining natural biological control mechanisms (Thiollay, 2006).

* A decrease in **invertebrate biomass**—including pollinators, decomposers, and prey species— has directly impacted **pollination and litter decomposition services**, which are vital to maintaining soil health.
fertility and productivity (Kremen et al., 2007).

Thus, ecosystem regulatory and supporting services are severely compromised. The resulting ecological cascade drives a negative spiral, increasing the vulnerability of ecosystems and the human populations that depend on them.

## Ecological and Socio-Economic Implications

* Disruption of trophic chains → fewer predators → pest outbreaks.

* Reduction in natural soil fertility → long-term agricultural yield decline.

* Loss of free ecosystem services (pollination, nutrient cycling, biological control) → increased costs for artificial replacement (inputs, labor, pesticides).

* Reversal of expected benefits from locust control campaigns, thereby

worsening local poverty (UNEP, 2019).

## 4. Economic Issues: Between Food Security and the Loss of Ecosystem Services

From an economic standpoint, the hunting of locusts and birds represents a survival activity for many rural households. The captured products are sold fresh, dried, or smoked in local markets (up to 250 FCFA per bundle of locusts). However, ecological degradation leads to declining agricultural productivity, scarcity of edible species, and increased health expenditures (due to poisoning from contaminated bushmeat consumption).

"The immediate gain from hunting is counterbalanced by long-term losses in the supporting functions of smallholder agriculture" (Dzokom, 2023a,b).

Pastoralists interviewed also reported a reduction in pasturelands, exacerbated by increased competition around scarce or polluted water sources.

<table><caption>Table 4. Economic Data and Losses in Ecosystem Services in the Sahelian Zone (n = 30 households surveyed per zone)</caption><thead><tr><td>Study Area</td><td>Income from hunting (FCFA/year/household)</td><td>Estimated agricultural yield loss (%)</td><td>Estimated cost of ecosystem service replacement (FCFA/ha/year)</td><td>Pesticide expenditures (FCFA/year/household)</td><td>Forage availability (days/year)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Zone A (intensive hunting)</td><td>94,071.4 ± 14,684.3</td><td>31.2 ± 5.6</td><td>69,941.8 ± 12,388.9</td><td>58,601.7 ± 8,390.4</td><td>57 ± 11</td></tr><tr><td>Zone B (moderate hunting)</td><td>57,819.5 ± 10,226.6</td><td>18.6 ± 4.1</td><td>41,427.6 ± 6,817.2</td><td>35,790.3 ± 6,358.3</td><td>91 ± 14</td></tr><tr><td>Zone C (control zone)</td><td>14,225.4 ± 3,343.3</td><td>6.3 ± 2.2</td><td>11,995.6 ± 4,260.7</td><td>7,734.9 ± 2,163.1</td><td>135 ± 17</td></tr></tbody></table>

The findings reveal a typical economic dilemma in the Sahel: while hunting provides immediate income, it results in a net medium-term loss in agricultural productivity and vital ecosystem services.

* In Zone A, households earn an average of 94,071.4 FCFA (€143.5) per year from the sale of edible locusts and captured birds—a

practice that is profitable in the short term. However, they experience an agricultural yield decline of over 30%, mainly due to the loss of beneficial organisms, forage, and soil fertility (Zida et al., 2022).

* The replacement cost of lost ecosystem services (pollination, natural fertilization, pest regulation)
is estimated at 69,941.8 FCFA/ha/year (€106.7/ha/year), largely offsetting the income gained from hunting (TEEB, 2010; Dzokom, 2025a,b,c; Dzokom et al., 2024a,b,c; Dzokom et al., 2025a,b,c; Dzokom, 2019; Dzokom, 2021).

* Pesticide expenditures are seven times higher in Zone A compared to Zone C, indicating increased dependence on chemical inputs to compensate for the disappearance of natural regulators (Dosso, 2021; Kremen, 2007; Magurran, 2004; Mirzabaev et al., 2021; Nicholson, 2013).

* Reduced forage availability (only 57 days/year in Zone A vs. 135 in Zone C) exacerbates livestock vulnerability, which is a cornerstone of the local economy (Hiernaux & Ayantunde, 2004).

This situation illustrates a “double economic burden”: a marginal short-term gain accompanied by cumulative long-term losses, which are difficult to mitigate in a context of structural poverty.

## Interpretation Pathways and Recommendations

* The challenge is not to ban hunting altogether but to regulate practices and promote agroecological alternatives (FAO, 2020f).

* Economic incentives for conserving ecosystem services (e.g., payments for environmental services, sustainable community-based management) could reverse the current trajectory (Rodríguez et al., 2006).

* Income enhancement should rely on the sustainable valorization of natural resources (e.g., organic fertilizer production, beekeeping, agroforestry).

## 5. Recommendations Derived from the Findings

* Encourage alternative locust control methods, such as biopesticides based on *Metarhizium anisopliae*;

* Promote sustainable community-based vegetation cover management, including assisted natural regeneration (ANR);

* Implement a participatory biosurveillance system for surface water quality;

* Promote the economic valorization of hunting-derived products within a framework of sustainable ecotourism, to prevent destructive practices.

## Conclusion

The study conducted across several Sahelian localities highlights the significant ecological impacts associated with the hunting of granivorous birds and migratory locusts. On one hand, the contamination of surface waters by pesticides used in chemical control campaigns results in persistent pollution, threatening aquatic fauna, human health, and access to quality water for domestic and pastoral use. On the other hand, the degradation of vegetative cover through invasive hunting methods (bushfires, land clearing, intensive trapping) contributes to biodiversity loss, soil depletion, and the disruption of essential ecosystem services such as erosion control, forage production, and water cycle regulation.

From a socio-economic perspective, while hunting practices may temporarily protect crops or generate supplementary income, they entail high environmental costs that ultimately undermine the sustainability of agricultural and pastoral production systems. The findings strongly advocate for
a revision of pest management strategies in
the Sahel towards a more integrated and
sustainable approach.

Recommendations

1. Promote ecological alternatives to chemical control: Encourage the use of biological control methods (e.g., biopesticides, locust-specific pathogens) to reduce the toxic impact of pesticides on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

2. Strengthen the monitoring and control of surface water quality: Establish a localized monitoring network to assess water pollution (regular analysis of chemical residues, bioindicators) and develop reforestation strategies tailored to riparian zones.

3. Integrate local knowledge into wildlife management strategies: Involve rural and pastoral communities in the development of participatory control plans, valuing traditional ecological knowledge while incorporating approaches based on ecological science.

4. Implement cross-sectoral policies: Enhance coordination among the environmental, agricultural, health, and livestock sectors to develop holistic policies that address both food security imperatives and the conservation of natural resources.

5. Support scientific research and outreach: Promote applied research on the ecological impacts of hunting practices and develop educational tools to raise awareness among local stakeholders (NGOs, hunters' associations, local authorities) about sustainable management of so-called pest species.

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