# The Lance Between Theory and Practice: Study and Utilization of the Modernized Tğrī and of the Šamī or Rūmī Aims

Said Huneidi

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Said Huneidi. The Lance Between Theory and Practice: Study and Utilization of the Modernized Tğrī and of the Šamī or Rūmī Aims. The Furusiyah Conference, Jul 2019, Alexandria, Egypt. The Memory of Arabs, 5, Dr. Mohamed EL Gamal, pp.29, 2021, ISSN 2735-4210. hal-04986143

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Contents

Fire Tricks: A Profound Secret in the Mamluk Military Tactics
(648 – 923 AH/ 1250 – 1517 CE)

Lamiaa Yaqup Senosy

7

The Lance between Theory and Practice:

Study and Utilization of the Modernized Tğrī and of the Šamī or Rūmī Aims

An Evaluation of Applied Furūsīyah Instructions

Dr. Said Huneidi

29
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# The Lance between Theory and Practice: Study and Utilization of the Modernized Tġrī and of the Šamī or Rūmī Aims

## An Evaluation of Applied Furūsīyah Instructions

### Dr. Said Huneidi

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# The Lance between Theory and Practice: Study and Utilization of the Modernized Tğrī and of the Šamī or Rūmī Aims

## An Evaluation of Applied Furūsīyah Instructions

Dr. Said Huneidi*

## Introduction

Years 1995 – 2007, the Royal Institute of Arabian Horsemanship researched the methods of weapons usage mentioned in *furūsīyah* treatises. With focus on the sword, lance, and to a lesser degree archery, various data was recorded and experimented with on foot at first, then on mounted cavalry. These exercises were conducted to enhance the understanding of selected techniques of *furūsīyah* training, all in an effort to reconstruct the practice of the ancient art of *furūsīyah*. The significance of this approach was in the way it filled a technical space that was generally left empty, possibly intentionally, in extant

*furūsīyah* training manuals. Despite its scarcity, the surviving *furūsīyah* literature describing the training methods and usage of all utilized weapons is sufficient to enable a full revival of the art; however, scholars face difficulties in deciphering the practical meaning of such instructions.

The topic of this paper emphasizes two specific methods of lance usage as a weapon of war in training and on the battle field; the *Tṣdyd al-Tġrī al-Mḥdt* and *Tṣdyd al-Ṣāmī* or *al-Rūmī*. Even though the origin of these two techniques predates the Mamluk era, yet they are integrated in most of the extant training instructions. These methods were selected as an example because in both techniques
the lance is used single-handedly and during a highspeed charge. This paper examines a particular extracted literature and its sources, the training scheme as instructed in the manuals and the one devised, for both horse and rider, on these specific maneuvers. The paper will state the findings and knowledge gained after the successful application of both maneuvers. Furthermore, conclusion is in highlighting the importance of considering the abilities and limitations of both horse and rider in the interpretation of instructions as mentioned in all extant *furūsīyah* treatises. Also, the added value of the practical knowledge of *furūsīyah* art to the interpretation of medieval battles.

The actual training grounds for the art of mounted *furūsīyah* art were the hunting fields. This was the usual place where youngsters learned about the care and riding of horses, as well as practicing archery and using lances and swords. These resulting skills were basic, well known to all, and required no further explanation in written texts(1). In fact, such knowledge was built into the culture, and therefore, into the literary tradition which lay behind the composition of instructional treatises during the medieval Islamic era. The resulting techniques and instructions within the discipline of mounted military *furūsīyah* using the lance and other specific weapons were themselves written according to this literary culture. This in turn can clearly be seen in all surviving thematic instruction manuals(2). When it comes to the study of these treatises, the actual words can be clearly understood. In contrast, the techniques that are described cannot be followed so easily in practice because we generally do not possess the basic background information and experience. This leaves a large gap, which we suggest can only really be filled by seeking practical experience horsemanship and martial arts involved. In other words: through practical experimentation and reconstruction.

A merely linguistic interpretation of military *furūsīyah* instruction, as found in the treatises, fails to provide a true understanding. This is true of both dealing with the horse and with using specific weapons, in what could be described as a practical manner. We therefore attempted to fill this gap by building a basic level of knowledge through actually carrying out the exercises. To begin with, a reconstruction of work with the

lance work started with what is known through the activities of some present day ceremonial cavalry units; for example, in the British Army and those of several Arab armies.

The methods used in this context originated in India, and are still in practice as a mounted sport in Rajasthan. The terms used today for these activities include “tent pegging” and “pig sticking”. Furthermore, we can say with confidence that the lance techniques involved are essentially the same as those found in the *furūsīyah* treatises, where they are referred to as the *khurasani* method(3). It is therefore fortunate that this particular system has been preserved with its well-established practical techniques and training methods for both horse and rider. There is little reason to suppose that these practices were polluted with the passing of time, for the simple

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Annex 1</figcaption></figure>

Muḥammad ibn ‘Īsá ibn Ismā’īl ibn Ḩšrwsāh Al-Aqṣarā’ī Al Rūmī Al-Ḥanafī (d. [750] Hijri), *Nihāyat Al-Su’l wa-Al-Umnīyah fī Ta’līm Al-Furūsīyah*, London, British Library, Nfā’s Ālmġmw’ Āl’rbyah ([Add.18866]): Bāb 11.
reason that they worked well and continued to be
useful over time(4). Basic to this was the fact that
they were fundamentally based upon the horse's
performance and maneuverability. The horse, as
what might be called the agent of delivery, did not
itself change over time so there was no real need
to modify the techniques once they had been fully
developed.

One of the techniques central to this study was
known as the modern or modernized ṭġry aim, or
al-ṭsdyd al-ṭġrī al-mḥdt. It was described in the
Kitab Kamel al-Furūsīyah(5). This treatise, by an
unknown author, may have been the source for
the description of the same lance technique as
described in the twelfth section of Muḥammad ibn
‘Īsā ibn Ismā’īl al-Aqsarā’ī al-Ḥanafī’s Nihāyat
al Sūl(6). These instructed the rider to place the
lance in his hand so that the hand was at a distance
of four fingers from the bottom, and to hold the
lance along with the reins while keeping the
palm of the hand above the reins. However, the
texts did not describe how the rider was to mount
his horse while holding his lance. The treatises
continued by instructing the rider to next place
his right hand a cubit above the lance, but again
without explaining exactly how this should be
done. The basic description of this technique was
clear and was identical in both manuscripts under
consideration. Furthermore, it read as if written
by someone who was an experienced practitioner
of the art. Nevertheless, on its own, and lacking
any further background information, the exercise
concluded with mounting the horse while holding
the lance and the reins in the left hand.

Relying solely on these instructions, it could
not be established how to change hands and move
the lance to the rider's right side without doing so
in an awkward and unbalanced way. Put simply,
the limited information provided left the rider
sitting still on a standing horse, and not knowing
what to do next. To achieve what might be called
a valid and applicable interpretation of this
action, it proved necessary to acquire important
background knowledge of what we have called
two-handed lance work. Here it is necessary to
keep in mind the fact that all Eastern martial arts
with all thrusting and slashing of cutting weapons
are based on circular movements. Based on this
concept, a horseman wielding a lance divides
the sphere around him into eight quadrants: four

upper and four lower. The basic training in two-
handed work incorporates the movement of the
lance from each of these quadrants to each and
all of the other seven. This resulted in a total of
64 basic movements(7). Every shift that required
moving the weapon from one side of the body to
the other, required changing hands without losing
a firm grip on the lance. The hold could only be
maintained by sliding one hand over the other
at the mid-point of the directional change. This
in turn was a skill that could only be gained by
using the lance with two hands. Once this was
understood, it at last became possible to properly
understand the written instructions.

Riding and charging with the lance held in
one hand in the old *khurasani* method was key to
reconstructing and understanding *al-ṭsdyd al-ṭġrī
al-mḥdt* as described in the written instructions(8).
In this *khurasani* method, the rider took the lance in
this right hand, again holding it at a measurement
of four fingers measure from the bottom. This
older method maintains the position of the hand

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>Annex 2

Kitāb Kāmel Al-Furūsīyah wa-Al-‘Amal bil-Rumḥ wa-Al-Seīf wa-Al-‘Amūd wa-Al-Ṣāwlajan wa-Al-Ramy bil-Nāšhab, Gotha, Bibliotheca Gothana (Qāhrī 1808, [1012]): Cover page.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /></figure>

Annex 3

Kitāb Kāmel Al-Furūsīyah wa-Al-'Amal bil-Rumḥ wa-Al-Seīf wa-Al-'Amūd wa-Al-Ṣāwlajan wa-Al-Ramy bil-Nāšhab, Gotha, Bibliotheca Gothana (Qāhrī 1808, [1012]): Section on modernized tġry aim followed by šāmy aim.

throughout the charge, the aim, the strike or hit, and the full 360° rotation of the lance back into its original position(9). This was strictly a thrusting method.

By combining the experiences of practicing the khurasani aim and the 64 basic two-handed lance moves, the related instructions in Nihāyat al-Sūl became clear, and in fact, made it possible to practice the modern or modernized tġrī exercise. A resulting interpretation of the twelfth section of Nihāyat al-Sūl started by mounting the horse with the lance held in the left hand above the reins, as was carried out in the khurasani manner. Then the rider used the two-handed change technique to place the lance in the right hand in the modern tġrī in order to be ready for a charge. One can say with confidence that the training manuals were written in order to instruct horsemen who already had sufficient mounted hunting expertise

with the lance, and were also familiar with basic two-handed lance work. The instructions therefore highlighted the difference between the older and more traditional khurasani method and the modern tġrī method. They also emphasized the intricate details of inclining the rider's body as part of the correct technique. Put simply, these written instructions only focused upon what was needed to instruct a medieval trainee on the cavalryman's art.

The text continued by warning the rider against opening his arms outwards and by further instructing him in the ṭsdyd or aim using a forward arm extension towards the horse's cheek. The next was for the horseman to lean his body to a limited degree suited to the height of the target, while at the same time warning against an excessive inclination or leaning of the body. However, it should be noted that the instructions ended at this point, without revealing how to incline the lance towards the target. Nor did the instructions address the action required after the target was reached.

Practical experience confirms that, although these subsequent stages were not mentioned, they remained the most crucial in order to avoid injury to either horse or rider. Once the target was struck, if the lance was not carried correctly, it could be lost from the rider's grip or be broken, both of which could cause serious harm to rider or horse. Another danger was that the rider's collarbone could break if the release was hampered. Here it should be understood that it is possible for a horse and rider, weighing on average around 500 kg, and charging at 60 km per hour, to exert a massive impact momentum. This is concentrated in the tip of the lance with a force in excess of 800 kg. This is twice as much as would be needed to smash a human femur.

The stages for conducting a charge in the manner of al-ṭsdyd al- tġri al-mḥdt can be broken down into seven steps. First, the lance is held close to the chest either at an angle or at a vertical position to the side. Second, during the first part of the charge the rider's arm is extended while maintaining the lance in a vertical position in line with the horse's withers. This is known as ādr and it is the position from which the rider is able to aim at the target; the latter action being the ṭsdyd(10). Third, the body and lance are leaned together in a continuous flow towards the target. Notice that the lance is
inclined towards the target by a movement of the
wrist. Fourth, the aim is followed by a controlled
hitting of the target. The fifth step is crucial to
safety: as the target line is passed, the hand is
moved backwards while the body continues to
lean forward towards the side of the horse. In the
sixth step, the rider allows the horse's speed to
make the release as the metal tip cuts its way out
of the target. The resulting momentum will carry
the lance to a full extension of the arm backwards,
towards the hindquarters of the horse, until the
force is released. The seventh and final step is for
the rider to straighten his body while taking the
lance back to its initial starting position. The rider
is now ready for the next charge.

Instruction on what was known as the šāmī
or rūmī aim followed a similar philosophy to the
training on the modern or modernized tġrī aim,
though the two aims were of course different(11).
For example, Nihāyat al-Sūl described the
difference in the way the lance was held from the
modern tġrī aim(12). It stated that the right hand
should be placed about a cubit length from the
base of the lance and that the lance was placed
under the rider's armpit while the forward part
of the lance lay close to the horse's cheek. With
practice, the same could be followed on the left
side, however such left-handed use was seen as
feeble. The lance could also be placed between
the ears of the horse in order to scare opponents.
This was apparently because opponents would try
to avoid the expected shock, but with the lance
between the horse's ears, they would not know
from which direction the lance will fall upon them.

The method of training for this specific
technique was summed in six steps, starting
with the lance being held under the armpit with
the rider's elbow pointing downwards. Second,
upon charging, the arm would be extended while
pointing the lance downward toward the target.
The third step is to thrust the lance into the target.
Fourth, a firm grip of the lance is maintained as
the horse passed the target line. The fifth step is
critical, as the developing force would release
the lance from the target and rotate it 270°. This
is similar to the fifth step in the modern tġrī
technique, and is also the only moment when the
rider feels the speed of the action. In the last and
sixth step, the lance will be automatically driven
to rest under the armpit, positioning it in readiness
for a next charge.

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /></figure>

Annex 4

Muḥammad ibn 'Īsá ibn Ismā'īl ibn Ḩšrwsāh Al-
Aqsarā'ī Al Rūmī Al-Ḥanafī (d. [750] Hijri), Nihāyat
Al-Su'l wa-Al-Umnīyah fī Ta'līm Al-Furūsīyah,
London, British Library, Nfā's Ālmġmwʻ Āl'rbyah
([Add.18866]): Bāb 12, 13.

For the current training purposes, that is, in
our reconstruction, a new system was devised of
placing targets on the ground or by placing rings
at a height resembling a mounted opponent. The
practice of placing targets on the ground was
not, however, mentioned in *furūsīyah* treatises.
Nevertheless, it was adopted because it required
the maximum amount of inclination of the body,
which in turn entailed greater precision and
command of the technique. Ground targets also
imitated the posture required for hunting. In
contrast, the use of the ring as a target while using
the lance in the *rūmī* method was mentioned by
'Ali bin Huṭyl al-Andalusi in his treatises *Helyet
al-Fursan wa Ṣar al-Ṣūjan* (13).

An exercise was also successfully reconstructed
and practiced, utilizing both the modern tġrī and
rūmī techniques with rings placed at various
heights. Practicing different single-handed lance
methods in accordance with the Furūsīyah treatises also enhanced field reconstruction using
the two-handed lance methods. Understanding the instructions concerning exercises in the *myādyn* or exercise-ground, and understanding the precise techniques in the *nwrд* exercises, also permitted us to reconstruct several other techniques. These were not limited to lance works but extended to techniques of using the sword on horseback.

By actually carrying out certain aspects of military *furūsīyah*, we were able to achieve an understanding that went beyond the mere meaning of the words. Once these instructions were deciphered, the exercises were measured against horse's movement and the response to the various techniques. This in turn shed light on whether the performance of that technique was correct or not. An incorrect use of weapons while mounted caused resistance in the rider's body. The horses proved to be even more sensitive to this than the riders themselves. This in turn led to slight modifications being made to the applied technique until the move was conducted without restrictions and with an uninterrupted flow.

Another feature gained from the practice of certain *furūsīyah* arts was the way in which this work served as a tool to help interpret both archaeological evidence and primary literary sources. For example, Usamah Ibin-Munqidh

<figure><img src="image_16.png" /></figure>

Annex 5

Muḥammad ibn ‘Īsā ibn Ismā’īl ibn Ḩsrwšāh Al-Aqsarā’ī Al Rūmī Al-Ḥanafī (d. [750] Hijri), Nihāyat Al-Su’l wa-Al-Umnīyah fī Ta’līm Al-Furūsīyah, London, British Library, Nfā’s Ālmğmw‘ Āl’rbyah ([Add.18866]): Bāb 18.

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /></figure>

Annex 6

Illustration from: David Nicolle, *Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia* (London: Greenhill Books, 1999): xx.

<caption>Fig. 1. Wooden door panel from the Fatimid Era, Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo, 13.</caption>

described an incident during a skirmish between Shayzar and Hamah. During this clash, Usamah's cousin Laith-al-Dawla Yahya attacked an accomplished foe named Faris ibn-Zimam. Both were armed with the lance. The description of how Laith-al-Dawla toppled Ibn- Zimman and his horse show that Laith-al-Dawla was using the šāmī method(14). Indeed, there are many examples where the techniques used to utilize a certain weapon can be interpreted from a narrative description of the action.

Illustrations can be even more explicit, and represent a snapshot of the moment. On the other hand, they are not instructional, and this includes the illustrations found in thematic military *furūsīyah* instruction manuals. For example, a carved panel from the Fatimid era shows a two-handed use of the lance delivering a thrust in the most difficult of the 64 moves, namely the left lower quadrant(15). Some similar techniques to the ones found in the *furūsīyah* treatises were used across a wide area ranging from the Eastern Balkans to Armenia. For example, a figure from the Balkans showing a squadron holding the lance in both the šāmī and the modern tġry method (Annex 7, Fig. 1). Another from Georgia shows a lancer using the *khurasani* method (Annex 7, Fig. 2). From Egypt, there are two examples which show a lancer applying the lance in the rūmī style (Annex 7, Fig. 3), and another holding the lance in a typical modern tġrī method in his left hand (Annex 7, Fig. 4). A fully armored lancer from Western Iran charges in the modern tġrī method at the onset of his inclination towards the target (Annex 7, Fig. 5).

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /></figure>
Annex 7

David Nicolle, *Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050-1350: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia* (London: Greenhill Books, 1999): 369, Fig. 101e; 378, Fig. 148a; 410, Fig. 362a; 406, Fig. 338m; 451, Fig. 625b.

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1. Eastern Balkans, 369.
Fig. 1. Eastern Balkans, 101e.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 2. Georgia, 378.
Fig. 2. Georgia, 148a.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 3. Egypt, 410.
Fig. 3. Egypt, 362a.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 4. Egypt, 406.
Fig. 4. Egypt, 338m.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 5. Western Iran, 451.
Fig. 5. Western Iran, 625b.</figcaption></figure>

Despite the fact that these were snapshots intended to record a momentary position, they often reveal a particular technique and show common practices in the use of the lance over a wide area(16). Such evidence indicates that the weapons, their practice and utility were not confined to Egypt and the Levant. However, we cannot say with certainty whether or not the *furūsīyah* thematic treatises were particular to the area or themselves reflected a blending of practices from a wider geographical spread.

The re-enactment of *furūsīyah* exercises blended written sources with an actual sense of the action and taught the practitioners a number of very interesting things. One of these was that the horses learned faster than did their riders. For each new technique, all the horses grasped the training within two weeks. Furthermore, they were able to identify the types of weapons and they then adjusted their responses to suit the technique being practiced. In contrast, the human beings—that is the riders, took a minimum of four months training to acquire proficiency in just one method. People took a minimum of four months of training to acquire proficiency in a single method. During training, horses were not stressed because they were not made to run more than ten swift charges per day. It was, however, noticed that their energy gradually diminishes after twenty minutes of such exercise and the horses needed to rest to recharge their energy. This meant that to have horses fit for combat on the battlefield, they need to be cycled. This must in turn have impacted upon the number of active cavalry troops engaged in the field during

any battle beyond a brief skirmish. The endurance of both horses and riders needed to be taken into consideration when evaluating the number or proportion of mounted cavalry available for combat out of the total number of cavalry present on the battlefield.

Another insight gained from practical working with the lance in accordance with the methods described in the *furūsīyah* instruction manuals, it was learned a great deal about how lethal the lance could be in these circumstances. For example, exercises highlighted the offensive effectiveness of single-handed lance techniques when conducted at high speed and in squadrons. In contrast, it was found that the two-handed techniques were essentially conducted at slow moving speed or merely while maneuvering. On the other hand, they were effective in close combat against a mounted foe or against infantry, they were a single defensive action to get a cavalryman out of difficulty(17). It also seemed clear that the two-handed techniques were not meant to be utilized when the riders were in formation.

The revival and preservation of the art of *furūsīyah* clearly has high value as an aspect of cultural heritage. Nevertheless, the knowledge so far gained from the practice of this art and the degree to which it is subject to historical interpretations remains open to discussion.
Endnotes

* Researcher in History and Islamic Civilization.

(1) Al-Qāsim Abū Nāṣr ibn Qāḍy Ālqūḍā Aby Ālqāsm‘Aly ibn Ālḥsyn ibn Mohamed ibn ‘Aly ibn Nūr Ālḥūda aby Tālib Al-Zaynabī (d. 536 Hijri), *Al-Qāwanīn Al-Sulātnīyah fī Al-Ṣayd*, Istanbūl, Ālmktbh ālsymānyā, Fatih Library (N 92 from 653/901, [3508]): Bāb ḫml ālrmāḥ, Bāb āstḥdām ālrmāḥ fy ālṣyd.

A section on carrying the lance in the open field, and a section on using the lance in hunting.

The treatises intended to instruct the rulers, this is indicative of the deep culture of hunting and its usefulness in the preparation for practicing Furūsīyah arts; Also, see Alan Jones, *Early Arabic Poetry: Select Poems, 2nd ed*. (Reading: Ithaca Press, 2011): 89. The lance was highly utilized in the pre-Islamic era, this was evident in poetry, exact methods were not recorded, nevertheless, recording widespread use of mounted lancers. This example From Durayd b. al-Simma’s *riṭa* of his brother Abd Allah during a skirmish over booty between bnū Jušam, Durayd’s tribe of Hawazen against Ghatafan and Abs taking place possibly around 570 CE.

"The men cried out to one another and said, "The horsemen have destroyed a warrior"

And I said ‘Is ‘Abd Allah the one of you who has perished?’

So I came to him, and spears were raining on him as weavers’ combs fall on outstretched fabric”.

(2) Shihab Al-Sarraf, “Mamluk Furūsiyya Literature and Its Antecedents”, *International Center of Furusiyah Studies* 8, no. 1 (2004): 142, online e-article, http://mamluk.uchicago.edu/MSR_VIII-1_2004-Sarrafpp141-200.pdf. Sarraf defined thematic *furūsīyah* treatises as the ones dealing with one specific discipline. This paper deals with two methods, the *tġry* and the *šāmī* or *rūmī*, focusing only the *tsdyd* practice. Not to be confused with *tsrīḥ*, *nql*, *tqwīm*, *mmana’* or any other practice that carries the *tġry* or *rūmī* titles.

(3) *Ibid.*: 148-149. Ibn Akhī Ḩizām being a commander of the Khurasani corps was identified by Sarraf as the founder of *furūsīyah* literature and master of *furūsīyah* art: It is no wonder that the *Khurasani* method became the base of training for all works with the lance.

(4) Muḥammad ibn ‘Īsā ibn Ismā’īl ibn Ḩsrwšāh Al-Aqsarā’ī Al Rūmī Al-Ḥanafī (d. around 750 Hijri), *Nihāyat Al-Su’l wa-Al-Umnīyah fī Ta’līm Al-Furūsīyah*, London, British Library, Nfā’s Ālmġmw’ Āl’rbyah ([Add.18866]): Bāb 11.

The *Khurasani* method was given a bigger attention in *Nihāyat al-Sūl* than both the *tġry* or the *rūmī* methods, see: *Ibid.*: Annex 1, the instructions, as stated, were not sufficient to reconstruct this method,

and it was a fortunate opportunity that the practice of this art was culturally preserved in practice and provided a study example.

(5) *Kitāb Kāmel Al-Furūsīyah wa-Al-‘Amal bil-Rumḥ wa-Al-Seīf wa-Al-‘Amūd wa-Al-Ṣāwlajan wa-Al-Ramy bil-Nāšhab*, Gotha, Bibliotheca Gothana (Qāhrī 1808, [1012]): Bāb al-ṭsdyd al-ġgrī al-mḥd, Bāb al-ṭsdyd šāmī or rūmī.

See Annex 2 and 3 for the first page and the instructions on both techniques. Note that a microfilm of this manuscript is available with the author, however, it was not possible to locate the original at Gothana.

(6) Al-Aqsarā’ī, *Nihāyat Al-Su’l wa-Al-Umnīyah*: Bāb 12, 13.

See Annex 3 to compare *Kitāb Kāmel al-Furūsīyah* with the instructions given in *Nihāyat’s* sections 12 & 13 Annex 4, also see Al-Sarraf, “Mamluk Furūsiyya Literature”: 154. For additional information on *Nihāyat al-Sūl* and its author.

(7) *Ibid.*: 172-173. Sarraf explained the practice the *bnūd* and their execution in four directions. From practical experience, the *maydān* works and the intricate *nward* were not possible to attempt without proficiency in the 64 basic two-handed work based on the eight quadrants. Combining each upper and lower the quadrant in the sphere might be the reference of the four directions. While direction is sufficient for a general description, it is ambiguous for practicing the techniques.

(8) Al-Aqsarā’ī, *Nihāyat Al-Su’l wa-Al-Umnīyah*: Bāb 12.

(9) The *Khurasani* method was probably the same method used by the Sasanians. The applicable techniques of this system were learned from the current practice of tent pegging as this was the key to understanding the rest of the *furūsīyah* art.

(10) Al-Ḥanafī, ‘ādr is an essential position of the ṭsdyd technique, however it was explained in section 18 that was dedicated to *nql*. See Annex 5.

(11) The *šāmī* and *rūmī* expressions relate to the same technique, both terms are interchanged throughout this paper.

(12) Al-Aqsarā’ī, *Nihāyat Al-Su’l wa-Al-Umnīyah*: Bāb 13.

(13) Ali ibn ‘Bd Ālrumān ibn Hdyl Ālfzāry Al-Andalusi (d. after 763 Hijri), *Helyet al-Fursan wa Ša’r Al-Šūja’n*, edited by Muhammad Abdul Ghani Hassan, ḍḥār Āl‘rb 6 (Cairo: Dar al-Ma’ref [1951]): 206. The section reads [whoever wanted to learn the work with the lance or with the *dūrba*, let him put *drīat* and it is a stick standing from the ground at the height of a *fāris* and tie to it a ring or a bent rope resembling a ring, the stay away from it and fully gallop his mount and once close to the stick to position the lance under the armpit...] then the instruction carries on

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describing how to attain the target in the *rūmi* manner.
This exercise was possibly duplicated from another
source as the author does not show knowledge of the
practice of *Furusiyah*. Note that, no meaning to the
*dūrba* was found.

(14) Usāmah Ibn Munqidh, *An Arab Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs of Usamah ibn-Munqidh (Kitab Al-Itibar)*, translated by Philip Hitti, *Records of Western Civilization* (New York: Colombia University Press, 2000): 65-66.

(15) David Nicolle, *Armies of the Caliphates, 826-1098* (Oxford: Osprey, 1998): 13. For the panel see Annex 6.

(16) David Nicolle, *Arms and Armour of the Crusading Era 1050-13450: Islam, Eastern Europe and Asia* (London: Greenhill Books, 1999): 369, 378, 406, 410, 451. See Annex 7 for illustrations.

(17) Shihab Al-Sarraf, “Close Combat Weapons in the Early Abbasid Period: from A Companion to Medieval Arms and Armour”, chap. 12 in *A Companion to Medieval Arms and Armour*, written by David Nicolle (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2002), online e-book, https://archive.org/details/CloseCombatWeaponsInTheEarlyAbbasidPeriod-/page/n1.
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