# Prehistory, Antiquity, Middle Ages of the sacred leadership of Black Africa: Royal leadership (comparative study Africa and Europe)

Joséphine Nkoma Akanda Olagot Hanel, Mounina Tounkara

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Joséphine Nkoma Akanda Olagot Hanel, Mounina Tounkara. Prehistory, Antiquity, Middle Ages of the sacred leadership of Black Africa: Royal leadership (comparative study Africa and Europe). Ahmad El Zein. International perspective in leadership: challenges & opportunities, pp.[285]-364, 2022. halshs-05114141

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Dr. Ahmad El Zein

International perspective in Leadership
CHALLENGES & OPPORTUNITIES

# International perspective in Leadership
## CHALLENGES & OPPORTUNITIES

Dr. Ahmad El Zein

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**International**
**perspective in Leadership**
CHALLENGES & OPPORTUNITIES
For more information

Tel: +9613855099

Email: ahmad.elzein@hotmail.com

© Copyright by Dr. Ahmad El Zein

First edition 2022

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**International**
**perspective in Leadership**
CHALLENGES & OPPORTUNITIES

............Dr. Ahmad El Zein............
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## Acknowledgement

This book is a collaborative resoluteness of 9 authors who have never met before. Globalization and the development of technology made this book a reality.

The coordinator of the book, Dr. Ahmad El Zein, would like to thank each and every author for the high dedication, commitment and professionalism during the journey of this book.
Contents

<table><tr><td>Lord Carlile</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Dr. Ahmad EL Zein</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Dr. Badia Srour</td><td>51</td></tr><tr><td>Thomas Walenta, PMI Fellow</td><td>97</td></tr><tr><td>Donna Coles</td><td>135</td></tr><tr><td>Daniel J. Mitchell</td><td>187</td></tr><tr><td>Robert O'Quinn</td><td>188</td></tr><tr><td>Ghada K. Kalakesh</td><td>241</td></tr><tr><td>Joséphine Nkoma Akanda Olagot</td><td>285</td></tr></table>
7

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Joséphine Nkoma Akanda Hänel

Joséphine Nkoma Akanda Olagot married to Hänel is PhD student in Law and Religion; she devotes her research to the Religious Origins of Legal and Monetary Institutions in Ancient Catholic Monarchical Regimes. And especially on the stabilizing role of religious money in the Contract. In other words, on the feasibility of the Monarchical Regime or the Royal Leadership as a Mechanism of Institutional Stability.

As part of the ongoing work, parallel studies are being conducted on the effectiveness of currencies from the Blockchain such as Bitcoin and its derivatives, as well as on the impact of so-called complementary currencies and the consequences on the institutional order of the Contract. Finally, always in the pursuit of an implementation of the Monarchical Regime as a model of balance. The Feasibility of a Christian Monetary Regime on the Establishment of Conventions compared with the Institutional Yield proposed by Islamic Finance is part of the research avenues of the work carried out.

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7

<caption>*Mounina Tounkara*</caption>

Mounina Tounkara is an IT engineer, a PMP-certified project manager and a TED@PMI Speaker. With more than twelve years of experience in the IT industry, she works as a consultant in project management. She is a volunteer at PMI France Chapter and serves as leader of a study group on PMBOK7.

Her research interest is in the field of African traditional leadership and African values for justice; she is profoundly attached to Ubuntu's value of “humanness” for caring and sharing. She respects equity, belonging, social harmony and community wellbeing. Tounkara speaks English, French, Bambara and Soninke.

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# Table of Contents

## Prehistory, Antiquity, Middle Ages of the Sacred Leadership of Black Africa: Royal Leadership (Comparative Study Africa and Europe)

Introduction 289

The Reality of a Dualist Monarchical Leadership in Ancestral Black Africa 292

I/ The Reality of Royal Leadership through Art and Speech Mastery in Ancestral Black Africa 295

**A/ The African King, a leader who masters the art of speaking** 297

1) The African King, a leader representing the Divinity 298

2) The African King, a leader who defends and preserves the faith 299

3) The African King, a conquering leader symbol of courage and honor 300

4) The word, a distinctive mark of power in the exercise of Royal African leadership 303

**B/ Study of the life of the Sacred Kings as an illustration of the Leadership of Black Africa** 305

1) Presentation of the leadership characteristics of the Kongo Empire: Kongo King Mvemba Nzinga Alfonso I 305

2) Mandinka Empire Leadership Presentation: King Soundjata Keitha 312

II/ The Reality of Royal Leadership through Sacrifice in Ancestral Black Africa 319

**A/ The sacrifices offered to the spirits of the afterlife constitute the regime of regulation of the life of the Kingdoms and therefore of the royal leadership** 320

1) The use of sacrifices as a mode of construction and means of action of the Royal Leadership in Ancestral Black Africa 321

2) The King is the formidable master of natural and supernatural forces, who draws his strength from sacrifices and consultation of oracles 322

3) The King is infallible, a King weakened by a disability or illness cannot exercise the Royal function 323
B/ Comparative Study of African Ancestral Royal Leadership and Royal
Leadership in the West of Antiquity and the Middle Ages
325

1) Comparative study between King Alexander the Great of the Kingdom of Macedonia and King Soundjata Keitha
326

2) Comparative study between the leadership of King Saint Louis of France and that of King Mvemba Nsinga (Alfonso I)
338

Conclusion: The observance of a return of the Traditional Kings of Black Africa on
the political scene
353

Bibliography
359
# Prehistory, Antiquity, Middle Ages of the Sacred Leadership of Black Africa: Royal Leadership (Comparative Study Africa and Europe)

## Introduction

While constitutional studies emphasize the tendency of African regimes to transform into presidential regimes and the majority of writings are limited to autobiographical portraits of contemporary African leaders, while failing to address the issue of leadership; it is perhaps, because there is no longer a Leader as in the time of Antiquity or the Middle Ages of Black Africa. It must be said that current political science makes very little reference to the theme of African Leadership. (1)

Today we find mainly autobiographical portraits of circumstance on the lives of presidents or some poignant facts of their power but very few studies refer to the real feasibility of their leadership, and the impact of this leadership with regard to the populations that are subjected to it. (2)

Finally, very little is given to the leaders of Sacred Kingship who preceded the contemporary era and whose leadership lays the foundations of power and authority in Africa but also in the West and the rest of the

<footnote>(1) J. Boyon, « Pouvoir et autorité en Afrique noire : État des travaux », Revue française de science politique, vol. 13, n° 4, 1963, pp. 993-1018, p. 1001.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid., p. 1002.</footnote>
world. Indeed, these African heroes of the Middle Ages and especially
of Antiquity have truly changed the face of the world and the study of
their leadership appears essential in the construction of future changes.

Leadership can be defined from different angles, which led Ralph Stogdill to say that there are as many definitions of leadership as there are authors who have tried to define this concept. (1).

According to Meyer, the leader by his ability to attract leads others and leads a team towards stable performance. (2) For House, it is an individual's ability to influence, motivate and empower others to contribute to the effectiveness and success of the organizations they are members of. (3) These two definitions of leadership highlight the causal relationship between leadership and performance.

As part of this study, one of the concepts of leadership proposed by Jean-Michel Plane will be retained. Indeed, leadership can be considered as the exercise of a hierarchical function, in other words, as the exercise of power, that is to say the authority of the leader, the leader, and even the supremacy or domination of a state or a company. (4)

In truth, it is here to show that the Royal Leadership of the past and
whose model continues to feed at least theoretically the consciences of
those who work for a change of presidential democracies towards the
return to the Sacred Monarchy remains, according to some specialists,
the political regime best adapted to the nature of human society whose
anchorage is both carnal and spiritual. In other words, political and

<footnote>(1) Éric Jean Garcia « Perspectives on the exercise of power in business », Editions group of boeck s.a, 2011, p.21</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Leadership: Research and Practice, coordinated by Florence Noguera and Jean-Michel Plane, Vuibert edition, 2016, p.8</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Leadership: Research and Practice, coordinated by Florence Noguera and Jean-Michel Plane, Vuibert edition, 2016</footnote>
religious. In this respect, we can quote the American political scientist Francis Fukuyama, professor at Stanford University in California who, through his famous book “The End of History and Last Man” affirmed that the monarchical regime is the model of successful political regime that allows the perfect balance of the three essential elements of any political order of excellence, namely: the Monarchy, the Rule of Law, and the Responsibility of the rulers. (1)

In 1959, at the annual Congress of African Studies of the American Association, two reports on black Africa and political science were published, one of which by Professor James S. Coleman emphasized all that Africa has contributed to political science. The second, Professor Rupert Emerson, presented how political science can contribute not only to the study of Africa but also to its future by exploring its forms of government in order to better understand the breadth of African leadership and the power of its foundations and their influence on the world. (2)

As Jacques Vidal indicates, a man, a woman, from Black Africa is deeply religious. Nature, the world, the environment, life, everyday life, traditions, everything related to his education, everything is religious. Religion remains fundamental to African society. This study must therefore be given the primacy of religion. This is to say that the first element of institutional political formation is the Divine figure: the creator God, the Great God. This is also the approach chosen by Jacques Vidal, to approach Black Africa of ancient times. In other words, the foundations of Africa’s leadership in ancient times. (3)

<footnote>(1) P. Bourgois, « « Devenir le Danemark » : le pays nordique comme « idéal politique symbolique » chez Francis Fukuyama ? », Nordiques, n° 31, 1 mai 2016, pp. 109-124.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) J. Boyon, « Pouvoir et autorité en Afrique noire », op. cit., p. 993.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) J. Vidal, « Symboles et religions. Cours de l'année 1986-1987 », édité par Julien Ries avec la collaboration d'un groupe des étudiants de Jacques Vidal, coll. Homo religiosus. Série Cahiers, 1989, p. XVII-417.</footnote>
In addition, it will be necessary to see the leadership of black Africa of ancient times in order to measure the impact it had on the formation of civilizations since it is in the study of the formations of yesteryear that we can better understand and identify the institutional formations that govern today's society. Studies on the leadership of Black Africa in ancient times present a dualistic leadership fixed between the temporal and the spiritual. (1)

## The Reality of a Dualist Monarchical Leadership in Ancestral Black Africa(2)

Indeed, the history of Black Africa in the periods of Antiquity and the Middle Ages shows that Africa has never known the experience of a secular Republic. This is despite the fact that the political regimes that governed these ancient periods were democratic, accompanied by a very marked balance of power. This is why, as Professor Cheikh Anta Diop says, every African is an aristocrat who ignores himself, just as every Frenchman from the nobility before the Revolution of 1789. As such, the latter noted that the deep reflexes of contemporary African man are closer to a Monarchy regime than to a Republican regime: “(3)(4)The rich as the poor, the peasant as the city-dweller, dream more of being a lord rather than a small or large bourgeois”.(5)

<footnote>(1) L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire - Jean-Pierre Chrétien, Karthala, Publié avec le concours du CNRS, 1993.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) L. de Heusch, Le Roi du Congo et les monstres sacrés, Paris, Gallimard, 2000, p. 80.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) C.-A. Diop, Civilisation ou barbarie : Anthropologie sans complaisance, Paris, Presence Africaine, 2000.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(5) Ibid.</footnote>
Also, the colonization carried by the republican regime could not erase the monarchical spirit that remains the Ancestral regime of Black Africa. "These consequences of aristocratism would have been extirpated only if the African, in the course of his history, had assumed his own destiny." This is why "(1) a whole revolution still separates African consciousness from the republican West. Also the western republican colonization could not modify these data. This also explains many Negroes adapt perfectly to the customs of the aristocracy (...) It is difficult to attach to this factor a certain aesthetic way of being of the Negro, which nevertheless seems to be an important trait of the African character.(2) Indeed, all studies show that Ancient Africa and that of the Middle Ages, in other words the entire pre-colonial period was punctuated by Monarchies and Empires. Africa is par excellence a monarchical continent, its ancestral political regime is based on the governance of Kings and Emperors. As such, the consultation of an old map of Africa by Robert Vigondy makes it possible to verify this assertion. In the period of Ancient Black Africa and the Middle Ages "the whole continent was covered with Monarchies and Empires. No place where men live, even a virgin forest, escaped a monarchical authority" This is what can be observed by consulting a map of Ancient Africa established by Robert Vigondy in 1795.(3)(4)

Black Africa is therefore not a republican continent and even less secular because its history indicates that from its advent it is crowned by the glory of Kings and Emperors. We better understand the failure of

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid.</footnote>
the installation of republics in Africa and the long reigns of presidents,
these contemporary leaders whose longevity in power is more akin to a
monarchical regime than to a republican regime. Contemporary African
leaders behave more like monarchs than presidents.

The leadership in Antiquity and the Middle Ages of Black Africa is
essentially part of that of sacred royalty insofar as the African continent
of ancient times is monarchical and religious. Black Africa is the
continent of the Sacred Kings.(1)

Thus African Leadership is sacred because it is in the sacred law that it draws its power and legitimacy. There is no power in Africa detached from the religious dimension. Even today, power is still associated with the spiritual world. In Africa everything is linked to religion. This is why studying African Leadership imperatively refers us to a regime of the Monarchical and Religious type, that is to say, to a Regime of Sacred Royalty where the temporal and the spiritual mingle and intertwine. (2)

African leadership is dualistic in that it is based on temporal power
and spiritual power. More precisely, it will be said that this duality is
based on the art of mastery of the Word of Oratory and in the offerings
of Sacrifices. These realities form the foundation on which the dualistic
character of the Royal Black African Leadership rests and of which the
King is the most striking expression. Similarly, without falling into
caricatures and premature judgments, it seems legitimate to question the
potentialities and feasibility of a democratic monarchy defined as the
excellence of the political regime most adapted to the human race

<footnote>(1) L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire - Jean-Pierre Chrétien, op. cit.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) M. Eliade, Le Sacré et le Profane, Paris, FOLIO ESSAIS, 1987. ; P. Kolár, « La revanche du sacré dans la culture profane », Revue du MAUSS, vol. 22, n° 2, 2003, pp. 55-61.</footnote>
This is how it is appropriate to approach the characteristics of the Monarchical Leadership of Ancestral Black Africa and its contributions to the formation of the institutions that allowed the establishment of human civilization. For a better illustration of this study, we will deal successively:

I/ The Reality of Royal Leadership through Art and Speech Mastery in Ancestral Black Africa

II/The Reality of Royal Leadership through Sacrifice in Ancestral
Black Africa

I/ The Reality of Royal Leadership through Art and Speech Mas-
tery in Ancestral Black Africa

According to a Fulani thought of Niger man and the beast both have the breath of life however man is superior to the beast in that he can express a word to someone as well as one can address him a word. Man is a being with whom a dialogue can be established. This is therefore the faculty of speech that differentiates man from animal. The heart of African thought thus distinguishes man from animal from speech. Man is the one who speaks and this word differentiates him from the beast. In Africa, speech constitutes the superiority of man, which is why the education of a person consists in learning the mastery of speech. For it is through the mastery of speech that he acquires a status in society. In this African society of oral tradition anyone does not say anything to any interlocutor. The word is a mark of distinction. The value of the word is conditioned by the one who delivers it. This reality expresses the hierarchical relationships and the modalities of the exercise of speech in ancient Black Africa and which is also found in contemporary Black Africa. (1)(2)(3)

<footnote>(1) P. Roulon-Doko, « Le statut de la parole », 2008, p. 33.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) J. Derive, « Parole et pouvoir chez les Dioula de Kong », Journal des Africanistes, vol. 57, n° 1, 1987, pp. 19-30.</footnote>
It is through the instrument of speech that the ancient black society of Africa is organized and structured through a model of monarchical hierarchy. To describe Leadership in the society of imperial and monarchical black Africa is to describe the power relations revealed by the socialized use of speech. In a certain way, therefore, we must consider the producer of the word as well as its recipient. However, in the context of this study on the theme of Royal Leadership we will choose to expose mainly the producer of the word, in other words the King and therefore the chief in order to understand the keys to the monarchical leadership of Black Africa Prehistoric, Ancient and Middle Ages. The right of a person or group to produce or consume speech in a specific time or moment is indicative of the reality of a prior political-social power. It is easy to understand that the distinctive signs of power are manifested by the exercise of speech. The accession to a (1)(2) politico-social status results in the accession to the production of one or more specific types of speech emphasizing the reality of an acquisition of force or the exercise of power. Moreover, it appears that the privilege of the exercise of speech is not only a distinctive sign in the social hierarchy but also implies the accession to a performative function, in other words, an oratorical performance. Thus in Antiquity and the Middle Ages of Black Africa, the word of the King leader who legislates or renders sentences must be the manifestation of a certain oratorical performance (3).

The right of a person or group to produce or consume speech in a
specific time or moment is indicative of the reality of a prior political-

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid.</footnote>
social power. It is easy to understand that the distinctive signs of power
are manifested by the exercise of speech. The accession to a politico-
social status results in the accession to the production of one or more
specific types of speech emphasizing the reality of an acquisition of
force or the exercise of power. Moreover, it appears that the privilege
of the exercise of speech is not only a distinctive sign in the social
hierarchy but also implies the accession to a performative function,
in other words, an oratorical performance. Thus in Antiquity and the
Middle Ages of Black Africa, the word of the King leader who legislates
or renders sentences must be the manifestation of a certain oratorical
performance<sup>(1)</sup>. As part of this study on the Royal Leadership of Ancient
Black Africa, it is necessary to address:

A/ The African King, a leader who masters the art of oratory of speech

B/ Study of the political and social life of the Sacred Kings as an illustration of the Royal Leadership of Ancient Black Africa

A/ The African King, a leader who masters the art of speaking

Some studies show that speech represents a force, in other words a
considerable ideological power, so that in all societies individuals fight
to conquer or keep the monopoly of speech. Indeed, the (2) one who
alone holds the power to speak to others who have power only to listen,
actually has the means to strongly influence, in other words, to maintain
or reverse the order of values in progress(3). It should be noted that there
is a relationship between power and speech, and that this relationship is
particularly pronounced in the Royalty of Ancient Black Africa.

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) G. Calame-Griaule, *Ethnologie et langage : La parole chez les Dogon, Limoges, Editions Lambert-Lucas*, 3e édition, 2010.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) J. Derive, « Parole et pouvoir chez les Dioula de Kong », op. cit.</footnote>
Africa is the continent whose leadership is characterized by oral speech. Indeed, Black Africa constitutes a high place in ethnographic and more precisely ethnolinguistic work. Ethnolinguistics has highlighted the power of socialized speech in this society. These studies reveal the relationship between language and society through the political organization of Black Africa Preantique, Ancient but also the Middle Ages, in order to show that the art of speech, in other words, the production of the good word is the weapon of the power of the Royal leadership. (1)

The Royal African leadership draws its strength from the King’s words. Indeed, the King is a Leader that we listen to and follow because his word is sacred, it is the word of the leader he is the representative of the Divinity.

The African King is also a leader whose oath, that is to say, the sworn word, must be defended by the Sword. It is because the King is the representative of the Divinity that his swearing word and his commitments cannot be dishonored on pain of death. The King is sacred and everything he does or says is in the realm of sacredness. Thus the sacredness of the King is defended by the Sword.

## 1) The African King, a leader representing the Divinity(2)

To address the question of Sacred Leadership, it should be noted that Negro Kingship is spiritual royalty. This religiously based royalty

<footnote>(1) G. Calame-Griaule, Ethnologie et langage, op. cit.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) J.-P. Magnant « Du grand prêtre au roi. Les origines religieuses des Etats anciens du Tchad » in L’invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire - Jean-Pierre Chrétien, op. cit., p. 160. See also J. Vidal, « Symboles et religions. Cours de l’année 1986-1987 », op. cit.</footnote>
is a distinctive and singular character trait of African Sacred Royalty. In the Royal Tradition of Central Africa Kongo Rwanda, Burundi, Mozambique, the leading King is the representative of God on earth. The person of the King is sacred, no one can see his face without permission, no one can approach him without trembling. It is often represented by a ferocious animal a panther or a leopard.

In the Dogon tradition the King is the representative of God in other words Amma he is designated by the expression Hogon which designates the religious leader, but also the representative of the Divinity. “Hogon, Ogo, omblic, in Dogon, and at the same time umbilical cord, axis that connectsheavenandearth”.(1)

In a context where the sacred is constantly creeping into everyday life, the Hogon or King among the Dogon appears as the bridge, which connects the Divinity and men. The social, economic and political organization established by the Hogons made them the pillars on which the kingdom rested. It is the Kings in other words, the Haugons who say the law and its observance, they insinuate themselves and form a weaving that connects the whole Dogon society. The power of the Hogon thus extends over the entire Dogon Kingdom and even to the most intimate(2).

## 2) The African King, a leader who defends and preserves the faith(3)

It is by studying the rites of the African religious tradition that Jean Pierre Chrétien discovers the religious origins of royalty and empires

<footnote>(1) M. Odeyé-Finzi, Miniatures Dogon, un art évincé, Kathmandu, L'Anthropo, 2010.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire - Jean-Pierre Chrétien, op. cit., p. 160.</footnote>
that punctuate the antiquity and the Middle Ages of black Africa. Like many ethnologists and anthropologists, he notes the religious origins of ancient states in black Africa. (1)

The Black-African civilization has no secular dimension, everything is religious, there is no separation between the exercise of faith and civil life, insofar as civil institutions are of religious origin. Portuguese explorers reported in their memoirs that the life of kingdoms and empires in Black Africa was dominated by religion. In particular, they mentioned religious dominance in absolutely all areas. There is no space without religion everything is built around religion through religious laws. (2)(3)

Finally, the King is the guardian of the faith foundation of the structures that organize African society. (4)

### 3) The African King, a conquering leader symbol of courage and honor

Africa is mainly dotted with Empires more than royalty. We are also talking about Imperial Africa which marks this specificity of the governance regime of African antiquity. The many Empires that populate this continent testify to the conquering character of its Kings. We think of King Shaka, king of the Zulu in the early nineteenth century. Shaka was born in the 1780s in the eastern part of South Africa. He is the son of the Zulu King Senzangakhona and Nandi.

<footnote>(1) Ibid., p. 161.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Voire Isabel de Castro Henriques «Interférence du religieux dans l'organisation du commerce en Angola au XIXème siècle » Ibid., p. 139.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Voire Isabel de Castro Henriques «Interférence du religieux dans l'organisation du commerce en Angola au XIXème siècle » Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid., p. 161.</footnote>
A powerful warlord, Shaka created and invented an entire doctrine of warfare techniques. In a way it can be said that he was ablit in his time a manual of the techniques of war. It must also be said that Shaka set up a series of reforms to centralize power and transformed a tribal confederation into a powerful centralized kingdom. By the techniques of war he has created, King Shaka makes his army invincible before all his enemies. Thus, because of the extent of his military reforms, conquests and completely new and innovative military strategies, King Shaka is placed by Western historians among the greatest military men in history. King Shaka is presented as "a military genius", historians call him "the Black Napoleon". Before Shaka, Bantu wars and battles were ritualized clashes limited to exchanges of javelins. Within the Bantu tribal organization King Shaka will change the face of war, establishing the principle of total victory. That is, the total crushing of the opponent without the possibility of withdrawal, the only way out being total submission to King Shaka and his army or Kingdom. Each "Intanga" is transformed into an "Ibutho" or "Amabutho" regiment to designate the plural. From now on, each "Ibutho" regiment is used only for military purposes. Moreover, they have only one Shaka Chief, so that all the men of the same age group under Shaka's control are part of one and the same regiment. Intanga becomes a "military district". Indeed, each Ibutho must build his own barracks, i.e. his own "Kraal". Shaka also changed the armament, he replaced the Zulu Javelin with an iron spear that increased from 25 to 30 centimeters, with a more margin blade and a shorter handle. This spear is called "Iklwa" in Zulu. The small shield of the Zulus is replaced by a large shield covering the whole body. The wearing of sandals is forbidden to be light in combat. Army baggage is kept to a bare minimum. Finally, Shaka develops hand-to-
hand combat to destabilize the opponent and subdue him.

One of his most famous military formations that he invented is the one known as “The Horns of the Ox”(1) This training consists first of all of dividing the army into three sections. Then, “les deux cormes” are composed mainly of young inexperienced soldiers whose mission is to take the enemy in pincers. Facing these two horns is the “skull” which is made up of the best elements of the army who aim to deal the fatal blow to the enemy. Finally, “the chest” is composed of the oldest warriors, who are a kind of reserve since they intervene only as a last resort, that is to say only in case of necessity(2). Shaka’s military reforms will show their effectiveness in the war that Shaka will fight to accede to his succession to the Zulu throne following his Father. The Zulus oppose their military superiority. Shaka thus inaugurates a cycle of conquests throughout his life. King Shaka becomes the King of a Kingdom that is drawn, rich and immense in terms of geographical area.

<footnote>(1) P. Drame, « La bataille anglo-zoulou d'Isandhlwana, 1879. Une réponse indigène à un défi militaire colonial », Stratégique, vol. 88, n° 1, 2007, pp. 207-230. ; Eginhard, « La bataille d'Isandlwana (Afrique du Sud, 22 janvier 1879) », 22 janvier 2020, https://www.histoire-pour-tous.fr/batailles/4732-la-bataille-disandlwana-22-janvier-1879-17.html, consulté le 11 décembre 2022.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) D. Golan, « The Life Story of King Shaka and Gender Tensions in the Zulu State », History in Africa, vol. 17, 1990, pp. 95-111. ; D. Wylie, Myth of Iron: Shaka in History, Ohio University Press, 2006, Google-Books-ID: eQXzPQAACAAJ. See also S. Capo Chichi, « Shaka Zulu, l'un des plus célèbres conquérants de l'histoire africaine », Nofi Media, 18 avril 2020, https://www.nofi.media/2020/04/shaka-zulu-lun-des-plus-celebres-conquerants-de-lhistoire-africaine/67353, consulté le 11 décembre 2022.</footnote>
Shaka Zulu's War Strategy known as "The Horns of the Ox"

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

4) The word, a distinctive mark of power in the exercise of Royal African leadership

The mastery of speech functions first as an index of the politico-social power of the King leader. Speech is not only an attribute of power that defines it as such, but it is also and ultimately one domain among others in which this power is concretely(1) exercised.

a) The word of the King leader, an effective word

Therole as a vehicle for the exercise of power is enforceable. In the sacred kingship of Pre-Antiquical, Ancient and also Middle Ages Black Africa, the power of speech is manifested in the moral, political and sacred order. The word of the King has authority over the whole Kingdom or Empire, what he says in the order of management, political or social will have to be executed. The King's word represents power par excellence. It performative insofar as what the King states institutionally has the force of law(2).

<footnote>(1) J. Derive, « Parole et pouvoir chez les Dioula de Kong », op. cit.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>
b) The word of the King leader, a word vector of ideology

Respect for the monarchical hierarchy and the moral order means that the King can express her word without being unnecessarily challenged in his presence, that is to say publicly, so that he can develop without risk of excessive contestation his ideas and their understanding. As a religious and political leader, the King enjoys the privilege of being the representative of the Godhead. Therefore, the King does not need to justify himself constantly, because his power is not perceived as the fruit of an accident or historical revolution but as belonging to the natural order of things(1).

c) The African King, a leader whose sworn word is sacred

The oath or the swearing word of the King is sacred insofar as its legitimacy derives from the Divine and not from men. Political commitment is serious because it is sacred. The oath is a dominant part of African royalty. Indeed, the oath is inseparable from all the religious initiatory institutions from which the legitimacy of power proceeds. There is no power without a religious oath to bring about politics and good social governance. The sworn word of the King is defended by the Sword no one can mock the King's oath on pain of death. Today political oaths no longer have the sacredness of the monarchical regimes of yesteryear, a given political oath can fall or change along the way.(2)(3)

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) O. Lanciaux, « Serment, promesse et engagement : rituels et modalités au Moyen Âge, éd. Françoise Laurent », Cahiers de recherches médiévales et humanistes. Journal of medieval and humanistic studies, 16 juin 2010, https://journals.openedition.org/CRM/11928, consulté le 11 décembre 2022.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) N. Bagayoko et F.R. Koné, Les mécanismes traditionnels de gestion des conflits en Afrique subsaharienne, Chaire Raoul-Dandurand en études stratégiques et diplomatiques</footnote>
We are no longer in the taking of the oath more than in the oath itself. The inviolability of the monarchical oath has given way to an oath of performance of obligation of means and not of result.

## B/ Study of the life of the Sacred Kings as an illustration of the Leadership of Black Africa(1)

It is appropriate to see here the broad outlines of Negro Kingship by the study of the monarchical figures who marked their time and even beyond. We will study successively King Kongo, Mvemba Nzinga (Alfonso I), King Soundiatha Keitha, and the Image of the Negro Pharaoh in order to show the convergent points that attest to the kinship and cultural unity that characterize all the Negro Kings of Antiquity and the African Middle Ages.

### 1) Presentation of the leadership characteristics of the Kongo Empire: Kongo King Mvemba Nzinga Alfonso I

The Kongo Kingdom is an empire that stretches from Central Africa to South Africa. This Kongo Empire is known as Kikongo Kintotila Kia Kongo. It is also referred to by the traditional titles: dia Ntotila, Kongo dya Ntotila, Kongo dya Ntotila and Kongo dia Ntotela. (2)

<footnote>- UQAM, Centre FrancoPaix en résolution des conflits et missions de paix, 2017, pp. 13-14.</footnote>

<footnote>(1) T. Obenga, La philosophie africaine de la période pharaonique. 2780-330 avant notre ère, L'Harmattan, 1990, p. 157.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) H. Deschamps, Histoire générale de l'Afrique noire, de Madagascar et des archipels, Tome I: des origines à 1800., PUF, 1970, pp. 371-375. Le Royaume du Kongo jusqu'en 1568.</footnote>
The Kongo Kings are considered prophets, they are Kings who marked their generation because of the sacrifices they took at the cost of their lives for the well-being of their peoples. In the period of antiquity we can mention in the year 220 the King and Emperor Ne Mbemba; in the year 220-320 the King and Emperor Nkulu Isanusi, Mama Mbangala; from 320 NsasuKulu a Nkanda in the year 420 the King and Emperor Kodi Puanga; in the year 529 we can mention the King and Emperor Kulunsi, Ne Nkembo Wamonesua ; in the year 520-530 we will mention the King and Emperor Tuti dia Tiya(1). And finally we will mention, from 690, the King and Emperor Nimi a Lukeni who closes the Kings of Antiquity Kongo. From the year 1000 until 1800(2). The Kings of Kongo continue to work from a leadership that is both political and virtuous consecrating their Empire to the spiritual and material world. From King Nzinga Mvemba or Alfonso I to King Nvita a Nkanga or Antoine 1st (1661-1665) Kongo royalty remains a royalty whose leadership is anchored in a governance of wisdom that is to say a virtuous governance where the Spirit comes before the Body. Thus after Nzinga Mvemba (Alfonso I) all dynasties followed this art of leadership by wisdom.

However, of all the Kings of Kongo, famous for their leadership, it
can be said that King Nzinga Mvemba (Alfonso I: 1457-1543) is the one
who made history because of the leadership he displayed throughout his
reign. From its traditional name Funsu Nzinga it is also called Mvemba
a Nzinga . He is part of the Kilukeni dynasty. Aged about 85 in 1542
he would have been born around 1457. He is the son of King

<footnote>(1) En Angola, au cœur du royaume Kongo., 2020.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) H. Deschamps, Histoire générale de l'Afrique noire, Tome I, op. cit., pp. 371-375. Le Royaume du Kongo jusqu'en 1568.</footnote>
Emperor Nzinga a Nkuwu. Emperor Nzinga Mvemba is considered by historiography to be the greatest monarch of the Kongo Kingdom, due to the wisdom with which he ruled the Kongo Empire(1).

Indeed, the policy of King and Emperor Nzinga Mvemba aimed to spread moral virtues throughout Kongo dia Ntotila in order to consolidate his power and that of his Empire around a literate nobility and this, in order to establish a real bureaucracy.

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>Military Badge of Alfonso Ier</figcaption></figure>

source: Cécile Fromont fromont@uchicago.edu, University of Chicago, USA

Tecido estrangeiro, hábitos locais: indumentária, insígnias Reais e a arte da conversão no início da Era Moderna do Reino do Congo/ Anais do Museu Paulista: História e Cultura Material, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 11-31, 2017/ Museu Paulista, Universidade de São Paul

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>
a) King Nzinga Mvemba, a leader who accedes to the throne by a miraculous victory

It is by a miraculous victory that King Nzinga Mvemba, ascends the royal throne after a terrible struggle against rebels who tried to overthrow the royal power. The King will testify to have been by an army of Heaven composed of Saints and horses. King Nzinga Mvemba, is a very spiritual King and during his reign he will teach his faith to the Kongo people for their edification(1).

b) The struggle of King Nzinga Mvemba, against the practices of witchcraft: a leader in search of holiness

King Kongo Nzinga Mvemba (Alfonso I) is considered by historiography as a saint. He is therefore a King who throughout his life to work for the sanctity of his Kingdom. As such, he burns all fetishes to purify his Empire of witchcraft to which he devotes a relentless war(2).

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>Mbanza Kongo XVIè siècle</figcaption></figure>

Source: Mbanza Kongo (São Salvador). Gravure. De O[Ifert] Dapper, Naukeurige beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche gewesten, 1668, p. 562-63

<footnote>(1) Ibid., pp. 373-375 Alphonso premier.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>
c) From King Nzinga Mvemba's letter to the Portuguese King to repressive laws on the trade in men: a leader opposed to slavery

This letter from King Kongo to the Portuguese King proves the combative character of King Nzinga Mvemba against plunder, kidnapping of free men, i.e. slavery. King Kongo denounces the European slave traders who arbitrarily seize free men to sell them to the slave traders of Pinda. King Nzinga Mvemba or “Alphonso I feared the consequences of the slave trade, ever more invasive. His compatriots allowed themselves to be dazzled by European goods, began to forcibly recruit slaves, arbitrarily seizing free men to sell them to the slave traders of Pinda. The King had to issue severe decrees banning these raids and establishing legal markets in both Banza Congo and the Pumbos. Congolese went to buy in these distant markets of the high river the slaves of the interior, which they truncated with the junk of Europe” Thus, King Nzinga Mvemba fought so that his country Kongo is no longer exposed to commercial slavery. In particular, he fiercely opposed the mercantilism of Portuguese brokers who wanted to establish their trading posts in all regions of Kongo(1).

<footnote>(1) Afonso I, « Lettre de Afonso Ier, roi du Kongo, à Manuel Ier, roi du Portugal, concernant l'incendie de la « grande maison des idoles », royaume du Kongo, 5 octobre 1514. », 5 octobre 1541, https://www.villamedici.it/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/sammy-baloji-congos-fragments_fr.pdf, consulté le 13 novembre 2022.</footnote>
## Kings of Kongo

<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>King Alvare XIV Mfutila 1891 King</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>Peter II Mvemba a Vuzi</figcaption></figure>

**Source:** Jelmer Vos, Kongo in the Age of Empire 1860-1913, Madison, The University of Wisconsin Press, 2015, 218 p.

<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>King Peter VII et Queen Elizabeth of Kongo 1934</figcaption></figure>

( source: Os 140 Anos da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa)
### d) King Nzinga Mvemba, a leader who governs: administrative reform

The Kings of the Kongo Empire that are designated in Kikongo *Mintinu mia* are endowed with the title of *Manikongo* which is an abbreviation of *Mani a Kongo* that is to say the one who governs. Indeed the title *Mani* is one of the many titles of the King. More specifically, the *Mani* title is endorsed by the one with administrative responsibilities. In other words, the one who directs and controls institutions(1). The one who ensures and assumes responsibility for administrative governance. We speak of *mani a Kongo or mani Soyo* to designate the one who decides with regard to the verbs *manina* / *manisa* in other words the one who decides, the one who brings the final decision. However, the most solemn expression to describe the reality of a King who governs is *Ntinu* which means one who has responsibility for the welfare of the people.

### e) King Nzinga Mvemba, a leader reforming the education and training of Kongo peoples

After his exile, King Nzinga Mvemba (Alfonso I) successfully won victory over the rebels and managed to ascend the throne. He undertook reforms to energize his administration and give a literate education to his elites and all the youth of the Kingdom(2).

The building of an intellectual elite is the governance strategy of King Nzinga Mvemba, who is convinced that it is in education that one

<footnote>(1) H. Deschamps, Histoire générale de l'Afrique noire, Tome I, op. cit., pp. 373-375 Alphonso premier.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid. See also G.-H.L. Koko, Les figures marquantes de l'Afrique subsaharienne - 3, L'Atelier de l'Égrégore, 1er édition, 2020.</footnote>
forges the stability of an Empire. With this idea, he built many schools
and universities so that the Kongo would be an elite people capable of
carrying out the missions of the Kingdom entrusted to them.

2) Mandinka Empire Leadership Presentation: King Soundjata Keitha

Regarding West Africa, Soundjata Keita's leadership analysis seems relevant in the pre-colonial era. In other words, at a time when the leadership of Black Africa is resounding. This leadership is part of the *Mansa* movement(1).

Sundiata Keita, also known as Mari-Djata(2), was born on August 20, 1190. He was the first son of Sogolon Kedju, the second wife of the king of Mali, Maghan Kon Fatta. Soundjata's father was renowned for his leadership in all countries; Maghan was also a good king, loved and respected because he was the son of a long lineage of hunters. In the African context, a hunter is an adventurer, a knowledge-seeker and a knowledgeable person(3). Hunters communicated with "*the spirits of ancestors who had died and were a part of the living dead, in the traditional sense of ancestors who continue to guide and direct activities among the living, creating community harmony when called upon and appealed in ancestral rituals.*"(4)

<footnote>(1) King of Kings</footnote>

<footnote>(2) International Journal of Novel Research in Humanity and Social Sciences Vol. 5, Issue 1, pp: (28-36), Month: January - February 2018, Available at: www.noveltyjournals.com</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Molefi Kete Asante, The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony, Routledge editions, New York, 2019, p.128</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid., p. 127.</footnote>
a) King Soundjata Keita, a miraculous leader who accedes to the
Throne

One day, king Maghan, sitting under a Kapok tree surrounded by his familiars, saw a hunter coming towards him. The hunter threw the cowrie shells of divination and read the prophetic meaning of their design: "I see two hunters coming to your city; They come from far away, and a woman accompanies them. Oh, that woman! She is ugly; she is awful. She wears on her back a bump that distorts her; her exorbitant eyes seem to hang on her face, but, O mystery of mysteries, this woman, king, you must marry her, for she will be the mother of him who will make the name of the Manding immortal forever. But king, for fate to lead this woman to you, a sacrifice is necessary: you will sacrifice a red bull, for the bull is powerful; When his blood soaks the earth, nothing will stand in the way of your wife's arrival. Well, I have said what I have to say, but everything is in the hands of the Almighty. " (1)

Later, two young hunters, accompanied by a young woman,
headed towards the courtyard:

"They told the king that this woman, Sogolon Kedju, was a human
double of a Buffalo that had ravaged the country of Do, which was
to the north of Mali and had killed citizens and animals. Hunters in
African societies are often scientists and explorers because they see
many things in their travels and can reflect on what they discover. In
this case, the hunters said that they killed the buffalo and brought the
woman to Mali."(2)

<footnote>(1) Djibril Tamsir Nash, «Soundiata ou l'épopée du Mandingue», Éditions Présence Africaine, 1960, p.20</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Molefi Kete Asante, The History of Africa : The Quest for Eternal Harmony, Routledge editions, New York, 2019, p.128</footnote>
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1: Representation of Sogolon Kedju in Bamako, Mali</figcaption></figure>

Source: Photo by Momo, © aBamako.com

The two hunters then introduced the young woman to the king because they considered that this woman fulfilled the conditions to become the Queen: “As hideous as she was, she was very wise and had extraordinary powers.”(1) Thus, convinced by this prophecy, King Maghan decides to marry Sogolon. Soon she was pregnant with a boy.

According to a well-known Bambara proverb in ancestral Mali and even today:

“Man is in a hurry, and time is long, but everything has its time. ’”

Sundjata had a prolonged and challenging childhood; he was still crawling on all fours at seven. Despite his doubt regarding Sundjata's handicap, king Maghan showed his desire to make him the king of Manding by giving him djeli Balla Fassalé, the son of his djeli(2). Unfortunately, on the death of king Maghan and despite his desire to make Soundjata Keita his successor, the regency council influenced by Queen Mother Sassouma Berété, the first wife of king Maghan,

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Traditional historian, also known as griot</footnote>
enthroned Dankaran Tuman as king of Manding in place of Sundiata
Keita.

After installing her son, Dankaran Touman, as king, the Queen Mother seized power from an unofficial point of view and ruled the Manding as she pleased. Filled with jealousy because she didn't accept the prophecy that established Soundjata Keita as a great king, Sassouma Béréte decided to place Sundiata's mother in the Palace's backyard. She allowed the crowd flock to see Sundiata dragging himself on all fours.

Queen Mother Sassouma Berété took away all the kingdom resources
from Sogolon Kedju and her children, even the food. One day, Sogolon
Kedju needed some baobab leaves for her cooking and asked Sassouma
Berété if she could borrow some. Sassouma said yes, but took this as an
opportunity to insult Sogolon and treated Sundiata as a disabled and lazy
son. Sogolon, deeply touched by the insults, burst into tears: O son of
doom, will you ever walk!

Console yourself, console yourself! Sundiata replied.

No, it's too much; I can't

Well, I'm going to walk today!

It was the big day. Using an iron rod made by his father's blacksmiths,
Mari-Djata stood and walked for the first time. This new feat of
Soundjata Keita engendered even more hatred on the part of Queen
Mother, who decided to take away Soundjata's djeli, bequeathed by his
late father.

The Queen's decision deeply affected Sundiata Keita, leading him to
exile his people and family for safety.
A few years later, Sundiata learned that Soumaoro Kanté, the King of Kosso, had invaded Manding and that his brother, Dankaran Touman, had fled the Kingdom. Immersed in an unprecedented war with the invader, the notables of Manding formed a committee to fetch Sundiata Keita. Two months later, they found him in Mena(1) and asked him to come and deliver the Mandingo Fatherland.

## b) King Soundiatha Keitha, a leader who fought the hegemony of the Sorcerer King

With his experience as a warlord in Mena(2) with King Soumaïla Tounkara during his exile, Soundjata set out to reconquer Manding. To do this, he used his negotiation skills to convince the kings of Mena and Wagadou to give him half of their army. They accepted and helped Sundiata in his fight to free the Manding from the nuisance of the Sorcerer King Soumaoro Kante of the Kosso Kingdom.

Sundiata launched a surprise attack on the army of Soumaoro at the town of Tabon, near the city of Kita. His army prevailed, but Soumaoro escaped. Sundiata understood that it was not more men he needed but more supernatural power, more magic to overcome the invincible Soumaoro Kanté. He consulted his wise men, who threw cowrie shells of divination and told him that he had to sacrifice a hundred white oxen, a hundred white rams and a hundred white cocks. (3)

<footnote>(1) Current Segou (4Th Region of the Mali)</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Djibril Tamsir Nash, «Soundiata ou l'épopée du Mandingue », Éditions Présence Africaine, 1960, p.70</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Molefi Kete Asante, The History of Africa : The Quest for Eternal Harmony, Routledge editions, New York, 2019, p.128</footnote>
After making these sacrifices, Sundiata and Soumaoro Kanté met at the Kirina battle. Sundiata wined the war.

### c) King Soundiatha, a freedom leader who established a Charter for the respect of the rights of freedoms: the Mandinka Charter

After Soumaoro's defeat at Kirina, all the dispositions had to be taken to prevent any forms of social and economic injustice and authoritarianism that the people of Manding witnessed under the rule of King Sosso. Thus, the delegates representing the tribes met the day after the victory for twelve days to establish the constitution of Manding or “the Charter of Kurukan Fuga” in 1236(1).

The first act of the assembly of Kurukan Fouga was the oath of allegiance of the heads of provinces to Sundiata KEITA. They proclaimed Sundiata Emperor of Manding.

For nearly 800 years to the present, the Kurukan Fuga Charter continues to govern in part the peoples who belonged to the Manding Empire (Mali, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Gambia, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Mauritius and a large part of the territory of Ivory Coast) and especially in rural areas. This governance includes the organization of society, division of labour, conflict management, hospitality, peaceful coexistence and tolerance.

As part of our study, we will focus on the principles “Sanankoungna”, “Tanamanyöya” and the “Nyamakala” instituted in Articles 2, 7, 25 and 43 of the Manden Charter. (2)

<footnote>(1) plain located at Kaaba on the border between Mali and Guinea-Conakry</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Regional consultation workshop between Mandinka traditionalists and Farmers' Radio communicators (Kankan from 02 to 12 March 1998), "The Charter Kurukan Fouga », https://www.humiliationstudies.org/documents/KaboreLaCharteDeKurukafuga.pdf</footnote>
**Sanankunya**, or joking cousinhood, allows cohesion and social harmony between different surnames. The principle of Sanankun contributes to facilitating day-to-day conflict situations and resolving complex conflicts such as inter-community conflicts. The Manden charter establishes that are Sanankun (joking cousin) the following Kourouma and Kante, Kéita and Bérété, Condé and Traoré, Bah and Diallo, etc. This principle also applies to ethnic groups (Malinké and Soninke are Sanankun). Thus, under the aegis of this article, a Soninke can make mockeries and even say offensive words to a Malinké without risk of retaliation because Sanankun can say anything to each other.

From the leadership perspective, this principle can serve as a safeguard to allow the Leader to be informed about any of his harmful practices, benefit from honest and truthful advice, and make him evolve in the right direction. The cornerstone of this principle is to be ready to hear everything and promote dialogue as a means of conflict resolution, thus promoting harmony and social cohesion.

**Tanamanyöya**, or totemism (strong prohibition), was established between different ethnic groups, including the Dogon and the Bozos. Based on this principle, a Bozo cannot harm a Dogon and vice versa. Also, the two ethnic groups can not marry. They can joke while respecting each other. A Dogon cannot say “no” to a formal request from a bozo, and the latter is in charge of guiding or putting the first on the right path. When a Bozo mediate for forgiveness, it cannot be denied by a Dogon, under penalty of severe consequences on the latter, his family and his community. When a Dogon is in trouble and asks a Bozo for help, the Bozo is obliged to help him and inversely. A pact of reciprocal solidarity thus links the two ethnic groups
**Nyamakala** (castes): **Nyamakas** are djelis, shoemakers, blacksmiths, dyers, etc. They must tell the truth to the leaders, regardless of their hierarchical positions, to advise them and to be the guarantor of the rules of society. They mediate, even in the courts: a Nyamakala can, for example, replace the accused by “assuming responsibility for the fault committed by others.” (1) The objective is to obtain forgiveness and the reduction of compensation. They act as intermediaries for marriage requests, etc.

These principles inherited from the reign of Sundiata Keita continue to guide the people from originating from Manding Empire. Sundiata died in 1255. At his death, the Ancient Mali Empire was Africa's vastest and wealthiest state. (2).

After Sundiata’s reign, Keita followed his son Mansa Uli, who reigned from 1255-1270. Others succeeding rulers followed and built upon the Empire’s wealth: gold, copper, salt and economic activities such as agriculture, local manufacturing and artisanship, etc., making the Empire of Mali unique in West Africa.

## II/ The Reality of Royal Leadership through Sacrifice in Ancestral BlackAfrica

African Monarchical Leadership is situated in a constant dimension of testing the King. The African King's Leadership model thus has a stronger moral commitment and social responsibility than in the royalties that have been observed outside Africa. The African monarch rules his

<footnote>(1) Marcello Monteleone, « The Dogon: Trial Criminal traditionnel et justice rérestatrice», Édition The Harmattan, Paris, 2009, p.201</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Molefi Kete Asante, The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony, Routledge editions, New York, 2019, p.131SSSS</footnote>
Kingdom or Empire according to a very inclusive mode of governance,
in other words, with a more spiritual leadership with affirmed moral
values. (1)(2) It will be necessary to see here:

A/ The sacrifices offered to the spirits of the afterlife constitute the regime of regulation of the life of the Kingdoms and therefore of the royal leadership

B/ Comparative Study of African Ancestral Royal Leadership and Royal Leadership in the West of Antiquity and the Middle Ages

A/ The sacrifices offered to the spirits of the afterlife constitute the regime of regulation of the life of the Kingdoms and therefore of the royal leadership

The use of sacrifices to influence the collective and individual destiny
is widespread in Black Africa, no act, no action is done without going
through sacrifices offered to the Spirits. The whole life of the Kingdom
works to the rhythm of sacrifices.

The ritual sacrifices that required help for the realization of any
project, any healing, any victory in war, any peace, any negotiation, any
entry into politics, any decision... every gesture is the subject of ritual
sacrifices in Ancestral Black Africa and even today.

If in African philosophy sacrifices constitute the fundamental axis
of social regulation the blood of animals and others ... versed on these
artifacts or fetishes remains essential for the capacity for action that is
recognized for them.(3)

<footnote>(1) R. Nkakleu et J.-M. Plane, « Chapitre 11. Comprendre le “leadership africain” ? Quelques clés de lecture possibles conceptualisées à partir d’expérimentations au Cameroun », in Africa Positive Impact, Académie des Sciences de Management de Paris, Caen, EMS Editions, 2020, pp. 140-150.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Georges Bataille, 1973 in L. de Heusch, Le sacrifice dans les religions africaines, Gallimard, 1986, p. 329.</footnote>
Finally, sacrifice is not here a mode of communication but appears more as a mode of construction and action of the spirits invoked that the ritual act contributes to produce in a constantly renewed way. The focus on the material dimension of these ritual acts allows us to better understand the conceptualization of the mode of construction and action of Royal leadership. (1)

1) The use of sacrifices as a mode of construction and means of action of the Royal Leadership in Ancestral Black Africa

The King draws his strength of action from these various ritual
sacrifices that are performed daily. In order to influence the destiny of
his Kingdom, the King resorted to the sacrifices of cattle and others<sup>(2)</sup>.

In this royal and imperial Africa, it is impossible to make a commercial
agreement without going through the realization of sacrifices every act
of trade is filtered by the religious. A cargo can only leave the kingdom
after a ritual sacrifice to ask for protection and then it is sprinkled with
blood and water from the sacrifice made on the animal. The African
never dies death is a continuity the dead are not dead it is the cult of the
dead. Death does not exist, because we remain linked to the deceased
the ancestors<sup>(3)</sup>.

<footnote>(1) A. Kedzierska-Manzon, « Le sacrifice comme mode de construction », Archives de sciences sociales des religions, n° 174, 1 avril 2016, pp. 279-301.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Voire Isabel de Castro Henriques «Interférence du religieux dans l’organisation du commerce en Angola au XIXème siècle » in L’invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire - Jean-Pierre Chrétien, op. cit., pp. 137-139.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) A. Margarido, « L'ancien royaume du Congo (note critique) », Annales, vol. 25, n° 6, 1970, pp. 1718-1726.</footnote>
In the societies that we meet in Angola in the eighteenth century, we
can mention the Imbangala whose mission is to make sacrifices to ask
the spirits for the peace of the kingdom to allow good relations of
exchange with other peoples. It is emphasized that the Imbangalas are
also arbiters of commercial and political disputes. The Imbangala are
from the kingdom of Kasanje, we also remember in this same period the
Tshokwe of the Kwango and the Ovimbundo of the Bihe region which
highlight the reality of the sacrifices that are backed by all acts of trade
relations with foreigners including Portuguese explorers who are
present in this part of sub-Saharan Africa still called the Great Lakes
Region. It is under the pen of the Portuguese explorer that we can learn
about the sacrifices practiced for commercial success Indeed, in these
societies where everything is religious, each act is accompanied by
sacrifices offered to the Spirits for the materialization of the act that will
be performed.(1)

2) The King is the formidable master of natural and supernatu-
ral forces, who draws his strength from sacrifices and consulta-
tion of oracles

At the time of his enthronement, the future King was subjected to initiation rites that gave him a formidable and feared power. On the day of his enthronement the person of the King then becomes dangerous because of the supernatural power he acquired during the initiation rites preparing his enthronement.” in other words his formidable nature. (2)

<footnote>(1) Voire Isabel de Castro Henriques «Interférence du religieux dans l’organisation du commerce en Angola au XIXème siècle » in L’invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire - Jean-Pierre Chrétien, op. cit., p. 135.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) L. de Heusch, Le sacrifice dans les religions africaines, op. cit., p. 158.</footnote>
Power is considered in the Sacred Negro Kingship as a dangerous instrument, so it must be limited to avoid any dramatic situation that could arise from the mystical forces with which the King is endowed. Here we are faced with an institutional delay in the power of the leader. The notion of order and balance is the foundation of the sacred Negro Kingship. Order brings peace and condemns crime, evil. Royal power is subject to moral rectitude and good conduct. The King must imperatively display an irreproachable interior and exterior conduct. The King must “therefore govern in clemency and peace. The lower must respect the superior. Authoritarianism is banned, hated. The social order is a value that cannot be monetized.”(1)

The King is therefore infallible and must do everything to remain so. This is the reason why physical disability is not tolerated in the exercise of the African Royal function.

### 3) The King is infallible, a King weakened by a disability or illness cannot exercise the Royal function

In some traditions of ancient Black Africa, the King had to have his throat slit when his physical strength declined. A village identifies itself with its leader, just as a Kingdom identifies with its King. Thus, the King is deposed if his mystical power becomes inoperative in the face of disasters and all forms of plagues likely to put the Kingdom in difficulty. If the King is not put to death due to physical disability he is simply removed from power and a new King is placed on the throne. The procedures for appointing a new King are variable and shrouded in great hidden mysteries. We know that the ideal candidate must be

<footnote>(1) T. Obenga, La philosophie africaine de la période pharaonique. 2780-330 avant notre ère, op. cit., pp. 156-157.</footnote>
of good looks and have a beautiful presence and handle the word with ease and authority and this, while being respectful of customs. He must possess mystical faculties. The King must present physical criteria superior to the men of the Kingdom it is the “Royal vitalism” which implies the physical vitality of the King as an essential condition of accession to the Royal Throne. A king cannot be one-eyed or one-armed or weakened by disease... This tradition of royal vitalism from ancient Africa gave rise to the conditions of eligibility of the chief based on his good mental and physical health. (1)

## The reality of a vitalist conception of royalty

As Professor Cheikh Anta Diop points out, if the Negro-African royal function has obvious advantages, it is also regulated by a ritual so demanding that sometimes, all things considered, the fate of the King is not at all enviable. We then notice that the competition for the royal throne is real only in countries that have bypassed the customs of the physical testing of the King. In the New Sudanese states, Ghana, Mali, Songhai there are traditions of vitalism according to which a King can in no case be physically diminished (crippled, one-eyed, penguin ...). Even wounded in the war, he had to leave the throne until he was healed and appoint or have appointed a temporary worker. This is the case of Sounditaha Keitha, but also that of Kayor with Damel Lat-Soukabé(2)(3).

<footnote>(1) Jean Vasina « Afrique Centrale Ancienne, Histoire et Culture », L'Harmattan, 2021, p. 100.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) C.-A. Diop, Civilisation ou barbarie, op. cit., pp. 210-211. See also L. Frobenius, Histoire de la civilisation africaine, Gallimard, 1936, Google-Books-ID: efNxAAAAMAAJ.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) C.-A. Diop, Nations nègres et culture, Paris, Présence africaine, 3e éd édition, 1979, p. 210.</footnote>
Thus, the physical testing of the King comes from a vitalist conception, constitutes a common feature of all Negro-African royalties that still persist today. Indeed, the importance of the role of the priest as well as the conduct of the government by consulting an oracle is a singular characteristic of Kingship and more precisely of Imperial Africa. All the traditional kings of Black Africa are designated by their clergy or the priestly caste so the priests. (1)

At a time when Europe and Africa have lost their respective leadership, it appears that a comparative presentation of the greatest kings of antiquity and the Middle Ages can serve to recall the real meaning of the notion of leadership, a notion that the World Today has lost or seems to ignore. It will be a question of showing the similarities of the Royal African and European Leadership, in order to demonstrate that it is in the deployment of piety, wisdom, bravery, courage, strength and honor of the Monarchies of ancient times that true Leadership is hidden. (2) We will deal with the issue of the implication of sacrifices in leadership.

## B/ Comparative Study of African Ancestral Royal Leadership and Royal Leadership in the West of Antiquity and the Middle Ages

The Monarchical History of Antiquity and the Middle Ages remains a living genre that continues to exalt the image of historical figures who embodied the essential values that served as the foundation for the

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) G. Grésillon, « La grande crise du leadership européen », Les Echos, 26 février 2019, https://www.lesechos.fr/idees-debats/editos-analyses/la-grande-crise-du-leadership-europeen-993963, consulté le 18 décembre 2022. See also A. Nkoyock, « Leadership en Afrique: Le maillon manquant! », Le Temps, 11 octobre 2012, https://www.letemps.ch/economie/leadership-afrique-maillon-manquant, consulté le 18 décembre 2022.</footnote>
structure of the institutional social body. Also a comparative study of these Kings makes it possible to measure the importance and greatness of the leadership they embodied. We will present here a comparative study between King Alexander the Great (Ancient Greece) and King Soundjata Keita (1). Finally, a study on King Saint Louis of France and King Mvemba Nsinga known as Alfonso I will complete this comparative dynamic of European and Sub-Saharan African Kings (2)

## 1) Comparative study between King Alexander the Great of the Kingdom of Macedonia and King Soundjata Keitha

Soundjata Keita is very often compared to King Alexander the Great evoked in Mandinka stories and among all the traditionalists of the Malinké countries under the name of Djoul Kar Nain. We also note that the comparison often comes back to the advantage of King Soundjata whose glory is said to have surpassed that of King Alexander the Great. Alexander's West-East route is contrasted with King Soundjata Keitha's East-West route. Nevertheless, the narrative comparison of the Mandinka griots reveals two almost twin royal figures that are otherwise almost identical.

### a) Two Kings heirs of a Royal leadership carried by mystical-supernaturalforces(1)

Plutarch records the enigmatic birth of Alexander. The zeal with which the latter indulges in the cult of Dionysus is described. The serpent in question was a god who came in this form to unite with Olympias to give birth to Alexander. Since Alexander is often presented as the Son of Zeus. Anyway this anecdote gives the character of Olympias a mystical-disturbing dimension.

<footnote>(1) L. Kesteloot, B. Dieng et F. Suard, Les épopées d'Afrique Noire, Paris, Karthala, 2009, pp. 73-89.</footnote>
The royal ancestry of these two Kings is quite singular and constitutive of the mystical-spiritual atmosphere that surrounds their lives. Indeed, Sogolon and Olympias are women with formidable powers to such an extent that they inspire a repulsive fear on the part of their contemporaries but also of their respective husbands. Sogolon is presented as the buffalo woman who metamorphoses into a beast to get rid of the proximity of her husband. As for Olympia the Mother of Alexander, Philipe her husband catches her lying on her bed with a snake against her. The author Plutarch suggests that this serpent would be a god who would have taken the form of this serpent in order to unite with Olympia and give birth to Alexander. Alexander who is often presented as the son of the god Zeus. According to Erantagones, Plutarch writes(1)(2), Olympias revealed to Alexander the secret of his birth when the latter went on an expedition. She would therefore have asked Alexander to be worthy of his origin.

<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>King Alexander the Great (British Museum)</figcaption></figure>

<footnote>(1) S. Diop, « Alexandre le Grand et Soundjata Keïta : Les sources grecques d'une épopée mandingue », in C. Cazanave (éd.), La mémoire à l'œuvre, Annales littéraires, Besançon, Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté, 2020, pp. 199-213, pp. 20-21.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) C. Jouanno, « Alexandre et Olympias : de l'histoire au mythe », Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé, vol. 1, n° 3, 1995, pp. 211-230.</footnote>
## b) Two Kings marked by a Royal leadership of military con- and quests territorial expansion

Born on July 21, 356 BC in Paella and son of King Philip II and Olympias, King Alexander the Great is presented as the pupil of Aristotle. He continued his father's panhellenic project. After reuniting Macedonia with Greek cities, King Alexander reached Asia and seized the Persian Empire: he won Anatolia in May 334 by the Battle of Granica, he overthrew King Darius III in 333 and won Issos. By the victory of Gaugameles in 331 he obtained the whole of the Persian Empire. After taking Babylon, Suze, and Persepolis, King Alexander continued his conquest during which he reached Egypt and continued his march towards India. He crossed the Indus and reached the Himalayas, and then he eventually returned to Babylon to administer his conquests. Finally, it should be noted that his Empire did not survive him, contrary to the cultural heritage he spread to the East. Indeed, the Hellenic world had to fade in the face of the growing power of Rome. Greece and Macedonia bowed and submitted in the middle of the second century to the Roman power which nevertheless strongly impregnated itself with Greek culture: architecture, science, medicine, literature, religious cults and divinities. (1)

## c) Royal leadership marked by Sacrifices and Consultation of the Oracles

The sacrifice in Greek is called thusia the act by which the Greeks

<footnote>(1) O. Battistini, Alexandre le Grand. Un philosophe en armes, Paris, ELLIPSES, 2018. See also Lucrèce, « Alexandre le Grand, conquérant du bout du monde », Histoire pour tous de France et du Monde, 16 novembre 2022, https://www.histoire-pour-tous.fr/biographies/1430-alexandre-le-grand.html, consulté le 18 décembre 2022.</footnote>
enter into relationship with their gods, heroes or demons. In the Greco-Roman world, one sacrifices to the gods but also to the demons to whom one appeals to curse someone or destroy him. (1)

The notion of sacrifice refers to the Latin expression “sacrificium” which expresses the act that makes “sacer” that is to say, which consecrates to divinities, heroes and even demons. Since one can in the ancient Greek and Roman religions ask demons to curse someone or to do harm or destroy an enemy. So we can address prayers to demons. And this insofar as the Latin word “sacer” also means “cursed” The Latin verb sacrificarer finds its equivalent in the Greek word hiereuein, “to consecrate” that is to say to transform a non-sacred being into a sacred being. We also have the expression “Thusia” which is a the most common word in Greek to designate the notion of sacrifice and which came from the Indo-European root “Thuein” and which means “to smoke to smoke”. This refers here to the smell in sacrifice, this sacrificial smell that the Gods breathe and which spreads everywhere like a wisdom that men breathe in turn. (2)(3)(4)

Faced with the onslaught of crises that threaten social order and peace, it is the response of sacrifice that appears as the inevitable solution, because only the powers of the Gods can thwart the threats to the community. Indeed, in parallel with the exercise of justice and politics, the Greek and Roman cities constantly practiced sacrificial rites in favor of their gods so that the latter rushed towards them to help

<footnote>(1) A. Jacquemin, « Le sacrifice dans le monde grec et ses interprétations », Archimède : archéologie et histoire ancienne, n° 1, 2014, p. 107.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid.</footnote>
them. Homer and Hesiod created for the Greeks a theogony in order to give a certain logical scheme to the polytheism that characterizes the Greek religious world. They wanted to give the Gods qualifiers and functions and honors by giving them a pictorial and statuary appearance. Here there is no mystery or dogma in the Greek religion, the Greek citizen can choose the Deities he wants, it is open to him to turn to this divinity or that doctrine. There are no incompatibilities. An author, a famous personality, a cult leader, a city are legitimate to introduce changes in the religious myth. They can also change the modalities of the rite There is no incompatibility or blasphemies. The modalities of worship can be changed by worship leaders but also by anyone with a little notoriety. Indeed, there is no revelation, nor a sacred book on which a dogma rests. It must be emphasized that the anthropomorphism of deities makes them fit for change and adaptation. Gods and heroes respond to the needs of men, they preside and help in all the decisive actions of life. The mythical stories feature the heroes closer to men, the gods especially those grouped by Homer and Hesiod and retained by tradition. These are the gods from the couple Kronos and Rhea to this tradition adds Asclepius a hero of medicine who was deified and also Dyonisius. This group of gods who would live in Olympus are recognized by all Greeks.

Regarding the rite, we note that the main ritual forms are related in Homer's poems. Thus, Canto I of the Iliad shows how by a ritual Briséis held in captivity is restored. It also shows how Chryses witnesses a sacrifice in order to ward off a threatening curse. Everything happens around an altar where a hecatomb is offered to the god solicited for the cause raised. Moreover it is emphasized here that the Hecatomb means in the etymological sense that are immolated, that is to say sacrificed a
hundred cattle. The word hecatomb refers to the reality of an immolation of a multitude of cattle or other species sacrificed in large masses. The slaughter indicates the large number of animals that are sacrificed to save a defended cause.

According to the Homeric texts, prayers precede sacrifice, after raising prayers, hands are washed and barley grains are thrown to the sky. Then the heads of all the victims are turned to heaven and a prayer is said aloud to the gods or god to whom the sacrifice is offered. We then cut the throats of the victims. Regarding the sacrifice that Chryses offers to ward off the curse, it is recorded in the Homeric texts this formula addressed to Phoibos Apollo that the priest pronounces aloud with raised arms, and this, after throwing grains of barley: "You whose bow is silver listen to my words ... Then he cuts the throats of the victims one by one, holding their heads to the sky. Then the priest skins, and detaches the parts, and some of them are covered with a double layer of fat, he deposits on top of the raw flesh. Finally, comes the immolation on branches. It is with pins with five points that the flesh thus immolated is ridden."

With regard to the different forms of sacrifice, we can also remember libations where beverages are poured out at the same time as a prayer is raised. The ablutions of purity go through a meat sacrifice. After each sacrifice comes the consumption of the immolated pulpits. Animal sacrifice is very popular. Two rituals can be performed for the same deity. For demonic deities, the sacrifice is not turned towards the sky but towards the ground it is practiced in a hole, the blood of the immolated victim flows directly into the ground as swallowed by the ground. These are chthonic rites that address the Chonian deities who
are the deities of the hells so infernal deities in other words, demons. Paradoxically, sacrifices are offered to these infernal deities when the sacrificial demand is focused on purification. Cleansing sacrifices are based on a burnt offering, meaning that the sacrificial victim is totally consumed by fire. There is no covenant atonement here as can be observed in other civilizations. However, it remains quite paradoxical to ask for purifications from creatures of the underworld. The truth is that there is no profane and sacred in the Greco-Roman regions. There is no separation between the profane and the sacred, which is why the meaning of sacrifice remains an offering. It is more a offering sacrifice than a sin of atonement or a contract. There is no repentance in the sense of reparation that requires atonement

"This is why the notions of profane and sacred have no borders (...) Certainly the requirement of ritual purity reminds us that we must present ourselves before the gods free of defilement. But it is less a question of being pure than of getting rid of accidental defilements, and the rites required are simple; For a murder there .it is the material presence of the blood that is defiled, not the murderous intent. Greek religion ignores the notion of sin and even less of original sin. The Hellenics do not seek redemption and salvation. They don't care about life after death. Only insult to the gods, i.e. hubris, is repressed. It should also be noted that sacrificial rites are clothed with a magical character. Similarly, the consultation of the dead to tell the future is widespread."
Thus, divination is an integral part of these rites. (1)

It should be emphasized that solitary domestic sacrificial rites with self-immolation are dominant. It is noted that the Romans do not use

<footnote>(1) Homère, L'Odyssée : Poésie homérique. Tome II. Chants 8-15. Texte établi et traduit par Victor Bérard,... 5e édition, trad. V. Bérard, p. 76.</footnote>
the word religion in the singular but in the plural. We are therefore talking about Roman religions. The Romans and Greeks were deeply religious and attributed their war success to their ritual piety. In Rome the ritual sacrifice is not very different contrary to popular belief. (1)

The steps of the sacrificial rite must be respected: To accomplish the immolation a salted flour is poured on the back of the animal it is the mola salsa and this, in order to consecrate the animal. After the recitation of the prayer that is to say the precatio said aloud and then the animal is slaughtered and held by four people during the slaughter and then comes the ritual cutting of the parts. There is also the step of obtaining the consent of the gods on the immolation practiced and which is designated by the litatio. It should be noted that in case of holocaust the animal is burned totally. The sacrifices differ according to the prestige of the god celebrated. The Greek world and the Roman world of antiquity are not really different. (2)(3)

On this question, it is appropriate to analyze the implications of sacrificial rites in leadership in India.

For René Girard, the Vedic religious thinks of sacrifice as at the heart of the mystery of social life. That is, the relationship between men and Gods. René Girard’s analysis presents Vedic sacrifice as a form of atonement for human evil whose solution is based on the sacrificial killing of an Emissary Goat that allows the reconciliation of the group with the Gods. The Veda texts composed between 1500 and 500 BCE are very different from contemporary Hinduism, so the Veda is the

<footnote>(1) J. Scheid, « Sacrifice et banquet à Rome », Mélanges de l'école française de Rome, vol. 97, n° 1, 1985, pp. 193-206.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) J. Champeaux, La religion romaine, Paris, Le Livre de Poche, 1998.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) J. Scheid, « Sacrifice et banquet à Rome », op. cit.</footnote>
source of Hindu orthodoxy. Since then, many practices and cults have
been grafted and substituted for Vedic doctrine. In the first version of
the Vedic religion the Gods are present only in the prayers addressed to
them and the offerings intended for them, there is no question of
Temples, pilgrimages or even images, all these devotions are actually
more contemporary. (1)(2)

The self-immolations of animals in sacrifices are very often goats.
We can speak here of the offering of Soma, whose altar is in the shape
of a bird made of brick. On this flaming altar is placed a goat's head, a
ram's head, a bull's head, a turtle's head in order to ensure the balance
of a society by the benevolence of the Gods. (3)

In Nepal every year the authorities perform rituals where goats are
sacrificed, that is to say immolated by thousands in the temples and
shrines of Kathmandu. Thus, for several days the people “engage in an
ofmeat”. (4)

In the more contemporary folk religions of India, i.e. reformed, there
are various Deities. This is not the case in Vedic sacrifice. Indeed, the
Vedic religion is the ancient religion of India that endures, only
Brahmins hold the ancestral knowledge of ritual sacrifices that are the
only ones that can practice in accordance with the Veda. A distinction
is made between collections of instructions on solemn rites, the Srauta-

<footnote>(1) R. Girard, « Le sacrifice dévoilé dans les religions bibliques et la religion védique », in Le sacrifice, Conférences et Études, Paris, Éditions de la Bibliothèque nationale de France, 2015, pp. 48-69.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) C. Malamoud, « La dénégation de la violence dans le sacrifice védique », Gradhiva : revue d'histoire et d'archives de l'anthropologie, vol. 15, n° 1, 1994, pp. 35-42.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) C. Malamoud, Cuire le monde: Rite et pensée dans l'Inde ancienne, Paris, 1989. In C. Malamoud, « La dénégation de la violence dans le sacrifice védique », op. cit.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) C. Malamoud, « La dénégation de la violence dans le sacrifice védique », op. cit.</footnote>
sura, and treatises on sacrificial doctrine, such as the Brahmana.⁽¹⁾

The ethnologist Véronique Bouiller, director of research at the CNRS, affirms that Indian civilization is based on the Vedic religion, which is above all a religion of sacrifice. Indeed, it is through the sacrificial rite that Indian man ensures the continuity of the balance of the society in which he lives, and this by continually offering sacrifices in order to appease the Gods and rivalries between men.⁽²⁾

Killing is always present in the Indian sacrificial rite because Vedic religion is still dominant. Indeed, the history of religions distinguishes three phases in the stages of construction of traditional Indian civilization: Vedism, Brahmanism and Hinduism. However, the Vedas remain the sacred texts, despite innovations, ruptures and reminders of traditional values nourish a nationalist spirit based on ritual sacrifices. All the acts of everyday life: seizure of power, contract, marriage, birth, death are preceded by ritual sacrifices offered to the deities to ensure their success.⁽³⁾

It is also worth seeing the implication of sacrifices on leadership in America.

It was in the West of America that the Inca Empire developed. This Empire developed in the thirteenth century and extended from the valley of Cuzco (Peru) to the equator, Colombia, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. The Inca civilization is transmitted orally it is a people of orality. It should be noted that the human presence in this territory dates from

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) GILV. Bouillieret J. Assayag, « Hindouisme et Violence », LE CONFLIT, http://www.leconflit.com/article-hindouisme-et-violence-121432943.html, consulté le 12 mai 2022.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) C. Malamoud, « La dénégation de la violence dans le sacrifice védique », op. cit.</footnote>
at least the thirtieth millennium before the present time. (1)

The founder of this Empire is Manco Capac who would have reigned around 1200 however it is only from the fourteenth century and therefore the seventh Inca emperor that the Empire begins its expansion by the conquests of all neighboring peoples.

The Inca Empire is a great empire that amazed Spanish conquerors and continues to fascinate lovers of the history of civilizations and the anthropology of civilizations. The monarch also called The Inca is considered the representative of God on earth. He is the civil, religious and military leader of the Empire. His blood is considered Divine and pure. The Inca King is approached barefoot, as well as his garment and his scepter in feather cross are sacred. The King of the Incas used only Gold and Silver in his everyday instruments. At his death, he was mummified and preserved in one of the most magnificent temples that punctuate the Peruvian civilization. The administration of the Inca Empire is divided into four provinces or suya: Conti-suya, Colla-suyu, Anti-Suya and Chincha-Suyu. The capital of the Empire, on the other hand, is divided into two portions: Hanan-Cuzco or upper Cuzco and Hurin Cuzco or lower Cuzco. Four roads starting from the capital connect the latter to the capitals of the four provinces or suya. Half of the Empire composed by Conti-Suya Colla-Suya is in spiritual relations with the other half of the Empire constituted by Hurin-Cuzco and Hanan-Cuzco(2)(3)(4)

<footnote>(1) H. Lehmann, Les civilisations précolombiennes, Presses Universitaires de France, 2012, Cairndomain: www.cairn.info, pp. 94-102.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid.</footnote>
It is noted here that ritual sacrifices are made for the great religious ceremonies related to the installation of royal power first and then to the economy by territorial conquests and also to the future of souls after death. Thus gives rise to sacrificial rites: The death of the King, the Inca and the enthronement of a new King the new Inca; initiation of young people who go to war; to thank the God Huiracocha for the harvest, they also sacrifice for the Sithua festival to protect the Empire from natural disasters. The sacrifices have the effect of appeasing the wrath of God, Huiracocha. Sacrifices are composed of animal sacrifices. For harvests a non-animal sacrifice is offered. Every legal, administrative, or military act is preceded by a sacrificial oracle to know whether the act to be performed will benefit from the approval of the God, Huiracocha. The divinatory sacrificial oracle is used to predict the outcome of a war or battle and also to punish for a crime. (1)(2)

It is therefore in the bowels of the sacrificed animals that one reads the oracle to allow the conclusion of the action that must be carried out. On the other hand, among the Mayans and Aztecs, Mesoamerican civilizations, sacrifice appears to be the key to institutional balance, they constantly sacrifice for the success of the acts taken. Among the Aztecs, sacrificial ritual life is particularly intense, punctuated by the Aztec calendar. The institutionalization of royal power and the assumption of governance of the kingdom requires ritual sacrifices<sup>(3)(4)(5)</sup>. Black Africa also knows the practice of sacrificial rites to ask for the help of the Spirits of the afterlife such as the Geniuses. Indeed, King Soundjata

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid., pp. 62-70.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid., pp. 31-45.</footnote>

<footnote>(5) Ibid.</footnote>
uses ritual sacrifices to defeat Soumaoro who possess sorcerer's powers that allow him to disappear from the battlefield. The sacrifice will consist in the immolation of a hundred : white goats, white oxen, white roosters. In the end he wins his case since King Soumaorao is defeated and Soundjta liberates the Mali Empire(1).

All in all, it should be noted that the nature of the leadership that characterizes King Soundjata Keïta and King Alexander the Great is based on ritual sacrifices as a recourse to difficulty. With regard to King Saint Louis and King Mvemba Nsinga Alphonso I, we are in a leadership marked by the end of bloody ritual sacrifices. Indeed, the sacrifice of one God allowed the redemption of the multitude. Also, there is no need to sacrifice cattle. The only invocation of the blood of the God-King allows the resolution of all evils, the displacement of all The common religion of these two Kings is based on a bloodless sacrifice that is to say memorial. Only solitary or communal fervent prayer during the bloodless memorial sacrifice of the God-Messiah allows the resolution of difficult or even chaotic situations.

## 2) Comparative study between the leadership of King Saint Louis of France and that of King Mvemba Nsinga (Alfonso I)

Before the arrival of the Merovingian dynasty, Gaul (future Kingdom of France) was divided between many tribes who competed for the hegemony of said Gaul. King Clovis helped by the God of his wife Queen Clotilde managed to gain the upper hand and control of all these local chiefs. The story of France and that of the Monarchy begins with King Clovis. Moreover, it was in 751, during the reign of

<footnote>(1) M. Kouyaté, «La variabilité dans quatre versions de l’épopée mandingue», 2015, Bordeaux 3, pp. 58-59.</footnote>
the Carolingian dynasty, that the papacy declared that the person of the
King was inviolable. Henceforth, every King of France is placed in a
higher rank than his subjects. This is Divine Right Kingship. Despite
Charlemagne's conquests, the Carolingians were unable to preserve
their Empire because of Frankish customs that weighed down the
development of institutions. At the death of Charlemagne his Empire
was divided between his three sons. It was the Treaty of Verdun of 843
that divided Europe into three kingdoms and drew the borders of France.
In total, it is with the Capetian dynasty that the French Monarchy reaches
its peak with the reign of King Louis IX who becomes King Saint Louis.
(1)

In the chapter “Consolidation of royal power” of his work Louis IX ou Saint Louis (1214-1270) Roi de France (1226-1270), Jean Favier writes: “*The prestige that Louis IX is worth his virtues is added to that which he draws from a hereditary succession hitherto flawless, which makes royalty a kind of priesthood*”. (2) This passage summarizes the Royal leadership of King Saint Louis dominated by faith and sustained piety and the will to spread this faith. This characteristic of the kingship of Saint Louis can be compared to that of King Mvemba Nsinga (Alfonso I). Just as King Louis IX said Saint Louis, King Mvemba Nsinga (Alphonse 1st) is presented as a Holy King, who teaches faith to his subjects to make his Kingdom, a kingdom of holiness, the testimonies of missionaries who approached the latter attest to this reality. Indeed, King Mvemba Nzinga who is the first Manikongo, is considered the greatest monarch of the Kongo kingdom, moreover European and African historiography present him as “the apostle of Kongo”. It should

<footnote>(1) H. Medori, Les rois de France: La monarchie de Hugues Capet à Louis XVI, Vichy, Aedis, 2002.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) J. Favier, Louis IX ou Saint Louis (1214-1270) Roi de France (1226-1270).</footnote>
also be noted that the Kongo Kingdom is both a Kingdom and an
Empire. It can be said that the Royal Leadership of these two Kings
corresponds to a Leadership of Holiness. (1)

King Saint Louis

(Paroisse Rochefort)

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /></figure>

a) Two Kings Priests, engaged in a conquering Royal leadership to spread the wisdom and freedom of faith

In the Western Middle Ages the good King is the most religious man in the Kingdom. The King must be pious and wise, merciful and just, courageous and prudent. He must carry within him the qualities of the cleric and those of the knight. He must prepare his people to enter the heavenly paradise as well as he must prepare them for the eventuality

<footnote>(1) J. Thornton, «The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1350-1550», The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 34, n° 1, 2001, pp. 89-120.
See also A.F. Nganga, Monseigneur Dom Henrique Ne Kinu A Mvemba 1495-1531, Edilivre, 2018.</footnote>
of war. In addition to all the administrative and technical functions that he must fulfill, the King must assume the functions of priest. The King's wisdom is acquired from childhood. Thus, King Saint Louis had from his childhood the greatest tutors, the greatest scholars and the most experienced knights. He is trained in foreign languages as well as history. The future King learns the arts of war but also of rhetoric. Indeed, verbal eloquence is very important because the future King must speak in Assembly and also educate his people. The art of speech is very important in his function as King. The King takes his decisions in council (noble assembly, assembly of clerics, Estates General, King's advisors) because solitary decisions are considered dangerous. The choice of councillors is one of the King's subtle duties. It will be emphasized here that the instruction of Saint Louis was first religious and moral insofar as the King must respect the divine laws and avoid pride.

Well trained, well surrounded, the Prince has good government to ensure the general interest. Good government is regarded in the Middle Ages as the fact of guiding well to the celestial port, the ship of the Kingdom. Thus, the King holds the rudder. The King of France is in principle the head of good government. He exercises effectively and in the interest of all royal functions. The King of France derives his power from God. In the Western Middle Ages, only the emperor and the pope were sovereign but from Saint Louis, the King of France became Emperor in his Kingdom. Only he can make the law and judge in the last resort. Only he can declare and conduct war in the dying world where he is responsible for peacekeeping. Only he can tax the activities of the kingdom for the common good. Saint Louis assumed military, judicial, and fiscal functions. The King of France is now with Saint Louis more
than a lord. It is the centralization of power around the person of the King.
We see here that the centralization of power is a real characteristic of
the Monarchical Regime established by King Saint Louis. It is because
St. Louis possesses an unshakable faith that he became a Saint. His
prayer life is a reflection of the spirituality of his time: eschatological
messianism, attraction to Dominican religious orders and especially
Franciscans. His piety is recognized: daily presence at Mass, devotion
to the holy relics. It is here that we understand why King Saint Louis
brought back the Holy Relics in France. His whole life was inhabited by
an apostolic desire, a thirst to spread the Gospel to convert places where
Christ is not known. It is recalled here that in the thirteenth century the
crusades is not a crusade but a pilgrimage. Whether it is a movement ad
extra towards the Saracens or ad intra against the Albigensians and
others<sup>(1)</sup>.

For his part, King Nzinga Mvemba Aphonso I, is known for the power
he wields with the word. His speeches touch the hearts of Kongos. It is
reported that a letter written to the King of Portugal mentions that the
Kongos converted to the virtuous and spiritual life after a speech by
King Mvemba Aphonso I because of the power of the words that came
out of his mouth. As has been pointed out, King Aphonso forbids the
practice of witchcraft and other depraved morals. The Portuguese
present in the Kongo Kingdom hasten to relay the image of King Nsinga
Mvemba Aphonso I as that of a Holy King, a Lord of the Faith whose
primary objective is to spread the faith. This is shown by the report of
the priest Ruy d'Aguiar dated May 1516. The priest Ruy notes in this
report that: "King Aphonso was such a great King that the chronicles of

<footnote>(1) J.-B. Noé, « Saint Louis et la justice », 25 août 2013, https://www.jbnoe.fr/Saint-Louis-et-la-justice, consulté le 18 décembre 2022.</footnote>
Portugal call him “the apostle of Kongo”. The royal policy of Aphonso was to consolidate the Monarchy by a conversion of all the people to the spiritual and virtuous life. (1)

b) Two Kings with Royal leadership under the sign of institution-
al reforms to consolidate the Monarchy

It is through a Royal leadership placed under the sign of institutional
reforms that these two Kings undertake to consolidate the Monarchy(2).

In 1247, Saint Louis created a service of royal investigators,
specialized in the audit of all services and who directly inform the King
of everything that happens in the services of the Kingdom. Their
mission is to suppress abuses in the fields of justice, administration,
taxation, and the army. With the ordinance of 1254, King Saint Louis
created the Bailiffs and provosts, the Senachaux who (3) are inspectors
who work in several districts. They are obliged to comply with the strict
rules of public accounting established by the said ordinance. The royal
investigators ensure compliance with all the ordinances established
by the King. They watched over the Bailiffs and Provosts as well as the
royal officers. The investigators set the limits of each body and
transmitted all complaints to the King in writing(4). King Saint Louis
divided the politico-administrative domains of the Kingdom into three
parts. He created the Parliament which deals with political affairs, he
also created the Court of Auditors which he established in turn of the

<footnote>(1) A. Lagamma, Kongo - Power and Majesty, New York, Yale University Press, 2015, p. 92.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) F. Olivier-Martin, Histoire du droit français des origines à la Révolution, [Paris] : Domat Montchrestien, 1948, pp. 100-102, 202-229.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid.</footnote>
Temple. In 1254, he published the “Great Ordinance” also known as the “*Statutum generale, statuta sancti Ludovici*”. (1) This great ordinance made it possible to reform the Royal Government. This great Ordinance forbids royal officers any social discrimination, it orders them to dispense justice without distinction of persons and also to refuse any gift. This Great Ordinance fights all corruption in the institutions of the Kingdom.

At the level of justice, King Saint Louis established the presumption of innocence by prohibiting the convict of a person without trial. He therefore established that any accused person was presumed innocent. This is the advent of the fair trial(2).

It establishes measures to combat famine such as the transport of wheat and other measures to combat hunger. It should be noted that taverns are reserved for travelers and forbidden to the local population.

By Ordinance of 1254, King Saint Louis applied a series of measures that made it possible to moralize public life in the Kingdom of France: he prohibited gambling. It also prohibits dice games and their manufacture as well as chess games, lady's games, as well as “*trictrac*” which are twice as reprehensible as a gambling game(3).

At the economic level it prohibits lending at interest and usury. King Saint Louis, who aims to lead his people to the salvation of their souls, forbids prostitution(4).

By the Ordinance of 1256, King Saint Louis abolished torture. By the

<footnote>(1) J.L. Goff, Saint Louis, Paris, Folio, 1999, p. 252.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid., p. 260.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid., p. 252.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid.</footnote>
Ordinance of 1954 it prohibits prostitution, any woman who engages in prostitution is expelled from the city and any person who offers her a house to establish her prostitution business(1).

According to Dieudonné Adolphe a coin is considered a Royal Mint when it is issued under a royal order and the title and weight are fixed by the sovereign for the entire territory of the Kingdom and whose proceeds are regularly paid to the Treasury.(2)

Thus, King Saint Louis issued a series of ordinances to reform the monetary system. It prohibits the circulation of foreign currency in the Kingdom of France reserved for the Royal Mint. He created the gold coin, the gold ecu. He created the Big Tournament, silver coin(3).

In terms of monetary leadership, King Saint Louis really stood out to win the golden palm of good money. It is because of the monetary reform of St. Louis that the thirteenth century is presented as “the Century of good money(4)”. The bimetallic monetary system articulated around a gold coin the ecu, a silver coin, the wholesale, and small billon coins and this, to fight against inflation and ensure the circulation of money and the justice of exchanges(5). Todo this, it creates a currency of account which constitutes the central element of a monetary system(6).

<footnote>(1) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) A. (Adolphe) Dieudonné, Les monnaies capétiennes ou royales françaises, Paris : E. Leroux, 1923, p. 1 Chapitre 1er Les monnaire capétiennes.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) J. Blanc, «La complexité monétaire en France sous l'Ancien régime: étendue et modes de gestion», in De Pecunia, vol. VI, 1994, pp. 81-111, p. 5.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) J.L. Goff, Saint Louis, op. cit., pp. 765-767. See also J.L. Goff, Le Moyen Âge et l'argent, Perrin, 2019, Cairndomain: www.cairn.info, pp. 15-34.</footnote>

<footnote>(5) M. Bompaire et F. Dumas, Numismatique médiévale: monnaies et documents d'origine française, Turnhout, Belgique, Brepols, 2000, pp. 439-443.</footnote>

<footnote>(6) J. Blanc, La complexité monétaire en France sous l'Ancien régime, op. cit., p. 5.</footnote>
He banned counterfeit money, imposed the royal mint as the sole currency of the Kingdom of France and gave his country monetary sovereignty(1). The good currency of St. Louis becomes the world monetary standard as well as a dollar. The currency of Saint Louis is copied all over the world(2). At the architectural level, King Saint Louis built Notre Dame de Paris, the Cathedral of Chartres and Amiens, Reims, Rouen, Beauvais d'Auxerre. He also built many churches and abbeys, convents and monasteries(3). Under the reign of King Saint Louis Paris became an artistic capital with elegant architecture and many workshops of embroidery, ivory, tapestry, jewelry and precious stones.

King Saint Louis founded many universities, the most famous of which was that of the Sorbonne which was to accommodate poor students, non-boarders, he awarded scholarships to finance their studies.

At the level of Health he founded the Hospital Centers such as the Hospice des Quinze Vingt in order to take in the destitute blind of Paris. The King grants a scholarship for the destitute blind. He founded the Hôtel des Audriettes to welcome widows and destitute women. He founded the Hôtel Dieu throughout the France and placed nuns there to care for the sick. King Saint Louis bequeathed to the nuns his country house in Pontoise to welcome the poor.

From a military point of view he created many fortifications, bases and military buildings. He created ports and naval fleets(4). He is the victorious King who defeated the English.

<footnote>(1) M. Bompaire et F. Dumas, Numismatique médiévale, op. cit., pp. 439-443.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) J.L. Goff, Saint Louis, op. cit., pp. 765-767.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid., pp. 165-172.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid., pp. 176 et 762.</footnote>
The Royal Policy of Mvemba Nzinga is to make his Kingdom a virtuous and spiritual land based on literate nobility. King Alphonso Nzinga Mvemba sees virtue and education as keys to the consolidation of his power and the whole of royalty. King Mvemba therefore undertook the construction of many schools. By the 10th year of his reign, there were thousands of students in the Kingdom. Indeed, in 1516, the vicar Ruy d'Aguiar indicates in his report the presence of a thousand students in Kongo, thus demonstrating the success of the educational reform of King Mvemba Nsinga Alphonso I. For the King only piety and knowledge in the sense of education are the keys to the consolidation of power.

### c) Two Kings leaders peacemakers and whose Justice is recognized internationally: the art of speech

Regarding the power of the word and justice of King Mvemba Nsinga Aphonso I The report of the priest Ruy of May 1516 indicates that the words of the latter come from the Divinity. “When he gives an audience or conducts trials, his words are inspired by God and examples of saints.” “May Your Highness learn that his life... is such that it belongs to me, not as a man, but as an angel sent by the Lord to this kingdom” These are praises that testify and will continue to testify to the holiness and leadership of justice of King Mvemba Aphonso I(1).

In one of the letters of King Aphonso Nsinga Mvemba, Alfonso I dating from 1526 and addressed to the King of Portugal against the slave trade and the levy on the Kongolese people, we can read: “Every day the traders kidnap our people, the children of this country, the sons of nobles and vassals, even members of our own family. This corruption

<footnote>(1) A. Lagamma, Kongo - Power and Majesty, op. cit., p. 92.</footnote>
and depravity is so widespread that our land is completely depopulated. We only need priests and teachers in this kingdom and not merchants, unless it is wine and bread for Mass. We wish that this kingdom would not be a place of trade or transportation of slaves. A number of our subjects yearn for the Portuguese goods that your subjects have brought into our kingdoms. To satisfy this excessive appetite, they seize many of our people, free men (...) and very often it happens that they even kidnap nobles and sons of nobles, and our parents, and take them to sell them to white men, they are branded with a hot iron. When our guards recognize them when boarding the boats, the whites claim to have bought them and they cannot tell whom. It is our duty to do justice and to give free men their freedom, we cannot carry out our mission because your subjects claim to be offended, when we point out to them (...) To avoid this we have passed a law... »(1).

Relations between King Afonso Nzinga Mvemba and the Portuguese deteriorate an attack on his person was missed on Easter Day 1539. Afonso Nzinga Mvemba died in 1543 under unknown circumstances.

As for King Saint Louis, the latter is presented as the King of the word, the King who governs by the word. It is through words that he exercises the two highest functions of the Kingdom: justice and peace. King Louis IX is regarded as the justicier King who questions and renders sentences himself in the famous “plaids of the door” now known as “requests” as Joinville points out. When he dispenses justice King Saint Louis is seated under a tree, leaning on the trunk of said

<footnote>(1) A. Brásio, Monumenta missionaria africana. Africa ocidental, Lisboa, Agência Geral do Ultramar, Divisão de Publicações e Biblioteca, 1958. See also J. Thornton, « Early Kongo-Portuguese Relations: A New Interpretation », History in Africa, vol. 8, ed 1981, pp. 183-204.</footnote>
tree more exactly an oak in the woods of Vincennes. King Saint Louis is presented as a soothing who arbitrates his word like Solomon in his time. As the historiography of(1)(2)(3) King Saint Louis indicates, he restores peace not only in his Kingdom but also in other Royaumes. The justice of King Saint Louis is appreciated throughout the world people come from far and wide to listen to his sentences. It is he who is called to arbitrate conflicts between countries and Kingdom. King Saint Louis becomes the international arbiter, the Saint Louis sentences are listened to and followed internationally. This love of the word of truth leads St. Louis to forbid bad speech, bad language, swearing. Thus blasphemy against the Godhead and the Saints is prohibited.

Saint Louis is the most important King in the political history of the West and even the world in the thirteenth century. It is the central element of the thirteenth century to such an extent that the thirteenth century is called the century of Saint Louis still called “*Louis IX is geographically, chronologically, ideologically, the most central of the great characters*” of the thirteenth century. He is the major figure of the medieval West. (4)(5) With 1245, he forbade private wars by ordering a truce of forty days when a discord arose between two parties in order to appease anger. Any revenge is prohibited at the end of the period. Saint Louis is truly a great King. Speaking of Saint Louis, Mathieu Paris wrote that the “King of *France is the King of Kings of all the earth*”.(6)

<footnote>(1) J.L. Goff, Saint Louis, op. cit., p. 693.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid., p. 16.</footnote>

<footnote>(5) Ibid.</footnote>

<footnote>(6) A. Clairand et M. Prieur, Les monnaies royales françaises 987-1793, Paris, Editions Les Chevau-Légers, 2009, p. 20.</footnote>
d) Royal leadership marked by the end of ritual sacrifices

In the book entitled “Hidden Things and the Origin of the World” we learn that the God Messiah came to put an end to centuries of ritual sacrifices that have characterized the history of humanity since the beginning of time (1).

This is the thesis of René Girard demonstrates that the God Messiah comes to substitute centuries ritual sacrifices to impose a bloodless ritual: the Holy Mass or memorial sacrifice(2).

If religious sacrifice is a central institution in the history of humanity, it is precisely because its function is to prevent conflicts from breaking out(3). Crises that threaten peace and community unity require a response: the sacrificial rite(4). Even in the Greek or Roman cities where a judicial system supported by policed states reigns, we see that the practice of sacrifice does not cease in any way. Sacrificial rituals are practiced in parallel with the exercise of politics and justice. It is the same for Black Africa of yesterday but also of today. Indeed, a link is made between social inequalities linked to an unbalanced distribution of wealth and the implantation of the liberal economic system and the practice of ritual sacrifices(5).

In his book Mensonge romantique et Vérité romanesque, René Girard shows how his conversion to the bloodless memorial sacrificial

<footnote>(1) L. de Heusch, Le sacrifice dans les religions africaines, op. cit., pp. 36-37.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) R. Girard, Des choses cachées depuis la fondation du monde, Paris, GRASSET, 1978.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) R. Girard, La violence et le sacré, Paris, Fayard/Pluriel, 1972, p. 30.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) Ibid., p. 35.</footnote>

<footnote>(5) N. Beddiar et M.S. Cataleta, « La protection des enfants face aux crimes rituels au Gabon », Revue Lexsociété, janvier 2022, https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03543452, consulté le 12 mai 2022. ; J. Mussavu Mussavu, Les enfants en situation de rue à Libreville au Gabon, thèse de doctorat de sociologie, Université de Rouen, 2009, 2012.</footnote>
rite can be compared to a romantic conversion. René Girard theorizes the phenomenon of romantic conversion, which in his opinion becomes a religious conversion. It must be understood that the world Preancient, Ancient and even a certain Middle Ages and even contemporary has as its leadership the political-legal regulation social and economic through the practice of ritual sacrifices. However, the particularity with the bloodless memorial sacrificial regime as the foundation of leadership implies a spiritualization of the physical aspect of ritual sacrifice which thus generates spiritualized leadership.

From a sociological and anthropological point of view, the sacrificial regime of Jesus Christ is a vector of bloodless morality, a morality of good smell, and therefore, a good channelizer of violence in the exercise of leadership. Indeed, the peculiarity of the sacrificial regime set up by Jesus Christ is that it is spiritual in nature. Jesus Christ spiritualized sacrifice the physical aspect of sacrifice. Christianity came to put an end to centuries of bloody sacrifices made on the living. The sacrifice of one was enough to end centuries of killing for the cause of sacrificial rites of regulation. We can therefore see in the advent of Christianity the culmination of the great millennial movement of spiritualization of sacrifice. In other words, the end of sacrificial violence establishing a bloodless memorial rite. Very quickly, the idea already emerges on the eve of the entry of the Messiah that the Godhead does not need meat sacrifices. The prophet Amos already rejected these practices: “When you offer me burnt offerings, I do not look at your oblations. (...) But let the right as water, and justice as a torrent that does not dry up” (Amos 5:22-24) Jesus therefore repeatedly denounced sacrificial practices in which animals were sacrificed. (1) He confirms Hosea’s prophecy

<footnote>(1) (Jean-Marie Muller “When Jesus frees the animals of the Temple”, La Croix 14/02/2017)</footnote>
by saying, “It is mercy that I want, not sacrifice” (Matthew 9:13 and 12:7). But the word of Christ was not heard, so he decided to take action so that the killing of the living ceased. (1) Mark mentions that the day before, Jesus had entered the Temple and that he had looked at everything as if to locate the places(2) . John speaks of a whip “Jesus finds in the Temple the sellers of oxen, sheep and doves and the seated money changers. Making himself a whip of ropes, he drove them all out of the Temple, and the sheep and oxen; he spread the money of the money changers and overturned their tables and the sellers of doves: Take it out of here” The behavior of Jesus is firm he does not content himself with preaching to denounce what seems to him to be a scandal but he also decides to put an end to sales inside the Temple. In order to stop ritual sacrifices on animals, he urged the Temple merchants to stop this macabre trade.(3)

It is ultimately men who need sacrifice to purify themselves and for their perfection and not God’s will.

This wisdom is the wisdom of Christianity which for the men and women of the civilization of the 13th century of the West and even of a certain Africa of the same time is at the origin of civilized humanity in other words, that of the Holy King sacrificed to redeem the World that is to say to correct the disorders that affect humanity. This is what Anthropologists and Ethnologists, Linguists and other scientists working on the civilizing origins of humanity affirm.(4)

This is why Saint Paul presents the apostles as the good smell of

<footnote>(1) Idem</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Idem</footnote>

<footnote>(3) Idem</footnote>

<footnote>(4) J. Vidal, « Symboles et religions. Cours de l'année 1986-1987 », op. cit., p. 242.</footnote>
Christ who is the sacrificed victim: “We are, indeed, for God the good smell of Christ. (1) The crucifixion is not only a glorification leading to the resurrection, but it is also a sacrifice for the good of humanity which is based on the good smell that emanates from the gospel.

“Live in love, as Christ loved us and gave himself up to God for us, as an offering and victim, like a fragrance of pleasant smell. »(2)

« *Christianity is not a brake on thought but something that stimulates it and constitutes an inexhaustible resource for understanding the world asitis.* »(3)

All in all, for anthropology, the sacrificial regime of memory is a vector of bloodless morality, a morality of good smell, and therefore, a good channelizer of all violence(4) in leadership. To ward off all forms of violence in their kingdoms, King Saint Louis and King Mvemba Nsinga Alphonso have chosen a sacrificial regime of memory, that is to say, not bloody. In order to achieve a leadership of good smell. It is the good smell of morality that is the key to Royal Leadership(5).

**Conclusion: The observance of a return of the Traditional Kings of Black Africa on the political scene**

How to explain the disappearance of the glorious world of Prehistoric and Ancient Black Africa from the Sacred Empires of sub-Saharan Africa?

It must be remembered that the empires of civilized Black Africa

<footnote>(1) 2 Corinthians 2:15</footnote>

<footnote>(2) Ephesian 4:2</footnote>

<footnote>(3) René Girard : la violence et le sacré — KTOTV, 24 janvier 2016.</footnote>

<footnote>(4) R. Girard, Des choses cachées depuis la fondation du monde, op. cit.</footnote>

<footnote>(5) Ibid.</footnote>
are surrounded by other African tribes extremely bellicose and not yet
civilized. These uncivilized barbarian tribes that surround these powerful
empires are comparable to the barbarians who line the borders of the
Roman Empire. Indeed, in ancient black Africa and in that of the Middle
Ages fortresses separate the civilized world and the uncivilized world.
So there are educated and sophisticated black populations who live
in the Empires and on the other side of these Empires there are other
uneducated, and very rebellious black populations who constantly attack
these Empires, which unfortunately are always exposed to the jealousy of
neighbors. This reality of African antiquity is similar to that of the Romans
who also built a gigantic demarcation line or fortifications in order to
separate themselves from the barbarians. These separation fortresses are
referred to as “limes” and stretch all along the Rhine and Danube. It may
be considered that this fortress of separation between the civilized world
and the barbarian world should not be equated or confused with what
might be described as a wall of separation between distinct races. Indeed,
antiquity does not know the distinction of races, races do not exist as is
the case in modern civilization. In antiquity the distinction between the
different populations that populate the world is made only in relation to
education and especially from religious education. Thus, we separate
what is educated, i.e. civilized, from what is not.(1)

We can say that until the 15th and even until the 19th century Black
Africa retained its civilization in other words its Royal leadership as
attested by the German Ethnologist Leo Viktor Frobenius. Indeed, it
was in 1904 that Leo Victor Frobenius undertook his first expedition to
Black Africa in the Congolese Kasai. And it was at this time that he
formulated his Theory of African Atlantis. He will therefore travel

<footnote>(1) C.-A. Diop, Antériorité des civilisations nègres: Mythe ou vérité historique?, Paris, Editions Présence Africaine, [Rééd.] édition, 2001, pp. 67-73.</footnote>
in Africa until 1918 and especially in Sudan. Frobenius is one of the first ethnologists to question the colonialist theses according to which when Europeans arrived in black Africa they would have found savage peoples to whom they would have brought civilization. On this subject he writes: “(1)When they arrived in the Bay of Guinea and landed at Vaida, the captains were very astonished to find well-appointed streets, bordered for a length of several leagues by two rows of trees; They crossed for long days a countryside covered with magnificent fields, inhabited by men and women dressed in bright costumes whose fabric they wove themselves! Further south in the Congo Kingdom, a teeming crowd dressed in silk and velvet, well-ordered Great States, and this in every detail, powerful Sovereigns, opulent industries. Civilized to the marrow of the bones! And quite similar was the condition of the countries on the eastern coast, Mozambique, for example. »(2)

This study showed how the leadership of the Sacred Monarchy of Black Africa has allowed the construction of great Empires for centuries. As such, Augustin Holl wrote that: “The prehistory of Africa is literally the prehistory of humanity. Archaeological research carried out in Africa is the work of all academic traditions, offering a multiplicity of perspectives on the evolution of human societies. In addition, the continent has the longest archaeological sequence in the world from the beginnings (...) of humanity to the contemporary period. It (...) (is) question of the great features of prehistory (...) from the distant origins of the first tools to the development of the first cities and states”.(3)

<footnote>(1) C.-A. Diop, Nations nègres et culture, op. cit., p. 342.</footnote>

<footnote>(2) L. Frobenius, Histoire de la civilisation africaine, op. cit. See also C.-A. Diop, Nations nègres et culture, op. cit., p. 342.</footnote>

<footnote>(3) A. Holl, Préhistoire - AFRIQUE, Encyclopædia Universalis.</footnote>
How to explain the bankruptcy of the leadership of contemporary
Black Africa after so many glorious centuries?

Studies show that pre-colonial African leaders were visionary, capable and selfless leaders in the service of the protection and development of their peoples. Nowadays, leadership is cited as one of the major challenges to Africa's development. According to B. E. Awortu and Michael, T.B., this is explained by the entry into contact of African societies with European powers, the merger of kingdoms, states and the introduction of foreign administrative management structures in total inconsistency with local realities marked the beginning of the weakening of leadership in sub-Saharan Africa. With regard to Mali, where the Kurukan Fuga Charter continues to govern in part the organization of society, the functioning of human relations, the management of community life; There is a certain disconnection or even abandonment of the practices and ways of leadership from the colonial period, which are still in force. (1)

When sub-Saharan African countries gained their independence, the leaders who fought for the independence of their countries were mostly assassinated: Sekou Touré (Guinea), Modibo Keita (Mali), Thomas Sankara (Burkina Faso), Patrice Lumumba (Congo Brazzaville), for the benefit of corrupt leaders, who instead of working for the development of their country have established corruption and nepotism. in order to get rich and never leave the presidential seat again. We are witnessing cumulations exceeding the three presidential mandates.

<footnote>(1) International Journal of Novel Research in Humanity and Social Sciences Vol. 5, Issue 1, pp: (28-36), Month: January - February 2018, Available at: www.noveltyjournals.com</footnote>
These leaders make decisions that favor private interests to the detriment of the interests of their peoples, thus creating situations of permanent tension.

Leadership in sub-Saharan Africa should therefore return or integrate the moral and political-economic values of the great leaders of Prehistory, Antiquity and the African Middle Ages such as Nzinga Mvemba (Alfonso I) and Soundjata Keita, and many others, without forgetting the leaders of the time the Negro Pharaohs. All these African leaders have contributed to the history of human civilizations and in a broader perspective we could compare King Nzinga Mvemba to the King of France Saint-Louis just as King Soundjata Keita could be compared to King Alexander the Great.

Finally, this work on the Royal Leadership of Ancient Black Africa has awakened the issue of Monarchical Leadership as an ideal of political governance. Indeed, this study on the Royal Leadership that made the glory of Ancient Black Africa and the Middle Ages, we can legitimately ask the question of the feasibility of the Monarchical regime. More precisely, can we say that the Monarchical Regime is at the origin of a more efficient and authentic Leadership than the Republican Leadership?

The Kings of Africa have not disappeared, there are more than a thousand. One thinks here of King Mswati III, the last absolute monarch of Africa who currently rules Swaziland in his Ludzidzini Palace in Mbabane, the capital.

Whether they are called princes, kings or chiefs, the Traditional Kings of Black Africa are a very ancient reality. They still have powers but much more social, except for King Mswati III who governs fully. It is
therefore observed that some of the Traditional Kings have kept a strong
political influence because of the good reputation, in other words, the
leadership they continue to exercise among the local populations who
see in Traditional Kingship a source of stability, an immutable tradition.
Indeed, African peoples are attached to Traditional Royalty insofar as
obtaining the complicity of these Kings appears decisive to ensure the
support of an entire Ethnic Group or even a whole People.

What role do the traditional kings of Black Africa play today? What
place do these traditional kings occupy in regional and national political
games and issues? In the period of current Africa marked by the return of
Traditional Kings in Modern politics, is Traditional Royalty an obstacle
or an asset to the good governance of Modern State Institutions?
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