# Unveiling the potential and specificity of the Mahoran ethnopharmacopoeia: A field survey

Tam-Hui Thibault, Eveno Yannick, Dimassi Abassi, Bertrand Cédric, Haddad

Mohamed, Chassagne François

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Tam-Hui Thibault, Eveno Yannick, Dimassi Abassi, Bertrand Cédric, Haddad Mohamed, et al.. Unveiling the potential and specificity of the Mahoran ethnopharmacopoeia: A field survey. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2025, 340, pp.119255. 10.1016/j.jep.2024.119255. hal-04909523

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# Unveiling the potential and specificity of the Mahoran ethnopharmacopoeia: A field survey

Tam-Hui Thibault<sup>a,b</sup>, Eveno Yannick<sup>b</sup>, Dimassi Abassi<sup>c</sup>, Bertrand Cédric<sup>b,d</sup>, Haddad Mohamed<sup>a</sup>, Chassagne François<sup>a,*</sup>

## ARTICLE INFO

Handling Editor: D M Leonti

**Keywords:**

Ethnobotany

Comoros islands

Traditional medicine

Medicinal plants

Africa

## ABSTRACT

**Ethnopharmacological relevance:** A significant portion of Mahoran people relies on traditional medicine to address their healthcare needs. However, very few studies have been carried out on this subject, and few data are available on the practices, plants used, and ailments most commonly treated by their traditional medicine.

**Aim of the study:** Within this context, the aim of this study was to identify the diseases most commonly treated by traditional Mahoran medicine, as well as the plants most commonly used against these various ailments.

**Materials and methods:** From January to April 2023, a semi-structured survey was carried out in Mayotte island. A total of 103 participants were interviewed including 65 non specialists, 21 knowledgeable, and 17 specialists. A thorough literature review was performed on the most cited plant species to evaluate the benefit-risk of each remedy.

**Results:** Participants mentioned using 474 remedies (prepared mostly with herbal ingredients) to treat 65 diseases. These diseases belong to various health categories of which the most represented ones were digestive system, respiratory system, genital system, general, and muscular system. The two most common ailments cited by participants were stomachache (41/103) and cough (36/103). A total of 154 plant species were identified, with *Coleus amboinicus*, *Citrus aurantiifolia*, *Moringa oleifera*, and *Ocimum gratissimum* being the main plants reported. Massage therapy was the second most important traditional practices reported after the use of herbal remedies.

**Conclusion:** Our survey confirms the importance of traditional medical practices in Mayotte island. The following plants: *Aerva lanata*, *Cardiospermum halicacabum*, *Coleus madagascariensis Paullinia pinnata*, and *Woodfordia fruticosa* stand out from the others in terms of their use and number of citations, and it would be interesting to study their pharmacological and toxicological properties. Traditional medicine in Mayotte also possesses specificities, notably with the use of particular ingredients such as salt, coral stone, or even white clay. Furthermore, throughout the study, we noticed that chronic diseases such as diabetes or hypertension were extensively treated. This could be linked to the fact that the prevalence of these diseases is quite high on the island.

## 1. Introduction

The island of Mayotte is the 101th French departement. It is inhabited by three main ethnic groups (Hagège et al., 2022). The Mahorans represent the main ethnic group, while the two others are the Comorians and the Malagasy (Hagège et al., 2022). This diversity is also reflected in the languages spoken on the island: Shimaoré (a language of Bantu origin, close to the languages of southern Africa) is the most

widely used mother tongue on the island, spoken by 71% of the population (Rombi, 2003). The second most widely spoken language is Shi-bushi (a language of Austronesian origin, close to the Malagasy languages), used by 23% of the population (Rombi, 2003). French is the mother tongue of just 2% of the population, but is understood and spoken by around 60% of Mayotte's inhabitants (Rombi, 2003).

Mayotte's flora includes over 1300 vascular species, of which 49 are endemic to Mayotte, 70 are endemic to the Comoros archipelago, 145 are endemic to the western Indian Ocean region, 400 species are

<footnote><sup>a</sup> UMR 152 PharmaDev, Université Paul Sabatier, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Toulouse, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup> Pôle d'excellence rurale, Coconi, Mayotte, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>c</sup> Conservatoire botanique national de Mascarin (CBN-CPIE Mascarin), Saint-Leu, La Réunion, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>d</sup> UAR 3278 CRIOBE, PSL Université Paris: EPHE-UPVD-CNRS, Université de Perpignan, Perpignan, France</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author. Université Paul Sabatier, Faculté de Pharmacie, 35 Chemin des Maraîchers, 31062 Cedex 09, Toulouse, France.
E-mail address: francois.chassagne@ird.fr (C. François).</footnote>
List of abbreviations

HBP High blood pressure

ICPC-3 International Classification of Primary Care

ORS Regional health observatory

UR Use-Reports

WHO World Health Organization

indigenous, and the remainder are exotic (Barthelat, 2019). The inhabitants of Mayotte have taken advantage of this biodiversity by making frequent use of traditional medicine in their health practices. In Mayotte, according to Fadul (2023), one person out of two use plants to treat themselves, although this proportion is probably much lower than the reality, since as in Reunion Island, 8 to 9 people out of 10 use phytotherapy for occasional treatment. In other words, a large proportion of the population of the island practice self-medication when they fall ill (Fadul, 2023). This is mainly due to the fact that it is easier to treat minor ailments (fever, flu, diarrhea) directly with plants, as it often takes several hours to see a doctor in a dispensary. For more serious illnesses (diabetes, high blood pressure), the Mahorans generally diagnose the condition in hospital and then use both modern and traditional medicine to treat it (Lartigau-Roussin, 2002). According to the regional health observatory (ORS), in 2019, only 53% of very low-income individuals consulted a general practitioner when they were sick, and only 11% of these individuals saw a specialist that year. In comparison, 70% of non-poor individuals consulted a general practitioner when sick, and 30% of them consulted a specialist in 2019 (Thibault et al., 2021). These figures are also justified by the fact that 77% of Mayotte's inhabitants live below the national poverty threshold (Balicchi et al., 2014).

So far, two ethnobotanical studies have been conducted on the island. The first was carried out in 2012 by Salaün. This initial study helped highlight the ethnobotanical knowledge of Maoulida Mchangama, who was the sole informant interviewed during the study. The survey identified 65 ailments and identified 127 plant species involved in the 65 remedies mentioned by Mchangama (Mchangama and Salaün, 2012). The second study was conducted in 2018 by Saive, during which 29 individuals were interviewed. The informants were distributed across the north, south, and center of the island. This survey led to the identification of 69 plant species (Saive et al., 2018). Overall, very few ethnobotanical studies have taken place in Mayotte. Furthermore, the studies that have been conducted did not focus on the entirety of the island and involved few informants.

So, with a view to the future development of products from the Mahoran ethnopharmacopoeia, we decided to conduct an ethnobotanical survey aiming to know which ailments are predominantly treated by traditional therapeutic practices, while identifying the plants most commonly used to treat these ailments. The data collected during the survey will be used to select one or more pathologies of interest to the community, as well as to select some culturally accepted medicinal plants that demonstrate potential therapeutic efficacy and safety profiles. The ultimate goal of this project is to help the Mahoran community capitalize on its terrestrial biodiversity so that it can subsequently benefit from new economic sectors, thereby contributing to the overall development of the island.

## 2. Materials and methods

### 2.1. Study area

The island of Mayotte is part of the Comoros archipelago in the Indian Ocean. It covers an area of 374 km², divided between Grande Terre and Petite Terre (Darouche et al., 2024). Grande-Terre is the department's main island, with a surface area of 363 km², and its highest

peaks are Monts Bénara, Choungui, Mtsapéré and Combani (Goff et al., 2013). This island is home to Mayotte's capital and economic hub, Mamoudzou (Dumont, 2005). The department's second largest island, Petite Terre, covers an area of just 11 km² (Darouche et al., 2024). With regard to the island's demographics, it should be noted that in 2019 the number of inhabitants counted was 270,372 (Hageège et al., 2022). Mayotte's mainland is made up of 17 communes and 13 cantons. This island has five main types of natural vegetation including mangrove, coastal forest, dry forest, high-altitude rainforest and low-altitude rainforest (Boullet, 2016), and it's inhabited by different communities (Mahoran, Malagasy, Comorian). To ensure a wide range of information, we performed our survey in all communes of mainland Mayotte, and 1 commune out of 2 from Petite Terre (Fig. 1).

### 2.2. Data collection

The survey was conducted from January 31, 2023 to April 28, 2023. A semi-structured interview was designed to gather information on the diseases most commonly encountered, as well as the remedies used to treat them. A questionnaire was used to guide the investigator in conducting the survey. This questionnaire was divided into 4 main sections.

* The first section deals with socio-demographic information: age, gender, place of residence, place of birth, mother tongue, occupation, education and religion

* The second section aimed to classify the informants into different categories of expertise: type of person treated (children, family, neighbors, people from other villages or outside Mayotte), source of knowledge, type of traditional practices (herbal therapies, massage, apitherapy, others)

* The third section focuses on the illnesses treated by the informants

* The last section provides information on the remedies used

Two different methods were used to meet informants: the first consisted in going door-to-door in a village to find potential informants to interview (93 interviews). The second method consisted in setting up an appointment with an informant at his home or on his plot, in order to perform the interview (10 interviews). These informants were previously selected based on snow ball sampling or by word of mouth. Several interviews required the presence of a translator (39 informants), given that the mother tongue of the majority of informants is shimaoré or shibushi. The majority of interviews were conducted individually (98 interviews), with only 2 interviews conducted in groups.

### 2.3. Botanical identification

Plants cited by participants were collected in the field by following the guidelines for collection of plant materials from Chassagne and Quave (2021). First, photographs of the plant to be collected were taken, then information on the plant characteristics, location, and habitat were recorded. Finally, three similar voucher specimens of each plant species were collected and deposited at three different herbaria. One was brought to the Herbier de l'Université de La Réunion (REU), Saint-Denis, La Réunion, another one was deposited at the herbarium from the Jardin Botanique Henri Gaussen (TL), Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Toulouse, France and the last one was deposited at the Pôle d'Excellence Rurale, Coconi, Mayotte. Botanical identification of each plant species was realized by M. Abassi DIMASSI. All plant names have been checked and updated according to international and local databases such as Plants of the World Online (https://powo.science.kew.org/).

### 2.4. Ethical considerations

In France, access to traditional knowledge in French overseas territories (except for French Guiana and Wallis and Futuna) does not require specific declarations to the authorities as part of the Nagoya protocol.
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 1. Map showing the locations of interviews in Mayotte island.</figcaption></figure>

However, this study has been developed in close consultation with the local authorities (Department of Mayotte and the Agency for Development and Innovation of Mayotte) and is part of a larger project aiming to help Mahoran people valorize their terrestrial resources. This project is directly related to the Rural Excellence Pole of Coconi, where a scientific laboratory has been developed to help achieve this valorization, which is part of the Integrated Innovation Pole of Mayotte (PI²M).

Before each interview, a consent form was submitted to the partici-
pant. The first part of the form described the objectives of the study and
how it would be carried out, in the form of an explanatory note. This first
sheet was given to the informants before the start of the interview. The
second part of the form contained the consent information, and was
signed by the participant and the interviewer before the interview
began. No personal information (last name, first name, date of birth,
personal address) was collected during the survey, allowing the partic-
ipants to remain anonymous.

## 2.5. Data analysis and visualization

A database was created, using Excel software, from the information
collected during the survey. The diseases cited were classified according
to the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-3), which is a
classification centered on the reason why a patient comes to consult a
practitioner (https://flyer.icpc-3.info/). Within the database, identical
remedies cited several times were grouped together, avoiding counting
several times the same remedy. For the purposes of this study, two
remedies are considered similar if their ingredients and the condition
they treat are exactly the same.

In addition, remedy preparation and administration methods were
grouped together when analyzing the data. For example, if the method is
"boil the plant in water and stand under a sheet with the pot". In the
database, the preparation method would be "decoction" and the route of
administration "inhalation". Version 0.10.1 of the Gephi software was
used to create relational graphs depicting the connections between
plants and the treated diseases.

Use-reports (UR) were employed to assess the quantitative

importance of each plant species and other ingredients used. We fol-
lowed the definition provided by Chassagne et al. (2023).

To assess the efficacy and safety of the most frequently cited plants, we conducted a bibliographic search focusing on preclinical studies (in vitro and animal studies) using Google Scholar with the following keywords: "scientific name of the plant" AND ["ethnobotany" OR "pharmacology" OR "toxicology" OR "phytochemistry"). We included only scientific articles and reviews published in journals with an impact factor above 1 and listed in the Scimago database (https://www.scimago.com/).

To create the map representing the study sites, we used QGIS soft-
ware v. 3.30.0.

3. Results

3.1. Socio-demographic data

A total of 103 informants were interviewed (Table 1), the majority of whom were women (66 informants, 64.1%). The average age of all informants was 50 years, with the most represented age groups being 41–50 (27 informants, 26.2%) and 51–60 (23 informants, 22.3%). Regarding the different communities surveyed, most informants were of Mahoran origin (90 informants, 87.4%), followed by people of Comorian (9 informants, 8.7%) and Malagasy (4 informants, 3.9%) origin. The most common mother tongue among informants was shimaoré (58 informants, 56.4%), followed by shibushi (40 informants, 38.8%), malagasy (4 informants, 3.9%) and finally comorian (1 informant, 0.9%).

3.2. Classification of the informants

The second section of the questionnaire provides information on the expertise level of informants. Based on the answers obtained from the various stakeholders, it is possible to establish a classification of the people we met. This classification is based on five different criteria, as follows.
<table><caption>**Table 1**
Socio-demographic characteristics of participants.</caption><thead><tr><th>Characteristics</th><th>Frequency</th><th>Percent (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Gender</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>66</td><td>64.1</td></tr><tr><td>Male</td><td>37</td><td>35.9</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Age</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>14–20 years</td><td>4</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td>21–30 years</td><td>9</td><td>8.7</td></tr><tr><td>31–40 years</td><td>14</td><td>13.6</td></tr><tr><td>41–50 years</td><td>27</td><td>26.2</td></tr><tr><td>51–60 years</td><td>23</td><td>22.3</td></tr><tr><td>61–70 years</td><td>19</td><td>18.5</td></tr><tr><td>71–80 years</td><td>5</td><td>4.9</td></tr><tr><td>81–90 years</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Residence (commune)</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Acoua</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Bandraboua</td><td>4</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td>Bandréle</td><td>5</td><td>4.9</td></tr><tr><td>Bouéni</td><td>9</td><td>8.7</td></tr><tr><td>Chiconi</td><td>4</td><td>3.8</td></tr><tr><td>Chirongui</td><td>17</td><td>16.6</td></tr><tr><td>Dembeni</td><td>8</td><td>7.8</td></tr><tr><td>Dzaoudzi</td><td>4</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td>Kani-Kély</td><td>12</td><td>11.6</td></tr><tr><td>Koungou</td><td>5</td><td>4.9</td></tr><tr><td>Mamoudzou</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>M'tsamboro</td><td>7</td><td>6.8</td></tr><tr><td>M'tsangamouji</td><td>6</td><td>5.9</td></tr><tr><td>Ouangani</td><td>9</td><td>8.7</td></tr><tr><td>Sada</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Tsingoni</td><td>7</td><td>6.8</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Origin</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mahoran</td><td>90</td><td>87.4</td></tr><tr><td>Comorian</td><td>9</td><td>8.7</td></tr><tr><td>Malagasy</td><td>4</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Native language</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Shimaoré</td><td>58</td><td>56.4</td></tr><tr><td>Shibushi</td><td>40</td><td>38.8</td></tr><tr><td>Malagasy</td><td>4</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td>Comorian</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Religion</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Muslim</td><td>102</td><td>99.1</td></tr><tr><td>None</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td><strong>Education</strong></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>No school</td><td>36</td><td>34.9</td></tr><tr><td>Primary school</td><td>8</td><td>7.8</td></tr><tr><td>Secondary school</td><td>8</td><td>7.8</td></tr><tr><td>High school</td><td>5</td><td>4.9</td></tr><tr><td>High school diploma</td><td>8</td><td>7.8</td></tr><tr><td>Vocational diploma</td><td>21</td><td>20.4</td></tr><tr><td>University</td><td>16</td><td>15.5</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr></tbody></table>

Legend: ND = Not documented.

* Reputation of the person

* Extent of people treated (family, neighbors, other villages, outside of Mayotte)

* Full-time or occasional practice of traditional medicine

* Remuneration by people treated

* Source of knowledge

Based on these criteria, it is possible to classify informants into three categories.

* The first category comprises the « experts » in traditional Mahoran medicine, known locally as “fundi” (21 informants, 20.4%). The average age of people in this category is 59 years old. There are more women than men in this category (14 women, 7 men). According to the results of this work, a “fundi” is a person who is known throughout the island of Mayotte for his or her knowledge of traditional medicine, and many “fundi” even provide remedies for people outside Mayotte. They are generally paid for their services (fixed

price or not), and hold their knowledge from their ancestors. It is noteworthy that this status is not self-declared; it is the people of the community or neighboring villages who bestow this title upon the practitioner. Some “fundi” are specialized in the treatment of well-defined illnesses such as sprains, fractures or diseases affecting children. In addition, there are “fundi” who, from birth, have a gift for healing people that can be passed down from generation to generation. There is also a local belief that fraternal twins possess a gift for healing people with traditional Mahoran medicine. The qualification of an informant as a “fundi” was therefore based on their established reputation within the community, their ancestral knowledge, and their demonstrated ability in traditional medicine, rather than any formal certification or self-identification.

* The second category consists of individuals who are known within a commune in Mayotte for their knowledge of traditional medicine (17 informants, 16.5%). The average age of people in this category is 52 years old. The proportion of men and women within this class is nearly equal (9 men, 8 women). These individuals are not considered experts or “fundi”. They give remedies to patients from other villages within the same commune, but not outside Mayotte. They may receive payment for their services. Unlike the “fundi”, these individuals are not known throughout the entire island.

* Finally, the last category corresponds to individuals who practice traditional medicine for themselves and their close ones (family, friends, neighbors) (65 informants, 62.5%). These individuals rarely go to the hospital as they have grown up using traditional medicine. The average age of this group is 45 years, and it consists of more women than men (45 women, 21 men).

### 3.3. Overview of the diseases reported

A total of 65 health problems were mentioned during the interviews (Table 2). The categories of diseases with the highest number of conditions are those affecting the digestive system (15 diseases, 23.1%), the respiratory system (8 diseases, 12.3%), and the genital system (7 diseases, 10.7%). In terms of the number of mentions by the informants, the category of diseases affecting the digestive system is the most frequently cited (107 mentions, 27.4%), followed by the respiratory system (65 mentions, 16.6%) and the genital system (45 mentions, 11.5%).

During the interviews, the informants mentioned an average of four different health disorders. The highest number of diseases mentioned by a single informant is 16. The five most frequently cited diseases are stomachache (41 mentions, 10.5%), cough (36 mentions, 9.2%), headache (30 mentions, 7.7%), fever (20 mentions, 5.1%), and high blood pressure (HBP) (16 mentions, 4.1%). Among all the diseases, seven were mentioned with names in shimaore, five were mentioned in shibushi and the rest were in french.

Seven diseases could not be classified according to the ICPC-3. Therefore, these seven diseases were grouped under the category of “other unclassified diseases”. Among these, 4 could not be classified due to the absence of a vernacular name in french, and the other three do not appear in the ICPC-3 list.

### 3.4. Overview of traditional medicine practices in Mayotte

#### 3.4.1. Presentation of the practices

Based on the data collected from the informants, traditional medicine in Mayotte predominantly involves biological treatments (472 remedies, 1017 UR) and manipulation-based treatments (2 treatments, 4 UR). These manipulation-based treatments consist of massages performed using coconut oil for sprains (2 UR) and fractures (2 UR).

The most commonly used ingredients in biological treatments are plants (916 UR, 90.1%), followed by processed or food products (items that have undergone processing or purchased at the market, such as salt, coconut oil, sugar, rice) (55 UR, 5.4%), animal products (coral stone, honey, shark oil, horse excrement, egg white, milk) (43 UR, 4.3%),
<table><caption>**Table 2**
Categories, names and citations of the diseases.</caption><thead><tr><th>ICPC-3 classification</th><th>Disorders (english translation)</th><th>Disorders (shimaoré, shibushi and/or french name)</th><th>Number of informants</th><th>Percent (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Digestive system</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Maux de ventre (french)</td><td>41</td><td>39.8</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Diarrhée (french)</td><td>15</td><td>14.5</td></tr><tr><td>Hernia</td><td>Mushipa (shimaoré), hernie (french)</td><td>12</td><td>11.6</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Hémorroïdes (french)</td><td>8</td><td>7.8</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Douleurs intestinales (french)</td><td>8</td><td>7.8</td></tr><tr><td>Toothache</td><td>Maux de dents (french)</td><td>7</td><td>6.8</td></tr><tr><td>Belly cleansing for the women who have just given birth</td><td>Lavage d'estomac pour les femmes qui viennent d'accoucher (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Jaundice</td><td>Jaunisse (french)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>Foudzoi (shimaoré)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>Acid reflux</td><td>Remontée gastrique (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Constipation</td><td>Constipation (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Niochy (shimaoré), aphte (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Liver pain</td><td>Douleurs au foie</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>Touhigni (shibushi)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>Travé (shimaoré), adoua mimba (shibushi)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Respiratory system</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Toux (french)</td><td>36</td><td>34.9</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Asthme (french)</td><td>7</td><td>6.8</td></tr><tr><td>Covid-19</td><td>Covid-19 (french)</td><td>6</td><td>5.8</td></tr><tr><td>Tonsilitis, sore throat</td><td>Maux de gorge (french)</td><td>5</td><td>4.9</td></tr><tr><td>Influenza, flu</td><td>Grippe (french)</td><td>4</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td>Nasopharyngitis, cold</td><td>Rhume (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Nosebleed</td><td>Saignement du nez (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>Wanatsa (shimaoré)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Genital system</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Infertilité féminine (french)</td><td>14</td><td>13.6</td></tr><tr><td>Painful periods</td><td>Règles douloureuses (french)</td><td>12</td><td>11.6</td></tr><tr><td>Impotence</td><td>Impuissance (french)</td><td>11</td><td>10.7</td></tr><tr><td>Fibroma</td><td>Fibrome (french)</td><td>5</td><td>4.8</td></tr><tr><td>Long-lasting periods</td><td>Règles qui durent longtemps (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Perineal massage</td><td>Massage du périnée (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Vaginal inflammation</td><td>Inflammation vaginale (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Neurological system</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Maux de tête (french)</td><td>30</td><td>29.1</td></tr><tr><td>Dizziness</td><td>Malaises (french)</td><td>5</td><td>4.9</td></tr><tr><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Épilepsie (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>**Table 2 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><th>ICPC-3 classification</th><th>Disorders (english translation)</th><th>Disorders (shimaoré, shibushi and/or french name)</th><th>Number of informants</th><th>Percent (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">General</td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Douleurs articulaires et musculaires (french)</td><td>16</td><td>15.5</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>Entorse (french)</td><td>8</td><td>7.8</td></tr><tr><td>Back pain</td><td>Douleurs aux dos</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Feet pain</td><td>Douleurs aux pieds (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Fracture (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Fièvre (french)</td><td>20</td><td>19.4</td></tr><tr><td>Rash, itching</td><td>Boutons, démangeaisons (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Dengue</td><td>Dengue (french)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>Chickenpox</td><td>Varicelle (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Chikungunya</td><td>Chikungunya (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Circulatory system</strong></td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Hypertension artérielle (french)</td><td>16</td><td>15.5</td></tr><tr><td>Blood circulation problem</td><td>Problème de circulation sanguine (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Endocrine system</strong></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Skin</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Diabète (french)</td><td>14</td><td>13.5</td></tr><tr><td>Wounds, injury</td><td>Plaies, blessures (french)</td><td>9</td><td>8.7</td></tr><tr><td>Haematoma</td><td>Hématome (french)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>Skin depigmentation</td><td>Décoloration pigmentaire (french)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Ear</td><td>Furuncle</td><td>Furoncle (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis externa</td><td>Otite (french)</td><td>6</td><td>5.8</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Psychological system</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Child enuresis</td><td>Énurésie chez les enfants (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>Anaphrodisia</td><td>Anaphrodisie (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Pregnancy and child bearing</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Facilitation of child birth</td><td>Facilitation de l'accouchement (french)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>Pain during child birth</td><td>Douleurs lors de l'accouchement (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5"><strong>Urinary system</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Urinary tract infection</td><td>Infection urinaire (french)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>Difficulty urinating</td><td>Difficulté à uriner (french)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Eye</td><td>Infectious conjunctivitis</td><td>Conjonctivite (french)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>Other unclassified diseases</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Abscess</td><td>Abcès (french)</td><td>4</td><td>3.9</td></tr><tr><td>Fontanelle</td><td>Fontanelle (french)</td><td>3</td><td>2.9</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>Vourgnegni (shibushi)</td><td>2</td><td>1.9</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>Tchéwé (shimaoré)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>Baridi mimba (shimaoré)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>ND</td><td>Kadi (shibushi)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr><tr><td>People who wants to lose belly fat</td><td>Personne qui veulent perdre du ventre (français)</td><td>1</td><td>0.9</td></tr></tbody></table>

Legend: ND = Not documented.
mineral products (white clay locally known as "tany malandy" in shi-
bushi) (2 UR, 0.2%), and other products (sewing needle) (1 UR, 0.1%).

3.4.2. *The remedies*

A total of 474 remedies were mentioned during the interviews, out of which 394 remedies were unique. These unique remedies have different ingredients, use different parts of the plant when ingredients are the same, and are employed for distinct diseases. The maximum number of remedies cited by a single informant was 15, and on average, informants mentioned 5 remedies.

Among these 394 unique remedies, the majority were single-
ingredient remedies (199 remedies, 246 UR). Following the single-
ingredient remedies were those composed of two ingredients (102
remedies, 126 UR), followed by three-ingredients remedies (43 rem-
edies, 46 UR), four-ingredients remedies (27 remedies, 29 UR), five-
ingredients remedies (11 remedies, 11 UR), six-ingredients remedies
(7 remedies, 7 UR), and seven-ingredients remedies (4 remedies, 5 UR).
The most complex remedy consisted of eight ingredients (1 remedy, 1
UR).

A significant portion of these unique remedies were solely composed of plants (327 remedies, 68.9% of the total remedies, 383 UR). The remaining remedies mentioned were mixtures of plants and other ingredients (processed or food products, animal products, mineral products, other products) (66 remedies, 87 UR), with only one remedy not containing any plant ingredients (1 remedy, 1 UR). Among the other ingredients, salt was the most cited (45 UR), followed by coral stone (27 UR) and honey (11 UR).

The diseases that had the highest number of remedies mentioned
were stomachache (43 remedies, 56 UR), cough (34 remedies, 54 UR),
headache (33 remedies, 38 UR), fever (25 remedies, 30 UR), HBP (19
remedies, 21 UR), and diabetes (19 remedies, 24 UR).

3.4.3. *Herbal ingredients*

A total of 154 plants were identified in our survey (Table 3). The eleven most cited species are as follows: *Coleus amboinicus* (44 UR, 5.4 %), *Citrus aurantiifolia* (32 UR, 3.9 %), *Moringa oleifera* (31 UR, 3.8 %), *Ocimum gratissimum* (31 UR, 3.8 %), *Psidium guajava* (25 UR, 3.1 %), *Syzygium aromaticum* (22 UR, 2.7 %), *Woodfordia fruticosa* (22 UR, 2.7 %), *Cocos nucifera* (18 UR, 2.2 %), *Curcuma longa* (18 UR, 2.2 %), *Aerva lanata* (17 UR, 2.1 %) and *Coleus madagascariensis* (17 UR, 2.1 %).

The 154 plant species considered belong to 65 distinct botanical families. Among these 154 species, 98 are exotic (63.7%), 53 are indigenous (34.4%), 1 is endemic to the Comoros islands (*Aloe alexandrei*) and 2 are endemic to Mayotte (*Aloe mayottensis*, *Croton mayottae*). The botanical families mentioned with the highest number of species are the Fabaceae (15 species, 9.7%), the Lamiaceae (12 species, 5.1%), the Asteraceae (8 species, 5.2%), the Euphorbiaceae (7 species, 4.5%), the Annonaceae (5 species, 3.2%), the Malvaceae (5 species, 3.2%), and the Rutaceae (5 species, 3.2%).

The plant parts most commonly used are the leaves (114 species, 74%), followed by the roots (25 species, 16.2%), the vines (17 species, 11.1%), the fruits (11 species, 7.1%), the bark (9 species, 5.8%), and the stems (5 species, 3.4%). In terms of citations, the leaves are still the most prevalent (558 UR, 69.1%), followed by the fruits (46 UR, 5.7%), the vines (43 UR, 5.3%), the roots (39 UR, 4.8%), the rhizomes (35 UR, 4.3%), and the bark (17 UR, 2.1%).

Regarding the methods of plant preparation, the most commonly
used method is decoction (Fig. 2A) (119 species, 77.2%). The others
most employed preparation methods involve crushing the dried plant
using a mortar or in the palm of one's hand (Fig. 2B and C) (35 species,
22.7%), crushing the plant in water (20 species, 12.8%), and scraping
the plant on coral stone (11 species, 7.1%). In terms of citations, the
prevalence order is the same: decoction (478 UR, 59.2%), crushing the
dried plant (104 UR, 12.9%), crushing the plant in water (45 UR, 5.6%),
and finally scraping the plant on coral stone (28 UR, 3.5%).

The most commonly used administration methods are as follows:

oral route (128 species, 83.1%), cutaneous route (58 species, 37.7%),
inhalation (25 species, 16.2%), and nasal route (8 species, 5.2%). Once
again, the prevalence order is the same in terms of citation: oral route
(602 UR, 65.7%), topical route (204 UR, 22.3%), inhalation (86 UR,
9.4%), and nasal route (12 UR, 1.3%).

Regarding the dosage (duration and frequency of treatment, quantity administered), it is specified for 345 out of the 393 unique plant-based remedies (72.8% of the total remedies). Among these remedies, 49 remedies have a treatment duration of seven days. Within these 49 remedies, 23 remedies are administered three times a day, 19 are administered twice a day, and seven are administered once a day. Sixteen remedies have a treatment duration of three days. Among these 16 remedies, three are administered three times a day, seven are administered twice a day, and six are administered once a day. Finally, 287 remedies have an unknown treatment duration. Among these 287 remedies, there are 110 remedies administered three times a day, 83 administered twice a day, and 94 administered once a day.

3.4.4. Other ingredients

Among the 394 unique remedies, six animal-derived ingredients are mentioned by the participants, with a total of 43 UR. Among these ingredients, the most cited one is coral stone (20 participants, 28 UR) (Fig. 3A,B,C), followed by honey (10 participants, 11 UR), egg (1 participant, 1 UR), horse manure (1 participant, 1 UR), milk (1 participant, 1 UR), and shark oil (1 participant, 1 UR). The most referenced administration method is the cutaneous route (20 participants, 23 UR). Sprained ankle is the most treated condition with these ingredients (8 participants, 9 UR), followed by headaches (5 participants, 6 UR), and cough (5 participants, 6 UR).

Within the unique remedies, four ingredients are derived from food or processed products. Among these ingredients, salt is the most cited (33 participants, 45 UR), followed by coconut oil (6 participants, 6 UR), rice (3 participants, 3 UR), and sugar (1 participant, 1 UR). The other non-plant ingredients used are white clay locally known as “tany malandy” (2 participants, 2 citations) (Fig. 3D), and a sewing needle (1 participant, 1 citation). White clay is used in remedies against evil spirits, also known as “djinn” in Shimaoré. The clay is mixed with other plants in a decoction for purification rituals. One informant also mentioned the use of sewing needles as a remedy for impotence. The needles are stuck into tree bark, which is then boiled together with the bark itself. After boiling, the liquid is poured into another container without the bark (and without the needle) and drink by the afflicted person.

3.4.5. Other aspects of traditional medicine in Mayotte

During the study, some informants provided additional information regarding traditional medicine in Mayotte. Participants often mentioned that the use of certain remedies imposes dietary restrictions, but this practice is specific to women undergoing fertility treatments. Nine participants stated that when a woman takes a remedy for infertility, she should not consume chili peppers (9 out of 9 participants), limes (8 out of 9 participants), carbonated drinks (3 out of 9 participants), chives (2 out of 9 participants), turmeric (2 out of 9 participants), ice-cold water (2 out of 9 participants), garlic (1 out of 9 participants), and ginger (1 out of 9 participants). Additionally, two participants emphasized the importance of not taking conventional medications when a sick person is already treating with herbal remedies. Another restriction mentioned by one informant is to avoid going out during sunrise and sunset for the remedy to work effectively. Also, one informant highlighted the need to consume traditional remedies with food and not on an empty stomach.

Another characteristic of traditional medicine in Mayotte pertains to the harvesting of plants. According to six participants, it is important to recite a prayer before harvesting the plant to ensure the effectiveness of the remedy. This prayer is locally known as "bismillah" (a formula used by Muslims as a blessing). Regarding the timing of plant harvesting, four participants mentioned the importance of picking plants on specific days
<table><caption>**Table 3**
Ethnobotanical data of the 154 plant species identified.</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Abrus precatorius L.</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 031</td><td>M'bilimbitsi</td><td>Maso na ombygara</td><td>Œil du diable</td><td>7</td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water/Cold maceration</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Acalypha indica L.</td><td rowspan="2">Euphorbiaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 077</td><td rowspan="2">Chamanakora</td><td rowspan="2">Hayti ambandriha</td><td rowspan="2">Herbe chat</td><td rowspan="2">3</td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush, press</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Adansonia digitata L.</td><td>Malvaceae</td><td>TTH 022</td><td>M'buyu</td><td>Boyo</td><td>Baobab</td><td>3</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult.</td><td rowspan="7">Amaranthaceae</td><td rowspan="7">TTH 057</td><td rowspan="7">Shiva arya</td><td rowspan="7">Hanga moti</td><td rowspan="7">ND</td><td rowspan="7">12</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Bark</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Bark</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Haematoma</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Eat</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Dry leaf/Leaf/ Liana</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Belly cleansing for the women who have just given birth</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fibroma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Ageratum conyzoides L.</td><td>Asteraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Mwana be</td><td>Be mahiimbokely</td><td>Herbe de bouc</td><td>1</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Allium sativum L.</td><td rowspan="2">Amaryllidaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Ail</td><td rowspan="2">4</td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Dry leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Aloe alexandrei Ellert</td><td>Asphodelaceae</td><td>TTH 013</td><td>Shizya m'lili</td><td>Sakoankankini</td><td>Aloe des Comores</td><td>1</td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Aloe mayottensis A. Berger</td><td>Asphodelaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shizya m'lili</td><td>Sakoankankini</td><td>Aloe de Mayotte</td><td>2</td><td>Blood circulation problem</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.</td><td rowspan="2">Asphodelaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Aloe</td><td rowspan="2">2</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Annona muricata L.</td><td rowspan="2">Annonaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 103</td><td rowspan="2">Konokono miba</td><td rowspan="2">Konokono fatsiky</td><td rowspan="2">Corossol</td><td rowspan="2">6</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Impotence</td><td>Bulb</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Annona senegalensis Pers.</td><td rowspan="2">Annonaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 007</td><td rowspan="2">Konokono manga</td><td rowspan="2">Porpetraka</td><td rowspan="2">Annone du Sénégal</td><td rowspan="2">8</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Wounds, injury</td><td>Gel</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Aloe mayottensis A. Berger</td><td rowspan="2">Asphodelaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">Shizya m'lili</td><td rowspan="2">Sakoankankini</td><td rowspan="2">Aloe des Comores</td><td rowspan="2">2</td><td>Fever</td><td>Gel</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Gel</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Annona muricata L.</td><td rowspan="3">Annonaceae</td><td rowspan="3">TTH 103</td><td rowspan="3">Konokono miba</td><td rowspan="3">Konokono fatsiky</td><td rowspan="3">Corossol</td><td rowspan="3">6</td><td>Dizziness</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Nasal</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Annona senegalensis Pers.</td><td rowspan="2">Annonaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 007</td><td rowspan="2">Konokono manga</td><td rowspan="2">Porpetraka</td><td rowspan="2">Annone du Sénégal</td><td rowspan="2">8</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Annona senegalensis Pers.</td><td rowspan="2">Annonaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 007</td><td rowspan="2">Konokono manga</td><td rowspan="2">Porpetraka</td><td rowspan="2">Annone du Sénégal</td><td rowspan="2">8</td><td>Sprain</td><td>Root</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Abscess</td><td>Branch/Root</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Annona muricata L.</td><td rowspan="2">Annonaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 103</td><td rowspan="2">Konokono miba</td><td rowspan="2">Konokono fatsiky</td><td rowspan="2">Corossol</td><td rowspan="2">6</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Bark/Leaf/ Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Root</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="10">Annona squamossa L.</td><td rowspan="10">Annonaceae</td><td rowspan="10">TTH 014</td><td rowspan="10">Konokono matsu</td><td rowspan="10">Konokono</td><td rowspan="10">Pomme cannelle</td><td rowspan="10">8</td><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Haematoma</td><td>Branch</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Dizziness</td><td>Dry fruit/Leaf</td><td>Crush/Heat</td><td>Nasal/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Fruit/Leaf</td><td>Crush in water/ Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Nosebleed</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Constipation</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey. Ex Arn.</td><td>Metteniusaceae</td><td>TTH 045</td><td>Bako m'dzuani</td><td>Bako mdzoani mena</td><td>Peau gris</td><td>1</td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf/Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Artemisia sp.</td><td>Asteraceae</td><td>TTH 079</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>"Vourgnegni" (shibushi)</td><td>Flower/Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Averrhoa bilimbi L.</td><td rowspan="3">Oxalidaceae</td><td rowspan="3">NC</td><td rowspan="3">Waju</td><td rowspan="3">Madiro</td><td rowspan="3">Bilimbi</td><td rowspan="3">1</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush, filter</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush, filter</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.</td><td>Acanthaceae</td><td>TTH 004</td><td>M'siri</td><td>Afy Afy</td><td>Palétuvier blanc</td><td>2</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ayapana triplinervis (Vahl) R.M.King &amp; H.Rob.</td><td>Asteraceae</td><td>TTH 113</td><td>Lalapona</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Azadirachta indica A. Juss.</td><td>Meliaceae</td><td>TTH 005</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Margousier</td><td>2</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Barleria lupulina Lindl.</td><td>Acanthaceae</td><td>TTH 053</td><td>ND</td><td>Mamy lahy</td><td>Barbelé mahorais</td><td>1</td><td>All diseases</td><td>Leaf/Stem</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Bidens pilosa L.</td><td rowspan="2">Asteraceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 027</td><td rowspan="2">Tailamba</td><td rowspan="2">Tyalamba be</td><td rowspan="2">Herbe sornette</td><td rowspan="2">3</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Toothache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) B.Heyne ex Roth</td><td rowspan="3">Acanthaceae</td><td rowspan="3">NC</td><td rowspan="3">Mani malilo</td><td rowspan="3">Tsipotiky vavy</td><td rowspan="3">ND</td><td rowspan="3">1</td><td>Dizziness</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Put the plant in a pot until it smokes</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Wounds, injury</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. Ex Savigny</td><td>Rhizophoraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>M'honko n'dzishe</td><td>Honko vavy</td><td>Manglier gros poumon</td><td>1</td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 084</td><td>M'tsuzi</td><td>Ambatry</td><td>Ambrévade</td><td>2</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Calophyllum inophyllum L.</td><td>Calophyllaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>M'tondro</td><td>Mtondro</td><td>Takamaka</td><td>1</td><td>Feet pain</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Cannabis sativa L.</td><td rowspan="2">Cannabaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Chanvre</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Toothache</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction in sea water</td><td>Oral (gargle)</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td rowspan="2"></td><td>Jaundice</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Cardiospermum halicacabum L.</td><td>Sapindaceae</td><td>TTH 128</td><td>Kanussa</td><td>Motso hokatso</td><td>Liane poc-poc</td><td>11</td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Cold maceration/ Crush in water</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Carica papaya L.</td><td rowspan="5">Caricaceae</td><td rowspan="5">NC</td><td rowspan="5">M'papaya</td><td rowspan="5">ND</td><td rowspan="5">Papayer</td><td rowspan="5">11</td><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf/Liana</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>"Vourgnegni" (shibushi)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction, bath</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Carissa spinarum L.</td><td rowspan="2">Apocynaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">M'djanfari</td><td rowspan="2">Taola na omby</td><td rowspan="2">Bois sandal</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Constipation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Cassytha filiformis L.</td><td rowspan="3">Lauraceae</td><td rowspan="3">TTH 001</td><td rowspan="3">Shirunga kange tandri</td><td rowspan="3">Tsihitafotrota tamotamo</td><td rowspan="3">ND</td><td rowspan="3">2</td><td>Dengue</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Chikungunya</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Influenza, flu</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don</td><td>Apocynaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Pervenche de Madagascar</td><td>2</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.</td><td>Malvaceae</td><td></td><td>M'pembafuma</td><td>Pemba fuma</td><td>Kapok</td><td>1</td><td>Headache</td><td>Wood</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Chamaecrista pratensis (R.Vig.) Du Puy</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 048</td><td>Shibalabala maitso</td><td>Sary fatsiky ambili</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Cinnamomum verum J. Presl</td><td rowspan="2">Lauraceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">M'darasini</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Cannelle</td><td rowspan="2">2</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Cissampelos pareira L. Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle</td><td rowspan="2">Menispermaceae Rutaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 102 NC</td><td rowspan="2">Nya nyombe ND</td><td rowspan="2">Sala lobo ND</td><td rowspan="2">Liane blanche Citron vert</td><td rowspan="2">2 19</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf/Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Young leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Citrus hystrix DC.</td><td rowspan="10">Rutaceae</td><td rowspan="10">NC</td><td rowspan="10">ND</td><td rowspan="10">ND</td><td rowspan="10">Combava</td><td rowspan="10">1</td><td>Wounds, injury</td><td>Leaf, stem</td><td>Burn and recover ashes</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Impotence</td><td>Bark</td><td>Crush, infusion/ Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Liana</td><td>Crush in water/Grate</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf/Fruit</td><td>Crush/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf/Fruit</td><td>Crush/Decoction</td><td>Inhalation/Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf/Fruit</td><td>Crush/Decoction</td><td>Cutaneaus/ Inhalation/Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Influenza, flu</td><td>Leaf/Fruit</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Dengue</td><td>Leaf/Fruit</td><td>Crush/Decoction</td><td>Inhalation/Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf/Fruit</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Feet pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf/Fruit</td><td>Cold maceration/ Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Tonsilitis, sore throat</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Dry leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Citrus sinensis f. sekkan Hayata</td><td>Rutaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Oranger</td><td>2</td><td>Anaprodisia</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cleome viscosa L.</td><td>Cleomaceae</td><td>TTH 075</td><td>M'ramli</td><td>Ramli</td><td>Cléome visqueux</td><td>1</td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Clitoria ternatea L.</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 092</td><td>Shilepe</td><td>Femehifary</td><td>Corbeille d'or</td><td>1</td><td>Otitis externa</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Auricular</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cocos nucifera L.</td><td>Arecaceae</td><td></td><td>M'nadzi irashi</td><td>Voanyo morashi</td><td>Cocotier</td><td>12</td><td>Infectious conjunctivitis</td><td>Flower</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Ocular</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Headache</td><td>Fruit/Fruit (milk)/Fruit (oil)</td><td>Crush, press/Crush, heat/Decoction/Grate</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Fruit (milk)/Fruit (oil)</td><td>Crush/Grush in water</td><td>Cutaneaus/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>"Foudzoi" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf/Fruit (oil)</td><td>Burn and recover ashes</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Back pain</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fever</td><td>Fruit (milk)</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncle</td><td>Fruit (oil)</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Haematoma</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Impotence</td><td>Fruit (empty shell)</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Liver pain</td><td>Fruit (milk)</td><td>Heat</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Otitis externa</td><td>Fruit (oil)</td><td>Crush</td><td>Auricular</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sprain</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Grush, press/Decoction/Decoction until color changes/Eat</td><td>Cutaneaus/Oral</td><td>30</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus amboinicus Lour.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>TTH 60</td><td>Parauvi</td><td>Paraovy lahy</td><td>Gros thym</td><td>30</td><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Grush, press/Decoction until color changes/Eat</td><td>Cutaneaus/Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Grush in water</td><td>Cutaneaus/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Nasopharyngitis, cold</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Nasal</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Tonsilitis, sore throat</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush, infusion/Grush in water/Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus madagascariensis (Pers.) A.Chev.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>TTH 098</td><td>Parauvi doumé</td><td>ND</td><td>Parauvi de Madagascar</td><td>17</td><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus sp.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>TTH 074</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Combretum micranthum G.Don</td><td>Combretaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>Kinkéliba</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Branch</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cordia myxa L.</td><td>Boraginaceae</td><td>TTH 036</td><td>M'rovu</td><td>Salelo</td><td>La colle</td><td>3</td><td>Urinary tract infection</td><td>Branch</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>"Baridi mimba" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K.D.Hill & L.A.S.Johnson</td><td rowspan="2">Myrtaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Kinini</td><td rowspan="2">Eucalyptus citronnelle</td><td rowspan="2">4</td><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Crocus sativus L. Croton mayottae P.E. Berry & Kainul</td><td rowspan="2">Iridaceae Euphorbiaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC TTH 015</td><td rowspan="2">ND Muhuve</td><td rowspan="2">ND Sary laza laza</td><td>Safran</td><td>1</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Croton glanduleux</td><td>1</td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Cold maceration</td><td>Oral/Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Cucumis anguria L.</td><td rowspan="2">Cucurbitaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 126</td><td rowspan="2">Shirangu m'ba</td><td rowspan="2">Antsikiri vaolavo</td><td rowspan="2">Concombre marron</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cucumis melo L.</td><td>Cucurbitaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Melon</td><td>1</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Curcuma longa L.</td><td rowspan="2">Zingiberaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">M'tsinzano</td><td rowspan="2">Tamotamo</td><td rowspan="2">Curcuma</td><td rowspan="2">14</td><td>Headache</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Heat/Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Cyanthillium albicans (DC.) H.Rob.</td><td rowspan="2">Asteraceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 096</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Sprain</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Wounds, injury</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush/Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf</td><td rowspan="7">Poaceae</td><td rowspan="7">TTH 058</td><td rowspan="7">ND</td><td rowspan="7">ND</td><td rowspan="7">Citronnelle</td><td rowspan="7">5</td><td>Abscess</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush, filter</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>"Foudzoi" (shimaoré)</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Burn and recover ashes</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fracture</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Influenza, flu</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="11">Daucus carota L. Decalobanthus peltatus (L.) A.R Simões & Staples</td><td rowspan="11">Apiaceae Convolvulaceae</td><td rowspan="11">NC</td><td rowspan="11">ND</td><td rowspan="11">ND</td><td rowspan="11">Fakamboka</td><td rowspan="11">Carotte</td><td rowspan="11">1</td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Feet pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Anaphrodisia</td><td>Root</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Belly cleansing for women who have just given birth</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction, bath</td><td>Cutaneaus, inhalation</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Dry liana/ liana/Root</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf/Liana</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="15">Dodonaea viscosa Jacq.</td><td rowspan="15">Sapindaceae</td><td rowspan="15">TTH 037</td><td rowspan="15">Shihoja</td><td rowspan="15">Dinga dinga</td><td rowspan="15">Bois d'arnette</td><td rowspan="15">15</td><td>"Baridi mimba" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Dry liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Influenza, flu</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush, heat/Crush, press</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>"Baridi mimba" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Child enuresis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Urinary tract infection</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Dracaena canaliculata (Carrière) Byng & Christenh</td><td>Asparagaceae</td><td>TTH 030</td><td>M'kokoboa</td><td>Vitiposha</td><td>Sansevière</td><td>1</td><td>Otitis externa</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Auricular</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Elephantopus mollis Kunth</td><td>Asteraceae</td><td>TTH 123</td><td>M'kambwi</td><td>Sary lobaka</td><td>Herbe tabac</td><td>7</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water/ Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="7">Erythroxylum platyclados Bojer</td><td rowspan="7">Erythroxylaceae</td><td rowspan="7">TTH 008</td><td rowspan="7">M'honko wa malavuni</td><td rowspan="7">Tapiyaka</td><td rowspan="7">Érythroxylon à cladodes</td><td rowspan="7">3</td><td>Abscess</td><td>Flower, leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Fibroma</td><td>Stem</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Rash, itching</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hernia</td><td>Wood</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Euphorbia hirta L.</td><td rowspan="5">Euphorbiaceae</td><td rowspan="5">TTH 124</td><td rowspan="5">Dzyadziki n'drume</td><td rowspan="5">Kimenamena lahy</td><td rowspan="5">Herbe à dysenterie</td><td rowspan="5">7</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility "Foudzoi" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>"Tchéwé" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction, bath</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr.</td><td>Salicaceae</td><td>TTH 006</td><td>M'tsongoma</td><td>Lamonti</td><td>Prunier de Madagascar</td><td>1</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Flueggea virosa (Roxb. Ex Willd.) Royle</td><td>Phyllanthaceae</td><td>TTH 021</td><td>M'homba</td><td>Koutrika</td><td>Fluegée vireuse</td><td>1</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Grona triflora (L.) H. Ohashi & K.Ohashi</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 085</td><td>Tsomouadzi</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Blood circulation problem</td><td>Leaf, stem</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Guilandina major (Medik.) Small</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 100</td><td>M'tso</td><td>Katra</td><td>Cadoque</td><td>4</td><td>"Vourgnegni" (shibushi)</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. Ex Sm.</td><td>Apocynaceae</td><td>TTH 002</td><td>ND</td><td>Pamba soisoi lava raviny</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf/Root</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Hemionitis viridis (Forssk.) Sw.</td><td>Pteridaceae</td><td>TTH 118</td><td>Moukalakatra</td><td>Kangadja</td><td>Pellée verte</td><td>1</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Hibiscus surattensis L.</td><td>Malvaceae</td><td>TTH 040</td><td>Uhaha</td><td>Rango rango balala</td><td>Oseille malbar</td><td>3</td><td>Infectious conjunctivitis</td><td>Liana</td><td>Crush</td><td>Ocular</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf</td><td>Poaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Sandze</td><td>Hai mosy</td><td>Jarahua</td><td>2</td><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Illicium verum Hook.f.</td><td>Schisandraseae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Anis étoilé</td><td>1</td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Indigofera hirsuta L.</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 135</td><td>ND</td><td>Sary orova</td><td>Indigotier hirsute</td><td>1</td><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. Ex Choisy</td><td>Convolvulaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>Fakanboka</td><td>Ipomée fistuleuse</td><td>1</td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl.</td><td>Convolvulaceae</td><td>TTH 086</td><td>Koveani</td><td>Mohoveni malandy</td><td>Ipomée obscure</td><td>12</td><td>"Tchéwé" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction, bath</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br.</td><td>Convolvulaceae</td><td>TTH 003</td><td>Pupum'tsanga</td><td>Lalandrana</td><td>Patate à Durand</td><td>5</td><td>Fibroma</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Jasminum officinale L.</td><td>Oleaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Jasmin</td><td>2</td><td>Pain during child birth</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Jatropha curcas L.</td><td>Euphorbiaceae</td><td>TTH 016</td><td>M'tsumu</td><td>Valavelo</td><td>Médicinier</td><td>8</td><td>"Vourgnegni" (shibushi)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction, bath</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.</td><td>Crassulaceae</td><td>TTH 017</td><td>Meawani</td><td>Sodifafa</td><td>Choux de fafe</td><td>11</td><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf/Liana</td><td>Crush in water/Decoction/Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneaus/Oral</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf/Liana</td><td>Cold maceration/ Crush in water</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf/Liana</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Feet pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf, stem</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Back pain</td><td>Flower</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Headache</td><td>Flower</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Dry flower</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sprain</td><td>Flower</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Toothache</td><td>Bark</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral (gargle)</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Wounds, injury</td><td>Sap</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>"Wanatsa" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Grush, filter</td><td>Cutaneaus/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Heat/Grush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Heat/Grush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Asthma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush, filter</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.</td><td>Cucurbitaceae</td><td>TTH 044</td><td>Shitsuva</td><td>Kasingi</td><td>Calebasse</td><td>1</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Lantana camara L.</td><td>Verbenaceae</td><td>TTH 090</td><td>M'bwasera</td><td>Fatsiky madani</td><td>Corbeille d'or</td><td>7</td><td>Haematoma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Lantana strigocamara R.W.Sanders</td><td>Verbenaceae</td><td>TTH 109</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Otitis externa</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Auricular</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Lawsonia inermis L.</td><td>Lythraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Hina</td><td>Mwina vavy</td><td>Henné</td><td>1</td><td>Wounds, injury</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Heat</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Leptadenia madagascariensis Decne.</td><td>Apocynaceae</td><td>TTH 054</td><td>ND</td><td>Pamba soisoi</td><td>Leptadenia de Madagascar</td><td>3</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Leucas grandis Vatke</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>TTH 089</td><td>M'tsamoa</td><td>Ahody tsiheny</td><td>ND</td><td>4</td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Crush in water/ Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. Ex Britton & P. Wilson</td><td>Verbenaceae</td><td>TTH 129</td><td>Nana</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>2</td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob</td><td>Lauraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>M'zavoca maro</td><td>Zavoca maro</td><td>Avocat sauvage</td><td>1</td><td>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Mentha suaveolens Ehrh.</td><td rowspan="2">Lamiaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Alicoli</td><td rowspan="2">Menthe</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Miconia crenata (Vahl) Michelang.</td><td rowspan="2">Melastomaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 047</td><td rowspan="2">M'fobo</td><td rowspan="2">Voa totroko lahy</td><td rowspan="2">Clidémie hérisse</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.</td><td rowspan="2">Polypodiaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">Many mahondra</td><td rowspan="2">Kangadja lavaraviny</td><td rowspan="2">Langue de vache</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Liver pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Mimusops comorensis Engl.</td><td rowspan="2">Sapotaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 034</td><td rowspan="2">Mavuhu</td><td rowspan="2">Nato</td><td rowspan="2">Natte des Comores</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>"Adoua mimba" (shibushi)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Momordica charantia L.</td><td rowspan="2">Cucurbitaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 038</td><td rowspan="2">Margoz</td><td rowspan="2">Antsatsaka tarondro</td><td rowspan="2">Margose</td><td rowspan="2">8</td><td>Fibroma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Moringa oleifera Lam.</td><td rowspan="2">Moringaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 127</td><td rowspan="2">Mvoungé</td><td rowspan="2">Morongy</td><td rowspan="2">Moringa</td><td rowspan="2">23</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf/Liana</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf/Stem</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.</td><td rowspan="10">Rutaceae</td><td rowspan="10">TTH 024</td><td rowspan="10">ND</td><td rowspan="10">ND</td><td rowspan="10">Cary poulet</td><td rowspan="10">1</td><td>Child enuresis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Impotence</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Crush in water/Decoction/Infusion</td><td>Oral</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf/Root/Seed/Stem</td><td>Crush in water/Decoction/Decoction until color changes/</td><td>Oral</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Constipation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Eat</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Facilitation of child birth</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Intestinal pain</td><td rowspan="2">Leaf</td><td rowspan="2">Crush</td><td rowspan="2">Oral</td><td rowspan="2">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Otitis externa</td><td rowspan="2">Leaf</td><td rowspan="2">Crush</td><td rowspan="2">Oral</td><td rowspan="2">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Diabetes</td><td rowspan="2">Leaf</td><td rowspan="2">Decoction</td><td rowspan="2">Oral</td><td rowspan="2">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Musa paradisiaca L.</td><td rowspan="10">Musaceae</td><td rowspan="10">NC</td><td rowspan="10">Trovi</td><td rowspan="10">Hontsy</td><td rowspan="10">Bananier</td><td rowspan="10">7</td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Dry leaf/Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Dry leaf/Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Chikungunya</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Dengue</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Feet pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Influenza, flu</td><td>Dry leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Dry leaf</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Covid-19</td><td>Dry leaf/Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Myristica fragrans Houtt.</td><td>Myristicaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Kungu mana</td><td>Kongo manga</td><td>Muscadier</td><td>1</td><td>Blood circulation problem</td><td>Seed</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Nigella sativa L.</td><td>Ranunculaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Nigelle</td><td>1</td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Seed</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ocimum americanum L.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>TTH 064</td><td>Sadzani</td><td>Kanza mdzade</td><td>Petit basilic sauvage</td><td>8</td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="6">Ocimum basilicum L.</td><td rowspan="6">Lamiaceae</td><td rowspan="6">NC</td><td rowspan="6">M'kadi</td><td rowspan="6">Karanzany vazaha</td><td rowspan="6">Basilic commun</td><td rowspan="6">2</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Nosebleed</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Nasal</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Back pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Ocimum canum Sims</td><td rowspan="4">Lamiaceae</td><td rowspan="4">TTH 088</td><td rowspan="4">ND</td><td rowspan="4">ND</td><td rowspan="4">ND</td><td rowspan="4">1</td><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis externa</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Auricular</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sprain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ocimum gratissimum L.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>TTH 073</td><td>M'rule</td><td>Kanza mdzade</td><td>Basilic sauvage</td><td>21</td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Dry leaf/Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Ocimum tenuiflorum L.</td><td rowspan="2">Lamiaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Basilic tulsi</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water/Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Dry leaf/Leaf</td><td>Crush in water/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Oxalis corniculata L.</td><td>Oxalidaceae</td><td>TTH 122</td><td>Waju mamotsi</td><td>Madiro antany</td><td>Petit trèfle</td><td>1</td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Passiflora edulis Sims</td><td>Passifloraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>Grinadel</td><td>Fruit de la passion</td><td>2</td><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Decoction</td><td>Cutaneous/Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Passiflora suberosa L.</td><td rowspan="4">Passifloraceae</td><td rowspan="4">TTH 029</td><td rowspan="4">Nyungo</td><td rowspan="4">Nioungou</td><td rowspan="4">Grain d'encre</td><td rowspan="4">2</td><td>"Adoua mimba" (shibushi)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Asthma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Dengue</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Paullinia pinnata L.</td><td rowspan="5">Sapindaceae</td><td rowspan="5">TTH 099</td><td rowspan="5">Mhotso-hotso</td><td rowspan="5">Vahy mari ranha</td><td rowspan="5">Liane carrée</td><td rowspan="5">12</td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Influenza, flu</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Nosebleed</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Nasal</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Perineal massage</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction, bath</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Passiflora suberosa L.</td><td rowspan="2">Passifloraceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 029</td><td rowspan="2">Nyungo</td><td rowspan="2">Nioungou</td><td rowspan="2">Grain d'encre</td><td rowspan="2">2</td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Paullinia pinnata L.</td><td rowspan="3">Sapindaceae</td><td rowspan="3">TTH 099</td><td rowspan="3">Mhotso-hotso</td><td rowspan="3">Vahy mari ranha</td><td rowspan="3">Liane carrée</td><td rowspan="3">12</td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Facilitation of child birth</td><td>Liana</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Paullinia pinnata L.</td><td rowspan="2">Sapindaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 099</td><td rowspan="2">Mhotso-hotso</td><td rowspan="2">Vahy mari ranha</td><td rowspan="2">Liane carrée</td><td rowspan="2">12</td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Liana</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf/Liana</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Paullinia pinnata L.</td><td rowspan="2">Sapindaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 099</td><td rowspan="2">Mhotso-hotso</td><td rowspan="2">Vahy mari ranha</td><td rowspan="2">Liane carrée</td><td rowspan="2">12</td><td>Blood circulation problem</td><td>Bark/Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Persea americana Mill.</td><td>Lauraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>M'zavoca</td><td>Zavoca</td><td>Avocatier</td><td>4</td><td>Sprain</td><td>Bark</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss</td><td>Apiaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>Hanga vazaha</td><td>Persil</td><td>1</td><td>Back pain</td><td>Liana</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Phoenix reclinata Jacq.</td><td>Arecaceae</td><td>TTH 062</td><td>M'randra</td><td>Mihala</td><td>Dattier du Sénégal</td><td>1</td><td>Facilitation of child birth</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Phyllanthus niruri L.</td><td>Phyllanthaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Herbe du chagrin</td><td>1</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Liana</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Phyllarthron comorense DC.</td><td>Bignoniaceae</td><td>TTH 055</td><td>Shivundze</td><td>Tahila</td><td>Phyllarthron des Comores</td><td>13</td><td>Furuncle</td><td>Bark</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Piper nigrum L.</td><td>Piperaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Filifili</td><td>Vilivili</td><td>Poivre</td><td>1</td><td>Headache</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Plumeria acuminata W. T.Aiton</td><td>Apocynaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Frangipanier</td><td>1</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Benth. &amp; Hook.f. ex Thwaites</td><td>Annonaceae</td><td>TTH 141</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Laurier</td><td>1</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Premna serratifolia L.</td><td>Lamiaceae</td><td>TTH 009</td><td>M'vetsi</td><td>Myavivi</td><td>Bois sureau</td><td>5</td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Blood circulation problem</td><td>Stem</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Decoction/ Decoction until color changes/Infusion</td><td>Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fracture</td><td>Wood</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sprain</td><td>Wood</td><td>Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Tonsilitis, sore throat</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Bay</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Back pain</td><td>Flower</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Headache</td><td>Flower</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Sprain</td><td>Flower</td><td>Grate</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="12">Psidium guajava L.</td><td rowspan="12">Myrtaceae</td><td rowspan="12">TTH 041</td><td rowspan="12">Mapwera</td><td rowspan="12">Mapoera</td><td rowspan="12">Goyavier</td><td rowspan="12">17</td><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Nosebleed</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Nasal</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>"Vourgnegni" (shibushi)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction, bath</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>Fruit/Young leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Diarrhea</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water/Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water/Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>High blood pressure</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Cold maceration/Decoction/Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Dengue</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Dizziness</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Put the plant in a pot until it smokes</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Feet pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>"Tchéwé" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction, bath</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Psychotria calothyris (Bremek.) A.P.Davis & Govaerts</td><td>Rubiaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>Moaro</td><td>Psychotrie à tiges épaisses</td><td>1</td><td>Anaphrodisia</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Punica granatum L.</td><td>Lythraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Tundra peponi</td><td>ND</td><td>Grenadier</td><td>1</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ravenala madagascariensis Sonn.</td><td>Strelitziaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>Ravinala</td><td>Arbre du voyageur</td><td>1</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Rhynchosia sublobata (Schumach.) Meikle</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 010</td><td>Tandri shivarya</td><td>Sary antaka makondry</td><td>Rynchosie sublobée</td><td>4</td><td>Acid reflux</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Ricinus communis L.</td><td>Euphorbiaceae</td><td>TTH 083</td><td>M'ri wa katoto</td><td>Kinana ravy</td><td>Ricin</td><td>1</td><td>Facilitation of child birth</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Rubus rosifolius Sm.</td><td>Rosaceae</td><td>TTH 051</td><td>Frambaz</td><td>Rotirotiki</td><td>Framboisier</td><td>1</td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb.</td><td>Goodeniaceae</td><td>TTH 017</td><td>ND</td><td>Sodifafa hazo</td><td>Veloutier vert</td><td>1</td><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Senna alata (L.) Roxb.</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 025</td><td>Hasa n'drume</td><td>Andra be ila</td><td>Bois dartre</td><td>8</td><td>Painful periods</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Senna occidentalis (L.) Link</td><td rowspan="5">Fabaceae</td><td rowspan="5">TTH 012</td><td rowspan="5">Hasa n'drume</td><td rowspan="5">Voa tsirongoto kely</td><td rowspan="5">Bentamaré</td><td rowspan="5">4</td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Dizziness</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Heat the leaf until color changes</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Otitis externa</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Auricular</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Skin depigmentation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Constipation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Chikungunya</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Fever</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Furuncle</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>"Wanatsa" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Back pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Senna singueana (Delile) Lock</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 134</td><td>M'ri m'buzi</td><td>Sambaravatsi</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Root</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sida acuta Burm.f.</td><td>Malvaceae</td><td>TTH 039</td><td>Shifunga n'dzya n'titi</td><td>Sandra ory kely</td><td>Sida aigu</td><td>1</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Root</td><td>Cold maceration</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Sieruela rutidosperma (DC.) Roalson & J. C.Hall</td><td>Cleomaceae</td><td>TTH 111</td><td>M'kssi</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>1</td><td>Toothache</td><td>Bark</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral (gargle)</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Solanum melongena L.</td><td>Solanaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>ND</td><td>ND</td><td>Aubergine</td><td>1</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Solanum torvum Sw.</td><td>Solanaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>M'ri n'guja</td><td>Sary angivi kely</td><td>Anghive marron</td><td>1</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Spondias dulcis G. Forst.</td><td>Anarcardiaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Sakwa</td><td>Mssakoua</td><td>Zévi</td><td>2</td><td>Mouth ulcer</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Stachytarpheta urticifolia Sims</td><td>Verbenaceae</td><td>TTH 072</td><td>M'ri wagwegwe</td><td>Jakwe maitso</td><td>Epi bleu</td><td>1</td><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Fruit</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze</td><td>Asteraceae</td><td>NC</td><td>M'lalihapana</td><td>Mlaylyhapana be</td><td>Oreille mouton</td><td>1</td><td>Toothache</td><td>Bark/Root</td><td>Decoction in sea water/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral (gargle)</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Strychnos spinosa Lam.</td><td>Loganiaceae</td><td>TTH 043</td><td>M'kutra</td><td>Mronga</td><td>Calebassier du pays</td><td>1</td><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry</td><td>Myrtaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Karafu</td><td>Karafo</td><td>Giroflier</td><td>13</td><td>Vaginal inflammation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry</td><td>Myrtaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Karafu</td><td>Karafo</td><td>Giroflier</td><td>13</td><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze</td><td>Dioscoreaceae</td><td>TTH 061</td><td>Trindri</td><td>Kabidza</td><td>Papaye songe</td><td>1</td><td>Headache</td><td>Flower/Leaf</td><td>Crush/Decoction/Decoction until color changes/Direct application/Scraping on coral stone</td><td>Cutaneaus/Oral</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Tamarindus indica L.</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 032</td><td>Waju urehagini</td><td>Madiro kakazo</td><td>Tamarinier</td><td>5</td><td>Cough</td><td>Flower/Leaf</td><td>Crush/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush/Leaf</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Toothache</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush/Leaf</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Back pain</td><td>Flower</td><td>Direct application</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Covid-19</td><td>Flower</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Fibroma</td><td>Flower</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Influenza, flu</td><td>Flower</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneaus</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Otitis externa</td><td>Flower</td><td>Crush, press</td><td>Auricular</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Rhizome</td><td>Crush in water</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Cough</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Leaf</td><td>Oral</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Fracture</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush/Leaf</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Fibroma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>NC</td><td>Shitsudzi</td><td>Ingity be</td><td>Téphrosie nocturne</td><td>2</td><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng.</td><td>Fabaceae</td><td>TTH 023</td><td>Shipwa kofu n'titi</td><td>Ovyji matra</td><td>Pistache marronne</td><td>2</td><td>Child enuresis</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Theobroma cacao L. Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) Pers.</td><td rowspan="2">Malvaceae Fabaceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC TTH 020</td><td rowspan="2">Kakao Chitsidza outoungou</td><td rowspan="2">Kakao Sary hamo</td><td rowspan="2">Cacaoyer ND</td><td rowspan="2">1 4</td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Tythonodorum (Hemsl.) A.Gray Tragia furialis Bojer</td><td rowspan="4">Asteraceae</td><td rowspan="4">TTH 050</td><td rowspan="4">Fu nyongo</td><td rowspan="4">Bostoani</td><td rowspan="4">Petite fleur soleil</td><td rowspan="4">1</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf, stem</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Child enuresis</td><td>Leaf, stem</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray</td><td rowspan="2">Euphorbiaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 046</td><td rowspan="2">Shileni</td><td rowspan="2">Ampisy</td><td rowspan="2">Ortie</td><td rowspan="2">5</td><td>Fibroma</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>"Foudzoi" (shimaoré)</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="5">Trema orientale (L.) Blume Tribulus cistoides L.</td><td rowspan="5">Cannabaceae</td><td rowspan="5">TTH 035</td><td rowspan="5">M'besi</td><td rowspan="5">Ambesy</td><td rowspan="5">Bois d'andrèze</td><td rowspan="5">2</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Difficulty urinating</td><td>Leaf/Stem</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Liver pain</td><td>Leaf/Seed</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Child enuresis</td><td>Liana</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Turraea sericea Sm.</td><td rowspan="2">Meliaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 018</td><td rowspan="2">N'drume n'ku</td><td rowspan="2">Sary mwandziwa</td><td rowspan="2">Turée séricée</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Headache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hernia</td><td>Root</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Typhonodorum lindleyanum Schott Vepris boiviniana (Baill.) Mziray</td><td rowspan="2">Araceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">Bunga muri</td><td rowspan="2">Bonga</td><td rowspan="2">Via</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Crush</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Volkameria sp.</td><td rowspan="2">Lamiaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 137</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Gombe dumé</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Asthma</td><td>Bark/Leaf/ Root</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>4</td></tr><tr><td>Blood circulation problem</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Infusion</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz</td><td>Lythraceae</td><td>TTH 019</td><td>M'lazi</td><td>Lamboenza</td><td>ND</td><td>14</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Typhonodorum lindleyanum Schott Vepris boiviniana (Baill.) Mziray</td><td rowspan="2">Araceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">Bunga muri</td><td rowspan="2">Bonga</td><td rowspan="2">Via</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Burn and recover ashes</td><td>Cutaneous</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Volkameria sp.</td><td rowspan="2">Lamiaceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 137</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">Gombe dumé</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Constipation</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Epilepsy</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Inhalation</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz</td><td rowspan="2">Lythraceae</td><td rowspan="2">TTH 019</td><td rowspan="2">M'lazi</td><td rowspan="2">Lamboenza</td><td rowspan="2">ND</td><td rowspan="2">14</td><td>Impotence</td><td>Leaf/Root</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Hernia</td><td>Leaf/Root/ Wood</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Typhonodorum lindleyanum Schott Vepris boiviniana (Baill.) Mziray</td><td rowspan="2">Araceae</td><td rowspan="2">NC</td><td rowspan="2">Bunga muri</td><td rowspan="2">Bonga</td><td rowspan="2">Via</td><td rowspan="2">1</td><td>Female infertility</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Joint, muscle pain</td><td>Leaf/Liana</td><td>Decoction/Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Volkameria sp.</td><td rowspan="4">Lamiaceae</td><td rowspan="4">TTH 137</td><td rowspan="4">ND</td><td rowspan="4">Gombe dumé</td><td rowspan="4">ND</td><td rowspan="4">1</td><td>Diabetes</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Hemorrhoids</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Intestinal pain</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Painful periods</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<table><caption>Table 3 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Botanical family</th><th>Voucher No</th><th>Shimaoré name</th><th>Shibushi name</th><th>French name</th><th>Number of persons citing the plants</th><th>Type of disorders treated</th><th>Parts used</th><th>Method of preparation</th><th>Method of administration</th><th>Number of use-reports</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Zea mays L.</td><td>Poaceae</td><td></td><td>M'rama</td><td>Tsakotsako</td><td>Maïs</td><td>2</td><td>Stomachache</td><td>Leaf</td><td>Decoction until color changes</td><td>Oral</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm.</td><td>Zingiberaceae</td><td></td><td>Tsingizo masera</td><td>Sakai viro</td><td>Gingembre</td><td>12</td><td>Child enuresis<br>High blood pressure<br>Cough</td><td>Inflorescence<br>Inflorescence<br>Rhizome</td><td>Decoction<br>Decoction<br>Crush/Decoction</td><td>Oral<br>Oral<br>Oral</td><td>1<br>1<br>5</td></tr><tr><td>Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.</td><td>Rhamnaceae</td><td></td><td>Tsinavu n'dzishe</td><td>Mokonazi vavy</td><td>Jujubier épineux</td><td>1</td><td>Tonsilitis, sore throat<br>Sprain<br>Fracture<br>Headache<br>Impotence<br>Mouth ulcer<br>Nasopharyngitis, cold<br>Haematoma</td><td>Rhizome<br>Rhizome<br>Rhizome<br>Rhizome<br>Rhizome<br>Rhizome<br>Leaf</td><td>Decoction/Chew<br>Scraping on coral stone<br>Scraping on coral stone<br>Decoction until color changes<br>Crush<br>Crush<br>Decoction<br>Crush</td><td>Oral<br>Cutaneous<br>Oral<br>Oral<br>Oral<br>Oral<br>Oral</td><td>4<br>1<br>1<br>1<br>1<br>1<br>1</td></tr></tbody></table>

Legend: A slash ("/") corresponds to the term "or"; a comma (",") corresponds to the term "and"; NC = plants not collected identified from literature (Barthelat, 2019); ND = Not documented; NI = Not identified.
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /></figure>

Legend: A. Decoction; B. Crushing the plant with a mortar; C. Crushing the plant in the palm of the hand

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 2.** Main methods of preparation used in Mahoran traditional medicine.
Legend: A. Decoction; B. Crushing the plant with a mortar; C. Crushing the plant in the palm of the hand.</figcaption></figure>

Legend: A and B. Raw coral stone; C. Cut coral stone; D. « Tany malandy » (white clay)

<caption>**Fig. 3.** Other ingredients used in Mahoran traditional medicine.
Legend: A and B. Raw coral stone; C. Cut coral stone; D. « Tany malandy » (white clay).</caption>

of the week, preferably on Mondays or Wednesdays.

### 3.4.6. Dangerous practices reported by participants

Several participants provided information on the risks associated with certain traditional practices or treatments. Four participants emphasized the importance of respecting dosage.

In fact, three informants mentioned that excessive consumption of

the floral buds of *Syzygium aromaticum* can cause dizziness when used for toothaches.

Another informant highlighted the need to be cautious when using *Lantana strigocamara* and *Decalobanthus peltatus* for HBP. According to the participant, if these two plants are individually consumed in excessive quantities, they can cause low blood pressure leading to dizziness or fainting.

Lastly, one informant stated that the leaves of *Jatropha curcas* can induce vomiting when crushed in water.

## 3.5. Therapeutic management for the most cited health disorders

### 3.5.1. Stomachache

In total, 41 informants (39.4%) mentioned stomachache. Within the remedies, stomachache accounted for 63 UR (13.4%). According to the ICPC-3, this health disorder is classified under the “digestive system” category. Ten informants stated that the causes of this condition are related to poor diet. According to these ten informants, the symptoms of this health disorder include pain in the liver, intestine, and stomach. The informants did not provide information regarding the diagnosis of the disease.

A total of 42 unique remedies were mentioned to treat this disease. Among these 42 remedies, 27 were single-ingredient remedies (39 UR, 61.9%), 10 were composed of two ingredients (19 UR, 30.1%), two remedies were composed of three ingredients (2 UR, 3.2%), and three remedies consisted of four ingredients (3 UR, 4.8%).

The informants mentioned 36 plant species belonging to 20 different botanical families. The most cited plants were *Coleus madagascariensis* [leaf] (12 UR, 11.9%), *Moringa oleifera* [leaf] (11.9%), and *Lantana camara* [leaf and roots] (8 UR, 9.9%).

The most cited remedy by the informants was made of the leaves of *C. madagascariensis*. To prepare the remedy, the fresh leaves are crushed in water. Eight informants mentioned this remedy. Among these eight informants, four added a pinch of salt to the remedy. According to the eight participants, the remedy is taken orally once or twice a day. The participants did not specify the duration of the treatment.

### 3.5.2. Cough

A total of 36 informants treats cough (34.6%), which represent 55 UR (11.7%). According to the ICPC-3 classification, this condition falls under the “respiratory system” category. Participants did not provide information regarding the disease diagnosis. Regarding the causes, eight informants mentioned overexertion and climate. Concerning symptoms, eight informants stated that this condition causes chest pain and vomiting.

Overall, participants mentioned 35 unique remedies for treating cough, with the number of ingredients ranging from one to five. Fifteen remedies are single-ingredient (29 UR, 52.7%), 12 remedies consist of two ingredients (18 UR, 32.7%), three remedies consist of three ingredients (3 UR, 5.4%), three remedies consist of four ingredients (3 UR, 5.4%), and finally, two remedies consist of five ingredients (2 UR, 3.6%).

Informants mentioned 22 plant species belonging to 15 botanical families for treating coughs. The most mentioned plant were *Coleus amboinicus* [leaf] (30 UR, 37.1%), followed by *Citrus aurantiifolia* [leaf and fruit] (7 UR, 8.6%), and *Abrus precatorius* [leaves] (5 UR, 6.2%).

The most common remedy reported for cough consisted of chewing the fresh leaves of *C. amboinicus* directly (oral route). Ten informants mentioned this remedy, and no participant provided information regarding the dosage of the remedy. As for the quantity of leaves to use, it varies between three to five leaves.

### 3.5.3. Headache

A total of 30 informants mentioned headache (28.8%), representing 41 UR (8.7%). According to the ICPC-3, this disease falls under the “neurological system” category. Six informants stated overexertion and fatigue as causes of this condition. As for symptoms, four informants
emphasized pain in the forehead and pulsations in the head.

In total, participants mentioned 33 unique remedies for headache with the number of ingredients ranging from one to five. Among these 33 remedies, 15 are single-ingredient remedies (21 UR, 51.2%), nine consist of two ingredients (9 UR, 21.9%), six remedies have three ingredients (6 UR, 14.6%), two remedies consist of five ingredients (2 UR, 4.9%), and finally, one remedy consists of four ingredients (3 UR, 2.4%).

Within these remedies, 33 plant species representing to 16 families were mentioned. The most mentioned species were *Ipomea obscura* [leaf and vine] (8 UR, 12.9%), followed by *Syzygium aromaticum* [leaf and fruit] (7 UR, 11.3%), and *Coleus amboinicus* [leaf] (6 UR, 9.7%).

The most cited remedy was composed of the leaves of *I. obscura* (5 informants). To prepare the remedy, the leaves of *I. obscura* are crushed in water. The liquid is then applied to the forehead (topical route). According to the five informants who mentioned the remedy, a handful of leaves is needed to make the remedy, and it should be applied once a day.

### 3.5.4. Fever

During the study, 20 informants mentioned fever (19.2%), representing 30 UR (6.4%). According to the ICPC-3, this ailment is classified under the "general" category. Only two informants provided information on the symptoms and diagnosis of the disease. Symptoms include an increase in body temperature and dizziness. Diagnosis is made through touch, 20 informants who mentioned fever did not provide information regarding the causes of the disease.

In total, participants mentioned 25 unique remedies with the number of ingredients ranging from one to seven. Two-ingredients remedies were the most common ones (8 remedies, 12 UR), followed by single-ingredient remedies (7 remedies, 8 UR), four-ingredients remedies (4 remedies, 4 UR), three-ingredients remedies (3 remedies, 3 UR), six-ingredients remedies (2 remedies, 2 UR), and finally, only one remedy was composed of 7 ingredients (1 UR).

Within these 25 remedies, 33 plant species belonging to 15 different botanical families were mentioned. The two most mentioned species were *Cardiospermum halicacabum* [leaf and vine] (6 UR, 9.5%) and *Citrus aurantiifolia* [leaf and fruit] (6 UR, 9.5%).

The most cited remedy was composed of the leaves of *Coleus amboinicus*. Two informants mentioned this remedy. The fresh leaves of *C. amboinicus* is crushed dry in a mortar or in the palm of the hand, and then the leaves are applied directly to the forehead (cutaneaus). According to the two informants, the remedy is applied once a day, and participants did not provide information regarding the duration of the treatment. The other 24 unique remedies were each mentioned only once.

### 3.5.5. High blood pressure

In total, 16 informants mentioned HBP (15.4%), representing 30 UR (6.4%). According to the ICPC-3 classification, this disease is categorized under the "circulatory system". Regarding the causes of the disease, only one informant mentioned excess salt, fatty foods, and excessive consumption of processed products as causes of hypertension. The same informant also mentioned respiratory problems, accelerated heart rate, dizziness, vision disturbances, and headaches as symptoms of this condition. For the diagnosis, a traditional practitioner mentioned that he observes if the person has a fever, difficulty breathing, or if their eyes become reddish.

In total, participants mentioned 19 unique remedies for HBP with the number of ingredients ranging from one to three. The majority of the described remedies were single-ingredient (13 remedies, 17 UR), followed by two-ingredients remedies (4 remedies, 11 UR), and three-ingredients remedies (2 remedies, 2 UR).

Within the 19 mentioned remedies, 20 plant species belonging to 18 different botanical families were mentioned. The two most cited plants were *Moringa oleifera* [leaf, seed, root, stem] (8 UR, 26.7%) and *Psidium guajava* [leaf] (3 UR, 10%).

Among these 19 remedies, two have two citations (from two different informants), while the other remedies were mentioned only once. The first remedy mentioned twice was composed of the leaves of *M. oleifera*. To prepare the remedy, the fresh leaves are crushed in water, and a pinch of salt is added. Then, the sick person consumes the liquid orally. A handful of *M. oleifera* leaves is needed to make the remedy, and it should be consumed twice a day. The two informants who mentioned this remedy did not provide information regarding the duration of the treatment.

### 3.5.6. Diarrhea

During the study, 15 informants mentioned diarrhea (14.4%), representing 20 citations (4.2%). Referring to the classification of ICPC-3, diarrhea falls under the category "digestive system". Regarding the causes of the disease, only one participant mentioned diet. Two informants cited intestinal pain and liquefaction of stools as symptoms of diarrhea. Among the 15 informants who mentioned diarrhea, none provided information on the disease's diagnosis.

In total, participants mentioned 16 unique remedies for diarrhea with the number of ingredients ranging from one to three. Single-ingredient remedies were predominant (9 remedies, 9 UR), followed by two-ingredients remedies (6 remedies, 9 UR), and three-ingredients remedies (1 remedy, 1 UR).

Among the 16 unique remedies reported, 13 plant species belonging to 8 different botanical families were mentioned. The most cited plant was *Moringa oleifera* [leaf] (5 UR, 22.7%), followed by *Psidium guajava* [leaf] (4 UR, 18.2%), *Euphorbia hirta* [leaf] (2 UR, 9.1%), and *Coleus madagascariensis* [leaf] (2 UR, 9.1%).

The most cited remedy was composed of *M. oleifera* leaves, and three participants mentioned this remedy. To prepare the remedy, three or four fresh leaves are crushed in water, and a pinch of salt is added. The remedy is then taken orally once a day. The duration of the treatment was not specified by the three informants.

### 3.5.7. Diabetes

In total, 14 informants mentioned diabetes (13.5%), representing 29 UR (6.2%). According to ICPC-3, diabetes falls under the category "endocrine system". As for the diagnosis, the 14 informants did not provide information. Only one informant described the causes and symptoms of the disease. According to this informant, the causes of this condition would be the excess consumption of sugar or alcohol. The symptoms include decreased vision, weight loss, constant urination, slow healing, and constant hunger.

In total, participants mentioned 19 unique remedies for diabetes with the number of ingredients ranging from one to four. The majority of remedies were single-ingredient (12 remedies, 16 UR), followed by two-ingredients remedies (3 remedies, 9 UR), three-ingredients remedies (2 remedies, 2 UR), and four-ingredients remedies (2 remedies, 2 UR).

The 19 mentioned remedies included 28 plant species belonging to 20 different botanical families. The most cited plants were *Mangifera indica* [leaf] (6 UR, 15.4%) and *Psidium guajava* [leaf and fruit] (4 UR, 10.2%).

The most cited remedy (2 UR, 6.9%) combined *P. guajava* and *M. indica* leaves. The remedy is a decoction. According to the two informants who mentioned the remedy, the water should be boiled until it changes color. The remedy should be taken orally. Regarding the quantity, the informants specified that 3 leaves of each plant are needed to prepare the remedy. The remedy should be consumed twice a day, and the participants did not provide information on the treatment duration. The other 18 remedies are all mentioned once by different informants.

### 3.5.8. Female infertility

During the study, 14 informants mentioned female infertility (13.5%), representing 18 UR (3.8%). According to the ICPC-3 classification, female infertility is part of the "genital system" category. Two
informants described the causes of the disease. The first informant mentioned cysts, fibroma, and menstrual cycle irregularities as causes of female infertility. The second informant cited a lack of hormones. Participants did not provide information on the symptoms and diagnosis of the disease.

Overall, informants described 17 unique remedies for infertility with the number of ingredients ranging from 1 to 8. Two-ingredients remedies were predominant (5 remedies, 6 UR), followed by single-ingredient remedies (4 remedies, 4 UR), and three-ingredients remedies (3 remedies, 3 UR). Remedies with four to eight ingredients were mentioned only once by one informant each.

Among the 17 mentioned remedies, 35 plant species belonging to 17 botanical families were reported. The plant with the highest number of citations was *Aerva lanata* [leaf and vine] (10 UR, 18.2%), followed by *Ocimum gratissimum* [leaf] (6 UR, 10.9%), and *Decalobanthus peltatus* [vine and root] (3 UR, 5.5%).

One remedy stands out from the others in terms of number of citations. This remedy combines the vines of *Decalobanthus peltatus* and *Paullinia pinnata*.

Two informants mentioned the vines of *Decalobanthus peltatus* mixed with the vines of *Paullinia pinnata* for treating infertility. The vines are prepared by decoction. One vine of each plant is used to prepare the remedy, which is taken orally three times a day for seven days.

### 3.5.9. Hernia

In total, 12 participants mentioned hernia (11.5%), representing 15 UR (3.1%). In shimaoré, this condition is defined by the term "mushipa". According to ICPC-3, this condition is part of the "digestive system" category. Participants did not provide information regarding the causes of this condition. As for the symptoms, two informants provided information on this matter. The first informant mentioned pain, tension in the genital areas, as well as blood in the stool as symptoms of the disease. Another informant emphasized that swelling in the genital areas (testicles) is also a symptom for men. Both participants stated that the diagnosis is made by touching the organ affected.

Informants described 14 unique remedies for hernia, with the number of ingredients ranging from one to five. Three-ingredients remedies were predominant (5 remedies, 5 UR), followed by four-ingredients remedies (4 remedies, 4 UR), single-ingredient remedies (2 remedies, 2 UR), five-ingredients remedies (2 remedies, 2 UR), and two-ingredients remedies (1 remedy, 1 UR).

Among the 14 mentioned unique remedies, 20 plant species belonging to 15 different botanical families were mentioned. The most mentioned plant was *Woodfordia fruticosa* [wood and leaf] (4 UR, 14.3%).

There is no standout remedy, all 14 unique remedies were mentioned once by different informants.

### 3.5.10. Impotence

In total, 11 informants mentioned impotence (10.6%), and it represented 14 UR within the remedies (2.9%). According to ICPC-3, impotence is part of the "genital system" category. Two informants described the causes of this condition. The first informant emphasized drinking too much cold water and sorcery as potential causes. The second informant mentioned stress, fatigue, depression, and trauma as other causes of this condition. Symptoms were described by three informants. All three participants cited erection problems as symptoms. One informant also mentioned a decrease in strength as a symptom. The 11 informants who mentioned impotence did not provide information on the diagnosis of the disease.

In total, participants mentioned 14 unique remedies for impotence, with the number of ingredients ranging from one to five. Three-ingredients remedies were predominant (5 remedies, 5 UR), followed by four-ingredients remedies (4 remedies, 4 UR), single-ingredient remedies (2 remedies, 2 UR), five-ingredients remedies (2 remedies, 2 UR), and two-ingredients remedies (1 remedy, 1 UR).

Among the 14 unique remedies reported, 36 plant species belonging to 18 different botanical families were cited. The most mentioned plant was *Woodfordia fruticosa* [leaves and root] (8 UR, 15.4%), followed by *Phyllarthron comorense* [leaf and root] (4 UR, 7.7%), and *Syzygium aromaticum* [fruit] (3 UR, 5.8%).

There is no predominant remedy; all 14 unique remedies were mentioned once by different informants.

The data are summarized in Fig. 4, which report the relationships between the eleven most cited plants and the diseases they treat. The thickness of the links provides information on the plants most commonly used to treat a particular condition. The diameter of the clusters helps identify the diseases with the highest number of citations. For example, Fig. 4 allows us to see that stomachache is the most commonly mentioned illness by the informants during the study. It also allows us to see that the most used plant against cough is *C. amboinicus*.

## 4. Discussion

### 4.1. Users and specificity of traditional Mahoran medicine

The users of traditional medicine have been classified into three groups: the expert or "fundi" (known throughout the island), the individuals known within a specific municipality only, and those who use traditional medicine to treat themselves or their relatives (part 3.2). In this survey, the majority of informants (62,5%) belong to the last category. This classification presents some similarity with the one established by Lartigau-Roussin (2002), where the category of "fundi" and individuals practicing self-medication is present. However, in the same article, other categories of traditional practitioners are also mentioned and include the "mwalinu", the "fundi des djinn", and locally known sorcerers referred to as "mutsayi" or "mgangi". In our survey, we did not find these categories of traditional practitioners. It might come from the fact that we focused on Mahoran pharmacopeia and not on spiritual and religious practices. Another reason could be that these traditional practitioners do not openly talk about these practices as they consider them as secrets.

The majority of individuals interviewed in this study are women. Similar results were observed in an ethnobotanical survey conducted by Saive et al. (2018) in Mayotte. In that study, 29 individuals were interviewed, among whom there was 25 women and 4 men (Saive et al., 2018). When looking at the "fundi" category, women are also more represented than men. In the Mahoran society, it is primarily women who take care of children when they fall ill. This might explain the high proportion of women included in our survey. During the study, the majority of remedies for treating children were mentioned by women.

Regarding the specificity of traditional Mahoran medicine, it is noteworthy that among ingredients other than plants, salt and coral stone are the most frequently mentioned by participants. In the work of Mchangama and Salaün (2012), over 60 remedies were described. Among these remedies, two use salt in combination with plants to treat bruises from blows and paronychia. Coral stone, on the other hand, is cited in the preparation of eight different remedies. Additionally, tany malandy (white clay) is also mentioned in the publication by Mchangama and Salaün (2012), playing a role in the formulation of four different remedies in combination with plants (Mchangama and Salaün, 2012).

Another specificity of traditional Mahoran medicine is the fact that the majority of the plants used are exotic. This can be linked to Mayotte's history as a former French colony (Blanchy, 2002). The colonial past of Mayotte played a crucial role in introducing numerous exotic plants to the island. For instance, *Cananga odorata* was introduced to the Indian Ocean during the 18th century (Benini et al., 2010). This plant, native to Indonesia, is widely used in Mayotte. Its essential oil has become one of the island's main economic resources and is now a part of Mahoran culture. This example highlights the cultural and economical significance of exotic plants on the island. Additionally, Mayotte's
<figure><img src="image_7.png" /></figure>

Legend: The width of the link is proportional to the number of participants who mentioned the plant for the treatment of the respective disease. The same principle applies to the size of the nodes.

For the diseases, each color corresponds to a category of the ICPC-3:

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 4.** Relationship between plants and the diseases treated (for the 11 most cited plants).</figcaption></figure>

Legend: The width of the link is proportional to the number of participants who mentioned the plant for the treatment of the respective disease. The same principle applies to the size of the nodes.

geographical location fosters exchanges with the surrounding territories (Blanchy, 2002). The main exchanges have occurred with East Africa, the Middle East, and Madagascar (Blanchy, 2002). The Mahorans have progressively integrated plants from these regions into their medicinal practices (Blanchy, 2002). Furthermore, the island is subject to significant migratory movements, primarily from Madagascar and the Comoros, which likely promote the introduction and dissemination of external therapeutic knowledge (Blanchy, 2002).

Regarding the most commonly used plant parts in traditional Mahoran medicine, leaves rank first (utilized for 73% of plant species). This characteristic of Mahoran traditional medicine is also described in the works of Lartigau-Roussin (2002), affirming that leaves are indeed the most employed in the preparation of traditional Mahoran remedies. This is also echoed in the publication by Saive et al. (2018), where leaves are the most used and cited plant parts by study participants.

During the study, it was observed that the most commonly used administration route is oral (used for 78.5% of plant species), and the

most employed preparation method is decoction (used for 72.6% of plant species). Once again, these results align with those stated by Lartigau-Roussin (2002), which assert that the preferred administration route for herbal treatments is oral, often in the form of a decoction-based herbal tea.

One notable specificity of traditional Mahoran pharmacopeia is the treatment duration of remedies, which is specified for 13.7% of the total remedies. Among these 65 remedies, 49 have a treatment duration of seven days, and 16 have a treatment duration of three days. These treatment durations are also mentioned in the works of Mchangama and Salaün (2012). Indeed, in this article, six remedies have a seven-day treatment duration, and two remedies have a three-day treatment duration. It is interesting to note that there are more remedies consumed for seven days than three days, consistent with the results obtained during the study. The article by Saive et al. (2018) also mentions a remedy with a seven-day treatment duration. Additionally, the number seven holds religious significance, which may justify why most
treatments last for seven days (Lartigau-Roussin, 2002).

Another characteristic of traditional Mahoran medicine relates to the harvesting of plants. Several participants (6 informants) mentioned that before harvesting a plant, it is important to recite a prayer called “bis-millah”. Other informants (4 informants) asserted that there are specific days for harvesting medicinal plants, such as Monday or Wednesday. To the best of our knowledge, no scientific article explains the use of “bis-millah” in Mayotte. However, the work of Lartigau-Roussin (2002) mentions the existence of “nuhusi” days (in Shimaoré). “Nuhusi” days are days during which the harvest of plants is considered impossible. The word “nuhusi” has Arabic origins and can be translated as misfortune or inauspicious. According to local beliefs, harvesting medicinal plants on a “nuhusi” day would render the remedy ineffective against the targeted illness (Mchangama and Salaün, 2012).

Compare to the surrounding islands, traditional Mahoran medicine share some similarities. First, it's noteworthy that the flora of Mayotte is very similar to that of the other Comoros islands. Indeed, 614 out of the 663 indigenous plants from Mayotte are also found in these islands. In our study, 152 out of the 154 plants identified are also present in the Comoros archipelago. Second, in a review, Saive et al. (2020) lists more than 207 medicinal plants used throughout the Comoros archipelago, with many plants being used in similar ways to treat the same ailments across the different islands. Furthermore, the use of non-plant materials, such as coral stone, is another feature shared by these islands (Darouche et al., 2024). This practice is not exclusive to the Comoros, as other Indian Ocean islands, like Madagascar, also use coral stone in their traditional pharmacopeia (Mesa et al., 2021). Because the available literature on the medicinal plants used in the Comoros islands is limited, further research is needed to document these practices and thus explore both similarities and differences in the specific practices of traditional medicine across this culturally interconnected region.

## 4.2. Healthcare system issues, health conditions and the use of traditional medicine in Mayotte

Based on established categories using the ICPC-3, the “digestive system” category has the highest number of diseases and is also the most cited category. Thus, it is possible to hypothesize that the most frequently encountered diseases in Mayotte affect the digestive system. The study mentioned that the main cause of these diseases affecting the digestive system is diet. According to the ORS, the diet in Mayotte is limited in variety and characterized by low intake of dairy products, calcium, fruits, and vegetables. Dietary intake revolves around staple foods such as rice (40% of dietary intake), chicken wings (18.3% of dietary intake), chicken thighs (16.2% of dietary intake), bread (10.1%), fish (8.1%), and other foods such as bananas, cassava, and breadfruit. Furthermore, new products are gradually entering consumption habits. The consumption of bread and pastries has doubled since 2005, and spending on carbonated or flavored beverages increased by 45% between 2010 and 2011 (Aboudou et al., 2019). This limited diet could therefore be responsible for numerous conditions such as stomachaches, diarrhea, obesity, or even diabetes.

Additionally, it is important to note that in Mayotte, 29% of households do not have access to running water. Among these 29%, 9% of households use water from rivers or streams. However, these streams or rivers do not provide satisfactory conditions for food or hygiene use. Indeed, there are places where waste is dumped and are also habitats for animals. This contaminated water could therefore be a cause of stomachaches. It is also important to highlight that in the late 1990s, Mayotte saw the resurgence of diseases such as cholera. Between 1998 and 2000, 10 cases of cholera were bacteriologically confirmed and recorded in Mayotte (Deroche et al., 2022). In 2024, a new cholera epidemic was declared and 122 persons have been affected so far.

The second most cited category of diseases by informants is the "respiratory system" category. The causes, symptoms, and diagnosis of diseases in this category were very briefly described by the participants.

However, it is interesting to note that in the work of Mchangama and Salaün (2012), a remedy was mentioned for treating each of the following diseases: cough, sore throat, flu, and sinusitis. Additionally, a report mentions acute respiratory infections as a major cause of infant mortality in Mayotte (Sissoko et al., 2005). According to this report, acute respiratory infections can be of bacterial or viral origin, including common infections, bronchitis, and pneumonia. Tuberculosis, on the other hand, had an incidence rate of 23 per 100,000 inhabitants in Mayotte in 2001 (Sissoko et al., 2005). The national public health agency also reported several cases of influenza. During the period 2021–2022, there were two flu epidemics. In the first epidemic, a total of 235 emergency department visits and 49 secondary hospitalizations were recorded. The second epidemic was less severe, with 124 emergency department visits and 23 secondary hospitalizations (Santé publique France, 2022). Thus, diseases affecting the respiratory system are highly prevalent in Mayotte.

The third most cited category by participants is the “genital system” category. Similar to diseases classified in the “respiratory system” category, very few informants described the causes, symptoms, and diagnosis of diseases affecting the genital system. Female infertility and impotence are among the most mentioned conditions in this category of diseases. In Mayotte, reproduction is at the core of the society. Population growth is very dynamic, primarily driven by a strong surplus of births over deaths. Fertility in Mayotte is very high, with 4.6 children per woman in 2021 (Balicchi et al., 2014). This high birth rate is due to the representation of the child in Mahoran culture which symbolizes wealth. Having a large family in Mayotte is therefore a sign of wealth. Furthermore, when the child reaches adulthood, they can provide for their family's needs. Another important aspect is that in Mahoran society, a woman only gains status once she becomes a mother (Hébert and Hébert, 2011). Additionally, according to the testimony of several informants, a woman is considered infertile if she does not become pregnant within two to three months after marriage. Therefore, it is possible to hypothesize that these reasons lead women suffering from infertility to consult a traditional healer or practice self-medication. The same applies to men affected by impotence in Mayotte. Moreover, it is important to note that generally in Africa, sexuality plays a prevalent role in daily life. Thus, male sexual impotence is a sign of great misfortune for a family (Musabyimana, 2016). This further justifies the importance of natural remedies for impotence in Mayotte.

The results of the study have shown that chronic diseases such as diabetes and HBP were frequently mentioned by the participants. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form in Mayotte, with a prevalence of 12% in 2018, and this prevalence increases with age (Grave et al., 2021). Diabetes also affects the neighboring islands of Mayotte. In the Comoros, the prevalence of diabetes was 5.9% in 2016, and like in Mayotte, it increases with age, with a predominance of type 2 diabetes (WHO, 2016a). In Madagascar, the prevalence of diabetes was 3.9% in 2016 (WHO, 2016b). Diabetes has a higher prevalence in Mayotte than in the Comoros and Madagascar. As for HBP, its prevalence in Mayotte is higher than that of diabetes. Indeed, the prevalence of HBP was 38.4% in 2019 (Grave et al., 2021). Once again, the prevalence of HBP is higher in Mayotte than in the Comoros and Madagascar. In the Comoros, a survey conducted in 2011 revealed an HBP prevalence of 25% (Ali et al., 2020). Another study conducted in Madagascar in 2014 showed an HBP prevalence of 27.6% (Ratovoson et al., 2014). Given these figures, Mahoran traditional healers have developed, just like for diabetes, numerous remedies based on local medicinal plants to treat HBP. It is interesting to note that many remedies presented in the study use salt in combination with plants. Furthermore, among the 19 remedies mentioned against HBP, there is one remedy that uses salt in combination with *M. oleifera* leaves. Although this salt-containing remedy is a minority among those mentioned, it is important to highlight this practice, given that salt is a factor that promotes HBP (WHO, 2023).
### 4.3. Benefit-risk balance of the most cited plants

A table presenting the ethnobotanical uses (in Mayotte and in the surrounding regions), pharmacological activities and toxicological studies of the seven most cited plants is provided to assess the efficacy and toxicity of these plants (Table 4). Here, we provide conclusive remarks on these plants.

The leaves of *C. amboinicus* present ethnobotanical and pharmacological data justifying its use in cough treatment. However, toxicological data on the plant remains limited and further studies are necessary to demonstrate its safety and the doses to be respected.

The leaves and fruits of *C. aurantiifolia* are widely used for cough all over the world. The antibacterial activity of the leaves and fruit has also been confirmed. It is worth noting that the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends using lemon juice with honey as a soothing remedy for cough problems (WHO, 2001).

*M. oleifera* leaves present ethnobotanical and pharmacological data justifying their use against hypertension and diarrhea. However, the plant does not seem to be widely used for stomachache in general. Therefore, it would be interesting to conduct ethnomedical studies in Mayotte to better understand what individuals mean when referring to stomachache.

*O. gratissimum* leaves present ethnobotanical data confirming their use against female infertility and painful menstruation. However, it would be interesting to conduct tests to confirm the pharmacological activity of this plant against infertility and pain. Moreover, future clinical trials could be considered to justify the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of the leaves.

From an ethnobotanical perspective, *P. guajava* has been repeatedly mentioned as a remedy for diarrhea in several different countries. *In vitro* and *in vivo* tests have proven the antidiarrheal properties of the leaves. Additionally, clinical trials have also confirmed the efficacy of the plant. However, it would be interesting to further research bioactive phytochemicals due to the lack of information on the subject.

*S. aromaticum* is a widely used plant in traditional medicine for its activity against fever and pain. Many therapeutic applications have been developed, particularly for treating dental problems. It would be interesting to further study the combined activity of cloves and coral stone reported in this study.

The leaves of *C. halicacabum* present ethnobotanical and pharmacological data justifying its use against fever. However, it would be interesting to identify the molecules responsible for the plant's antipyretic activity.

Overall, none of these plants have shown to induce toxicity at reasonable dosage.

It is important to specify that the survey was conducted over a relatively short period of three months, which is a limiting factor. This limited timeframe may contribute to the absence of consensus for most uses, as reflected in the results where we have only one "use-report" for many of the plants studied (Weckerle et al., 2018).

## 5. Conclusion

This study is the first to focus on the Mahoran pharmacopeia all over the island. It highlights the rich traditional knowledge of Mahoran people. The Mahoran pharmacopeia is mainly practiced by women as they constituted the majority of the participants. According to the informants, the transmission of this knowledge primarily occurs orally. However, this transmission is decreasing year by year, with younger generations showing less interest in traditional medicine, possibly due to the island's development and changes in social organization.

The most commonly treated diseases by traditional medicine in Mayotte are those affecting the digestive, respiratory, and genital systems. The primary ailments include stomachache, cough, headache, and fever. In the survey, two chronic diseases (diabetes and hypertension) were also highly mentioned, likely reflecting the prevalence of these

conditions on the island. However, it was observed that the respondents had difficulty describing the diseases (diagnoses, symptoms, causes), which could be attributed to translation issues or a lack of understanding of the conditions in question. Ethnological and medical work could be undertaken to better understand the cited ailments.

Remedies in Mahoran traditional medicine mainly consist of fresh plants. The majority of remedies used on the island consist of a single ingredient, with leaves being the most commonly employed in remedy preparations. The most frequently used preparation method is decoction.

The traditional remedies of Mayotte also has numerous specificities due to the use of particular ingredients such as salt, coral stone and white clay.

Within the study, the benefit-risk balance of the seven most cited plants was evaluated. These seven plants are already well-known as they have been the subject of several scientific studies. Among these seven plants, six exhibited similar ethnobotanical usage data in other countries, and six possessed pharmacological activities related to the documented uses. Among the plants for which toxicological data are available, only *M. oleifera* showed acute toxicity. Furthermore, it is worth noting that only *P. guajava* had undergone clinical trials.

Finally, some species (*A. lanata*, *C. halicacabum*, *C. madagascariensis*, *P. pinnata*, *Phyllarthron comorensis*, *Mimusops comorensis*, *Tragia furialis* and *W. fruticosa*) frequently cited in our study and poorly investigated from a pharmacological perspective might be interesting to further study. In addition, three of them (*A. lanata*, *C. madagascariensis*, and *W. fruticosa*) were cited for specific ailments, making them pertinent to study for their phytochemistry and biological activities related to these ailments.

### CRediT authorship contribution statement

**Tam-Hui Thibault:** Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal analysis. **Eveno Yannick:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Investigation, Conceptualization. **Dimassi Abassi:** Methodology, Data curation. **Bertrand Cédric:** Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. **Haddad Mohamed:** Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization. **Chassagne François:** Writing – original draft, Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Conceptualization.

### Ethics statement

In France, access to traditional knowledge in French overseas territories (except for French Guiana and Wallis and Futuna) does not require specific declarations to the authorities as part of the Nagoya protocol. However, this study has been developed in close consultation with the local authorities (Department of Mayotte and the Agency for Development and Innovation of Mayotte) and is part of a larger project aiming to help Mahoran people valorize their terrestrial resources. This project is directly related to the Rural Excellence Pole of Coconi, where a scientific laboratory has been developed to help achieve this valorization, which is part of the Integrated Innovation Pole of Mayotte (PI²M).

Before each interview, a consent form was submitted to the participant. The first part of the form described the objectives of the study and how it would be carried out, in the form of an explanatory note. This first sheet was given to the informants before the start of the interview. The second part of the form contained the consent information, and was signed by the participant and the interviewer before the interview began. No personal information (last name, first name, date of birth, personal address) was collected during the survey, allowing the participants to remain anonymous.

### Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
<table><caption>**Table 4**
Benefit-risk assessment of the seven most cited plant species.</caption><thead><tr><th>Scientific name</th><th>Ethnobotanical uses in Mayotte (in this study)</th><th>Ethnobotanical uses in the Indian Ocean and in Africa</th><th>Pharmacological activities</th><th>Bioactive compounds</th><th>Toxicity</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Cardiospermum halicacabum</td><td>Leaf: chikungunya, constipation, covid-19, dengue, fever, headache, hemorrhoids Liana: headache</td><td>Leaf: arthritis, fever, upset stomach [Archipelagos of Comoros] (Saive et al., 2020),</td><td>Ethanolic and hexanic extracts of the leaves showed antipyretic activity (Raza et al., 2013). The leaves also possess anti-inflammatory activity (Elangovan et al., 2022)</td><td>The compounds responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity are as follows: apigenin, luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, protocatechuic acid, rutin, apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucuronide, gallic acid, and coniferylaldehyde (Elangovan et al., 2022).</td><td>The toxicity of ethanolic extracts of leaves has been evaluated. The extracts were orally administered to rats, which were then observed for 72 h. The tests showed that the extracts did not exhibit toxicity up to a dose of 2000 mg/kg (Elangovan et al., 2022).</td></tr><tr><td>Citrus aurantiifolia</td><td>Fruit: cough, covid-19, dengue, fever, influenza, stomachache, tonsillitis Leaf: cough, covid-19, dengue, feet pain, female infertility, fever, hemorrhoids, influenza, stomachache</td><td>Fruit: cough, malaria [Nigeria] (Ojimelukwe et al., 2013) Leaf: cough [Uganda] (Tabuti et al., 2003)</td><td>Tests on dry extracts have highlighted the antibacterial activity of the fruit (Lee et al., 2018). Another study investigated antibacterial activity of the leaves by conducting in vitro tests (Pathan et al., 2012).</td><td>The antibacterial activity is attributed to the presence of monoterpenes in the fruit like limonene and linalool (Weimer et al., 2021).</td><td>The aqueous extract of the leaves was tested at a concentration of 2000 mg/kg, and the results showed that the extract was not toxic at this dose (Shchérazade et al., 2021). Another study tested the toxicity of the essential oil at 50, 100, and 500 mg/kg. The results indicated no acute toxicity (Adokoh et al., 2019).</td></tr><tr><td>Coleus amboinicus</td><td>Leaf: cough, fever, headache, hernia, high blood pressure, nasopharyngitis, tonsillitis</td><td>Leaf: cough, dysuria, constipation [Archipelago of Comoros] (Hassani et al., 2012), influenza, nasopharyngitis, wounds [Reunion island] (Nakab, 2019)</td><td>Hydroalcoholic extracts of the leaves possess anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities (Gurgel et al., 2009) Hexanic extracts of the leaves possess antioxidant and antibacterial activities (Nizar Ahamed et al., 2023)</td><td>These compounds were identified in the essential oil of the plant: carvacrol, thymol, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, α-terpineol, and β-selinene (Arumugam et al., 2016)</td><td>Methanolic extract of the leaves were tested on mice with a maximum dose of 2000 mg/kg (Pillai et al., 2011). After seven days of treatment, no mortality related to the test substance was observed (Pillai et al., 2011)</td></tr><tr><td>Moringa oleifera</td><td>Leaf: constipation, diabetes, diarrhea, high blood pressure, infectious conjunctivitis, intestinal pain, otitis externa, stomachache Root: high blood pressure Seed: high blood pressure Stem: high blood pressure</td><td>Leaf: liver disease, redness [Archipelagos of Comoros] (Saive et al., 2020), high blood pressure [Madagascar] (Nicolas, 2012), [Tchad] (Dongock et al., 2018), diarrhea [Benin] (Agbankpe et al., 2014)</td><td>A study conducted in 2019 highlighted the antihypertensive activity of the aqueous leaf extracts of the plant (Aekthammarat et al., 2019). Methanolic extracts of the roots showed significant antidiarrheal effects against castor oil-induced diarrhea in tested rats (Saralaya et al., 2010).</td><td>The main families of chemical compounds found in the leaves include vitamins, phenolic acids, flavonoids, isothiocyanates, tannins, and saponins (Vergara-Jimenez et al., 2017).</td><td>The toxicity has been tested using aqueous leaf extracts. The extracts were administered orally, and did not result in any mortality in mice at doses ranging from 400 mg/kg to 6.4 g/kg. However, between 3200 and 6400 mg/kg, a decrease in locomotion in some mice was observed after 2 h of treatment (Awodele et al., 2012)</td></tr><tr><td>Ocimum gratissimum</td><td>Leaf: asthma, cough, covid-19, dengue, female infertility, fever, hernia, influenza, nosebleed, painful periods, perineal massage, stomachache</td><td>Leaf: diarrhea, fever, gingivitis, hemorrhoids, vaginal infection [Archipelagos of Comoros] (Saive et al., 2020), cough, [Madagascar] (Rabearivony et al., 2015), infertility [Nigeria] (Soladoye et al., 2014), [Cameroon] (Fongod et al., 2013), painfull periods [Benin] (Ugbogu et al., 2021), [Ghana] (Bekoe et al., 2021)</td><td>Aqueous extracts of the leaves were tested and showed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity (Olamilosoye et al., 2018).</td><td>Phenolic compounds and flavonoids present in the leaves are believed to be responsible for the plant's anti-inflammatory activity (Ugbogu et al., 2021).</td><td>The toxicity of the leaves has been tested using aqueous extracts, with concentrations ranging from 1600 to 4500 mg/kg. The study showed that the median lethal dose of the aqueous extracts is 4240 mg/kg (Ojo et al., 2013).</td></tr><tr><td>Psidium guajava</td><td>Fruit: diabetes Leaf: covid-19, dengue, diabetes, diarrhea, dizziness, feet pain, hernia, high blood pressure, intestinal pain,</td><td>Leaf: diarrhea [Archipelagos of Comoros] (Saive et al., 2020), [Madagascar] (Quansah, 1988), [Kenya] (Njoroge and Bussmann, 2006), [Senegal] (Gutiérrez et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2024)</td><td>One study showed the antibacterial activity of aqueous extracts of dried leaves on Shigella flexneri and Vibrio cholerae, two bacteria responsible for infectious diarrhea (Birdi et al., 2010).</td><td>The ethanol extract of the leaves was found to be rich in flavonoids, phenols, tannins, alkaloids, steroids, and carbohydrates (Hirudkar et al., 2020).</td><td>The toxicity of the leaves was tested at different concentrations: 1 mg/ml, 10 mg/ml, 100 mg/ml, and 1 g/ml. None of them showed acute toxicity (Yadav and Mohite, 2020)</td></tr><tr><td>Syzygium aromaticum</td><td>Flower buds: back pain, cough, covid-19, fibroma, headache, influenza, impotence, muscle pain, otitis externa, toothache Leaf: cough, headache</td><td>Flower buds: cough [Comoros] (Kaou et al., 2008), fever [Madagascar] (Sattler and Razafindravao, 2017) [Angola] [Senegal] [Sudan] (Adefeghaa et al., 2015), flu, rheumatism</td><td>A study aimed to demonstrate the antipyretic activity of the essential oil derived from the floral buds of the plant. The test was conducted on two groups of albino mice. The first group was treated with essential oil at a concentration</td><td>The essential oil of clove contains numerous bioactive compounds. Indeed, a study conducted in 2021 identified more than 30 compounds within this essential oil. Its major compound, eugenol, is responsible for the antipyretic</td><td>Regarding the toxicity of clove essential oil, it has been recognized as harmless at a concentration below 1500 mg/kg. Furthermore, the WHO has specified that the acceptable daily number of (continued on next page)</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 4 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><td>Scientific name</td><td>Ethnobotanical uses in Mayotte (in this study)</td><td>Ethnobotanical uses in the Indian Ocean and in Africa</td><td>Pharmacological activities</td><td>Bioactive compounds</td><td>Toxicity</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td></td><td>[Reunion Island] (Vera, 1989)</td><td>of 50 mg/kg, and the second group was treated with a concentration of 100 mg/kg. The study showed that the essential oil exhibits significant antipyretic activity. No difference was observed between the two groups of mice (Uchoa Lopes et al., 2020).</td><td>and analgesic activity (Haro-González et al., 2021).</td><td>cloves per day is 2.5 mg/kg based on the individual's weight (Cortés-Rojas et al., 2014).</td></tr></tbody></table>

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

## Acknowledgments

I wish to express my deep gratitude to all the participants of this study for their warm welcome, availability, and generosity in sharing their valuable knowledge. Their contribution has been essential to the success of this research. I also want to extend my sincere thanks to the Department of Mayotte, the ADIM (Agence de Développement et d'Innovation de Mayotte), the Pôle d'innovation intégré de Mayotte, and the Pole d'Excellence Rural of Coconi. These institutions played a crucial role in making this study possible. We also acknowledge Mrs. Fahoullia Mohamadi for her valuable advice.

## Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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