In contrast, the diet in the *Colonia Vlpia Traiana* differed considerably. Thanks to extensive archaeobotanical research over many years, we have quite a detailed picture of the food plants consumed as well as of the vegetation in the Roman town. The most important cereal for bread was spelt (*Triticum spelta*); many other cereals were also present, but not as common. Only barley (*Hordeum vulgare*), which could also have been used as fodder, especially for horses (Herchenbach & Meurers-Balke in prep.), is relatively frequent. Pulses are represented by lentil (*Lens culinaris*), pea (*Pisum sativum*), celtic bean (*Vicia faba*), and common vetch (*Vicia sativa*). Characteristic is the occurrence of spices like celery (*Apium graveolens*), dill (*Anethum graveolens*), coriander (*Coriandrum sativum*), summer savory (*Satureja hortensis*), fennel (*Foeniculum vulgare*), anise (*Pimpinella anisum*), rue (*Ruta graveolens*), as well as cultivated fruits and nuts such as apple (*Malus domestica*), sweet cherry (*Prunus avium*), pear (*Pyrus communis*), cultivated vine (*Vitis vinifera*), walnut (* Juglans regia*), bullace plum and plum (*Prunus insititia*, *P. domestica*), peach (*Prunus persica*), cornelian cherry (*Cornus mas*), cucumber (*Cucumis sativus*), black mulberry (*Morus nigra*), medlar (*Mespilus germanica*) and sorb apple (*Sorbus domestica*). In addition, remains were found from plants imported from the Mediterranean, such as fig (*Ficus carica*), date (*Phoenix dactylifera*), pomegranate (*Punica granatum*), caper (*Capparis spinosa*), pepper (*Piper nigrum*), olive (*Olea europaea*) and stone pine nuts (*Pinus pinea*). Comparing the archaeobotanical evidence from the hinterland with the long list of food plants consumed in the *Colonia Vlpia Traiana*, we must come to the conclusion that the Roman settlements in the Lower Rhine Plain were not supplied exclusively by the (so far analysed) rural settlements in its immediate hinterland (fig. 42). In particular, the much appreciated wheats for bread (*Triticum spelta* and *Triticum aestivum*) had to come from the loess belt. Interestingly, a part of the loess belt in the vicinity of *Coriovallum* (Heerlen) actually belonged to the territory of the *Colonia Vlpia Traiana* (cf. above).

The spectrum of food plants from the *Colonia Vlpia Traiana* is strikingly similar to that from the *Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium* (fig. 42).

Cologne – in contrast to the *Colonia Vlpia Traiana* – was indeed supplied by the loess zone immediately to its west. Almost everything that grows in the middle European climate can be cultivated on its fertile soils.

Like the Lower Rhine Plain, the Cologne Bay was a landscape already dominated by agriculture before the Roman period; several pollen diagrams from this well-researched area illustrate this: the pollen diagram from the Malefinkbachtal (fig. 43) shows a ratio of woodland pollen to pollen of cultivated land of 2:1 just as in the less-loess landscapes. Between the

<figure><img src="image_44.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 43. Pollen diagram Malefinkbachtal near Boslar (Meurers-Balke & Kalis 2006).</figcaption></figure>
Iron Age and the Roman period there is no noticeable difference in the extent of cultivated land. It is hard to observe distinct signs of anthropogenic soil degradation in the pollen diagram. This was to be expected given the high fertility of the Luvisols of the loess region.

However, we know from geoarchaeological research that during the Iron Age and the Roman period Colluviation took place on the loess; taking a second look, this can also be seen from the pollen diagram. Towards the end of the Iron Age, the pine (*Pinus*) curve increases slightly, which can only be explained by soil erosion on the loess. Due to erosion on steeper slopes, the loess layer thinned and the underlying gravel and sand reached the surface zone. Here, the sandy-gravelly nutrient-poor areas favoured the growth of pine (Meurers-Balke *et al.* 1999, 40).

During the Roman period another botanical indicator of increased soil erosion can be added: from about the mid-first century AD onwards new weeds appeared (Knörzer 1971): large-flowered orlaya (*Orlaya grandiflora*), nigella (*Nigella arvensis*), dwarf spurge (*Euphorbia exigua*) and spreading hedge-parsley (*Torilis arvensis*) are weeds that grow on calcareous soils. It was long assumed that these weeds occurred because of Roman marl fertilization. However, it seems impossible to generate such a plant community through fertilization with lime, because of its short-time effect. In addition, all those archaeological features which so far have been interpreted as Roman marl pits are in fact post-medieval marl pits (Gerlach *et al.* 2008) or pits with other functions such as loam extraction or drainage. So where does the calcareous soil come from? We think that erosion accounts for this phenomenon. Erosion was intensified during the Roman period, laying bare the hitherto covered limy loess (C-horizon). Thus, a new soil type developed in the loess area: former Luvisols started to turn into anthropogenic Calcaric Regosols ("Pararendzina" after the German Soil Classification). This development later considerably intensified up to the modern era. The cause of this development was the new Roman agrarian system in the loess zone that brought about a clear break with Iron Age traditions.

As mentioned above, in times of transformation, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the Roman period, Colluvia reached the valley bottoms. They are missing at the zenith of the Roman *villae* system. In the light of the occurrence of calciphilous weeds, which point to continuous erosion, the lack of Colluvia need not necessarily mean that there was none. It is also possible, that Colluvia did not reach the valley bottoms and were preserved there until the present day (cf. above). We know of ditch systems of the second century in the Hambach 59 *villa rustica* (cf. fig. 10; 12) and also from other sites (e.g. HA 132 [fig. 9], HA 133, HA 488) that divided agrarian land, but could also have retained erosional deposits (Gaitzsch 1990; Knörzer & Meurers-Balke 1990; Brüggler 2009, 57-59).

By the mid-first century at the latest, together with the establishment of *villae rusticae*, the agrarian economy was oriented towards surplus production to supply the towns and military installations. It was specialized on spelt (*Triticum spelta*); alongside it, barley (*Hordeum vulgare*) and emmer (*Triticum dicoccon*) as well as occasionally free-threshing wheat (*Triticum aestivum vel turgidum*) and broomcorn millet (*Panicum miliaceum*) were cultivated (fig. 42).

Spelt was the main cereal for bread, not only in the Rhineland but in the northern provinces in general (Körber-Grohne 1987, 74; Knörzer 1991, 199; Wiethold 2012, 317). In Italy, free-threshing wheat was preferred, whereas spelt was almost unknown. Although there is some evidence for spelt from northern Italy, it was not as important as further north (Castelletti *et al.* 2001).

Looking at the cereal spectrum in the Germania inferior, it is conspicuous that there are quite a few mass finds of free-
threshing wheat from the first century⁹⁰. Assuming that the early settlements and forts were supplied with imported foodstuffs,
this import of “italic” cereal is not surprising. Besides bread wheat (*Triticum aestivum*, a free-threshing wheat), emmer and
spelt were also imported for supplies; the latter especially points to a provenance of the cereal from a “glume wheat region”
such as Gaul.

In the course of the Roman occupation, spelt was used increasingly as the main cereal north of the Alps. Are there
reasons for this preference in the transalpine regions? One of the reasons could be that cultivation of free-threshing wheat in
the Germanic provinces was deemed insecure by the Romans for climatic reasons. Another could be that one of the traditionally
cultivated cereals in Gaul, and also in the loess zone of the Rhineland, before the Roman occupation was spelt and therefore varieties already existed that were better suited to the soil and climatic conditions.

In view of the importance of *villae* as producers for the supply of towns and military installations, one has to assume that the agrarian economy was effective and oriented towards surplus production. Here, cultivation of winter crops like spelt is more productive than spring sown crops. Surplus production on a large scale demanded efficient cultivation and harvesting methods. It is striking that the *vallus*, a machine for harvesting cereals, is so far only known from the Gaulish regions, among others western Germany (Trier), France (Reims) and Belgium (Arlon, Buzenol)⁹¹. This device was used from the first century AD until the Late Roman period and ancient authors underline that the *vallus* was especially used in the large level areas in Gaul (Plin., *Nat.*, 18.296; Pall., *Agric.*, 7.2.2-4). In addition, the machine was indeed perfectly suited for reaping spelt (Wiethold & Zech-Matterne 2009). The reason was presumably the morphology of this special glume wheat: unlike the much smoother ears of emmer, those of spelt are much stronger and slightly splayed, so that they could be caught more easily by the teeth of the *vallus*, gripped better, and then cut off as a whole. However, the *vallus* was unsuitable for harvesting free-threshing wheat because too many grains would be lost during this mechanical harvesting-process.

It has to remain an open question whether pulses – lentil (*Lens culinaris*), pea (*Pisum sativum*), bitter vetch (*Vicia ervilia*) and common vetch (*Vicia sativa*) – that were grown in the *villae rusticae* were also used for the supply of towns and military installations. This also applies for oilseeds such as gold-of-pleasure (*Camelina sativa*), flax (*Linum usitatissimum*) and poppy (*Papaver somniferum*) (fig. 42). Orchards (*pomaria*) surely belonged to *villae rusticae*, in which presumably sweet cherry (*Prunus avium*), apple (*Malus domestica*), pear (*Pyrus communis*) and probably cultivated vine (*Vitis vinifera*) were grown (Meurers-Balke 2010). Whether these along with walnut (* Juglans regia*) were cultivated for sale cannot be answered by archaeobotanical means. It is also questionable whether herbs and spices were cultivated for local markets; it has to be assumed rather that dill (*Anethum graveolens*), coriander (*Coriandrum sativum*), summer savory (*Satureja hortensis*) and celery (*Apium graveolens*) were grown for domestic requirements in kitchen gardens in towns and in the country.

Some inhabitants of the *villae* could even afford to import exotic indulgences; this is proven by seeds of fig (*Ficus carica*), which have been found repeatedly. It is not known whether those species that were only occasionally found, like plum (*Prunus domestica*), peach (*Prunus persica*) or black mulberry (*Morus nigra*), were grown in the orchards of the *villae*. These finds demonstrate that the inhabitants of the *villae rusticae* in the Rhenish loess zone of the Cologne Bay oriented themselves towards Roman style consumption habits and would not miss out on precious Roman foodstuffs on their rural estates.

## DISCUSSION

Summing up the now available geoarchaeological and archaeobotanical results, we come to the following conclusions:

Concerning food-plants, human diet within the two *coloniae* (CCAA and CUT) was strikingly similar. We observe the same preferences for cereals, pulses, vegetables, spices and fruits. Most of these were cultivated locally in and around the *coloniae*. Only some fruits, nuts and spices like figs, pine nuts and pepper had to be imported from afar.

Even though both Roman towns were very similar from an archaeobotanical point of view, their direct hinterlands display great differences in many respects: first of all, we notice a difference in the agricultural potential of the predominant soils of the north and south. The soil type units and soil value classes differ between a more uniform loess-covered landscape in the Cologne Bay and a more heterogenous mosaic-like landscape in the Lower Rhine Plain.

The differences become even more apparent when we take a look at the plant remains found in the rural settlements in the hinterland of the CCAA and of the CUT. While the plant spectrum of the *villae rusticae* in the loess landscape resembles that of the two towns, the plant spectra from two rural settlements in the Lower Rhine Plain are quite different. In fact, they remind us very much of the typical Iron Age set of cultivated plants: in the hinterland of the CUT, agrarian traditions seem to have lived on. The inhabitants of the hinterland built, farmed and ate traditionally.
The contrast between the two agricultural systems in the north and south cannot be in total explained by differences in soil quality in the Cologne Bay and the Lower Rhine Plain alone. The loess landscape is most suitable for the cultivation of demanding crops like spelt; the “very high” and “high” soil value classes make up more than two-thirds of the area. It seems as if the Romans appreciated the advantages of the loess landscape as a wheat producing region: the uniformity of the loess zone probably allowed the use of very effective techniques in tillage, manuring, and harvesting, such as the *vallus* for harvesting spelt. The uniformity and fertility of the loess landscape supported the pragmatic decision to establish an effective *villa* system here with people who built, farmed, and ate Roman.

Even though the “very high” soil value class is missing from the less-loess landscape of the Lower Rhine Plain, more than a quarter of “high” quality soils were still suitable for the cultivation of nutrient-demanding cereals like the favoured Roman spelt. As calculated above in part I, the total amount of land needed to cultivate all the cereal consumed – for a research area lying within the Lower Rhine Plain (fig. 44) – amounted to a maximum of 263 km². The soils suitable for the production of spelt within this area, however, already covered 657 km² (fig. 45). Therefore, the size of suitable wheat-producing areas would

<figure><img src="image_45.png" /><figcaption>Fig. 44. Section from fig. 35, soil value classes. Pink: research area in Germany; blue: research area in Germany and the Netherlands (R. Lubberich, LVR-ABR, LVR-ABR, on the basis of Bodenübersichtskarte 1:50,000 Geologischer Dienst NRW)</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>Fig. 45. Percentages of the soil values classes in the research area (3,200 km², cf. above, part I). These estimations could only be carried out for the German part (D) of the research area (fig. 44), since we only had the soil map and data of the Geological Service of Northrhine-Westphalia at our disposal. Because the same landscape with similar sediments and soil properties exists beyond the modern state border, the percentages of the soil value classes are taken as given also for the Dutch part (NL) of the research area.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Soil value classes (GD NRW)</th><th colspan="2">Research area 3,200 km²</th><th rowspan="2">km² research area (D+NL)</th><th rowspan="2">demanding cereals</th><th colspan="2">Suitable for</th></tr><tr><th>km² (D)</th><th>%</th><th>less demanding crops</th><th>livestock</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>very high</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>+</td></tr><tr><td>high</td><td>547.80</td><td>20.55</td><td>657.6</td><td>+</td><td>+</td><td>+</td></tr><tr><td>middle (incl. Fluvisols)</td><td>1,418.10</td><td>53.19</td><td>1,702.1</td><td></td><td>+</td><td>+</td></tr><tr><td>low and very low</td><td>482.90</td><td>18.11</td><td>579.52</td><td></td><td></td><td>+</td></tr><tr><td>Disturbances</td><td>218.20</td><td>8.18</td><td>261.76</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>2,666.00</td><td>100.00</td><td>3,200.98</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr></tbody></table>
have allowed enough spelt to be cultivated to feed the inhabitants of the whole *colonia* territory. However, the available archaeobotanical data from the rural settlements of the Lower Rhine Plain, although sparse, indicate that spelt played a minor role as a cereal. The wheat-compatible soils were obviously not exploited to their full potential.

Thus, we can conclude that the different agrarian usages of the areas were intentional ones. Concerning the usage of the rural landscape of the Lower Rhine Plain there are two options:

- Either less demanding crops (like barley and millet) were cultivated on soils of "high" and "middle" value classes.

- Or – considering the possibility of livestock breeding – it can be assumed that cattle (and horses) were not only grazing on soils of the "low" value class, but also on soils of the higher classes.

Maybe both options are true; unfortunately, in the current state of research, we cannot come up with final fixed numbers on the significance and proportion of cereal and meat production in the hinterland of the CUT.

And to come up with an answer to this chapter's question: Were soil characteristics the main trigger for land use? Of course, the soil characteristics were important; but the development of a *villae* system with an emphasis on the cash-crop spelt was presumably guided by a cost-benefit ratio of economic management, encouraged by the uniformity of the loess landscape. According to the current state of research, a *villae* system was not "installed" in the Lower Rhine Plain. However, it seems that the Roman influence on traditional agriculture still led to greater efficiency and sustainability. Changes in the vegetation show that marginal areas were given up in the Roman period, although at the same time the population increased significantly.

## REGION SUMMARY (Marion Brüggler, Karen Jeneson, Renate Gerlach, Jutta Meurers-Balke, Tanja Zerl and Michael Herchenbach)

This chapter deals with archaeological, geoarchaeological and archaeobotanical results concerning the Roman rural landscape in the Rhineland. Even though this region comprises three landscape units typical for the Gaulish provinces – namely the low mountain ranges, the loess belt and the Pleistocene and Holocene loam and sand landscapes – we concentrate on the last two.

Part I presents a summary of recent archaeological results on rural sites, settlement distribution, and settlement density within the loess zone of the Cologne Bay on the one hand and the loamy and sandy Lower Rhine Plain on the other. Whereas the loess zone has been intensively researched, especially within the lignite mining area, the northern part of our research area is still at the beginning of archaeological investigations with only a handful of extensively excavated rural sites. However, the first results show a good compatibility with those from the more intensively researched adjacent sand and loam landscapes of the Netherlands.

A fully developed *villa* landscape existed in the loess zone with Roman style buildings, infrastructure and consumption patterns. The rural population of the northern areas continued living in byre-houses making use of traditional hand-made pottery. Here, too, already at the beginning of the Roman period there are some artefacts showing an influence of Roman culture. This influence increases in the 2nd century when hand-made pottery is totally replaced by wheel-thrown vessels.

In part II we look from a geoarchaeological and archaeobotanical perspective on both landscapes, facing similar differences in research intensity; nevertheless, the evaluation of pollen diagrams and soil conditions enable us to work on a more regional scale. Surplus production of spelt wheat was the aim of the *villae rusticae* in the loess belt, whereas no surplus in cereal seems to have been generated in the loamy and sandy areas of the north. Here, too, archaeobotanical data reflect changes in land use, but in summary they rather point to a continuation of Iron Age subsistence farming. Furthermore, the plant-food consumed in the *villae* is decidedly Roman, i.e. cultivated fruit, vegetables and spices, while evidence in the northern rural settlements points to more traditional dietary patterns.

In contrast to the countryside the inhabitants of both *coloniae*, *Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium* (CCAA, Cologne) in the loess region and *Colonia V lipia Traiana* (CUT, Xanten) in the northern sand and loam region, consumed the same kind of plant food: spelt as main cereal supplemented by a broad spectrum of cultivated fruit, spices and imported goods, such as
olive, dates and figs. The CCAA was supplied with spelt from its hinterland, the loess zone. In theory, the CUT could also have been supplied by its hinterland. Our model calculation reveals that the size of arable land, its soil values and the available manpower should have been sufficient. However, the archaeobotanical results show that those farmsteads investigated so far only produced spelt on a very low scale. It was definitely not enough to supply the CUT and military installations of the Limes. Moreover, the weed flora found in storages of spelt within the CUT proves its provenance from calciferous loess soils typical for the loess belt.

Even though there are manifest natural differences between both landscapes, they alone cannot explain the different agrarian economies. Therefore, other reasons must have existed for the different developments. Conceivable are economic factors such as a higher effectivity when growing crops on a large scale within the more uniform loess zone rather than on the small-spatially structured soilscapes in the north. Cultural factors may have played an important role, concerning for example the willingness of interaction of the different agents. Future studies will have to concentrate especially on these aspects.

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