# Agroecological soil management in North Africa: practices, challenges, and prospects for sustainable transition

Abdellatif Boutagayout, Anas Hamdani, Mohamed Kouighat, Inass Zayani, Atman Adiba

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## To cite this version:

Abdellatif Boutagayout, Anas Hamdani, Mohamed Kouighat, Inass Zayani, Atman Adiba. Agroecological soil management in North Africa: practices, challenges, and prospects for sustainable transition. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 2025, 9, pp.1662153. 10.3389/fsufs.2025.1662153. hal-05515063

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EDITED BY
Ilias Travlos,
Agricultural University of Athens, Greece

REVIEWED BY
Ioannis Gazoulis,
Agricultural University of Athens, Greece
Nathan Einbinder,
University of Plymouth, United Kingdom

*CORRESPONDENCE
Abdellatif Boutagayout
✉ a.boutagayout@edu.umi.ac.ma

RECEIVED 08 July 2025

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PUBLISHED 24 November 2025

**CITATION**
Boutagayout A, Hamdani A, Kouighat M, Zayani I and Adiba A (2025) Agroecological soil management in North Africa: practices, challenges, and prospects for sustainable transition.
*Front. Sustain. Food Syst.* 9:1662153.
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2025.1662153

**COPYRIGHT**
© 2025 Boutagayout, Hamdani, Kouighat, Zayani and Adiba. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

# Agroecological soil management in North Africa: practices, challenges, and prospects for sustainable transition

Abdellatif Boutagayout¹*, Anas Hamdani², Mohamed Kouighat³, Inass Zayani⁴ and Atman Adiba⁵

¹Laboratory Health Environment and Agroecosystem Sustainability, Faculty of Science, Moulay Ismail University, Meknes, Morocco, ²Regional Center of Agricultural Research of Meknes, National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRA), Rabat, Morocco, ³Laboratory of Biotechnology and Valorization of Plant Genetic Resources, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, University of Sultan Moulay Slimane, Beni-Mellal, Morocco, ⁴Université de Lorraine, INRAE, LSE, Nancy, France, ⁵Regional Center of Agricultural Research of Tadla, National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRA), Rabat, Morocco

North Africa faces multiple environmental challenges, including soil degradation, climate change, desertification, and water scarcity. In this context, agroecology offers a sustainable and promising approach to land management by enhancing the resilience of agricultural systems and preserving natural resources and biodiversity. This review synthesizes current research on resilient agroecological practices implemented across North African countries and evaluates their benefits, limitations, and potential for local adaptation. Key practices include the use of organic amendments, composting, biochar application, agroforestry, direct seeding, mulching, crop diversification, and cover cropping. Beyond analyzing these practices, this study proposes a holistic framework that integrates agroecological soil management strategies with emerging technologies, such as remote sensing, smart soil sensors, and digital decision-support platforms. To advance the agroecological transition, it is essential to reinforce supportive policies, foster stakeholder participation, promote interdisciplinary research, and strengthen capacity-building initiatives. Encouraging collaboration among actors, sharing successful experiences, and developing context-specific solutions will contribute to establishing more resilient, sustainable, and equitable agricultural systems across North Africa.

**KEYWORDS**

agroecology, emerging technologies, North Africa, sustainable land management, resilient agricultural practices

## 1 Introduction

Soil is considered a non-renewable resource, as its formation and restoration occur over extremely long timescales. This slow regeneration process makes it particularly vulnerable to degradation driven by unsustainable land use and increasing environmental pressures. The deterioration of soil quality leads to the loss of critical functions and ecosystem services, including the ability to produce food for a global population projected to reach nine billion by 2050 (Zayani et al., 2025). Population growth continues to intensify environmental stress through deforestation, over-extraction of water resources, excessive use of agrochemicals, and accelerated soil degradation (Temegne et al., 2021). Soil degradation plays a major role in global environmental change, contributing to
approximately 80% of human-induced alterations to land systems, 66% of disruptions in the nitrogen cycle, and 38% in the phosphorus cycle. Although not the primary cause, it also significantly contributes to climate change (21%), ocean acidification (25%), and stratospheric ozone depletion (25%). Furthermore, it is a key driver of global biodiversity loss, as it severely compromises the natural habitats on which many species rely (Kraamwinkel et al., 2021). Currently, more than 10.7% of people worldwide suffer from chronic undernourishment, emphasizing the urgent need for more sustainable agricultural practices to maintain food security while mitigating climate change and restoring biodiversity (Reiff et al., 2024; Temegne et al., 2021).

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) recognizes agroecology as a central strategy for advancing the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in efforts to end hunger, ensure food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agricultural practices (Reiff et al., 2024). Agroecology represents a holistic and transformative approach that integrates ecological, health, social, and economic dimensions into the planning and management of food systems. Originally coined by Bensin in 1928 to describe the application of ecological principles to crop research, agroecology has since evolved into a comprehensive framework for achieving sustainability across various scales (Bezner Kerr et al., 2021; Romero Antonio et al., 2025; Tripathi et al., 2024; Van Zutphen et al., 2022). Among the many ecosystems with which agroecology engages, soil holds a particularly vital role; it is considered the most biodiverse habitat on Earth, hosting approximately 59% of all known species. These organisms, which vary widely in size and complexity, form intricate communities that support critical ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling, plant productivity, and global biodiversity (Vaupel et al., 2024).

Agriculture remains a fundamental pillar of development in North African countries. However, the region, characterized by a semi-arid to arid climate, is increasingly affected by climate change, including decreased rainfall, increased drought episodes, land degradation, and water scarcity (Hamed et al., 2018). In addition, soils in North Africa are under mounting pressure due to urbanization, over-exploitation of agricultural land, and intensive farming practices (Hossain et al., 2020). Desertification, exacerbated by climate change, threatens regional food security (Ziadat et al., 2022). Reduced plant cover and soil erosion result in decreased fertility and agricultural productivity (Igwe et al., 2017).

Faced with these growing challenges, adopting alternative approaches is essential for strengthening the sustainability of agricultural and rural systems. Agroecological soil management plays a central role in developing resilient and environmentally friendly farming systems (Requier-Desjardins et al., 2024). In the region, several practices are commonly implemented, such as using cover crops to prevent erosion and improve soil fertility, adding organic matter through compost or green manure, rotating crops to disrupt pest cycles and enrich the soil, and integrating trees with crops through agroforestry to enhance soil structure, water infiltration, and biodiversity Boutagayout et al. (2023b). Additional techniques, including stony cords, water retention pits, and grass strips, are also employed to limit erosion and promote soil regeneration (Sarvade et al., 2019).

Although interest in these practices is steadily growing in North Africa, their potential remains only partially explored. An in-depth and comprehensive analysis is needed to better understand their impact and to guide public policies and intervention strategies. The present study examines the various challenges associated with soil in North Africa and analyzes the agroecological approaches implemented to improve soil quality while preserving ecological balance. It also focuses on national case studies, highlighting the tangible effects of these practices on local communities and the resilience of farming systems to climate hazards. This study proposes an approach that combines agroecological practices with emerging soil management technologies and addresses the challenges of their adoption in North Africa.

# 2 Soil challenges in North Africa

## 2.1 Aridity and desertification

According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), desertification is land degradation caused by multiple factors such as climatic hazards and human activities in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, affecting nearly 40% of arable land (Figure 1; Prăvălie et al., 2021). This phenomenon is the main cause of various problems, including the scarcity of land resources, increasing poverty, declining agricultural production, worsening food insecurity, and hindering global economic development (Bedouï, 2020). Among other global regions, North African countries are affected by a range of aridity indices (Mihi et al., 2024). The level of desertification varies significantly from one country to another, depending on climatic conditions, agricultural practices, and land management strategies. Currently, this phenomenon affects approximately 30% of the land in Egypt, 33% in Tunisia, 24% in Libya, 15% in Algeria, and 10% in Morocco (Figure 2; Mihi et al., 2022).

In northwest Egypt, specifically in El Minya Governorate, 86% of the region was classified as highly vulnerable to desertification, primarily due to arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, poor soil quality, inadequate soil management, and limited vegetation cover (Nour-Eldin et al., 2023). In the Egyptian Western Desert, 18% of El Farafala Oasis was classified as highly vulnerable, while 78% was moderately vulnerable to desertification (Fadl et al., 2021).

In Algeria, desertification is a major problem, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where drought and human activities are pronounced (Bouhata and Bensekhria, 2021). The sensitivity of Algerian regions, mainly in the high plains, to desertification increased between 2000 and 2020 from 10% to 83% (Alliouche and Kouba, 2023). Moreover, the extent of desertification in the Algerian green barrier increased by more than 50% between 1984 and 2020 (Mihi et al., 2024). In the regions of El Bayadh, Djelfa, Ain El Orak Boualem, Sidi Taiffour, Sidi Amar, Sidi Slimane, Stitten, Mehara, Ghassoul, Krakda, Chellala, Arbaouet, and Boussemghoun, desertification affects between 36% and 45% of the total area (Djeddaoui et al., 2017). These areas are characterized by degraded or highly degraded vegetation growing on well-developed or poorly developed alluvial soils (Madi et al., 2023). In northern Algeria, sandstorms from the Sahara further exacerbate this situation (Huebner and Al-Quraishi, 2024). In the northeastern
<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 1</figcaption></figure>

Global arable land degradation: (a) the number of land degradation processes and (b) the types of land degradation processes in arable land (Prăvălie et al., 2021).

province of Tébessa, the risk of desertification can reach up to 59% of the total area (Mihi et al., 2022). In other regions, vulnerability to desertification ranges from 45% to 70% in the eastern part of the country (Bouhata and Bensekhria, 2021), from 8% to 70% in the western highlands (Kadri and Nasrallah, 2023), and 60% in the low and high areas of Hodna (Boudjemline and Semar, 2018), exacerbated by the lack of vegetation cover and increased anthropogenic activity.

In Morocco, desertification affects a vast area, particularly in arid regions with prolonged drought and fragile soils. In southeastern Morocco, characterized by limited vegetation cover, low erosion resistance, insufficient management practices, and overexploitation of groundwater resources, 20–63% of soils are vulnerable to desertification (Labbaci and Bouchaou, 2021; Ait Lamqadem et al., 2018; Kacem et al., 2021; Karmaoui et al., 2023). In the Skoura Oasis, desertification impacts 76% of the area (Rayne et al., 2023). In the Ouergha watershed, subject to semi-arid and sub-humid climates, 16.2% of the land is considered

critically degraded due to steep slopes and lack of vegetation cover (Boutallaka et al., 2023). Similarly, the Oued-El-Maleh basin shows high sensitivity, with more than 50% of the area affected, 35% of which is classified as highly sensitive, due to intensive agriculture and population pressure around large cities such as Mohammed and El Gara (Lahlaoi et al., 2017). In the Middle Moulouya basin, located in northeastern Morocco, more than 86% of the land experiences moderate to extreme desertification (Lamaamri et al., 2023). Finally, in the Souss River Basin, in the center-west of the country, 72% of the land is vulnerable to desertification, particularly in the Anti-Atlas Mountains and the central plains, under an arid to sub-desert climate (Bouabid et al., 2010).

In Tunisia, desertification affects a significant proportion of the land. In the Talh region, in the center of the country, 82% of the surface area is classified as critical due to low vegetation cover, poorly structured soils, and unsuitable agricultural practices (Bedoui, 2020). It has been estimated that 96% of the Tunisian territory is directly or indirectly affected by desertification (Institut
<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 2
Level of desertification (%) in different North African countries.</figcaption></figure>

national des études stratégiques (Tunisie), 2017). A 2 °C increase in the global average temperature by 2050 could halve the arable land in North Africa (Benabdulkader et al., 2021).

In Libya, desertification varies in intensity but remains pervasive, covering 95% of the land area (Zurqani et al., 2019). Several factors, including overexploitation of natural resources, deforestation, overgrazing, and inappropriate agricultural practices, have been identified as the main causes (Ben Mahmoud and Zurqani, 2021). Deforestation, exacerbated by rapid urbanization and charcoal production, has reduced forest cover from 24,344 hectares in 2000 to 11,866 hectares in 2018 (Global Forest Watch).

## 2.2 Erosion

Erosion is the second leading driver of land degradation in North Africa, resulting in a significant reduction in soil fertility and texture. This phenomenon constitutes a major environmental problem, with considerable impacts on ecosystem sustainability and development. Erosion is more common in dry and semi-arid climates, where natural soil regeneration is slow and vegetation cover is limited (Salhi et al., 2024). It is particularly pronounced in vulnerable urban areas, where the growth of informal settlements and the intensification of extreme weather events exacerbate the situation. Indeed, more than 15% of North African soils are affected by erosion, though the severity varies from country to country (Salhi et al., 2024).

In Morocco, water erosion is the primary cause of soil degradation, affecting approximately 40% of the land (El Assaoui et al., 2023). According to Namr and Mrabet (2004), more than 77% of potentially exploitable soils in northern Morocco are exposed to very high erosion risks. In this region, an annual erosion rate of 735 t/ha/year has been reported in the Oued El Makhazine watershed (Belasri and Lakhouili, 2016), 168 t/ha/year in the upper Inaouène watershed (Hamouch et al., 2024), 37.8 t/ha/year in the Nekor watershed (Okacha et al., 2023), 24.2 t/ha/year in the metropolitan area of Tangier (Salhi et al., 2023), and 10 t/ha/year in the Loukkos watershed (Acharki et al., 2022). These areas are characterized by recently burned arable land, fallow land, and steep slopes (Salhi et al., 2023; Amhani and Tribak, 2021). An erosion rate between 20 and 227.67 t/ha/year was recorded in the Western High Atlas (Bou-Imajjane et al., 2020), and between 58 and 142.6 t/ha/year in the Middle Atlas (El Jazouli et al., 2019; Tairi et al., 2021), largely due to steep slopes and degradation of vegetation cover (El Jazouli et al., 2017). In the Casablanca-Settat region, the erosion rate can reach 90 t/ha/year (Mazigh et al., 2022), while in the Tensift basin, the erosion rate is estimated at 35 t/ha/year (Bammou et al., 2024).

In Algeria, 20% of the country's total land area is at risk of water erosion, and nearly 80% of agricultural land is located in the region most susceptible to this phenomenon (Bouguerra et al., 2017, 2023). In the Fergoug watershed, soil losses due to erosion vary between 617 and 1,188 tons per hectare per year, depending on climatic conditions and slopes (Bouderbala et al., 2018). In the Kebir Rhumel watershed, located in northeastern Algeria, the average annual soil erosion rate is 17.92 tons per hectare, with losses reaching up to 190.50 tons per hectare per year (Zeghmar et al., 2022). According to reports, 61.5% of the Isser basin is subject to erosion, with intensity ranging from moderate to very high (> 20 tons per hectare per year). Additionally, 25% of the total area of this basin is affected by erosion levels considered high to very high (>50 tons per hectare per year; Fredj et al., 2024). In the Mafragh watershed in northeastern Algeria, 74% of the total area is affected by erosion, with 26% at risk of severe erosion (Medjani et al., 2023). In the Oued El Ardjem basin, soil sensitivity to water erosion varies between 31.08% and 21.38%, depending on the slopes (Tesfamichael, 2004). In the Oued el-Hai watershed, the rate of soil loss is particularly high, reaching 30 tons per hectare per year, affecting 23.2% of the total area (Bensekhria and Bouhata, 2022).
In Tunisia, agricultural lands in semi-arid areas of North Africa are particularly vulnerable to soil erosion (Jebari et al., 2010). Analyses show that the country faces a significant risk of water erosion: 6.43% of its total area suffers very high soil losses, exceeding 30 tons per hectare per year, while 4.20% records high annual losses, between 20 and 30 tons per hectare (Serbaji et al., 2023). In the Sgilil River watershed in northeastern Tunisia, approximately 52% of the area is degraded by erosion, with an average loss of 6 t/ha/year between 1990 and 2019 (Cheikha et al., 2023). Average annual soil losses in the Koutine watershed monitoring sites range from 0.01 to 12.5 t/ha/year (Ben Zaied et al., 2021). In the Merguellil watershed, the annual soil erosion rate was estimated to be between 18 t/ha/year in 1980 and 16 t/ha/year in 2020 (Hermassi et al., 2023). In southeastern Tunisia, 99% of the Oued El Hamma watershed is affected by erosion, with an average soil loss rate of approximately 0.2 t/ha/year (Jemai et al., 2021). In the Oum El Ghram and Bou Said watersheds, high to very high erosion rates are mainly concentrated in mountainous areas, covering 5.22% and 7% of the study area, respectively (Mnasri et al., 2024).

In Egypt, the northern coastal regions are highly exposed to water erosion due to high annual rainfall (150–200 mm; Wassif and Wassif, 2021), soil characteristics, and topographic factors (El-Nady and Shoman, 2017). In regions with steep slopes such as Sidi Barrani and Al-Sallum, annual soil losses reach 2 t/ha/year (Mohamed et al., 2013). High erosion risks (88%) have also been reported in the El Minya region (Nour-Eldin et al., 2023). Moreover, the erosion rate can reach 55 t/ha/year in the steep areas of the Wadi Naghamish region (Azab et al., 2021). In the El-Mador Valley basin, water erosion can displace more than 2,500 t/ha/year of soil (Hagras, 2023). Furthermore, AbdelRahman and Arafat (2020) reported that erosion affects 85% of agricultural areas in El-Mador, resulting in a 17% reduction in agricultural productivity. In the Western Desert oases, wind erosion risks range from moderate to severe, with average soil loss rates between 4.5 and 66.9 Mg/ha/year (Hegazi et al., 2005).

In Libya, much of the agricultural land is under pressure from soil erosion, loss of natural vegetation cover, and overexploitation of irrigation water resources (Saad et al., 2013). About 65% of agricultural land has lost its topsoil and essential nutrients, reflecting a trend similar to that observed across Africa (Jones et al., 2013). Wind erosion is the main environmental challenge in Libya, resulting in the loss of fertile topsoil and causing problems related to sand displacement, accumulation, and encroachment, which particularly threaten agricultural areas and food security. In Southern Jeffara, 32.5% of the total area is affected by wind erosion and is considered highly susceptible (Arrak, 2022).

## 2.3 Salinization

Globally, salinity is the second most serious threat to agricultural production after erosion. Soil salinization is a major problem, affecting 6% of arable land worldwide, with an alarming 63% in Africa (El Hasini et al., 2019). Approximately 34 million hectares of soil, particularly in North Africa, are significantly

affected by this phenomenon (Negacz et al., 2022). In Morocco, soil salinization is a substantial obstacle in irrigated areas, compromising both agricultural productivity and the sustainability of agricultural systems. Approximately 158.7 thousand hectares of Moroccan irrigated land are impacted by salinity (Oumara and El Youssfi, 2022). The irrigated areas most affected by salinization include Tafilalet (70.4%), Ouarzazate (65.9%), Haouz de Marrakech (29.9%), Souss Massa (28.8%), Basse Moulouya (27.7%), and Loukkos (14.5%; Seif-Ennasr et al., 2022). In Morocco, the soil salinity issues in irrigated areas are mainly attributed to insufficient drainage, rising saline water tables, high evapotranspiration rates, and the use of irrigation water with a high risk of salinization (Daoud et al., 2016). In coastal areas, soil deterioration is primarily caused by saltwater infiltration due to overexploitation of groundwater, as well as contamination from the intensive and poorly controlled use of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides (Hssaisoune et al., 2020). The regions bordering the Oum Er-Rbia wadi have been reported to experience high levels of salinity (Didi et al., 2019).

In Egypt, 37% of the Nile Delta is affected by salinity due to poor agricultural management and climate change (AbdelRahman et al., 2022; Enar et al., 2021; Allam et al., 2024). Moreover, in the Siwa region of northern Egypt, soil salinity has been identified as a serious problem (Eid et al., 2024). Additionally, rising sea levels are a major factor in salinization in Egypt and could have significant consequences if no protective measures are implemented. Indeed, 90% of agricultural soils can be degraded by salinity with an increase of 0.5 m (Wahba et al., 2019). This situation is attributed to insufficient drainage systems, global warming, and the lack of an effective agricultural soil management strategy.

In Tunisia, soil salinization also poses a significant challenge in both the North and the South, affecting nearly half of the irrigated agricultural land (Louati et al., 2018). Louati et al. (2017) reported that irrigation with poor-quality water has led to soil salinization in the regions of Zelba, Bir Lahmar, Hazeg, El Houdh, Sfax, and El Fidh. In the North, irrigation with highly saline water is the primary cause of salinization of agricultural land in Mahdia (Farhat et al., 2019). Ibrahimi et al. (2022) reported that soils in the Metouia oasis in southeastern Tunisia have been impacted by salinization due to the cumulative effects of saline irrigation. In the Fatnassa oasis, north of the Kebili region (southern Tunisia), Bouarfa et al. (2009) noted soil salinization due to saline irrigation water. Agricultural soils in the Kairouan region, central Tunisia, were reported by Kanzari et al. (2012) as being saline.

In Algeria, approximately 55–60% of soils in the south and southeast of the country are affected by salinity due to several factors, including the arid climate (Benslama et al., 2020). In southern Algeria, in the regions of Hassi Miloud, Tolga, Ouargla, Chott El Beida, and El Outaya, soils are affected by salinization due to saltwater irrigation and inappropriate agricultural practices (Semar et al., 2019; Belghemmaz et al., 2018; Laoufi et al., 2023; Selmane et al., 2024). In the Biskra region of southeastern Algeria and the Bas Cheliff plain, 60% and 75% of the areas are affected by salinization, respectively (Abdennour et al., 2020). In the Bordjia plain, soil salinity has increased by 24% over the last decade (Mostefa et al., 2022; Ziane et al., 2022). This increase has been attributed to the use of saline water for irrigation.
In Libya, 55% of soils are degraded, with salinization being the most significant factor (30%; Abagandura et al., 2017). In the northwest and northeast regions, 12% and 23% of the areas are considered salt-affected, respectively (Nwer et al., 2014). The distribution of salt-affected soils in Libya varies depending on anthropogenic activities. Most coastal areas are threatened by seawater intrusion, leading to salinity problems caused by subsequent irrigation with local wells (Nwer et al., 2014). Approximately 700,799 hectares of primary agricultural areas in Murzuq, Kufrah, Jabal al Akhdar, Jabal Nafusah, and Jifarah, regardless of irrigation, are degraded due to salinity (Abagandura et al., 2017). In Wadi Al-Shatti, southern Libya, agricultural soils have been classified as highly saline (Al-Tamimi, 2017).

## 2.4 Pollution

In addition to the factors mentioned above, North African soils are undergoing serious degradation due to pollution. The excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in intensive agriculture significantly contributes to soil contamination. This phenomenon threatens natural ecosystems, agricultural productivity, and food security.

In Egypt's El-Fayoum governorate, water shortages are being addressed by reusing wastewater, which negatively affects agricultural soil quality (Attia et al., 2018). Long-term irrigation with wastewater causes the accumulation of toxic elements in the soil, such as Pb, Cd, Ni, and Fe (Alnaimy et al., 2021). This is the case in the El-Bats, El Sadat, and El-Wadi regions, where soils are rendered unusable due to high concentrations of pollution from large quantities of domestic, industrial, and agricultural wastewater (El-Zeiny et al., 2019; Badawy et al., 2020). It should also be noted that dust storms rich in PM2.5 particles in Egypt negatively affect the quality of agricultural soils (Mostafa et al., 2024). Indeed, the soils of Greater Cairo and the Nile Delta have higher concentrations of pollutants, such as radioactive thorium, in certain strategic areas for agriculture and food exports in the country (Shaltout et al., 2013). Agricultural soils in Quessna, southwest of the Nile Delta, have been reported to be at ecological risk due to high concentrations of zinc, chromium, and lead, which exceed reference values (Khalifa and Gad, 2018). Another study conducted by Shokr et al. (2016) on agricultural soils in El-Gharbia Governorate showed elevated levels of chromium, nickel, and vanadium due to industrial and urban activities.

Soils in Libya are exposed to numerous pollutants related to agricultural intensification and non-compliance with good agricultural practices, leading to a decline in soil fertility (Nwer et al., 2021). Around the city of Benghazi, soils are contaminated with trace elements such as copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium due to the intensive use of amendments (Haeba et al., 2013). Aishah and Elssaidi (2019) reported high levels of pollutants in soils around the industrial zones of Sirte, Benghazi, Komes, and Zwara, with a particular risk of pollution in the areas of Al-Marj and Benghazi. Banana et al. (2017) also reported that soils in Abu-Kammash are polluted by vanadium, titanium, tungsten, beryllium, and phosphorus, which originate from

wastewater discharges onto agricultural soils. Furthermore, Pichtel (2016) reported the presence of hydrocarbons in Libyan soils, which negatively affects soil quality and disrupts ecosystems. In Zliten, agricultural soils around a cement plant are heavily polluted by cement dust produced by the factory (Mlitan et al., 2013).

In Tunisia, the soils of the Gulf of Gabès are contaminated by industrial pollutants, resulting in negative ecological impacts (El Zrelli et al., 2015). These pollutants include lead, zinc, chromium, cadmium, mercury, and copper, partly originating from fertilizers and industrial waste. In central-eastern Tunisia, Jeder et al. (2018) reported environmental and health risks related to the excessive use of agrochemicals and pesticides in agricultural soils. The use of wastewater for irrigation remains a source of soil contamination in various Tunisian agricultural regions (Mahjoub et al., 2020). Indeed, high concentrations of cadmium, lead, and zinc were detected in arable land in the agricultural region adjacent to the former Jebel Ressas ore mine due to wastewater irrigation (Attia et al., 2018).

In Morocco, in the Elhajeb region, the soil-groundwater system has been contaminated by the migration of trace elements such as zinc, chromium, and copper from water to deeper soil layers, as well as to plants (Belaid et al., 2019). In the Zaida mine area, near Haute Moulouya, agricultural soils are contaminated with high concentrations of zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper (Laghlimi et al., 2015; Iavazzo et al., 2012). Similarly, near the Aït Ammar iron ore mine, located in Oued Zem, Khouribga province, soils are heavily polluted by heavy metals in the following order of concentration: Pb > Cd > Cu > Cr > Zn (Nouri, 2016). In the irrigated area of Beni Amir in Tadla, soils are contaminated with metals such as Zn, Cr, Pb, Cu, and Cd, with concentrations exceeding the WHO and FAO limits (Oumenskou et al., 2018). Zaakour et al. (2023) reported that soils in the coastal area of Doukkala, one of the most agricultural regions in Morocco, exhibited a higher pollution index due to significant industrial activity. Agricultural soils in the Mohammedia-Benslimane area are also polluted, with concentrations of Zn, Pb, and Cd exceeding the standard values (Zaakour et al., 2022). In the agricultural areas of Fez-Amont, Zerrari et al. (2023) reported that agricultural soils show average levels of heavy metal pollution. In the southeastern region of the Khouribga phosphate plateaus, levels of metals such as Zn, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Cd surpassed both local background levels and the thresholds permitted by FAO and WHO guidelines (Barakat et al., 2022).

Like other North African countries, Algeria's agricultural lands suffer from particulate pollution, primarily due to the transportation sector, open-air burning of municipal waste, and heavy industry (Sellami et al., 2022). In the Oued Smar region, agricultural soils contain pollutants at levels 78 times higher than the permitted threshold (Benosmane, 2021). In northwestern Algeria, high concentrations of hydrocarbons with potential toxicological risks have been reported in soils (Mebarka et al., 2012). According to Mouhoun-Chouaki et al. (2019), leachates from the Aïn-El-Hammam landfills have led to an increase in soil organic matter content, as well as a significant accumulation of metals such as nickel, copper, cadmium, zinc, and chromium in agricultural soils.
## 2.5 Climate change

By intensifying extreme weather events, climate change is increasing both the frequency and intensity of extreme temperatures, precipitation, and droughts. Indeed, the global average temperature rose by 0.74 °C between 1906 and 2005 and is expected to increase by 1.5 to 2.0 °C by 2100 (Zurqani et al., 2019). These changes also contribute to a rise in global sea level, projected to reach 0.5 m by 2050 (Sweet et al., 2017). Climate hazards directly influence hydrological processes, which play a crucial role in land degradation, primarily through erosion (Eekhout and de Vente, 2022). Similarly, land degradation increases the vulnerability of regions to the impacts of climate change, highlighting a complex and interdependent relationship between these phenomena (Briassoulis, 2019). These factors amplify the combined risks of erosion and flooding, thereby increasing the vulnerability of North Africa and other regions to extreme hydroclimatic events (Cuomo et al., 2021). Additionally, increased land degradation is exacerbated by the rapid development of semi-informal urban areas. The swift urbanization of port cities and the ineffective implementation of transformation projects actively degrade soils, deplete fertile land, and increase sedimentation in neighboring hydrological systems (Lim et al., 2019). Moreover, intensive land-use practices, combined with alterations to natural drainage networks and watercourses caused by the intensification of human activity in the hinterlands of these cities, accelerate soil erosion, compromising the long-term sustainability of ecosystems (Castellano et al., 2019).

Intense storms place significant pressure on already fragile soils on steep slopes, where heavy rainfall and concentrated torrents accelerate the process of soil erosion and detachment (Salhi et al., 2022). In addition, prolonged periods of drought reduce vegetation cover and soil moisture, increasing vulnerability to erosion during subsequent intense rains (Hadria et al., 2021; Okacha et al., 2023).

Climate anomalies directly interact with soil erosion, altering precipitation patterns and intensifying the strength of atmospheric jets, thus influencing the climatic conditions of affected areas (Stendel et al., 2021). Severe soil degradation facilitates the introduction and spread of invasive species. This dynamic creates a feedback loop where erosion and climate stress reinforce each other, amplifying their effects on ecosystems (Denley et al., 2019). According to Renssen (2022), the effects of climate change on African countries could lead to drying and accelerate the desertification already underway in the region. These conditions, combined with the long-term trend toward drying caused by the progressive weakening of the summer monsoon due to astronomical factors, have resulted in the collapse of the last plant formations still present in areas that are now desert. The conversion of grasslands to desert results in a significant increase in surface albedo of up to 6%, which reduces the net radiation available to heat the surface. This causes local radiative cooling in North Africa, accompanied by a decrease in sensible heat flux. This change increases the stability of the atmosphere, raising surface pressure, drying the air, reducing convective precipitation, and decreasing soil moisture in North African countries (Renssen, 2022). According to Carvalho et al. (2022), future climate projections predict a significant reduction in precipitation, up to 30-40%, in northern Africa by the end of the century (2081-2100). These changes would lead to a marked increase in aridity, estimated

at around 50%, in the Mediterranean region, with a particularly pronounced impact in North Africa.

## 3 Main agroecological practices for soil management

In North Africa, sustainable soil management relies on a coherent set of complementary agroecological practices aimed at improving fertility, preserving soil structure, and strengthening the resilience of agricultural systems to climate change (Table 1). Conservation agriculture is a key pillar of this approach, combining reduced tillage, permanent cover with plant residues, and rational crop rotation to limit erosion, promote moisture retention, and maintain soil biological activity (Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022; Devkota et al., 2022a). In contrast, agroforestry integrates trees and crops into the same productive space, enabling better resource use, soil stabilization, carbon sequestration, and enrichment of functional biodiversity (Raj et al., 2019). Simultaneously, crop rotation, intercropping, and cover crops help diversify organic inputs, improve soil structure, and break pest and disease cycles while optimizing nutrient availability (Zou et al., 2024). Furthermore, maintaining a diverse range of weed species that do not compromise crop growth is crucial for enhancing ecosystem services (Gazoulis et al., 2024). Finally, the application of organic amendments, such as compost, manure, or biochar, represents a major lever for restoring organic matter, increasing water retention capacity, and stimulating beneficial microflora (Supplementary Table S1; Al Mamun et al., 2022). The combination of these practices, adapted to local soil and climate conditions, allows for the development of more productive and resilient agricultural systems that respect ecological balances.

### 3.1 Morocco: national soil conservation initiatives

#### 3.1.1 Soil conservation programs in Morocco

Conservation agriculture (CA) refers to an agroecosystem management approach based on sustainable productivity, profitability, and food security that simultaneously protects and improves the environment and natural resources (FAO, 2022). Agricultural cropping systems are considered particularly effective adaptive agricultural systems for climatically sensitive areas. It has several benefits compared to conventional agriculture, notably lowering production costs, reducing runoff, and minimizing soil erosion. CA also increases the efficiency of water use and soil fertility, resulting in greater productivity (Table 2; Devkota et al., 2021).

Numerous programs have been introduced in arid climates, including the United States and Australia, to conserve soils and develop advanced technologies that facilitate their use by producers (Kassam et al., 2020). Morocco, in contrast, although lagging in conservation agriculture, has taken several steps to address soil degradation. The Green Morocco Plan (PMV) and its successor strategy, "Green Generation 2020-2030," both aim for environmentally sustainable agriculture that includes natural resource management. Morocco's National Strategy for Sustainable
<table><caption>TABLE 1 Advantages and limitations of some agroecological soil practices.</caption><thead><tr><th>Agroecological soil practice</th><th>Advantages</th><th>Limitations</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Conservation tillage</td><td><ul><li>Conservation tillage minimizes soil disturbance and leaves crop residues on the surface, which protects the soil from wind and water erosion (Boincean and Dent, 2019).</li><li>By maintaining crop residues on the surface, conservation tillage enhances soil organic matter content, which improves soil fertility and microbial activity (Li et al., 2020).</li><li>The mulch of crop residues on the surface reduces water evaporation and helps retain soil moisture, especially in dry conditions (El-Beltagi et al., 2022).</li><li>Reduced soil disturbance promotes the development of stable aggregates, improving soil structure and porosity. This enhances water infiltration and root growth (Guo et al., 2020).</li><li>Conservation tillage promotes biodiversity by fostering soil microorganisms, earthworms, and other beneficial organisms, which contribute to overall soil health (Cárcel es Rodríguez et al., 2022).</li><li>Conservation tillage can increase the sequestration of carbon in the soil, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation by reducing atmospheric CO2 levels (Hussain et al., 2021).</li><li>The improved soil structure and moisture retention associated with conservation tillage can lead to more consistent crop yields, especially in areas with variable rainfall (Zhang et al., 2022).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Conservation tillage can lead to increased weed pressure, as the lack of soil disturbance can favor the growth of certain weed species. This may require additional herbicide applications or more frequent mechanical weeding (Sun et al., 2018).</li><li>With reduced soil disturbance, weeds that are more tolerant to herbicides may become more prevalent. Over-reliance on herbicides in conservation tillage systems can contribute to herbicide resistance (Ofosu et al., 2023).</li><li>The transition from conventional tillage to conservation tillage may involve high initial costs, particularly for equipment and farmer training. It may also require changes in farming practices that take time to adapt (Boincean and Dent, 2019).</li><li>In certain conditions, conservation tillage may result in soil compaction, especially in heavy soils or where machinery is used excessively. This can reduce root penetration and hinder water infiltration (Hussain et al., 2021).</li><li>The buildup of crop residues on the soil surface can slow down the decomposition process, especially in cool or dry climates, leading to nutrient imbalances in the soil (Naorem et al., 2023).</li><li>In some systems, conservation tillage may not be as effective in boosting yields as conventional tillage, particularly under conditions of high pest pressure or poor soil health (Kovács et al., 2023).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Mulching</td><td><ul><li>Mulch reduces evaporation from the soil, helping it retain moisture for longer periods (Prem et al., 2020).</li><li>By blocking sunlight, mulch prevents weed seeds from germinating, reducing competition for nutrients and water between weeds and plants (El-Beltagi et al., 2022).</li><li>Mulch acts as an insulating layer, keeping soil cooler in summer and warmer in winter. This protects plant roots from extreme temperature fluctuations (Mohammad, 2020).</li><li>Mulch promotes microbial activity in the soil, fostering a thriving ecosystem that improves soil fertility and water retention (Ravichandran et al., 2022).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Excessive layers of mulch can compact, restricting air circulation and leading to root rot and poor plant development (El-Beltagi et al., 2022).</li><li>Mulch can shelter pests and encourage diseases due to excessive moisture retention (Gul et al., 2022).</li><li>Enhancing soil fertility can also be favorable for weed species in the next cropping season (Westbrook et al., 2022).</li><li>Mulching is less effective on wet grass, which can clump and not distribute evenly, leading to poor decomposition and potential lawn damage (Epure et al., 2023).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Agroforestry</td><td><ul><li>Improves soil health by enhancing nutrient cycling and organic matter in the soil, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers, and supporting higher crop yields (Fahad et al., 2022).</li><li>Erosion control: Tree roots stabilize soil and prevent erosion, particularly during heavy rains or wind (Jafari et al., 2022).</li><li>Biodiversity conservation: Agroforestry creates habitats for diverse species, promoting ecological balance (Ayyam et al., 2019).</li><li>Carbon sequestration: Trees act as carbon sinks, mitigating climate change by storing carbon both above and below ground (Tefera et al., 2019).</li><li>Higher Yields: Improved microclimates created by trees protect crops from weather extremes and pests, boosting productivity (Dobhal et al., 2024).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Agroforestry requires significant initial investments in tree planting, equipment, and management, which can be a barrier for small-scale farmers (Sagastuy and Krause, 2019).</li><li>Trees in agroforestry systems can compete with crops for sunlight, water, and nutrients, potentially reducing yields and requiring careful management (Reynolds et al., 2007).</li><li>The perennial nature of trees limits flexibility in farm management decisions and requires a long-term commitment (Bishaw et al., 2013).</li><li>Agroforestry systems can create habitats for pests, increasing pest management challenges and requiring integrated control strategies (Sollen-Norrlin et al., 2020).</li><li>Agroforestry involves a multi-year commitment, posing challenges for farmers seeking quick returns or nearing the end of their careers (Chenyang et al., 2021).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Crop rotation</td><td><ul><li>Crop rotation disrupts the life cycles of soil-borne pathogens and insect pests, reducing infestations without relying heavily on chemical pesticides (Bullock, 1992; Smith et al., 2008).</li><li>Different crops have varying nutrient demands and root structures, which help maintain soil fertility by balancing nutrient depletion and replenishment (Liebman and Schulte, 2015).</li><li>The inclusion of deep-rooted and nitrogen-fixing crops improves soil aeration and contributes to organic matter buildup (Jena et al., 2022).</li><li>Rotating crops helps prevent nutrient depletion, reduces stress on soil, and promotes healthier plant growth, leading to higher yields (Ball et al., 2005; Bennett et al., 2012).</li><li>Rotation with cover crops or crops with different growth habits suppresses weed proliferation by interrupting their growth cycles (Liebman and Dyck, 1993).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Effective crop rotation demands strategic planning to ensure crop compatibility, nutrient cycling, and pest suppression (Smith et al., 2008).</li><li>Farmers need knowledge of crop interactions and long-term planning (Liebman and Schulte, 2015).</li><li>Some high-value perennial or monoculture cropping systems may not be easily adaptable to rotation practices (Bullock, 1992; Liebman and Dyck, 1993).</li><li>Switching crops in rotation can temporarily reduce yields due to soil microbial adjustments and varying nutrient demands (Bennett et al., 2012).</li><li>Crop rotation requires farmers to manage multiple crops with different agronomic needs, harvest schedules, and market demands (Smith et al., 2008).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Crop association</td><td><ul><li>Different root structures and growth habits allow crops to use water, light, and nutrients more effectively (Balliu et al., 2021).</li><li>Intercropping reduces yield variability by optimizing resource use and reducing risks associated with monocultures (Tang et al., 2025).</li><li>Legume-based intercropping enhances nitrogen fixation, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers (Chamkhi et al., 2022; Jensen et al., 2020).</li><li>Diversified crops lead to better market stability and reduce economic risks for farmers (Mihrete and Mihretu, 2025).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Associated crops may compete for light, water, and nutrients, potentially reducing yields if not properly managed (Kaur et al., 2018).</li><li>It requires careful planning, crop selection, and planting density adjustment, making it more labor-intensive than monocropping (Ahmed et al., 2024).</li><li>Intercropping creates favorable conditions for some pests and diseases, requiring additional monitoring (Huss et al., 2022).</li><li>Different crop maturation times and growth habits complicate harvesting, sometimes requiring multiple harvests or specialized equipment (Navas et al., 2021).</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>

(Continued)
<table><caption>TABLE 1 (Continued)</caption><thead><tr><td>Agroecological soil practice</td><td>Advantages</td><td>Limitations</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Cover cropping</td><td><ul><li>Cover crops reduce soil erosion by protecting the soil surface from wind and water erosion, particularly during the off-season (Saba and Christy, 2021).</li><li>Cover crops improve soil structure by increasing organic matter, which enhances soil aggregation, aeration, and water infiltration (Dai et al., 2024).</li><li>The decomposition of cover crops adds organic matter to the soil, which increases the cation exchange capacity (CEC) and improves nutrient retention (Sharma et al., 2018).</li><li>Leguminous cover crops, such as clover or peas, fix nitrogen from the air and make it available to subsequent crops, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers (Kocira et al., 2020).</li><li>Cover crops improve soil moisture levels and help in drought-prone regions, decreasing the need for high quantities of water for irrigation (Baxter et al., 2021).</li><li>By providing food and habitat for soil organisms, cover crops enhance soil biodiversity, which improves overall soil health and fertility (Sharma et al., 2018).</li><li>Breaking up hardpan layers with deep-rooted cover crops can alleviate soil compaction and improve root penetration for subsequent crops (Ghosh and Daigh, 2020).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Yield benefits depend on environmental conditions, crop compatibility, and management practices, leading to inconsistent results (Kopp et al., 2023).</li><li>Cover crops may compete with main crops for water and nutrients, particularly in regions with water scarcity. This can hinder the growth and yield of the main crops, especially in dry conditions (Quintarelli et al., 2022).</li><li>The practice of establishing and maintaining cover crops can be labor-intensive and may require additional equipment, which could be a barrier for some farmers (Walsh, 2024).</li><li>Cover crops may delay the planting of main crops, especially if the cover crop is not terminated at the optimal time, potentially shortening the growing season of the main crop (Muniz et al., 2025).</li><li>The selection of the right cover crop species is crucial, and an incorrect choice or mismanagement may lead to poor performance or adverse effects on soil quality (Quintarelli et al., 2022).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Organic amendments</td><td><ul><li>Improve soil structure.</li><li>Increase water retention capacity.</li><li>Provide essential nutrients.</li><li>Promote microbial activity (Singh et al., 2022).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Availability is sometimes limited.</li><li>Expensive transportation.</li><li>Contamination risk if poorly managed (Paradelo et al., 2023).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Biochar</td><td><ul><li>Improves water and nutrient retention.</li><li>Reduces leaching.</li><li>Sequesters carbon.</li><li>Improves soil stability (Alkharabsheh et al., 2021).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Efficiency varies dependent on the soil type and material used.</li><li>May require technical support for optimal use (Kamali et al., 2022).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Composting</td><td><ul><li>Values organic waste.</li><li>Improves soil fertility and microbial life.</li><li>Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers (Bremaghani, 2024).</li></ul></td><td><ul><li>Requires time and space.</li><li>May generate odors or pests.</li><li>Requires good process control (Waqas et al., 2023).</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>

Development (Stratégie nationale de développement durable—SNDD) promotes practices that respect the environment, while the Programme to Combat Desertification (Programme de lutte contre la désertification—PANLCD) and the National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (Programme d'action national de lutte contre la désertification—PANLCD) focus on restoring and preventing land degradation and desertification. Such endeavors demonstrate Morocco's commitment to the sustainable management of land and the agricultural sector (Moussadek et al., 2024).

### 3.1.2 Examples of conservation agriculture and agroforestry in semi-arid zones

Agriculture without tillage (or No-till agriculture “NT”) is a viable solution for boosting agricultural performance in Morocco’s arid zones due to reduced erosion, improved water conservation, and enhanced soil quality, leading to higher, steadier yields. Long-term trials confirm that NT exceeds conventional tillage in terms of yield, that crop rotation improves stability and increases wheat yields, and that NT-rotation maximizes energy efficiency while being more cost-effective and less risky (Mrabet, 2008). A 9-year study found that the yield of wheat under NT was equivalent to or better than that under conventional tillage (Mrabet, 2011), while El Mzouri et al. (2023) showed similar results in contrasting climatic contexts. The efficiency of water storage under NT has increased, reaching 28% in chemical fallow vs. 10% and 18% in

root fallow and black fallow, respectively, which enhances crop tolerance to drought and promotes increased yields and crop frequency (Bouzza, 1990). The stability of surface aggregates is significantly higher under NT due to the accumulation of organic matter (Moussadek et al., 2011; Lahlou and Mrabet, 2001), while the reduction of erosion under NT leads to a 50% decrease in soil losses and a 30–50% decrease in runoff (Moussadek et al., 2011). Additionally, NT improves precipitation infiltration, thereby increasing water availability for plants, particularly in heavy-textured soils (Bouzza, 1990). It also contributes to the reduction of CO₂ emissions, with losses limited to 50 g C/m² under NT compared to 250 g C/m² under plowing in 19 days (Reicosky and Saxton, 2006), and CO₂ emissions are 40% higher under conventional tillage than without tillage in Spain (Alvaro-Fuentes et al., 2004). In terms of fertility, NT promotes nitrogen sequestration, particularly at the surface (Mrabet et al., 2001), and after 7 years of experimentation, it was found to accumulate more than conventional systems (Tab, 2003). Additionally, NT leads to the enrichment of poorly mobile nutrients such as phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), which are maintained on the surface by crop residues and fertilizer applications (Bravo et al., 2006), and their progressive mineralization is an essential source of nutrients for crops, thus promoting better soil fertility in the long term. Similarly, for Devkota et al. (2022b), conservation agriculture (CA) resulted in higher yields than conventional tillage (TC) for all crops studied. CA barley had an 8% higher average yield, with a notable advantage in 2017, a year marked by low but well-distributed rainfall. Wheat
<table><caption>TABLE 2 Some studies on conservation agriculture and crop diversification practices in North Africa.</caption><thead><tr><td>Country</td><td>Objective of the study</td><td>Practices studied</td><td>Main results</td><td>References</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="6">Morocco</td><td>Assess the impact of agroecological practices on weed management and soil microbial load.</td><td>Intercropping (faba bean and cereals), organic mulch, and plant extracts.</td><td>The study showed that, in addition to weed management and yield improvement, an increase in soil microbial activity, particularly during the harvest stage, was achieved, especially when mulching and intercropping were combined.</td><td>Boutagayout et al., 2023a</td></tr><tr><td>Assessing the gap between local farming practices and agroecological principles in the Moulay Driss Zerhoun and Middle Atlas areas of Morocco.</td><td>Olive trees combined with various crops such as annual crops, forage, vegetables, and cereal and legume rotations.</td><td>Most of the farms studied are small, and agroforestry is common. Many farmers use organic fertilizers and practice crop rotation. Irrigation is used more in the Middle Atlas. The study shows that the adoption of agroecological practices could enhance the sustainability of farms.</td><td>Irhza et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Assessing the impact of cereal-legume associations (intercropping and rotation) on wheat yields and soil microbial activity.</td><td>Simultaneous cultivation of cereals and legumes on the same plot.</td><td>Intercropping and crop rotation greatly enhance soil microbial functionality, with intercropping proving more effective in boosting crop productivity.</td><td>Wahbi et al., 2016</td></tr><tr><td>Analyzing the effect of distance from olive tree rows on soil fertility parameters in an intercropping agroforestry system with legumes, in two soil types (Fersiallitic and Vertisol) in the Saïss region, Morocco.</td><td>Intercropping agroforestry combining olive trees with leguminous crops (broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils) in a rain-fed system.</td><td>In Fersiallitic soil, the measured parameters were influenced by the distance from the olive row and intercropping systems, whereas no such effect was observed in Vertisol.</td><td>Zayani et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Assessing the effect of no-till (NT) on the physico-chemical properties of Vertisols in the semi-arid region of Chaouia, Morocco.</td><td>Conservation agriculture (CA), in particular non-tillage (NT), compared with conventional tillage (CT), and its impact on soil fertility.</td><td>No-tillage practice enhanced the soil's physico-chemical properties, particularly increasing soil organic matter.</td><td>Aboutayeb et al., 2020</td></tr><tr><td>Évaluer l'impact de différentes pratiques de gestion des sols sur le stock de carbone organique du sol (SOC) dans une région semi-aride du Maroc, en utilisant le modèle DNDC.</td><td>Two tillage systems: conventional plowing (CT) and no-tillage (NT), with the effect of crop residues, manure, and nitrogen fertilizers on organic carbon storage.</td><td>In semi-arid regions, crop residues and manure have successfully increased soil organic carbon stock under no-till practices.</td><td>Lembaid et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Algeria</td><td>This study highlights the advantages of intercropping legumes with cereals to improve phosphorus availability in P-poor soils, as well as crop productivity in an agroecosystem in northern Algeria.</td><td>This study evaluates the growth, nodulation, and grain yield of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and maize (Zea mays) grown in monoculture and interculture at two experimental sites over two growing seasons.</td><td>Yield improvement in intercropping was observed as a result of increased rhizobial efficiency and enhanced nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) uptake.</td><td>Latati et al., 2016</td></tr><tr><td>Determine the effects of conventional and no-till crop management on the physical properties of the soil and compare the yields observed between these tillage systems with the physical properties of the soil.</td><td>Comparison between conventional plowing and no-till (direct seeding) using two tillage techniques: deep plowing and direct seeding.</td><td>No-till practice had a significant impact on soil physical properties and moisture content, and led to improved yield and wheat yield components compared to conventionally tilled plots.</td><td>Yachi et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>To study the effect of three tillage systems (conventional plowing, minimum tillage, and no-till) on grain yield, yield components, and quality indices of durum wheat grown as a monoculture under semi-arid conditions in northern Algeria.</td><td>Comparison of three tillage systems: conventional tillage (CT), minimum tillage (MT), and no-till (NT).</td><td>Non-tillage demonstrated higher ear density and increased durum wheat grain yield compared to other systems, particularly in dry years.</td><td>Djouadi et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Tunisia</td><td>Assessing the short-term effects of three tillage systems on a wide range of soil properties in a semi-arid agroecosystem in eastern Tunisia.</td><td>Comparison of three tillage systems: no-tillage, minimum tillage, and conventional tillage.</td><td>To prevent a decline in soil quality and yield loss, adopting minimum tillage was recommended during the early years of transitioning from conventional farming to no-till systems.</td><td>Amami et al., 2021a</td></tr><tr><td>To assess the effects of conservation agriculture based on no-till (NT) and crop rotation on soil health in a semi-arid region of Tunisia by measuring several soil quality parameters.</td><td>Practice studied: no-tillage (NT) vs. conventional tillage (CT), 3-year rotation (TRI): bean-durum wheat-barley and 2-year rotation (BI): bean-durum wheat.</td><td>No-tillage or minimum tillage, combined with annual crop rotation, resulted in improved soil organic carbon stock, microbial biomass carbon, and soil arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.</td><td>Jaziri et al., 2022</td></tr></tbody></table>

(Continued)
<table><caption>TABLE 2 (Continued)</caption><thead><tr><th>Country</th><th>Objective of the study</th><th>Practices studied</th><th>Main results</th><th>References</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2"></td><td>Comparison of soil organic carbon stock between conventional and conservation agriculture in northern Tunisia (Mateur) under a sub-humid climate.</td><td>Comparison of the effects of non-tillage (conservation agriculture) and conventional tillage on the stock of organic carbon in the soil.</td><td>No-tillage practice has increased the organic and total carbon content in northern Tunisia under a sub-humid climate.</td><td>Brahim et al., 2019</td></tr><tr><td>To study the impact of different tillage practices on the rate of water infiltration in sandy loam soil in a semi-arid environment to assess how these practices influence infiltration capacity and, consequently, crop yield.</td><td>Comparison of three tillage practices: tine cultivator (TC, 16 cm), mouldboard plow (MP, 36 cm), and no-till (NT).</td><td>No-tillage practice significantly reduced carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and enhanced soil physical properties.</td><td>Amami et al., 2021b</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">Egypt</td><td>To evaluate the impact of different tillage practices on soil density, volumetric water content, runoff, soil loss, rainfall use efficiency, and winter wheat yield in the northwest coastal zone of Egypt to identify the most effective tillage systems for improving water management and soil productivity under rainfed conditions.</td><td>Comparing four tillage systems: ridge and furrow integrated tillage (RFT), tank integrated tillage (RT), conventional tillage (CT), and no-till (NT).</td><td>It was suggested that tillage systems could effectively influence soil water availability, thereby impacting wheat yield.</td><td>Salem et al., 2022</td></tr><tr><td>To evaluate the impact of crop sequences composed of legumes and cereals and the integrated use of mineral and organic nitrogen fertilization sources on the growth, productivity, and nitrogen use efficiency of terminal maize in an irrigated no-till cropping system in Egypt.</td><td>Sequences of crops including legumes and cereals, such as beans, soya, Egyptian clover, and wheat, followed by terminal maize.</td><td>To enhance maize productivity and improve nitrogen use efficiency in a no-tillage farming system, it was recommended to grow faba bean 2 years prior to sowing maize. Additionally, clover could be planted immediately before maize, along with soybean in rotation, and combined with farmyard manure.</td><td>Salama et al., 2021</td></tr><tr><td>To study the influence of tillage practices on soil fauna in the governorate of Fayoum, Egypt, by analyzing the activity and density of different groups of soil fauna under different cultivation conditions.</td><td>Incorporation of living crops such as <i>Lupinus termis</i> and <i>Trifolium alexandrinum</i> to observe their effects on soil fauna.</td><td>The practices of no-tillage, cover crops, and crop residues increased activity density and enhanced soil fauna diversity.</td><td>Rizk and Mikhail, 1999</td></tr></tbody></table>

showed a significant increase of 43% on average over 4 years. Additionally, over five seasons, chickpeas and lentils experienced yield increases of 19% and 11%, respectively, compared to the TRQ. Phosphorus availability was 13% and 6% higher in the 5 and 30 cm soil ranges, while exchangeable potassium was 4% higher in the upper 30 cm. Soil moisture was generally higher under CA, except in 2017 and 2018, when no significant differences were observed between the two systems.

Elkoudrim et al. (2024) demonstrated that agroforestry promotes plant growth by enhancing soil porosity for the argan tree and nitrogen fixation for the carob tree and shrub alfalfa. In agroforestry systems (AFS), barley (Hordeum vulgare) densities were higher than those in monoculture systems (MS): 375 plants/m² in January and 351 plants/m² in March in AFS, compared to 350 and 308 plants/m² in MS, respectively. Biomass and dry matter of faba bean (Vicia faba) were also higher in AFS, along with nitrogen content and total nitrogen matter (TNM). On average, faba bean contains 7.5% nitrogen when grown alone, 14.1% when associated with carob trees, and 13.1% when associated with argan trees, thus improving its forage quality in AFS. Additionally, soils in AFS are richer in organic matter (OM) and total nitrogen, with OM levels of 4.77% for barley and 5.86% for the faba bean-carob tree association, compared to 3.82% and 2.31% in MS. In summary, agroforestry systems are more productive, with plants of better nutritional quality and more fertile soils, offering a sustainable solution for agriculture in arid regions of Morocco.

Abidi et al. (2024) found that the highest grain yield was recorded for Titicaca (1.6 t ha⁻¹), with overall productivity being 57% to 107% higher in the agroforestry system compared to monoculture. The authors propose that growing quinoa as an intercrop with olive trees is a promising agroecological option in semi-arid conditions. In dry and saline soils, where yields are unstable, the loss of biodiversity and soil degradation make agroforestry a viable option for combining productivity and sustainability. The protein content of grain in the agroforestry system (AFS) was considerably greater than in the monoculture system, with only a slight variation of 4%. The findings revealed that phosphorus and potassium content were influenced by the cropping system, being marginally greater in the agroforestry system than in the monoculture system (3%).

## 3.2 Tunisia: integrated water and soil management

As a country blessed with an arid to semi-arid environment, Tunisia faces significant water and soil management challenges. Irregular rainfall and intensive agricultural activity have placed greater pressure on natural resources, necessitating integrated strategies to ensure the sustainability of ecosystems and agricultural productivity (Dhaouadi et al., 2020). Conserving agricultural soil is a critical issue in Tunisia, where soil fertility is threatened by
erosion caused by water and wind. To combat these phenomena, several techniques have been introduced, notably the construction of benches and slopes to limit runoff and promote water infiltration in the soil (Hermassi et al., 2023). Furthermore, biological techniques such as agroforestry and cover crops have been promoted to preserve soil structure and reduce erosion (Srivastava et al., 2024). Integrated water resource management involves a combination of conservation, water mobilization, and effective usage. Investments in hill dams and artificial lakes have been made to store rainwater, thereby reducing flood risk while providing a water supply for irrigating crops during dry seasons (Omrani and Ouessar, 2012). Irrigation, especially drip irrigation, is widely used to minimize losses and increase water efficiency, enabling crops to adapt better to drought conditions (Allani et al., 2022). Tunisia has also implemented policies for sustainable management, notably the National Water and Soil Conservation Programme (PNEC), aimed at combining reforestation measures with efforts to combat desertification and enhance agricultural techniques. Additionally, farmers receive financial incentives, through subsidies and grants, for adopting environmentally friendly practices, thus promoting sustainable production systems (Schütze et al., 2025). Specific strategies to improve the resilience of agricultural soil are also in place in Tunisia. The Sustainable Land Management Project (PGDT), supported by various international organizations, is designed to enhance farmers' capacity to implement agroecological practices such as crop rotation, cover crops, and the cultivation of nitrogen-fixing plants to improve soil fertility. Innovative methods like organic mulching and low tillage practices are also promoted to maintain soil moisture and reduce erosion (Nefzi, 2024). As a result, Tunisia has introduced a range of programs and strategies aimed at integrating soil conservation measures with the sustainable use of water resources. Despite these efforts, challenges persist, particularly due to the effects of climate change and rising water demand. A well-coordinated strategy that combines innovative technology, cooperative farm management, and adaptation to changing climatic conditions remains vital to ensure the sustainability of agricultural areas and secure the country's overall water supply.

## 3.3 Algeria: role of local organizations and cooperatives

Community and cooperative organizations in Algeria are playing a key role in fostering agro-ecological approaches, especially in light of the increasing challenges facing the environment, including desertification, water resource management, and the effects of climate change (Ferrah and Oubelli, 2013). They serve as drivers in the transition to sustainable agriculture, bringing farmers together and encouraging them to adopt environmentally respectful practices. Through a series of workshops, awareness-raising campaigns, and training sessions, farmers gain the necessary knowledge to incorporate agro-ecological practices into their operations (Loconto et al., 2016). Among those promoted are crop rotation, conservation agriculture, pest management, and reduced use of toxic chemicals, all of which are strategies particularly suited to local conditions. They help farmers understand the advantages of these techniques,

not only in terms of environmental protection but also for the long-term profitability of their farms (Requier-Desjardins et al., 2024). Farmers' cooperatives, often composed of small farmers, play a crucial role in providing easier market access to resources, thereby encouraging the adoption of these agroecological methods. This allows growers to share the input costs of ecological products, such as approved seeds, eco-friendly production equipment, and low-water consumption irrigation systems (Daoudi and Wampfler, 2010). These collective bodies also provide farmers with access to financing for organic farming initiatives and offer advisory support services tailored to their specific needs. Farmers' associations are important for connecting farmers with one another, facilitating the sharing of experiences and knowledge (Benmehaia and Brabez, 2016). Cooperatives help farmers become better organized, thereby increasing their negotiating power, especially regarding access to new organic and sustainable production markets. With their support, cooperatives enhance farmers' resilience to climatic fluctuations while promoting innovation in local farming practices (Slimi et al., 2021). Furthermore, their capacity to unite local producers serves as a mechanism for conserving biological diversity and improving soil quality. For these initiatives to succeed, increased support from government, local authorities, and development cooperation partners is essential to provide financial and technological assistance, as well as to establish agricultural policies favorable to agroecology (Sher et al., 2024).

## 3.4 Egypt: intercropping systems and conservation farming practices on agricultural soils

Sustainably intensifying agricultural production involves adopting new, innovative cropping techniques that efficiently use resources while maintaining soil fertility. Increasing intercropping capacity offers a promising way to enhance crop productivity while helping to preserve the soil. The effect of growing intercrops on soil protection and agricultural soil fertility in Egypt is described by Shrestha et al. (2021). Growing intercrops enables improved water and nutrient resource use. Abdel-Wahab et al. (2019) demonstrated that combining soybean and maize in an intercropping system maximizes seed yield and water efficiency while minimizing insect infestations. Furthermore, Sherif et al. (2019) showed that increasing soybean planting density enhances yield value without significantly affecting maize plant growth, thereby optimizing agricultural productivity and conserving cultivated agricultural soil. Intercropping also reduces pest infestations and plant diseases. Lamlom et al. (2019) found that intercropping cotton with onion reduces the density of plant-parasitic nematodes in the soil, improving fiber quality and cotton yield. Similarly, Messiha et al. (2019) discovered that a crop rotation combining maize, potato, and cabbage decreased the incidence of Ralstonia solanacearum, which causes potato brown rot, due to the suppressive action of antagonistic soil microorganisms. Growing intercrops has a positive impact on soil structure and fertility, a fact that is widely recognized. Salama et al. (2020) investigated the sunflower-soybean combination and found that it enhanced the biomass and nutritional quality of forage while maintaining a good balance of soil organic matter
and nutrients. Moreover, the crop rotation studied by Messiha et al. (2019) showed improved populations of beneficial bacteria (Pseudomonas fluorescens and actinomycetes), thereby enhancing soil health. The beneficial impact of intercropping systems, especially the combination of soybean and maize, on efficient resource use and agricultural yield productivity was demonstrated in Egypt by Abdel-Wahab et al. (2019). Such systems optimize water use, reduce insect infestations, and boost yields, contributing to improved soil conservation. Growing intercrops is an effective way of enhancing soil preservation and the sustainability of agricultural systems in Egypt. It strategically utilizes water and nutrient supplies, reduces pest infestations and diseases, enhances soil fertility and structure, and increases crop yield. Drought and soil erosion pose significant threats to the environment and agricultural production, especially in northwestern coastal areas of Egypt. In situ rainwater harvesting systems, which alter the micro-topography of soil through tilling techniques, may help retain runoff and improve land productivity. Trials conducted on sandy-loam soil demonstrated the significant effects of various tillage methods on soil bulk densities, water content by volume, soil runoff, soil loss, rainfall utilization, and winter grain yields. Among the systems evaluated, integrated ridge plowing and tank plowing showed the best performance in terms of water retention and crop productivity, reducing runoff by 55.4% and 40.3%, respectively, compared to conventional plowing. The efficiency of rainfall utilization has also improved, resulting in increased wheat productivity while ensuring soil sustainability (Salem et al., 2022). According to Rizk and Mikhail (1999), soil conservation practices—particularly the absence of plowing, the use of cover crops, and the incorporation of crop residues—significantly impact soil biological activity. Research in the governorate of Fayoum found that no-till practices favored greater densities of soil fauna taxa, especially herbivores like springtails and orthopterans, due to soil enriched by cover crops such as Lupinus termis and Trifolium alexandrinum. In contrast, traditional tillage methods have led to a decrease in soil diversity and biological activity. The findings confirm that sustainable agricultural methods can help maintain soil diversity and enhance ecosystem functions. Adopting no-till or reduced-till systems, coupled with organic amendments and crop management, is an effective way to increase soil fertility while maintaining long-term soil productivity. Such practices not only limit soil erosion and resource degradation but also improve water and nutrient use efficiencies, making farming more resilient to climatic challenges (Salama et al., 2021). The general application of these techniques, along with proper crop rotation management, may provide a lasting solution to the agroecological problems faced by Egyptian farmers.

## 4 Technological innovations and practices

The integration of technological innovations into agriculture has revolutionized soil management, enabling more efficient and sustainable practices to enhance soil health and productivity (Sarfraz et al., 2023). In North Africa, where challenges such as soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate variability threaten agricultural sustainability, emerging technologies play

a crucial role in monitoring and improving soil quality (Diop et al., 2022). Advances in precision agriculture, remote sensing, and data-driven decision-making have facilitated real-time soil assessments, optimized input use, and promoted the adoption of environmentally friendly farming practices (Tahir, 2024; Supplementary Table S2). Despite their potential, the adoption of these technologies remains constrained by economic limitations, lack of technical knowledge, and infrastructure gaps in many rural areas (Neumeyer et al., 2020).

Remote sensing technologies, including drones, soil sensors, and satellite imagery, have significantly enhanced the ability to assess soil conditions and detect degradation patterns with high precision (Wang et al., 2023). Soil sensors provide real-time data on moisture levels, nutrient content, and pH, allowing farmers to optimize irrigation and fertilization strategies (Yin et al., 2021). Drones equipped with multispectral and thermal cameras enable rapid monitoring of soil properties and vegetation health, helping identify problem areas and guide targeted interventions (Guebsi et al., 2024). In North Africa, where soil salinization and desertification pose major challenges, these technologies offer valuable insights for sustainable land management and soil conservation (Ziadat et al., 2022). However, the high cost of equipment and the need for specialized training hinder widespread adoption, highlighting the importance of government support and technology transfer initiatives (Zhang and Gallagher, 2016).

Technological advancements have transformed fertilization practices, promoting the efficient use of nutrients while minimizing environmental impacts (Chien et al., 2009). Precision agriculture techniques, such as variable rate application (VRA) and controlled-release fertilizers, optimize nutrient delivery based on site-specific soil needs, reducing waste and enhancing crop productivity (Kuldeep et al., 2024). Additionally, the development of biofertilizers and microbial inoculants has provided sustainable alternatives to synthetic fertilizers by enhancing soil microbiome activity and nutrient availability (O'Callaghan et al., 2022). In North Africa, where excessive fertilizer use has contributed to soil degradation and groundwater contamination, adopting such innovations can improve soil fertility while reducing environmental risks (Dimkpa et al., 2023). Natural soil improvers, such as mycorrhizal fungi, seaweed extracts, and biostimulants, have also gained attention for their roles in enhancing soil structure, increasing drought resilience, and promoting plant growth (Sun and Shahrajabian, 2023). Despite their benefits, challenges such as limited farmer awareness, regulatory barriers, and market accessibility continue to hinder widespread implementation (Makhura, 2002).

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly emerging as a transformative tool in soil conservation and management, particularly in regions like North Africa where sustainable land use is critical under mounting environmental pressures (Tkatek et al., 2023). By integrating machine learning algorithms with large datasets from remote sensing, soil sensors, and historical land use patterns, AI enables the prediction of soil degradation trends and the identification of at-risk areas with remarkable precision (Fernández et al., 2023). In Morocco, recent initiatives have employed AI-based models to map soil organic carbon and assess erosion-prone zones, supporting conservation agriculture planning in semi-arid regions (Barakat et al., 2023). In Tunisia,
AI has been used to optimize irrigation scheduling and improve soil salinity management through predictive models based on satellite data and *in situ* sensor networks (Hfaiedh et al., 2024). Similarly, in Egypt, machine learning algorithms are being utilized to monitor land degradation and evaluate soil health indicators in reclaimed desert lands, aiding in land restoration and crop planning (Metwaly et al., 2024). AI-powered decision support systems assist farmers and land managers in selecting the most suitable conservation practices, optimizing crop rotation schemes, and tailoring interventions based on site-specific soil conditions and weather forecasts (Padhiary et al., 2025). Furthermore, AI facilitates the automation of data analysis, reducing the time and expertise required to interpret complex soil information and enhancing early warning systems for erosion, salinization, and nutrient depletion (Ashoka et al., 2024). However, to fully harness the potential of AI in soil conservation across North Africa, investments in digital infrastructure, local capacity building, and inclusive data governance are essential (Arezki et al., 2018).

Overall, technological innovations offer key potential for improving soil sustainability and durability; their role within agroecological transitions remains a topic of significant debate (Rinu et al., 2024). Critics argue that high-tech solutions, such as remote sensing technologies, AI-driven systems, and precision agriculture tools, may conflict with core agroecological principles that prioritize farmer autonomy, traditional knowledge, and low-input systems (Van Der Ploeg, 2021; Rotz et al., 2019). Similarly, several studies have revealed concerns about the affordability of such tools for smallholder farmers and the risk of reinforcing technological dependency or inequality (Feijóo et al., 2020; Ong and Findlay, 2023). Nonetheless, when co-designed with local communities and adapted to regional contexts, these innovations can complement agroecological practices by improving resource efficiency, strengthening resilience, and supporting informed decision-making (Usigbe et al., 2024). Integrating both traditional and modern knowledge systems thus represents a promising pathway for context-appropriate agroecological transitions in North Africa.

## 5 A holistic approach to sustainable soil management

Sustainable soil management through agroecological approaches is a strategic response to the growing challenges of environmental degradation, resource depletion, and food insecurity (Altieri et al., 2017). In North Africa, where soil fertility is declining due to erosion, overexploitation, and climate change, it is imperative to adopt systemic solutions that combine agronomic efficiency with ecological sustainability (Diop et al., 2022). The integration of complementary practices, such as conservation agriculture, agroforestry, organic amendments, and precision technologies, offers a powerful lever for designing agricultural systems that are more resilient, self-sufficient, and respectful of soil health (Fahad et al., 2022).

The concept of sustainable agroecological soil management (ASM) is based on harmonizing multiple interdependent dimensions, the integration of which creates collective ecological,

productive, and social benefits. Incorporating ecological principles, such as crop diversification (rotations, associated crops, and agroforestry) and permanent soil cover, has been shown to activate biogeochemical cycles, stimulate soil biodiversity, and enhance erosion control. Adding stabilized organic matter, such as compost, biochar, and mycorrhizal fungi, also plays a crucial role in restoring soil structure, improving water retention capacity, and resilience to abiotic stresses. However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of these principles depends on their contextualization. Adapting practices to the diversity of edaphoclimatic conditions, local farming systems, and farmers' knowledge is key to success. This localized approach has the potential to optimize agroecological performance and encourage large-scale adoption by integrating the socio-economic realities of local areas.

The use of emerging technologies has been identified as a pivotal element in facilitating this transition. Integrating intelligent sensors, remote sensing methodologies, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and digital decision support tools allows for precise and dynamic soil assessment, enabling the implementation of targeted, preventive interventions. The combination of agroecology and digitalization has been shown to enhance efficiency, reduce losses, and optimize resource utilization. It is clear that, in addition to the technical aspects, the sustainability of the transition depends on favorable socio-economic conditions. Active involvement of farming communities, capacity building, valorization of endogenous knowledge, implementation of incentive policies, and support mechanisms are all crucial levers. The role of these institutions is twofold: first, to ensure the sustainability of practices, and second, to guarantee their social acceptability. Furthermore, they help reinforce the resilience of farms in the face of climatic and economic challenges.

The joint effects of these dimensions translate into a series of systemic benefits: sustainable improvement of fertility, limitation of soil loss, mitigation of climate impacts, enhanced food security, reduced dependence on chemical inputs, and farmer empowerment. These results illustrate the transformative scope of ASM, which goes beyond mere technical improvements to become part of a dynamic that reshapes agricultural systems (Wezel et al., 2014). Numerous studies have confirmed that synergy between agroecological practices enhances their effectiveness. For instance, the combination of no-till farming, organic mulching, and crop rotation promotes soil structuring, water regulation, and stimulation of biological activity (Somasundaram et al., 2020). Agroforestry, when combined with composting, has been shown to contribute to carbon sequestration, natural fertilization, and erosion prevention (Shrestha et al., 2018). Integrated systems applied in arid or semi-arid environments offer proven advantages in terms of stable yields, increased drought tolerance, and reduced reliance on synthetic inputs (Jacobsen et al., 2012).

The successful implementation of agroecological soil management practices requires a progressive approach structured in several interdependent stages. The first stage of the process involves conducting an in-depth analysis of local soil samples, considering their physico-chemical properties (texture, pH, organic matter, water retention capacity), biological state (microbial biomass, edaphic diversity), and the environmental
and anthropogenic pressures to which they are subjected. This
assessment identifies specific constraints (compaction, erosion,
acidification, and salinization) and lays the foundation for an
appropriate action plan. The second stage consists of selecting
suitable agroecological practices based on the ecological principles
identified as priorities. These include the introduction of cover
crops, rotation with legumes, integration of hedgerows or grass
strips, and the application of locally produced compost and
biochar as needed. The third stage mobilizes technological tools
and local knowledge to adapt interventions to the agroecological
context. The use of GIS maps for planning rotations, soil sensors
for monitoring humidity and salinity, and producers' knowledge
of fertility and crop cycles are just a few examples of the tools
available. The fourth step relies on the involvement of relevant
stakeholders, including farmers, technicians, researchers, and
local institutions, in evaluating and co-constructing solutions.
It is imperative that this phase includes training, practical
demonstrations on pilot plots, and continuous evaluation
of the impact of the implemented practices. The fifth stage
focuses on monitoring the evaluation's progress, alongside the
dynamic adjustment of strategies. Implementing agroecological
performance indicators is integral to this stage, with changes in
earthworm diversity, organic matter, soil structural stability, and
crop yields under varied climatic conditions serving as examples.
This periodic process has been shown to enhance the ecological
resilience of soils, ensure a high level of functional biodiversity,
and facilitate the transition toward sustainable, high-performance,
and autonomous agricultural models, in response to the climatic,
social, and economic challenges facing North African regions
(Figure 3). However, implementing these approaches necessitates
a collaborative effort. To achieve the desired outcomes, it is
essential to adopt a multifaceted approach that encompasses not
only technical expertise and personalized support but also the
establishment of a coherent policy framework. The efficacy of
this framework relies on its ability to support farmer innovation,
guarantee access to resources, and encourage agroecological
transitions through the implementation of appropriate incentives
(Pan et al., 2017).

6 Barriers to the adoption of
agroecological soil management in
North Africa

6.1 Social challenges

The adoption of agroecological practices in soil management among dryland smallholders in North Africa is frequently impeded by various social challenges stemming from both individual and community-level dynamics (Khader, 2024). These farmers operate in ecologically fragile and socially complex environments where knowledge sharing, trust, and social networks play critical roles (Kmoch et al., 2018). Peer influence, reciprocal trust, and voluntary farmer networks have been identified as significant enablers of agroecological transitions. Indeed, in the Middle Atlas region (Morocco), farmers' participation in local cooperatives, including those focused on composting and crop diversification, has been

shown to improve trust and mutual learning, facilitating the
use of sustainable soil management techniques (Ghali et al.,
2022). Conversely, in semi-arid regions of Tunisia, Khader (2024)
revealed that the limited interaction between smallholders and
extension agents has constrained the exchange of agroecological
knowledge, thereby reducing farmers' confidence in adopting
innovative practices.

Furthermore, gender, age, educational background, and
personal motivation have been shown to influence perceptions
and openness toward agroecology, thereby impacting a farmer's
willingness to adopt sustainable alternatives (Palomo-Campesino
et al., 2021). In this context, Souissi et al. (2024) reported
that younger Tunisian farmers with secondary education are
more likely to engage with agroecological networks than older
generations relying on traditional monocropping. Similarly,
Requier-Desjardins et al. (2024) revealed that many projects
include awareness-raising, knowledge transfer, and farmer
networks, and that educational level tends to be a significant factor
in the willingness and ability to use agroecological practices. In
the absence of robust social movements advocating for sustainable
agriculture and food sovereignty, farmers may experience a
lack of communal support and societal validation, hindering
their transition away from conventional methods. Therefore,
it is imperative to understand and strengthen social structures
to promote the widespread adoption of agroecological soil
management strategies (Khader, 2024; Schoonhoven and Runhaar,
2018).

6.2 Economic and policy barriers

The adoption of agroecological practices is hindered by
significant economic constraints, particularly in North Africa.
The transition entails both perceived and real costs, including
investments in new practices, temporary yield fluctuations, and
changes in labor requirements. These factors can deter farmers who
are already economically vulnerable (Polonio Punzano et al., 2021).
In this sense, a study by Huebner (2023) revealed that in Egypt's
Nile Delta, smallholders often hesitate to use organic amendments
or integrate legume rotations because of high upfront costs and
limited short-term profitability. Similar results were reported in
Tunisia by Khader (2024), who noted that restricted access to credit
and weak market incentives limit the scaling up of agroecological
soil practices such as reduced tillage or cover cropping in the
semi-arid regions of Tunisia.

The economic viability of agroecology must be demonstrated
through evidence of increased productivity, improved soil fertility,
and enhanced resilience to climate extremes to motivate adoption.
However, constrained access to markets, credit systems, and
financial incentives frequently impedes farmers' capacity to invest
in and reap the benefits of agroecological methods. In many
cases, economic success stories are under-documented or not
adequately communicated to smallholders, reducing the visibility
of agroecology as a financially sustainable option. Consequently,
implementing targeted support mechanisms, financial training,
and facilitating access to profitable markets is imperative to
<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>FIGURE 3
Integrated agroecological management and emerging soil technologies for sustainable agriculture in North Africa.</figcaption></figure>
overcoming these economic impediments (Mekuria et al., 2022; Schoonhoven and Runhaar, 2018). Moreover, the legitimacy of agroecology is often undermined by the lack of formal recognition in national agricultural strategies and insufficient integration into education and training programs (Sanderson Bellamy and Ioris, 2017). Farmers who participate in advisory committees and policymaking bodies tend to be better informed and more likely to adopt agroecological practices. However, opportunities for such participation remain limited. A more enabling policy landscape, characterized by supportive legislation, inclusive institutions, and targeted public investments, is essential to legitimizing and scaling up agroecological approaches in soil management (Akanmu et al., 2023; Schoonhoven and Runhaar, 2018).

## 7 Conclusion and perspectives

North African countries face multiple interrelated environmental challenges, including soil degradation, desertification, water scarcity, and the escalating impacts of climate change. Agroecological soil management offers an effective and coherent solution by combining environmentally friendly practices that enhance soil fertility, promote biodiversity, and strengthen the resilience of agricultural systems. This approach reconciles agricultural production with environmental conservation, climate change mitigation, and food sovereignty in vulnerable ecosystems. Our study emphasizes that the successful adoption of agroecology in North Africa requires a holistic framework that goes beyond technical practices. It necessitates integrating ecological principles with locally adapted strategies and emerging soil management technologies. Strengthening interdisciplinary research is crucial to evaluate long-term effects on soil health, ecosystem services, and socio-economic outcomes. Participatory monitoring and evaluation in collaboration with local farming communities ensure that practices are tailored to real-world conditions, fostering ownership and sustainable impact. Public policy also plays a decisive role: legislative and incentive frameworks must encourage the adoption of agroecological practices and the development of associated value chains. Establishing regional networks among farmers, researchers, and institutions facilitates knowledge exchange, dissemination of successful experiences, and scaling up resilient practices. Furthermore, integrating agroecology and innovative soil management techniques into training and educational programs is essential to equip future generations with the skills and awareness needed for sustainable agricultural development. By combining these strategies, agroecology can restore soil health, enhance the adaptive capacity of communities, and accelerate the transition toward resilient, equitable, and sustainable agricultural systems in North Africa. This integrated approach not only addresses current environmental and socio-economic challenges but also positions the region as a model for other areas facing similar pressures, demonstrating that sustainable agriculture can be both technically effective and socially inclusive.

## Author contributions

AB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
AH: Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MK: Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. IZ: Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AA: Project administration, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

## Funding

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.

## Acknowledgments

We sincerely thank the researchers mentioned in this review and those working to promote innovative and sustainable soil management solutions in North Africa and around the world.

## Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

## Generative AI statement

The author(s) declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

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## Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1662153/full#supplementary-material
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