# Manufacturing Repurposing: A Literature Review

Wan Ri Ho, Omid Maghazei, Torbjörn Netland

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Wan Ri Ho, Omid Maghazei, Torbjörn Netland. Manufacturing Repurposing: A Literature Review. IFIP International Conference on Advances in Production Management Systems (APMS), Sep 2022, Gyeongju, South Korea. pp.160-172, 10.1007/978-3-031-16407-1_20. hal-05386032

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# Manufacturing Repurposing: A Literature Review

Wan Ri Ho✉, Omid Maghazei✉, and Torbjørn Netland✉

ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland

who@ethz.ch

**Abstract.** Manufacturing repurposing was a rapid response strategy to overcome shortages of critical healthcare products during the Covid-19 pandemic. Many companies repurposed facilities to manufacture products such as ventilators and hand sanitizers in response to the skyrocketing demand. Manufacturing repurposing was a widespread practice during the early months of the Covid-19 pandemic. This systematic literature review consolidates the fragmented literature on manufacturing repurposing and identifies potential research opportunities in production and operations management. Using a systematic approach, we identified and reviewed 29 articles on manufacturing repurposing and report the findings from both descriptive and thematic analyses. We identified four main themes in the manufacturing repurposing literature: (1) barriers and success factors (2) role of the supply chain, (3) role of innovation, and (4) role of digital technologies. We conclude with a research agenda that suggests three promising lenses for future research on manufacturing repurposing: (1) dynamic capabilities, (2) supply chain resilience, and (3) network perspectives.

**Keywords:** Manufacturing repurposing · Literature review · Covid-19

## 1 Introduction

In response to the worldwide shortage of critical healthcare items caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, many firms engaged in manufacturing repurposing [1, 2]. Manufacturing repurposing involves repurposing production capacities, capabilities, know-how, and facilities to manufacture new-to-the-firm products. Although manufacturing repurposing is not a new phenomenon—for example, repurposing is common during wartime [e.g., 3] and emergencies [e.g., 4]—it has been experienced at a completely different scale during the Covid-19 pandemic. Before the pandemic, repurposing had not received much research interest, resulting in a very limited and fragmented literature base. This is changing; several academic papers and numerous media reports have been published over the past two years discussing manufacturing repurposing in different ways and forms. In this paper, our research objective is to conduct a systematic literature review of the state of the literature on manufacturing repurposing and propose a research agenda.

Literature reviews map a field of study and form a baseline for theory development [5]. Conducting a literature review on manufacturing repurposing allows us to
reflect on multiple aspects of this emerging and multifaceted phenomenon, such as origins, strengths, flaws, contradictions, interdependencies, and boundary conditions [5]. It also allows the identification of best practices and summarizes empirical studies of performance outcomes. In addition, by studying and summarizing the state-of-the-art, a literature review allows for identifying research gaps and—through that—developing a research agenda.

This paper is structured as follows. Section 2 explains our systematic approach to conducting the literature review. In Sect. 3, we report our main findings from thematic analysis. In Sect. 4, we develop an agenda for future research based on the gaps and under-developed discussions in the extant literature. Section 5 concludes.

## 2 Methodology

This literature review is based on the structured method suggested by Tranfield et al. [6]. The summary of our review process is shown in Fig. 1.

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Fig. 1.** Systematic literature review process</figcaption></figure>

In the first step, we selected three databases: Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science. In the second step, we conducted a manual search using "manufacturing repurposing" or "repurpose manufacturing" as the main search terms adapted to each database's search function. We further expanded our search term into "repurposing" and filtering it down to articles only containing the word "manufacturing." Taken together, we collected 469 articles. In the third step, we cross-checked our database for duplicates resulting in 378 articles. In the fourth step, we then preselected papers by screening
titles and abstracts, resulting in 72 preselected articles. In this step, we excluded articles that, for example, discussed purely technical and engineering aspects of repurposing [e.g., 7]. In the fifth step, we read the full articles to identify the final sample, through which we selected 29 papers to be included in the review (see Appendix). The main exclusion criterion at this step was concerning the papers discussing, for example, drug repurposing [e.g., 8] or medical devices repurposing [e.g., 9].

To analyze the final selected articles, we followed a six-step thematic analysis method suggested by Braun and Clarke [10]. In the first step, the articles were independently reviewed and *coded* by the research team. In particular, we searched for constituents of manufacturing repurposing and applied theoretical lenses. In the second phase, the codes were cross-checked through iterative discussions leading to the generation of *initial codes*. This was followed by the third step of clustering the codes into *themes*. In the fourth phase, these themes were reviewed by the research team to generate a *thematic map* of analysis. In the fifth phase, the thematic maps were collated to construct the constituents of the manufacturing repurposing phenomenon as well as potential theoretical lenses for future research. In the sixth phase, the findings were documented and summarized.

# 3 Findings

In this section, we first provide a descriptive analysis of the extant literature followed by a summary of the clustered themes of manufacturing repurposing which emerged from our thematic analysis: (1) barriers and success factors of manufacturing repurposing, (2) role of the supply chain, (3) role of innovation, and (4) role of digital technologies.

## 3.1 Descriptive Analysis

Our results show that manufacturing repurposing has rarely been discussed before the Covid-19 pandemic. There are, however, some notable exceptions. For instance, in 2018, Ciortea et al. [11] explore multi-agent systems to design scalable and flexible agent-based manufacturing systems, which allows engineers to program and repurpose manufacturing lines without interruption. In the same year, Fisher et. al. [12] also mentioned how Cloud Manufacturing could likely impact manufacturing repurposing operations with its flexibility and scalability. Despite these rare mentions, manufacturing repurposing has emerged as a distinct field of study since 2020.

Our analysis revealed four main themes in the manufacturing repurposing literature: (1) barriers and success factors of manufacturing repurposing, (2) role of the supply chain, (3) role of innovation, and (4) role of digital technologies.

## 3.2 Barriers and Success Factors of Manufacturing Repurposing

The first main theme involves the ways companies set out to manufacture entirely new products. For instance, Okorie et al. [13] identify and assess enablers such as organizational flexibility, expertise and know-how, technological capacities and capabilities, and barriers such as insufficient resources, funding limitations, and time pressure, impacting manufacturing repurposing initiatives. Poduval et al. [14] focus more on barriers that
can hinder repurposing existing manufacturing settings and classify them into 11 categories, including strategic, cultural, technological, financial, regulatory, sourcing, and innovation. Poduval et al. [14] then employ structured approaches to delineate interdependencies among the identified barrier to improve decision-making processes and increase the success of viable manufacturing repurposing projects. In a literature review on how Covid-19 impacts manufacturing, Kapoor et al. [15] identify the regulatory aspects during the execution of manufacturing repurposing projects, including medical safety and protocols, design qualifications, and testing procedures. Moreover, Kapoor et al. [15] explain reconfigurability capabilities and manufacturing flexibility—through which firms adapt their production lines and capacities—as enablers for repurposing.

## 3.3 Role of Supply Chain in Manufacturing Repurposing

The second main theme is concerned with the supply chain aspects of manufacturing repurposing. Ivanov [16] highlights the insufficient discussions around the integration of pandemic-like disruptions within the supply chain resilience literature and proposes manufacturing repurposing as one of the adaptation strategies to increase resilience in supply chains. Falcone et al. [17] analyze the impact of structural networks—in particular, firms’ supply chain network and CEO network—and identify that firms’ entrepreneurial positions in supply chain and CEO networks increase the success of operational repurposing. Falcone et al. [17] also explain the connections between supply chain plasticity—defined as a firm’s “capability of rapidly making major changes to a supply chain to accommodate significant shifts in the business environment” [18]—and manufacturing repurposing. Shokrani [19] outlines the role of “alternative” supply chains that remain underused during emergencies to mobilize repurposing of domestic mass-production capacities to produce items at excessively high demand.

## 3.4 Role of Innovation in Manufacturing Repurposing

The third main theme involves innovation aspects of manufacturing repurposing. Companies using open innovation in their repurposing projects demonstrated better results due to (1) collaborations in product design and reducing design iterations, (2) complementing manufacturing capacities and increasing productivity, and (3) repurposing existing technologies than developing new ones [14, 20]. Liu et al. [20] examine how shared purpose accelerates the innovation process through the concept of exaptation—“an ability to ‘pivot’… from one function to another, without the need for a long and costly development process” [20, p. 2] Schwabe et al. [21] developed a maturity model based on repurposing projects during the Covid-19 pandemic to conceptualize the speed of innovation diffusion from ideation to market saturation.

## 3.5 Role of Digital Technologies in Manufacturing Repurposing

The fourth main theme is the role of digital technologies in manufacturing repurposing. Digital technologies were seen as key enablers for manufacturing, repurposing, and navigating disruptions [22–24]. Examples include using digital fabrication tools in maker
spaces [25]; additive manufacturing to produce face shields [13], and digital supply chain twin to track network states in real-time [16]. Soldatos et al. [26] show how different Industry 4.0 technologies such as digital platforms can accelerate manufacturing repurposing projects.

# 4 Research Agenda

The literature on manufacturing repurposing is still at its infancy, which offers many opportunities for future research. Our literature review revealed currently underdeveloped yet high-potential areas of research. We identify three particularly promising lenses for future studies of manufacturing repurposing: (1) dynamic capabilities, (2) supply chain resilience, and (3) networks.

## 4.1 A Dynamic Capabilities Lens on Manufacturing Repurposing

The extant literature on manufacturing repurposing, to some extent, highlights the importance of quick adaptations in product- and process-related routines [21, 27–29], which is akin to the concept of *dynamic capabilities*. Dynamic capabilities are “the capacity to renew competences to achieve congruence with the changing business environment” by “appropriately adapting, integrating, and reconfiguring internal and external organizational skills, resources, and functional competencies to match the requirements of a changing environment” (i.e., capabilities) [30, p. 515]. OM scholars could further conceptualize the role of dynamic capabilities and investigate planning, implementation, and integration and the impact of such changeovers on firms’ operations and supply chains during repurposing projects. Moreover, a promising research area involves the exploration of specific dynamic capabilities that firms should develop prior to likely future disruptions. For instance, it is a worthwhile research area to examine how manufacturing flexibility could enhance dynamic capabilities and thus increase firms’ preparedness for repurposing initiatives.

## 4.2 A Supply Chain Resilience Lens on Manufacturing Repurposing

During the early stages of the Covid-19 pandemic, many scholars focused on increasing the supply chain’s resilience to improve responsiveness against likely disruptions [31, 32]. Focusing on manufacturing repurposing, this literature review reveals a research gap about differences, opportunities and challenges, and synergies of various strategies. For example, increasing supply chain resilience versus building manufacturing repurposing capabilities—to overcome sudden increases of demand and immediate shortages of critical items such as healthcare products during pandemic-like disruptions. Although this distinction is echoed in the studies conducted by Schumacher et al. [29], there is little research on each strategy’s characteristics and consequences.
## 4.3 A Network Lens on Manufacturing Repurposing

The reviewed articles outline the importance of building a network to enhance manufacturing repurposing projects [15–17]. However, network analysis in manufacturing repurposing projects provides a promising path for future research [cf. 33]. Particularly relevant for products with high complexity, such as ventilators (i.e., multiple components with strict regulations and standards), companies built networks of actors with diverse expertise to complement each other’s resources, capabilities, know-how, capacities, technologies, and infrastructure, among others, during manufacturing repurposing projects. Analyzing manufacturing repurposing from a network perspective and using network visualizations can be an interesting future research direction for OM scholars.

# 5 Conclusion

This paper provided the first systematic literature review on the phenomenon of manufacturing repurposing. A total of 29 papers were systematically selected and reviewed through thematic analysis. We identified four main themes in the manufacturing repurposing literature, including barriers and success factors involved, supply chain issues, innovation-related issues, and the role of digital technologies. We call for more research on manufacturing repurposing, and encourage scholars to consider studying it with one or more of the following lenses: dynamic capabilities, supply chain resilience, or network perspectives.

# Appendix

(See Table 1).
<table><caption>**Table 1** Summary of the final selected papers included in this literature review</caption><thead><tr><td>Authors</td><td>Title</td><td>Source</td><td>Year</td><td>Summary</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Akoum and Achi (2021)</td><td>Reimagining innovation amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: Insights from the WISH innovation programme</td><td>Report</td><td>2021</td><td>Discuss the effect of the pandemic on innovation and the need for speed, and cross-sectorial approach</td></tr><tr><td>Betti et al. (2020)</td><td>From perfume to hand sanitiser, TVs to face masks: How companies are changing track to fight COVID-19</td><td>News report</td><td>2020</td><td>Discuss the motivation, complexity, approach, and potential of manufacturing repurposing</td></tr><tr><td>Castañeda-Navarrete et al. (2020)</td><td>COVID-19's impacts on global value chains, as seen in the apparel industry</td><td>Centre for Technology Management Working Paper Series</td><td>2020</td><td>Provide an analysis on the impact of Covid-19 on the apparel industry and identify key policies to address the challenges</td></tr><tr><td>Chien et al. (2020)</td><td>A Positive-Pressure Environment Disposable Shield (PEDS) for COVID-19 Health Care Worker Protection</td><td>Prehospital and Disaster Medicine</td><td>2020</td><td>Discuss the repurposing of a positive pressure head isolation unit from materials available</td></tr><tr><td>Ciortea et al. (2018)</td><td>Repurposing manufacturing lines on the fly with multi-agent systems for the Web of Things</td><td>Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems</td><td>2018</td><td>Present an approach to design scalable and flexible agent-based manufacturing systems</td></tr></tbody></table>

(continued)
<table><caption>**Table 1 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><td>Authors</td><td>Title</td><td>Source</td><td>Year</td><td>Summary</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Correa et al. (2020)</td><td>Protecting productive assets during the COVID-19 pandemic</td><td>Report</td><td>2020</td><td>Discuss manufacturing repurposing as a flexible and fast response for manufacturing</td></tr><tr><td>Corsini and Leal-Ayala (2020)</td><td>The role of industrial digitalisation in post-Covid-19 manufacturing recovery, diversification, and resilience</td><td>Cambridge Industrial Innovation Policy</td><td>2020</td><td>The role of digitalization post-Covid-19 globally</td></tr><tr><td>Corsini et al. (2020)</td><td>Critical factors for implementing open-source hardware in a crisis: lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic</td><td>Journal of Open Hardware</td><td>2020</td><td>Discuss the role of open-source hardware and its potential post Covid-19</td></tr><tr><td>El-Aziz et al. (2021)</td><td>The role of emerging technologies for combating COVID-19 pandemic</td><td>Studies in Systems, Decision and Control</td><td>2021</td><td>Provide an overview of digital technologies as a response to Covid-19</td></tr><tr><td>Falcone et al. (2022)</td><td>Supply chain plasticity during a global disruption: Effects of CEO and supply chain networks on operational repurposing</td><td>Journal of Business Logistics</td><td>2022</td><td>Propose a stepwise weight assessment ratio analysis on firms' supply chain plasticity vs repurposing capabilities</td></tr></tbody></table>

(continued)
<table><caption>**Table 1 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><td>Authors</td><td>Title</td><td>Source</td><td>Year</td><td>Summary</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Fisher et al. (2018)</td><td>Cloud manufacturing as a sustainable process manufacturing route</td><td>Journal of Manufacturing Systems</td><td>2018</td><td>Discuss the potential of cloud manufacturing to provide scalability and flexibility in repurposing manufacturing</td></tr><tr><td>Hanapi and Hanapi (2021)</td><td>Repurposing typical institutional hall as temporary Covid-19 quarantine stations In Johor: A review study in KKTM</td><td>International Journal of Integrated Engineering</td><td>2021</td><td>Explore the physical repurposing of facilities based on a case study methodology</td></tr><tr><td>Ivanov (2021)</td><td>Supply chain viability and the COVID-19 pandemic: A conceptual and formal generalisation of four major adaptation strategies</td><td>International Journal of Production Research</td><td>2021</td><td>Propose repurposing as one of four adaptation strategies for supply chain viabilities</td></tr><tr><td>Kapoor et al. (2021)</td><td>How is COVID-19 altering the manufacturing landscape? A literature review of imminent challenges and management interventions</td><td>Annals of Operations Research</td><td>2021</td><td>Provide a literature review on manufacturing during Covid-19 and a research agenda</td></tr><tr><td>Liu et al. (2021)</td><td>Accelerated innovation through repurposing: Exaptation of design and manufacturing in response to COVID-19</td><td>R&D Management</td><td>2021</td><td>Study the effect of shared purpose in driving change in the innovation processes</td></tr></tbody></table>

(continued)
<table><caption>Table 1 (continued)</caption><thead><tr><td>Authors</td><td>Titles</td><td>Journal</td><td>Year</td><td>Summary</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>López-Gómez et al. (2020)</td><td>COVID-19 critical supplies: The manufacturing repurposing challenge</td><td>United Nations Industrial Development Organization</td><td>2020</td><td>Define manufacturing repurposing as a response solution to address global shortages</td></tr><tr><td>Magelssen (2020)</td><td>Jindal school researchers examine COVID-19 impact on manufacturing</td><td>News report</td><td>2020</td><td>Examine manufacturers response to Covid-19 discuss the lack of capability among manufacturers</td></tr><tr><td>Malik et al. (2020)</td><td>Repurposing factories with robotics in the face of COVID-19</td><td>Materials and Design</td><td>2020</td><td>Discuss the potential of cobots in expediting repurposing manufacturing</td></tr><tr><td>Mamo (2020)</td><td>Insights from Africa's Covid-19 response: Repurposing manufacturing</td><td>Tony Blair Institute for Global Change</td><td>2020</td><td>Discuss the potential of pivoting to local manufacturing with the collaboration of public and private sectors</td></tr><tr><td>Moerchel et al. (2020)</td><td>Identifying crisis-critical intellectual property challenges during the Covid-19 pandemic: A scenario analysis and conceptual extrapolation of innovation ecosystem dynamics using a visual mapping approach</td><td>Centre for Technology Management</td><td>2020</td><td>Identify crisis associated challenges and IP specific dynamic developments</td></tr><tr><td>Okorie et al. (2020)</td><td>Manufacturing in the time of COVID-19: An assessment of barriers and enablers</td><td>IEEE Engineering Management Review</td><td>2020</td><td>Propose a best practice framework for a successful pivot to major disruptions</td></tr><tr><td>Poduval et al. (2021)</td><td>Barriers in repurposing an existing manufacturing plant: A total interpretive structural modeling (TISM) approach</td><td>Operations Management Research</td><td>2021</td><td>Explore a total interpretative structural modelling (TISM) approach to analyze barriers of manufacturing repurposing</td></tr></tbody></table>

(continued)
<table><caption>**Table 1 (continued)**</caption><thead><tr><td>Authors</td><td>Titles</td><td>Journal</td><td>Year</td><td>Summary</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Pušlecki et al. (2021)</td><td>Development of innovation cooperation in the time of COVID-19 pandemic</td><td>European Research Studies Journal</td><td>2021</td><td>Discuss the development of partnerships and R&D alliances during and post pandemic</td></tr><tr><td>Robinson (2020)</td><td>The companies repurposing manufacturing to make key medical kit during Covid-19 pandemic</td><td>News report</td><td>2020</td><td>Describe the various manufacturing repurposing initiatives from different manufacturers</td></tr><tr><td>Schumacher et al. (2021)</td><td>Strategies to manage product recalls in the COVID-19 pandemic: an exploratory case study of PPE supply chains</td><td>World Economic Forum</td><td>2021</td><td>Discuss the response of firms to product recalls and the effect of institutional actors</td></tr><tr><td>Schwabe et al. (2021)</td><td>A maturity model for rapid diffusion of innovation in high value manufacturing</td><td>Procedia CIRP</td><td>2021</td><td>Develop a maturity model for forecasting innovation in projects including manufacturing repurposing</td></tr><tr><td>Shokrani et al. (2020)</td><td>Exploration of alternative supply chains and distributed manufacturing in response to COVID-19; a case study of medical face shields</td><td>Materials and Design</td><td>2020</td><td>Propose a simplified face shield design through an assortment of alternative supply chains</td></tr><tr><td>Soldatos et al. (2021)</td><td>Digital platform and operator 4.0 services for manufacturing repurposing during COVID19</td><td>IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology</td><td>2021</td><td>Provide an introduction of digital solutions for manufacturing repurposing transformations</td></tr><tr><td>Tondel and Ahair-we (2020)</td><td>Policy coherence issues emerging from COVID-19 with a focus on healthcare supply chains</td><td>Development Policy Review</td><td>2020</td><td>Discuss the implications of policy on healthcare supply chains to better manage the effects of globalization</td></tr></tbody></table>
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