# Ameliorating the effects of climate change through organic agriculture system

Ajeet Kumar, Diwakar Paswan, C.S. Choudhary, Brijesh Kumar, Anjana Arun

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## To cite this version:

Ajeet Kumar, Diwakar Paswan, C.S. Choudhary, Brijesh Kumar, Anjana Arun. Ameliorating the effects of climate change through organic agriculture system. AN ASIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE, 2014, 9 (2), pp.318-324. 10.15740/HAS/AJSS/9.2/318-324. hal-04676699

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A Review

DOI: 10.15740/HAS/AJSS/9.2/318-324

# Ameliorating the effects of climate change through organic agriculture system

■ AJEET KUMAR, DIWAKAR PASWAN, C.S. CHOUDHARY, BRIJESH KUMAR AND ANJANA ARUN

MEMBERS OF RESEARCH FORUM:

**Corresponding author :**

AJEET KUMAR, Regional Research
Station, Agwanpur, SAHARSA (BIHAR)
INDIA

Email: ajeetbau@gmail.com

**Co-authors :**

C.S. CHOUDHARY, DIWAKAR
PASWAN AND ANJANA ARUN,

Regional Research Station, Agwanpur,
SAHARSA (BIHAR) INDIA

BRIJESH KUMAR, Regional Research
Station, Agwanpur, SAHARSA (BIHAR)
INDIA

Received : 11.10.2014; Accepted : 30.11.2014

## Summary

The paper attempts to explore research findings focusing on the climate change impact on organic agriculture and its impact on climate change through scientific literature review. This review reveals that climate change and agriculture are closely linked and interdependent. Compared to conventional agriculture, organic agriculture is reported to be more efficient and effective both in reducing GHGs (CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O) emission mainly due to the less use of chemical fertilizers and fossil fuel. Organic agriculture also reported to be climate change resilience farming systems as it promotes the proper management of soil, water and biodiversity by acting as a good options for adaptation to climate change. But, due to lack of proper research, the contribution of organic agriculture for climate change adaptation and mitigation is yet to be known. It is argued that organic agriculture positively contributes to offset negative impacts of climate change, but there is inadequate systematic data to substantiate this fact.

**Key words:** Adaptation, Climate change, Greenhouse gases mitigation, Organic agriculture

**How to cite this article:** Kumar, Ajeet, Paswan, Diwakar, Choudhary, C.S., Kumar, Brijesh and Arun, Anjana (2014). Ameliorating the effects of climate change through organic agriculture system. *Asian J. Soil Sci.*, 9(2): 318-324.

## Introduction

Experts expect that climate change will have a negative effect on agriculture production as a result of frequent adverse weather extremes leading to increasing crop failures. Many of the predicted weather scenarios such as increases in prolonged droughts and short intense rain events are already causing significant crop failures. So under such a circumstance, we have option of organic agriculture to mitigate with climate change. One of the central tenets of organic farming is to improve soil health and productivity by increasing organic matter (carbon) levels, particularly humus. In doing this organic farming can remove significant amounts of the carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere and increase water use efficiency. Studies have shown that organic farming systems are more resilient to the predicted weather extremes. Organic systems have achieved higher yields than conventional farming systems in weather extremes because of their superior water use efficiency and improved

soil structure. Their higher soil humus levels give them better water holding capacity (Drinkwater et al., 1998; Welsh, 1999; Lotter et al., 2003; Pimentel et al., 2005; Wynen, 2006 and Posner et al., 2008).

Climate change is a natural process. Recently climate changes are alarming mainly due to anthropogenic reasons. Climate change has already affected people, their livelihoods and ecosystems and presents a great challenge for the global community. The level of greenhouse gases (GHGs) - mainly carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH₄) - have been rapidly increasing after the industrialization. The increased level of GHGs has created a greenhouse effect which subsequently altered precipitation patterns and temperatures. Impacts have been witnessed in several areas include, agriculture, forestry, water resources, biodiversity, desertification, human health, and ecosystems. Researches revealed that rate and extent of climate change have increased significantly over the years with the increasing climate variability and extreme events. Clear impacts from climate
change are both positive as well as negative. They are, however, dependent on latitude, altitude and type of crop. There have been noticeable impacts on plant production, insect, disease, weed dynamics, soil properties and microbial diversification in farming systems. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC 2007a, a temperature change in tropical areas has a negative impact on food production and it is estimated that food production within South Asia will decrease by about 30 per cent by 2050. Although causes and effect relations of climate change and agriculture are seen in many forms and extent, assessment of those relations and effects of climate change on agriculture and the impact of agriculture on climate change are not well documented in scientific literature. Understanding of these nexus is vital not only to improve the agricultural sector productivity but it is also important to positively contribute to the environmental management regime. Thus, scientific communities are in a quest of identifying efficient farming practices which reduce GHGs emissions (mitigation) as well as resilient systems that are able to adapt impacts of climate change. Organic agriculture is being considered as one of the appropriate farming systems that could serve the twin objectives of climate change mitigation and adaptation.

The IPCC has suggested a range of measures to mitigate GHGs emission from agricultural ecosystems (Smith et al., 2007). According to Barker et al. (2007), sink enhancement (carbon sequestration) will contribute most to mitigation of climate change. Prominent mitigation option in agriculture according to IPCC (Barker et al., 2007 and Smith et al., 2007) include improved crop land management (including, nutrient management, tillage/residues management, water management), improved grazing land management (e.g. grazing intensity, nutrient management) and the restoration of degraded soil.

**Objectives :**

The objectives of this paper are to explore the effect of

climate change on agriculture and how organic agriculture could contribute in climate change mitigation and adaptation to climate change.

**Methods and scope :**

The paper is based on a review of available scientific literature. Data related to climate change, agriculture and organic agriculture are very limited, hence, information was accessed mostly through web search and few are through scientific literatures available, and it is presented mainly for raising awareness among the concerned.

**Agricultural impacts on climate change :**

Agriculture is one of the important contributors of GHG emissions. Agricultural land use in the 1990s was responsible for approximately 15 per cent of all GHG emissions (Organic Consumer Association, 2008). Another report produced by OECD (2001) stated that agriculture contributes to over 20 per cent of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2008).

According to the World Bank (2008), agriculture contributes about half of the global emissions of two of the most potent greenhouse gases: nitrous oxide and methane (World Bank, 2008). Livestock manure, nitrogenous fertilizers and irrigated paddy are said to be responsible for producing most agricultural nitrous oxide and methane emissions. These GHGs have powerful effects and have greater longevity than carbon dioxide. The different sources of GHGs and the role of the agricultural sector are presented in Fig. 1 and 2 (Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, 2008). Agricultural intensification, has consumed heavy amounts of fossil fuels and other inputs, contributing significantly to GHGs emissions. The doubling of GHG production during the last 35 years was associated with a 6.9 fold increase in nitrogen fertilization, a 3.5 fold increase in phosphorus fertilization and a 1.7 fold increase in irrigated land (FAO, 2008). The increase of chemical fertilizers

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contributed substantial amount of GHGs emissions.

Nitrous oxide emissions not only contribute to the greenhouse effect but also to the depletion of stratospheric ozone. Almost 90 per cent of the global atmospheric N₂O is formed during the microbial transformation of nitrate (NO₃⁻) and ammonium ion (NH₄⁺) in soils and water. Globally, agriculture contributes 65-80 per cent of total N₂O, mainly from nitrogenous fertilizers on cultivated soils, cattle and feedlots. N₂O emissions from soils are due to the unproductive loss of mobile N. Any nitrogen input and the mineralization of nitrogen compounds in soils, contribute to the emission of N₂O. Especially in agricultural soils, elevated N₂O production depends on the nitrogen fertilization level agriculture is believed to account for roughly two-thirds of the total man-made methane (CH₄) emissions; mainly from paddy rice fields, burning of biomass and ruminants (enteric fermentation and animal waste treatment). Aerobic agricultural soils, however, are considered sinks for atmospheric CH₄.

## Climate change and its impacts on agriculture :

According to the nature of impact of climate change on agriculture, FAO (2007) has divided into two groups i.e. biophysical and socio-economic impact.

### Impacts on plant production :

The impacts presented in Table 2 are generally negative. However, while looking critically on plant production, the climate change has both positive and negative impacts. Rises in temperature, would help to grow crops in high altitude and towards the poles. In these areas, increases in temperature extend the length of the potential growing season, allowing earlier planting, early harvesting and opening the possibility of completing two crop cycles in the same season. The warmer

conditions support the process of natural decomposition of organic matter and contribution the nutrient uptake mechanisms. The process of nitrogen fixation is also increase in warmer conditions and with higher CO₂, if soil moisture is not limiting.

Increases in temperature, at the same time, might affect lower altitude areas in India, the *Terai* and foothills, where temperatures are already high. Higher temperatures affect both the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Increased temperatures may accelerate the rate of releasing CO₂ resulting in less than optimal conditions of net growth. When temperatures exceed the optimal level for biological processes, crops often respond negatively with a steep drop in net growth and yield. Heat stress might affect the whole physiological development, maturation and finally yield of crops. Higher temperatures provide a conducive-environment for the majority of insect pests. Longer growing seasons, higher night temperatures, and warmer winters help insect pests undergo multiple life-cycles and increase the chances of affecting plant production.

Change in climate affects the pattern and extent of rainfall and evapo-transpiration processes which affect soil moisture storage, run-off, and water absorption by the plant. Both lack of and access to water might affect the different stages of plant production. Moisture stress during flowering, pollination, and grain-filling stage is harmful to the most of the crops. Increased evaporation from soil and accelerated transpiration in the plants themselves will cause moisture stress.

Researches have shown that increased concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere increases the likelihood of higher absorption of CO₂ inside the plant through stomata during photosynthesis which provides carbohydrates for plant

<table><caption>Table 1 : India's National green house gas inventory in 1994/95 (Gg) (MOEST, 2008)</caption><thead><tr><th>Greenhouse gas (source and sink categories)</th><th>CO<sub>2</sub> Emission</th><th>CO<sub>2</sub> Removal</th><th>CH<sub>4</sub> Emission</th><th>N<sub>2</sub>O Emission</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Energy</td><td>1465</td><td></td><td>71</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Industrial processes</td><td>165</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Agriculture</td><td></td><td></td><td>867</td><td>29</td></tr><tr><td>Land use change and forestry</td><td>22895</td><td>-14778</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Wastes</td><td></td><td></td><td>10</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>Total emission and removal</td><td>24525</td><td>-14778</td><td>948</td><td>31</td></tr><tr><td>Net emission</td><td>9747</td><td></td><td>948</td><td>31</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><caption>Table 2 : General impacts on biophysical and socio-economic areas</caption><thead><tr><th>Biophysical impacts</th><th>Socio-economic impact</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Physiological effects on crop, pasture, forest and livestock (quantity and quality)</td><td>Decline in yield and production</td></tr><tr><td>Change in land, soil and water resources</td><td>Reduced marginal GDP from agriculture</td></tr><tr><td>Increased weed and pest challenges</td><td>Fluctuation in market price</td></tr><tr><td>Shifts in spatial and temporal distribution of impacts</td><td>Changes in geographical distribution of trade regimes</td></tr><tr><td>Sea level rise and changes to ocean salinity</td><td>Increased number of people at risk of hunger and food security</td></tr><tr><td>Sea temperature rise causing fish to inhabit in different ranges</td><td>Migration and civil unrest</td></tr></tbody></table>
growth. Crop species vary in their response to CO₂ according to their physiological class i.e. C₃ versus C₄ plants.

**Impacts on food and people's livelihoods :**

The developing world already contends with poverty and food crisis. In developing countries, 11 per cent of arable land could be highly affected by climate change. There will be a reduction of cereal production in 65 countries and retardation of about 16 per cent of agricultural GDP (FAO, 2007). IPCC (2007a) has predicted a decrease of 30 per cent in food production in South Asia. Climate change will have serious impacts on economic output, human life and the environment. The most vulnerable countries will suffer earliest, even though they have contributed least to the causes of climate change (Treasury, 2009). People depend on agriculture are the most vulnerable to climate change. Increasing crop failures and livestock deaths are already imposing high economic losses and undermining food security. More frequent droughts may devastate largely by undermining irrigation and drinking water in entire communities of vulnerable people (World Bank, 2009). The frequency and extent of floods, droughts and land cutting has rendered the agriculture more vulnerable and reduced the productivity of land. Such cases are more severe in countries like India where farmers have inadequate knowledge regarding climate change.

**Organic agriculture ameliorating GHGS emissions :**

*Organic systems use water more efficiently :*

Humus is one of the most important components of organic matter. It stores water from 20 to 30 times of its weight. This enables to control water loss through leaching and evaporation; but rather stored in the soil for later use by the plants (Stevenson, 1998; Handrek and Black, 2002). Organic systems uses water more efficiently because of their superior soil structure and higher levels of humus and other organic matter compounds (Lotter, 2003 and Pimentel et al., 2005). The open structure of organically managed soils allows rain-water to quickly penetrate into the soil, resulting in less water loss from run off and higher levels of water capture. The exceptional water capture capability of the organic treatments stood out during the torrential downpours. The organic systems captured about twice as much water as the conventional treatment (Lotter, 2003).

**Green house gas abatement :**

Organic agriculture ameliorates the causes of climate change. Studies shown that best practiced organic agriculture emits less greenhouse gases than conventional agriculture. Soil organic matter can result in a net reduction in greenhouse gases (Mader et al., 2002; Pimentel et al., 2005 and Reganold et al., 2001). Two long-term trials of conventional and organic systems have found that the organic systems useless

fossil fuels and, therefore, emit significantly lower levels of (around 30% less) greenhouse gases (Mader et al., 2002; Pimentel et al., 2005).

**Nitrous oxide :**

Nitrous oxide is one of the most significant greenhouse gases emitted by agriculture. One NO₂ molecule is equivalent to 310 CO₂ molecules in its greenhouse effect. The biggest contributor to anthropogenic NO₂ pollution is the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in conventional agriculture. Nitrous oxides are the great ‘sleeper’ in the climate change debates; and much greater attention to be paid to them. Research shows that organic systems are around 30 per cent more efficient in using fertilizer nitrogen than conventional farming (Drinkwater et al., 1998; Mader et al., 2002).

**Carbon sequestration in soil :**

Significance of organic agriculture is to build up soil fertility by increasing the levels of organic carbon in the soil. This is achieved by photosynthesis in which atmospheric CO₂ converted into starch, and these plant materials ultimately add soil organic matter after their decomposition. Sufficient organic material should be regenerated and returned to the soil to improve or at least maintain humus levels. Recycling of nutrients is a major feature of organic farming system' (National Standard, 2005). Thus, organic agriculture reduces greenhouse gases by converting atmospheric CO₂ into soil organic matter. Some forms of conventional agriculture have caused a massive decline in soil organic matter due to oxidizing organic carbon by incorrect tillage, the overuse of high nitrogen fertilizers and from soil loss through wind and water erosion. According to Christine Jones (2006), one of Australia's leading experts on carbon sequestration: "Every tonne of carbon lost from soil adds 3.67 tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO₂) gas to the atmosphere. Conversely, every 1 t/ha increase in soil organic carbon represents 3.67 tonnes of CO₂ sequestered from the atmosphere and removed from the greenhouse gas equation. For example, 1 per cent increase in organic carbon in the top 20 cm of soil represents a 24 t/ha increase in soil organic carbon which equates to 88 t/ha of CO₂ sequestered". These figures are rounded off to make them easy to understand, yet they are accurate enough to provide an understanding of the concepts.

**Soil carbon sequestration may be achieved :**

Data from the Rodale Institute's long-term comparison of organic and conventional cropping systems (Rodale, 2008) confirm that organic methods are effective in removing CO₂ from the atmosphere, and for fixing it as beneficial organic matter in the soil. Study demonstrated that organic farming practices remove about 7,000 kilos of CO₂ from the air each year and sequester it in a hectare of land. Dr Paul Hepperly, Research Director at The Rodale Institute and Fulbright
Scholar, stated: “We’ve shown that organic practices can do better than anyone thought at sequestering carbon, and counteract upto 40 per cent of global greenhouse gas output” (Rodale, 2008). Organic agriculture enables agriculture-influenced ecosystems to better adjust to the effects of climate change and also offers potential to reduce the emissions of agricultural greenhouse gases.

**Climate change mitigation :**

Mitigation is a process of reducing GHGs which are responsible for change in climate and climatic variability. Organic agriculture not only enables ecosystems to better adjust to the effects of climate change but also offers potential to reduce the emissions of agricultural greenhouse gases. In organic agriculture, soil fertility is maintained mainly through organic manures, legume production, crop rotations etc. The carbon sink idea of the Kyoto Protocol may, therefore, partly be accomplished by organic agriculture (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008). In order to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector, suggestions by IPCC (2007a) included improving crop and grazing land management to increase soil carbon storage; improving nitrogen fertilizer application techniques to reduce N doses; and dedicated energy crops to replace fossil fuel use (IPCC, 2007b). Research reveals that consumption of fossil fuels in organic agriculture is about half that of conventional agriculture. The factors responsible for lower emission of CO₂ from organic agriculture are maintenance and increase of soil fertility by the use of

farmyard manure, the omission of synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides; and the lower use of energy-intensive animal feeds. Sustainable agricultural strategies comprising recycling of organic matter, internal nutrient cycles, and no-tillage practices may rebuild organic matter levels. A report estimated that a 20 per cent increase in soil organic matter as a result of organic agriculture would result in a decrease of about 9 tonnes of carbon emission per hectare (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008). Organic agriculture, therefore, emit less N₂O because of: lower N-input; less N from organic manure due to lower livestock densities; a higher C/N ratio in applied organic manure and less available mineral nitrogen in the soil as a source for denitrification; the permanent plant cover in organic systems which results in a more efficient uptake of mobile nitrogen in soils, thus reducing the potential risk for N₂O emissions.

However, some researches have shown that organic agriculture is more likely to produce and release nitrous oxide in the environment due to the use of more organic manure from livestock. Very little information is available in relation to organic agriculture and methane. The emission of methane by ruminants is probably not affected by organic production. In general, research shows significant reductions of GHGs especially CO₂ and N₂O from organic agriculture. However, in India, there is scanty of information or research data available related to subsistence farming and different types of conventional as well as organic agriculture to compare among different farming systems.

<table><caption>**Table 3 : Organic agriculture and environmental goods and services**</caption><thead><tr><td>Areas</td><td>Environmental goods and services</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Soil</td><td>Organic matter content is usually higher in organically-managed soils, indicating higher fertility and stability of soils as well as moisture retention capacity, which reduce the risk of erosion and desertification.<br/>Organically cultivated soils have higher biological activity and total mass of micro-organisms, making more rapid nutrients recycling and improved soil structure. While the proportion of soluble nutrient fractions is lower on organically managed soils, but there is no decrease in organic yields since higher biological activity and higher mycorrhizal root colonization counteract nutrient deficiency.</td></tr><tr><td>Water</td><td>Organic agriculture poses no risk of ground and surface water pollution through synthetic pesticides.</td></tr><tr><td>Air</td><td>Organic agriculture enables ecosystems to better adjust to the effects of climate change and has a major potential for reducing agricultural greenhouse gas emissions.<br/>Organic agricultural strategies, by recycling organic matter and tightening internal nutrient cycles, contribute to carbon sequestration.</td></tr><tr><td>Energy</td><td>Organic agriculture performs better than conventional agriculture, both with respect to direct energy consumption (fuel and oil) and indirect consumption (synthetic fertilizers and pesticides). Efficiency of energy use of organic farms is high.</td></tr><tr><td>Biodiversity</td><td>Agriculture genetic resources, also including insects and micro-organisms, have all been shown to increase when land is farmed organically.<br/>Wild flora and fauna within and around organic farms are more diverse and abundant than in conventional or integrated agriculture.</td></tr><tr><td>Ecological services</td><td>Organic agriculture offers vast food resources and shelter for beneficial arthropods and birds, thus contributing to natural pest control.<br/>It contributes to the conservation and survival of pollinators, thus enhanced ecosystem diversity. Thanks to the banning of synthetic pesticides and herbicides.</td></tr></tbody></table>
**Climate change adaptation and organic agriculture :**

IPCC (2001) defines adaptation to climate change specifically as “adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation, private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation. It is reported that organic agriculture could be a resilience systems for adaptation to climate change. Organic agriculture helps to increase resilience of farming systems through better management of soil, water and biodiversity. Organic agriculture provides better results in many aspects of environmental issues compared to conventional agriculture (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008).

**Soil and water resources management :**

Soil management is the foundation of organic production. Organic systems care for the soil and surrounding ecosystems and provide support for a diversity of species, while encouraging nutrient cycling and mitigating soil and nutrient losses. It also manages the water resources judiciously. Hence, healthy soil and proper use of water resources would help for effective adaptation process.

**Organic agriculture and biodiversity :**

Organic agriculture utilizes various combinations of plant and animal species in time and space. Crop rotations (i.e. diversity in time) are a requirement of organic standards; it is the basic form of diversity on organic farms. Organic farmers rotate crops and livestock from one part of the farm to another. This practice provides multiple benefits for soil quality, helps to break pest life cycles and maximizes use of soil nutrients and water. Farmers also use multiple sowing dates, thereby lessening the chance that the whole crop will be at a critical stage during an extreme weather event (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008). Organic standards also require farmers to use organic seeds and encourage genetic diversity in both crops and livestock. Farmers are expected to save their seeds year after year, making them self-sufficient and self-reliant. Farmers select seeds from plants of local landraces that are highly adaptable to local ecosystems. The combination of these activities increases farms resemblance to natural ecosystems, thereby enhancing resilience. Agricultural biodiversity in time and space increases resilience in a myriad of ways: complementary use of soil nutrients and water, increased total productivity, decreased risk from one crop failure, pest protection, the creation of microclimates suitable for beneficial insects and strengthening the genetic traits of local landraces.

**Ecosystems goods and services :**

Organic agriculture provides a basis for maintaining

environmental goods and services at the farm and landscape. According to FAO (2008), organic agriculture provides the following environmental goods and services (Table 3).

Organic agriculture promotes ecological resilience, improved biodiversity, healthy management of farm soil and the surrounding environment. Hence, organic agriculture has been proved to be effective for enhanced adaptive capacity of farmers adversely affected by climate change.

**Conclusion :**

The study is based on a comprehensive review of peer reviewed scientific literature. Despite the alarming impact of climate change on agriculture, there is very little information available related to organic agriculture and its associations with climate change mitigation and adaptation in India. This review reveals that organic agriculture has much to offer in both mitigation of climate change through its emphasis on closed nutrient cycles and is a particularly resilient and productive system for adoption strategies. It is imperative to bring this issue to the researchers of agricultural sector for discussions to assess the potential contribution of organic agriculture to the climate change mitigation and adaptation process. Organic agriculture is beginning to gain attention both in the Government and in the non-government sector these days. The Ministry of Agriculture, through its district level offices has started working in organic agriculture but the efforts are still not adequate.

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