# The state of soils in Europe

Erhan Akça, Ulrike Aldrian, Christine Alewell, Erlisiana Anzalone, Andrea Arcidiacono, Cristina Arias Navarro, A. Auclerc, Koksal Aydinsakir, Cristiano Ballabio, Kitti Balog, et al.

► To cite this version:

Erhan Akça, Ulrike Aldrian, Christine Alewell, Erlisiana Anzalone, Andrea Arcidiacono, et al. The state of soils in Europe. Arias Navarro C.; Baritz R.; Jones A. Publications Office of the European Union, 155 p., 2024, 978-92-68-20817-5. 10.2760/5897030. hal-04748313

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The State of
# SOILS
## in Europe

<figure><img src="image_2.png" /></figure>

Fully evidenced, spatially organised assessment
of the pressures driving soil degradation.

Arias-Navarro C., Baritz R., Jones A. (Eds)

2024

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /></figure>

European
Environment
Agency

EUR 40054
This document is a publication by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission's science and knowledge service and the European Environment Agency (EEA). It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking process. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the position or opinion of the European Commission. Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use that might be made of this publication. For information on the methodology and quality underlying the data used in this publication for which the source is neither European nor other Commission services, users should contact the referenced source. The designations employed and the presentation of material on the maps do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the European Union concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

## Contact information

Name: Arwyn Jones

Address: European Commission Joint Research Centre, Sustainable Resources Directorate - Land Resources and Supply Chain Assessments Unit (D3) Unit, Via Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy

Email: Arwyn.JONES@ec.europa.eu

Tel.: +390332 78 9162

## EU Science Hub

https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu

## European Environment Agency

https://eea.europa.eu

JRC137600

EUR 40054

Print ISBN 978-92-68-20817-5 ISSN 1018-5593 doi:10.2760/5897030 KJ-01-24-055-EN-C

PDF ISBN 978-92-68-20816-8 ISSN 1831-9424 doi:10.2760/7007291 KJ-01-24-055-EN-N

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2024

© European Union, 2024

© European Environment Agency, 2024

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The reuse policy of the European Commission documents is implemented by the Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39). Unless otherwise noted, the reuse of this document is authorised under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This means that reuse is allowed provided appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated.

For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not owned by the European Union and the European Environment Agency (EEA), permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders.

- Cover page illustration, © Christopher Havenga

How to cite this report: Arias-Navarro, C., Baritz, R. and Jones, A. editor(s), 2024. The state of soils in Europe. Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/7007291, JRC137600.
# Contents

The State of Soils
in Europe

<table><tr><td>Abstract</td><td>05</td></tr><tr><td>Foreword</td><td>06</td></tr><tr><td>Acknowledgements</td><td>07</td></tr><tr><td>Executive summary</td><td>10</td></tr><tr><td>Introduction</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td>01 Regional overview</td><td>15</td></tr><tr><td>02 The role of soils as providers of vital ecosystem services</td><td>18</td></tr><tr><td>03 Drivers of changes in soil health</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>3.1 Climate change</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>3.2 Land use and land cover change</td><td>21</td></tr><tr><td>3.3 Socioeconomic drivers</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>3.4 Soil water</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>3.5 Disturbances (wildfires, droughts and windstorms)</td><td>24</td></tr><tr><td>04 Regional status and trend of soil degradation</td><td>26</td></tr><tr><td>4.1 Excess and deficiencies in soil nutrients</td><td>26</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.1 Status and trends</td><td>26</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.2 Drivers</td><td>29</td></tr><tr><td>4.1.3 Impacts</td><td>30</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>4.2 Soil acidification</td><td>31</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.1 Status and trends</td><td>31</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.2 Drivers</td><td>32</td></tr><tr><td>4.2.3 Impacts</td><td>33</td></tr><tr><td>4.3 Soil carbon change (in mineral soils, organic soils and inorganic carbon)</td><td>34</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.1 Mineral soils</td><td>34</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.2 Organic soils</td><td>37</td></tr><tr><td>4.3.3 Inorganic carbon</td><td>41</td></tr><tr><td>4.4 Soil erosion</td><td>43</td></tr><tr><td>4.4.1 Status and trends</td><td>44</td></tr><tr><td>4.4.2 Drivers</td><td>49</td></tr><tr><td>4.4.3 Impacts</td><td>51</td></tr><tr><td>4.5 Soil compaction</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td>4.5.1 Status and trends</td><td>53</td></tr><tr><td>4.5.2 Drivers</td><td>55</td></tr><tr><td>4.5.3 Impacts</td><td>55</td></tr><tr><td>4.6 Soil pollution</td><td>56</td></tr><tr><td>4.6.1 Status and trends</td><td>57</td></tr><tr><td>4.6.2 Drivers</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td>4.7 Soil salinisation and sodification</td><td>63</td></tr><tr><td>4.7.1 Status and trends</td><td>64</td></tr><tr><td>4.7.2 Drivers</td><td>66</td></tr><tr><td>4.7.3 Impacts</td><td>67</td></tr></table>
4.8 Soil biodiversity change .................................................................................................................. 68

4.8.1 Status and trends .................................................................................................................... 69

4.8.2 Drivers ................................................................................................................................. 70

4.8.3 Impacts ................................................................................................................................. 70

4.9 Soil sealing and land take ........................................................................................................ 71

4.9.1 Soil sealing ................................................................................................................................. 72

4.9.2 Land take ................................................................................................................................. 73

4.9.3 Landscape fragmentation ........................................................................................................ 75

4.9.4 Land recycling rate .................................................................................................................. 76

4.9.5 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 76

05 Convergence of evidence for soil degradation in Europe .................................................... 78

5.1 Monitoring ................................................................................................................................. 78

5.1.1 National Soil Monitoring programs .................................................................................. 79

5.1.2 International co-operative programme on assessment and monitoring of air pollution effects on forests ................................................................................................................ 81

5.2 EU Soil Observatory Soil Degradation Dashboard ................................................................ 85

06 Understanding the interplay between drivers and impacts of soil degradation ... 88

6.1 Interconnections between soil degradation factors: Understanding complexities in European soil health ................................................................................................................ 88

6.2 Assessing the impacts of soil degradation on Ecosystems, Agriculture, and Society in Europe ................................................................................................................................. 89

07 The role of citizen science in assessing soil conditions ............................................................ 92

7.1 Current citizen science activities .................................................................................................. 93

7.2 Outlook .................................................................................................................................................. 94
08 Towards sustainable soil governance: Policy pathways for preserving soil health in Europe 96

8.1 From the soil thematic strategy to the Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law: Advancing soil protection policies in the EU 96

8.2 Soil conservation policies beyond the EU 97

09 Ensuring soil health and ecosystem resilience amid diverse land use demands in Europe 99

Conclusions 101

References 102

List of abbreviations and definitions 141

Glossary 142

List of boxes 146

List of figures 146

List of tables 147

Authors' affiliations (alphabetic order) 148

Getting in touch with the EU 154

Finding information about the EU 154
Abstract

This report investigates the intricate interplay
between drivers of changes in soil health
and pressures and impacts on soil in the
32 European Environment Agency (EEA) member
countries, along with six cooperating countries
from the West Balkans, Ukraine and UK, shedding
light on the multifaceted challenges facing soil
conservation efforts. Our analysis shows the
complex interactions among various factors,
both anthropogenic and natural, shaping soil
degradation processes and their subsequent
consequences. We highlight key findings, including
the significant impacts of soil degradation on
agriculture, ecosystem resilience, water quality,
biodiversity, and human health, underscoring the
urgent need for comprehensive soil management
strategies. Moreover, our examination of citizen
science initiatives underlines the importance
of engaging the public in soil monitoring and
conservation efforts. This work emphasises the
policy relevance of promoting sustainable soil
governance frameworks, supported by research,
innovation, and robust soil monitoring schemes,
to safeguard soil health and ensure the long-term
resilience of ecosystems.

The State of Soils
in Europe
Foreword

The sustainable management of soils is a formidable challenge, but crucial if we are to truly meet the aspirations and objectives of a European green transition. Healthy soils, and the diverse lifeforms that live within them, provide us with food, biomass and raw materials, while regulating climate, water and nutrient cycles. Soil is a unique habitat in its own right, hosting almost 60% of all biodiversity on terrestrial land; it also underpins aboveground ecosystems.

Unfortunately, Europe's soils are deteriorating. Taking centuries or millennia to form, they can be destroyed or damaged in minutes. According to the analysis of the Joint Research Centre's EU Soil Observatory, degradation processes affect at least 63% of soils in the European Union.

Together with the European Environment Agency, the Joint Research Centre has assembled a rich scientific community to assess soil degradation and communicate the need to protect soils to the wider society. This is in line with the vision and objectives of the European Union's Soil Strategy 2030 and Horizon Europe's Mission "A Soil Deal for Europe" to enhance soil literacy.

Building on a previous JRC and EEA assessment on the state of soils from 2012, this updated report provides new insights and highlights a number of key issues. Among the main findings in the report, it is worth mentioning that many soils are experiencing carbon loss – this could pose a threat to the EU's climate targets if left unaddressed. About 1 billion tonnes of soil are washed away by erosion every year with concerns of increasing losses of erosion as a result of more extreme weather events. Between

2012 and 2018, more than 400km² of land was lost per year to soil sealing in the European Union (EU). Worryingly, about 74% of agricultural land in the EU+UK faces excessive nitrogen inputs, while extensive areas exhibit phosphorus surpluses. Moreover, pesticide residues and other pollutants are prevalent in agricultural soils, further exacerbating environmental concerns.

However, many countries still lack comprehensive data on soil health, especially on diffuse pollution. The proposed Soil Monitoring Law, supported by research and innovation initiatives such as the Horizon Europe mission, 'A soil deal for Europe', aims to address this gap while supporting the transition towards a more sustainable future. Future versions of this report will be able to benefit from the increased volume of data from the Law in order to provide a more comprehensive picture of the state of soils.

This publication marks an important milestone towards a better understanding of the role of soil in Europe and beyond. We encourage readers to share and promote this rich knowledge base.

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Bernard Magenhann**
(Acting) Director General
Joint Research Centre
European Commission</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>**Leena Ylä-Mononen**
Executive Director
European Environment Agency</figcaption></figure>
# Acknowledgements

This report was made possible by the commitment and voluntary work of Europe's leading soil scientists and the institutions they are affiliated with. These include experts from the European Environment Information and Observation Network (EIONET), as well as stakeholders of the European Soil Observatory (EUSO). We would like to express our gratitude to all the lead authors and contributing authors.

The Joint Research Centre and European Environmental Agency's editorial staff are also credited with assisting in the production of the report, along with reviewers Carolina Puerta Pinero and Hakki Erdogan. The report's production was facilitated by PUBSY, the corporate management system for the centre's outputs.

Soil assessments in the EU are made possible thanks to Europe's Land Use / Cover Area Frame Survey (LUCAS), and we therefore express our gratitude to all involved in its implementation. The coordination of LUCAS is facilitated by Unit E4 of Eurostat, the statistical office of the EU. In addition, soil sample collection and laboratory analyses are supported by the Directorate-General for Environment, the Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development and the Directorate-General for Climate Action.

While the related work is currently in the very early stages, we hope that future revisions of this report will be underpinned by the EU soil monitoring and resilience directive and the advances in understanding and monitoring techniques brought about by the Horizon Europe mission 'A soil deal for Europe'.

The State of Soils
in Europe
<table><thead><tr><th>Chapter</th><th>Lead author(s)</th><th>Co-author(s)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Abstract</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Arwyn Jones; Rainer Baritz (Eds)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Executive summary</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Arwyn Jones; Rainer Baritz (Eds)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Introduction</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Arwyn Jones; Rainer Baritz (Eds)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 1</td><td>Regional overview</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Elise Van Eynde; Diana Vieira</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 2</td><td>The role of soils as providers of vital ecosystem services</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Elise Van Eynde; Diana Vieira</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 3</td><td>Drivers of changes in soil health</td><td>Rainer Baritz; Diana Vieira; Cristina Arias-Navarro; Elise Van Eynde; Arwyn Jones</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="10">Chapter 4<br>Regional status of and trends in soil degradation</td><td>4.1 Soil nutrients excess and deficiencies</td><td>Elise Van Eynde</td></tr><tr><td>4.2 Soil acidification</td><td>Felipe Yunta; Elise Van Eynde</td></tr><tr><td>4.3 Soil carbon change (in mineral soils, organic soils, and inorganic carbon)</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Daniele De Rosa; Iñigo Virto</td></tr><tr><td>4.4 Soil erosion</td><td>Panos Panagos</td></tr><tr><td>4.5 Soil compaction</td><td>Panos Panagos; Felipe Yunta</td></tr><tr><td>4.6 Soil pollution</td><td>Diana Vieira</td></tr><tr><td>4.7 Soil salinisation and sodification</td><td>Calogero Schillaci; Felipe Yunta</td></tr><tr><td>4.8 Soil biodiversity change</td><td>Alberto Orgiazzi</td></tr><tr><td>4.9 Soil sealing and land take</td><td>Stefano Salata</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Chapter 5</td><td>Convergence of evidence on soil degradation in Europe</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro</td><td>Elise Van Eynde; Diana Vieira; Nils Broothaerst</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 6</td><td>Understanding the interplay between drivers and impacts of soil degradation</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro</td><td>Elise Van Eynde; Diana Vieira</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 7</td><td>The Role of Citizen Science in Soil Health Assessment</td><td>Taru Sandén</td><td>Eloise Mason; Timo Breure; Chantal Gascuel; Apolline Auclerc; Erlisiana Anzalone; Victoria J Burton; Froukje Rienks; Sara Di Lonardo; Alba Peiro; Francisco Sanz; Ulrike Aldrian; Tanja Mimmo</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 8</td><td>Towards sustainable soil governance: Policy pathways for preserving Soil Health in Europe</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Diana Vieira; Elise Van Eynde</td><td>Arwyn Jones; Rainer Baritz</td></tr><tr><td>Chapter 9</td><td>Ensuring Soil Health and ecosystem resilience amidst diverse land use demands in Europe</td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Diana Vieira; Elise Van Eynde</td><td>Arwyn Jones; Rainer Baritz</td></tr><tr><td>Conclusions</td><td></td><td>Cristina Arias-Navarro; Arwyn Jones; Rainer Baritz (Eds)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4">Transversal contribution</td><td>Western Balkans</td><td>Dragana Vidojević; Pandi Zdruli; Snezana Dragovic; Vesna Zupanc</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ukraine</td><td>Yuriy Dmytruk; Vasyl Cherlinka; Svitlana Romanova</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Türkiye</td><td>Sevinc Madenoglu; Bulent Sonmez; Philipp Maurischat; Fuat Kaya; Sait Gezgin; Ibrahin Ortas; Erhan Akca; Taskin Oztas; Hasan Sabri Ozturk; Koksal Aydinsakir; Hesna Ozcan; Atilla Polat</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Geographic Information System, mapping, graphic formulation, data curation</td><td>Leonidas Liakos; Daniela De Medici; Simone Scarpa; Juan Martin Jimenez; Christopher Havenga; Daniele Beltrandi; Marc Van-Liedekerke</td><td></td></tr></table>
# Executive summary

## Policy context

Healthy soils need to be at the heart of the European Green Deal. In this respect, this report is aligned with several key EU policy initiatives, such as the EU's soil strategy for 2030, part of the EU biodiversity strategy for 2030; the zero pollution action plan; and the European Climate Law. With over 90 authors, it offers diverse expertise, reflecting the latest scientific insights on the topic of soil degradation in Europe. With over 60 % of soils in the EU undergoing degradation processes, the stakes are high, with impacts on food security, ecosystem services and human health. This report synthesises current research and highlights the issues that need to be addressed through sustainable soil management. Offering comprehensive analyses and recommendations, the report aims to increase understanding of this crucial area. Its relevance is critical amid ongoing debates on environmental sustainability and agricultural policies. Moreover, its findings extend beyond soil health, potentially influencing policies on biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation and land use planning, and stressing the need for multistakeholder cooperation to ensure environmental, social and economic sustainability in Europe.

## Key conclusions

The report confirms the magnitude of soil degradation in Europe and highlights the challenges arising from the impact of warfare on soils, particularly in conflict-affected regions such as Ukraine. New policy measures may need to be considered to address these emerging issues and ensure the resilience of European soils.

Despite significant progress, knowledge gaps persist, particularly regarding diffuse pollution, the social impacts of soil degradation and the effects of warfare on soil health. Bridging these gaps will require further research and greater

public engagement to raise awareness and foster collective action.

The findings presented in the report highlight several key policy-relevant consequences of soil degradation and recommendations for addressing this issue in Europe. Firstly, it is evident that existing policy frameworks need to be strengthened to effectively monitor and mitigate soil degradation processes. This will involve, for example, implementing legislative mechanisms such as the proposed soil monitoring and resilience directive, which would provide a framework for comprehensive soil health assessments that could in turn support targeted interventions.

In addition, there is a clear need for cross-sectoral coordination and collaboration to tackle soil degradation comprehensively. Policy measures already in place could be strengthened to incentivise farmers to adopt soil-friendly agricultural practices (e.g. reducing tillage and planting cover crops) and to promote sustainable land management practices through support schemes and capacity-building initiatives.

Overall, the findings of the report emphasise the urgency of addressing soil degradation in Europe through targeted policy interventions, collaborative approaches and continued investment in research and innovation.

## Main findings

This assessment offers a comprehensive examination of soil degradation in the 32 European Environment Agency member countries and in 6 collaborating nations in the western Balkans, Ukraine and the United Kingdom. With contributions from over 90 authors, the report draws on the latest research, case studies and soil monitoring data, providing a thorough analysis of soil threats and their implications.
Europe's soils serve as the foundation for a multitude of ecosystem services that are crucial for human well-being and environmental sustainability. However, nutrient imbalances, acidification, organic carbon loss, peatland degradation, erosion, compaction, pollution and salinisation jeopardise their essential functions. Addressing these challenges requires a coordinated effort to understand the underlying drivers and implement effective management strategies.

Soil monitoring programmes, such as the Land Use / Cover Area Frame Survey, that provide data to the EU Soil Observatory's Soil Degradation Dashboard play pivotal roles in making it possible to assess soil condition, guiding policy formulation and promoting sustainable land management practices. In addition, they provide valuable insights into trends in soil condition and help in identifying areas in which intervention is needed. There is a lack of comprehensive soil data in the EU's neighbouring countries and regions affected by conflict, such as Ukraine. This highlights the need for international collaboration and data-sharing initiatives.

To effectively address soil degradation, policy frameworks need to be strengthened, neighbouring countries need to be supported in transitioning to sustainable practices and incentives for soil-friendly agriculture need to be provided. Furthermore, improving soil restoration techniques and making soil more resilient to climate change will require investment in research and innovation and in cross-sectoral cooperation.

By implementing these recommendations and prioritising soil health, policymakers can safeguard the long-term productivity and sustainability of Europe's soils, ensuring their ability to continue providing essential ecosystem services for generations to come.

## Related and future JRC work

The Joint Research Centre provides scientific support to the European Commission in the development and implementation of policies aimed at protecting soil resources. Future efforts of the centre will include supporting

the implementation of the soil monitoring and resilience directive by providing scientific evidence and recommendations for soil health assessments. The Joint Research Centre remains dedicated to incorporating soil-related considerations into wider environmental policies and partnerships, in line with the objectives of the 'Science for the Global Gateway and International Green Deal' initiative.

## Quick guide

The report offers a comprehensive assessment of soil degradation across Europe, focusing on key challenges and policy recommendations.

**Chapter 1** provides a regional overview, highlighting the diversity of Europe's soils and the specific challenges faced in different regions.

**Chapter 2** discusses the vital role soils play in providing ecosystem services, such as climate regulation, water filtration, and biodiversity support. **Chapter 3** identifies the main drivers of soil degradation, including climate change, land use practices, and pollution. The core of the report, **Chapter 4**, presents the status and trends of soil degradation across Europe, with detailed insights at regional and national levels. **Chapter 5** synthesises evidence from national soil monitoring programs and the EU Soil Observatory to provide a comprehensive view of soil degradation across Europe. **Chapter 6** explores the interplay between different drivers and impacts of soil health, emphasising the complex nature of soil degradation processes. **Chapter 7** highlights the role of citizen science in soil monitoring, showcasing how public participation can complement scientific efforts. **Chapter 8** reviews current soil policies and suggests pathways for strengthening soil governance and protection.

**Chapter 9** addresses the challenge of balancing land use demands with the need to protect soil health and ensure ecosystem resilience.
Introduction

Soil health is the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals and humans. While traditional assessments of soil have primarily focused on crop productivity, contemporary perspectives on soil health encompass its impact on water quality, contributions to climate change dynamics and implications for human health (Lehmann *et al.*, 2020).

The health of soil ecosystems, covering their
physical, chemical and biological condition,
determines their capacity to function as vital living
systems and provide essential ecosystem services.
In recent years, concerns about the status of soil
health in Europe have escalated due to various
anthropogenic pressures such as intensification
of agriculture, urbanisation, industrial activities
and climate change. Recognising the urgency of
addressing these challenges, policymakers have
increasingly turned their attention to understanding
the current state of soils and implementing
measures to ensure their long-term viability.

The primary purpose of this report is to assess the state of soil in Europe, by examining key indicators, trends and drivers of change. The geographical scope of the assessment covers the 32 European Environment Agency (EEA) countries, along with 6 cooperating countries in the western Balkans(1), Ukraine and the United Kingdom. Drawing on existing and recent evidence from research, case studies and soil monitoring, the report discusses various soil threats in its core chapters.

By synthesising existing research and data, the
report aims to provide policymakers, stakeholders
and the public with a comprehensive overview
of the current state of soil degradation in the
region. In addition, it seeks to identify gaps in
knowledge and propose recommendations for

enhancing soil management practices and on
policy interventions.

The central policy problem addressed in this report is soil degradation in Europe, which has implications for agricultural productivity, environmental sustainability and human well-being. As soil degradation continues to accelerate due to human activities, policymakers are confronted with the challenge of developing effective strategies to conserve and restore soil ecosystems. The overarching issue is determining how to reconcile competing demands for land use while safeguarding soil health and ensuring the long-term resilience of European agriculture and ecosystems.

The importance of prioritising soil health cannot
be overstated. Healthy soils are fundamental to
sustaining agricultural productivity, supporting
biodiversity, regulating water resources, mitigating
and adapting to climate change, and preserving
cultural heritage. Furthermore, soil degradation
poses significant economic costs, including
reduced crop yields, increased input costs and
the loss of ecosystem services. By prioritising soil
health, policymakers can promote sustainable
land management practices, enhance resilience to
environmental stresses and safeguard the well-
being of current and future generations.

The main objectives of this report are multifaceted.
Firstly, it aims to assess the current state of soils
in Europe, including using key indicators such
as carbon level, pollution, nutrient availability,
compaction, erosion, salinisation and biodiversity.
Secondly, the report seeks to identify the drivers
of soil degradation and pressures on soil health,
ranging from land use changes and agricultural
intensification to urbanisation and climate
variability. Thirdly, the research aims to evaluate

<footnote n="1">1 The 32 member countries are the 27 European Union Member States, together with Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Türkiye. The six cooperating countries are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo*, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia.</footnote>
existing policies and initiatives focused on soil conservation and sustainable land management practices. Finally, the report aims to propose evidence-based recommendations on enhancing soil monitoring and on policy development and implementation at the European and national levels. Ultimately, the report is designed to inform decision-making processes and support the development of holistic and integrated approaches to soil management and conservation.

In summary, this report provides a comprehensive overview of the state of soils in Europe, highlighting its significance for agriculture, the environment and society. By addressing key policy questions and objectives, the report aims to inform evidence-based policymaking and promote sustainable soil management practices across the region.

The State of Soils
in Europe
#01
Regional overview

The State of Soils
in Europe
## 01 Regional overview

A regional overview of soils in Europe (European Commission, 2005; Tóth et al., 2011) reveals a diverse landscape characterised by more than 20 soil types, according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources classification system. Across the continent, soils exhibit a wide range of features, including in terms of texture, structure and chemical properties. These are influenced by factors such as parent material, climate, topography and vegetation cover (Figure 1).

In northern Europe, soils are predominantly Histosols, which are soils formed from organic material, and Podzols, which are soils typical of boreal and temperate zones, with cool summers and cold winters. Podzols are characterised

by an acidic pH, a low level of moisture and a low nutrient content. These soils are therefore often found in forested areas and have limited agricultural potential.

Moving towards western Europe, soils vary widely depending on the local parent material and climate. The dominant soil types are Cambisols, Luvisols and Albeluvisols. Luvisols are soils typical of (sub)humid temperate climates and are generally productive soils suitable for a wide range of agricultural uses. Cambisols are relatively young soils, often being highly suitable for agricultural land use.

In southern Europe, typical soils are Calcisols, Cambisols and Leptosols. The Mediterranean

<figure><img src="image_7.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1.** Major soil types in Europe, based on the World Reference Base for Soil Resources classification.</figcaption></figure>

Source: European Commission, 2005.
climate, with hot and dry summers and mild winters with short periods of rain, favours the development of Calcisols, with a high pH and low organic matter content, and the poorly developed Cambisols. The steep topography in mountainous areas gives rise to very shallow Leptosols. Regosols are typical of the mountain areas in Albania, Greece, Italy, Spain and Türkiye. These soils are poorly developed mineral soils, and often occur in eroded land, for example in mismanaged orchards and vineyards.

Eastern Europe exhibits a mix of soil types, influenced by both continental and maritime climates. Chernozems, Phaeozems, and Kastanozems are typical soil types in the steppic region. These soils are characterised by moderate to high soil organic carbon content and are highly suitable for arable cropping. The climate varies from temperate continental in the north to more continental and semi-arid in the south-east, which explains the sequence of Phaeozem - Chernozem - Kastanozem, characterised by the high accumulation of organic matter in the superficial mineral horizon, with dark colors, and high base saturation.

Azonal soils, not confined to any specific European region, are Fluvisols, Stagnosols and Gleysols. Fluvisols are stratified soils found along rivers and lakes, having developed in alluvial deposits. While Gleysols develop mainly in a low landscape position, under the influence of excess water at depth, Stagnosols form in areas prone to surface waterlogging.

Despite the diversity of European soils, they face common threats, such as erosion, compaction, contamination and loss of organic matter (Jones et al., 2012; FAO and ITPS, 2015; EEA, 2019a; IPCC, 2019; European Commission, 2021). In light of the ongoing changes in soil health and ecosystem dynamics, it is important to incorporate new findings and insights into the existing knowledge base in order to develop effective strategies for soil conservation and management tailored to diverse European contexts.
#02

The role of soils
as providers
of vital ecosystem
services

The State of Soils
in Europe
02 The role of soils as providers of vital ecosystem services

Europe's diverse soils form the bedrock of ecosystems, providing a myriad of essential services vital for human well-being and environmental sustainability. From supporting biodiversity and regulating climate to purifying water and sustaining agriculture, soils play a multifaceted role in maintaining the balance of our planet. Recognising the intrinsic value of soils, including their cultural heritage, is imperative for safeguarding these vital resources and fostering a resilient and inclusive society, in alignment with the UN sustainable development goals.

Europe's diverse landscapes are home to a rich tapestry of soils, each playing a vital role in supporting ecosystems and providing a myriad of essential services. Ecosystem Services (ES) are "the benefits people obtain from ecosystems" or the direct and indirect benefits that human societies receive from Natural Capital (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).

Soil health (2) encompasses the overall condition and functionality of a soil ecosystem, reflecting its ability to support plant growth, maintain ecosystem biodiversity, regulate nutrient cycles, and provide other essential ecosystem services. Healthy soils exhibit attributes such as adequate nutrient availability, balanced soil structure, diverse microbial and faunal activity, good water retention capacity, and resilience to environmental stresses (Lehmann et al., 2020). Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that certain soils, such as Podzols that are characterised by low nutrient availability, may naturally lack some of these attributes. This absence, however, does not necessarily imply an unhealthy soil condition.

European soils contribute significantly to biodiversity by providing a habitat for a vast array of organisms (Orgiazzi et al., 2022; Labouyrie et al., 2023). From microorganisms to fauna, soils

support a complex web of life. The diverse soil types and climates across the continent (Figure 1) fosters a wide range of plant species (Deharveng et al., 2019). This biodiversity, in turn, supports ecosystem resilience, making it more adaptable to environmental changes and disturbances.

Soils play a crucial role in regulating the climate by acting as a carbon sink (Lal et al., 2021). European soils store vast amounts of carbon, helping to mitigate climate change by reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels. However, unsustainable land use practices, such as deforestation and intensive agriculture, lead to soil degradation and the release of stored carbon, exacerbating climate change (Cotrufo et al., 2019; Poeplau and Dechow, 2023).

Soils act as natural filters, purifying water as it passes through them. This process helps to maintain water quality by removing impurities and pollutants, reducing the contamination of groundwater and surface water bodies. In addition, soils play a vital role in water regulation, influencing the balance of water availability in ecosystems. Well-managed soils contribute to flood prevention and sustainable water supply (Erdogan et al., 2021; Keesstra et al., 2021).

Soils are key to sustaining life, as they provide the foundations for food and biomass production, essential for agriculture and forestry. Europe's agricultural success is closely tied to its diverse

<footnote n="2">2 'Soil health' means the physical, chemical and biological condition of the soil determining its capacity to function as a vital living system and to provide ecosystem services.</footnote>
soils. Different regions support different crops due to variations in soil properties, texture and fertility (Tóth *et al.*, 2020; Fendrich *et al.*, 2023).

As the global population continues to grow, the role of soils in ensuring food security becomes increasingly critical (Pozza and Field, 2020). Beyond sustaining crops and forests, soils serve as a vital source of raw materials necessary for various industries and processes (Tóth *et al.*, 2013). In light of historical and ongoing urbanisation dynamics, natural ecosystems, including soils, have undergone substantial modifications. With approximately 38 % of the European population residing in urban areas as of 2021 (Eurostat, 2023), the significance of ecosystem services derived from urban landscapes cannot be overstated. Urban soils present many challenges and opportunities for human populations in cities (Rate, 2022).

Protecting soil cultural heritage is crucial for enhancing soil security, as it strengthens the connection between soil and society (Montanarella and Panagos, 2021). The EU's soil strategy for 2030 acknowledges the diverse range of services offered by soils, going beyond traditional agricultural, forestry and environmental perspectives to include social and cultural dimensions, notably

soil cultural heritage. This recognition aligns with the perspectives of various researchers (Morgan and McBratney, 2020; Friedrichsen *et al.*, 2021; Costantini, 2023), who advocate for a comprehensive evaluation of soil health. They emphasise the importance of assessing not only the material value of soil but also its non-commercial value, which encompasses cultural ecosystem services such as spiritual significance, heritage and recreation. These non-commercial values of soils contribute to human well-being, supporting the achievement of targets included in the UN's sustainable development goals by promoting health, education, environmental conservation and inclusive societies (Keesstra *et al.*, 2016). Recognising the importance of soil's social value in influencing physical and mental health, education, diversity and cultural identity, underscores the significance of the cultural and natural heritage services it provides (Field, 2017; Friedrichsen *et al.*, 2021).

As Europe faces ongoing environmental challenges (EEA, 2019b), such as air and water pollution, biodiversity loss, climate change impacts and habitat destruction, the wise stewardship of its soils will be key to maintaining the health and resilience of its ecosystems.

<figure><img src="image_8.png" /><figcaption>Photo 1. Food and Futures.</figcaption></figure>

Source: Created through the Joint Research Centre art and science programme by artists in residence Sonja Stummerer and Martin Hablesreiter to highlight the importance of a fair, healthy and environmentally friendly food system fulfilling the UN sustainable development goals as part of the European Green Deal.
#03

Drivers of
changes in soil health

The State of Soils
in Europe
## 03 Drivers of changes in soil health

Drivers of changes in soil health are the various factors and processes that influence the condition, quality and functionality of soil ecosystems over time (Berhe, 2019). These drivers can originate from natural processes, such as climate variability and geological dynamics, and from human activities, including land use practices, industrial activities and urbanisation (Berhe, 2019). Drivers of change exert pressure on soils, leading to alterations in their properties, biological composition and functions. This can have significant implications for agricultural productivity, environmental sustainability and ecosystem resilience (Smith et al., 2016). Understanding the key drivers of soil change is essential for identifying threats to ecosystems and assessing their impacts, and implementing strategies to mitigate soil degradation and promote sustainable soil management practices.

### 3.1 Climate change

Climate change is one of the primary drivers of soil degradation (Banerjee and van der Heijden, 2023), exerting significant influence through various mechanisms. Prolonged periods of drought and rising temperatures exert significant pressure on soil resources such as water and nutrients. Rising temperatures affect soil condition by altering heterotrophic activity, organic matter decomposition rates and nutrient cycling processes. Warmer temperatures can accelerate soil organic matter decomposition, leading to carbon loss and reduced soil fertility (Wang et al., 2021). In addition, extreme temperature fluctuations can affect soil structure and stability, increasing the risk of soil erosion, compaction and salinisation (Daliakopoulos et al., 2016; Kelishadi et al., 2018; Panagos et al., 2021; Kaushal et al., 2023). Changes in precipitation patterns, including the frequency, intensity and distribution of rainfall events, can have a profound impact on soil

(Meng et al., 2021). Excessive rainfall can cause soil erosion, nutrient leaching and waterlogging, while drought can lead to soil moisture depletion, increasing susceptibility to erosion and desertification (Ferreira et al., 2022).

The EU's ambitious climate targets hinge on preserving vegetation and soils to prevent further carbon losses, especially in organic soils, and to foster carbon sequestration. However, gains from prolonged growing seasons may be offset by soil organic carbon (SOC) losses due to climate-related hazards such as temperature extremes, heavy precipitation and droughts (Searchinger et al., 2022). Between 2000 and 2022, an average of 4.2 % of the EU's land area (approximately 167 000 km²) was affected annually by droughts, attributed to low precipitation, high evaporation and heatwaves driven by climate change (EEA, 2023a). In high-latitude regions, climate-change-induced permafrost thaw can release stored carbon and methane, leading to soil subsidence, land instability and altered hydrological regimes, hence exacerbating climate change feedback loops (Jin et al., 2021).

### 3.2 Land use and land cover change

Between 2011 and 2021, the proportion of protected land in the 32 EEA member countries and 6 cooperating countries increased from 24 % to 26 % (EEA, 2023). However, this is juxtaposed with forecasts predicting a significant rise, of 15 %, in global demand for agricultural products by 2028 (OECD/FAO, 2023). This surge in demand is poised to impact natural resources such as land and water, and biodiversity, underscoring the importance of sustainable land management practices. The management of cropland, pasture and agroforestry is particularly critical in this context. Concurrently, forest and tree plantation management, grazing land management and
<figure><img src="image_9.png" /><figcaption>**Photo 2.** Soil sealing through urban expansion.</figcaption></figure>

Source: A. Jones.

extractive industry development influence land use dynamics. In the last few years, we have started to observe that the mountains of Europe are being re-explored by the mining industry, with the expansion of open pit and underground mines (Eurostat, 2018; del Mármol and Vaccaro, 2020).

Urbanisation and infrastructure development have also left a tangible mark on land use patterns. Between 2012 and 2018, land take in the EU-27 and the United Kingdom expanded by 3 581 km². In addition, soil sealing increased by 1 467 km², representing 23 % of the territory and affecting 75 % of the population, mainly at the expense of croplands and pastures (EEA, 2021). Notably, nearly 80 % of land take occurred in commuting zones, which, unlike city centres, provide valuable wildlife habitats, support carbon sequestration, offer flood protection and serve as sources of food and fibres (EEA, 2021). Despite these trends, land recycling, including constructing in or rehabilitating previously built-up areas, only accounted for 13.5 % of urban development in the EU between 2006 and 2012 (Nicolau and Condessa, 2022). This signals the need for more sustainable land use practices to mitigate adverse impacts on soils and ecosystems.

## 3.3 Socioeconomic drivers

Socioeconomic factors play a crucial role in driving soil degradation, reflecting complex interactions between human activities and environmental

dynamics (Gambella *et al.*, 2021). Rapid population growth and urbanisation exert pressure on agricultural land, leading to intensified farming practices and expansion into marginal areas (Beckers *et al.*, 2020). Intensive agriculture, driven by the demand for food and commodities, often involves the excessive use of chemical inputs, extensive tillage and monoculture cropping, which degrade soil and reduce biodiversity (Emmerson *et al.*, 2016). Land use changes, driven by economic incentives and policies, such as deforestation for agriculture or infrastructure development, further exacerbate soil degradation by disrupting natural ecosystems and increasing erosion rates (Olsson *et al.*, 2019). In addition, socioeconomic inequalities and lack of access to resources and knowledge can limit sustainable land management practices, leading to land degradation and loss of livelihoods (Schuh *et al.*, 2022).

In 2020, according to The Third Clean Air Outlook, produced by the European Commission (2022), 75 % of the total area of the EU-27 exceeded critical loads for nitrogen (N) deposition. The Po Valley in Italy, the Dutch-German-Danish border areas and north-eastern Spain were characterised by significant exceedances, affecting the ecological quality of natural areas (Zhang *et al.*, 2021). N deposition decreased by 12 % between 2005 and 2020. The zero pollution action plan aims for a 25 % reduction from 2005 levels by 2030. Forest ecosystem properties in Europe, such as soil pH buffer potential and plant biodiversity, are expected to respond with varying delays to the current trend of decreasing N deposition (Gilliam *et al.*, 2019; Schmitz *et al.*, 2019).

## 3.4 Soil water

Owing to the recognition of the interconnectivity between water, energy, food security and ecosystems, whereby any limitation in one of the inputs will disturb the availability of the others, it is important to understand water as a key element in soil degradation (FAO, 2014; Carmona-Moreno *et al.*, 2019). Almost all chemical and biological activities in soil are dependent on its water content, which ultimately influences plant growth (Sharma and Kumar, 2023). Soil water balance determines soil health, irrigation needs and crop productivity, and is intimately connected with degradation processes such as drought,
salinisation and flooding. Water scarcity (drought stress) is an important driver of soil degradation, as it inhibits the biological functioning of soil and soil organic matter development (Védère et al., 2022), which impacts other ecosystem services. While water excess due to poor drainage conditions can induce oxygen deficiency in soils (Védère et al., 2022; Sharma and Kumar, 2023), it can also increase soil erosion due to saturation-excess run-off (Landemaine et al., 2023) or flooding (Merz et al., 2021). It is crucial to note that changes in the water content of soil also have profound implications for the greenhouse effect, particularly in sensitive ecosystems such as peatlands and rice crops, and in many natural or semi-natural humid ecosystems. These

environments play critical roles in global carbon cycles and biodiversity conservation, making them particularly vulnerable to fluctuations in water availability (Vereecken et al., 2022).

Despite the importance of climate in controlling the water content of soil, the implementation of appropriate soil management practices (Ferreira et al., 2022), combined with the boosting of soil organic matter and soil biodiversity (Philippot et al., 2023), has been shown to improve soil water conditions, such as water-holding capacity and water infiltration, and overall to improve the soil's resilience to changes in water content (Falkenmark and Wang-Erlandsson, 2021).

<figure><img src="image_10.png" /></figure>

## War-induced soil degradation.

The effects of the First World War on soils are still evident today (Williams and Rintoul-Hynes, 2022). The ongoing war in Europe has resulted in much more significant impacts on soil. Scientists at Ukraine's Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry Research have estimated that the war has degraded more 10 million hectares of agricultural land across Ukraine so far. Military actions have led to a wide array of soil degradation issues, including pollution, compaction, loss of organic matter and nutrients, reduced biodiversity, soil sealing and other, less well understood, issues (Dmytruk et al., 2023). The ongoing conflict in Ukraine involves the utilisation of state-of-the-art military weaponry, including aircraft bombs weighing between 1 500 kg and 3 000 kg, ballistic missiles, massive fire and toxic chemicals. Consequently, the environmental impact of the military activities is set to be significantly more severe than ever witnessed in history. Experiences in other conflict-affected areas indicate that soils in areas where there are intense hostilities, such as Bakhmut and Avdiivka, will take decades (or even centuries) to be restored. While conducting a thorough survey of soils impacted by military activities remains unfeasible at present, it is evident that addressing the repercussions of the war will pose a substantial challenge in tackling global issues.

<figure><img src="image_11.png" /><figcaption>Photos box 1: Soil desgradation caused by the war in Ukraine. Source: Y. Dmytruk.</figcaption></figure>
## 3.5 Disturbances (wildfires, droughts and windstorms)

Fire activity in Europe has undergone significant changes in recent decades (1980-2020), which have been marked by the emergence of summers with unprecedented fire-facilitating weather conditions (Jolly et al., 2015; Abatzoglou et al., 2018; Carnicer et al., 2022). To understand the extent of the damage, in 2022 nearly 900 000 ha of natural land were affected by fires, and 43 % of the total burned land was within Natura 2000 sites (San-Miguel-Ayanz et al., 2023). Climate change is expected to further disrupt fire patterns, increasing fire season duration and risks globally, especially in Europe.

Southern Europe, already a hotspot for climate-related risks such as fires, droughts and heatwaves, faces heightened challenges (Andela et al., 2017; Dupuy et al., 2020). Europe's record-breaking summer of 2022, the second-warmest year on record, resulted in the largest drought-affected area ever recorded: over 630 000 km², far exceeding the annual average of 167 000 km² between 2000 and 2022. This trend is alarming, given projections of increased heatwave frequency and intensity by 2030, along with decreased summer precipitation in continental and Mediterranean regions.

Soil degradation can significantly influence fire activity. Degraded soils are often less able to retain moisture, leading to drier conditions that can contribute to the flammability of vegetation (O et al., 2020). Conversely, fires themselves can

exacerbate soil degradation by reducing organic matter, altering soil structure and increasing erosion risk (McGuire et al., 2024). In doing so, they create a feedback loop originating from multiple disturbances, leading to further soil degradation, limited ecosystem recovery and eventually desertification (Neary, 2009). To mitigate these impacts, adjusting land management practices is crucial. Therefore, the implementation of effective adaptation strategies by the EU and its Member States is vital.

The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), published in 2021 (Ranasinghe et al., 2021), states that northern and central Europe are likely to experience an increased frequency and intensity of storms, including strong winds and extra-tropical storms. In southern Europe, the intensity of storms is predicted to rise, while their frequency may decrease. Agricultural soils, especially bare surfaces, face severe threats from heavy rainfall and accompanying winds (Marzen et al., 2017).

In summary, disturbances such as wildfires, droughts and windstorms are key factors to consider in assessing soil degradation in Europe. These events can greatly influence soil properties and functions, underscoring the need for effective strategies to manage these impacts and protect soils from them. Addressing these challenges is therefore essential for maintaining good soil condition and ensuring the long-term sustainability of European ecosystems.

<figure><img src="image_12.png" /><figcaption>**Photo 3.** Impacts of fire on the landscape in Serra da Estrela, Portugal.</figcaption></figure>

Source: D. Vieira.
#04

Regional status
and trend of
soil degradation

The State of Soils
in Europe
04 Regional status
and trend of soil degradation

Assessing soil condition involves evaluating a range of physical, chemical and biological indicators. Soil degradation is defined as a change in soil health resulting in the diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries (FAO, 2024). Drawing from existing and recent evidence, including research findings, case studies and soil monitoring data, our assessment focuses on various soil degradation indicators. These include:

* soil acidification

* soil carbon change

* soil erosion

* soil compaction

* soil pollution

* soil salinisation and sodification

* soil biodiversity change

* soil sealing and land take.

4.1 Excess and deficiencies in soil
nutrients

Soil nutrients are essential for plant biomass production and quality, and other ecosystem services (Li et al., 2016; Ros et al., 2022). These other services includes the major biogeochemical cycles and related soil functions, notably carbon sequestration (Van Groenigen et al., 2017).

Nutrient management is therefore essential to maintain soils in good chemical, biological and physical conditions. Nutrients are managed to achieve agronomic and economic objectives (i.e. yields and yields versus costs) while minimising environmental impacts (avoiding losses to air and water and the introduction of contaminants) (Beegle et al., 2000; Hou et al., 2023).

Soil nutrient status in Europe, particularly regarding nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), exhibits significant spatial variations, influenced by factors such as agricultural practices, climate, and soil properties. Despite efforts to manage nutrient inputs, high N and P surpluses persist in many regions, posing risks to soil and water quality. Addressing the drivers of nutrient excesses and deficiencies, including fertilizer application, land use practices, soil erosion, and climate patterns, is crucial for mitigating environmental pollution, soil acidification, and economic costs, while safeguarding human health and agricultural productivity. Effective soil management strategies are essential to balance nutrient inputs and outputs, ensuring sustainable land use and ecosystem resilience in the face of ongoing environmental challenges.

4.1.1 Status and trends

Soil N content ranges mostly from 1 g and 2 g kg⁻¹ in EU topsoils (Ballabio et al., 2019). Due to the high mobility of nitrate, N losses from the soil are highly correlated with N surpluses (input minus crop uptake). There is a large variation in N surpluses across the EU and the United Kingdom (Figure 2), from nearly 0 kgN ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ to more than 150 kgN ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹.

A high N surplus mostly occurs in areas with high N inputs, especially in intensive livestock areas, except for some regions with low (Poland) or high (Massif Central in France, Ireland and the United Kingdom) N use efficiency (De Vries et al., 2021).
<figure><img src="image_13.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2.** The N surpluses (inputs minus offtake by crops) for agricultural land across the EU and the United Kingdom.</figcaption></figure>

Source: De Vries et al. (2021)

About 74%, 66% and 18% of all agricultural land in the EU and the United Kingdom has excessively high N inputs when considering the regional variation in ecosystem sensitivity for N loss by run-off to surface water, ammonia (NH3) emissions and N loss through leaching to groundwater, respectively (De Vries et al., 2021).

Between 1930 and 1990, N surplus increased by a factor of 2–3 (Batool et al., 2022), reaching its highest value around 1990 because of a peak in N inputs. The surplus declined in subsequent years. Since 1990, total N inputs in cropland have been relatively stable, with a slight increase from 138 kgN ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ to 145 kgN ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in 2021 (Einarsson et al., 2021).

Available phosphorus (P) concentrations in topsoils vary considerably across the EU and the United Kingdom, with most areas having concentrations around 20–25 mg kg⁻¹ (based on P-Olsen). Higher levels occur in northern Germany, northern France and northern Italy, and in Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland and the United Kingdom. Despite these high soil P levels, balance

calculations have shown an average surplus of P in the EU and United Kingdom of 0.11–0.80 kg P ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (Panagos et al., 2022b; Muntwyler et al., 2024) or higher (De Vries et al., 2014; Einarsson et al., 2020). However, there is considerable variation among countries, and extensive areas in the EU and the United Kingdom are currently experiencing surpluses of more than 10 kg P ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, despite the generally high soil P concentrations in these regions.

The current P management practices were evaluated by comparing the P balance with the available concentration of P in the soil (P-Olsen) (Ballabio et al., 2019). The P balance is defined as organic and mineral fertilizer inputs minus outputs due to removal by crops and loss by erosion (Muntwyler et al., 2024). When the P-Olsen concentration is less than 30 mg kg⁻¹, negative P balances increase the potential risk of P deficiency for agricultural production (Jordan-Meille et al., 2012; Steinfurth et al., 2022). This occurs in 13% of EU and UK agricultural land. When P-Olsen concentrations are greater than 30 mg kg⁻¹ (Jordan-Meille et al., 2012; Steinfurth et al., 2022), positive P balances increase the
<figure><img src="image_14.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3. Current P inputs for a P-Olsen threshold of 30 mg kg⁻¹.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO, based on Ballabio et al., (2019) and Muntwyler et al., (2024).

risk of P environmental losses which is the case in 33 % of EU and UK agricultural land (Figure 3). Many Member States have experienced much more imbalanced P management in recent decades: P inputs peaked above 30 kg ha⁻¹ in around 1980 (Sattari et al., 2012), while P inputs are nowadays, on average, 16 kg ha⁻¹ in the EU and the United Kingdom (Panagos et al., 2022b). Due to the low mobility and high retention of P in soils, the positive P balance of the past have resulted in high soil P legacy (Sattari et al., 2012). When 30 mg kg⁻¹ of P-Olsen is used as threshold values for excess (Jordan- Meille et al., 2012; Steinfurth et al., 2022), about 60 % of agricultural soils in the EU and the UK can be defined as P-rich soils, with possible adverse impacts on water quality. The threshold of 30 mg kg⁻¹ is the lowest value of the range proposed by the European Commission in the proposed Soil Monitoring Law to define P excess in soils (European Commission, 2023b). When taking the upper range value of 50 mg kg⁻¹, 10 % of agricultural soils in the EU and UK has excess of P.

In non-EU countries such as Norway, P surpluses reduced from 1985 to 1990, and have remained relatively stable since (OECD, 2024). The P surpluses in Norway are similar to those in the United Kingdom, contributing to the eutrophication of water bodies in the region (Ulén et al., 2007). P surpluses reduced in Switzerland between 1990 and 2000, and have since fluctuated between 2 kg ha⁻¹ and 5 kg ha⁻¹ (OECD, 2024).

The N and P budgets in Iceland are generally low and have been stable over the years (OECD, 2024). Ukraine has seen the largest decrease in N and P budgets since 1990 of all non-EU countries considered (OECD, 2024), with a P budget of – 2.4 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in 2020. This drastic reduction in fertiliser input after the 1990s can be attributed to the political transformations in post-Soviet countries. Political changes have also affected the nutrient balances in the western Balkans (Zdruli et al., 2022). In this region, about 5.2 % of total agricultural land could have relatively large N surpluses, as this area consists of greenhouses and open
field horticulture crops, which receive the largest N fertiliser doses. However, generally fertiliser application in these countries happens to be far below the average EU level; they therefore have a higher chance of having negative N and P budgets (as found in Ukraine (OECD, 2024)), contributing to nutrient mining and a decrease in soil fertility (Zdruli et al., 2022).

In Türkiye, both the N balance and the P balance have increased in the last 5 years (OECD, 2024). N fertiliser use on crops fluctuated between approximately 46 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and 89 kgN ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ from 2004 to 2022; the application of P fertiliser fluctuated between 6 kg P ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and 15 kg P ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹; and the application of potassium (K) in agricultural production varied from approximately 2 kg ha⁻¹ to 6 kg ha⁻¹ from 2004 to 2022 (MoAF, 2022).

Available K concentrations, determined using ammonium acetate, vary across the EU and the United Kingdom depending on parent material, soil clay content and manuring history, with higher concentrations in clay-rich soils (Ballabio et al., 2019). K inputs are usually higher in countries or regions with intensive animal husbandry. For example, in France, the exchangeable K thresholds (ARVALIS, 2020) defining the risk of K deficiency vary from 49 mg kg⁻¹ to 247 mg kg⁻¹ (with an average of 123 mg kg⁻¹) depending on soil type (Comifer, 2019). Using these threshold values, 16 % and 68 % of EU and UK agricultural soils have exchangeable K concentrations of below 123 mg kg⁻¹ and 247 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. They can therefore be considered soils with low K levels for biomass production.

Secondary macronutrients (e.g. sulphur (S), calcium and magnesium) and micronutrients (e.g. iron, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), molybdenum, boron and cobalt) have a fundamental role in sustaining terrestrial ecosystems, which is partly related to their contribution to sustaining biomass development. In addition, these elements are divalent cations, which control aggregate stability, soil water retention and supply, resistance to wind erosion, topsoil sealing, subsoil compaction, and drought and wetness stresses (Ros et al., 2022). However, at the EU level, there is limited information on the levels of these nutrients in soil and their input to correct deficiencies. In the EU, there is information on the total amounts of some

micronutrients in soils (Ballabio et al., 2018; Van Eynde et al., 2023), but these have low agro-environmental relevance (Alloway, 2009). Micronutrients are typically applied in the form of salts and chelates, but there is no spatial information regarding the quantity of micronutrient fertilisers used in the EU to correct deficiencies. Soils at risk of micronutrient deficiencies are generally those characterised by a high pH and low organic matter content (Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2022), while intense cropping can exacerbate micronutrient depletion in specific soils (Jones et al., 2013). Budget calculations underscore the significance of manure as a source of Cu and Zn for agricultural soils in the EU (De Vries et al., 2014), alongside sewage sludge (Yunta et al., 2024) and fungicides (El Hadri et al., 2012).

## 4.1.2 Drivers

The main drivers of soil nutrient excesses and deficiencies are multifaceted and can vary depending on the specific context. However, some common drivers include the following.

* **Fertiliser and manure application.** Since the 1950s, the increased use of fertilisers has boosted crop and forest production, but their excessive and inefficient use has led to nutrient excesses and losses (Townsend et al., 2003). Gaseous emissions from industry and agriculture, as well as natural processes, also lead to the deposition of nutrients in terrestrial ecosystems.

* **Land use and management practices.** Agricultural systems have become specialised, resulting in the decoupling of crop and livestock production. On the one hand, there are systems relying on both internally and externally produced feed, resulting in significant amounts of nutrient-rich waste such as manure. Applying this nutrient source inappropriately often leads to substantial losses. On the other hand, some arable fields depend on external fertiliser inputs to manage their nutrient needs. In addition, agricultural practices such as tillage, irrigation and pesticide use can impact soil nutrient levels (Edlinger et al., 2022).

* **Soil erosion and leaching.** Erosion results in the loss of nutrients such as P to lower areas and to surface water (Alewell et al., 2020), while leach-
ing can result in the loss of nutrients such as N and S to groundwater (De Vries *et al.*, 2021). The loss of nutrients leads to a decline in soil fertility, while sedimentation and leaching can result in an excess of nutrients elsewhere.

*   **Soil properties.** Soil types and related characteristics, such as mineralogy (e.g. clays, carbonates, oxides) control the release and retention of carbon and nutrients such as K and P in soils (e.g. van Doorn *et al.*, 2023). Furthermore, soil pH influences the solubility, concentration in soil solution, ionic form, and adsorption and mobility of many elements (Moreno-Jiménez *et al.*, 2022; Hartemink and Barrow, 2023). Organic matter affects nutrient content, retention and release in soils (Moreno-Jiménez *et al.*, 2022).

*   **Climate and weather patterns.** Weather events such as heavy rainfall can accelerate nutrient leaching and nitrous oxide (N2O) emission to the atmosphere, while drought conditions can concentrate salts in the soil, potentially leading to nutrient imbalances. In addition, climatic conditions control crop yield and nutrient use efficiencies (Young *et al.*, 2021).

### 4.1.3 Impacts

Soil nutrient excesses and deficiencies can greatly influence agricultural productivity, and environmental, ecosystem and human health. Some of the key consequences are as follows.

*   **Environmental pollution.** Excess nutrients, particularly N and P, can leach into groundwater or move to surface water bodies in run-off and by erosion. This results in eutrophication, with the loss of biodiversity, the depletion of subaquatic vegetation, a decline in coral reef health, the occurrence of algal blooms and the creation of oxygen-depleted or hypoxic waters (Carpenter *et al.*, 1998; Smith, 2003; Smith and Schindler, 2009; Lundin and Nilsson, 2021). An excess of N can also result in increased N losses into the atmosphere. The subsequent deposition of N is a major driver of plant biodiversity loss through N enrichment and soil acidification in natural areas (Bobbink *et al.*, 2010).

*   **Climate change.** Excess N in soil can lead to the increased emission of N2O, a potent greenhouse

gas (GHG). N2O is released from soils through denitrification, whose rate increases with N input (Butterbach-Bahl *et al.*, 2013; Arias-Navarro *et al.*, 2017; McDonald *et al.*, 2022; Pan *et al.*, 2022).

*   **Soil acidification and salinisation.** Excessive nitrate in soils due to N fertilisation causes acidification due to the release of hydrogen ions during the process of nitrification, affecting the availability of other nutrients, and contaminants (Zhang *et al.*, 2023). Finally, excess N fertilisation in dry and sub-dry regions can lead to soil salinisation (Han *et al.*, 2015).

*   **Soil pollution.** The excessive use of P fertilisers (Nziguheba and Smolders, 2008), as well as organic fertilisers and amendments, may introduce heavy metals and other soil pollutants (Mantovi *et al.*, 2003; Pan and Chu, 2017). The application of synthetic chelates to correct micronutrient deficiencies in Mediterranean soils may also lead to the introduction of recalcitrant products, with negative environmental impacts (Yunta *et al.*, 2013).

*   **Economic costs.** Soil nutrient deficiencies can lead to reduced crop yields (Schils *et al.*, 2018) and crop nutritional quality (Dimkpa and Bindraban, 2016), and increase the susceptibility of plants to disease (Dordas *et al.*, 2000). These impacts reduce farmers' incomes, and increase the costs of inputs. Excess nutrients can also lead to serious losses to the environment, requiring environmental mitigation measures, with associated costs.

*   **Human health risks.** Gaseous N emission contributes to the formation of aerosol and particulate matter air pollutants, affecting human health (Pozzer *et al.*, 2017). Nutrient losses to aquatic ecosystems also affect human health, as they can compromise the safety of drinking water (Lundin and Nilsson, 2021). Finally, nutrient deficiencies or imbalances reduce crop nutritional quality, compromising livestock production, as well as food security and food quality for humans (Ishfaq *et al.*, 2023). For instance, a deficiency of Zn in semi-arid and arid regions is very common and is a growing concern, as this nutritional disorder causes almost 116 000 deaths per year worldwide (Galetti, 2018).
<figure><img src="image_15.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4. Soil pH, measured in H₂O, in EU and UK soils.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO, based on Ballabio et al. (2019).

## 4.2 Soil acidification

Soil acidification, a global concern, impacts soil quality, ecosystem integrity and human well-being. It predominantly affects non-calcareous soils, with low buffer capacity, leading to a decline in pH. This decline can impair nutrient availability and increase the mobility and availability of toxic elements. While some countries have seen improvements, acidification remains a significant issue in Ukraine and Türkiye, affecting agricultural productivity and environmental quality. Drivers of soil acidification include natural processes, industrial emissions and agricultural practices. The excessive use of ammonium-based fertilizers may lead to soil acidification.

Soil acidification, defined as a decrease in the acid neutralisation capacity of the soil (De Vries and Breeuwsma, 1987; Guo et al., 2010) is a major issue all around the world. In calcareous soils with a high natural buffer capacity, there is little concern, as the pH remains stable and slightly alkaline

until all carbonates are depleted. This depletion depends on their dissolution rate. However, in non-calcareous soils, with a low buffer capacity, especially sandy soils with low organic matter content, soil acidification may cause a relatively fast decline in soil pH and base saturation. Soil pH is an important indicator of soil health, as it affects the availability and mobility of nutrients and toxic elements (e.g. aluminium, cadmium and other heavy metals). As a consequence, it affects primary productivity (Bolan et al., 2003; Pagani and Mallarino, 2012; Hartemink and Barrow, 2023), the quality of surrounding water bodies (Haynes and Swift, 1986; Dijkstra et al., 2004), and the functioning of soil as a habitat for organisms and hence biodiversity (Siciliano et al., 2014).

### 4.2.1 Status and trends

Soil pH differs across the EU (Figure 4). The differences mainly reflect the soil type, which is a result of climatic conditions (Ballabio et al., 2019), parent material, vegetation and past management practices, such as liming.

Soils with a relative low pH (< 5.5) are present in 10% of the agricultural land across Europe (Figure 4), with possible adverse effects on plants and soil microor-
<figure><img src="image_16.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 5.** Difference in soil pH (ΔpH) measured in H₂O for LUCAS topsoil samples collected in 2009 and 2018.</figcaption></figure>

*Source: EUSO, based on LUCAS 2009 and 2018 topsoil databases.*

ganisms as toxic elements (e.g. aluminium) become increasingly available (Kunhikrishnan et al., 2016).

A preliminary analysis of the Land Use / Cover Area Frame Survey (LUCAS) topsoil samples from 2009 and 2018 shows that pH both increased and decreased (Figure 5). Positive values reflect an increase in soil pH from 2009 to 2018, while negative values show a decrease in soil pH. In some land cover classes, the trend is an increase rather than a decrease. Further analysis should assess which factors explain the change in pH. Given the negative impact of soil acidification and low soil pH on primary productivity, as mentioned above, a typical management strategy is liming. However, there are currently no regulations on the application of lime to agricultural or forest soils at the EU level, nor are there any data about the application of lime to agricultural soils.

Historically, acidification has impacted various land uses, including forest, agricultural land and semi-natural ecosystems (Bolan et al., 2003). In recent decades, a slight improvement in upper soil horizons has been observed, with pH values rising (Achilles et al., 2021). However, recovery from past acidification appears to vary depending on soil depth. While some research indicates increasing pH values over time in forest floor soil and topsoil (Navrátil et al., 2007; Schmitz et al., 2019; Wellbrock and Andreas, 2019), deeper mineral soil remains

acidified due to historical exposure to acidifying air pollutants (Berger et al., 2006). In the United Kingdom, reduced sulphate deposition has facilitated the recovery of topsoil from acidification (Thomas et al., 2020). Several monitoring schemes have reported an increase in soil pH across all UK habitats, with national-level data showing a mean increase in pH from 5.4 to 5.9 (Reynolds et al., 2013). In Switzerland, soil acidification remains a significant concern in forests in terms of both extent and ongoing progression (Braun et al., 2020). In Ukraine, approximately 24 % of soils are acidic. Acidic soils are predominantly found in the Polissya zone, while alkaline soils (18.4 %) are more prevalent in the steppe zone. Soil acidification, particularly in the natural areas of the Polissya zone, has been identified as a significant issue (Institute of Soil Protection of Ukraine, 2023).

Soil acidity is important for sustaining soil health, particularly in the East Black Sea Region of Türkiye. As a result of natural processes, the high annual rainfall results in leaching, which increases the presence of hydrogen and aluminium cations, ultimately leading to soil acidity.

### 4.2.2 Drivers

The drivers of soil acidification are diverse and can vary depending on regional and local factors. Some of the main drivers include the following.
* **Natural processes.** Soil acidification is a natural process. It is mainly caused by the dissociation of carbonic and organic acids, which leads to the leaching of bicarbonate and non-acidic cations (Zamanian *et al.*, 2024). The weathering of particular mineral rocks containing sulphide minerals (e.g. pyrite) can naturally generate acidic conditions in soils.

* **Acid deposition and waste.** Mining activities and industrial processes can release acidic substances into the environment, either directly through emissions or indirectly through the disposal of acidic waste materials. Ammonia (NH₃), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and sulphur oxide (SOx) emissions and air pollution have been major drivers of forest soil acidification in recent decades (through increasing the deposition of mainly N and S compounds), thereby hampering tree growth and affecting forest composition (EEA, 2014). However, regulatory controls have reduced emissions and consequently the deposition of compounds causing acidification (Engardt *et al.*, 2017), especially S compounds. This has resulted in the re-alkalinisation of several European forest soils in which acid deposition had decreased (Berger *et al.*, 2016; Prietzel *et al.*, 2020). N deposition is now identified as the main cause of acidification in many European regions (Michel *et al.*, 2022). Critical loads of acidity are currently rarely exceeded, except for in the Netherlands (De Vries *et al.*, 2024).

* **Agricultural practices.** In agricultural soils, acidification is caused by the application of acidifying fertilisers, nitrate leaching, nutrient uptake ( affecting cation/anion balance) by plants, N fixation in legumes, plant root exudates and the mineralisation of soil organic matter (Debreczeni and Kismányoky, 2005; Goulding, 2016; Xu *et al.*, 2019). Agronomic measures such as the addition of manure and lime mitigate the impact of soil acidification, thereby preventing a decline in soil pH.

### 4.2.3 Impacts

Soil acidification can have various impacts on soil, ecosystem functioning and human health. Some of the main impacts are as follows.

* **Reduced nutrient availability.** Soil pH influences the solubility, concentration in soil solution, ionic

form and adsorption of most nutrients, as well as their mobility (Hartemink and Barrow, 2023). The availability of some nutrients (calcium, P, magnesium and K) can be reduced in acidic soils, reducing primary productivity (Pagani and Mallarino, 2012).

* **Contamination and human health.** Soil acidification can increase the solubility and mobility of toxic elements such as aluminium, cadmium and other heavy metals (Bolan *et al.*, 2003), affecting primary productivity. Due to the increased mobility of pollutants upon acidification, the quality of surrounding surface water and groundwater is reduced (Haynes and Swift, 1986; Dijkstra *et al.*, 2004). This has negative consequences for aquatic biodiversity (Soveri, 1992) and human health (due to contamination of drinking water) (Steffan *et al.*, 2018).

* **Altered soil biota activity.** Soil acidification can influence the composition and activity of microbial communities in soil (De Vries *et al.*, 2006; Siciliano *et al.*, 2014). Studies have found that acidification results in a reduction in nematode and rotifer abundance and earthworm biomass, and a change in microbial composition, thereby affecting microbe-mediated processes such as SOC cycling (Tibbett *et al.*, 2019).

* **Ecosystem disturbance.** Soil acidification can disrupt ecosystem dynamics and alter the composition of plant communities. Acid-sensitive plant species may become less abundant, while acid-tolerant species may become more predominant, leading to shifts and reductions in biodiversity (Bobbink *et al.*, 2010).

Overall, soil acidification poses significant challenges to agriculture, forestry, ecosystem management and human health, reinforcing the importance of implementing strategies to mitigate its impacts and restore soil condition. Various practices can be employed to address soil acidification, such as the application of agricultural lime to neutralise acidity. On the other hand, soil alkalinisation, especially common in agricultural fields through liming activities, can enhance the volatilisation of ammonia, so the application of ammonium-based fertilisers at the same time as lime is not recommended (Adams, 1986).
## 4.3 Soil carbon change (in mineral soils, organic soils and inorganic carbon)

Soil hosts the largest carbon pool in the terrestrial ecosystem, playing an essential role in the global carbon cycle and the regulation of climate change. Soil carbon is solid carbon stored in soils, existing in organic and inorganic forms. An important distinction between these two forms is that inorganic carbon has a much higher potential for permanence in soils than organic carbon. Soils are characterised as mineral or organic based on their organic matter content.

Mineral soils form most of the world's cultivated land and may contain a trace of or up to 20 % organic matter. Organic soils are naturally rich in organic matter, principally due to vegetation and climate, and are distinguished from mineral soils by meeting specific criteria outlined in the IPCC guidelines for national GHG inventories (Drösler et al., 2014) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) guidelines (FAO, 2006). These criteria include a thick organic horizon, a high organic carbon content, and the possibility of water saturation episodes.

### 4.3.1 Mineral soils

The SOC content of mineral soils varies across Europe, with the highest levels in woodlands. Croplands exhibit the lowest SOC content, posing challenges to achieving EU climate targets due to ongoing carbon loss. Land use changes, including the conversion of grasslands to croplands, have a significant impact on SOC stocks, highlighting the need for sustainable land management practices. Climate change and land use change are major drivers of SOC change, influencing soil fertility, water dynamics, GHG emissions, biodiversity and resilience to climate change. Mitigating SOC loss is essential for maintaining soil health, agricultural productivity, and ecosystem stability, highlighting the importance of implementing strategies to enhance soil carbon sequestration and minimise soil degradation.

#### 4.3.1.1 Status and trends

Europe exhibits considerable spatial variability in soil types, climates and land uses, leading to diverse patterns in SOC content across regions. Based on the soil measurements from LUCAS, SOC content increases from south-eastern to north-western climatic zones (Fernandez-Ugalde et al., 2022). The highest SOC levels (EU mean = 318 g kg⁻¹) are found in the wetlands of the boreal and Atlantic zones (peatlands). SOC content is also high in woodlands (EU mean = 88 g kg⁻¹), especially in north-western climatic zones (boreal, Atlantic, suboceanic and northern subcontinental). The mean SOC content of grasslands is 40 g kg⁻¹, rising slightly to 55 g kg⁻¹ in shrubland. Organic carbon content is the lowest in croplands (EU mean = 18.3 g kg⁻¹) and, unsurprisingly, in bare land (EU mean = 17.3 g kg⁻¹).

Overall, soils are losing carbon as CO₂ (EEA, 2022a), which could hamper the achievement of EU climate targets. SOC changes in agricultural soils across the EU and the United Kingdom from 2009 to 2018 have been comprehensively assessed, showing varied impacts depending on land use and management practices (De Rosa et al., 2023). The total SOC loss from croplands is moderate, representing 0.75 % of their initial stocks and amounting to 70 Mt of carbon from the initial 9.3 Gt of carbon within the first 20 cm of soil. Spatial analysis reveals different changes in SOC across the continent (Figure 6). The median change in SOC content indicates an average decrease of 0.4 t C ha⁻¹ for the EU and the United Kingdom combined, with some countries, such as Austria and Slovenia, experiencing increases of up to 3 t C ha⁻¹. The most significant losses, up to -4.9 t C ha⁻¹, occur in the higher latitudes of northern Europe, where a lower soil clay content correlates with decreased carbon retention capacity.

In contrast, central European regions mostly maintained stable SOC levels over the period studied. The Mediterranean area, characterised by warmer temperatures and less rainfall, showed a broader range of change, from -5 t C ha⁻¹ to 1.5 t C ha⁻¹, with the initial SOC levels also being the lowest in the EU. Notably, grasslands in this region played a beneficial role in carbon sequestration, with continuous grassland or conversion from cropland contributing to an increase in SOC. Conversely,
<figure><img src="image_17.png" /><figcaption>Figure 6. Spatial distribution of the median change in SOC content (ΔSOCs q0.50) at 0–20 cm soil depth, 2009–2018</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO, based on De Rosa et al. (2023).

continuous cropland had a net negative impact on SOC levels, attributed to practices such as mono-culture and tillage. In addition, soils with a high initial SOC content tended to lose more carbon than soils with lower initial SOC contents.

Overall, SOC trends observed using soil data from LUCAS is approximately confirmed by observations from several national soil monitoring networks (Heikkinen et al., 2013). However, Swedish cropland soils constitute an exception: their SOC content has increased in most parts of the country due to a steadily increasing proportion of ley in rotations (Bellamy et al., 2005; Poeplau and Don, 2015; Knotters et al., 2022).

In the United Kingdom, some studies suggest that there has been a decrease in SOC (which could be linked to changes in the climate (Thomas et al., 2020)), especially in agricultural soils in England and Wales (Bellamy et al., 2005); however, this finding was challenged by a subsequent study (Smith et al., 2007).

Twenty-five years of SOC observations in Swiss croplands show stability overall but some divergent trends (Gubler et al., 2019). The Norwegian

Ministry of Agriculture and Food is funding the national programme for monitoring SOC in forests and intensive grasslands. Soil sampling started in July 2023, and these samples will provide information about the levels of, and eventually changes in, soil carbon stores in Norwegian forests and grasslands.

In the western Balkans, it is estimated that the area of land affected by low and declining management in the western Balkans, the loss of SOC is evident in most agricultural soils (Vidojevic et al., 2022). Albanian soils have a relatively low SOC content (≤ 2 %) (Ministry of Tourism and Environment, 2019). Certain research in Bosnia and Herzegovina shows that the SOC content is mostly at a moderate level (3–4 %). SOC content in Kosovo ranges from 0.02 % to 2.79 %, depending on soil type, soil depth, land use, slope, soil cover, etc. There are no data for Montenegro on SOC change. An analysis conducted on many soil samples to monitor the fertility of agricultural land in Serbia shows that most samples had an organic carbon content of between 1 % and 2 %. A major cause of the degradation of agricultural land in the Serbia is a loss of organic matter due to intensive agricultural production, intensive tillage, a lack of organic
fertilisation, irrigation, the removal of crop residues or their burning and other SOC stocks is less than 5 % of the total land area and about 10 % of agricultural land (Zdruli *et al.*, 2022). According to a report discussing the state of the art of soil unsuitable cultivation practices.

The soil organic (or total) carbon content is not determined as part of the monitoring and surveying of Ukrainian agricultural land, but the humus content (%) is measured. The weighted average humus content in soils decreased from 3.16 % in the 2015 survey round to 3.07 % in the 2020 round. According to survey results, the lowest humus content was observed in the Polissya zone (2.43 %), while in the forest of the steppe zone it was 3.2 % and in the steppe zone overall it was 3.31 % (Institute of Soil Protection of Ukraine, 2023).

The most recent SOC data for Türkiye, published in 2018 (ÇEM, 2018), indicate that the average SOC content was 47.04 t ha⁻¹. Most carbon reservoirs are located in forests, followed by pastures, which are mostly degraded. After bare and artificial areas, cultivated land has the lowest SOC content. According to FAO's land degradation neutrality decision support system, the SOC content in Türkiye is projected to decline by 2040.

However, the system has reported that SOC levels in agricultural soils are rising due to the increasing use of organic fertilisers and the expansion of drip-irrigated agriculture, compared with the period when re-irrigation practices were intensively used.

### 4.3.1.2 Drivers

Numerous experiments have investigated the impact of drivers of SOC change, and the findings are being consolidated in an increasing number of meta-analyses (Xu *et al.*, 2020; Beillouin *et al.*, 2023). The main drivers include the following.

* **Climate change.** Soils will release more carbon into the atmosphere under future warmer climatic conditions (i.e. resulting in positive feedback loops of soil carbon loss causing climate warming) (Wang *et al.*, 2022; Lugato, 2024). The impact of climate change is not solely confined to direct effects; rather, indirect consequences such as wildfires and changes in snow cover may

have a more substantial influence on SOC. With a notable increase in the occurrence of forest fires in Europe, as evidenced by the alarming statistic that 2022 was the second worst year on record in the EU in terms of area burned by wildfires (San-Miguel-Ayanz *et al.*, 2023), it becomes imperative not to underestimate the indirect effects of climate change. While phenomena such as flooding, drought and alterations in snow cover have received limited attention in existing meta-analyses (Koven *et al.*, 2017) there is a noticeable absence of synthesised results on indirect effects (Beillouin *et al.*, 2023). Further investigations are needed to enhance our understanding of the individual and collective impacts of climate change on SOC, particularly across diverse land use types and varying climatic conditions (Beillouin *et al.*, 2023).

* **Land use change.** The overall effects of land use change and land management on SOC are 7-10 times larger than the direct effects of climate change (Beillouin *et al.*, 2023). Reducing the conversion of grassland to cropland could provide significant climate change mitigation by retaining soil carbon stocks that may otherwise be lost (De Rosa *et al.*, 2023). Conversion of grasslands to croplands typically results in a loss of approximately 36 % of SOC stocks within a 20-year period (Poeplau *et al.*, 2011). Preventing this conversion is crucial for averting soil carbon losses. However, it is essential to acknowledge that the conversion of grassland to cropland often occurs in response to food security challenges. This poses a dilemma, as food security could be compromised, given that more land is required to produce human food from livestock on grasslands than crops on croplands (Lal, 2001; de Ruiter *et al.*, 2017; Clark and Tilman, 2017; Poore and Nemecek, 2018; De Rosa *et al.*, 2023). Future changes in land use and climate have broader implications for land degradation, including effects on vegetation, fire and coastal erosion (IPBES, 2018; IPCC, 2019; Smith *et al.*, 2019). For instance, by 2080, extreme climate change could lead to carbon losses from mineral topsoil in the order of 2.5 ± 1.2 Pg in the EU and the United Kingdom (Lugato *et al.*, 2021).

* **Soil erosion.** Due to on-site soil losses and off-site sediment transfer and deposition, soil erosion has multiple environmental impacts, with
significant negative effects over time (Panagos et al., 2018a; Borrelli et al., 2023). This has implications for biogeochemical processes such as SOC cycling, by increasing CO2 emissions through enhancing mineralisation and decreasing carbon sinks and sediment burial (Lugato et al., 2016; Borrelli et al., 2017; Panagos et al., 2018a).

### 4.3.1.3 Impacts

Soil carbon losses have significant and multicausal impacts on the environment, agricultural productivity and overall ecosystem health in Europe. Some of the main impacts include the following.

* **Reduced soil fertility.** SOC is a key component of organic matter, which provides essential nutrients. Its decline can therefore affect nutrient availability for plant growth. Declining soil fertility can lead to decreased crop yields, reduced agricultural productivity and affecting overall forest health, in particular when organic matter declines below 2 %. There is some evidence that crop yields and yield stability enhance with increasing organic matter content, though some studies show equivocal impacts (Lal, 2006).

* **Impaired water retention and drainage.** SOC plays a crucial role in regulating soil water dynamics. The loss of carbon can reduce the infiltration and water retention capacity of soils, making them more prone to waterlogging or, conversely, decreasing water availability during dry periods. This can reduce the efficiency of water use by crops, increase the risk of soil erosion and affect the overall functioning of the forest ecosystem (Niu et al., 2008; Schindlbacher et al., 2012).

* **Increased GHG emissions.** Soil carbon losses contribute to the increased emission of GHGs, particularly CO2. When organic matter decomposes, carbon is released into the atmosphere. This process not only reduces soil carbon stocks but also contributes to climate change, exacerbating global warming (Bispo et al., 2017; Lugato et al., 2021; Le Noë et al., 2023).

* **Loss of biodiversity.** Soil organic matter is a habitat and food source for various microorganisms, fungi and fauna. A decrease in soil carbon can lead to a loss of biodiversity in the soil ecosystem,

affecting soil functions and services. This can have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem, including above-ground plant communities (Geisen et al., 2019).

* **Soil erosion.** Soil carbon loss is often associated with soil erosion, as it weakens the soils' structural stability and reduces infiltration rates, and thereby soils' ability to resist erosion. Erosion leads to the removal of topsoil, which is rich in organic matter. This, in turn, exacerbates the loss of soil fertility and hinders sustainable agricultural practices (Pimentel, 2006; Borrelli et al., 2017).

* **Increased vulnerability to climate change.** Agricultural soils with lower organic carbon content are generally more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather events, droughts and temperature fluctuations, than those with higher carbon contents. Increasing SOC levels can enhance soil's resilience to these climate stressors (Wang et al., 2023).

### 4.3.2 Organic soils

European peatlands are facing significant degradation due to agriculture, drainage and peat extraction, leading to significant carbon loss, biodiversity decline and environmental damage. New land use change policies under the common agricultural policy (CAP) reform aim to reduce drainage and implement the rewetting of drained peat soils. The EU Regulation on Nature Restoration, aims to restore degraded peatlands to achieve climate and biodiversity objectives and enhance food security. Restoring drained peatlands is identified as one of the most cost-effective ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the agricultural sector.
### 4.3.2.1 Status and trends

Peatlands are unique ecosystems that store significant amounts of carbon. In Europe, peatlands store approximately five times more carbon than forests (Limpens et al., 2008) and about half of Europe's total SOC. The corresponding organic soils, also known as Histosols, are important SOC stores.

Organic soils store much more carbon per unit area than mineral soils. The amount could be more than 10 times the carbon stored in mineral soils, depending on peat thickness. As acidic and waterlogged conditions restrict decomposition (low temperature can also be a factor), peatlands hold more carbon per hectare on average than all other ecosystems, making them the largest carbon stock of the entire terrestrial biosphere (Temmink et al., 2022).

A map of peatlands in Europe (Tanneberger et al., 2017) reveals a strong northern bias in the distribution of organic soils across Europe, generally reflecting climatic conditions. Peatlands cover a large portion of the land area in the Nordic countries. Almost one third of European peatland is in Finland, and more than a quarter is in Sweden. The remainder is in Iceland, Poland, the United Kingdom, Norway, Germany, Ireland, Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands and France. Small areas of peat and peat-topped soils occur in Lithuania, Hungary, Denmark, Czechia, Belgium, Italy, Austria and Spain (Kløve et al., 2017; Tanneberger et al., 2022).

Data from peatlands, particularly heavily degraded ones, are relatively limited (Evans et al., 2022). Measuring the depth of the organic horizon helps quantify the amount of carbon stored in the soil, which is essential for understanding the role of peatlands in climate regulation and carbon sequestration (Beaulne et al., 2021). The depth of the organic horizon was measured at 1 050 sites as part of the soil data collected in the 2018 LUCAS soil module (Fernandez-Ugalde et al., 2022), with 30 % recording a depth of 40 cm or more. However, most of the sites selected for depth assessments appear not to fulfil the depth criteria for Histosols. The assessment failed to analyse the very shallow organic soils, such as those found on bedrock. The implication could be either that many of these locations are mineral soils with well-developed organic horizons, or that peatlands have

been eroded back to the underlying mineral base (Fernandez-Ugalde et al., 2022).

Monitoring changes in the depth of the organic horizon over time can help assess the extent of peatland degradation due to factors such as drainage, land use change and climate change. Germany has initiated a peatland monitoring programme (implemented from October 2020 to May 2025) utilising a standardised approach aimed at the long-term investigation of site-specific and land-use-related influences on peatland development. The programme aims to fulfil existing reporting obligations concerning peatlands, containing peat and other organic soils, within the land use, land use change and forestry sectors and the agricultural sector. It seeks to achieve this by providing measurements and enhancing methods for regionalising the primary factors determining emissions.

European peatlands are facing significant degradation. Some 48 % are already degraded (excluding European Russia), primarily due to agriculture, drainage and peat extraction, leading to significant carbon loss, biodiversity decline and environmental damage. Within the EU, the proportion is 50 % (120 000 km²) (Tanneberger et al., 2021a). The EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard shows EU peatlands that are likely to be degraded due to agriculture-related pressures (2 % of the total area

<figure><img src="image_18.png" /><figcaption>Photo 4. Peat profile.</figcaption></figure>

Source: A. Jones.
of the EU) based on the United Nations Environ-
ment Programme's Global Peatlands Assessment,
whose data are retrieved from the Global Peatland
Database compiled by the Greifswald Mire Centre.

In Europe, the degree of peatland degradation clearly increases from Arctic to temperate regions. In central Europe, more than 90 % of all peatlands have been utilised for agriculture, forestry or peat extraction for centuries (Joosten, 2010).

Drained peatlands in the EU emit around 220 Mt-CO2eq per year (around 5 % of EU emissions), mainly from agriculture on drained peat soils. This land makes up only 2.5 % of the total agricultural area but generates around 25 % of the total agricultural GHG emissions in the EU (including CH4 from enteric fermentation and N2O from fertilisation). The contribution is even larger in peat-land-rich countries such as Finland (62 %), Poland (42 %) and Germany (37 %), based on national inventory reports data for 2019 (Tanneberger et al., 2021b). In 2019, Member States reported a loss of carbon from 17.8 million hectares of land with organic soil (4.2 % of the total land area), corresponding to emissions of 108 Mt CO2 (EEA, 2022a).

Ukrainian peat soils are situated in the southern-
most region of eastern Europe's peat soil expanse.
Shaped by warmer climates, they boast an age
surpassing their northern counterparts. These
soils previously achieved an equilibrium, including
a carbon balance, under natural conditions (Trus-
kavetskii, 2014). However, human intervention has
disrupted this equilibrium, resulting in a negative
carbon balance. Various researchers (Bradis et
al., 1973; Tanovitskii, 1980; Succow and Jeschke,
1986; Bambalov and Rakovich, 2005; Truskavetskii,
2014) highlight the disappearance of valuable flora
and fauna, a reduction in biodiversity, and a trend
towards the desertification of areas adjacent to
extensive peatlands.

4.3.2.2 Drivers

The main factors driving peat loss are intricately
connected, each influencing and exacerbating
the effects of the others. These vary depending
on the type of peatlands involved. Certain threats
are more relevant to specific peatland types; for
example, arable agriculture poses a particular risk
to lowland peat.

*   **Land use change.** The impact of humans on northern peatlands dates back centuries, to well before the industrial revolution (Holden *et al.*, 2004). Since then, there has been evidence of changes stemming from agricultural cultivation, the expansion of grazing pastures, forestry activities and the extraction of peat for fuel. The population growth from the 1700s to the 1900s increased the need for more arable land. In the early 1800s, the pressure for land resulted in its reclamation for agriculture or other uses, which continued with many large drainage projects at the end of the century (Kløve *et al.*, 2017). In Finland, a lack of coherence in forest, agricultural and environmental policies has led to increased drainage activity on peat soils since the beginning of the 20th century, which is linked to targets of increasing farm size and productivity and to developments in the CAP. The area of cultivated peat soils has grown, although fields cleared since 2004 have not been eligible for area- based subsidies (Regina *et al.*, 2016).

*   **Drainage.** Drainage is the key driver of the degradation of peat soils (Swindles *et al.*, 2019). In the Nordic countries, between 3 % and 40 % of the original peatland area has been drained for agricultural purposes (Kløve *et al.*, 2017; Szajdak *et al.*, 2020). In countries such as Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and Ireland, more than 80 % of peatlands have been drained for these reasons (Tanneberger *et al.*, 2021a). Agricultural uses vary from extensive pastures to intensive cultivation, for example vegetable production in Switzerland and the United Kingdom; the growth of maize for fodder and biogas generation in Germany; and dairy farming on grassland in the Netherlands.

*   **Peat extraction.** Peat extraction for horticultural and energy purposes directly removes carbon-rich peat from organic soils, leading to the irreversible loss of soil carbon. Peatlands have always been important for farmers as a source of fuel (Runefeldt, 2010). Peat extraction for electricity production and heating continues in a small number of northern European countries, while the mining of peat to provide growing media (e.g. potting composites sold globally) occurs mainly in Ireland and some Baltic states (Girkin *et al.*, 2023).
* **Climate change.** Climate-driven drying of European peatlands is likely to have been exacerbated by direct human impacts in recent centuries (Swindles et al., 2019). During a period of significant population growth throughout Europe (McEvedy and Jones, 1978), coupled with the expansion of cropland and intensified land use (Ramankutty and Foley, 1999), hydrological shifts took place. Distinguishing between the impacts of climate change and direct human influences becomes challenging, as these factors overlap and interact with each other.

* **Fire.** Wildfires on peatlands are becoming a common phenomenon during summer throughout Europe, because dry peat is a fossil fuel. When peatlands are drained, prolonged droughts turn peat into highly combustible matter that can easily be ignited through carelessness. Increased wildfire frequency and severity are expected to increase carbon loss from peatlands, contributing to a shift from carbon sink to carbon source (Nelson et al., 2021). Changes to the structure of vegetation can increase the amount of wildland fire fuels available and can alter the hydrological connectivity of the landscape (Thompson et al., 2019), thereby increasing fire risk and post-fire burn severity (Wilkinson et al., 2018).

#### 4.3.2.3 Impacts

Loss of soil carbon from organic soils, particularly in peatlands, in Europe can have profound impacts on the environment, ecosystems and society. Peatlands provide a wide range of ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, water regulation, biodiversity conservation and recreational opportunities. Loss of soil carbon in peatlands diminishes their capacity to provide these services, compromising their ecological and socioeconomic value to society (Fluet-Chouinard et al., 2023).

* **Climate change.** Loss of carbon through drainage, degradation and fires accelerates climate change in a positive feedback loop. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns associated with climate change can alter soil carbon dynamics. Warmer temperatures can enhance heterotrophic activity and accelerate decomposition rates (Briones et al., 2022), while changes in precipitation patterns can influence soil moisture levels, affecting decomposition rates and carbon storage. Drainage of wetlands and peatlands for agriculture, forestry or development purposes accelerates decomposition of organic matter by increasing oxygen availability. This process enhances biological activity, leading to increased decomposition rates and loss of soil carbon (Ma, Zhu et al., 2022). Without rewetting, drained peatlands will continue to lose SOC and climate change will induce further peat loss from undrained peatlands (Tanneberger et al., 2022).

* **Biodiversity loss.** Peatlands are unique ecosystems that support a rich diversity of plant and animal species, many of which are specially adapted to these environments. The loss of carbon from soil in peatlands can disrupt these ecosystems, leading to the loss of habitat and decreased biodiversity. Rare and specialised species, such as bog mosses, are particularly vulnerable to habitat degradation. Indeed, many European peatlands have already undergone shifts in vegetation composition over the last 300 years, including changes in Sphagnum communities (Gałka et al., 2015), and increases in grass, sedge (Gogo et al., 2011) and shrub (e.g. Calluna vulgaris) cover (Turner et al., 2014). Typical peatland biodiversity, in particular that of groundwater-fed fens in temperate Europe, has been devastated by drainage (Hans et al., 2017; van Diggelen, 2018).

* **Reduced water quality.** Peatlands play a crucial role in regulating water flow, filtering pollutants and maintaining water quality (Holden et al., 2004; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; Zedler and Kercher, 2005). The loss of carbon from soil in peatlands can degrade water quality by increasing sedimentation, nutrient run-off and contamination from agricultural chemicals (Clutterbuck and Yallop, 2010). Drained peatlands with agricultural uses in the EU are also a source of 1–5 Mt of NO₃ annually (Tanneberger et al., 2021b). This can harm aquatic ecosystems, reduce water quality for human consumption and increase treatment costs for water utilities. Further negative consequences of drainage are a reduction in water quality through the discharge of nutrients to ground and surface water (Tanneberger et al., 2021b), and increasing water acidity in the case of sulphide-bearing peat drainage (Saarinen et al., 2013).
* Increased flooding and erosion. Peatlands act as natural sponges, absorbing and storing water during periods of heavy rainfall and releasing it slowly over time. Loss of carbon from soil in peatlands reduces their ability to retain water, increasing the risk of flooding and soil erosion. This can lead to damage to infrastructure, the loss of arable land and the degradation of aquatic habitats (Lieffers and Macdonald, 1990; Cleary et al., 2005; Rooney et al., 2012; Nieminen et al., 2018).

* **Cultural and archaeological losses.** Peatlands contain valuable cultural and archaeological sites, including ancient human settlements, artefacts and well-preserved organic materials. The loss of carbon from soil due to drainage, degradation and extraction activities can damage or destroy these sites, resulting in the loss of important cultural heritage and historical information (Bain Bonn et al., 2011; Flint and Jennings, 2020; Historic England, 2021).

* **Economic costs.** The impacts of peatland degradation and loss of carbon from soil impose significant economic costs on societies. These costs include the loss of ecosystem services, increased flood damage, reduced agricultural productivity and expenditure on restoration and conservation efforts. Drainage of peatlands also leads to land subsidence (1–2 cm yearly), which increases drainage costs and flooding risk, and results in the loss of productive land (Joosten et al., 2012; Bonn et al., 2016) and damage to infrastructure.

New land use change policies under the CAP reform aim to reduce drainage and the implementation of rewetting of drained peat soils (Anon, 2020). Restoration also offers potential gains with respect to water quality, flood management, habitats and biodiversity, the protection of buried paleo-archaeological features and recreational enjoyment (Moxey and Moran, 2014). The EU Regulation on Nature Restoration (EU, 2024) aims to enable the restoration of degraded ecosystems, helping to achieve the EU's climate and biodiversity objectives and enhance food security. As restoring drained peatlands is one of the most cost-effective ways to reduce emissions in the agricultural sector, EU countries must restore at least 30 % of drained peatlands by 2030 (at least a quarter should be rewetted), 40 % by 2040 and 50 % by 2050 (when at least

one third should be rewetted). However, rewetting will remain voluntary for farmers and private landowners. Successful peatland restoration in Europe requires knowledge transfer among academics, practitioners and policymakers (Zak and McInnes, 2022).

### 4.3.3 Inorganic carbon

> The distribution of Soil Inorganic Carbon (SIC) in Europe varies geographically, concentrating in areas with Mediterranean climates and calcareous parent materials. Human activities such as fertilization, irrigation, management of soil organic matter, and reclamation practices impact SIC levels. Loss of SIC can have wide-ranging impacts, including reduced carbon sequestration capacity, soil fertility decline, land degradation, desertification, changes in water resources, and biodiversity loss. Research on SIC dynamics is essential to develop management strategies for carbon sequestration and soil condition improvement, in particular in the areas with Mediterranean climates.

#### 4.3.3.1 Status and trends

SIC distribution in Europe varies geographically, concentrating in regions with Mediterranean climates and calcareous parent materials. Consequently, large areas of southern Europe, particularly those with Mediterranean climates, are characterised by carbonate-rich soils with pH values exceeding 7.5. Other areas located on calcareous lithology also show relevant concentrations in the soil profile in humid and subhumid temperate areas, such as the French regions of Champagne and Charente. Recent research (Lu et al., 2023) has compiled the data from LUCAS 2015 regarding SIC concentrations in European topsoils, presenting them in digital maps. There is high variability in the values observed, ranging from 0 g kg⁻¹ to more than 300 g kg⁻¹. No information is available on the trends in SIC concentration or storage in European soils, although data from the more recent rounds of LUCAS could be used to estimate such changes.
### 4.3.3.2 Drivers

The most relevant natural factors contributing to SIC concentration are soil parent material and climate. However, some other factors, such as position in the landscape and even vegetation can also play a role in the final allocation and typology of soil carbonates. As a result, SIC can be present in soils in varying amounts, vertical distribution in the profile, size distribution and pedofeatures (infillings, coatings, pendants, etc.). Carbonates can also be present as cementing agents, forming petrocalcic horizons. In addition, SIC is known to be affected by different factors in soil management. The most relevant ones are as follows.

* **Fertilisation.** Mostly as a source of acidity, mineral fertilisation with N salts can induce the dissolution and progressive loss of soil carbonates, while releasing CO₂ (Zamanian et al., 2016). Fertilisation can also result in changes in the proportion of pedogenic compared with lithogenic carbonates (Bughio et al., 2016).

* **Irrigation.** By changing the soil water regime, affecting primary productivity and biological activity, and acting as a source of calcium and/ or bicarbonate, irrigation interferes with many aspects of SIC cycling. In addition, the partial pressure of CO₂ in soil solution is affected by irrigation, which influences bicarbonate leaching (Greenway et al., 2006). Thus, irrigation has been observed to increase the emission of CO₂ from soils (Hannam et al., 2016), and to reduce the amount of carbonates in the silt and clay fractions, while increasing the proportion of pedogenic carbonates (de Soto et al., 2017).

* **Management of soil organic matter.** Some forms of organic matter added to agricultural soils can be sources of acidity, and therefore enhance natural acidification processes (Raza et al., 2021). However, organic fertilisation has also been observed to induce carbonate neoformation in some soils (Liu et al., 2023).

* **Reclamation of sodic calcareous soils.** The use of gypsum for reclamation of this type of soil can result in the formation of calcium carbonate, while the use of S to dissolve carbonates in sodic soils can result in the loss of carbonates by acidification (Virto et al., 2022).

### 4.3.3.3 Impacts

* **Carbon sequestration.** The retention of SIC helps maintain the soil's capacity to sequester carbon, potentially mitigating increases in atmospheric CO₂ levels and alleviating the effects of global warming. In addition, because of the role of SIC in organic matter stabilisation, changes in SIC concentration, typology and physical distribution in soils can have consequences for SOC storage and protection in agricultural soils (Raza et al., 2021). Fertiliser-induced soil acidity and leaching loss in agricultural ecosystems may cause irreversible changes in soil carbon (e.g. organic and inorganic) levels, and SIC stocks could be lost entirely as CO₂ (Zamanian et al., 2018; Zamanian and Kuzyakov, 2019).

* **Climate change.** SIC levels can change with the climate, and the consequences are crucial for crop production, soil quality and land management practices (Lal, 2004, 2011; Rasmussen, 2006; Banger et al., 2009; Bughio et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017). However, the acknowledgement of changes in SIC in response to changes in temperature and CO₂ concentrations, and the corresponding influence on soil characteristics and SOC, are minimal (Ferdush and Paul, 2021).

* **Soil fertility decline.** Inorganic carbon contributes to soil pH regulation and nutrient availability. The loss of SIC can lead to soil acidification, or have the opposite effect, which can reduce soil fertility by reducing the availability of essential nutrients such as calcium and magnesium. This can impair plant growth and productivity, ultimately reducing agricultural yields (Ferdush and Paul, 2021). Furthermore, the pH range of calcareous soils (7.5-8.5) limits the availability of some other nutrients, for example iron and P, although various crop and fertilisation strategies can be used to counteract these effects (Ahmad et al., 2022; Ahmadi et al., 2023).

* **Land degradation and desertification.** SIC can act as a substantial carbon reservoir in dryland soils, especially those derived from sedimentary parent material (Deane McKenna et al., 2022). Continued loss of SIC can contribute to land degradation processes such as desertification, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Given the overall increase in aridity in a warming world,
drought may exacerbate loss of SIC from dryland soil under warming conditions (Li et al., 2024). The dissolution of SIC is more important than previously thought in regulating atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (Zamanian and Kuzyakov, 2019), and if future climate change accelerates aridity in drylands (Dai, 2013), the contribution of SIC-derived CO₂ to total CO₂ emissions may become even more substantial (Li et al., 2024).

* **Impacts on water resources.** SIC loss can affect soil water dynamics, leading to changes in groundwater (Kim et al., 2020). From a wider geographical perspective, changes in SIC associated with increased fertilisation can also result in changes in riverine alkalinity at the watershed level (Perrin et al., 2008).

* **Biodiversity loss.** As plants and soil organism distribution is known to be pH-dependent (Lauber et al., 2009; Rousk et al., 2010), changes in soil properties due to the loss of SIC can impact microbial communities, fauna and plant species composition in soil. This could disrupt ecosystem functioning and reduce habitats' suitability for various organisms, leading to biodiversity loss and ecological imbalances. Research on the dynamics of carbonates in soils is still much below the level that will allow practitioners to implement strategies to manage CO₂ sequestration as SIC. Some of the possible research paths are using non-acidifying fertilisers on calcareous soils, developing practices other than liming to combat acidification and to use calcifying or oxalogenic plants (Hirt et al., 2023) or soil organisms using calcium from sources other than carbonates, such as gypsum (Laudicina et al., 2021).

## 4.4 Soil erosion

Soil erosion poses a significant threat to soil health and agricultural sustainability in Europe. Water erosion is particularly prevalent, affecting 24 % of EU land at unsustainable rates, surpassing soil formation rates and impacting soil quality and land productivity. Projections of future trends in soil erosion in Europe are emerging, as the increase in rainfall erosivity may lead to an increase of up to 25 % in soil loss. Soil erosion in Europe, driven by factors such as poor land management, deforestation, climate change and wildfires, poses significant threats. It leads to loss of soil fertility and agricultural productivity, while also causing sedimentation, flooding and landslides, affecting water quality and causing economic losses. Loss of soil fertility, sedimentation and agricultural production losses are among the most obvious impacts of soil erosion, but other off-site impacts such as risks to cultural heritage sites, land abandonment, desertification and biodiversity loss should not be neglected. Addressing soil erosion necessitates holistic approaches integrating policy interventions and sustainable land management practices tailored to regional conditions.

Erosion is considered one of the most significant threats to European soils and the ecosystem services they provide. It threatens all major functions of soils, leading to a decline in land productivity and multiple off-site effects (Lal, 1998; Patault et al., 2021; Panagos et al., 2024a). More specifically, soil erosion reduces the fertility of soil, alters its structure, changes its biological activity and reduces its water holding capacity. In addition, it causes nutrient loss to water, and can reduce SOC pools (Quinton and Fiener, 2024). The spatially distributed and ephemeral nature of erosion makes its prediction and monitoring challenging, hindering proper risk assessment and policy mitigation. Worldwide, very few national survey programmes for soil erosion exist. Notable exceptions
tions are the United States National Resources Inventory and the Chinese national general survey programme on soil and water conservation. No coordinated monitoring efforts exist across the EU. While recent modelling has been transformative in informing policy, it has been restricted to single processes, whereas often several natural and anthropogenic erosion processes operate in the same area simultaneously or subsequently (Poesen, 2018; Borrelli et al., 2023).

The processes of soil erosion include water erosion through sheet, rill, gully and piping erosion; wind erosion; tillage erosion; and soil loss due to crop harvesting (SLCH). The co-occurrence or exclusivity of these different erosion processes determine the total risk from soil erosion (Borrelli et al., 2023). Given the wide diversity of landscapes in Europe, the occurrence of all aforementioned erosion processes has been documented in various European countries (Boardman and Poesen, 2006). Erosion processes are notoriously ephemeral, as they depend on the nexus of susceptible soil, mechanical disturbance, antecedent moisture conditions, land use and weather conditions (especially the occurrence of meteorological extremes, such as intense rainfall events, snow and frost or the coincidence of droughts with wind).

### 4.4.1 Status and trends

Soil erosion by water is one of the most prominent soil degradation processes in the EU, with an estimated 24 % of land exhibiting unsustainable erosion rates (> 2 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) (Panagos et al., 2015a). It is important to note that this rate only considers the loss of topsoil through sheet and rill erosion and does not include other water-related processes such as gully or piping erosion or landslides, which cause soil loss at lower depths. Nevertheless, this value exceeds estimated average soil formation rates (Panagos et al., 2020). These rates vary quite significantly, with some studies reporting 0.05–0.5 mm yr⁻¹ (1–1.4 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) (Verheijen et al., 2009). To give spatially continuous estimations of soil erosion by water in Europe in 2000, 2010 and 2016, a modified (hybrid) version of the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) was applied (Panagos et al., 2020). The mean soil loss by water erosion in the EU was estimated to be around 2.4 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. This value is well above the aforementioned soil formation rates, and there

is high variability between rates for different land uses. An area twice the size of Belgium is estimated to experience a 1 cm yearly displacement of soil throughout the EU and the United Kingdom. A major benefit of the approach adopted compared with past models implemented is that it incorporates the effects of policy scenarios based on land use changes and support (Panagos et al., 2015a, 2015b; Borrelli and Panagos, 2020). These inputs to the model are linked to the Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions requirements of the CAP and the EU's guidelines for soil protection, which can be grouped into the areas of land management (with methods including reduced/no-till farming, and the use of plant residues and cover crops), enhanced conditionality (through crop rotation and the designation of ecological focus areas) and supporting practices (contour farming, the maintenance of stone walls and the use of grass margins).

Wind erosion primarily occurs in dry conditions when the soil is exposed to strong winds. The finest particles, in particular, are removed and potentially transported over long distances before being redeposited (Webb et al., 2006). To gain a better understanding of the wind erosion situation in Europe, the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) carried out the first assessment of land susceptibility to wind erosion in the EU (Borrelli et al., 2014, 2016) using the revised wind erosion equation (Fryrear et al., 2000).

The results of the application of the equation suggest that wind erosion in croplands may have a mean rate of 0.53 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, with the second and fourth quantiles placed at 0.3 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and 1.9 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, respectively (Borrelli et al., 2017b).

Tillage erosion occurs in cultivated fields through the net downhill movement of soil due to tillage operations (Lindstrom et al., 1992). While tillage is a soil degradation process in its own right, it also makes the soil more sensitive to other forms of erosion (Govers et al., 1994). In specific locations, such as hillslope convexities and land parcel borders, tillage erosion can result in greatly decreased soil depths, with direct negative impacts such as reduced crop yields. Soil erosion due to tillage has been modelled at the pan-EU scale as a function of the erosivity of tillage operations and theibility of the cultivated landscape (Van Oost et al.,
2009). The basis for this assessment is a modified version of the tillage erosion model constructed by Lobb and Gary Kachanoski (1999). The estimates derived show that the gross total erosion rate is 7.2 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for the EU and the United Kingdom, corresponding to a total soil mobilisation rate of 0.76 Pg yr⁻¹ (Van Oost et al., 2009).

SLCH is defined as the removal of topsoil from arable land during the harvesting of root and tuber crops, such as potatoes, sugar beets, carrots and chicory roots (Poesen et al., 2001; Kuhwald et al., 2022). During a harvest (be it done manually or by machinery), loose soil, soil clods and rock fragments that are attached to crop components are uplifted from the soil. While a small amount of the soil is redistributed on the surface of the field, most of the adhering soil is completely removed from the field with the crop (Ruysschaert et al., 2004; Parlak and Blanco-Canqui, 2015). In 2019, 8.4 % of all global arable land was cultivated with root and tuber crops and therefore affected by SLCH (Kuhwald et al., 2022). In Europe, sugar beets and potatoes hold particular significance for SLCH due to their high annual cultivation volumes. This is especially true in central Europe (e.g. Belgium, Germany and France), where production rates are high and harvest is frequently conducted under unfavourable soil conditions (high soil moisture content). In such cases, SLCH can be up to 30.1 t ha⁻¹ per harvest (Ruysschaert et al., 2007; Kuhwald et al., 2022). During 2000–2016, SLCH associated with sugar beet and potato harvesting in the EU was estimated to be around 0.13 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, equal to 14.7 million tons of soil per year (Panagos et al., 2020).

Gully erosion occurs when concentrated water flowing at the soil surface has enough energy to incise a larger channel into the soil. A typically accepted minimum threshold for defining a channel as a gully is a cross-sectional area of 900 cm² (Poesen et al., 2003). However, many gullies are several metres wide and deep and lead to enormous soil losses. Gully erosion, leading to ephemeral or permanent erosion channels, typically only occurs in specific landscapes and climate conditions (e.g. steep hillslopes with sparse vegetation and heavy rainfall, causing water to accumulate to a sufficient level to form a gully). Reported erosion rates often vary around 4–15 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (Poesen et al., 2003), but extreme rainfall events have resulted

in erosion rates of more than 500 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in Spain (Hayas et al., 2017). Overall, gully erosion is a process that depends on a complex combination of natural and anthropogenic factors (topography, land use and management, soil properties, meteorology) operating at various spatial and temporal scales. This makes predictions at the European scale difficult (Vanmaercke et al., 2021). Nonetheless, the most susceptible areas to gully erosion in the EU are in the Mediterranean region, and in particular in southern Spain (Borrelli et al., 2022, 2023). Other regions, such as central Belgium, parts of France and eastern Romania, can also be sensitive to this process (Vanmaercke et al., 2021). Climate change, and in particular longer periods of drought (damaging the protective vegetation cover), in combination with more intense rainfall during extreme events, aggravate the problem (Vanmaercke et al., 2016).

Piping erosion is the removal of soil particles by concentrated subsurface flows, leading to the formation of underground channels called pipes (Ber-

<figure><img src="image_19.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 7.** Assessment of different types of erosion processes (water erosion, wind erosion, tillage erosion, soil loss by crop harvesting) occurring in agricultural lands in the EU and United Kingdom.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO, based on Panagos et al. (2019, 2020) and Borrelli et al. (2017, 2023).
natek-Jakiel and Poesen, 2018). The occurrence of this process becomes visible at the surface when the roof of a pipe collapses and thus transforms the pipe into a gully. As such, piping erosion may accelerate gully erosion by stimulating the formation of new gullies and intensifying gully headcut retreating rates. Piping erosion leads to soil losses with significant variability; in affected areas of Europe, they have been estimated to range from 1.3 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ to 15 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in grasslands (Verachtert et al., 2011; Bernatek-Jakiel and Poesen, 2018), and they can even reach 120 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in Spanish farmlands (Díaz and Sinoga, 2015). It is estimated that the area threatened by piping erosion in the EU exceeds 260 000 km² (Faulkner, 2006).

## Geography and co-occurrence of soil erosion in Europe:

Recently, Borrelli et al. (2023) proposed a multi-model approach to estimate gross soil displacement by water, wind, tillage and crop harvesting based on a 100 × 100 m grid for arable land in the EU and United Kingdom (around 110 million hectares) (Figure 7). Across the region simulated, these four erosion processes are expected to move $575_{-56}^{+108}$ Tg (million tonnes) of soil yearly, which translates to an average area-specific soil displacement of $5.2_{0.5}^{+1.1}$ t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. This figure exceeds the average soil displacement resulting from sheet and interrill processes, which are usually the only processes considered, by 95 %. Large areas of the region are predicted to have soil displacement rates ranging from moderate (class 3, 2–5 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) to severe (class 5, > 10 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). The co-occurrence assessments of several processes revealed that 43 million hectares of land were vulnerable to a single driver of erosion (about twice the land area of the United Kingdom), 15.6 million hectares to two drivers and 0.81 million hectares to three or more drivers. The results of this modelling exercise show that unsustainable soil erosion rates (> 2 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) occur across over half of the EU’s arable land (i.e. 53.7 % or around 55 Mha). With regard to the specific processes, soil displacement due to water erosion predominates both spatially (57 % of the total area) and quantitatively (51 % of total displacement). At an estimated 36 %, tillage erosion is the second-biggest cause of soil displacement, behind crop harvesting at 2.7 % and wind erosion at 10 %. Even though water erosion is geographically and statistically predominant, tillage, wind or crop harvesting in arable landscapes

account for around an estimated 40 % of soil displacement in the EU and United Kingdom. That said, it should be noted that these numbers do not include the contribution of landslides, piping and gully erosion, which currently cannot be modelled quantitatively at the European scale.

Türkiye’s soils are very sensitive to erosion due to a combination of environmental factors, such as climate, topographical structure, soil properties and land use. The amount of soil lost by erosion in Türkiye is approximately five times the world average (Erpul and Oztas, 2022). A water erosion Map of Türkiye was produced using the dynamic erosion model and monitoring system developed by the General Directorate of Combating Desertification and Erosion of the Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. The system indicates that land with severe erosion damage occupies 12.7 % of the country’s surface area. In Türkiye, 642 million tons of soil are lost every year as a result of water erosion. The amount of soil displaced by water erosion is 248.6 Mt in agricultural areas, 344.6 Mt in pastures and 26.8 Mt in forests (Erpul et al., 2018).

Even though Switzerland boasts extensive legal provisions to prevent soil erosion (Prasuhn et al., 2013), 40 % of the arable land in the country is affected by erosion, largely due to farming practices ill-suited to the sloping terrain (Prasuhn and Blaser, 2018). Depending on slope steepness and/or agricultural practice used, erosion rates may increase dramatically, up to 400 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ on slopes between 10° and 18° (Ledermann et al., 2010). In Switzerland, 70 % of the agricultural area utilised is grassland for which soil erosion had been largely underestimated in the past, as most large-scale modelling studies assume nearly zero soil loss on grasslands. The soil erosion rate estimated using the RUSLE, which accounted for these grasslands having largely low or damaged vegetation cover (Meusburger et al., 2010), was 4.6 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ at the national scale (Schmidt et al., 2019), aligning well with measured erosion rates. Hotspots of soil loss in degraded Alpine grasslands were indicated by rates between 16 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and 30 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (Alewell et al., 2014).

In contrast to other European geographical regions, there is a lack of official data and erosion monitoring systems for most western Balkan
countries. Estimates suggest that approximately
30 % of agricultural land in the region suffers from
water-erosion-induced failure, with soil erosion
impacting about 45 % of the total land area (Zdruli
et al., 2022). Recently, North Macedonia produced
a new soil erosion map, using the erosion poten-
tial method for the entire country and the RUSLE

model for agricultural zones. Results revealed that
nearly one third of the country's territory is affect-
ed by soil erosion (Gavrilovic et al., 2008), with an
average annual soil loss of 4.1 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ from agri-
cultural land. In Albania, the countrywide average
soil loss stands at about 30 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Some 22 %
of the area experiences a soil loss rate exceeding

box 2

Use of remote sensing and ¹³⁷Cs for gully erosion research in Malčanska River Basin, Eastern Serbia.

The area consists of hilly terrain, with elevations ranging from 590 m to 650 m. Factors influencing erosion include topography, soil type, geology, climate and vegetation. Human activities play a crucial role in altering vegetation cover and, consequently, erosion intensity.

The study aimed to assess gully morphology and soil erosion using ¹³⁷Cs, small-scale erosion variability within gullies and variability between gullies to evaluate control measures' effectiveness. Methods included unmanned aerial vehicle and terrestrial photogrammetry, soil sampling, high purity germanium gamma-ray spectrometry, and the creation of a profile distribution model for soil erosion rate estimation from ¹³⁷Cs inventories.

The results found that dense canopies hindered unmanned aerial vehicle remote sensing and photogrammetry, but 360° camera terrestrial photogrammetry successfully captured gully morphology, producing detailed terrain models. The use of ¹³⁷Cs revealed erosion predominantly in the gullies, with low soil deposition in some areas. Estimated average annual soil loss ranged from 0.1 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ to 34.3 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. The use of 360° camera photogrammetric modelling proved effective in identifying sampling locations and monitoring gully changes over time, emphasising its importance in erosion research and management.

<figure><img src="image_20.png" /><figcaption>Figure box 2: Digital elevation models of gullies with sampling points. Source: Đokić et al., (2023)</figcaption></figure>
100 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, accounting for 93 % of soil erosion. Serbia faces erosion issues on 80 % of its agricultural land, with water erosion prevalent in central and hilly/mountainous regions and wind erosion predominant in Vojvodina, affecting approximately 85 % of agricultural land. Water erosion in Montenegro affects about 13 135 km², or 95 %, of its total area (Spalevic, 2024). The intensity of erosion varies significantly across the regions of Montenegro, with the coastal area being the most vulnerable. Of the coastal river basins, estimates suggest that 13 %, 25 % and 35 % of areas experience excessive, high and moderate erosion, respectively. In general, a high proportion of this region experiences high and excessive erosion, meaning actual soil losses are in the range of 20 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ to 23 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (Spalevic, 2024).

In Ukraine, expert assessments indicate that 10.5 million hectares of soil are eroded, with sheet and rill erosion impacting 17 % of arable land, gully erosion affecting 3 % and wind erosion affecting 11 %. Intensive cultivation practices, including excessive planting of row crops and insufficient contour farming, alongside poor land management practices such as deforestation, overgrazing and

cultivation on steep slopes, contribute to erosion processes. More than 6 million hectares of arable land are systematically affected by wind erosion, and up to 20 million hectares in years with dust storms. Experts estimate that between 300 Mt and 600 Mt of soil are lost annually due to erosion (Baliuk et al., 2021).

## Projection of future trends in soil erosion in Europe

Soil erosion is unlikely to remain stable in Europe due to several evolving factors, which will determine its future trends. By 2050, soil erosion rates are projected to increase by 13-22.5 % in the agricultural lands of the EU and the United Kingdom (Panagos et al., 2021). Changes in soil erosion rates are driven by changes in climatic conditions and land use patterns, socioeconomic development, farmers' choices and, importantly, changes to agro-environmental policies. The consideration of all these factors is required to meaningfully predict future soil erosion rates in Europe (Panagos et al., 2021; Borrelli et al., 2023). Compared with current baselines, future model projections identify the Atlantic and the continental climate zones as the locations most vulnerable to water erosion, with

<figure><img src="image_21.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 8.** Future trends in water and wind erosion across agricultural landscapes in the EU and United Kingdom.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO, based on Panagos et al., (2021) and Borrelli et al., (2023).
a higher risk of experiencing extreme weather
during the wettest quarter. During the driest
quarter, vulnerability to water erosion is predicted
to increase in an expansive region covering most
of central eastern Europe. In contrast, noteworthy
decreases in water erosion are predicted in
Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, western France, southern
Italy and Portugal.

Given that soil erosion involves a mix of
concurrent processes, predictions need to account
for the uniquely changing spatial and temporal
characteristics of each process. For example,
concerning wind erosion, Mediterranean regions
include the most vulnerable areas due to longer
periods of drought during the driest quarter
(Borrelli et al., 2023). Identifying and understanding
areas that are more susceptible to specific erosion
processes can help in the delineation of strata to
allow the definition of (quasi-)homogenous regions
for targeted mitigation strategies (Figure 8). The
predictions suggest that monitoring programmes
need to be adopted not only to address water
erosion but also to determine strategies to
mitigate tillage and wind erosion. For example,
areas affected by both wind and water erosion
may benefit from monitoring activities that aim to
detect dust emissions from fields or landscapes.

Post-wildfire erosion also makes a critical
contribution to total soil loss in the EU, which
can cause a twelve-fold increase in erosion rates
compared with pre-fire conditions (Vieira et al.,
2023a). Furthermore, the predicted trends of
post-fire soil erosion in the EU indicate a potential
increase compared with current rates, driven by
projected increases in the total burned area due
to prolonged periods of drought (Dupuy et al.,
2020) combined with increasing rainfall erosivity
during torrential events (Panagos et al., 2022).
Globally, post-fire debris-flow activity is expected
to increase by 68% in regions that have previously
experienced wildfires in the past and to decrease
by less than 2% by the late 21st century. While
some researchers have shown that approximately
85% of post-fire debris flow occurs within the
first 2 years following a fire (McGuire et al., 2024),
others conclude that in the Mediterranean regions,
where wildfires are most common in Europe, their
total impact is shown to be enduring (Vieira et al.,
2023a). The latter emphasises the critical temporal
aspect of post-fire soil erosion in the EU.

4.4.2 Drivers

The drivers of soil erosion are numerous and vary
depending on the erosion process, specific geo-
graphical location and land use practices employed.
In the first part of this section, we summarise the
main characteristics of each erosion process.

The processes of water erosion include splash erosion, sheetwash, rill erosion, piping erosion (or tunnel erosion) and (ephemeral or permanent) gully erosion. Soil erosion by water is driven by hydro-mechanical forces and is one of the major threats to soils in the EU (Panagos et al., 2015b, 2021). Water erosion is caused in Europe by natural factors such as steep topography, landscape position (i.e. causing areas to experience a high degree of water accumulation), soil properties and climatic conditions (i.e. heavy rainstorms), but primarily by inappropriate land management in areas susceptible to erosion (owing to deforestation, tillage, etc.).

Wind erosion occurs in dry conditions when the soil is exposed to wind (Webb et al., 2006). Wind erosion is the wind-forced (aeolian) movement of soil (Shao, 2008). In recent times, intensive farming has increased the frequency and magnitude of this geomorphic process, with consequences especially for sensitive lands that are important for food production (Dostál et al., 2006). While wind erosion mainly affects soils with low vegetation cover, land management practices such as intensive crop cultivation, increased mechanisation, enlargement of field sizes, removal of hedges, the intensive exploitation of residues / biomass of vegetation and allowing consecutive bare fallow years in cultivated lands exacerbate both the environmental and economic effects of wind erosion (Colazo and Buschiazzo, 2015). SLCH depends to a significant degree on soil disturbance during harvesting in croplands (Arnhold et al., 2014).

Several key factors control the magnitude of SLCH, namely (a) soil properties (e.g. moisture, texture, organic matter and structure), (b) crop characteristics (e.g. type, size and morphology), (c) agronomic practices (e.g. the frequency of root/tuber crops in the crop succession, plant density and crop yield) and (d) harvest techniques (e.g. technology, the effectiveness of cleaning devices and the velocity of the harvester) (Ruysschaert et al., 2004, 2005; Kuhwald et al., 2022).
Tillage erosion occurs in cultivated fields due to tillage operations that result in the downhill displacement of soil. The variation in soil displacement rates due to tillage erosion may be rather large, depending primarily on topographic characteristics, tillage depth and tillage direction, and to a lesser extent on the tillage velocity and implementation characteristics (Van Oost et al., 2006). Tillage erosion displaces soil over small areas, but it may cause the significant movement of soil over multiple years (Van Oost et al., 2009).

Involved in each of the aforementioned erosion processes are specific driving forces, typically deriving from interactions between anthropogenic and natural phenomena. The most prominent factor is scarce or no vegetation cover, which can be caused by one factor or a combination of multiple factors. These factors include the following.

*   **Poor land management practices.** Unsustainable land management practices such as overgrazing, inappropriate tillage methods, monoculture

farming and improper irrigation practices can accelerate soil erosion (Evans et al., 2022). These practices can disturb soil structure, decrease vegetation cover and increase soil's vulnerability to erosion. In land management cycles, the removal of vegetation cover during periods when the risk of erosion is high greatly increases the overall vulnerability of soil to water and wind erosion (Boardman and Favis-Mortlock, 2014; Matthews et al., 2023). In addition to increasing susceptibility to other erosion processes, tillage erosion in cultivated fields causes a significant net downhill movement of soil (Lindstrom et al., 1992).

*   **Deforestation and mining.** Deforestation, driven by agricultural expansion, urban development and logging activities, removes the protective vegetation cover crucial for stabilising soil. With this protective layer gone, soil becomes susceptible to erosion by water and wind (Vanwalleghem et al., 2017). In addition, mining and quarrying activities disrupt soil integrity through excavation,

Estimating sediment removal costs from the reservoirs of the EU.

A key off-site impact of the erosion of soil and rock is the infilling of reservoirs with sediment, limiting their water storage and energy production capacities. The cost of removing an estimated 135 million cubic metres of accumulated sediment due to water erosion only is estimated at roughly EUR 2.3 (± 0.9) billion per year in the EU and United Kingdom, with large regional differences between countries.

When applying a method that considers all types of soil loss processes, a simple extrapolation puts the sediment input at an order of magnitude higher (> 1 billion cubic metres), but lumped extrapolations do not consider that the removal cost (per cubic metre) may be less due to the application of less costly techniques in silted dams across different countries.

With a conservative estimation that accounts for all erosion processes, the removal of sediment from EU dams is predicted to cost at least EUR 5–8 billion per year.

<figure><img src="image_22.png" /><figcaption>Photo box 3: Sediment build up in Val Formaza, Italy.
Source: A. Jones</figcaption></figure>
vegetation removal and waste disposal, acceler-
ating erosion rates in affected areas (Pacetti *et al.*, 2020).

*   **Land levelling.** When the local topography does not allow particular agricultural operations (e.g. tillage, irrigation, harvesting), land is often reshaped by levelling. Such land levelling leads locally to very large soil losses, resulting in highly truncated soil profiles and a drastic lowering of soil quality (Poesen, 2018). Land that is levelled also becomes more prone to other soil erosion processes such as piping and gully erosion, and landslides (Borselli *et al.*, 2006).

*   **Climate change.** Climate change further exacerbates soil erosion by altering precipitation patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and disrupting temperature regimes (Fowler *et al.*, 2021). Depending on the spatial and temporal patterns of the change (Panagos *et al.*, 2021; Borrelli *et al.*, 2023), it can intensify erosion processes and jeopardise soil stability (Pruski and Nearing, 2002). In Europe, regional and local studies have projected the impact of climate change on soil erosion (e.g. Klik and Eitzinger, 2010; Mullan *et al.*, 2012; Routschek *et al.*, 2014; Grillakis *et al.*, 2020; Luetzenburg *et al.*, 2020; Eekhout and de Vente, 2022).

*   **Fire.** Anthropogenic or naturally induced wildfires can lead to a significant (approximately twelve-fold) increase in soil erosion in recently burned areas compared with pre-fire conditions. Outcomes are highly variable between geographical regions, for example depending on burn severity (Vieira *et al.*, 2015, 2023). Wildfires also trigger the occurrence of extreme erosion events, debris flows and landslides, all affecting downstream the integrity of water bodies and other essential infrastructures (Moody *et al.*, 2013). In the most recent assessment conducted at the EU scale, additional soil losses of 19.4 million megagrams were estimated for the first post-fire year. Over a 5-year period, that same affected area may cause 44 million megagrams of additional soil losses, since a significant portion (46 %) of the burned area presented no signs of full recovery (Vieira *et al.*, 2023a).

4.4.3 Impacts

Soil erosion in Europe can have significant impacts on both the environment and human activities. These impacts can be divided into on-site (associated with the eroded area at its source) and off-site (associated with the downstream transport and deposition of eroded soil) impacts, and the consequential monetary losses. Some of the main impacts include the following.

*   **Loss of soil fertility and soil biodiversity.** Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of soil, which contains the nutrients necessary for plant growth. In addition to a reduction in soil fertility, important soil functions are impacted, such as the soil's ability to store carbon, nutrients and water, and provide habitats for organisms (Lal, 1998). For rill and interrill erosion, the thinning of the soil profile is progressive over long periods, while gully and piping erosion, which may affect entire soil profiles (both topsoils and subsoils), can render areas of land uncultivatable (Vamaercke *et al.*, 2021). Erosion events resulting in sediment inundation in fields can cause crop damage in addition to reducing the land's natural fertility for crop cultivation (Verstraeten and Poesen, 1999; Bielders *et al.*, 2003).

*   **Food security.** Soil erosion can have significant effects on food security by reducing agricultural productivity and undermining soil's capacity to produce enough food to meet the needs of growing populations (Bakker *et al.*, 2004, 2007; García-Ruiz *et al.*, 2017). The loss of P due to soil erosion, in particular, can be considered a serious threat to future food and feed production, as globally between 15 % and 85 % of P losses from agricultural systems can be attributed to soil erosion by water only (Alewell *et al.*, 2020). In a recent study, integrating economical and biophysical models, Sartori *et al.* (2019) reported losses of USD 8 billion annually to the global economy as a result of soil erosion. The accompanying impact on food security is a reduction in global agri-food production by 33.7 million tonnes, with accompanying rises in agri-food world prices of 0.4–3.5 %, depending on the food product category. Under pressure to use more marginal land due to the loss of fertile land through erosion, abstracted water volumes increase by an estimated 48 billion cubic me-
tres. Finally, there is tentative evidence that soil erosion is accelerating the competitive shifts in comparative advantage on world agri-food markets (Sartori et al., 2019).

* **Sedimentation.** Eroded soil particles are often transported by run-off into water bodies such as rivers, lakes and streams, or deposited in fields or urbanised areas (Verstraeten and Poesen, 1999; Patault et al., 2021). This sedimentation can degrade water quality, disrupt aquatic ecosystems and harm aquatic organisms by smothering habitats and reducing light penetration (Boardman et al., 2003; Owens et al., 2005). In addition to the damage caused by the mineral components of soils, considerable ecological damage can occur because particle-bound nutrients, heavy metals and pesticides are transported into neighbouring aquatic habitats where damage to biotic communities is caused (Rickson, 2014).

* **Decline in terrestrial biodiversity.** Soil erosion can lead to habitat loss and fragmentation, which can reduce biodiversity. Many plant and animal species depend on stable soil ecosystems for survival. Erosion can disrupt the equilibrium in these ecosystems, leading to declines in biodiversity and ecosystem services (Pimentel et al., 1995; Guerra et al., 2020; Rendon et al., 2020). Moreover, soil erosion and soil biodiversity interact bi-directionally: below-ground organisms affect soil loss through their mixing activities, while intensive erosive events shape the soil-occupying organisms and the functions and services that they provide (Orgiazzi and Panagos, 2018).

* **Increased flooding and landslides.** Soil erosion can contribute to increased flooding and landslides, especially in areas with steep slopes, heavy rainfall and low vegetation cover. Soil degradation reduces the infiltration capacity of soils, increasing the likelihood of run-off and flooding (de la Paix et al., 2013). Furthermore, eroded soil can clog waterways, increasing the risk of flooding, inhibiting navigability, damaging flood prevention infrastructure (Boardman, 2021) and leading to the negative effects on aquatic biodiversity discussed above. The destabilisation of slopes by water and wind erosion can also result in landslides, which directly endanger human lives and property (Ionita et al., 2015).

* **Economic costs.** Soil erosion imposes economic costs on agriculture, forestry and infrastructure. The current estimate of agricultural productivity loss in the EU due to the on-site impacts of water erosion is about EUR 1.25 billion per year (Panagos et al., 2018). This includes the impact of severe soil erosion by water on crop productivity. While the on-site effects are mostly paid by the farmer, the off-site effects of soil erosion are often paid by society (Boardman, 2021; Patault et al., 2021). A major off-site impact with significant monetary cost is the removal of sediments from reservoirs, which may cost between EUR 2.5 billion and EUR 8 billion per year (Panagos et al., 2024a).

* **Climate change.** Soil erosion reduces soil's stability, alters its structure, impedes its biological activities, reduces its water-holding capacity, causes soil nutrient loss and can reduce SOC pools (Kuhn et al., 2009), therefore, impairing all major functions of soil, and not only its productivity. Soil erosion may exacerbate climate change by releasing carbon stored in soil organic matter into the atmosphere from displaced sediment (Jacinthe et al., 2002). However, numerous complex interactions between soil erosion and biogeochemical cycling mean that the net effects of soil erosion on the carbon cycle remain, which is a topic of high interest (Quinton and Fiener, 2024). With regard to the hydrological cycle, eroded soils also have reduced water-holding capacity, which can exacerbate drought conditions and contribute to desertification, further amplifying the impacts of climate change (Lal, 2012).

* **Impact on cultural heritage.** Soil erosion can impact cultural heritage sites, such as archaeological sites and historic buildings. Erosion can degrade or destroy these sites, leading to the loss of valuable cultural and historical resources (Agapiou et al., 2020; Polykretis et al., 2022).

* **Social impacts, such as land abandonment (and possibly migration).** The main reason for land abandonment is degradation and the loss of soil fertility, either as a consequence of erosion processes or as a result of soil nutrient depletion (Lasanta et al., 2017). Such trends have been noticed in Spain (central and southern mountainous areas) and other areas of southern Europe (Bakker et al., 2005; Díaz and Sinoga,
2015). From a global perspective, soil erosion causing nutrient depletion and enhancing desertification is a serious threat to subsistence farmers and thus contributes to famine, migration and violent political conflicts/wars.

Overall, soil erosion poses significant challenges to sustainable development and ecosystem resilience in Europe, highlighting the importance of effective soil conservation and land management practices.

## 4.5 Soil compaction

Soil compaction is a prevalent issue in Europe. It affects soil properties, reduces crop yields, impairs water infiltration, diminishes soil fertility and increases GHG emissions. It poses significant challenges to sustainable land management and agriculture, highlighting the need for preventive measures and conservation practices such cover cropping and reduced tillage. While the compaction of topsoil can be mitigated with conservation practices, subsoil compaction persists and affects various soil functions.

Compaction is defined as the densification of soil due to the application of mechanical stresses that exceed soils' internal strength. These stresses can be applied by natural processes (overbearing weight from upper layers of soil or thick layers of ice) and by human activities (construction of infrastructures, frequent traffic on pathways, high animal stocking densities). Therefore, soil compaction is not a recent phenomenon, and its natural or anthropogenic origin can be identified (Schneider and Don, 2019). Soils with high clay and low organic matter content are more prone to compaction due to their tendency to form hard, dense layers when subjected to high surface pressures. In fact, sandy and clay-rich soils with a bulk density (BD) above 1.80 g cm⁻³ and 1.47 g cm⁻³, respectively, could constrain root development (USDA, 1987). Soils are more susceptible to compaction in wet conditions (Greenwood and McKenzie, 2001; Hamza and Anderson, 2005). Under such conditions, the risk of compaction increases as soil clay content increases and soil organic matter content decreases. When soil

moisture reaches or exceeds field capacity, there is greater potential for soil compaction, particularly in topsoil.

### 4.5.1 Status and trends

Despite the extensive documentation of adverse impacts of soil compaction on soil properties and functions, determining the extent and severity of compaction in Europe remains challenging (EEA, 2022b). Concern over the extent of land affected by soil compaction is widespread. Birkás et al. (2009) reported that approximately 33 million hectares in Europe are affected, while Schjønning et al. (2015) estimated that about 25 % of European subsoils (at depths 0.25–0.7 m) exhibit critically high relative normalised densities. According to the European database of soil properties, SPADE8 (Koue et al., 2008), Schjønning et al. (2016) estimated that 23 % of Europe's total agricultural area is affected by critically high levels of soil compaction.

The degree of topsoil compaction is difficult to clearly describe with thresholds because conditions are highly unstable and dynamic; such conditions include the negative effects of mechanical seedbed preparation, recovery after the growing season and the use of cover crops. The degree of topsoil deformation can therefore be rather temporary; however, it can also be a warning sign that any continuation of current (harmful) practices is likely to affect the subsoil.

The EU Soil Observatory (EUSO) Soil Degradation Dashboard provides insight into the natural susceptibility of agricultural soils to compaction (Houskova and Montanarella, 2008). It is estimated that a third of European subsoils are very vulnerable to compaction and a fifth moderately so.

Different tools have been proposed to monitor soil compaction (EEA, 2022b). Parameters that can be easily measured or that are common in many soil surveys include BD, air capacity, soil texture and visual features of compaction, such as platy structure. A BD of less than or equal to 1.1 g cm⁻³ is ideal for plant growth; between 1.3 g cm⁻³ and 1.55 g cm⁻³ is fair; and greater than 1.8 g cm⁻³ is considered extremely bad, as it restricts root growth. However, it should be noted that the
optimal and critical limits of soil BD are dependent on soil texture, particle size, management practices and organic matter content.

BD was measured in more than 6 000 soil samples from the LUCAS 2018 campaign. A high resolution map of BD for the whole of Europe was recently published (Panagos et al., 2024b) for different soil depths. The mean soil BD for the depth 0–20 cm is 1.01 g cm⁻³, with high variability between different land uses. Arable lands have the highest mean BD, at 1.26 g cm⁻³, followed by permanent crops (BD = 1.23 g cm⁻³), heterogeneous agricultural areas (BD = 1.14 g cm⁻³), pastures (BD = 1.08 g cm⁻³), shrublands (BD = 1.01 g cm⁻³) and woodlands (BD = 0.84 g cm⁻³). The main drivers of BD variation are land cover type, and, in the case of agricultural areas, crop type. Trafficking, land use and management practices have such an important impact on BD as the BD of arable lands is almost 1.5 times higher than woodlands. Countries with a large proportion of woodlands (Austria, Finland, Sweden and the Baltic states) have quite high biases in their BD estimates.

It should be noted that areas with naturally high soil BD may not necessarily be compacted. BD is a parameter with high spatial and temporal

variability. While BD is compaction sensitive, it is considered a rather unspecific parameter because it describes only changes in volume and does not quantify the potentially negative impacts on pore functions. If BD is used because of its widespread availability in soil monitoring, additional (visual) information about, for example, texture or soil structure is needed to make a better qualitative assessment of compaction.

Packing density (PD) is sometimes used instead of BD as an indicator for natural and human-made soil compaction (Jones et al., 2003; Tobias and Tietje, 2007; Shamal et al., 2016; Panagos et al., 2024b. The use of PD as a proxy for soil compaction facilitates practical monitoring and assessment efforts. Panagos et al. (2024b) estimated for the EU and United Kingdom the packing PD using the BD and the clay content of soil (Ballabio et al., 2016). Soils with high PD (> 1.75 g cm⁻³) are likely compacted and not susceptible to further compaction. Medium- compacted soils have a PD in the range of 1.40 g cm⁻³ to 1.75 g cm⁻³ while the less compacted soils are those with PD < 1.40 g cm⁻³ (Jones et al., 2003; Pältineanu et al., 2015). Based on the currently available European data sets, 71.8% of all soils would appear less compacted,

<figure><img src="image_23.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 9.** Use of PD as a proxy for soil compaction to identify hotspots where soils are highly compacted.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO, based on Panagos et al. (2024a).
2.2% compacted and 26% with medium packing density. In the arable lands, medium packing density predominates (58.7%) while 3.2% would be compacted (Figure 9).

The pan-European assessment does not challenge any local or regional assessments made with a higher number of analysed samples. In Switzerland, BD has increased since the 1980s in the majority of agricultural soils. Moreover, the compaction of forest soils is also increasing, and it is estimated that 0.7 % of forest soils are compacted (BAFU, 2017). In England and Wales, almost 4 million hectares of soil are at risk of compaction (UK Environment Agency, 2019). Soil compaction is also of growing concern in northern Europe, mainly due to increasing production costs and economic pressure, which lead to the use of heavier machinery and to more contract machinery operation on smaller farms (Thorsøe et al., 2019; Seehusen et al., 2021). Soil BD is not measured in soil monitoring programmes in Ukraine, but soil compaction is widespread on arable land of more than 22 million hectares (Baliuk et al., 2021). Additional areas of possible soil compaction due to the manoeuvres of heavy military vehicles are being assessed (Bonchkovskyi et al., 2023).

In the western Balkans, soil compaction is not of great importance in most agricultural lands in the region due to the lower use of agricultural machinery than in developed agricultural countries. However, further investigations should be conducted to determine the real impact. According to experts' assessments, in Türkiye, the human-induced compaction of agricultural land has become a serious and growing problem for soil, due to the increasing weight and use of soil cultivation and harvesting machines. Soil compaction is a new phenomenon among the country's farmers and is yet to be fully assessed. The main obstacle to preventing or reversing soil compaction is failing to recognise it. Natural soil compaction occurs spontaneously when alkaline (sodium) soils are formed in arid regions on the old lake bottom in Central Anatolia.

## 4.5.2 Drivers

In Europe, several factors contribute to soil compaction. The driving force is the economic condi-

tions for crop, animal and timber production: in order to minimise costs, larger and more efficient machinery is used, or animal density is increased. This increases the mechanical stresses applied to soil (Schjønning et al., 2015).

* **Agricultural and forestry activities.** Large and heavy machinery, such as tractors and harvesters, and equipment used in forestry operations exert significant pressure on the soil, leading to compaction - especially when operating under wet conditions. Intensive or improper tillage practices can contribute to soil compaction by breaking down soil aggregates and reducing soil porosity.

* **Trampling by livestock.** Continuous grazing and trampling by livestock can compact the soil, particularly in pastures and grazing areas. This is more likely to occur in areas with high stocking densities or in wet conditions.

* **Infrastructure development.** Urbanisation and construction activities can result in soil compaction due to the use of heavy construction equipment, increased soil disturbance and the creation of impervious surfaces.

* **Continuous mono-cropping.** Cropping the same plant in the same field repeatedly causes soil compaction due to the conduct of the same mechanisation activities over time. Identical root development and systems can also accelerate compaction. Diversified cropping systems with complementary root growth strategies improve crops' adaptation to and the remediation of hostile soils (Zhang et al., 2024).

## 4.5.3 Impacts

Soil compaction in Europe can have several significant impacts on the environment, agriculture and ecosystems. Several studies have shown that soil compaction (a) affects soil properties such as structure, increases BD and reduces soil porosity, water infiltration, water availability for plants and hydraulic conductivity; and (b) reduces crop growth by increasing mechanical impediments to root growth, hampering root architecture and decreasing root propagation (Schjønning et al., 2015; Keller et al., 2021). Some of the main impacts include the following.
* **Crop yield reduction.** Compacted soil has reduced pore space, limiting the movement of air, water, and nutrients within the soil profile (Zhang et al., 2024). This reduction in soil porosity can hinder root growth and penetration, leading to decreased crop yields and productivity (Pandy et al., 2021). Stunted plant root growth due to the compaction of soil affects crop growth and development, and yield. Soil compaction resulting from heavy machinery traffic causes a significant reduction in crop yield reduction, of as much as 50% or even more, depending on the magnitude and severity of soil compaction (Shaheb et al., 2021). The effects of compaction can significantly reduce crops yield by 10-15% (Godwin et al., 2022).

* **Impaired water infiltration.** Compacted soils have a reduced ability to absorb water, leading to increased surface run-off and erosion. This can contribute to water pollution through the transport of sediment, nutrients and agrochemicals into water bodies, impacting aquatic ecosystems and water quality. Soil compaction can also increase the frequency and severity of floods (Chyba et al., 2017; Alaoui et al., 2018).

* **Reduced fertility.** Soil compaction restricts the movement of air into the soil, which can lead to decreased microbial activity and nutrient cycling. This can result in soil degradation and reduced soil fertility over time. Besides the changes in soil structure, compaction reduces soil pore space and increases soil strength while decreasing root growth and root elongation rate, which results in reduced water and nutrient uptake by plants (Nawaz et al., 2013; Sadras et al., 2016; Colombi and Keller, 2019). The adverse effects of compaction on soil conditions also reduce plant emergence, establishment and height (Sidhu and Duiker, 2006).

* **Increased GHG emissions.** Compaction may change the fluxes of GHGs from the soil to the atmosphere through mechanisms associated with effects on soil permeability, aeration and crop development. A range of studies have clearly indicated significant increases in N₂O emission following the compaction of topsoil (Ball, 2013). In addition, compaction increases CO₂ emissions because the cultivation of compacted soils requires significantly more energy than the

cultivation of uncompacted soils (van den Akker and Soane, 2005).

* **Constraints on land use.** Soil compaction can limit the suitability of land for various agricultural and land management practices. It can restrict the use of heavy machinery, limit crop growth and increase the cost of soil restoration and rehabilitation efforts. Graves et al. (2015) estimated the compaction costs to be higher than EUR 500 million per year in England and Wales, of which productivity losses account for more than 40% (Graves et al., 2015). In severe cases, soil compaction has a substantial impact on crop growth, development and yield, and farm income (Shaheb et al., 2021).

* **Increase tillage costs.** As soil compaction increases, the cost of tillage increases. Periodic deep ripping becomes necessary, especially in regions where crops such as sugar beet are grown (de Cárcer et al., 2019; Shaheb et al., 2021).

Overall, soil compaction poses significant challenges to sustainable land management, agriculture and ecosystem health in Europe, highlighting the importance of implementing measures to prevent and mitigate its impacts. The compaction of topsoil (regularly tilled layers, close to the soil surface) has a significant impact on crop yield. Conservative agricultural practices such as the use of cover crops, non-tillage and organic amendments improve soil structure and therefore drastically reduce soil compaction. However, compaction of the subsoil is persistent, and it has significant effects on a range of soil functions.

## 4.6 Soil pollution

Soil pollution is a degradation process identified by the presence of substances in soil with levels considered unacceptable from an environmental risk point of view. Soil pollution may affect soil layers, including the root zone and connected compartments. Point-source pollution occurs when substances are released from a single well-defined source but to a relatively restricted extent, while diffuse pollution refers to the presence of substances over large geographical areas from a single source or a range of sources.
4.6.1 Status and trends

Soil pollution in Europe arises from a variety of sources, including industrial activities, urbanisation, agriculture and military operations. These activities release contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides and industrial chemicals into the soil, posing significant risks to environmental and human health. Despite efforts to address soil pollution, comprehensive assessments remain limited, making it challenging to fully understand its extent and impact. Indicators such as the presence of heavy metals and pesticides suggest concerning trends. Soil pollution has far-reaching consequences, affecting not only human health but also ecosystem services and agricultural productivity. To address these challenges, concerted efforts are needed to fill knowledge gaps, establish harmonised monitoring practices and implement effective pollution prevention and remediation measures.

Despite the fact that there is a common understanding of the impacts of soil pollution in the EU, comprehensive, large-scale assessments are scarce. Most of the data at the EU scale originate from the various LUCAS rounds, while data from individual Member States are often obtained using different approaches, hampering comparisons. Nonetheless, it is possible to recognise a set of indicators: for metals, from LUCAS 2009 (Figure 10a, Figure 10b); for pesticides, from LUCAS 2018 (Figure 10c); and for mine sites, from the Water and Planetary Health Analytics database (Figure 10d).

The spatial distribution of cadmium in topsoil across the EU and United Kingdom was assessed using the 21 682 soil samples from the LUCAS soil module (with sampling conducted in 2009). Of these samples, 5.5 % had cadmium concentrations above 1 mg kg⁻¹. This threshold is a limit defined by the Finnish Ministry of the Environment and corresponds to the lower limit for cadmium in soils in the sewage sludge directive

(Directive 86/278/EEC) (European Commission, 1986). Natural factors such as soil pH, clay content, topography, erosion and leaching significantly affect soil cadmium concentrations (Ballabio et al., 2024). As anthropogenic factors, P inputs to agricultural lands were identified as the most important variable explaining cadmium levels. The application of the EU fertilising products directive should further limit cadmium inputs to soils. High copper concentrations have been identified in EU croplands and linked to anthropogenic activities. This is the case in vineyards and orchards in regions of northern Italy and parts of France, probably related to fungicide treatment and the wet and humid climate (Ballabio et al., 2018). Copper compounds, including copper sulphate, are authorised for use in the EU as bactericides and fungicides, despite being considered substances of particular concern to public health or the environment (EFSA, 2018). Copper-based fungicides are also authorised for use in organic farming (Tamm et al., 2022). In the case of mercury, high concentrations have been found close to mining sites such as Almadén and Asturias (Spain), Mount Amiata (Italy), Idrija (Slovenia) and Rudňany (Slovakia). In a more detailed investigation, 42 % of mercury hotspots were associated with mining activities, while the rest could be related to either coal combustion industries or local diffuse contamination. Overall, mercury hotspots in the EU (top 1 %) have been identified with concentrations of more than 422 µg kg⁻¹ (Ballabio et al., 2021). High Zn concentrations were found in 1 % of all samples (> 167 mg kg⁻¹) from Europe. The distance from natural Zn deposits or Zn mines was one of the most important variables in explaining Zn concentrations in Europe. Moreover, the high likelihood of grasslands having Zn concentrations above 167 mg kg⁻¹ indicates that collecting data on fertiliser and manure inputs would improve the estimation of topsoil Zn concentrations in Europe (Van Eynde et al., 2023).

An analysis of heavy metal concentrations in EU agricultural soils (based on LUCAS 2009) under the sewage sludge directive found that 19 % of samples exceeded the limit values as laid down in the national legislations for at least one single heavy metal as defined by Yunta et al. (2024) (Figure 10b). In the same way, accurate standard methods should be used to determine the actual heavy metal fractions that may be taken
**Figure 10.** Compilation of soil pollution assessments at the EU level, showing indicators of diffuse pollution: (a) cadmium, copper, mercury and zinc (combined); (b) heavy metal exceedance of sewage sludge limits; (c) pesticide residues and point-source pollution; and (d) active and inactive mine sites.

<figure><img src="image_24.png" /></figure>

Sources: EUSO, based on (a) Ballabio et al. (2018, 2021, 2024) and Van Eynde et al. (2023), (b) Yunta et al. (2024), (c) Vieira et al. (2023) and (d) Hudson-Edwards et al. (2023); modified from Vieira et al. (2024).

up by crops or actively affect human health. The distribution of heavy metals in agricultural soils was recently documented by the EEA (De Vries *et al.*, 2022), with exceedances seen across a significant proportion of Europe's agricultural areas. Future pollution monitoring at the EU level will build on the LUCAS soil module, through which heavy metals and other contaminants are now regularly monitored.

Pesticide residues are commonly found in European agricultural soils (74.5 %), whereas most samples (57.1 %) present mixtures of residues across crops and farming systems (Vieira *et al.*, 2023b). In organically managed soils, mostly long-banned substances are found, while conventionally managed soils host mostly a mix of compounds currently in use and recently or long banned. Glyphosate and its main metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, are

the compounds most frequently found in soils (Geissen *et al.*, 2021; Riedo *et al.*, 2021; Knuth *et al.*, 2024). Comparison with past assessments (Silva *et al.*, 2019) indicates a higher prevalence of pesticides residues, and a higher toxicity risk, in 2018 than in 2015 (Vieira *et al.*, 2023b; Franco *et al.*, 2024).

The global database on mine sites (Hudson-Edwards *et al.*, 2023) allows the identification of active (75 %) and inactive (25 %) mines in EU territory, as well as the major commodities under exploration (18 % copper, 16 % gold, 15 % lead, 12 % zinc). In the Member States, about 2.8 million sites are suspected to be polluted (Payá Pérez and Rodríguez Eugenio, 2018; EEA, 2022b), although only one quarter are included in national registries.

In the western Balkans, soil contamination is a significant issue, resulting from over a century
of industrialisation. The extent of contamination in the region is difficult to determine precisely, although some countries, such as Serbia, have made initial estimates (Arias-Navarro et al., 2024). Inadequate waste management remains a significant contributor to soil pollution despite efforts to improve legislation. Agriculture, which occupies 45 % of the land in the region, faces challenges brought by trace elements in fertilisers and pesticide residues. In addition, emerging contaminants, such as microplastics,

pharmaceuticals, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, are under-researched but require attention to implement effective soil management strategies (Vidojevic et al., 2022).

The extent of contamination in Türkiye is difficult to determine due to a lack of data. A national project in Türkiye titled ‘Determination of plant nutrient and potential toxic element contents of Türkiye’s agricultural soils: Creation of a database and mapping’ is being conducted by the General

Assessment of the impact of military activities on soil quality in Ukraine

An analysis conducted by the Institute of Soil Protection of Ukraine assessed the impact of military activities on soil quality in regions including Kyiv, Zhytomyr, Sumy and Kharkiv. Soil samples were analysed for heavy metals, oil products and agrochemical parameters. The results showed that the maximum allowable concentrations were exceeded for Pb, Zn, Cu and Mn in the Sumy region due to military activities. In Kharkiv, nickel (Ni) concentrations surpassed the maximum allowable concentration at various sites affected by explosions. In addition, research on soil flooding after the destruction of the Kakhovka Reservoir dam revealed Pb, Cd, Zn and Ni contamination in the Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions. Experts identified pollutants such as petroleum products, heavy metals and toxic organic chemicals in war zones. They noted soil changes including increased heavy metal content, increased carbon content due to burning and alterations in particle size distribution and density in areas affected by military machinery. Preliminary estimates by experts suggested significant economic losses totalling USD 34.442 billion, for example because of damage to land resources and soils due to pollution and contamination.

The assessment of the impact of military activities on soil quality in Ukraine underscores the urgent need for remediation efforts and proactive measures to mitigate further environmental degradation. The findings highlight widespread contamination by heavy metals and pollutants, posing risks to both agricultural productivity and public health. Addressing these challenges requires coordinated efforts from government agencies, environmental organisations and the international community to restore soil health and safeguard the well-being of affected communities.

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>Photos box 4: The impact of war on soil. Source: Y. Dmytruk.</figcaption></figure>
Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies. The project aims to establish a comprehensive database by collecting soil samples nationwide, creating soil property distribution maps, supported by the geographic information system, at a scale of 1/100 000, and develop software to monitor changes in soil properties over time. This initiative is part of efforts to assess and manage soil quality and identify potentially toxic elements present in soils across Türkiye (CBSBB, 2023).

In Ukraine, soil pollution stems primarily from three sources: residual radionuclides from the Chernobyl nuclear disaster; industrial activities such as metallurgy, the use of chemicals and mining, which release trace elements and radionuclides; and agricultural practices involving pesticides, fertilisers and liquid waste.

Expert assessments suggest that 9-11 % of arable land is affected by soil pollution. The state sanitary inspectorate monitors pollutant levels in urban soils, identifying significant contamination with heavy metals such as Cd, Mn, Pb, Cu and Zn in cities such as Pavlohrad, Mariupol and Pervomaisk. The exceedance of maximum allowable concentrations for Pb and Cd was observed in various regions. Moreover, approximately 5.35 million hectares of Ukrainian territory remain radioactively contaminated, with 1.24 million hectares of agricultural land exhibiting high levels of ¹³⁷Cs contamination (Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of Ukraine, 2021).

### 4.6.2 Drivers

Soil pollution in Europe is driven by various factors, each contributing to the degradation of soil quality and posing risks to environmental and human health.

* **Industrial activity.** Due to the long industrial history of EU, industrial activities represent two thirds of point sources of soil pollution, in combination with commercial and waste disposal and treatment activities (Payá Pérez and Rodríguez Eugenio, 2018; EEA, 2022b). The main associated contaminants are mineral oils, trace elements (e.g. arsenic, cadmium, lead, nickel, and zinc), and organic contaminants such as halogenated and non-halogenated solvents, polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

* Industrial waste products from food production, leather tanneries and the pharmaceutical industry are some of many drivers of heavy metal contamination (Cicchella et al., 2014).

* Primary sources of polychlorinated biphenyls are silicon rubber (Perron, 2021) and iron-steel manufacturing facilities (Kuzu et al., 2016), recycling facilities (Tang et al., 2010) and scrap metal sites (Odabasi et al., 2016).

* Besides mining activities, coal burning and cement production (atmospheric deposition) are drivers of thallium pollution (Legrand et al., 2022). Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, which can be found in slurry on agricultural land, and in firefighting foam and metal plating facilities, are now threatening soil and groundwater quality (Brunn et al., 2023).

* **Urban areas and the transport sector.** Severely polluted urbanised areas can have an impact to soils for several kilometres surrounding the source (Miśkowiec et al., 2015; Ordóñez et al., 2015; Miśkowiec, 2022).

* According to FAO (Abel et al., 2015), 60 % of the inner-city soils of Berlin are classified as Urbic Technosols. These anthropogenic soils are, in many cases, 'multi-contaminated', as they contain multiple (heavy) metals andmetalloids but also organic pollutants.

* Lead, zinc, copper and cadmium contamination were found in samples taken on the surface and in the immediate vicinity of a highway in France. The observed concentrations decreased rapidly with an increase in distance and depth (Pagotto et al., 2001). Other studies identify these sources of pollution as a global problem (Stojic et al., 2017; De Silva et al., 2021).

* The design and operation of landfills, and inappropriate site selection, may result in the leakage of contaminated leachates into the surrounding water and soil (Ma, Zhou et al., 2022).

* **Agriculture.** Agricultural soils can be contaminated due to traditional farming activities, such as the application of pesticides, fertilisers, manure
and sewage sludges and the use of plastic mulches, and motivated by increasing demand for crop production (FAO, 2021).

* Ostermann et al. (2014) found correlations between concentrations of the antibiotic sulfamethazine and Cu or Zn, suggesting that in regions with a high rate of manure application the assessment of metals currently in soils may help to identify potential hotspots for antibiotic pollution.

* The release of antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals to soils tends to result from the spreading of manure (de la Torre et al., 2012), the discharge of effluent from manufacturing plants, the spreading of sewage sludge or grazing livestock (European Parliament, 2021). The release of these pharmaceuticals results, among other things, in the development of antibiotic resistance genes in soil (Delgado-Baquerizo et al., 2020). Similarly, heavy metals and biocides have been described as factors promoting the development of antimicrobial resistance by selective pressure (Cycon et al., 2019).

* Plastic mulches, used in agricultural lands to improve water use and reduce the prevalence of weeds, are a source of microplastics, known to affect soil organisms (Lin et al., 2020) and soil's physico-chemical and hydrological properties (Qi et al., 2020). Moreover, plastic debris can adsorb pesticides, affecting their transport and slowing down their degradation (Peña et al., 2023).

* **Hazards and military activities.** Soil pollution can also be caused by punctual events with unprecedented impacts, triggered by natural hazards but also by exceptional anthropogenic circumstances such as military activities or wars. Examples of those at the EU level are as follows.

* Radionuclides emitted by atmospheric nuclear weapons tests, which peaked in the 1960s, and the Chernobyl accident in 1986 are found ubiquitously in soils across Europe. Nevertheless, the spatial patterns and the contributions of these two sources remain poorly constrained (Meusburger et al., 2020).

* Warfare and military activities can lead to the physical disturbance of soils and their enrichment with heavy metals (e.g. copper and lead) from fragments of shells, munitions, etc. (Williams and Rintoul-Hynes, 2022; Dmytruk et al., 2023).

* **Fires.** Fires are known to drive soil pollution due to the release of toxic compounds during combustion, not only in forests (e.g. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals; Ré et al., 2021) but also in urban areas (e.g. lead release from the Notre Dame Cathedral fire; Briard et al., 2023) and industrial waste sites or other brown field sites (Abraham et al., 2017).

### 4.6.3 Impacts

The impacts of soil pollution in Europe are multifaceted and far-reaching (De Vries et al., 2022), posing significant challenges to environmental sustainability, public health and socioeconomic well-being.

* **Animal and human health.** Living in areas with a higher concentration of heavy metals and metalloids in soil was associated with all-cause cardiovascular disease mortality, the aetiology of some types of cancer and an increased probability of having a mental disorder (Núñez et al., 2017; Ayuso-Álvarez et al., 2019). It should be highlighted, however, that most of the studies identified refer to the total amount of a given pollutant in soil, and do not consider the bioavailable fraction that has the capacity to be incorporated and accumulate in the body (Hemphill et al., 1991; Zhao et al., 2020).

* **Ecosystem service degradation.** More than 50 % of people in European countries live in cities (Eurostat, 2023), but all of them depend on soil health status, especially for food supply and a healthy environment. The potential impacts of pollutants in soils ecosystem's services provision could be identified by the following examples:

* **Metal and pesticide pollution.** Affects soil invertebrates and soil microbial communities, impacting carbon cycling and storage (Azarbad et al., 2015; Faggioli et al., 2019; Soudzilovskaja et al., 2019; Gunstone et al., 2021).
* **Microplastics and nanoplastics.** Have negative effects on soils' chemical and physical properties. The degradation of these substances often releases additional contaminants, affecting soil organisms and plant growth, and accumulating in the food chain. However, the long-term effects of microplastics on soil are still poorly understood (Shafea *et al.*, 2023).

It should be highlighted that soils with naturally high pollutant (e.g. arsenic, cadmium, lead) levels should not be considered degraded soils or to degrade ecosystem service provision, unless their natural equilibrium is disrupted.

The assessment of soil pollution presents significant challenges due to substantial gaps in knowledge. These gaps stem from historical deficiencies in monitoring practices and a limited understanding of the complex interactions between pollutants and soil ecosystems. Despite the recognised presence of various pollutants and their adverse impacts on soils, comprehensive assessment frameworks remain incomplete. The main knowledge gaps can be divided into four groups.

* **Processes.** Due to a general lack of knowledge on individual substances, it is often not possible to identify their pathways to soil or interactions with soil properties, which also affect their residence, transport and fate, nor identify their ecotoxicological properties, bioaccumulation and bioavailability, or their exposure and risk to the environment and humans.

* **Monitoring.** Our limited capacity to quantify and determine the level and spatial extent of various pollutants in EU soils, for both diffuse and point-source pollution, limits the development of knowledge and regulations. A harmonised inventory and an impact assessment of contaminated sites across Member States are examples of unavailable knowledge products.

* **Synergies.** Several studies show that soils are often contaminated by several different substances simultaneously, and very little is known

regarding the combined effect of mixtures. This is also an issue when defining reference values (thresholds, background levels and values for screening) for soil health at the EU scale, given the natural background pollution, the variability of soils in the EU and other pressures currently in place.

* **Emerging pollutants.** There is no priority watch list for pollutants in soil that could help in specifically addressing the former points in relation to emerging pollutants.

Addressing these gaps, in a holistic and harmonised way, with policy support, is essential for developing effective strategies to mitigate soil pollution and ensure the sustainability of soil resources for future generations. The consequences of soil pollution extend beyond environmental degradation to include risks to human health, food security and ecosystem integrity. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts from policymakers, industries and the public to implement effective pollution prevention and remediation measures, promote sustainable land management practices and foster greater awareness of the importance of preserving soil health for current and future generations. By taking decisive action to mitigate soil pollution, Europe can work towards ensuring a more sustainable and resilient future.
<figure><img src="image_26.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 11.** Saline and sodic soils map for the EU-27 showing the area distribution of saline, sodic and potentially salt-affected areas, 2008.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO, based on Tóth et al. (2008).

## 4.7 Soil salinisation and sodification

Soil salinisation is a major soil degradation process in Europe, diminishing soil fertility. It can stem from natural factors such as geological and climatic conditions or human-induced practices such as improper irrigation methods and poor drainage, with Mediterranean countries being most affected. Rising trends in soil salinisation are evident in Spain, Italy, Cyprus and Portugal due to various factors, including climate change and intensive agriculture. Addressing soil salinisation necessitates integrated management approaches focusing on drainage improvement, sustainable irrigation, crop selection and ecosystem restoration.

Soil salinisation is a major soil degradation process in Europe, diminishing soil fertility. It can stem from natural factors such as geological and climatic conditions or human-induced practices such as improper irrigation methods and poor drainage, with Mediterranean countries being most impacted. Rising trends in soil salinisation are evident in Spain, Italy, Cyprus and Portugal due to various factors, including climate change and intensive agriculture. Addressing soil salinisation necessitates integrated management approaches focusing on drainage improvement, sustainable irrigation, crop selection and ecosystem restoration.

Soil salinisation is the increase in soluble salt concentration in soil. It is considered one of the major causes of soil degradation, decreases soil fertility in Europe. It can happen naturally (geological, climatic, topographic and hydrological origin) or be human induced. Human activities,
such as unsustainable irrigation practices and inappropriate management of water reservoirs and canals, can cause secondary salinisation (Daliakopoulos et al., 2016), as can the use of salt-rich irrigation water or poor drainage conditions (FAO and ITPS, 2015). Similarly, sodification is the process by which the exchangeable sodium (Na+) content of soil is increased (Hopmans et al., 2021). This results in the soil having unfavourable physical and chemical properties, which makes it difficult to utilise the soil and reduces its ecosystem service potential.

### 4.7.1 Status and trends

In Europe, salt-affected soils occur in the Caspi-an basin, Ukraine, the Carpathian Basin and the Iberian peninsula. Soil salinity affects an estimated 1 million hectares of land in the EU, mainly in the Mediterranean countries (Tóth et al., 2006). Excess levels of salts affect around 4 million hectares of European soils because of secondary salinisation (Van-camp et al., 2004), especially in the coast-al areas of southern Europe (Daliakopoulos et al., 2016). These areas include the Ebro valley in

box 5

## Coastal vulnerability and groundwater salinisation in Türkiye: Implications and solutions.

Türkiye faces significant coastal impacts due to rising sea levels, with millions of people residing in vulnerable regions along the Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara, and Black Sea coasts. Coastal cities, though occupying a small percentage of the country's land area, house a substantial portion of its population and contribute significantly to its GDP (Güven, 2007).

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MoAF) in Türkiye conducted a research project in the Kızılırmak Delta Coastal Region to study groundwater characteristics and the impact of sea water intrusion on water and soil - The Bafra Plain Irrigation Project. The project exemplifies the challenges faced, where groundwater salinity and seawater intrusion have escalated due to excessive irrigation from underground wells. Despite efforts to mitigate salinity issues, groundwater remains saline, affecting agricultural productivity and soil quality.

Urgent action is needed to address coastal vulnerability and groundwater salinization, emphasizing the importance of site-specific studies and integrated coastal management strategies to safeguard Türkiye's coastal regions and agricultural lands.

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /><figcaption>Figure box 5: Location of the study area. Samsun Bafra Kızılırmak Delta. Source: Arslan et al., (2007) and MoAF (2022).</figcaption></figure>