water resources (iii) the amount of resource available could lead to competition between food chains (iv)
analyzing relationships between supply chain actors can help identify new key actors to enhance or limit
the further extension of groundwater irrigation.

Access to groundwater resource and developement of food supply chains

Some major traditional cereals growing basins as Beauce in France and Saiss in Morocco have experienced
during the past 30 years a broad diversification of productions associated with the development of irri-
gation. This development has led to the establishment of new downstream sectors in trade or processing,
that play a structural role for agricultural change. The irrigation first appears in these regions, consecu-
tively to a drought event, to secure the traditional cereals and grains crops. Endowed with this new water
resource, farmers took rapidly new opportunities of crops diversification and downstream operators also
invest in these new chains as the production was quickly growing. Vegetables (beans, onions, potatoes)
and seeds are high value crops that are favored by farmers when they get a secured resource for irriga-
tion. Groundwater with individual access is generally considered as a more secured resource than surface
water networks which are collectively managed and subject to organizational problems.

In the Sais, central Morocco, a pioneer area for groundwater exploitation, onion production has raised
10 times since years 2000's and it is now the leading basin in the country, covering 50% of the national
supply. Individual access to groundwater through a liberalization of drilling, and diffusion of drip irri-
gation have led to this expansion of cultivated area and yields increase. But this economic development
based on unregulated groundwater withdrawals also led to an overexploitation. A drop of piezometric
levels of 60 m in the last 20 years is met in some parts of the Sais aquifer. The economic stakes of
this resource abstraction have, so far, impeded the search of solutions. The valorization of productions
implies for 80% of products, informal distribution channels with a high number of market intermedi-
airies (middlemen, brokers...). For the Sais onion chain, Lejars & Courilleau (2015) estimate a number
of 2000 intermediaries for 4000 producers. Despite their flexibility these operators have difficulties to
integrate long term sustainability issues, and to anticipate a possible collapse of the resource.

Organization of supply chains and irrigation use

A current trend in many agri-food supply chains is the qualitative segmentation of markets to meet
demand requirements and get a better valorization of products. This segmentation leads to the develop-
ment of contracted crops with production specification. Irrigation is often a technical component needed
to ensure this specification. In Beauce, most of the new sectors developed thanks to irrigation, have
based their supply on contracts: vegetables, seeds, malting barley. Satisfaction of crops water require-
ments for quality standard is a contractual obligation.

Traditional supply chains of the region such as cereals and sugar beet al.o developed quality differenti-
ation or contractual commitment on quantitative delivery that implies an optimized level of irrigation.
For the agro-food firms, the presence of a water resource available for irrigation is considered as a key
factor for their investment localization strategies.

Competition between food chains for water resource

In many situations, in particular with groundwater which is subject to individual abstraction, water is
a scarce resource, not sufficient to cover all the needs. Irrigating farmers have to arbitrate the water
allocation between crops. Their individual decisions have aggregated impacts on the total volume of
production at basin level, and finally on the supply of downstream operators. Insufficient production can
lead to the closure of processing or packing units that will affect the whole supply basin. In Beauce this
problem occurs after the implementation of management rules of the regional aquifer. Farmers received
individuals quotas of water withdrawals, these quotas were annually adjusted before the cropping
season, subject to the level of the watertable. This management system can potentially lead to severe
restriction of water access and put at risk several industries particularly dependent on irrigation: the vegetable canning industry, the malting, the sugar and the seeds industries. Downstream operators were associated in participative workshops with farmers representative and resource managers to estimate the physical and economic impacts of water restrictions for each industry (Lejars & fusilier, 2012). Some leeways to adapt supply organization (cropping calendar, norms) or water management rules (temporary exemption, permit to carry over the quota, geographic differenciation...) to potential restrictive scenarios were also discussed.

## Analyzing relationships between supply chain actors can help identify new key actors to limit the further extension of groundwater irrigation

Relationships between supply chain stakeholders require analysis and intervention because they are a leeway to improve water savings. Analyzing relationships between supply chain actors can help identify new key actors to participate to water management processes. Making them visible is the first step to including them in water management, as they clearly depend on this resource. In Beauce, first experience showed that actors of food processing sectors are interested in participating in negotiations around groundwater volumetric management and should be included in the water management processes. In Morocco, first studies showed that the state should include supply chains actors in particular inputs suppliers in its agricultural policies. They could become major nodes for the dissemination of information and innovation and they not only have personal relations with farmers, but also close links with state representatives.

## References

Bouarfa S., Brunel L., Granier J.-C. Mailhol S. Morardet S., and Ruelle P (2011). Évaluation en partenariat des stratégies d'irrigation en cas de restriction des prélèvements dans la nappe de Beauce. Cahiers Agricultures «Quels nouveaux défis pour les agricultures irriguées ?»: 124-129.

Cobb D., Dolman P., O'Riordan, T., 1999. Interpretations of sustainable agriculture in the UK. Progress in Human Geography 23, 209–235

Farès M., Magrini M.B., Triboulet P., 2012, Transition agroécologique, innovation et effets de verrouillage : le rôle de la structure organisationnelle des filières, Cahiers Agricultures. 21(1), 34-45

INRA, 2006. Sécheresse et Agriculture, Réduire la vulnérabilité de l'agriculture à un risque accru de manque d'eau, Expertise scientifique collective, octobre 2006

Jamin J.Y., Bouarfa S., Poussin JC., Garin P., 2011. Les agricultures irriguées face à de nouveaux défis. Cahiers Agricultures, 20, 10-15.

Lejars C.; Fusillier J.-L., Bouarfa S., Coutant C., Rucheton G. and Brunel L., 2012. Limitation of agricultural groundwater uses in Beauce (France): What are the impacts on farms and on the foodprocessing sector? Irrigation and Drainage: 61(1), 56-66

Ilbery B, Maye D, 2005. Food supply chains and sustainability: evidence from specialist food producers in the Scottish /English borders, Land Use Policy 22 331–344

Madramootoo C.A., Fyles H., 2010. Irrigation in the context of today's global food crisis. Irrig Drain, 59, 40-52.

Marsden T., Murdoch J., Morgan K., 1999. Sustainable agriculture food supply chains and regional development: editorial introduction. International Planning Studies 4, 295–301

Molle, F. 2011. Politiques agraires et surexploitation de l'eau au Maghreb. In Pouvoirs, société et nature au sud de la Méditerranée, edited by Dahou, T.; Elloumi, M. and Molle, F. Paris : Karthala

Siebert S., Burke J., Faures J. M., Frenken K., Hoogeveen J., Doll P., and Portmann F. T. Groundwater use for irrigation – a global inventory, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 1863–1880, 2010 -2010.

UN Millennium Project, Task Force on Hunger. Earthscan; London, UK: 2005. Halving hunger: it can be done.
# The extent and determinants of postharvest losses: evidence from the cooking banana value chain in Uganda

Enoch Kikulwe<fnref n="1" />, Stanslus Okurut<fnref n="2" />, Diego Nanziri<fnref n="3" />, Susan Ajambo<fnref n="1" /> and Kephas Nowakunda<fnref n="4" />

## Study rationale

Banana is the main staple crop in Uganda; it provides 17% of the daily caloric needs of the country and annual per capita household incomes of about US$1,244 (Kilimo Trust, 2012). Per capita consumption of cooking bananas in Uganda is 172Kg/person/year, making it the largest consumer of cooking bananas in the world. However, the crop has a very short shell life. As a result, bananas are very vulnerable to postharvest deterioration; large proportions of the crop rot, ripen and get bruised before they reach the final consumer. These losses represent inefficiencies in the supply chain and thus have far reaching effects on food availability, prices and may result into increased pressure on natural resources.

Whereas policy has prioritized reduction of postharvest losses (PHL) in Uganda, operationalization of postharvest reduction strategies and programs is still a challenge. One of the main factors hindering operationalization of such programs and strategies is the lack of consistent and empirical information on the extent and causes of these losses. The few available studies on PHL have focused more on cereals giving little attention to fruits and vegetables (Affognon *et al.*, 2015), yet fruits and vegetables suffer the bulk of PHL. Banana in particular has received little attention in postharvest research. Information on the extent and determinants of PHL can provide insights on how efficient a value chain (VC) is, helps in isolation of loss hotspots and can guide targeting and designing of intervention strategies. In Uganda, TRIAS (2012) quantified PHL in the banana value chain. However, estimates from TRIAS (2012) are based on anecdotal evidence does not disaggregate losses at the various VC nodes. Disaggregating losses along the VC is important in identifying loss hotspots and weak links amongst value chain players. The current study contributes to literature by estimating the extent and assessing the determinants of PHL in the banana VC in Uganda.

## Conceptual Framework

PHL refer to measurable quantitative and qualitative food losses in the postharvest system (de Lucia & Assenato, 1994). PHL threaten food, income and nutrition security for smallholders. PHL can be subdivided into “food loss” and “food waste”. The distinction between “food loss” and “food loss” is however not well defined in PHL literature. In this study, we followed FAO (2014) which distinguishes between “food loss” and “food waste” with respect to the stage of the food supply chain. We define losses at farm, collection, wholesale and retail levels as “food losses” and losses at consumer level as “food waste.” In this study, losses at consumer level are defined as food “waste” are not used in estimation of PHL in cooking banana value chain. We define the extent of PHL in the banana value chain to be the sum of losses at farm, collection, wholesale and retail levels, which are hypothesized to be influenced by a number of factors including social, economic, and infrastructural factors. We conceptualize that high PHL reflect inefficiencies in the value chain. This is because the chain fails to move original quantities of bananas produced from the farm to the forks in a cheap and timely manner as proportions of the crop are lost along the chain.

<footnote n="1">1. Bioversity International, Uganda.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">2. Makerere University, Uganda.</footnote>

<footnote n="3">3. International Potato Center (CIP), Uganda.</footnote>

<footnote n="4">4. National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO), Uganda.</footnote>
## Study Description

Following Naziri *et al*. (2014) physical losses in this study were estimated as the proportion of banana that is deteriorated to the point that it is unfit for human consumption. Bananas affected by physical losses do not have alternative uses or residual value. Economic losses on the other hand refer to the proportion of bananas that are partially spoiled or damaged and whose market price is discounted. Therefore, banana affected by economic losses is still used and thus has a residual value. We used a structured questionnaire to obtain information on physical and economic losses in scarce and surplus seasons from 100 farmers, 17 collectors and 10 wholesalers in Isingiro and Rakai districts and 40 retailers from markets in the metropolis of Kampala.

We used weighted means, as opposed to simple means, in determining the average physical and economic losses at the various VC nodes across the two seasons. Total PHL at each node were in turn calculated as the sum of the respective physical and economic losses. The overall value of the PHL along the banana VC was estimated as the sum of the total physical and total economic losses at all nodes. Total Economic losses were calculated as a direct sum of economic losses at farm, collection, retail and whole sale levels. However, since bananas lost at one node of the chain actually disappear from the VC and cannot be lost again, the total amount of physical losses in the VC were calculated by summing up the losses at each node of the chain while netting off losses that occurred at the previous stages in order to avoid double counting. Because of data limitations, this study examined the factors that influence PHL at only farm and retail levels. The factors affecting PHL at farm level were assessed using a Tobit regression model. This is because a number of farmers (26) reported zero losses, making Tobit to be more robust than OLS. However, an OLS regression was used to determine the factors that affect losses for retailers since no retailer reported zero losses. Appropriate diagnostic tests were done to determine the fitness of the models.

## Results

### PHL along the cooking banana VC

PHL and price discounts are higher in the surplus season at all VC nodes. This is because supply of bananas usually exceeds demand in surplus seasons; as a result, bananas are stored for longer periods leading to ripening. Perishability of bananas and mishandling effects manifest more as bananas move along the chain. Bruising and ripening are therefore more prevalent at retail level. These findings are consistent with other studies (Mebratie *et al.*, 2015).

### Extent of PHL in the banana VC

We estimated the total extent of economic losses in the value chain as a direct sum of the economic losses at farm, collection, wholesale and retail levels, resulting into a value of 22.07% (2.49+3.72+5.93+9.93). However, we also found that on average, only about 35% of the total cooking bananas produced actually leaves the farm for the market, the rest being consumed by the farm household. Since only traded bananas can incur economic losses, the overall proportion of harvested banana affected by economic losses in Uganda can be estimated at 7.73% (i.e., 22.1% of marketed bananas). In calculating the total extent of physical losses in the chain, we net off losses incurred at previous VC nodes since bananas lost at one node do not move to the next node (and cannot be lost again). The proportion of marketed banana affected by physical losses was estimated as (1-0.974*0.968*0.920*0.915) giving a value of 20.6%. The overall amount of harvested bananas that incur physical losses can be then computed at 7.21% since only 35% of bananas produced are marketed. A direct sum of physical losses at the respective value chain nodes would have overestimated the proportion of marketed bananas affected by physical losses at 22.1%. We then sum up the physical and economic losses to obtain the extent of PHL in the entire chain approximating to 14.94% of which 7.21% are completely lost while 7.73% are sold at a discount due to quality deterioration.
## Factors that affect PHL

At farm level, female-headed households, household size, monthly banana production – have significant positive effects on PHLs, while education, specialization and an interaction between district (Rakai=1) and distance to tarmac road have significant negative effects. Banana harvesting and marketing are laborious and require a lot of mobility. Women have less mobility and prefer less laborious activities, this may explain why female-headed households have higher losses. Similarly, as more bananas are produced, household labor is stretched and less time is allocated per farm activity; this may explain why PHL increase as banana production increases. More educated farmers may have better knowledge of banana management and usually have more access to trainings. This explains why farmers with at least secondary education have lower PHL. Commercial farmers may benefit from specialization and allocate more time to the management and husbandry of bananas and may also have more access to markets, resulting into reduced PHL as shown in our results.

At retail level, female retailers have lower losses; the underlying reason could be that they are better handlers of bananas. Similarly, retailers who are organized in groups experience lower losses than non-members. The reason could be that, through collective action, group members purchase in bulk at lower prices directly from producers, which gives members access to clean, mature and fresh banana fruits at lower prices, and with minimal bruises. In addition, retailers who source banana from nearby markets and directly from producers are found to have lower PHL than those who purchase from suppliers. It may be that retailers who source their own bananas do more quality assurance and purchase bananas with less damage which spoil less. Finally, we found that traders who mostly seek information about banana quality from their suppliers suffer less PHL compared to those who mostly seek information about banana prices. Traders interested in quality may do more inspection and quality assurance. In so doing they select high quality bananas that suffer minimal losses.

Significant proportions of harvested bananas are lost before consumption, which represents substantial food and income losses to farmers, consumers and traders. Because losses at one node affect losses at other, we recommend the adoption of holistic and integrated strategies that target PHL reduction at all nodes in the VC.

## Implications

It is evident that the banana VC is far from efficient; substantial amounts of bananas are lost completely. This has direct implications on food availability and farmer incomes as food lost can neither be consumed nor sold. Because less food is available, PHL indirectly inflate the prices of bananas and stifle food access. PHL also indirectly increase pressure on natural resources as more production is needed to cover for the bananas lost, making banana production less sustainable. End to end vertical and horizontal interactions among actors is therefore necessary if PHL are to be reduced, banana access enhanced, and banana prices lowered. These interactions should stimulate development and establishment of product and handling standards as well as fostering loss reducing innovations such as selling of bananas as fingers and clusters as opposed to bunches, transportation of bananas in boxes for protection against bruising, use of ripening control chemicals like ethylene and the selling of packed and peeled bananas. Selling of peeled bananas has numerous ecological functions; peelings are direct sources of biomass for organic manure production on farm; it reduces weight handled at trade level allowing more quantities to be sold; and it reduces amount of domestic waste that has to be disposed-off. This is particularly important in a country like Uganda where disposal of waste is not streamlined; large quantities of waste are deposited in water channels with far reaching effects on human and ecosystem health.

## References

Affognon H., Mutungi C., Sangiga P., & Borgemeister C. (2015). Unpacking Postharvest Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa: A meta analysis. World Development, 66, 49-68.
de Lucia M., & Assenato D. (1994). Agricultural Engineering in Development. Postharvest Operations and Management of Foodgrains. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 93.

FAO (2014). Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food systems: A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome: FAO.

Kilimo Trust (2012): Banana Value Chain(s) in the EAC: consumption, productivity and challenges.

Mebratie M. A., Haji J., Woldetsadik K., & Ayalew A. (2015). Determinants of Postharvest Banana Loss in the Marketing Chain of Central Ethiopia. Food Science and Quality Management, 37.

Naziri D., Quaye W., Siwoku B., Wanlapatit S., Phu T. V., & Bennett B. (2014). The diversity of post-harvest losses in cassava value chains in selected developing countries. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, 115 (2), 111-123.

TRIAS (2012). Banana (Matooke): Sub Sector Analysis Report.
# Strategic planning for sustainable organic hillside agriculture with a farming system and value chain model in Nicoya, Guanacaste

Jeroen Houdijk¹, Grégoire Leclerc², Bruno Barbier³, Rigoberto Rodriguez Quirós⁴ and Roberto García Pinéres¹

## Summary

The Nicoya Peninsula is part of the Guanacaste province of Costa Rica and is characterized by a tropical climate with a pronounced dry season marked by droughts. On 25 of July 2016, the Association of organic hillside producers *Orgánicos el Cerro Negro* was recognized with the first price in the first Regional Contest on Drought Adaptation Strategies in Guanacaste, organized by CIRAD and Fundación Nicoyagua, HIDROCEC-UNA, CATIE, ASADA de Huacas, MAG-Chorotega, UCR and La Voz de Guanacaste as part of the FuturAgua Project.

Two elements are considered key in the sustainable development of *Orgánicos el Cerro Negro* and of the agricultural value chain for organic products: 1) the innovative water harvesting solutions that the association has developed with the Universidad Nacional (UNA), 2) Organic certification of their production.

In 2012 *Orgánicos el Cerro Negro* started the transition towards a Participatory Guarantee System which was enabled by Costa Rican legislation in 2002. In this system the interaction with end consumers is part of a strategy to build trust, and to create feedback loops in the value chain towards a circular flow of information. This enables better production planning for the producers. Nevertheless, the association supplies a group of clients that they believe is too small, therefore they are looking for ways to increase sales and diversify products and services in order to expand their client base and reduce financial risks.

We present a value chain approach that was applied to describe and quantify the route from producer to consumer for the main organic products. On that base a strategic business plan was developed in a participative process, based on CATIE methodology for the development of strategic planning for rural associations (Gottret 2011) and on modeling farms productive hydro-agro-systems. We show how this strengthens the association by securing the consumer base, and increases its autonomy relative to government and NGO aid. The application of General Algebraic Modeling System software (GAMS Development Corporation 2013) to simulate production on farm level and the use of irrigation systems is used to back discussions to evaluate the profitability of Orgánicos el Cerro under various constraints and scenarios. We take into account the short term seasonal variations in climatologic and hydrologic conditions and long term climate prognostics, and a fluctuating, but growing demand for organic products, as well as the effect of organic certification schemes.

The development of a sound model business strategy based on innovative water harvest solutions that enables sustainable production by reducing climate variability – and financial risks can be shared and expanded in the wider Guanacaste region and other draught sensitive regions.

## References

* GAMS Development Corporation. 2013. *General Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS) Software*. 2013. Gottret, MV. 2011. *Guía 3. Orientación estratégica con enfoque de cadena de valor para la gestión de empresas asociativas rurales. Desarrollo de planes estratégicos*. 2011.

1. CATIE, Turrialba 30501, Costa Rica.

2. CIRAD, UPR GREEN, Turrialba 30501, Costa Rica; CIRAD, UPR GREEN, F-34398 Montpellier, France.

3. CIRAD, UMR G-EAU, Dakar Hann, Sénégal; CIRAD, UPR GREEN, F-34398 Montpellier, France.

4. Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Costa Rica.
# A successful convergence between natural resources management and value chain development

Sara Melki<fnref n="1" />

Since 2009, GRET supported the sustainable development of natural bamboo value chains in Northern Lao PDR. This intervention has been led by Huaphanh Bamboo Sector Project team with the objectives of poverty reduction and protection of the natural forests by assuming that the development of sustainable and fair bamboo value chains will be achieved with the realization of a multi actor negotiation process. This paper specifically presents the progresses that have been done on developing the dried bamboo shoots value chain. The project works under the umbrella of the Provincial Bamboo Sector Development Strategy and through the framework of the innovative collective learning process.

In 2010 the bamboo Hok dried bamboo shoots value chain was at a precipice. The Huaphanh government had imposed a ban on the value chain due to the risk of deforestation (wood used for drying) and over-exploitation of natural resources. Exacerbating this situation was the illegal trading of dried shoots by unscrupulous traders compounded by lack of reinforcement of established rules. Capitalizing on these effects, producers and traders were maximizing their profits by using harmful tactics and tricks such as adding chemicals and water to dried shoots. The results were the ruination of product quality and product sanitation, similar situation as those causing the dried shoots scandal in 2011 in Vietnam.

Recognizing the potential, the project organized a workshop with local communities, private sector and government, to show the stakeholders socio-economic potential for developing the value chain with particular attention on the sustainable management of natural resources through the implementation of participatory forest management plan. In 2012, through collective negotiation, as an experiment phase, the authorities authorized four businessmen to officially start trading by allocating quota and licenses. A year later, success of this experimental phase created a suction effect in which unscrupulous businesses tried to maximize profits by setting up temporary processors using considerable amount of wood and sulphur to process dried bamboo shoots for the Chinese market.

To overcome the situation, a market study and a study tour was organized in Vietnam seeking out a niche fair-trade market. A new business model was proposed and discussed on producing high quality dried shoot by establishing four village processing units whose products can reach the organic and Vietnamese PGS market. Since 2013, these units signed contracts to supply to a Vietnamese ‘social’ enterprise. The collected village fees were used to pay the forest monitoring and evaluation conducted by the communities, while providing the units operating capital.

Simultaneously, collaboration began with the Lao Certification Body, a state actor, to experiment the implementation of PGS certification on dried bamboo shoots. Since bamboo is a non-timber forest product, the quality product is certified thanks to the forest monitoring and evaluation of the communal forests. The improvement of the product quality to access this niche market and the producer organization has positively impacted the value chain on creating jobs and adding local value. The PGS certification seeks the recognition of a quality product, through the sustainable forest management and the producer's organization to reach a niche market in Vietnam.

<footnote n="1">1. Groupe de Recherche et d'Echanges Technologiques (GRET), F-94736 Nogent-sur-Marne, France.</footnote>
Session 15

*Building sustainability in value chains*
*Assessing firm strategies*
# On the learning curve: sustainability in the making in the Laotian coffee sector

Isabelle Vagneron<fnref n="1" />, Chitpasong Kousonsavath<fnref n="2" /> and Maiyer Xiong

## Introduction

A small, poor and landlocked country of Southeast Asia, the Lao PDR has experienced rapid economic growth over the past 15 years, part of which is related to large inflows of foreign direct investment (FDI) into the country. As a result of the new policies implemented by the government of Lao PDR, FDI in the country grew from USD 31 million to US$350 million between 2000 and 2010 (IIED, 2012), while its share in total GDP more than quadrupled from 3.3% in 2001 to 15.9% by 2008 (World Bank, 2010). With 360 investment projects over a total area of 140,015 hectares, the agricultural sector represented in 2011 approximately 14% of all investment projects and covered 13% of the total area under investment (Schönweger et al., 2012). 60% of these investment projects –and almost 80% of the total area concerned– were made by foreign investors. Closely related to the surge in FDI, the allocation of land concessions by the government of Lao PDR is a recent but rapidly expanding phenomenon. Through the concession system, the government of Lao PDR allocates land to local or foreign enterprises to invest and organize production. This enables the government of Lao PDR to reach a variety of policy objectives (e.g., increase farm land productivity; eliminate swidden agriculture; develop rural employment, infrastructures and the local economy; increase its incomes). Foreign investors benefit from cheap access to available land and labor and from the close proximity to major markets.

Land concessions are a matter of heated debate in Lao PDR, due to their potentially negative impacts on local livelihoods and the environment. Potentially positive impacts of concessions include the creation of jobs and incomes, the contribution of large enterprises to local community development (e.g. through electrification projects or investment in infrastructure) and the diffusion of new production techniques/innovation, possibly through the development of out-grower schemes (provision of technical training, high quality inputs and equipment to the farmers located at the periphery of the plantation). In a context of insecure rights and weak land governance, negative impacts of concessions include: deforestation and loss of biodiversity; loss of access to land; threat to local livelihoods; eviction of other potential investors; and adverse impacts on employment. In 2007, land conflicts following the establishment of large industrial plantations in the South of Lao PDR resulted in the Prime Minister Bouasone Bouphavanh announcing a moratorium on the allocation of new plantations of over 150 hectares for industrial trees, perennial plants, and mining (Baird, 2010a, 2012; High, 2010; Kenney-Lazar, 2010). The allocation of concessions over 150 hectares resumed in May 2009 before being suspended again in July 20091. On June 2012, the government of Lao PDR announced its decision not to allow any new investments in mining or grant further land concessions for rubber and eucalyptus plantations until 2015, and to undertake an evaluation of all approved investment projects. These moratoria responded to growing concern over the impacts of concessions on local livelihoods and the environment, and over the lack of clarity of land allocation procedures.

## Rationale and implication

The above-mentioned pressures on land are particularly manifest on the Bolaven Plateau (Southern Laos) where coffee is traditionally grown by thousands of smallholder coffee growers, and where a large number concessions of various kinds (e.g., hydro-electric, mining and large plantations) have been granted. Located some 700 km south of Vientiane, the Bolaven Plateau is typically located "on the edges of state authority" (Das & Poole, 2004). As a locus of the aggressive expansion of market capitalism

<footnote n="1">1. CIRAD, UMR MOISA, F-34060 Montpellier, France.</footnote>

<footnote n="2">2. National University of Laos, Faculty of Agriculture, Vientiane Capital, Lao PDR.</footnote>
located at the margins of the State, the Bolaven Plateau can be simultaneously interpreted as a space of exclusion/inclusion and as a transition space where new ways of doing things and new relations between people are being invented and tested – this includes new production processes, labor relations, land uses, etc.–, within the boundaries of pre-existing social networks, and new relations of power and authority. The downside is that the margins are often areas of great vulnerability for those who cannot make their voices heard (e.g., local communities, migrant workers, smallholder farmers) as they may be made invisible to public policies if they are muffled by more powerful voices. Ultimately, what happens in the margins depends on how individuals (from within the area and from outside), endowed with different types and levels of capital (cultural, economic, social and symbolic), are able to negotiate and re-imagine the web of relationships within which they live and work.

This paper aims to assess changes in current land allocation practices on the Bolaven Plateau, and in the perception that coffee stakeholders have of the evolutions that are currently taking place. Namely, we focus on the learning process through which new models of corporate social responsibility can emerge in association with FDI investments. In this process, we question the role and responsibilities of trans-national corporations operating at the margins of weak States.

## Materials and methods

This article is based on qualitative and quantitative fieldwork carried out in 2014-2015 in the Lao coffee sector. Qualitative surveys enabled us to document: 1/ the detailed procedures for land acquisition on the plateau, and showed how these procedures were progressively strengthened following a land conflict that opposed in 2010 Outspan Bolovens Limited (OBL, a subsidiary of the Singaporean trading company Olam) to local communities; 2/ the efforts subsequently made by OBL to better interact with smallholder farmers (e.g. through contract farming agreements and certification schemes), mainly to protect their reputation on global markets, but also because they needed the coffee that their plantations were unable to produce to feed their factories; 3/ the perceptions of smallholder coffee farmers, who mainly viewed these large plantations as new potential buyers for their coffee, and as providers of new job opportunities.

## Main results and findings

The paper provides a detailed account of the slow but genuine changes in how stakeholders (smallholders, plantations and government agencies) interact together towards sustainability. Namely, we document the evolution of the conflict that opposed OBL to smallholder farmers on the Bolaven Plateau and analyse how, several years after the confrontation, the various stakeholders look back at the unfolding of events. We show how following the adverse publicity triggered by its poor interaction with neighboring smallholders, OBL progressively modified its approach to negotiating and interacting with neighboring farmers, and how government agencies improved their procedures to screen foreign investment demands for land. We show how smallholder coffee farmers interacted with and perceived large coffee investors operating in their neighborhood. In a highly contested space, we show that for genuine social and economic development to emerge from current practices will require that new contractual arrangements between the farmers and the companies be closely monitored to ensure that they do not lock producers into unfair relations, and that future land deals involve a much higher and earlier participation of local communities than is currently the case.

## Conclusion

CSR has been rapidly developing in Asia since the 2000s for a variety of reasons, including: economic development has brought new challenges (e.g., pollution, inequalities); a better-educated and informed population that is more able to express its concerns on a variety of issues; the increasing pressure from civil society organizations; and the internationalization of supply chains, which has spread the use of responsible business practices and rules (Chapple & Moon, 2005). There are however important dispar-
ities between Asian countries, with a high level of CSR adoption in Japan, Korea, or Taiwan, dynamic trends in China, Vietnam and Thailand, and a low level of adoption in the Lao PDR and Cambodia.

CSR is a new concept in the Lao PDR. While a few examples of CSR initiatives are piloted by large international companies –especially in the mining, hydropower, forestry and agro-industrial sectors– the overall level of CSR awareness by local companies and government actors is quite low (GIZ, 2014). Challenges to the implementation of CSR in Lao PDR include: a lack of stakeholder involvement in and understanding of CSR; a low level of adoption of CSR practices, which provides little incentives to improve performance; a weak policy environment (lack of policies, weak enforcement of existing regulations); a relative lack of linkages between buyers, supply chains and markets in destinations sensitive to CSR; a weak civil society (Hicks, 2009). Although there is still little space within the Lao PDR's one-party State for policy advocacy over land issues (let al. ne popular contestation or resistance), recent initiatives have emerged to promote sustainability in agribusiness deals. A workshop on “*Corporate Social Responsibility for Sustainable Development in Lao PDR across the Land Sector*” was organized in November 2015 by the Ministry of Planning and Investment, the Mekong Region Land Governance Project, and local and international NGOs with the support from international donors and the ASEAN CSR Network. OBL and Stora Enso (Finnish pulp and paper company that owns several eucalyptus plantations in the Lao PDR) shared their experiences during this event. A “Corporate Social Responsibility Study Tour” was subsequently organized in Southern Laos to document best practices and to identify company needs in implementing CSR. In the absence of a broad public debate on how to make foreign direct investment more sustainable, leveraging large companies that are sensitive to any risk to their reputation might be an efficient way to foster dialogue and social engagement among local actors, to fight poverty and to improve living conditions. These efforts might coincide with those of the government (if it decides that foreign companies should contribute more to economic growth, social welfare and environmental sustainability within the country) for whom graduating from LDC status by 2020 is a priority.
# Fish labels as firm's strategic tools for sustainable aquaculture and traditional fisheries

Paolo Prosperi<fnref n="1" />, Fabio Bartolini, Stefano Grando, Daniele Vergamini and Gianluca Brunori

## Introduction

Over recent years, a number of private label and certification schemes were established to promote sustainable fisheries (Oosterver and Sonnenfeld, 2010). The fishing industry has been responding to an increasing consumer demand for traceable and sustainable seafood products with the introduction of labelling schemes (Morgan et al., 2015). This practice is quite recent for the fish industry (Roheim and Sutinen, 2006) and – as a fast growing voluntary and market-based labelling – is being recognized as an important instrument in global environmental fisheries governance (Oosterver and Sonnenfeld, 2010).

Eco-labelling is basically a private, voluntary, market-based tool, complementary to public policy instruments, providing environmental information to products in order to influence market behaviour. These tools encourage the behavioural change of producers and consumers towards long-term sustainability and allow selecting products and services according to specific environmental and social criteria. Eco-labeling can be differentiated and classified through several approaches such as organic farming, integrated agriculture, regional products, industrial labelling, sustainability certification of natural resources, and fair trade (de Haes and de Snoo, 2010). In this preliminary analysis we will focus on two certification schemes relating to sustainability certification of natural resources, and to regional products.

The increasing competition in the seafood market has recently brought producers to adopt differentiation strategies aimed at increasing profits (Grunert, 2005). Meanwhile new voluntary schemes, such as sustainability certifications for sustainable fish and related labels were adopted (e.g. Marine Stewardship Council, Friend of the Sea, etc.). Beyond business profit, sustainability certifications bring equal attention to environmental and to social and economic issues (de Haes and de Snoo, 2010).

Regional product strategies such as Slow Food movement Presidia represent an example of relevant initiatives aimed to promote quality products from vanishing, safeguard unique regions and ecosystems, recuperate traditional production activities, and protect local biodiversity (Migliorini et al., 2010).

## Aims

Through this initial analysis we aim to explore how different context-driven strategies for labelling sustainable seafood products – namely, international sustainability certifications and regional product strategies – can help achieving common market-oriented performances, for both capital intensive traditional fishers and fish farmers, as well as improving fisheries and aquaculture sustainability.

## Methods

Derived from industrial organization (Porter, 1981) and agrofood value-chain management approaches (Rastoin & Ghersi, 2010) – combined with both a broad and context-specific literature review and semi-structured exploratory interviews with primary producers – a causal dynamic framework (Grando et al., 2016) is applied for analysing labelling schemes through investigating related conditions, strategies and performances of primary producers of fisheries. The Conditions-Strategies-Performances framework focuses on the agency capacities of the primary producers and their ability to differently interpret the contextual conditions building on their business activity's characteristics (Prosperi et al., 2016).

<footnote n="1">1. Università di Pisa, I-56124 Pisa, Italy.</footnote>
This preliminary analysis explores the strategies related to the choice of a labelling scheme from two different companies of fish farming and traditional fisheries in the southern coast of Tuscany, as well as the related performances in terms of entering large retailing markets and increasing the profitability of the labelled seafood.

## Findings

Different fish label-related strategies were identified from interviews to producers (of the two aforementioned companies) combined with the review of relevant information through producers' and retailers' websites, and referring to literature review from previous studies on seafood environmental and regional labelling.

The aquaculture retail Consortium studied sells farmed fresh and processed fish products to few wholesalers and mainly to national and international big retailers. All consortium products – sea-bass, sea-bream and meagre – are branded with an own label that certifies an agreed Protocol between the consortium partners that guarantees the control of quality all over the production and retail process. The own label is an independent brand identifying the geographical area of production. The consortium – and therefore all its suppliers – is also certified under ISO-9001 (for quality management systems), ISO-18001 (for occupational health and safety management systems), as well as under the label “Friends of the Sea” (FOS).

The lagoon fishing Cooperative activities involve fish farming (sea-bass, sea-bream and meagre), traditional lagoon fishing (mullet and eel), and seafood processing (fish sauces, smoked fish and cured roe). Fresh and processed fish products are sold directly to few wholesalers and, to a larger extent, to big retailers, including “Eataly”, a retailer specialised on high quality Italian food all over the world. For processed seafood the fishing Cooperative owns and independent label identifying the local geographical area of production. Although the Cooperative is not certified under voluntary certifications, its products and business activity are protected, and then branded, by three Slow-Food Presidia.

Both companies are situated in the same geographical context and adopted independent brands which refer to this specific area. However, the fishing Cooperative, for its traditional and diversified activity, as well as for the particular food production, is much more connected to the territorial and local community dimension, especially from the stakeholder and consumer perception. On the other hand, the fish farming retail Consortium – for its main intensive fish farming activity – could be perceived to be less connected to the sociocultural and territorial dimension.

Within this local framework both fishery companies were able to enter their products in the large retail system of big retailers. Through these first exploratory steps of our study it was possible to start an analysis about how common and different context conditions, and related labelling strategies, can contribute to establishing business relationships with big retailers, affirming the presence of the products in large retail markets and increasing the profitability of the labelled seafood.

With regards to the aquaculture retail Consortium, the voluntary certifications such as the independent own label, the ISO (9001 and 18001) including the adoption of the “Friend of the Sea” (FOS) label, are considered key for guaranteeing supply to big retailers. In particular, our analysis focuses on the role of the eco-label FOS. Eco-labels and related certification schemes are a significant feature of global fish trade and marketing since key buyers – mainly large retailers and commercial brand owners – have incorporated them in their business. The FOS certification for sustainability is crucial for the aquaculture Consortium in order to be placed on large retail markets; in fact, for high profile company it helps avoiding risks related to negative publicity about production practices and help keeping relationships with retailers within their corporate social responsibility programs (Roheim, 2008). Therefore, guarantees for obtaining only fish and seafood certified as sustainable are progressively included in the buyers’ procurement strategies. At now supermarkets are strongly dominant in the retail of fish and seafood products and sustainability is more and more representing a fundamental pillar of fish and seafood procurement policies (Schmid and Connelly, 2009).
On the other hand, the lagoon fishing Cooperative have the benefit of three Slow-Food Presidia related to food products such as for the Orbetello Grey Mullet Roe, the Tuscan Sea Palamita, as well as for the Orbetello Lagoon Traditional Fishing. Presidia are products for which Slow-Food implement projects for protecting the related production systems from disappearing (Brunori et al., 2013), they are acknowledged by Slow Food after a specific agreement, and have been also registered as trademarks (Brunori and Di Iacovo, 2014). Slow-Food Presidia, in this case, can be considered key for allowing these products to enter in the large retailing. In fact, from the first step of the Mullet Roe Presidia (in 2004), one of the main Italian big retailers (Coop) supported the costs of the presidium. After this first phase the Cooperative could establish relationships and agreements with other big retailers to sustain the product image and respond to consumer demand (Fonte, 2005). Furthermore, Slow-Food partnerships now range through the most important Italian food companies (both producers and retailers). Slow-Food Presidia products are both sold in Coop-Italia and Eataly worldwide shops (Migliorini, 2012), as well as in other supermarkets. In particular the Slow-Food and Eataly partnership builds on matching high quality Italian artisanal food products with achievable prices through shortening the food chain (Brunori et al., 2013). The economic success of Presidia projects was observed with improvements for production quantity, sales price, and product quality, by considerably exceeding the best expectations (Antonioli-Corigliano and Viganò, 2002; Migliorini et al., 2010).

In Local food initiatives – including Slow-Food Presidia – natural and constructed environments, social networks, and symbolic systems support each other, and then territorial capital becomes economic capital (Brunori and Rossi, 2000; Brunori and Di Iacovo, 2014). In the specific case analysed of the fishing Cooperative, the territorial capital was a key contextual factor that allowed the Cooperative products to be included within the Presidia system, and thus to establish business relationships with large retailing.

The first main feature of regional products is that they stem from a well identifiable region which brings to many quality aspects as well to a focus on gastronomy, traditional techniques and related employment. Furthermore, although attention for the environment is more and more associated with regional products, in several cases attention to the environment is not registered such as for the French Champagne, or the Parma ham. (de Haes and de Snoo, 2010).

For sustainability certifications, eco-labels such as FOS function now as marketing tools, protecting and improving the value of the brand or supermarket chain. The adoption of sustainability certification is no more encouraged by NGOs and consumers; retailers and brand owners are now driving the demand for suppliers and producers in order to be certified (Schmid and Connelly, 2009; Foley and Havice, 2016). The main fishery eco-labels orient the supply dynamics offering a method to prove that products come from sustainably certified fisheries and producers (Konefal, 2012). In that, traceability represents a crucial factor for the success of eco-labels (Schmid and Connelly, 2009). In the specific context studied relating to the aquaculture Consortium, the competitive market conditions, as well as the need for demonstrating traceability and the respect of sustainability values to retailers, were key contextual factors for adopting the FOS certification scheme and for further strengthening business relationships with big retailers.

For sustainability certifications of natural resources a first main feature is the so-called People-Planet-Profit approach (Elkington, 1997). This approach attributes equal importance to social – “people” – requirements (e.g. labour conditions, income, land use rights); ecological – “planet” – requirements (e.g. biodiversity, environmental quality, climate); and long-term economic profitability requirements (“profit”) (de Haes and de Snoo, 2010).

## Conclusions

Private eco-labelling further incentivizes food chain actors to drive product sustainability improvements (Chkanikova and Lehner, 2015) and can help fishery producers to differentiate their strategies in an increasingly international and competitive market. This preliminary local-based analysis, combined with
inputs from literature and previous observations, is allowing us to build and test hypotheses about what
combination of contextual and internal conditions could release specific labelling strategies that allowed
different companies dealing with big retailers and improving the profitability from fish and seafood
products. There are certainly many differences between fish eco-labelling and Slow-Food Presidia. In
Slow-Food Presidia the territorial capital provides the marketing assets which attract both consumers
and retailers, while fish labels draw on transnational and global supply-oriented strategies that can be
applied anywhere in the world, for global consumers. However they have in common the ability to work
as business and marketing strategic tools for conventional marketing strategies to successfully enter
the large-scale retailing and target consumers willing to pay higher prices. Further research should be
oriented to a deeper analysis of the sociocultural, economic, institutional, environmental and manage-
ment dynamics of the context that define the conditions justifying the business strategies adopted by
different fishery producers within the framework of sustainability and local certification schemes.

Acknowledgements

This work was developed within the project SUFISA-Sustainable finance for sustainable agriculture and fisheries (Horizon 2020 Grant agreement 635577).
Author index

Abramovay, Ricardo 16
Ahmad Sidique, Shaufique 113
Ajambo, Susan 259
Akoto-Danso, Edmund 182
Alary, Veronique 28
Ali, Ahmed 28
Allebone-Webb, Sophie 95
Allen, Thomas 205
Angbo-Kouakou, Euphrasie C.M. 77
Anh, Truong Thi Van 142
Antonelli, Annarita 222
Assefa, Amanuel 100
Aubert, Pierre-Marie 20, 213
Aubron, Claire 33
Auger, Marellia 213

Barbier, Bruno 263
Barjolle, Dominique 136
Bartolini, Fabio 269
Basile, Salvatore 222
Basset-Mens, Claudine 229, 237
Baumgart, Lukas 232, 234
Belt, John 184
Benders, Jorien 180
Bermúdez-Urdaneta, Martín 217
Bessou, Cécile 237
Beuchelt, Tina 246
Beucherie, Olivier 136
Biard, Yannick 229, 237
Bonnet, Pascal 31
Boureima, Feycal 225
Broutin, Cécile 248
Brunori, Gianluca 269
Budiansky, Ethan 40
Bunn, Christian 45
Burte, Julien 250

Camargo, Marisa 23
Carneiro, Marcelo 109
Carranza, Carlos 60
Castella, Jean-Christophe 10

César, Joaquim 96
Cesaro, Jean-Daniel 31
Chaboud, Géraldine 176
Charbonnier, Clément 136
Cheveia, Etevaldo 253
Chien, Tran Manh 162
Chiffoleau, Yuna 215
Chilot, Yirga 100
Cittadini, Roberto 166
Compaore Sawadogo, Eveline M. F. W. 81, 89
Corniaux, Christian 36
Costa, Susana 96
Costet, Pierre 43, 49
Cournut, Sylvie 31

Daburon, Annabelle 28
Dao, The Anh 149, 172
De La Paix Bayiha, Gerard 93
De Sousa, Wilson 253
Defoer, Toon 92
Deheuvels, Olivier 43
Del Rio Duque, Martha Lilia 116
Demby, Dady 246
Denich, Manfred 246
Derra, Salif 81
Dervillé, Marie 33
Desclee, Doriane 225
Devaux, André 199
Diaz, Rafael 60
Djama, Marcel 113
Domingos, Mpanzo 96
Donovan, Jason 197
Dorin, Bruno 33
Drechsel, Pay 180, 182
Ducrot, Raphaelle 253
Duteurtre, Guillaume 31, 36

Ei, Khin Khin 86

Fabiano, Flavia 229, 237
Faduco, Joaquim 253
Fernando, Sudarshana 180

Feschet, Pauline 229, 237

Fort, Ricardo 102

Fournier, Stéphane 136

Francois, Martine 247

Fusillier, Jean-Louis 256

García Pinéres, Roberto 263

Garcia-Drigo, Isabel 16, 25

Gilmour, Martin 48

Goita, Mamadou 225

Grando, Stefano 269

Grovermann, Christian 94

Guéneau, Stéphane 13, 109

Harper, Malcolm 184

Henriques, Ana 96

Hitchman, Judith 133

Hogarth, Nicholas 23

Hoste, Christian 94

Hostiou, Nathalie 31

Houdijk, Jeroen 263

Jager, Matthias 196

Jagoret, Patrick 43

Jancso, Leonhardt 234

Jeanneaux, Philippe 136

Jouini, Meriem 250

Karg, Hanna 182

Karsenty, Alain 202

Kelly, Siobhan 242

Kikulwe, Enoch 259

Klug, Israel 242

Kofi Appoh, Richard 182

Kousonsavath, Chitpasong 266

Lançon, Frédéric 77, 229, 237

Landert, Jan 232

Lapeyre, Renaud 20, 213

Laurans, Yann 20, 213

Le Coq, Jean-Francois 56

Le Thi Thanh, Huyen 31

Leclerc, Grégoire 263

Lejars, Caroline 256

Lemma, Gizachew 100

Lestrelin, Guillaume 10

Lienhard, Pascal 10

Lizama, Gilma 70

Llamas, Margaux 20

Loconto, Allison 123

Louis, Bockel 239

Lundy, Mark 196

Maffezzoli, Camille 215

Manivong, Vongpaphane 106

Martin, Pierre 229, 237

Martin, Vincent 28

Martinet, Marianne 43

Marton, Silvia 234

Mathé, Syndhia 93, 95

Mathew, John 127

Mayu, Ino 145

Melki, Sara 264

Melo, Ana 96

Mendez Del Villar, Patricio 229, 237

Michel, Baudouin 225

Michelotto-Pastro, Giovanna 136

Mira Da Silva, Luís 96

Moustier, Paule 170, 172

Muguambe, Paiva 253

Nacpil, Fernando 133

Nakalanda Matovu, Julie 150

Nanziri, Diego 259

Nelson, Valerie 209

Nguyen, Thi Tan Loc 170

Nguyen, Tien Dinh 31

Nhantumbo, Isilda 23, 50

Nhung, Tu Thi Tuyet 157

Nichterlein, Karin 94

Nowakunda, Kephas 259

Okurut, Stanslus 259

Orane, Debrune 239

Ornetsmüller, Christine 10
Pacheco, Pablo 16, 25
Perez-Akaki, Pablo 52
Pham Duy, Khanh 31
Piketty, Marie-Gabrielle 16, 25
Plaisier, Christine 200
Poccard-Chapuis, René 16, 25
Poisot, Anne-Sophie 123
Prosperi, Paolo 205, 269
Pugliese, Patrizia 222

Quan, Julian 209

Rafflegeau, Sylvain 229, 237
Restrepo-Calle, Sebastián 217
Reynaud, Lucie 247
Roberts, Wayne 173
Robineau, Ophélie 166
Rodriguez Quirós, Rigoberto 263
Rota, Cosimo 222
Roy, Rajeev 184
Ruben, Ruerd 102

Sabourin, Eric 68
Saj, Stephane 43
Saley Moussa, Abdoulaye 94, 100
Santacolom, Pilar 123
Schader, Christian 232, 234
Schmitt, Christine 246
Schouten, Greetje 74
Semasinghe, Christina 180
Sheng, Tey 113
Shepherd, Andrew 188
Sinfort, Carole 250
Sonethavixay, Sengphachanh 106
Song, Xin 131
Song, Yiching 131
Songsiengchai, Patchaya 113
Ssebunya, Brian 232
Stahlbrand, Lori 173
Stoian, Dietmar 198
Swensson, Luana 242
Swiderska, Krystyna 120

Tartanac, Florence 192, 242
Temple, Ludovic 77, 93
Teriete, Moritz 234
Teyssier, Catherine 136
Thalês, Marcelo 16, 25
Tho, Pham Thi Hanh 152
Thouillot, Floriane 248
Toillier, Aurélie 81
Tonneau, Jean-Philippe 13
Torero, Maximo 195
Touch, Sokarith 247
Toudert, Anass 239
Touzard, Jean-Marc 215
Triomphe, Bernard 95
Tu, Nhung 157

Vagneron, Isabelle 106, 266
Vairavamoorthy, Visakan 180
Valenciano, Jorge 60
Van Rijn, Fedes 102
Vandecandelaere, Emilie 136
Velazquez, Marisol 64
Vellema, Sietze 74, 172
Verburg, Peter 10
Vergamini, Daniele 269
Vermeulen, Hanneke 100
Vicovaro, Marcello 123
Vignes, Romain 20
Viteri, Maria-Laura 166

Wongpit, Piya 106

Xiong, Maiyer 266

Zanasi, Cesare 222
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