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# Addressing modularity in ecodesigned power electronics

Lucas Pinto, Lucas Riondet, Maud Rio, Yves Lembeye, Jean-Christophe Crebier

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## ► To cite this version:

Lucas Pinto, Lucas Riondet, Maud Rio, Yves Lembeye, Jean-Christophe Crebier. Addressing modularity in ecodesigned power electronics. 32nd CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering (LCE 2025), Apr 2025, Manchester, United Kingdom. pp.918-923, 10.1016/j.procir.2024.12.098. hal-05175695

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Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
32nd CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering (LCE 2025)

Addressing modularity in ecodesigned power electronics

Lucas Pinto<sup>a,b*</sup>, Lucas Riondet<sup>a,b</sup>, Maud Rio<sup>b</sup>, Yves Lembeye<sup>a</sup>, Jean-Christophe Crebier<sup>a</sup>

Abstract

Implementing Circular Economy (CE) is increasingly challenging the Power Electronics (PE) sector. Indeed, the PE economy model is today mostly an unsustainable linear model. This article investigates the industrial levers supporting CE in PE, focusing on the new concepts for this conservative domain, of modularity and standardization. The literature review conducted in this paper builds a foundation for future work on modular PE systems. Comprehensive recommendations for PE engineers are provided to support maintaining the functional value of a PE product while maximizing the circularity potential of the product over the years. Guidelines are proposed to highlight the barriers and new requirements for PE product modular design strategies. Solutions in terms of research areas are addressed. This article demonstrates the need to build an ecosystem to collect and value electronic-based products at every stage of their lifecycle. Two case studies from a European project (EECONE) will be used to environmentally and technically assess and compare modular and non-modular converters ranging from 500W to 10kW implemented in data centers and electric vehicles, in the near future.

© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Academy for Production Engineering (CIRP)

Keywords: Power Electronic, Circular Economy, Modularity, Standardization, Sustainability, Ecodesign

1. Introduction

With the continuous growth of electrical energy
consumption stimulated by the exponential development of
modern telecommunications, the internet infrastructures and
the electrification of societies for decarbonization, the demand
for power converters is rising. Power converters are required to
shape and adapt the electrical energy from various sources to
the great diversity of loads in mobility, industry, residential,
etc. As an illustration, 15,510 TWh of electricity was produced
in 2000 compared with 28,520 TWh in 2021 [1]. This demand
leads to a high production of numerous types of materials,
components, and devices, particularly in Power Electronics
(PE). PE is part of all electrical and electronic equipment
including e-waste (WEEE). In Europe, each person generates

an average of 17,6kg of electronic waste per year [2]. 22.3% of
the WEEE, corresponding to 13.8 billion kg, are documented
as properly collected and recycled worldwide versus 42.8% in
Europe [2]. However, this recycled part mostly corresponds to
metals and plastics forming the casing or the envelope of the
equipment since it is easily removable and recyclable. Properly
recycling WEEE PE parts (e.g. the inverter Printed Circuit
Board (PCB) of a variable speed laundry machine, the inverter
of the traction chain in an electric vehicle) that are made out of
a heterogeneous material diversity integrated all together is
more complex. It also requires mechanical processing to be
disassembled, frequently supported by simulation tools [3] and
chemical processing to extract the high-value metals contained
in the PCB [4]. Even if the environmental regulation is
changing the way companies implement practices for

<footnote><sup>a</sup>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, G2Elab, 38000 Grenoble, France</footnote>

<footnote><sup>b</sup>Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, G-SCOP, 38000 Grenoble, France</footnote>

<footnote>* Corresponding author. Tel.: +336-1639-5072; E-mail address: lucas.pinto@grenoble-inp.fr</footnote>
circularity [5], PE is still designed on a linear model from the extraction of raw materials, component and equipment manufacture, distribution, use and disposal. This model leads to ever-increasing natural resource extraction with polluting mining industries and high technology processes, generating pollution all over the world without considering any limits [6]. At the same time, six over nine of the biophysical thresholds that must not be exceeded to avoid sudden, non-linear, potentially catastrophic, irreversible, and largely unpredictable changes to the earth system that preserve our living conditions are being crossed [7]. Modularity may allow certain circularity strategies such as repairability, reusability or recyclability. In some examples, implemented in a circular business model, it can reduce environmental impacts [8]. This paper therefore questions the potential of modularity and standardization in PE design to contribute to supporting a (sustainable) circular economy (CE).

Modularity and standardization advantages and barriers for such PE design in different fields are analyzed in section 3. A background in PE is given in section 4 to understand the challenges of modularity and standardization in this field. Finally, a discussion about features, effects, barriers, and needs of modularity in PE illustrated by real case studies formalizes several recommendations for PE designers in section 5. This work is part of the EECONE European project gathering 50 partners from 16 different countries and aiming to reduce the environmental impacts caused by electronic technologies and reduce the e-waste production [9]. Two case studies out of ten are concerned with the modularity approach developed by Grenoble INP: one concerning an onboard charger for an electric vehicle and another dealing with data center power supplies [9].

## 2. Research Methodology

In this work, a literature review has been conducted between August and November 2024. For section 3, while making the state of the art by using the keywords "circular economy" or "ecodesign" and "modularity" or "modular product" in the title of the articles, only a few articles have appeared: 13 on ScienceDirect portal. From this analysis, this paper discusses in part 5 the advantages and barriers of modularity for CE highlighted in this literature findings. Characterization of modularity for PE was carried out based on features, effects, barriers and needs, collected in the literature or extracted from discussions with specialists. For this section, articles containing the terms "ecodesign" or "circular economy" and "modularity" or "modular product" and "power electronics" have been searched. This time, 69 results have appeared on ScienceDirect. Only the most relevant for the purpose of this paper have been selected.

## 3. State-of-the art: design contributions of modularity and standardization to the PE Circular Economy

Simplifying the CE concept in PE LCE: this approach consists in moving from a linear model of production and consumption to a circular model that reduces the production of waste and the extraction of materials. The aim is to minimize the loss of resources, emissions and energy. Various circularity strategies can be implemented in the production chain, such as

the 10R strategy [10]: refuse, rethink, reduce, reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, repurpose, recycle and recover. Nowadays, a lot of effort are put into the lower levels of circularity in PE: recycling and (material & energy) recover [3], even if higher Rs strategies have higher circular potential, in particular for mass produced heterogeneous PE, fulfilling the conversion power range addressed in our research. Specific PE LCE metrics for CE are therefore required to support designers, including residual value [11], disassembly [12], eco-reliability [13], CO2eq emissions efficiency [14], CO2 payback period [15], health index for power transformer [16] indicators. Design for X (DfX) should be considered since it contributes to the design of circular solutions. Nowadays Sustainability, Reliability and Multiple Life Cycle are the abilities considered more by researchers [17]. Designing for circular PE is based on ecodesign principles that encourages designers to assess the product lifecycle environmental impacts to minimize its negative potential effects in circular scenarios. This paper focuses on modularity and standardization as circular ecodesign strategies to adapt to PE.

### 3.1 Definition and link between modularity and CE in PE

As a definition, "a modular architecture includes a one-to-one mapping from functional elements in the functional structure to the physical components of the product, and specifies de-coupled interfaces between components" [18]. In this sense, modularity is at the intersection of i) modularization - breaking down into several modules a monolithic block designed product - and ii) standardization - the delivery of several identical subsystems of the product [19]. A module refers as 'an independent building block of a larger system with a specific function and well-defined interfaces' [20].

In 2024, a literature search using the keywords 'circular economy' or 'ecodesign' and 'modularity' or 'modular product' in PE reveals only a few articles highlighting the advantages and barriers of modularity for CE in PE. This review investigated a range of power between 500W and 10kW, for mass market, usually involving Printed Circuit Boards (PCB), such as data centers power supplies and 'onboard chargers' for electric vehicles, or residential solar converters. Among papers, the state-of-the-art review of the contribution of modularity to the CE developed by [21] demonstrated its potential since 2014. The design modularity is characterized by the flexibility to change modules.

Mignacca et al. (2020) showed a lack of knowledge about the link between CE and modularization in the sector of energy infrastructures [19]. Using homogeneous components in terms of reuse compatibility or recyclability, in the same sub-system, facilitates CE objectives. An agenda concerning future research for more sustainable infrastructure has been proposed. It concerns policy, innovation, module lifting and transportation, the value of resources/geographical inhomogeneity/policy at an international level, standardization of the interfaces, end-of-life cost and emerging technologies. Designing modular mobile phones for CE studied in [22] is constrained by the module interfaces, and issues of compatibility aligned to standardization issues.

For instance, the micro USB-B charger is an obsolete standard in regard to USB Type-C. Modular design in PE generate design conflicts: durability may increase while requiring extra connectors presenting significant
environmental impacts. Such LCE design issues are rather obvious in integrated ecodesign, but are not yet well considered in PE for the focused range of power in this paper.

## 3.2 Definition and link between standardization and CE in PE

Standardization for circular PE design can be interpreted in several manners, as the alignment with a degree of governance of rules, policies and procedures in organizational management, bringing to the application of standards [23] for instance. Our research focuses on a standardization that brings a product to satisfy a design model, including performance requirements, and physical properties (size, mass, etc.). According to this definition (and for the power range targeted in this paper), standard designs share similar features such as size, power, performances or interconnects. As an example, the TO-220 electronic package confers a standardized casing shape and pin spacing (length equal to 2.54 mm).

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>Figure 1. Package TO-220: an example of standardization in PE.</figcaption></figure>

Standardization of products is an enabler of CE since it can:

* **facilitate repairment**: by standardising components, it is easier to find compatible spare parts, which simplifies and reduces the cost of repairs. Repairers can also operate without the need for specific training for each model or brand.

* **facilitate reuse and remanufacture**: standardised parts can be recovered and reused in other products. Products can also be upgraded by replacing certain standard modules without having to throw everything away,

* **facilitate recyclability**: standardisation of the materials used facilitates their separation and treatment at the end of their life.

Among design recommendations to reduce the heterogeneity of PE: standardize topologies, reduce the variety of component's characteristics, avoid customizing to adapt the system designed for reaching extra performances, would be necessary. This would reduce the component sandbox, but such recommendations are at the opposite to the current practices of PE designers.

## 4. PE background: strong and weak links in design

PE is the part of electronics shaping the voltages and currents associated with the energy aspect of electrical circuits. It includes all required technologies, with high levels of efficiency, to link the different types of electricity sources and the wide variety of receivers that use them [24]. There are different types of converters: rectifiers for alternative current

(AC) to direct current (DC) for AC-DC, choppers for DC-DC inverters for DC-AC and frequency converters for AC-AC. As illustrated in figure 2, these technologies are heterogenous in terms of components and materials.

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>Figure 2. Example of an AC/DC converter (rectifier), adapted from [26]</figcaption></figure>

Heterogeneity is a major obstacle to the implementation of circular strategies in PE. This heterogeneity also influences the components' reliability itself: in a converter, capacitors, which are passive components, have the lower reliability. Designing converters with subparts gathering components sharing approximately the same level of reliability is a real challenge for modularity. Heterogeneity also includes topologies that are different from one converter to another.

PE is covering a large range of power from a few Watts, used to supply microelectronics, to MegaWatts used for example in electrical energy transportation, including intermediary power range, such as a laptop converter (around 100W), the powertrain inverter of an electric car (around 100kW), the train inverter (around 1MW). As a result, various types of components as well as assembly technologies are employed. At low power, the converter is generally highly monolithically integrated while at high power screws or connectors are used to assemble and interconnect large components.

This paper focuses on a range of power between 500W and 10kW, for mass market, usually involving Printed Circuit Boards (PCB). For low power in this range, modularity might have no benefits if the residual value of the standard block is too low. For high-power converters in this range (0.4 MW to 40 MW) the Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) topology [25] systems have been developed to improve the system maintainability (repairment and reuse).

In PE design, the notion of independency is difficult to broach since the current is shared by the different components. In practice the PE joints can be ensured by strong or weak links. Strong links are gathering two sub-systems or components which are sharing a high current. In design for modularity, the junction made by soldering means that the mechanical constraints on such links are high. Weak links are gathering components or sub-systems with high voltage. In design for modularity, the mechanical constraints are low so screws and clips can be used.
# 5. Technical analysis of modularity and standardization into CE PE

## 5.1. Features and effects of modularity on PE

Table 2 summarizes the effect of several features of PE modularity that we consider relevant for our use case analysis: design, manufacturing, waste and sizing. The use case concerns a data center power supply of 600W, where service continuity should be ensured at all times. The design topology chosen is a Power Converter Array (PCA) which is a good example of modularity and standardization since it is composed of Conversion-Standard Cells (CSC). This modularity ensures service continuity if the converter is oversized in terms of CSC since if one or more are breaking, the converter can work normally (figure 3).

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure 3. Left: picture of a CSC. Right: picture of a PCA [26]</figcaption></figure>

### 5.1.1. Access through referenced components

To maximize the benefits of modularity in PE for CE, it is essential to use on-the-shelf, referenced components. Nowadays, customized components represent an important part of the magnetic components which is problematic since they are not easy to reuse and be sourced to be repaired. Using referenced components is a way of standardization since it will reduce the sandbox of components used in the different modules. Indeed, the components would be chosen according to their families or suppliers.

This would have different effects compared with non-modular PE. Concerning the design, the use of referenced components decreases the designer's choice for technical building blocks and reduces the heterogeneity of components between the converters at the scale of the field of application, generating a positive cascading effect on other designs for circular strategies.

During the manufacturing stage of components, using referenced components reduces the sourcing cost. This is a scale-level effect. Also, the assembly time of the final product, using robotization in PE with e. g. the pick and place method, is generally reduced with standardized components to assemble and disassemble in the same manner [21].

### 5.1.2. Standardized interfaces between modules

Standardized interfaces between modules enable the reusability and the module's upgradability. This feature means adding connectors to the PE system. It has several negative effects concerning the sizing of the converter. Firstly, it concerns increasing causes of failure. Secondly, connectors also mean increasing electrical losses [27] and adding material which is contrary to the circular strategy consisting of reducing

the use of materials. As introduced in Section 4, strong or weak links between modules should be considered distinctly. Splitting the system where the links are weak will facilitate the assembly process.

### 5.1.3. Non-optimal power density, efficiency, cost and reliability

Converting systems in the assembly of subsystems to engage modularity impacts three main PE technical metrics: power density, efficiency, cost and reliability. Concerning efficiency, a loss of up to 8% can be observed for Multi-Cell Converters [28]. This loss increases the use phase energy consumption. The higher cost and lower reliability are strongly linked with the added connectors gathering the subsystems of a modular product.

## 5.2 Discussion on the effects of modularity for CE in PE

Referring to Table 2, a majority of positive effects (13) compared to negative ones (6) are offered by modular design. The plateau effect driven by the technology choices of the designer for building blocks may bring positive or negative environmental impacts in circular scenarios. The described effects address different natures of barriers and needs, and do not constitute an exhaustive list. Accounting the number of positive or negative effects may help designers to discuss the feasibility of modularity options. Some effects are antonymous, for example, the cost of the converter can increase even if the sourcing cost of its components can decrease because of the standardization of the components.

As discussed in section 4, heterogeneity is a major obstacle to circularity in PE. This heterogeneity is decreasing at three levels: material, components, and design with modularity. The effects of modularity should therefore support key steps to move to circular ecodesign PE systems in industry.

## 5.3 Summarizing barriers and needs of modularity for PE

PE designers consolidate the design for LCE understanding by addressing modularity consequences at each life cycle stage: if end-of-life treatment may be improved, the extraction of raw materials may decrease, but the usage phase, lasting potentially longer, may increase the environmental impacts generated. The main environmental burden shifting are described in the following sections.

### 5.3.1. Ecosystem, metrics and spare parts

Observing the full benefits from environmental impacts generated by modular PE, requires to have first a complete value chain in place, operating properly to collect, repair, reuse, and ultimately recycle the non-functional systems and subsystems. The circularity criteria given by the standard EN4555x are yet not adapted to PE [29], and the lack of adequate metrics for modular systems does not help to sustain this value chain. In practice, qualified spare parts are not always available to PE business for instance. PE designers need to be skilled to conduct diagnostic or failure analysis, as well as predictive maintenance of modules [30]. New adequate metrics for PE ecodesign should be created, qualifying the residual value of a module, enabling designers to follow its circularity
potential in products. This value chain is crucial to guaranty similar reliability levels when the modules are grouped [29]. Moreover, the level of supply chain management should be increased [21].

### 5.2.2 Miniaturization, used for extra energy, price and reliability

The size and the efficiency of a modular converter may not be optimal compared to a usual one. A barrier to modularity adoption is the limit of miniaturization and performance efficiency of the system during the use phase, if the linear economy vision is still promoted. Increasing the converter usage may easily compensate for the efficiency loss, compared to adopt a (higher) technological innovation. Linear models conduct to rebound effects, whereas reduce intensive usage promote sufficiency: taking the example of a 99% efficient converter (A) and a 98% efficient converter (B): if the converter B is used by at least 1% less than the converter A, its use of energy will be less than the converter A. The energy

efficiency of ICT/electronics has risen from 30% in the last five decades. However, social practices and social-technical structures have increase energy consumption by +115% to 161% for diverse applications, e.g. ICT/electronics in German households from 1996 to 2011 or the number of personal computers worldwide from 1994 to 2010 [31]. A need to systematically quantify the limit of miniaturization, used for extra energy, price and reliability is crucial, for finding a good balance between granularity and features and being aware of the massive environmental rebound effect operating today on technology-pushed and pull innovations on PE systems. In this systemic view, modularity will encourage new design and innovation as well, which may support sustainable PE services.

## 6. Conclusion and perspectives

The objective of the research is to assess the potential benefits and needs of modularity in PE towards circularity. A short literature review has been conducted in which modularity has been studied with respect to circular economy. When it is

<table><caption>Table 1. Features, effects, barriers and needs of modularity for PE</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Description of Modularity</th><th rowspan="2">Features for PE</th><th colspan="2">Effects compared with non-modular PE</th><th rowspan="2">Barriers</th><th rowspan="2">Needs</th></tr><tr><th>Impact Categories</th><th>Effects</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">Modularity is building a complex product or process from smaller subsystems that can be designed independently yet function together as a whole. [33]</td><td rowspan="2">Standardization: access through referenced components</td><td>Design</td><td>↓ technical building block designer's choice<br/>↓ heterogeneity of components and materials<br/>↓ sourcing cost [21]</td><td rowspan="2">Integration of new standard elements</td><td rowspan="2">Find a standardisation protocol</td></tr><tr><td>Manufacturing</td><td>↓ assembly time of the final product [21]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">In broader terms, a modular design aims to develop detachable modules and interfaces that enable new product variations, assembly and simple disassembly to improve the product lifecycle [21].</td><td rowspan="2">Standardized interface between modules</td><td>Sizing</td><td>↑ cause of failure<br/>↑ electrical losses [27]</td><td>Difficulty developing standardized interfaces [21]</td><td>Enable the reuse of modules, components and materials [21]<br/>Find a trade-off between increased detachability and reduced efficiency [29]</td></tr><tr><td>Design</td><td>↑ reparability<br/>↑ reusability<br/>↑ upgrade [21]</td><td rowspan="2">Eco-system<br/>Inadaptability of general circularity criteria [29]<br/>Lack of adequate metrics<br/>Availability of qualified spare parts</td><td rowspan="2">Diagnostic know-how [30]<br/>Predictive maintenance<br/>Create adequate metrics for eco-design<br/>Create an eco-system for collecting, repairing, reusing and recycling<br/>Consider similar reliability levels when the modules are grouped [27]<br/>Increase level of supply chain management [21]</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">A module is an independent building block of a larger system with a specific function and well-defined interfaces. It has fairly loose connections to the rest of the system allowing for independent development, outsourcing, manufacturing, recycling, etc [20].</td><td rowspan="2">Addition of non-destructive removable and recognisable subsystems<br/>Ease of Maintenance</td><td>Manufacturing</td><td>↑ product durability [21]<br/>↑ remanufacturing [21]<br/>↑ disassembly</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Waste<br/>Design/Manufacturing/Waste</td><td>↑ recyclability [32]<br/>↑ flexibility</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">Note: in the context of power electronics it is difficult to have independent building blocks since the current is shared by the components.</td><td rowspan="2">Standard design: topology</td><td>Design</td><td>↓ designer creativity<br/>↓ heterogeneity of design</td><td rowspan="2">Lack of policies [21]</td><td rowspan="2">Address modularity in the industrial environment and at the political level [21]</td></tr><tr><td>Sizing</td><td>↓ know-how complexity</td></tr><tr><td>Technological choices orientation</td><td>Sizing</td><td>Plateau effect</td><td>Obsolescence [21]</td><td>Identify which technology is more adapted with respect to its application context</td></tr><tr><td>Non-optimal power density, efficiency, cost and reliability</td><td>Design</td><td>↑ space requirement<br/>↑ cost<br/>↓ reliability</td><td>Miniaturisation, use of extra energy, price and reliability</td><td>Find a good balance between granularity and features</td></tr></tbody></table>
coupled with standardization, modularity can have several benefits that have been highlighted concerning all stages of the power electronic product's life cycle. Those are for example to facilitate reparability, reusability or recyclability, which opens to new ways of designing PE products in a rather conservative domain of research and development, affecting the whole value chain that is not structured to support such design changes.

To support those changes, several key technical effects of modularity on a 500W to 10kW have been discussed and some barriers and needs have been found. Among those needs, some would be particularly interesting to fulfil shortly. Those are for PE products:

* Conduct a life cycle analysis quantifying the environmental impacts of modular PE product systems. A parametric LCA for modular systems is currently being developed on two case studies (VE chargers and data center servers).

* Enrich the emerging ecosystem for collecting, repairing, reusing and recycling PE systems.

* Addressing modularity in the industrial environment and at the political level: pushing standards, laws, and policies encouraging modular PE systems.

* Create adequate metrics for ecodesigning modular systems, such as a 'residual value indicator'. This indicator assesses the technical and environmental residual value of a component or a modular product based on power electronic technologies, integrating specific mission profiles.

* The diagnosability of the systems and subsystems and the predictive maintenance to maximize residual value usage during life cycles, and improve the robustness of modular scenarios.

* Finding an optimized technical design balance between granularity and feature options implementing a significant environmental impact reduction along the modular power electronics life cycles.

## Acknowledgment

This work was supported by the EECONE project, which received funding from the Chips Joint Undertaking under grant agreement 101112065 and BPI France.

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