<figure><img src="image_24.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 20.** Distribution of $M_3$ from koral models, divided between the first and second half of the simulation, and from the fiducial KHARMA models. We choose the models that are at similar points in the parameter space, limiting the comparison to spin $-0.9, -0.5, 0.0$, and $0.9$ over all inclinations for the koral models and MAD, $R_{high}$ 40, spin $-0.94, -0.5, 0.0$, and $0.94$ for the KHARMA models.</figcaption></figure>

### B.3. Effect of $R_{low}$

The $R_{high}$ prescription (Equation (13)) has three free parameters: $R_{high}$, $R_{low}$, and $\beta_{crit}$. In the main text the $R_{high}$ parameter is varied while $R_{low}$ and $\beta_{crit}$ are set to unity.

The $R_{low}$ parameter determines the electron temperature in regions of low $\beta$, i.e., in and near the funnel. Increasing $R_{low}$ mimics rapid electron cooling. We are particularly interested in the effect of increasing $R_{low}$ on $M_3$.

Figure 21 shows the $M_3$ distribution for a set of four KHARMA models with four values of $R_{low}$ (1, 2, 5, and 10). Evidently the $M_3$ distribution does not exhibit a clear trend with $R_{high}$ and is still inconsistent with the observed distribution even at $R_{low} = 10$.

### B.4. Effect of Self-consistent Electron Heating

Ressler et al. (2015) provide a formulation to model electron thermodynamics during the fluid evolution. Numerical dissipation at the grid scale sources entropy generation and is used to heat the electrons based on a microphysical, subgrid heating prescription. Local fluid and electromagnetic variables are used to compute the electron entropy, which, along with the ideal gas equation of state, can be converted into a temperature $\Theta_e$. This approach allows computing the electron temperature at each time step of the simulation rather than post-processing, as is done in the $R_{high}$ and critical-$\beta$ prescriptions.

We consider three subgrid heating models that prescribe the partition of dissipated energy into electrons and ions. Howes (2010) computed the ratio of ion to electron heating due to dissipation of Alfvénic turbulent cascade, while Werner et al. (2017) and Rowan et al. (2017) considered magnetic

reconnection as the source of energy dissipation at subgrid scales. These studies provide approximate fitting formulae for the ion-to-electron heating rate $Q_i/Q_e$ based on local ion-to-electron temperature ratio $T_i/T_e$ and local magnetic field strength—parameterized by $\sigma$ or $\beta$.

We use a subset of the simulations analyzed in Dexter et al. (2020). These include MAD and SANE accretion flows at spins $a^* = 0, +1/2, +15/16$. We compute the 3 hr modulation index $M_3$, over the time interval 5000–10,000 GM/c³. The average $M_3$ values are comparable to similar $R_{high}$ models, with SANE reconnection models exhibiting a slightly reduced variability as compared to the corresponding turbulent heating models. However, the $M_3$ distribution is still inconsistent with the historical data.

### B.5. Effect of Fluid Adiabatic Index

We expect the ions and electrons in hot accretion flows to be thermally decoupled and the resulting plasma to be two-temperature (Shapiro et al. 1976; Quataert 1998; Sadowski et al. 2016; Chael et al. 2018; Ryan et al. 2018). The electrons are relativistic and can be modeled as a fluid with an adiabatic index $\Gamma_e = 4/3$, while the ions are nonrelativistic with adiabatic index $\Gamma_i = 5/3$.

The adiabatic index of the fluid assumes a value between $\Gamma_e$ and $\Gamma_i$ dictated by the thermodynamics of the ions and electrons (see Figure 4 in Sadowski et al. 2016). If the electrons and ions have equal temperature, then in the relativistic electron/nonrelativistic ion regime the fluid adiabatic index is 13/9.

Our simulations are not fully consistent in their treatment of the adiabatic index. All use a fixed $\Gamma_{ad}$, but some set $\Gamma_{ad} = 4/3$ while others use 13/9 or 5/3.

Two-temperature simulations can self-consistently evolve adiabatic indices of electrons and ions and compute the net fluid adiabatic index with contributions from both species (Sadowski et al. 2016). These two-temperature simulations often show variation of the adiabatic index with polar angle, with the fluid energy dominated by hot electrons near the poles ($\Gamma = 4/3$) and by cooler ions and electrons in the midplane ($\Gamma = 5/3$).

We evaluate the effect of $\Gamma_{ad}$ on light-curve variability by comparing $M_3$ for thermal, GRMHD simulations with varying $\Gamma_{ad}$. This includes MAD models with $\Gamma_{ad} = 13/9$ (see Section B.2 and Narayan et al. 2022) and SANE models with $\Gamma_{ad} = 5/3$. The models exhibit light-curve variability similar to the fiducial models, and all have $M_3$ distributions that are inconsistent with the historical data.

## Appendix C
### Pass/Fail Plots

The full set of constraint results for the fiducial models is presented below in graphical form.

We start with the EHT constraints. Figure 22 shows the 230 GHz 2nd moment constraint and Figure 23 shows the null location constraint. Figures 24–26 show m-ring diameter, width, and asymmetry constraints, respectively. Figure 27 combines all the EHT constraints listed above.
<figure><img src="image_25.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 21.** Modulation index computed over 3 hr intervals $M_3$ for a subset of the thermal models (KHARMA data sets). For this analysis, we considered the 25,000–30,000 GM/c³ time interval.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 22.** Second-moment constraint. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 23.** Null location constraint. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_28.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 24.** M-ring diameter constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 25.** M-ring width constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 26.** M-ring asymmetry constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_31.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 27.** Combined EHT constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 28.** 86 GHz flux constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_33.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 29.** 86 GHz size constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_34.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 30.** 2.2 µm flux constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 31.** X-Ray luminosity constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_36.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 32.** Combined non-EHT constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>
<figure><img src="image_37.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 33.** Combined constraints without structural or flux variability. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_38.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 34.** $M_3$ constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_39.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 35.** EHT structural variability constraints. Green indicates that the KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR models pass, yellow that one or two of the fiducial models fail, and red that all three fail.</figcaption></figure>
We then show the non-EHT constraints. Figures 28 and 29 are the 86 GHz flux and size constraints, respectively. Figures 30 and 31 show the 2.2 µm and x-ray constraints. Figure 32 combines all the non-EHT constraints.

Figure 33 shows the combined constraints without structural or flux variability. Finally, Figures 34 and 35 show the $M_3$ constraints and structural variability constraints, respectively. These results are summarized in Section 4.1.4.

The full set of constraint results for the fiducial models is presented below in graphical form. We start with the EHT constraints. Figure 22 shows the 230 GHz 2nd moment constraint and Figure 23 shows the null location constraint. Figures 24–26 show m-ring diameter, width, and asymmetry constraints, respectively. Figure 27 combines all the EHT constraints listed above. We then show the non-EHT constraints. Figures 28 and 29 are the 86 GHz flux and size constraints, respectively. Figures 30 and 31 show the 2.2 µm and x-ray constraints. Figure 32 combines all the non-EHT constraints. Figure 33 shows the combined constraints without structural or flux variability. Finally, Figures 34 and 35 show the $M_3$ constraints and structural variability constraints, respectively. These results are summarized in Section 4.1.4. In each plot the green models pass the constraint or constraints for KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR versions of the model, while the red models fail the constraint or constraints for KHARMA, BHAC, and H-AMR. The yellow models have different results for the different codes. Notice that H-AMR models are available only for $i = 10^\circ, 50^\circ, 90^\circ$; at $30^\circ$ and $70^\circ$ only the KHARMA and BHAC models are compared.

## ORCID iDs

Kazunori Akiyama https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9475-4254

Antxon Alberdi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9371-1033

Juan Carlos Algaba https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6993-1696

Richard Anantua https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3457-7660

Keiichi Asada https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6988-8763

Rebecca Azulay https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2200-5393

Uwe Bach https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7722-8412

Anne-Kathrin Baczko https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3090-3975

Mislav Baloković https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0476-6647

John Barrett https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9290-0764

Michi Bauböck https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5518-2812

Bradford A. Benson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5108-6823

Lindy Blackburn https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9030-642X

Raymond Blundell https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5929-5857

Katherine L. Bouman https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0077-4367

Geoffrey C. Bower https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4056-9982

Hope Boyce https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6530-5783

Christiaan D. Brinkerink https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2322-0749

Roger Brissenden https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2556-0894

Silke Britzen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9240-6734

Avery E. Broderick https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3351-760X

Dominique Broguiere https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9151-6683

Thomas Bronzwaer https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1151-3971

Sandra Bustamante https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6169-1894

Do-Young Byun https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1157-4109

John E. Carlstrom https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2044-7665

Chiara Ceccobello https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4767-9925

Andrew Chael https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2966-6220

Chi-kwan Chan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6337-6126

Koushik Chatterjee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2825-3590

Shami Chatterjee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2878-1502

Ming-Tang Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6573-3318

Yongjun Chen (陈永军) https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5650-6770

Xiaopeng Cheng https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4407-9868

Ilje Cho https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6083-7521

Pierre Christian https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6820-9941

Nicholas S. Conroy https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2886-2377

John E. Conway https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2448-9181

James M. Cordes https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4049-1882

Thomas M. Crawford https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9000-5013

Geoffrey B. Crew https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2079-3189

Alejandro Cruz-Osorio https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3945-6342

Yuzhu Cui (崔玉竹) https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6311-4345

Jordy Davelaar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2685-2434

Mariafelicia De Laurentis https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9945-682X

Roger Deane https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1027-5043

Jessica Dempsey https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1269-9667

Gregory Desvignes https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3922-4055

Jason Dexter https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3903-0373

Sheperd S. Doeleman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9031-0904

Vedant Dhruv https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6765-877X

Sean Dougal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3769-1314

Sergio A. Dzib https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6010-6200

Ralph P. Eatough https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6196-4135

Razieh Emami https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2791-5011

Heino Falcke https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2526-6724

Joseph Farah https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4914-5625

Vincent L. Fish https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7128-9345

Ed Fomalont https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9036-2747

H. Alyson Ford https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9797-0972

Raquel Fraga-Encinas https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5222-1361

Per Friberg https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8010-8454

Christian M. Fromm https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1827-1656

Antonio Fuentes https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8773-4933

Peter Galison https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6429-3872

Charles F. Gammie https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7451-8935

Roberto García https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6584-7443

Olivier Gentaz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0115-4605

Boris Georgiev https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3586-6424

Ciriaco Goddi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2542-7743

Roman Gold https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2492-1966

Arturo I. Gómez-Ruiz https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9395-1670

José L. Gómez https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4190-7613

Minfeng Gu (顾敏峰) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4455-6946

Mark Gurwell https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0685-3621

Kazuhiro Hada https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6906-772X
Daryl Haggard https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6803-2138

Michael H. Hecht https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4114-4583

Ronald Hesper https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1918-6098

Dirk Heumann https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7671-0047

Luis C. Ho (何子山) https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6947-5846

Paul Ho https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3412-4306

Mareki Honma https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4058-9000

Chih-Wei L. Huang https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5641-3953

Lei Huang (黄磊) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1923-227X

Shiro Ikeda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2462-1448

C. M. Violette Impellizzeri https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3443-2472

Makoto Inoue https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5037-3989

Sara Issaoun https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5297-921X

David J. James https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5160-4486

Buell T. Jannuzi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1578-6582

Michael Janssen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8685-6544

Britton Jeter https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2847-1712

Wu Jiang (江悟) https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7369-3539

Alejandra Jiménez-Rosales https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2662-3754

Michael D. Johnson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4120-3029

Svetlana Jorstad https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6158-1708

Abhishek V. Joshi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2514-5965

Taehyun Jung https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7003-8643

Mansour Karami https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7387-9333

Ramesh Karuppusamy https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5307-2919

Tomohisa Kawashima https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8527-0496

Garrett K. Keating https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3490-146X

Mark Kettenis https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6156-5617

Dong-Jin Kim https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7038-2118

Jae-Young Kim https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8229-7183

Jongsoo Kim https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1229-0426

Junhan Kim https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4274-9373

Motoki Kino https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2709-7338

Jun Yi Koay https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7029-6658

Prashant Kocherlakota https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7386-7439

Patrick M. Koch https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2777-5861

Shoko Koyama https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3723-3372

Carsten Kramer https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4908-4925

Michael Kramer https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4175-2271

Thomas P. Krichbaum https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4892-9586

Cheng-Yu Kuo https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6211-5581

Noemi La Bella https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8116-9427

Tod R. Lauer https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3234-7247

Daeyoung Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3350-5588

Sang-Sung Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6269-594X

Po Kin Leung https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8802-8256

Aviad Levis https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7307-632X

Zhiyuan Li (李志远) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0355-6437

Rocco Lico https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7361-2460

Greg Lindahl https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6100-4772

Michael Lindqvist https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3669-0715

Mikhail Lisakov https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6088-3819

Jun Liu (刘俊) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7615-7499

Kuo Liu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2953-7376

Elisabetta Liuzzo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0995-5201

Wen-Ping Lo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1869-2503

Andrei P. Lobanov https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1622-1484

Laurent Loinard https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5635-3345

Colin J. Lonsdale https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4062-4654

Ru-Sen Lu (路如森) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7692-7967

Jirong Mao (毛基荣) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7077-7195

Nicola Marchili https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5523-7588

Sera Markoff https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9564-0876

Daniel P. Marrone https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2367-1080

Alan P. Marscher https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7396-3332

Iván Martí-Vidal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3708-9611

Satoki Matsushita https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2127-7880

Lynn D. Matthews https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3728-8082

Lia Medeiros https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2342-6728

Karl M. Menten https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6459-0669

Daniel Michalik https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7618-6556

Izumi Mizuno https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7210-6264

Yosuke Mizuno https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8131-6730

James M. Moran https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3882-4414

Kotaro Moriyama https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1364-3761

Monika Moscibrodzka https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4661-6332

Cornelia Müller https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2739-2994

Alejandro Mus https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0329-6874

Gibwa Musoke https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1984-189X

Ioannis Myserlis https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3025-9497

Andrew Nadolski https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9479-9957

Hiroshi Nagai https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0292-3645

Neil M. Nagar https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6920-662X

Masanori Nakamura https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6081-2420

Ramesh Narayan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1919-2730

Gopal Narayanan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4723-6569

Iniyan Natarajan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8242-4373

Joey Neilsen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8247-786X

Roberto Neri https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7176-4046

Chunchong Ni https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1361-5699

Aristeidis Noutsos https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4151-3860

Michael A. Nowak https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6923-1315

Junghwan Oh https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4991-9638

Hiroki Okino https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3779-2016

Héctor Olivares https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6833-7580

Gisela N. Ortiz-León https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2863-676X

Tomoaki Oyama https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4046-2923

Feryal Özel https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4413-1523

Daniel C. M. Palumbo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7179-3816

Georgios Filippos Paraschos https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6757-3098

Jongho Park https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6558-9053

Harriet Parsons https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6327-3423

Nimesh Patel https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6021-9421

Ue-Li Pen https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2155-9578

Dominic W. Pesce https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5278-9221

Richard Plambeck https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6765-9609

Oliver Porth https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4584-2557

Felix M. Pötzl https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6579-8311

Ben Prather https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0393-7734
Jorge A. Preciado-López https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4146-0113

Dimitrios Psaltis https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1035-3240

Hung-Yi Pu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9270-8812

Venkatessh Ramakrishnan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9248-086X

Ramprasad Rao https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1407-7944

Mark G. Rawlings https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6529-202X

Alexander W. Raymond https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5779-4767

Luciano Rezzolla https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1330-7103

Angelo Ricarte https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5287-0452

Bart Ripperda https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7301-3908

Freek Roelofs https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5461-3687

Alan Rogers https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1941-7458

Eduardo Ros https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9503-4892

Cristina Romero-Cañizales https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6301-9073

Arash Roshanineshat https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8280-9238

Alan L. Roy https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1931-0135

Ignacio Ruiz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0965-5463

Chet Ruszczyk https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7278-9707

Kazi L. J. Rygl https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4146-9043

Salvador Sánchez https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8042-5951

David Sánchez-Argüelles https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7344-9920

Miguel Sánchez-Portal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0981-9664

Mahito Sasada https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5946-9960

Kaushik Satapathy https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0433-3585

Tuomas Savolainen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6214-1085

Jonathan Schonfeld https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8909-2401

Karl-Friedrich Schuster https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2890-9454

Lijing Shao https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1334-8853

Zhiqiang Shen (沈志强) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3540-8746

Des Small https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3723-5404

Bong Won Sohn https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4148-8378

Jason SooHoo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1938-0720

Kamal Souccar https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7915-5272

He Sun (孙赫) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1526-6787

Fumie Tazaki https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0236-0600

Alexandra J. Tetarenko https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3906-4354

Paul Tiede https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3826-5648

Remo P. J. Tilanus https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6514-553X

Michael Titus https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9001-3275

Pablo Torne https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8700-6058

Efthalia Traianou https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1209-6500

Sascha Trippe https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0465-1559

Matthew Turk https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5294-0198

Ilse van Bemmel https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5473-2950

Huib Jan van Langevelde https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0230-5946

Daniel R. van Rossum https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7772-6131

Jesse Vos https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3349-7394

Jan Wagner https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1105-6109

Derek Ward-Thompson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1140-2761

John Wardle https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8960-2942

Jonathan Weintroub https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4603-5204

Norbert Wex https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4058-2837

Robert Wharton https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7416-5209

Maciek Wielgus https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8635-4242

Kaj Wiik https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0862-3398

Gunther Witzel https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2618-797X

Michael F. Wondrak https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6894-1072

George N. Wong https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6952-2147

Qingwen Wu (吴庆文) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4773-4987

Paul Yamaguchi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6017-8199

Doosoo Yoon https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8694-8166

André Young https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0000-2682

Ken Young https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3666-4920

Ziri Younsi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9283-1191

Feng Yuan (袁峰) https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3564-6437

Ye-Fei Yuan (袁业飞) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7330-4756

J. Anton Zensus https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7470-3321

Guang-Yao Zhao https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4417-1659

Shuo Zhang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2967-790X

Shan-Shan Zhao

(赵杉杉) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9774-3606

Tin Lok Chan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9197-932X

Richard Qiu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3462-0817

Sean Ressler https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0220-5723

Chris White https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7448-4253

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Kazunori Akiyama¹,²,³ ID, Antxon Alberdi⁴ ID, Walter Alef⁵, Juan Carlos Algaba⁶ ID, Richard Anantua³,⁷,⁸ ID, Keiichi Asada⁹ ID, Rebecca Azulay¹⁰,¹¹,⁵ ID, Uwe Bach⁵ ID, Anne-Kathrin Baczko⁵ ID, David Ball¹², Mislav Balokovic¹³ ID, John Barrett¹ ID, Michi Bauböck¹⁴ ID, Bradford A. Benson¹⁵,¹⁶ ID, Dan Bintley¹⁷,¹⁸ ID, Lindy Blackburn³,⁷ ID, Raymond Blundell⁷ ID, Katherine L. Bouman¹⁹ ID, Geoffrey C. Bower²¹,²⁰ ID, Hope Boyce²²,²³ ID, Michael Bremer²⁴, Christiaan D. Brinkerink²⁵ ID, Roger Brissenden³,⁷ ID, Silke Britzen⁵ ID, Avery E. Broderick²⁶,²⁷,²⁸ ID, Dominique Broguiere²⁴ ID, Thomas Bronzwaer²⁵ ID, Sandra Bustamante²⁹ ID, Do-Young Byun³⁰,³¹ ID, John E. Carlstrom³²,¹⁶,³³,³⁴ ID, Chiara Ceccobello³⁵ ID, Andrew Chael³⁶,³⁷ ID, Chi-kwan Chan¹²,³⁸,³⁹ ID, Koushik Chatterjee³,⁷ ID, Shami Chatterjee⁴⁰ ID, Ming-Tang Chen²⁰ ID, Yongjun Chen (陈永军)⁴¹,⁴² ID, Xiaopeng Cheng³⁰ ID, Ilje Cho⁴ ID, Pierre Christian⁴³ ID, Nicholas S. Conroy⁴⁴,⁷ ID, John E. Conway³⁵ ID, James M. Cordes⁴⁰ ID, Thomas M. Crawford¹⁶,³² ID, Geoffrey B. Crew¹ ID, Alejandro Cruz-Osorio⁴⁵ ID, Yuzhu Cui (崔玉竹)⁴⁶,⁴⁷,⁴⁸ ID, Jordy Davelaar⁴⁹,⁵⁰,²⁵ ID, Mariafelicia De Laurentis⁵¹,⁴⁵,⁵² ID, Roger Deane⁵³,⁵⁴,⁵⁵ ID, Jessica Dempsey¹⁷,¹十八,⁵⁶ ID, Gregory Desvignes⁵,⁵⁷ ID, Jason Dexter⁵⁸ ID, Vedant Dhruv¹⁴ ID, Sheperd S. Doeleman³,⁷ ID, Sean Dougal¹² ID, Sergio A. Dzib⁵,²⁴ ID, Ralph P. Eatough⁵,⁵⁹ ID, Razieh Emami⁷ ID, Heino Falcke²⁵ ID, Joseph Farah⁶⁰,⁶¹ ID, Vincent L. Fish¹ ID, Ed Fomalont⁶² ID, H. Alyson Ford¹² ID, Raquel Fraga-Encinas²⁵ ID, William T. Freeman⁶³,⁶⁴ ID, Per Friberg¹⁷,¹十八 ID, Christian M. Fromm⁵,⁴⁵,⁶⁵ ID, Antonio Fuentes⁴ ID, Peter Galison³,⁶⁶,⁶⁷ ID, Charles F. Gammie¹⁴,⁴⁴,⁶⁸ ID, Roberto García²⁴ ID, Olivier Gentaz²⁴ ID, Boris Georgiev²⁷,²⁸,²⁶ ID, Ciriaco Goddi⁶⁹,⁷⁰ ID, Roman Gold⁷¹,⁴⁵ ID, Arturo I. Gómez-Ruiz⁷²,⁷³ ID, José L. Gómez⁴ ID, Minfeng Gu (顾敏峰)⁴¹,⁷⁴ ID, Mark Gurwell⁷ ID, Kazuhiro Hada⁴⁷,⁴⁸ ID, Daryl Haggard²²,²³ ID, Kari Haworth⁷, Michael H. Hecht¹ ID, Ronald Hesper⁷⁵ ID, Dirk Heumann¹² ID, Luis C. Ho (何子山)⁷⁶,⁷⁷ ID, Paul Ho⁹,¹十七,¹十八 ID, Mareki Honma⁴⁷,⁴⁸,⁷⁸ ID, Chih-Wei L. Huang⁹ ID, Lei Huang (黄磊)⁴¹,⁷⁴ ID, David H. Hughes⁷², Shiro Ikeda²,⁷⁹,⁸⁰,⁸¹ ID, C. M. Violette Impellizzeri⁸²,⁶² ID, Makoto Inoue⁹ ID, Sara Issaoun⁷,³⁷ ID, David J. James⁸³ ID, Buell T. Jannuzi¹² ID, Michael Janssen⁵ ID, Britton Jeter⁹ ID, Wu Jiang (江悟)⁴¹ ID, Alejandra Jiménez-Rosales²⁵ ID, Michael D. Johnson³,⁷ ID, Svetlana Jorstad⁸⁴ ID, Abhishek V. Joshi¹⁴ ID, Taehyun Jung³⁰,³¹ ID, Mansour Karami²⁶,²⁷ ID, Ramesh Karuppusamy⁵ ID, Tomohisa Kawashima⁸⁵ ID, Garrett K. Keating⁷ ID, Mark Kettenis⁸⁶ ID, Dong-Jin Kim⁵ ID, Jae-Young Kim³⁰,⁸⁷,⁵ ID, Jongsoo Kim³⁰ ID, Junhan Kim¹²,¹⁹ ID, Motoki Kino²,⁸⁸ ID, Jun Yi Koay⁹ ID, Prashant Kocherlakota⁴⁵ ID, Yutaro Kofuji⁴⁷,⁷⁸ ID, Patrick M. Koch⁹ ID, Shoko Koyama⁸⁹,⁹ ID, Carsten Kramer²⁴ ID, Michael Kramer⁵ ID, Thomas P. Krichbaum⁵ ID,
Cheng-Yu Kuo<sup>90,91</sup>, Noemi La Bella<sup>25</sup>, Tod R. Lauer<sup>91</sup>, Daeyoung Lee<sup>14</sup>, Sang-Sung Lee<sup>30</sup>, Po Kin Leung<sup>92</sup>, Aviad Levis<sup>19</sup>, Zhiyuan Li (李志远)<sup>93,94</sup>, Rocco Lico<sup>95,4</sup>, Greg Lindahl<sup>7</sup>, Michael Lindqvist<sup>35</sup>, Mikhail Lisakov<sup>5</sup>, Jun Liu (刘俊)<sup>5</sup>, Kuo Liu<sup>5</sup>, Elisabetta Liuzzo<sup>96</sup>, Wen-Ping Lo<sup>9,97</sup>, Andrei P. Lobanov<sup>5</sup>, Laurent Loinard<sup>98,99</sup>, Colin J. Lonsdale<sup>1</sup>, Ru-Sen Lu (路如森)<sup>5,41,42</sup>, Jirong Mao (毛基荣)<sup>100,101,102</sup>, Nicola Marchili<sup>96,5</sup>, Sera Markoff<sup>103,104</sup>, Daniel P. Marrone<sup>12</sup>, Alan P. Marscher<sup>84</sup>, Iván Martí-Vidal<sup>10,11</sup>, Satoki Matsushita<sup>9</sup>, Lynn D. Matthews<sup>1</sup>, Lia Medeiros<sup>105,106,12</sup>, Karl M. Menten<sup>5</sup>, Daniel Michalik<sup>107,16</sup>, Izumi Mizuno<sup>17,18</sup>, Yosuke Mizuno<sup>46,108,45</sup>, James M. Moran<sup>3,7</sup>, Kotaro Moriyama<sup>1,45,47</sup>, Monika Moscibrodzka<sup>25</sup>, Cornelia Müller<sup>5,25</sup>, Alejandro Mus<sup>10,11</sup>, Gibwa Musoke<sup>25,103</sup>, Ioannis Myserlis<sup>109</sup>, Andrew Nadolski<sup>44</sup>, Hiroshi Nagai<sup>2,48</sup>, Neil M. Nagar<sup>110</sup>, Masanori Nakamura<sup>9,111</sup>, Ramesh Narayan<sup>3,7</sup>, Gopal Narayanan<sup>29</sup>, Iniyan Natarajan<sup>53,112</sup>, Antonios Nathanail<sup>45,113</sup>, Santiago Navarro Fuentes<sup>109</sup>, Joey Neilsen<sup>114</sup>, Roberto Neri<sup>24</sup>, Chunchong Ni<sup>26,27,28</sup>, Aristeidis Noutsos<sup>5</sup>, Michael A. Nowak<sup>115</sup>, Junghwan Oh<sup>116</sup>, Hiroki Okino<sup>47,78</sup>, Héctor Olivares<sup>25</sup>, Gisela N. Ortiz-León<sup>5,99</sup>, Tomoaki Oyama<sup>47</sup>, Feryal Özel<sup>12</sup>, Daniel C. M. Palumbo<sup>3,7</sup>, Georgios Filippos Paraschos<sup>5</sup>, Jongho Park<sup>9,117</sup>, Harriet Parsons<sup>17,18</sup>, Nimesh Patel<sup>7</sup>, Ue-Li Pen<sup>9,26,118,119,120</sup>, Dominic W. Pesce<sup>7,3</sup>, Vincent Piétu<sup>24</sup>, Richard Plambeck<sup>121</sup>, Aleksandar PopStefanija<sup>29</sup>, Oliver Porth<sup>45,103</sup>, Felix M. Pötzl<sup>122,5</sup>, Ben Prather<sup>14</sup>, Jorge A. Preciado-López<sup>26</sup>, Dimitrios Psaltis<sup>12</sup>, Hung-Yi Pu<sup>9,123,124</sup>, Venkatessh Ramakrishnan<sup>110,125,126</sup>, Ramprasad Rao<sup>7</sup>, Mark G. Rawlings<sup>17,18,127</sup>, Alexander W. Raymond<sup>3,7</sup>, Luciano Rezzolla<sup>45,128,129</sup>, Angelo Ricarte<sup>3,7</sup>, Bart Ripperda<sup>50,130</sup>, Greek Roelofs<sup>3,7,25</sup>, Alan Rogers<sup>1</sup>, Eduardo Ros<sup>5</sup>, Cristina Romero-Cañizales<sup>9</sup>, Arash Roshanineshat<sup>12</sup>, Helge Rottmann<sup>5</sup>, Alan L. Roy<sup>5</sup>, Ignacio Ruiz<sup>109</sup>, Chet Ruszczyk<sup>1</sup>, Kazi L. J. Rygl<sup>96</sup>, Salvador Sánchez<sup>109</sup>, David Sánchez-Argüelles<sup>72,73</sup>, Miguel Sánchez-Portal<sup>109</sup>, Mahito Sasada<sup>47,131,132</sup>, Kaushik Satapathy<sup>12</sup>, Tuomas Savolainen<sup>5,126,133</sup>, F. Peter Schloerb<sup>29</sup>, Jonathan Schonfeld<sup>7</sup>, Karl-Friedrich Schuster<sup>24</sup>, Lijing Shao<sup>5,77</sup>, Zhiqiang Shen (沈志强)<sup>41,42</sup>, Des Small<sup>86</sup>, Bong Won Sohn<sup>30,31,134</sup>, Jason SooHoo<sup>1</sup>, Kamal Souccar<sup>29</sup>, He Sun (孙赫)<sup>19</sup>, Fumie Tazaki<sup>47</sup>, Alexandra J. Tetarenko<sup>37,135</sup>, Paul Tiede<sup>3,7</sup>, Remo P. J. Tilanus<sup>12,25,82,136</sup>, Michael Titus<sup>1</sup>, Pablo Torne<sup>5,109</sup>, Efthalia Traianou<sup>4,5</sup>, Tyler Trent<sup>12</sup>, Sascha Trippe<sup>137</sup>, Matthew Turk<sup>44</sup>, Ilse van Bemmel<sup>86</sup>, Huib Jan van Langevelde<sup>82,86,138</sup>, Daniel R. van Rossum<sup>25</sup>, Jesse Vos<sup>25</sup>, Jan Wagner<sup>5</sup>, Derek Ward-Thompson<sup>139</sup>, John Wardle<sup>140</sup>, Jonathan Weintroub<sup>3,7</sup>, Norbert Wex<sup>5</sup>, Robert Wharton<sup>5</sup>, Maciek Wielgus<sup>5</sup>, Kaj Wiik<sup>141</sup>, Gunther Witzel<sup>5</sup>, Michael F. Wondrak<sup>25,142</sup>, George N. Wong<sup>106,143</sup>, Qingwen Wu (吴庆文)<sup>144</sup>, Paul Yamaguchi<sup>7</sup>, Doosoo Yoon<sup>103</sup>, André Young<sup>25</sup>, Ken Young<sup>7</sup>, Ziri Younsi<sup>45,145</sup>, Feng Yuan (袁峰)<sup>147</sup>, Ye-Fei Yuan (袁业飞)<sup>147</sup>, J. Anton Zensus<sup>5</sup>, Shuo Zhang<sup>148</sup>, Guang-Yao Zhao<sup>4</sup>, Shan-Shan Zhao (赵杉杉)<sup>41</sup>, Tin Lok Chan<sup>92</sup>, Richard Qiu<sup>149,150</sup>, Sean Ressler<sup>151</sup>, and Chris White<sup>130</sup>

<sup>1</sup> Massachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA 01886, USA

<sup>2</sup> National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, Japan

<sup>3</sup> Black Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

<sup>4</sup> Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, Spain

<sup>5</sup> Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, Germany

<sup>6</sup> Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

<sup>7</sup> Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

<sup>8</sup> Department of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA

<sup>9</sup> Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, 11F of Astronomy-Mathematics Building, AS/NTU No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C.

<sup>10</sup> Departament d'Astronomia i Astrofísica, Universitat de València, C. Dr. Moliner 50, E-46100 Burjassot, València, Spain

<sup>11</sup> Observatori Astronòmic, Universitat de València, C. Catedrático José Beltrán 2, E-46980 Paterna, València, Spain

<sup>12</sup> Steward Observatory and Department of Astronomy, University of Arizona, 933 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

<sup>13</sup> Yale Center for Astronomy & Astrophysics, Yale University, 52 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, CT 06511, USA

<sup>14</sup> Department of Physics, University of Illinois, 1110 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USA

<sup>15</sup> Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, MS209, P.O. Box 500, Batavia, IL 60510, USA

<sup>16</sup> Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA

<sup>17</sup> East Asian Observatory, 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USA

<sup>18</sup> James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT), 660 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USA

<sup>19</sup> California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA

<sup>20</sup> Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, 645 N. A'ohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USA

<sup>21</sup> Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2505 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA

<sup>22</sup> Department of Physics, McGill University, 3600 rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2T8, Canada

<sup>23</sup> McGill Space Institute, McGill University, 3550 rue University, Montréal, QC H3A 2A7, Canada

<sup>24</sup> Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), 300 rue de la Piscine, F-38406 Saint Martin d'Hères, France

<sup>25</sup> Department of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands

<sup>26</sup> Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, 31 Caroline Street N, Waterloo, ON N2L 2Y5, Canada

<sup>27</sup> Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada

<sup>28</sup> Waterloo Centre for Astrophysics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada

<sup>29</sup> Department of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA

<sup>30</sup> Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Daedok-daero 776, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34055, Republic of Korea

<sup>31</sup> University of Science and Technology, Gajeong-ro 217, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea

<sup>32</sup> Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA

<sup>33</sup> Department of Physics, University of Chicago, 5720 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
³⁴ Enrico Fermi Institute, University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA

³⁵ Department of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, SE-43992 Onsala, Sweden

³⁶ Princeton Center for Theoretical Science, Jadwin Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA

³⁷ NASA Hubble Fellowship Program, Einstein Fellow

³⁸ Data Science Institute, University of Arizona, 1230 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

³⁹ Program in Applied Mathematics, University of Arizona, 617 N. Santa Rita, Tucson, AZ 85721

⁴⁰ Cornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA

⁴¹ Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 80 Nandan Road, Shanghai 200030, People's Republic of China

⁴² Key Laboratory of Radio Astronomy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, People's Republic of China

⁴³ Physics Department, Fairfield University, 1073 North Benson Road, Fairfield, CT 06824, USA

⁴⁴ Department of Astronomy, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1002 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USA

⁴⁵ Institut für Theoretische Physik, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Straße 1, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany

⁴⁶ Tsung-Dao Lee Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shengrong Road 520, Shanghai, 201210, People's Republic of China

⁴⁷ Mizusawa VLBI Observatory, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 2-12 Hoshigaoka, Mizusawa, Oshu, Iwate 023-0861, Japan

⁴⁸ Department of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, Japan

⁴⁹ Department of Astronomy and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, 550 W. 120th Street, New York, NY 10027, USA

⁵⁰ Center for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, 162 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA

⁵¹ Dipartimento di Fisica “E. Pancini,” Università di Napoli “Federico II,” Compl. Univ. di Monte S. Angelo, Edificio G, Via Cinthia, I-80126, Napoli, Italy

⁵² INFN Sez. di Napoli, Compl. Univ. di Monte S. Angelo, Edificio G, Via Cinthia, Napoli, Italy

⁵³ Wits Centre for Astrophysics, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa

⁵⁴ Department of Physics, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria 0028, South Africa

⁵⁵ Centre for Radio Astronomy Techniques and Technologies, Department of Physics and Electronics, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6140, South Africa

⁵⁶ ASTRON, Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991 PD Dwingeloo, The Netherlands

⁵⁷ LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, 5 place Jules Janssen, F-92195 Meudon, France

⁵⁸ JILA and Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA

⁵⁹ National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China

⁶⁰ Las Cumbres Observatory, 6740 Cortona Drive, Suite 102, Goleta, CA 93117-5575, USA

⁶¹ Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9530, USA

⁶² National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 520 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA

⁶³ Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 32-D476, 77 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA

02142, USA

⁶⁴ Google Research, 355 Main St., Cambridge, MA 02142, USA

⁶⁵ Institut für Theoretische Physik und Astrophysik, Universität Würzburg, Emil-Fischer-Str. 31, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany

⁶⁶ Department of History of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

⁶⁷ Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

⁶⁸ NCSA, University of Illinois, 1205 W. Clark St., Urbana, IL 61801, USA

⁶⁹ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, SP Monserrato-Sestu km 0.7, I-09042 Monserrato, Italy

⁷⁰ INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, Via della Scienza 5, I-09047, Selargius, CA, Italy

⁷¹ CP3-Origins, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark

⁷² Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica. Apartado Postal 51 y 216, 72000. Puebla Pue., México

⁷³ Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Av. Insurgentes Sur 1582, 03940, Ciudad de México, México

⁷⁴ Key Laboratory for Research in Galaxies and Cosmology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, People's Republic of China

⁷⁵ NOVA Sub-mm Instrumentation Group, Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Landleven 12, 9747 AD Groningen, The Netherlands

⁷⁶ Department of Astronomy, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China

⁷⁷ Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China

⁷⁸ Department of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan

⁷⁹ The Institute of Statistical Mathematics, 10-3 Midori-cho, Tachikawa, Tokyo, 190-8562, Japan

⁸⁰ Department of Statistical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 10-3 Midori-cho, Tachikawa, Tokyo 190-8562, Japan

⁸¹ Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, 277-8583, Japan

⁸² Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Postbus 2300, 9513 RA Leiden, The Netherlands

⁸³ ASTRAVEO LLC, P.O. Box 1668, Gloucester, MA 01931, USA

⁸⁴ Institute for Astrophysical Research, Boston University, 725 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215, USA

⁸⁵ Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8582, Japan

⁸⁶ Joint Institute for VLBI ERIC (JIVE), Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991 PD Dwingeloo, The Netherlands

⁸⁷ Department of Astronomy and Atmospheric Sciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 702-701, Republic of Korea

⁸⁸ Kogakuin University of Technology & Engineering, Academic Support Center, 2665-1 Nakano, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0015, Japan

⁸⁹ Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi-nino-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan

⁹⁰ Physics Department, National Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 70, Lien-Hai Road, Kaosiang City 80424, Taiwan, R.O.C.

⁹¹ National Optical Astronomy Observatory, 950 N. Cherry Ave., Tucson, AZ 85719, USA

⁹² Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong

⁹³ School of Astronomy and Space Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China

⁹⁴ Key Laboratory of Modern Astronomy and Astrophysics, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, People's Republic of China

⁹⁵ INAF-Istituto di Radioastronomia, Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy

⁹⁶ INAF-Istituto di Radioastronomia & Italian ALMA Regional Centre, Via P. Gobetti 101, I-40129 Bologna, Italy

⁹⁷ Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, No.1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei 10617, Taiwan, R.O.C

⁹⁸ Instituto de Radioastronomía y Astrofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Morelia 58089, México

⁹⁹ Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apdo Postal 70-264, Ciudad de México, México

¹⁰⁰ Yunnan Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 650011 Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China

¹⁰¹ Center for Astronomical Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100012, People's Republic of China

¹⁰² Key Laboratory for the Structure and Evolution of Celestial Objects, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 650011 Kunming, People's Republic of China

¹⁰³ Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

¹⁰⁴ Gravitation and Astroparticle Physics Amsterdam (GRAPPA) Institute, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands

¹⁰⁵ NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellow

¹⁰⁶ School of Natural Sciences, Institute for Advanced Study, 1 Einstein Drive, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
¹⁰⁷ Science Support Office, Directorate of Science, European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESA/ESTEC), Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands

¹⁰⁸ School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China

¹⁰⁹ Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), Avenida Divina Pastora 7, Local 20, E-18012, Granada, Spain

¹¹⁰ Astronomy Department, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 160-C, Concepción, Chile

¹¹¹ National Institute of Technology, Hachinohe College, 16-1 Uwanotai, Tamonoki, Hachinohe City, Aomori 039-1192, Japan

¹¹² South African Radio Astronomy Observatory, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa

¹¹³ Department of Physics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, GR 15783 Zografos, Greece

¹¹⁴ Villanova University, Mendel Science Center Rm. 263B, 800 E. Lancaster Ave., Villanova, PA 19085, USA

¹¹⁵ Physics Department, Washington University CB 1105, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA

¹¹⁶ Sejong University, 209 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea

¹¹⁷ EACOA Fellow

¹¹⁸ Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Toronto, 60 St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3H8, Canada

¹¹⁹ Dunlap Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Toronto, 50 St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3H4, Canada

¹²⁰ Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, 180 Dundas St. W, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z8, Canada

¹²¹ Radio Astronomy Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

¹²² Department of Physics, University College Cork, Kane Building, College Road, Cork T12 K8AF, Ireland

¹²³ Department of Physics, National Taiwan Normal University, No. 88, Sec. 4, Tingzhou Rd., Taipei 116, Taiwan, R.O.C.

¹²⁴ Center of Astronomy and Gravitation, National Taiwan Normal University, No. 88, Sec. 4, Tingzhou Road, Taipei 116, Taiwan, R.O.C.

¹²⁵ Finnish Centre for Astronomy with ESO, FI-2014 University of Turku, Finland

¹²⁶ Aalto University Metsähovi Radio Observatory, Metsähovintie 114, FI-02540 Kylmälä, Finland

¹²⁷ Gemini Observatory/NSF NOIRLab, 670 N. A'ohōkū Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USA

¹²⁸ Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, Ruth-Moufang-Strasse 1, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany

¹²⁹ School of Mathematics, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland

¹³⁰ Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Peyton Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA

¹³¹ Department of Physics, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan

¹³² Hiroshima Astrophysical Science Center, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan

¹³³ Aalto University Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, PL 15500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland

¹³⁴ Department of Astronomy, Yonsei University, Yonsei-ro 50, Seodaemun-gu, 03722 Seoul, Republic of Korea

¹³⁵ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409-1051, USA

¹³⁶ Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO), Postbus 93138, 2509 AC Den Haag, The Netherlands

¹³⁷ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea

¹³⁸ University of New Mexico, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA

¹³⁹ Jeremiah Horrocks Institute, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, UK

¹⁴⁰ Physics Department, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, MA 02453, USA

¹⁴¹ Tuorla Observatory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Finland

¹⁴² Radboud Excellence Fellow of Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

¹⁴³ Princeton Gravity Initiative, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA

¹⁴⁴ School of Physics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, People's Republic of China

¹⁴⁵ Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St. Mary, Dorking, Surrey, RH5 6NT, UK

¹⁴⁶ School of Astronomy and Space Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China

¹⁴⁷ Astronomy Department, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, People's Republic of China

¹⁴⁸ Bard College, 30 Campus Road, Annandale-on-Hudson, NY 12504, USA

¹⁴⁹ Department of Physics, Harvard University, 17 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

¹⁵⁰ John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, 29 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

¹⁵¹ Kavli Institute For Theoretical Physics, 2411 Kohn Hall, Santa Barbara, CA 93111 USA