Spain, Sicily and other parts of Italy (Tarolli et al., 2024), Greece, France, Hungary, Portugal, Romania and Slovakia (Joneset al., 2012). While the precise extent remains uncertain, it is estimated that in Europe Mediterranean regions are most susceptible to soil salinisation (Daliakopoulos et al., 2016; Stolte et al., 2016).

An EU-27 map of saline and sodic soils (Tóth et al., 2008) delineates the spatial distribution of regions classified as saline, sodic and potentially affected by salt areas (Figure 11). The accuracy of input data only allows the designation of salt-affected areas with a limited degree of reliability (e.g. < 50 % or > 50 % of the area); therefore, the results presented in the map should only be used for guiding purposes.

Agriculture-induced salinisation is a significant form of soil degradation in certain areas, with moderate to high salinisation levels affecting approximately 25 % of irrigated cropland in the Mediterranean (Mateo-Sagasta and Burke, 2011; IPBES, 2018). Such salinisation impacts parts of Greece, Spain (south-east areas, the Ebro valley), France (west coast), Italy (Sicily, Campania), Cyprus and Portugal (coastal areas) (Marien et al., 2023). In Spain, for example, 3 % of the 3.5 million hectares of irrigated land has reduced agricultural yield due to soil salinity, and another 15 % faces a similar risk. Similarly, about 9 % of Greece's 1.4 million hectares of irrigated land experiences soil salinisation (Daliakopoulos et al., 2016) due to seawater intrusion (Jones et al., 2003; OECD, 2009). In addition, some soils in Albania, southern France and northern Portugal, and other regions, also hinder agriculture due to their high levels of salinity and sodicity (Daliakopoulos et al., 2016). However, these areas do not always align with those identified in the saline and sodic soil maps of the European Soil Data Centre (ESDAC) database, indicating a limited degree of reliability. These findings should therefore primarily be used for guiding purposes (Tóth et al., 2006).

While no systematic data on soil salinisation trends are available, research indicates that salinisation is increasing in Spain and Italy due to the large extent of irrigated areas with a high evapotranspiration demand (aridity index < 0.2). In addition, there is a high risk of saline intrusion in coastal areas in Portugal owing to groundwater abstraction and

rising sea levels (European Commission, 2020), and in Cyprus due to mining activities (Stolte et al., 2016). In addition, the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard measures irrigation in climatic areas with more evaporation than precipitation to estimate the soil salinisation risk.

Solonetz soils, characterised by a high clay content and the significant accumulation of sodium ions within them, cover an estimated area of 135 million hectares worldwide (Cherlet et al., 2018) and 0.5 % of Europe (European Commission, 2005), in regions such as Bulgaria, Spain, Hungary and Romania.

These soils are predominantly found in steppe climatic zones and flat terrains with poor drainage (Otlewska et al., 2020). Due to their high clay and sodium content, these soils crack during droughts, when they dry out, and swell during extreme rainfall events, leading to the build-up of inland water, making them vulnerable to climatic extremes. Over time, the extent of saline, sodic and saline-sodic croplands has increased, resulting in accelerated land degradation and desertification and decreased agricultural productivity, and consequently jeopardising environmental and food security (Stavi et al., 2021).

The western Balkans is home to a special soil type: the dark black heavy clay Chromic Vertisol (called, in Serbian, Smonitsa) (Stebutt, 1926; Pavlović et al., 2017). Despite being difficult to cultivate when very dry or wet, this soil is extensively cultivated in Albania, North Macedonia and Serbia, covering nearly 10 % of the entire western Balkans region (Zdruli et al., 2022). Albania reported that salinisation and acidification altogether affect about 15 000 ha, largely owing to natural conditions, except for when salinity build-up due to poor-quality irrigation water (Vidojevic et al., 2022).

Soil salinisation and alkalisation processes are widespread on 4.1 % of Ukraine's arable land (Baliuk et al., 2021). There are 2.8 million hectares of saline soils in Ukraine, 2 million hectares of which are on arable land, and about 0.7 million hectares are irrigated. Salinisation processes are almost widespread on Kastanozems (Haplic Kastanozems, Luvic Kastanozems, Luvic Gleyic Kastanozems) of the Ukrainian steppe. In some areas, Solonetz (Mollic Gleyic, Stagnic and Gleyic) and Solonchaks are present.
Recent studies highlight significant salinity and alkalinity issues across Türkiye, affecting approximately 1.5 million hectares of land, with 1.1 million of hectares experiencing salinisation, 390 000 hectares facing saline-alkaline conditions, and 10 000 hectares afflicted by alkalinity (Okur and Örçen, 2020). Moreover, these issues impact 3.8 % of cultivated agricultural land and 9.0 % with drainage challenges. Türkiye faces significant impacts in coastal regions due to rising sea levels, with millions of people residing in vulnerable regions along the Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara and Black Sea coasts. Institutional research projects are being conducted to study groundwater characteristics and the impact of sea water intrusion on water and soil (Arslan et al., 2007; MoAF, 2022).

Urgent action is needed to address coastal vulnerability and groundwater salinisation, and integrated coastal management strategies must be implemented to safeguard coastal regions and agricultural lands.

## 4.7.2 Drivers

The main drivers of soil salinisation in Europe can vary depending on the region, but some common factors include the following.

*   **Irrigation practices.** Improper irrigation practices, such as excessive or poorly managed irrigation with salty water, can lead to the build-up of salts in the soil. In arid regions, where irrigation is necessary for agriculture, such as southern Europe, the accumulation of salt deposits can become a significant issue due to the high salt content of irrigation water. Drivers encountered in agricultural irrigation arise at successive stages, starting from the development of water resources to the use of water at the field level. Additional problems arise from factors such as insufficient knowledge about irrigation among farmers, misguidance and the inadequate use of technology (Obi et al., 2014; Shahid et al., 2018)

*   **Poor drainage.** The most important factor in the occurrence of drainage problems is uncontrolled surface irrigation, which is inefficient. In addition, damage to and poor maintenance of irrigation canals and water intake structures cause unnecessary and uncontrolled water inflow to land. The depth of groundwater in irrigated areas may

vary depending on the efficiency of the drainage system. Groundwater rising to the effective root zone causes a decrease in yield in irrigated agricultural areas due to salinity and alkalinity problems, and may even render these areas unsuitable for agriculture. Poorly drained soils are particularly susceptible to salinisation, especially in areas with high water tables or clay-rich soils (Bahçeci et al., 2006; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021).

*   **Intensive agriculture.** Intensive farming often relies on fertiliser supply to maximise crop yields. Some fertilisers contain soluble salts, such as potassium chloride and ammonium nitrate, which can contribute to soil salinity when applied in uncontrolled amounts (Corwin and Scudiero, 2019; Corwin, 2021; Liu et al., 2023; Tarolli et al., 2024). It is noteworthy that the use of mineral fertilisers in some Mediterranean countries, such as Greece, France, and Italy, contribute to soil salinisation in agricultural lands (Katerji et al., 2000).

*   **Climate change.** Climate change can exacerbate soil salinisation by altering precipitation patterns and increasing temperatures, leading to changes in evaporation rates and water availability (Ajilogba and Walker, 2020). The harmful impacts of climate change accelerate the development of soil salinity, potentially spreading the problem to unaffected regions (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021). The rising temperatures and droughts increase evapotranspiration. As a result, water evaporates and the salt remains in the soil, increasing soil salinity. However, salt-affected soils used for agriculture could act as a carbon sink if these negative effects can be offset by a combination of sustainable land management practices (Garcia-Franco et al., 2021).

*   **Coastal waterlogging.** In coastal areas, saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources can result in saline soils. This can occur due to factors such as rising sea levels, the over-extraction of groundwater or changes in coastal hydrology. Drivers of rising sea levels are the thermal expansion of ocean water, the melting of glaciers and the mass loss of polar and circumpolar ice sheets. The rise in seawater intrusion, driven by climate change and human activities, is a major concern in coastal areas of Greece, Spain, Italy, Cyprus and Portugal (Daliakopoulos et al., 2016).
### 4.7.3 Impacts

Soil salinisation disrupts the natural cycles of various earth processes, including biochemical (Wong et al., 2010; Setia et al., 2013), hydrological (Zhou et al., 2017) and biological (Baumann and Marschner, 2013) cycles. Elevated levels of salinisation can lead to the depletion of valuable soil resources, and essential goods and services, which in turn can have adverse effects on agricultural production and the overall health of the environment (Rengasamy, 2006). Soil salinisation can have significant impacts on both agricultural productivity and ecosystem health. Some of the key impacts include the following.

* **Reduced crop yields and food security.** High soil salinity levels can inhibit plant growth and reduce crop. Irrigated areas in arid and semi-arid regions have different levels of salinity problems. The reports prepared by FAO and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization based on the data from the Soil Map of the World state that 954 million hectares of land have been affected by salinity and limited fertility worldwide (Shahid et al., 2018). Potential impacts of the formation of Solonetz soils within the EU include the loss of arable land due to swelling clay, increased sodium content and waterlogging, decreasing agricultural productivity (Hatef-fard et al., 2022).

* **Economic impacts.** Soil salinisation can have economic repercussions for agricultural industries, including reduced crop yields, increased irrigation costs and decreased land values. Farmers may incur additional expenses for soil remediation measures such as leaching, soil amendments and land reclamation, impacting profitability and livelihoods. Research conducted in three countries (Bulgaria, Spain and Hungary) revealed that the annual costs associated with soil salinisation, primarily attributable to agricultural yield losses, fall within the range of EUR 158 million and EUR 321 million (Montanarella, 2007). Another study conducted by Bosello et al. (2012), which focused on specific rivers and deltas, estimated that the current economic impact of salinity within the EU, primarily in the agricultural sector, amounts to approximately EUR 600 million.

* **Environmental degradation.** Soil salinisation can lead to the degradation of natural habitats, including wetlands, grasslands and forests, as salt-tolerant species may outcompete native vegetation. The loss of habitat diversity and ecosystem services can further exacerbate the impacts of soil salinisation on overall ecosystem health and resilience (Daliakopoulos et al., 2016). Increasing salinity can alter soil microbial communities and inhibit the growth of native plant species, leading to reduced biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. Changes in soil salinity can also impact soil-dwelling organisms, such as earthworms and beneficial microbes, which play crucial roles in nutrient cycling and soil health (Saviozzi et al., 2011).

* **Desertification.** Soil salinisation is a major driver of desertification in the Mediterranean region, primarily due to human activities, including extensive irrigation and the unreasonable use of saline water, causing over-pumping and seawater infiltration (Abu Hammad and Tumeizi, 2012; Domínguez-Beisiegel et al., 2013).

Despite being recognised as a major soil threat in the soil thematic strategy (Panagos and Montanarella, 2018), specific EU legislative policies do not address salinisation yet (Ferreira et al., 2022). Moreover, salinisation and sodification are not subject to specific CAP measures, even if they contribute indirectly to soil degradation (Ronchi et al., 2019). Addressing soil salinisation requires integrated management approaches that focus on improving soil drainage and implementing sustainable irrigation practices. Adaptation strategies in the long run should include selecting salt-tolerant crop varieties and developing new restoration methodologies (Tarolli et al., 2024). By mitigating the impacts of soil salinisation, Europe can safeguard agricultural productivity, protect natural resources and promote environmental sustainability.
<figure><img src="image_28.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 12.** Distribution of potential risks to soil biodiversity (i.e., soil microorganisms, soil fauna) and soil biological functions in the EU + United Kingdom.</figcaption></figure>

<figure><img src="image_29.png" /></figure>

Source: EUSO based on Orgiazzi et al. (2016).

## 4.8 Soil biodiversity change

Soil biodiversity – including microorganisms, such as asfungi and bacteria, and fauna, such as springtails and earthworms – is vital for the provision of ecosystem service s such as food production, medicine discovery and water regulation. Factors such as pH, land use and climate influence soil biodiversity. Urbanisation, agricultur al intensification and pollution pose significant threats. Climate change exacerbates these risks, affecting the distribution and abundance of soil organisms. Addressing biodiversity changes is imperative for maintaining soil health, ecosystem resilience and food security.

Soil organisms span a wide range of body sizes, from microorganisms (e.g., fungi and bacteria) to macro-fauna (e.g., earthworms). Soil biodiversity (number and diversity of species) is an essential component for the delivery of soil ecosystem services, such as food production, pest control, and water and climate regulations (Barrios, 2007; Delgado-Baquerizo et al., 2020).
### 4.8.1 Status and trends

An assessment of soil biodiversity was included in the LUCAS soil module for the first time in 2018, gathering data from over 880 soil samples collected across all the current Member States and the United Kingdom. The sampling method was repeated in the 2022 survey, and expanded to over 1 500 samples. Data collected in 2018 enabled the generation of the first ever EU-wide assessment of soil biodiversity by means of DNA metabarcoding (Köninger et al., 2023; Labouyrie et al., 2023). This analysis led to the elucidation of consistent trends between prokaryotic and eukaryotic communities: usually, higher biodiversity was hosted in croplands than grasslands and woodlands. Additional analyses have been carried out on the fresh soil samples collected in 2018 to determine the spatial distribution of microbial biomass and basal respiration across the EU (Smith et al., 2021). Basal respiration was incorporated as a biological indicator of soil health in the European Commission's proposal for a soil monitoring and resilience directive (European Commission, 2023).

Previously, to assess the status of life in EU soils, an inventory was made of the risk of 13 potential threats to soil biodiversity in the EU, including habitat fragmentation, land use change, soil pollution and soil sealing (Figure 12) (Orgiazzi et al., 2016). The results of this study were used to populate the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard, which shows areas where the risk is estimated to be moderately high or high. Despite the intrinsic limits of this knowledge-based assessment, a remarkable potential risk to soil biodiversity was observed.

Beside the LUCAS soil biodiversity dataset, some Member States have national soil monitoring schemes that include soil biodiversity (e.g. France and the Netherlands). Looking beyond the EU, in Switzerland, 30 long-term monitoring sites in the Swiss Soil Monitoring Network were surveyed over 5 years to assess the long-term stability of bacterial and fungal communities in soil (Gschwend et al., 2021). In the United Kingdom, for 2013–2016, an ecological survey was undertaken at the national scale in Wales to determine environmental status and trends,

<table><caption>**Table 1.** Drivers of changes in communities of the main groups of soil organisms. The top three driving factors (1 to 3) are shown; see source publications for additional details. C, carbon; temp., temperature.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Soil organism</th><th colspan="3">Driving factors</th></tr><tr><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Bacterial chemoheterotrophs</td><td>Isothermality</td><td>pH</td><td>Annual temp. range</td></tr><tr><td>Bacterial N-fixers</td><td>Carbonate</td><td>C:N ratio</td><td>Temp. range</td></tr><tr><td>Bacterial pathogens</td><td>pH</td><td>Clay</td><td>Isothermality</td></tr><tr><td>Ectomycorrhizal fungi</td><td>Monthly aridity</td><td>P</td><td>pH</td></tr><tr><td>Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi</td><td>Clay</td><td>Extractable K</td><td>Temp. seasonality</td></tr><tr><td>Fungal saprotrophs</td><td>P</td><td>Carbonate</td><td>Monthly aridity</td></tr><tr><td>Fungal plant pathogens</td><td>pH</td><td>Temp. seasonality</td><td>Annual temp. range</td></tr><tr><td>Protists</td><td>P</td><td>C:N ratio</td><td>Bulk density</td></tr><tr><td>Rotifers</td><td>pH</td><td>Microbial biomass C</td><td>C:N ratio</td></tr><tr><td>Tardigrades</td><td>Basal respiration</td><td>P</td><td>Soil water content</td></tr><tr><td>Nematodes</td><td>C:N ratio</td><td>P</td><td>Bulk density</td></tr><tr><td>Arthropods</td><td>C:N ratio</td><td>Intensity gradient<br>2009-2018</td><td>Ecosystem type 2015</td></tr><tr><td>Annelids</td><td>pH</td><td>P</td><td>Respiration quotient</td></tr></tbody></table>

Sources: Köninger et al. (2023) and Labouyrie et al. (2023).
among which trends in soil biodiversity were included (Emmet *et al.* 2017). The Norwegian agricultural soil monitoring programme will include a soil biodiversity module in 2024. Soil biodiversity data collection is lacking in all the countries of the western Balkans, and data on biodiversity is not included in the soil monitoring programmes in Iceland, Liechtenstein, Türkiye and Ukraine.

### 4.8.2 Drivers

Soil biodiversity may be driven by both edaphic factors, such as pH and organic carbon, and anthropogenic factors, such as land use intensification, climate change and above-ground vegetation cover (Tsiafouli *et al.*, 2015; Orgiazzi *et al.*, 2016). The first-ever assessment of soil microbial and faunal distribution across Europe (Köninger *et al.*, 2023; Labouyrie *et al.*, 2023) allowed the description of the main factors driving both the taxonomical and the functional diversity of soil organisms. While microbial alpha diversity (i.e. taxonomical diversity in a site) is mainly shaped by soil properties, especially pH (for bacteria, see Table 1) and vegetation cover (for fungi, see Table 1), soil animals are also affected by historical conditions, including climatic conditions and land use. In Table 1, the full list of drivers is presented for the taxonomical and functional groups of soil organisms examined.

*   **Land use change.** Land use changes, including urbanisation, agricultural intensification and deforestation, have profound impacts on soil biodiversity and ecosystems. Urban expansion converts natural habitats into impervious surfaces, reducing soil organism habitats. Population growth, and subsequent urbanisation of green spaces, has increased soil sealing, and decreased soil biodiversity by impeding organic matter inputs and water infiltration (Tibbett *et al.*, 2020). The effects of agriculture may be contrasting depending on whether taxonomical diversity or functional diversity is considered. Intensive practices tend to affect larger-bodied soil organisms negatively and alter soil food webs (Tsiafouli *et al.*, 2015). Deforestation for conversion to agricultural land or for other uses also eliminates habitats supporting diverse soil communities (Nielsen *et al.*, 2015; Wachira *et al.*, 2015).

*   **Pollution.** Chemical pollution, stemming from agrochemicals, industrial pollutants and other

sources, may contribute to the loss of soil biodiversity, although the effects reported can vary. Pesticides, for example, can deplete or disrupt non-target invertebrates, such as earthworms, and soil microbial communities, impacting not just taxonomy but also critical functions, such as N fixation and nutrient uptake (Jordaan *et al.*, 2012; Chagnon *et al.*, 2015; Mahmood *et al.*, 2016; Pagano *et al.*, 2017). However, large-scale assessments of the effects of pesticides on the whole soil-occupying community are still missing.

*   **Microplastics.** Soils are likely to serve as a significant sink for microplastics (Hurley and Nizzetto, 2018), especially agricultural soils (Nizzetto *et al.*, 2016). However, the effects of microplastics on soil biota are largely unknown, making them an emerging threat to soil biodiversity that warrants increased attention in research and continued study in the future (Rillig and Bonkowski, 2018; Möhrke *et al.*, 2022; Sajjad *et al.*, 2022). Of particular concern is the potential for earthworms to transport microplastics through the soil profile, potentially exposing other subsoil organisms to this new threat (Rillig *et al.*, 2017).

*   **Climate change.** Climate change can significantly influence the distribution and abundance of soil organisms, with some species proving more sensitive than others to changes.

### 4.8.3 Impacts

The loss of soil biodiversity may have far-reaching impacts on soil health and ecosystem functioning.

*   **Reduced soil fertility.** The loss of key functional groups of soil organisms can decrease decomposition rates, reduce nutrient cycling and impede soil structure maintenance, resulting in reduced agricultural productivity and increased dependency on fertilisers (Janušauskaite *et al.*, 2013; Paes *et al.*, 2024).

*   **Disruption of ecosystem services.** Soil biodiversity changes may contribute to the disruption of crucial ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, water filtration and pest regulation, compromising the resilience of ecosystems to environmental stressors (Delgado-Baquerizo *et al.*, 2020; Le Provost *et al.*, 2023).
* **Reduced food security.** The maintenance of high levels of functional diversity in the soil is closely related to the functional diversity above ground. For instance, it has been shown recently that earthworms contribute to 6.5 % of global grain production and 2.3 % of legume production (Fonte *et al.*, 2023).

* **Human health.** Changes in soil biodiversity can alter the occurrence and distribution of disease-carrying organisms. This can increase the prevalence of vector-borne diseases, posing risks to human health (Wall *et al.*, 2015). In addition, decreased soil microbial diversity may reduce the soil's ability to break down pollutants, leading to increased levels of contaminants in food and water sources (Tibbett *et al.*, 2020).

Addressing soil biodiversity change is critical for maintaining soil health, ecosystem services and food security in Europe. Historically, soil organisms and their diversity have been underrepresented in the assessment of soil condition compared with chemical and physical characteristics (Orgiazzi *et al.*, 2018). This is due to a primary focus on properties that are well known to affect crop performance (e.g. major nutrients), but also to methodological constraints and the inability to monitor a wide range of organisms. In recent years, the evaluation of soil biodiversity has become increasingly feasible thanks to advancements in molecular biology techniques (e.g. metagenomics and metabarcoding). In this context, the European Commission's LUCAS soil biodiversity dataset will support the production of maps that provide information on the richness and abundance of the main groups of soil organisms (to be released in late 2024). These data will be fundamental to characterising soil biological condition and start developing a monitoring scheme for life in EU soils.

## 4.9 Soil sealing and land take

In Europe, soil sealing varies by country, with significant proportions observed in Malta, the Netherlands, Türkiye and the United Kingdom. Urbanisation and industrialisation are major drivers, leading to the conversion of agricultural and natural land into built-up areas. Albania, North Macedonia, Serbia, Türkiye and Ukraine have experienced significant soil sealing due to urban expansion and infrastructure development. The impacts of soil sealing are profound, affecting soil and ecosystem services. Soil sealing disrupts natural processes such as water infiltration and gas exchange, leading to increased flood risk, carbon loss and higher temperatures in urban areas. Biodiversity loss is also a concern. Sustainable spatial planning is crucial for mitigating these impacts and ensuring a healthy environment in the face of climate change. Efforts to unseal soils and restore their functions through multistakeholder approaches are under way in some regions, but challenges persist amid ongoing trends towards urbanisation.

### 4.9.1 Soil sealing

Soil sealing is the permanent covering of an area of land and its soil by impermeable artificial material, such as asphalt and concrete. It was identified as one of the main soil degradation processes in the EU's soil thematic strategy (COM(2006) 231) (European Commission, 2012), in the latest report of the EEA on the status of the European environment (EEA, 2019b) and in the EU's soil strategy for 2030 (European Commission, 2021). Soil sealing is the most serious, irreversible and unsustainable form of soil degradation.

#### 4.9.1.1 Status and trend

Soil sealing is usually expressed as a percentage of a country's or region's (a) total area or (b) sealed area (per capita). Data used for estimating soil sealing at the national or regional level concern (FAO, 2022) include Earth observation
The annual soil sealing maps of Flanders are produced by combining the strengths of different types of data. The maps combine 'known' sealing, from the administrative Large-scale Reference Database, with modelled sealing determined by a machine learning model based on aerial images (of a 25 cm resolution). The database is continuously updated and provides a highly accurate vectorial representation of Flanders' buildings and infrastructure. The aerial images are each year produced by flights organised by Flanders and made publicly available. This has resulted in the availability of annual soil sealing maps at a resolution of 1 m since 2013.

data (satellite and aerial images) (EEA, Hungary, Italy, Spain and Flanders), cadastral data (Austria), building and infrastructure data (Flanders), spatial planning documents (Latvia), Corine Land Cover multitemporal maps (Czechia), and field survey and census data or information from ground-based data collection (e.g. obtained through the LUCAS programme). Cadastral data, however, may be imprecise and lag behind in time (Disperati and Virdis, 2015). The most common method for measuring soil sealing is by classifying high-resolution satellite imagery. A wide range of classification methodologies are used for this purpose (e.g. spectral mixture analysis, including linear spectral mixture analysis; image classification; and vegetation index analysis) (Rodarmel and Shan, 2002; Liu and Yang, 2015). To capture spatial patterns of sealing and determine the effectiveness of policy measures adequately, very-high-resolution data are required (going from 0.25 m to 1 m pixel size (Bhaskaran et al., 2010; Disperati and Virdis, 2015; Codemo et al., 2022). In addition, a high temporal resolution is necessary, with measurements every year or two (Viana et al., 2019). Consider using threshold values for soil sealing, for example for a defined land use pattern (core city, peri-urban area, rural area) (Estoque and Murayama, 2015; Romano et al., 2017). The differences between soil sealing and imperviousness are not always well addressed. Confusingly, soil sealing indicators are being defined based on imperviousness and actual soil sealing data. Imperviousness only considers soils covered by non-permeable materials, while soil sealing also considers soils covered by partly impermeable artificial material (e.g. railways). Although the utilisation of imperviousness as an indicator may not be entirely accurate, it serves as a metric at a regional scale. The EEA's data viewer

and the EUSO dashboard provides accounts of imperviousness for 2018. According to the EEA, 2.72 % of European territory (the 38 EEA countries and the United Kingdom) was sealed in 2016, increasing to 2.95 % in 2018. The extent of sealed surface (relative percentage) varies by country, being highest in Türkiye (32.82 %), followed by the Malta (5.95 %), the Netherlands (5.08 %) and the United Kingdom (3.99 %). In Albania, the proportion of surface sealed is lower than in other parts of Europe (0.66 %).

Albania reported a potential loss of about 50 000 ha of agricultural land due to urbanisation for 1990–2020. It is estimated that the annual rate of soil sealing is 4.69 % per year, mostly driven by housing needs, followed by industrial activities and infrastructure development. The greatest impacts of soil sealing are observable around the largest urban areas in North Macedonia. The continuous increase in the population of the Skopje region results in the radical sealing of agricultural land. The mean annual rate of soil sealing for the whole region is 0.14 %. An analysis of contributions of certain land use categories and classes of the soils that have been sealed by urban development in Serbia from 1990 to 2018 shows that mostly pastures and heterogeneous agricultural areas were sealed.

In Ukraine, developed land falls into several categories, including residential and public buildings, industrial buildings, and buildings with transport, communications, energy, defence and other purposes, and totals 2 467 500 ha (4.1 % of the total area of the country). Ukraine is one of the top 30 countries in terms of urbanisation according to UN rankings, and there has been a marked increase in
the area of sealing and urbanisation in the country
in recent years.

In recent years, the scientific agenda in Türkiye
has shifted towards recognising soil sealing as a
significant problem, along with massive land take.
This has led to actions to protect and maintain
existing green areas despite urban and subur-
ban growth (Gül et al., 2006; Doygun, 2009). Case
studies underline that the unsealing of soils and
restoration of soil functions can be achieved by
applying multistakeholder approaches involving
local authorities and inhabitants (Gül et al., 2006;
Artmann, 2013). Initial results show that open
green spaces are more actively managed and
planned in Turkish agglomerations: roadside veg-
etation (Seyidoglu Akdeniz et al., 2019) and urban
and peri-urban forests (Çinis et al., 2017) receive
more attention than other areas. Lighthouse
projects such as the Atatürk Forest Farm in Ankara
stand out as models of how to convert alternative
urban land use into value (Yilmaz, 2009); they have
potential to create Turkish identity (Kaçar, 2011)
and can act as climate mitigation tools (Ramyar et
al., 2021). However, currently there are no signs
of urbanisation decreasing in Türkiye. While intact
urban soils and their functions become more and
more constrained (Nurlu et al., 2015), it is important to recognise the need to safeguard valuable
soil resources and manage urban sprawl effectively (Tanrivermis, 2003; Genc et al., 2021).

4.9.1.2 Drivers

Rapid urbanisation, driven by population
growth, necessitates the expansion of urban
areas for housing, infrastructure and industry.
This expansion, coupled with the development
of infrastructure such as roads, highways and
airports, leads to the significant sealing of land
with impermeable materials. Furthermore,
the conversion of agricultural or natural land
into urban or suburban areas, alongside the
establishment of industrial zones and factories,
contributes to soil sealing. In addition, the
construction of commercial buildings such as
shopping malls and office complexes further
exacerbates this phenomenon.

4.9.1.3 Impacts

Sealing, by nature, has a major effect on soil,
reducing the supply of many of its services. It is
normal practice to remove the upper layer of
topsoil, which delivers most soil-related ecosystem
services, and to develop strong foundations in
the subsoil and/or underlying rock to support
buildings or infrastructure, before proceeding
with the rest of construction. This process
usually results in irreversible land cover and
land use change, permanently altering the soil's
natural state and its ability to provide essential
ecosystem services. It usually cuts off the soil
from the atmosphere, preventing the infiltration
of rainwater and the exchange of gases between
the soil and the air. Soil sealing increases the
risk of flooding, reduces water infiltration,
reduces soil's ability to absorb and store carbon,
increases temperatures in urban areas and
reduces biodiversity (Fokaides et al., 2016). Hence,
sustainable spatial management is crucial to
ensure a healthy living environment and address
climate change.

4.9.2 Land take

Land take is a process, often driven by econom-
ic development needs, that transforms natural
and semi-natural areas (including agricultural and
forestry land, gardens and parks) into artificial
land, using soil as a platform for construction and
infrastructure, as a direct source of raw material or
as an archive for historic patrimony at the expense
of the capacity to provide other ecosystem services
(European Commission, 2023a). On the contrary,
'land recultivation' (or 'reverse land take') means 'the
conversion of artificial land into natural or semi-nat-
ural land' (European Commission, 2023a) or 'land
converted from urban areas into agriculture, forest
or other semi-natural areas', while 'net land take
is the mathematical difference between land take
and land recultivation' (Ivits et al., 2020). Land take
should be referred to as 'artificial land cover' and
distinguished by the 'settlement area', which is 'The
area of land used for housing, industrial and com-
mercial purposes, health care, education, nursing
infrastructure, roads and rail networks, recreation
(parks and sports grounds), etc. In land use plan-
ning, it usually corresponds to all land uses beyond
agriculture, semi-natural areas, forestry, and water
bodies' (European Commission, 2023a).
Annual land take maps of Italy.

The annual land take maps of Italy are for example produced by Earth Observation techniques, using both Copernicus Sentinel 1 and 2 data and other VHR satellite images. In addition to land take maps, soil sealing and settlement areas maps are also produced every year. These data are used for the development of several indicators and for the assessment of the impact of land take (e.g. in terms of loss of ecosystem services or landscape fragmentation). Data are available for the period 2006-2022.

<figure><img src="image_30.png" /><figcaption>Figure box 7: Land take changes (2006-2022) for Italy. Source: Munafò (2023).</figcaption></figure>

The concept of land take is often generic but
should always exclude land that has been taken to
build new urban green areas. So the concepts of
urbanisation, which considers all settlement areas,
and soil sealing should be considered alongside it.

4.9.2.1 Status and trends

Land take in 2012–2018 increased by 2.6 % in the EU and the United Kingdom, affecting 3 581 km² of functional urban areas. Almost 80 % of land take took place in commuting zones. Net land take, calculated by subtracting the area of recultivated land from the area of land taken, in the EU and the United Kingdom amounted to 3 013 km², mostly at the expense of croplands and pastures.
### 4.9.2.2 Drivers and impacts

Major drivers of land take include population growth, the need for transport infrastructure, cultural preferences and economic welfare (Ivits et al., 2020). The process of land take may cause the, often irreversible, loss of the capacity of soils to provide other ecosystem services (food and biomass provision, water and nutrient cycling, biodiversity, and carbon storage). In particular, land take often affects the most fertile agricultural soils, jeopardising food security. Sealed soil also exposes human settlements to higher flood peaks and more intense heat island effects.

## 4.9.3 Landscape fragmentation

Landscape fragmentation is 'the result of transforming large habitat patches into smaller, more isolated fragments of habitat' (Dupras et al., 2016). This process has a wide range of environmental and social implications, and implications for climate change adaptation and mitigation, and biodiversity. It is most evident in urbanised or heavily developed areas, where fragmentation is the product of the linkage of built-up areas through linear infrastructure such as roads and railways.

### 4.9.3.1 Status and trend

Based on an EEA analysis, large parts of Europe have become fragmented because of the expansion of urban and transport infrastructure (EEA, 2022c). The agency states that '27 % of land in the EU-27 and United Kingdom is considered highly fragmented where habitats are less than 0.02 km² on average'. Moreover, it says, 'As distance from city centres increases, the extent of landscape fragmentation drops rapidly.' The extent of landscape fragmentation varies considerably by country in the EU and United Kingdom, being highest in Malta, followed by the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and Luxembourg. Luxembourg and Belgium have the largest areas of highly fragmented habitats. In contrast, in Finland, the Baltic states and Sweden, habitats are much less fragmented than in other parts of Europe.

### 4.9.3.2 Drivers

Landscape fragmentation is the outcome of complex interactions between policies, the geophysical characteristics of the landscape and socioeconomic drivers of development. Land take, urban sprawl and economic activities lead to habitat fragmentation, decreasing the resilience of ecosystems.

#### 4.9.3.3 Impacts

Landscape fragmentation is a threat to ecosystem service supply, landscape quality and the sustainability of human land use. Landscape fragmentation changes the visual aspects of landscapes: roads, railways and built-up areas are the most prominent contributors to the transformation of natural landscapes into fragmented anthropic landscapes. Landscape fragmentation is a major cause of the rapid decline in many wildlife populations. As landscape fragmentation contributes to the destruction of established ecological connections between adjoining areas of the landscape, it also affects entire communities and ecosystems (Biswas et al., 2023).

Uncertainties about the ecological effects of roads are not taken seriously enough in the planning process, which contributes to the 'spiral of landscape fragmentation' (Jaeger, 2000). Another issue is that the lack of accountability for most uncertain effects manifests years after the construction of new transport infrastructure, as the effect on wildlife populations cannot be observed until long after the infrastructure is built.

## 4.9.4 Land recycling rate

Land recycling is defined as the reuse of land, including the redevelopment of previously developed land (brownfields) for economic purposes; the ecological upgrading of land for the purpose of soft use (e.g. green areas in urban centres); or the renaturalisation of land (bringing it back to nature) by removing existing structures and/or by de-sealing surfaces (EEA, 2016; Ivits et al., 2020). Land recycling includes grey recycling (i.e. the building of urban objects on already-developed land) and green recycling (i.e. the building of green urban areas such as golf courses and parks) (Ivits et al., 2020).
Land recycling can be estimated based on multiple surface-related indicators. However, such indicators are often considered limited by the availability of initial data with a high spatial resolution, and, in some cases, they can overestimate built areas.

The reuse of artificial land may involve the de-sealing of previously sealed areas and the development of anthropogenic soils such as Technosols (Rodríguez-Espinosa et al., 2021). For instance, in 2020, 2.4 % of soil was sealed and only 13 % of urban development occurred on recycled urban land in Europe (Rodríguez-Espinosa et al., 2021). According to Ivits et al. (2020), land recycling increased from 1.96 % for the total consumed land during 1990–2000 to 2.6 % for 2006–2012. Although the general trend is an increase in recycled lands during this period, for some countries the trend is inverted. For example, in France, land recycling decreased from 2.04 % (1990–2000) to 0.87 % (2006–2012).

Land recycling rates can be considered an indicator of previously sealed soils becoming functional again. This oversimplification of the soil sealing-de-sealing process, while easy to use and accessible for decision-making, focuses only on land use, excluding the analysis of soil features and characteristics to identify and quantify their specific ecosystem services.

Further investigations should focus on tools and methods that allow the assessment and monitoring of land recycling in terms of functionality over time.

Indicators should not be limited to land use data but must integrate soil properties and processes that provide a wide range of ecosystem services.

### 4.9.5 Conclusions

In conclusion, the ramifications of soil sealing and land take reverberate across ecological, social and economic spheres, underscoring the need for proactive measures. From compromised soil functionality to heightened urban heat island effects and increased water pollution, the impacts highlight the need for sustainable land management practices. Addressing these challenges requires holistic approaches, incorporating green infrastructure, compact urban design and stringent land use regulations. By prioritising the preservation of natural landscapes, promoting permeable paving techniques and fostering resilient communities, we can mitigate the adverse effects of soil sealing and land take, ensuring a more sustainable and harmonious co-existence between human activities and the environment.
#05

Convergence of
evidence of soil
degradation in Europe

The State of Soils
in Europe
05 Convergence of evidence
for soil degradation in Europe

The interplay of diverse drivers and
soil degradation processes creates a
complex web impacting soil condition
in Europe. Soil acidity, influenced by
factors such as mineral fertilisation,
can deplete soil carbonates, affect-
ing fertility and nutrient availability.
Soil erosion, caused by unsustainable
agricultural practices, leads to nutri-
ent loss and diminishes soil functions.
Declines in soil carbon also disrupt soil
biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Chemical pollution further compounds these pressures. The EUSO (EU Soil Observatory) convergence of evidence map illustrates overlapping soil degradation processes, emphasising the need for integrated approaches to address multiple threats simultaneously. Holistic soil management practices are essential for preserving soil health and ensuring ecosystem sustainability.

Without detailed information on soil prop-
erties, characteristics, indicators and their
thresholds for the delivery of multiple
ecosystem services at a regional scale, policymak-
ers, land managers, and researchers face difficulties
in accurately assessing soil degradation, identifying
areas of concern, and implementing targeted inter-
ventions. This gap in data and knowledge hinders
our ability to understand the extent and severity of
soil threats, such as compaction or contamination,
which can have profound implications for agricul-
tural productivity, ecosystem resilience, and envi-
ronmental sustainability. Addressing this knowledge
gap requires investments in soil monitoring and
mapping initiatives, data collection efforts, and re-
search collaborations to generate comprehensive,

up-to-date information on soil health parameters
across Europe. By enhancing our understanding
of soil condition at a regional scale, we can better
protect and manage this vital natural resource for
current and future generations.

5.1 Monitoring

Soil monitoring is essential for assessing soil
health and guiding sustainable land management
practices (EEA, 2022b). Monitoring programmes
collect data on physical, chemical and biological
soil indicators, enabling the identification of trends
and the effectiveness of management practices.
National soil monitoring programmes vary widely in
scope and methodology across Europe. The lack of
comprehensive and standardised soil data across
the region has led to inconsistencies and challenges
in comparing soil conditions among countries.

Addressing this knowledge gap requires invest-
ments in soil monitoring and mapping initiatives,
data collection efforts, and research collaborations
to generate comprehensive, up-to-date information
on soil health parameters across Europe. Moni-
toring programmes play a crucial role in assessing
soil condition and guiding sustainable land man-
agement practices. These programmes typically
involve systematic collection of data on various
soil parameters, including physical, chemical and
biological indicators. Physical indicators may include
soil texture, structure and porosity, which influence
water infiltration, aeration and root growth. Chemi-
cal indicators such as pH, nutrient levels, and heavy
metal concentrations provide insights into soil fer-
tility and contamination risks. Biological indicators,
including microbial biomass, enzyme activity and
earthworm abundance, offer valuable information
on soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. By
tracking changes in soil properties and associated
soil functions over time, these programmes help
identify trends, assess the effectiveness of soil
management practices, and inform decision-making processes aimed at preserving soil health and promoting sustainable land use practices. In addition, monitoring data serve as a valuable resource for scientific research, policy development, and public awareness initiatives aimed at addressing soil degRadation and advancing soil conservation efforts at the local, regional and global scales.

**5.1.1 National Soil Monitoring programs**

Several countries have already invested in the implementation of national soil monitoring systems, whereas some of those have been continuously active for several decades (e.g. in France). However, during their development the primary objectives of such programmes stemmed from their national priorities, resulting thus in a highly variable set of monitoring schemes.

Previous research has already reviewed existing national soil monitoring programmes in Europe for assessing soil quality through the assessment of a minimum set of attributes, e.g. in the environmental assessment of soil for monitoring project for soil threats (Morvan *et al.*, 2008) and the Forest Soil Condition Database, which include physicochemical and hydraulic properties for forest Level II sites across Europe (Fleck *et al.*, 2016). Van Leeuwen *et al.* (2017) compared existing national (regional) and EU-wide soil monitoring networks.

The environmental assessment of soil for monitoring project (2005–2008) stands out as the most comprehensive review of European soil monitoring networks to date (Huber *et al.*, 2008; Arrouays *et al.*, 2009). In addition, a recent review conducted by the European joint programme on agricultural soil management (EJP SOIL) (EJP SOIL, 2021) adds further insights to the landscape. However, results from EJP SOIL should be interpreted with caution, as not all countries have disclosed information regarding their forest soil monitoring systems, suggesting that the landscape of soil monitoring across Europe may be more varied and complex than initially apparent.

In this section, we briefly summarise national soil monitoring programmes to understand the monitoring landscape.

**5.1.1.1 Central and western Europe**

In 2008, the German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture commissioned the Thünen Institute of Climate-Smart Agriculture to conduct the first agricultural soil inventory at the national scale (Poeplau et al., 2020) and collaborates with various networks for soil protection and contaminated sites (UBA, 2015). These efforts involve about 800 measurement points across the country, covering cropland, grassland, forests and other areas. In addition, Germany has a long history of long-term field studies of agriculture, contributing valuable data to soil research. The peatland monitoring programme for climate protection – forest aims to improve the reporting of GHG emissions of forested peatlands in a comparable and representative way. This nationwide basis can then also be used to derive measures for peatland soil protection. The peatland monitoring thus provides the long-term and area-wide emission data of organic soils under forest needed for the IPCC reporting. France operates a comprehensive soil quality monitoring system (réseau de mesures de la qualité des sols), conducting soil sampling, measurements and observations every 15 years at 2 240 sites across the country since 2000. This systematic approach ensures periodic assessment and monitoring of soil conditions. In the Netherlands, national soil monitoring was done for more than 18 chemical, physical and biological indicators in 1998 and 2018, whereas each province monitors soil quality each year. Soil data are stored and available via a digital soil information system. In addition, private research institutes deliver detailed soil property maps derived from agricultural routine laboratories for regional policy support.

**5.1.1.2 Northern Europe**

Denmark has a long history of soil mapping, with extensive soil databases used at the national and European levels. The nationwide Danish soil databases have been widely used for the planning of rural land at the county and national levels.

Although Finland has an uneven distribution of soil measurement points (they are much denser in the south than in the northern part of the country), it does have several soil databases. In Sweden, systematic soil monitoring is conducted at both the national and regional levels by various departments of the Swedish University of Agricul-
tural Sciences and the National Board of Forestry. These monitoring efforts are commissioned by the Environmental Protection Agency and coordinated with common protocols by county boards on a regional scale. The data collected by the university are publicly available, contributing to transparency and informed decision-making. The Geological Survey of Sweden initially conducted historical surveys and mapping relevant to soil conditions in the mid 20th century. It continues to collect data on soil depths and geochemistry, particularly focusing on the natural occurrence of metals and other substances in forest-covered moraines. Meanwhile, Ireland embarked on the Irish soil information system project between 2008 and 2014, resulting in a new national soil map and associated digital soil information system. Furthermore, Ireland has established the National Soil Database, which includes comprehensive soil geochemistry and microbiological analysis, providing valuable resources for soil research and management initiatives.

Estonia has denser monitoring networks than countries such as Lithuania. In Lithuania, several national survey networks do exist. For example, the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment is responsible for soil monitoring in the 71 agricultural land sites in the context of state environmental monitoring. Monitored soil properties within this programme are related to general soil condition (soil acidity, loss of carbon, etc.) and diffuse soil contamination from agriculture and industry.

### 5.1.1.3 Southern Europe

Soil monitoring networks are much denser in northern and eastern Europe than in southern parts of Europe (Greece, Spain, Italy, Malta, and Portugal). Greece and Spain lack active soil monitoring networks, and their soil survey resources have historically declined. However, the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food will conduct a comprehensive analysis of the carbon content in agricultural soils across the country. This initiative involves the analysis of soils from 16 000 agricultural plots every 2 years, indicating a significant sample size. The purpose of this exercise is to evaluate the outcomes of the recently implemented new CAP, which began this year. In Italy, soil surveying, soil mapping and information system implementation have traditionally been

conducted primarily at the regional level, with approximately 20 administrative regions serving as centres for these activities. However, since 1999, there has been a notable increase in soil survey activities, mapping efforts and the development of soil databases across the country. Portugal lacks a national soil monitoring system.

### 5.1.1.4 Eastern Europe

Countries such as Czechia, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia have established soil monitoring systems, with varying levels of data accessibility and coordination. In Poland, the permanent monitoring of agricultural soils was initiated in 1995 as part of the State Monitoring of the Environment. The obligation to conduct soil monitoring and observe changes in soil quality is established in the Environmental Protection Law. The soil information and monitoring system in Hungary is designed to continuously monitor changes in soil quality and environmental status, and its operation is required by law (Act CXXIX of 2007). Since 1992, annual soil sampling has been carried out at 1 236 points throughout the country. The monitoring network comprises three types of monitoring points: the national core network, which covers areas under agricultural cultivation; the forestry monitoring points for monitoring soils under forest ecosystems; and the special monitoring points for characterising areas at risk or already polluted.

The collected data are public and in the public interest, so anyone can request them to supplement scientific, research or statistical data by writing to the National Food Chain Safety Office. In Bulgaria, currently no soil monitoring network exists and the only data are collected by LUCAS. Croatia lacks a national soil monitoring network but has made some attempts to develop one.

### 5.1.1.5 Non-EU countries

Across non EU-countries, the state of soil monitoring varies significantly. While nations such as Norway have made substantial advances by implementing comprehensive soil monitoring programmes, others such as Türkiye lack a structured monitoring system altogether. In the United Kingdom, the National Soil Inventory plays a crucial role in assessing soil quality and land use trends. Similarly, Switzerland's National Soil Monitoring
Network has been in operation since 1984, providing valuable insights into soil quality changes over time. Ukraine faces a challenge with the absence of proper national soil monitoring despite partial coverage through soil surveys in agricultural land areas. The 'agrochemical certification of land' defined by the specific law is carried out only on agricultural land. At the same time, there are 750 monitoring sites across Ukraine, where some soil health indicators are regularly monitored.

Meanwhile, in the western Balkans, the only new regional source is the LUCAS survey of 2015. There is a pressing need for updated soil data and the establishment of comprehensive monitoring systems to address outdated information and facilitate regional comparisons. These diverse approaches highlight the importance of robust soil monitoring systems for informed decision-making and sustainable land management practices.

Official frameworks for comprehensive soil monitoring exist in most EU countries, but uniformity in methodology and coverage is far from standard even within national systems. Soil organic carbon and pH are among the most commonly measured parameters, reflecting their importance in assessing soil health and their direct relationship with crop productivity. However, several other soil health indicators exhibit limited coverage, even in areas deemed at risk. Parameters related to soil biodiversity and erosion are particularly under-represented in monitoring efforts. In addition, while some trace elements such as lead are measured extensively across countries, others such as mercury show substantial disparities in monitoring frequency. Indicators related to soil compaction, such as bulk density and packing density, are also lacking in approximately half of the countries. Moreover, there is a lack of uniformity in methodology and coverage, even within national systems. The need for harmonisation of procedures across different soil monitoring schemes is a significant concern. This includes analytical protocols, resampling intervals, and metadata collection and storage. Achieving harmonisation in these areas would facilitate data sharing and the comparison of procedures across different national monitoring systems, as envisaged by the proposed EU soil monitoring and resilience directive.

### 5.1.2 International co-operative programme on assessment and monitoring of air pollution effects on forests

The international cooperative programme on the assessment and monitoring of air pollution in forests (ICP Forests), established in 1985, initiated a comprehensive monitoring effort known as ICP Forests Levels I and II. The programme aims to enhance understanding of air pollution and its impact on forest ecosystems through intensive and continuous monitoring. ICP Forests Level I consists of an extensive systematic network, with sampling conducted within forested areas based on a 16 km x 16 km grid. Soil resampling for Level I has occurred only once, under the forest focus regulation (Regulation (EC) No 2152/2003) as part of a demonstration project. ICP Forest Level II involves regular, detailed monitoring of forest ecosystems, including crown condition assessments, soil and foliar surveys, increment studies, deposition measurements and meteorological observations over a span of at least 15-20 years.

Across the European Union, Belarus, Moldova, Montenegro, Russia, Serbia and Switzerland, 5 915 plots have been established as part of these networks. The selection of parameters measured specifically focuses on mineral layers. Detailed information regarding the collected data is provided by Arrouays *et al.* (2009).
<figure><img src="image_31.png" /><figcaption>Figure 13. LUCAS soil survey procedure.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO.

### 5.1.1.3 Land Use / Cover Area Frame Survey soil module

The LUCAS Soil programme collects soil samples across Member States and neighbouring countries, providing harmonised datasets for soil properties at a continental scale. Unlike other EU-wide soil sampling initiatives, LUCAS is a repeated sampling scheme, enabling trend analysis of soil health indicators across different land covers. LUCAS Soil contributes valuable data for scientific research, policy development and informed decision-making in soil conservation and land management. Moreover, LUCAS Soil offers opportunities for collaboration with national monitoring systems, serving as a valuable resource for countries lacking their own soil monitoring infrastructure.

The LUCAS soil programme (Figure 13), a component of the LUCAS initiative, is a comprehensive effort to collect and analyse soil samples across the EU. Initiated by the European Statistical Office (Eurostat) in 2006 in collaboration with the Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development and the JRC, LUCAS conducts regular surveys to gather information on land cover and land use. In 2009, the European Commission extended LUCAS to sample and analyse topsoil properties in 23 Member States. Around 20 000 points were selected for soil sampling, with standardised procedures for collection and analysis carried out in a single laboratory. The same procedure, sampling method and analysis standards were extended in 2012 to Bulgaria and Romania, where samples were collected from about 2 000 locations.

In 2015, the survey was carried out for all the current 27 Member States and the United Kingdom. In addition, the soil module was extended by the JRC enlargement and integration programme
<table><caption>**Table 2.** LUCAS's integration in Member States and research bodies, including in soil monitoring systems, research programmes (e.g. the European joint programme on agricultural soil management) and data harmonisation efforts across the EU. NB: AI, artificial intelligence; EJP SOIL, European joint programme on agricultural soil management.</caption><thead><tr><td>Aspect of integration</td><td>Description</td><td>National/research Involvement</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Data use for derived products</td><td>LUCAS soil data are used to determine the physical and chemical characteristics of soil, and nutrient fluxes and pollutant levels.</td><td>Data contribute to national and European research efforts to model soil attributes and pollution levels.</td></tr><tr><td>Geostatistical modelling and datasets</td><td>Spatial datasets are developed for soil attributes such as clay, silt, sand, pH, C ratio and key nutrients.</td><td>National systems use these datasets to enhance models, with research from the JRC and others improving predictions for stakeholders.</td></tr><tr><td>Biogeochemical modelling</td><td>LUCAS data are integrated into biogeochemical models to assess carbon sequestration, N2O fluxes and soil erodibility.</td><td>The data from the modelling are used by national systems and for EU-wide studies on soil health and carbon sequestration.</td></tr><tr><td>Pesticides &amp; antibiotic residues</td><td>Samples are analysed from the 2018 survey to detect pesticide and antibiotic residues.</td><td>Residues are analysed to enable the national and EU-level validation and calibration of pesticide fate models.</td></tr><tr><td>Soil health indicators</td><td>Biodiversity indicators are developed through the genetic analysis of soil to assess impacts on land management.</td><td>Research collaboration across Member States under the LUCAS soil module and the Directorate-General for Environment's European Monitoring of Biodiversity in Agricultural Landscapes initiative.</td></tr><tr><td>AI &amp; machine learning for crop classification</td><td>The JRC and national systems use LUCAS data to train AI models to classify Sentinel-1 data and generate information on crop types between surveys.</td><td>The JRC collaborates with national research agencies and Colorado State University.</td></tr><tr><td>European soil data centre (ESDAC)</td><td>LUCAS soil data are accessible through the ESDAC for various national and international research projects.</td><td>Data are available to national agencies and stakeholders across Europe for policy development and environmental monitoring.</td></tr><tr><td>Soil organic carbon mapping</td><td>LUCAS data was used by FAO to produce the Global Soil Organic Carbon Map.</td><td>Member States and FAO use LUCAS data for SOC monitoring and climate regulation efforts.</td></tr><tr><td>LANDMARK H2020 methodology</td><td>The method is applied to predict synergies and trade-offs in key soil functions, such as climate regulation and nutrient cycling.</td><td>LUCAS is integrated in national research systems as part of the Horizon 2020 initiative.</td></tr><tr><td>Collaboration with Member States</td><td>A goal of LUCAS is to form systematic links with Member States to facilitate site access, data collection and supplementary analysis.</td><td>Discussions are ongoing between the EEA/Eionet task force for soil monitoring and the Commission Expert Group on the implementation of the EU soil strategy for 2030 to integrate national efforts.</td></tr><tr><td>National soil monitoring systems</td><td>Member States have national soil mapping surveys with varying degrees of repeated sampling and monitoring.</td><td>The task force for soil monitoring was established to harmonise national programmes with LUCAS's soil module to facilitate comprehensive monitoring.</td></tr><tr><td>EJP SOIL integration</td><td>EJP SOIL aims to harmonise information on soil across Europe, focusing on agricultural soil management and ecosystem services.</td><td>LUCAS's soil module will benefit from EJP SOIL's outputs, especially in integrating soil sampling protocols and data from Member States.</td></tr><tr><td>Remote sensing and machine learning</td><td>Remote sensing is integrated in LUCAS to enhance soil carbon monitoring and predictions.</td><td>The JRC collaborates with international and national institutions to apply AI and machine learning tools for soil data integration.</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Based on Jones et al. (2022).
to Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia. Switzerland also participated following standard LUCAS protocols. Overall, 27 069 locations were selected for the soil sampling of LUCAS 2015. Topsoil samples are analysed for various properties, including coarse fragments, particle size distribution, pH, SOC, carbonates, total N, extractable nutrients, cation exchange capacity, trace elements and multispectral properties. The 2018 edition also includes assessments of soil erosion, organic horizon thickness, bulk density and soil biodiversity. In 2022, about 40 000 soil samples were collected for the analysis

of chemical, physical and biological properties. The data collected by the LUCAS Soil programme provide the first harmonised and comparable datasets of topsoil properties at the EU level, allowing correlations with land cover and land use types. The programme differs from other EU-wide soil sampling schemes (e.g. geochemical mapping of agricultural and grazing land soil), as it is a repeated sampling scheme that can provide trends in soil condition indicators for all land covers. LUCAS Soil offers the potential for collaboration with national monitoring systems, and provides valuable data for countries lacking a soil monitoring system, as

<table><caption>**Figure 14.** Soil degradation processes included in the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard. NB: Currently, 18 processes are included, grouped in nine themes (soil erosion, soil sealing, soil pollution, loss of soil biodiversity, soil nutrients, loss of organic soils, loss of SOC, soil compaction and soil salinisation). The threshold values indicated are used in the dashboard to estimate whether soils can be considered degraded or not.</caption><thead><tr><th colspan="6">Soil degradation processes</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Soil erosion</td><td>Water erosion<br>2 t ha<sup>-1</sup> year<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Wind erosion<br>2 t ha<sup>-1</sup> year<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Tillage erosion<br>2 tha<sup>-1</sup> year<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Harvest erosion<br>2 t ha<sup>-1</sup> year<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Post fire recovery<br>recovery rate<br>&lt; 1 tha<sup>-1</sup> year<sup>-1</sup></td></tr><tr><td>Soil salinisation</td><td colspan="3">Secondary salinisation<br>Areas in Mediterranean biogeographical region<br>where &gt;30 % is equipped for irrigation</td><td>Soil sealing</td><td>Built-up areas<br>No threshold applied<br>(all built-up areas)</td></tr><tr><td>Soil pollution</td><td>Cu exceedance<br>Cu concentration<br>&gt; 100 mg kg<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Hg exceedance<br>Hg concentration<br>&gt; 0.5 mg kg<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Zn exceedance<br>Zn concentration<br>&gt; 100 mg kg<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Cd exceedance<br>Cd concentration<br>&gt; 1 mg kg<sup>-1</sup></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Loss of biodiversity</td><td colspan="3">Potential threat to biological functions<br>≥ Moderately-High level of risk</td><td>Soil compaction</td><td>≥ High susceptibility to compaction</td></tr><tr><td>Soil nutrients</td><td>Phosphorus excess<br>P excess &gt; 50 mg kg<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Phosphorus deficiency<br>P excess &lt; 20 mg kg<sup>-1</sup></td><td>Nitrogen surplus<br>Agricultural areas where<br>N surplus &gt; 50 kg ha<sup>-1</sup></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Loss of organic soils</td><td colspan="2">Peatland degradation<br>Peatlands under<br>hotspots of cropland</td><td>Loss of soil organic carbon</td><td>Distance to maximum SOC level<br>Distance to maximum SOC &gt; 60 %</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: EUSO.
**Figure 15.** Convergence of evidence map of the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard. The map shows where current scientific evidence converges to indicate areas that are likely to be affected by soil degradation. Currently, 18 soil degradation processes are included (see Figure 14).

<figure><img src="image_32.png" /></figure>

Source: EUSO.

envisaged by the proposed EU soil monitoring and resilience directive (Jones *et al.*, 2022) (Table 2).

In 2023, the European Soil Data Centre (ESDAC) website saw around 562 000 page visits, twice as many as in 2022. It handled 11 675 dataset requests, an 18 % increase from 2022 and a 150 % rise over 5 years. Of the datasets distributed, 62 % were downloaded in EU Member States, with the most requests from Italy, Germany and Spain. Academic users accounted for 57 % of downloads, followed by private companies and research organisations. Soil erosion datasets were particularly popular, especially following the release of the 2018 LUCAS Module (Broothaerts *et al.*, 2024).

## 5.2 EU Soil Observatory Soil Degradation Dashboard

The EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard provides a spatial assessment of soil health across the EU, highlighting areas affected by soil degradation processes. By harmonising soil datasets, the dashboard

offers insights into the intensity and location of soil degradation. The dashboard will be enriched with new indicators and thresholds, aligning with multiple ecosystem service considerations and expanding to include data from countries beyond the EU. This continuous development reflects the commitment of the European Commission to addressing soil degradation and fostering sustainable land management practices on a broader scale.

The Soil Degradation Dashboard developed by the JRC (2023) has provided a unique spatial assessment of where degraded soils may be located in the EU and which degradation processes are responsible for their condition (assuming single thresholds across the whole of Europe). Harmonised soil datasets from ESDAC (Panagos *et al.*, 2022c), the EEA and other institutions (Figure 14) together with a novel methodology provides for the first time a view of the state of soil across the EU. The novelty lies in the use of the 'convergence of evidence' approach, which spatially combines multiple independent datasets to highlight areas
where scientific evidence consistently points to
likely soil degradation processes.

The resulting map (Figure 15) indicates areas that are likely to be affected by one or more soil degradation processes. At least a staggering 61 % of EU soils were determined to be in a degraded state using the prescribed assessment method, based on the evidence currently available and current knowledge on thresholds. The loss of SOC (48 % of EU soils), the potential loss of soil biodiversity (37.5 %) and soil erosion by water (32 %) are the most prevalent types of soil degradation.

In reality, this figure is an underestimate of the-
actual extent of soil degradation, given the rec-
ognised lack of data on many other soil degrada-
tion issues, such as soil contamination and subsoil
compaction. In addition, the map shows that most
of the degraded soils are subject to more than
one type of soil degradation process, an important
finding for the soil restoration agenda.

The dashboard supports evidence-based deci-
sion-making and policy development by offering
insights into the drivers of soil degradation. In
addition, it serves as a valuable resource for stake-
holders, policymakers and researchers to access
and analyse soil-related information, fostering
a better understanding of soil degradation and
supporting efforts to promote sustainable soil
management practices. The EUSO soil degradation
dashboard will be enriched with new available in-
dicators and scientifically underpinned thresholds
related to multiple ecosystem services (see, for
example, Landmark) and expanded to include data
on countries beyond the EU.
#06

Understanding the
interplay between
drivers and impacts
of soil degradation

The State of Soils
in Europe
06 Understanding the interplay
between drivers and impacts of soil
degradation

Soil degradation exacerbates climate change by releasing stored carbon, impacting food and biomass productivity, and leading to economic strain through remediation costs and decreased agricultural yields. Human health risks arise from nutrient-deficient crops and increased exposure to contaminants in polluted soil. Cultural and recreational values suffer as landscapes change, affecting community well-being. Water quality is compromised due to sediment transport, while soil biodiversity change affects ecosystem balance.

Building on the foundational knowledge established in preceding chapters, this section unravels the intricate mechanisms driving soil degradation, exploring the diverse array of pressures exerted by anthropogenic and natural forces alike.

6.1 Interconnections between soil
degradation factors: Understanding
complexities in European soil health

Previous chapters have elucidated the intricate
connections among various soil degradation
processes in Europe, portraying them as inter-
linked and mutually reinforcing processes that
collectively contribute to the degradation of soils.
For instance, soil acidity, influenced by factors such
as mineral fertilisation, can lead to the dissolving
and progressive loss of soil carbonates. This pro-
cess not only releases CO2 but also reduces the
availability of essential nutrients such as calcium
and magnesium, ultimately impacting soil fertility.

Moreover, soil erosion, driven by various factors including unsustainable agricultural practices, removes the top fertile layer of soil. This not only results in a loss of nutrients such as P to surface waters but also diminishes the soil's ability to store carbon, nutrients and water. This, in turn, affects important soil functions such as providing habitats for soil organisms and purifying water. Additionally, soil biodiversity is impacted by declines in soil carbon, and the loss of biodiversity in the soil disrupts soil functions and ecosystem services. Chemical pollution from agrochemicals and microplastics further exacerbates these threats, posing risks to soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Adding complexity, these processes overlap, as shown by the EUSO convergence of evidence map. The dependency wheel (Figure 16) shows the extent of the overlapping area (in hectares) between pairs of soil degradation processes shown on the convergence of evidence map. The size of the area linking two soil degradations in the diagram is proportional to the extent of their overlap in the map. This diagram provides insights into the type and magnitude of soil degradation combinations estimated to be occurring in the EU.

These interlinks highlight the complex nature
of soil degradation and the need for integrat-
ed approaches to address multiple soil threats
simultaneously. These interconnected threats
highlight the need for holistic and sustainable soil
management practices. Addressing one aspect of
soil health often requires considering its impact
on other aspects. By understanding and mitigat-
ing these interconnections, we can work towards
preserving soil health and ensuring the long-term
sustainability of our ecosystems.
<figure><img src="image_33.png" /><figcaption>Figure 16. Combination of soil degradation factors by area.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO.

## 6.2 Assessing the impacts of soil degradation on Ecosystems, Agriculture, and Society in Europe

Soil degradation has a range of significant impacts, affecting agricultural productivity, ecosystem resilience, water quality, biodiversity and human well-being. Table 3 provides an overview of key impacts identified in preceding sections. It is important to note that the table is not exhaustive but rather represents a selection based on report highlights and expert opinion. The confidence scale utilised adheres to IPCC guidelines concerning the correlation between evidence, consensus and confidence levels in scientific findings (Mastrandrea et al., 2010).

### Some of the key impacts include:

* **Climate change impact.** Soils act as a carbon sink, playing a crucial role in mitigating climate change by sequestering CO2. Soil degradation, especially through activities such as deforestation and improper land use, releases stored carbon back into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.

* **Loss of food and biomass productivity.** Soil degradation leads to a decline in its ability to support healthy plant growth. This results in lower agricultural yields, affecting food production and economic sustainability.

* **Soil erosion.** Caused by factors such as water and wind, this is a major form of soil degradation. It leads to the loss of the topsoil layer, which is rich in nutrients. This negatively impacts agriculture and may result in increased sedimentation in rivers and water bodies. In some regions, soil degradation can progress to desertification, where once-fertile land becomes arid and unproductive. This process is linked to unsustainable land use practices, climate change and deforestation.

* **Economic impact.** The impacts of soil degradation on agriculture, water resources and other ecosystem services have economic consequences. Decreased agricultural productivity, increased input costs and the need for remediation efforts can strain economies.

* **Human health concerns.** Soil degradation affects the quality of crops grown in degraded soils, potentially leading to nutrient deficiencies in food. This has implications for human health, as the nutritional content of food may be compromised. Exposure to contaminants in polluted soil can pose risks to human health through direct contact with contaminated soil, ingestion of contaminated dust or water, or consumption of crops grown in polluted areas.
<table><caption>Table 3. Soil degradation processes and their impacts.</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="7">NEGATIVE IMPACTS</th></tr><tr><th>Climate change</th><th>Food and biomass production</th><th>Economic impact</th><th>Human health</th><th>Cultural and recreational value / social impact</th><th>Water</th><th>Biodiversity</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th rowspan="7">SOIL DEGRADATION</th><th>Sealing</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th>Nutrients imbalances</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th>Compaction</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th>Acidification</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th>Pollution</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th>Loss of carbon (mineral)</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th>Loss of carbon (peatlands)</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th rowspan="2">Salinisation</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th>Erosion</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr><tr><th>Change in biodiversity</th><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td><td>●</td></tr></tbody></table>

<table><thead><tr><th colspan="2">CONFIDENCE SCALE (BASED ON EVIDENCE AND AGREEMENT)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>High agreement, robust evidence</td><td>Low agreement, robust evidence</td></tr><tr><td>High agreement, limited evidence</td><td>Limited evidence</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Own elaboration.

* **Loss of cultural and recreational values.** Soil degradation also impacts cultural landscapes and recreational areas. Changes in soil quality and landscape structure may affect the aesthetic and recreational value of certain areas, impacting the well-being of local communities. The expansion of urban areas may result in the loss of green spaces and recreational areas, affecting the quality of life for residents. Access to nature and open spaces is important for physical and mental well-being.

* **Water quality issues.** Degraded soils contribute to water pollution. The run-off from degraded soils may contain sediments, nutrients and pesticides, negatively affecting water quality. This has implications for aquatic ecosystems and human health. Degraded soils have reduced

water retention capacity, leading to increased susceptibility to both flooding and droughts. This can have significant implications for agriculture, water supply and overall ecosystem resilience.

* **Biodiversity loss.** Healthy soils support living ecosystems, including a wide variety of microorganisms, plants and animals. Soil degradation leads to a loss of below- and above-ground biodiversity, as many organisms depend on specific soil conditions for survival.

Our analysis has identified knowledge gaps in two crucial areas: human health; and the loss of cultural and recreational value, which encompasses social impacts. These gaps represent areas where further research and understanding are needed to fully comprehend the implications of soil health on human well-being and societal dynamics.
#07

The role of citizen
science in assessing
soil conditions

The State of Soils
in Europe
07 The role of citizen science in
assessing soil conditions

Research in soil science plays a
critical role in addressing societal
challenges, but engaging the public
is essential for bridging knowledge
gaps and fostering sustainable
practices. Citizen science offers
a participatory approach to soil
research, empowering communities
to contribute data and insights.
Collaboration between citizens and
researchers fosters co-creation of
projects, leading to sustainable
behaviour change and societal
impact. However, challenges such
as data dissemination, quality
assurance and scalability require
attention. Integrating citizen science
data into existing platforms such as
the European Soil Data Centre can
enhance its utility. Addressing these
challenges will be crucial for realising
the full potential of citizen science in
soil monitoring and management.

Research in soil science is crucial for comprehending and enhancing the role of soils in addressing significant societal challenges. To effectively bridge the gap between our current knowledge and societal needs, a collaborative effort involving diverse stakeholders, including the general public, is imperative (Mol & Keesstra, 2012). However, it is estimated that approximately half of the world's population lives in urban environments (MacEwan et al., 2017). This suggests that a significant portion of the global population may also lack engagement or connection with the topic of soils.

Citizen science is a participatory research method that actively engages the public in scientific inquiry to generate new data and knowledge or under-

standing through their active involvement. Although there is no official definition of its methods and there is debate about what kind of activities and practices are part of it (Haklay et al., 2021), citizen science projects most commonly consist of engaging with communities and seeking their participation in the recording, collection and/or creation of data and their interpretation (Reynolds et al., 2021; Pino et al., 2022). Citizen science projects on soil have gained increasing interest, driven by among others the prominence of soil within policy agendas (Panagos et al., 2022c; Gascuel et al., 2023).

The importance of increasing citizen engagement and awareness about soils is recognized in the following policy frameworks: the ‘EU Soil Strategy for 2030’ (COM, 2021), the Horizon Europe Mission ‘A Soil Deal for Europe’ (European Commission, 2021, 2023b) and the ‘Global Soil Partnership’ (FAO, 2023). Briefly, these frameworks underscore that citizen science can: i) promote equal access to scientific data and information, ii) foster education and learning opportunities contributing to soil literacy, iii) engage citizens with key policy developments on soils and let them participate in the assessment of their impact, iv) raise awareness on the importance of soil health.

Citizen science can also potentially improve our ability to capture information from the field at different, challenging spatial and temporal scales. In 2015, the European Citizen Science Association (ECSA) developed best practice guidelines for good citizen science, summarised as the ten principles of citizen science (ECSA, 2015). These principles provide a benchmark to review existing citizen science projects and support the development of new, high-quality projects (ECSA, 2015; Robinson et al., 2019). The number of such projects is growing rapidly (Pocock et al., 2017), including projects on soils (Ranjard, 2020; Ranjard et al., 2022; Arias-Navarro et al., 2023).
## 7.1 Current citizen science activities

Soil is still poorly monitored by citizen scientists compared with water and air, mainly due to the complexity of soils, the absence of government regulation aimed at soil protection and a lack of funding for soil monitoring (Paleari, 2017; Head et al., 2020). Nevertheless, citizen science has a clear role to play in monitoring soil health (Head et al., 2020). Mason et al. (2024) recently reviewed current and past European citizen science projects on agricultural soils and grouped them into three clusters: (a) national low-budget projects with a crowdsourcing approach, (b) European limited-term projects and (c) regional and national high-budget projects. Over 66 % of projects (n = 24) generated soil biodiversity data. In comparison, 54 % and 42 % generated data on vegetation cover and SOC, respectively. Over 30 % of the

projects generated data on soil nutrients and pH, followed by 29 % on soil structure, 20 % on excess nutrients and salts and 17 % on both landscape heterogeneity and soil pollutants. More than half of the projects investigated urban gardens (58 %), 42 % arable land, 33 % fruit and vegetables or grassland, and 21 % arboriculture and vineyards.

A recently started Horizon Europe project called Engaging citizens in soil science: the road to healthier soils (ECHO, 2023–2027) has citizen science as its primary focus. The project aims to engage citizens by enhancing their knowledge and interest in soil health, motivating them to protect and restore soils. It empowers citizens to actively participate in data collection and soil science, generating valuable knowledge for the benefit of all. Through this involvement, citizens gain the capability to directly contribute to decision-making on soil issues, utilising their acquired knowledge. With

<figure><img src="image_34.png" /><figcaption>**Photo 5.** Citizen engagement.</figcaption></figure>

Source: C. Kabala (distributed through imaggeo.egu.eu).
the implementation of 28 citizen science initiatives, ECHO aims to collect data from up to 16 500 sites across Europe, consolidating this information into Echorepo, a long-term open-access data repository. This valuable data resource is intended to benefit not only scientists but also the broader public and end users, including farmers, landowners, businesses, educators and institutions responsible for soil management. By doing so, ECHO seeks to optimise the utilisation of project findings and evaluate project outcomes against existing data from other pertinent soil monitoring initiatives. Generating high-quality soil data is key to developing sustainable land management strategies and driving policy actions that protect our essential soil resources. In addition, several European research projects on soils and agriculture, including Benchmarks, Prepsoil, Nati00ns, LOESS, EUdaphobase, SOLO and Increase, are including citizen science aspects in their research agendas.

## 7.2 Outlook

Mason et al. (2024) showed that positive feedback from participants, increased awareness of soil among participating citizen scientists and collaboration were key outcomes of successful citizen science projects. The citizen science community is beginning to explore and adopt ‘collaborative’ and ‘co-created’ methods (Hidalgo et al., 2021), where participation goes beyond data collection to the co-design of projects. When citizens and researchers join in interdisciplinary settings, developing and implementing long-term research projects, outcomes are more likely to contribute to sustainable behaviour change (Lobry de Bruyn et al., 2017). Previous research has shown that collaboration with citizens is a key factor in societal trans formation (Turrini et al., 2018) or enhancing societal impact, for example through adequate response in times of environmental stress (Thomas et al., 2016).

Hence, there is a need to further promote co-creation to bring citizens - as individuals and NGO's, for example - together with politicians and scientists throughout the research process (Leino and Puumala, 2021), ultimately leading to policy outcomes and the institutionalisation of citizen science (Criscuolo et al., 2023). To bring this together, the ECSA network offers the opportunity to collaborate in working groups on specific topics, such as agri-food, legal aspects of citizen science or citizen science in schools. In November 2023, a session with over 100 participants was held on the role of citizen science in soil monitoring, at the stakeholder forum hosted by EUSO. The main aim was to highlight relevant methodological aspects and identify associated challenges for citizen science for soil monitoring. One of the key messages was that existing data generated by citizen science can be integrated into ESDAC data. Time limitations often constrain the dissemination of citizen science project outputs, and the maintenance of outputs can be resource intensive.

Other potential pitfalls are complications with the sharing of data under the general data protection regulation framework. Future research should assess the quality control and quality assurance of data generated by citizen science and whether they can be compared directly, due to the type and nature of the data generated in citizen science. Lastly, an open question was how citizen science projects and participation can be scaled up in terms of geographic scope (national, international) and the number of participants. Given that citizen science projects have a different structure and skill requirement from conventional research projects, attention should be paid to how citizen science projects are funded and to involving team members with appropriate skills such as science communication.
# 08

Towards sustainable
soil governance:
Policy pathways
for preserving
soil health in Europe

THE STATE OF
SOILS IN EUROPE
08 Towards sustainable
soil governance: Policy pathways
for preserving soil health in Europe

Research in soil science plays a critical role in addressing societal challenges, but engaging the public is essential for bridging knowledge gaps and fostering sustainable practices. Citizen science offers a participatory approach to soil research, empowering communities to contribute data and insights. Collaboration between citizens and researchers fosters co-creation of projects, leading to sustainable behaviour change and societal impact. However, challenges such as data dissemination, quality assurance and scalability require attention. Integrating citizen science data into existing platforms, such as the ESDAC, can enhance its utility. Addressing these challenges will be crucial for realising the full potential of citizen science in soil monitoring and management.

8.1 From the soil thematic strategy to the Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law: Advancing soil protection policies in the EU

Over the years, soil policy has evolved from the soil thematic strategy of 2006 to the forthcoming legislation on soil monitoring and resilience (Arias-Navarro et al., 2023; Panagos et al., 2024c). The thematic strategy laid the groundwork for addressing soil degradation and promoting sustainable soil management practices at the EU level. Building on this foundation, the EU's soil strategy for 2030 and the proposal for a soil monitoring and resilience directive (Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law) reflect a continued commitment to soil protection and resilience-building measures (Figure 17). This legislation emphasises the impor-

tance of monitoring soil health indicators, assessing
soil's resilience to environmental stressors and
implementing measures to enhance soil health and
ecosystem service provision. By advancing soil policy
from strategy to action, the EU aims to safeguard
soil health, promote sustainable land management
practices and ensure the long-term resilience of
its ecosystems.

The forthcoming Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law is intricately linked with other key policies aimed at safeguarding soil health and promoting sustainable land management practices within the EU. This legislation intersects with existing environmental, agricultural and biodiversity policies, forming a cohesive framework for soil protection and resilience-building efforts. In particular, it aligns closely with the CAP, which integrates measures to address soil degradation and promote sustainable farming practices. In addition, the Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law complements the water framework directive (Directive 2000/60/EC) by addressing soil-related pressures on water quality and hydrological systems. Moreover, it reinforces the objectives of the biodiversity strategy for 2030 and the regulation on nature restoration, because healthy soils are essential for supporting diverse ecosystems and conserving biodiversity. By linking with these policies, the upcoming legislation on soil monitoring and resilience underscores the EU's commitment to holistic environmental governance, ensuring the long-term sustainability of its soils and ecosystems.

The EU's soil strategy for 2030 sets out a monitor-
ing framework and specific measures to protect
and restore soils and to ensure that they are used
sustainably. The new Soil Monitoring and Resilience
Law will put the EU on a path towards healthy soils
by 2050. The proposed law will be the first EU leg-
islation on soils, providing a harmonised definition
of soil health, putting in place a comprehensive and coherent monitoring framework and fostering sustainable soil management and the identification and remediation of contaminated sites

## 8.2 Soil conservation policies beyond the EU

The soil in the western Balkan region is highly vulnerable, requiring careful design and application of effective management practices. There is a need for more evidence to bolster a robust soil protection policy and to effectively target and monitor its implementation. Prioritizing the establishment of a soil protection framework is essential for ensuring healthy soils and aligning with the Green Agenda for the western Balkans.

A soil strategy for England was published in September 2009, setting out the policy on soils at the time and a number of core objectives for policy and research. Current policies focus on protecting soils and the important ecosystem services they provide. Research is focused on addressing evidence gaps to adapt and refine these policies in order to strengthen the protection of soils and their resilience to climate change. The Swiss national soil strategy, adopted in 2020, aims to ensure that future generations benefit from soil services. It addresses unsustainable practices, such as soil consumption and degradation, and aims to achieve zero net soil use by 2050. The strategy focuses on managing soil use, protecting soil from harm, restoring degraded soils, raising awareness

of soil's value and promoting international cooperation for sustainable soil management.

Ukrainian legislation focuses on the concept of 'land' rather than 'soil'. There is no clear legislation on soil monitoring, protection and management. The main focus is on soils on agricultural land, which is regulated by agrochemical land certification. The identification of trends in and types of soil degradation and of individual indicators of soil condition (to enable its protection), the implementation of measures for education and awareness in this area, and the identification of soil science priorities as part of the state's development strategy are not systematic processes.

In Türkiye, the Law on Soil Conservation and Land Use came into effect in 2005. The purpose of this law is to protect and improve the soil, to classify agricultural lands, and to determine the minimum area of agricultural land required to provide sufficient income while mitigating the risk of fragmentation. The law sets out the procedures and standards for ensuring that agricultural land is used in a planned manner, in line with the notion of sustainable development and environmental priorities. In addition to this law, the Regulation of Conservation, Use and Planning of Agricultural Areas (2017), the Law on Environment (1983), the Regulation of Controlling of Soil Pollution and Point Source Polluted Areas (2010), and the Law on Grassland (1998) are other important laws and regulations in force covering soil conservation in the country.

<figure><img src="image_35.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 17.** Roadmap towards assessing soil health in the EU until 2030 to achieve the Green Deal objectives
NB: Top-down mapping was performed with indicators developed by the ESDAC (between 2012 and 2023). This endeavour resulted in the creation of the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard (in 2023). These efforts will contribute to Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law assessments up to 2030.</figcaption></figure>

Source: EUSO, based on Panagos et al. (2024c).
# 09

Ensuring soil health
and ecosystem
resilience amid
diverse land use
demands in Europe

THE STATE OF
SOILS IN EUROPE
09 Ensuring soil health and
ecosystem resilience amid diverse
land use demands in Europe

Knowledge gaps persist in the
understanding of social impacts
of soil degradation, including its
effects on human health and cultural
values. In addition, the impacts
of warfare on soils remain poorly
understood, and further research in
this area is required. The soil in the
western Balkans is highly vulnerable,
necessitating the careful design
and implementation of effective
management practices.

Reconciling competing demands for land use while safeguarding soil health and ensuring the long-term resilience of European agriculture and ecosystems requires a comprehensive and balanced approach that considers multiple stakeholders and objectives. Several strategies can be employed:

* **Integrated land use planning.** Develop integrated holistic land use planning strategies considering multiple objectives, including agriculture, biodiversity conservation, urban development, and mitigation of and adaptation to climate change. This approach involves identifying priority areas for different land uses and implementing measures to minimise conflicts and optimise resource allocation.

* **Promotion of sustainable agricultural practices.** Encourage the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices that prioritise soil health and resilience, such as conservation tillage, crop rotation, the use of cover crops, agroforestry, and the balancing of nutrient inputs. Providing incentives, technical assistance and training programmes can help farmers transition towards more sustainable land management practices.

* **Ecosystem-based approaches.** Emphasise ecosystem-based approaches to land management that enhance the resilience of agricultural landscapes and ecosystems. This includes restoring and preserving natural habitats, promoting biodiversity-friendly farming practices and incorporating green infrastructure measures to support ecosystem services.

* **Soil conservation measures.** Implement soil conservation measures, such as erosion control measures, soil conservation buffers and reforestation projects, to prevent soil degradation and loss. Investing in soil restoration techniques, such as soil remediation and the rehabilitation of degraded land, can also help restore soil health and fertility.

* **Multistakeholder collaboration.** Foster collaboration among stakeholders, including farmers, landowners, environmental organisations, policymakers and local communities, to develop and implement land use plans and policies that balance competing demands and prioritise soil health and resilience.

* **Science-based decision-making.** Land use decisions should be based on reliable scientific knowledge and monitoring data in order to better comprehend the effects of various land uses on soil health, biodiversity, water quality and other ecosystem services. Conducting comprehensive impact assessments and modelling exercises can help predict the long-term consequences of land use decisions and inform policy development.
* **Addressing significant knowledge gaps.**

Filling gaps in knowledge regarding soil's social values is crucial for developing more holistic and sustainable land use policies. The values relate to the influence of soil on physical and mental health, education, diversity and cultural identity. By understanding these social values, policymakers can better incorporate them into land use management decisions, ensuring that the full range of ecosystem services provided by soils is considered.

* **Soil literacy.** Improve the understanding of citizens and stakeholders of how healthy soils impact their lives. Collaborate with teachers and soil scientists to develop soil-related educational products.

* **Policy integration and coordination.** Integrate soil protection objectives into broader policy frameworks, such as agricultural, environmental, climate change, biodiversity and spatial planning policies. Enhance coordination among different policy sectors to ensure coherence and synergy in addressing competing demands for land use while safeguarding soil health and ecosystem resilience.

By adopting a multifaceted approach that combines sustainable land management practices, ecosystem-based approaches, stakeholder collaboration, the inclusion of soil sciences in teaching programmes and science-based decision-making, it is possible to reconcile competing demands for land use while safeguarding soil health and ensuring the long-term resilience of European agriculture and ecosystems.
Conclusions

The interplay among various drivers and degradation processes underscores the intricate nature of soil health. Both natural phenomena and human activities contribute to soil degradation, emphasising the need for integrated approaches to address these challenges comprehensively. Citizen science is a valuable avenue for raising awareness of the importance of soil health and increasing public engagement in soil monitoring, although efforts are required to enhance participation, particularly in urban areas. Policy initiatives within the EU demonstrate a commitment to holistic soil governance; yet challenges persist globally, with varying approaches to soil conservation having differing levels of success and involving different obstacles.

Moving forward, it will be imperative to prioritise data enhancement, policy strengthening and stakeholder engagement in sustainable soil governance. Future efforts should focus on facilitating long-term monitoring, embracing technological innovation and fostering international collaboration to ensure the resilience and sustainability of our soils. By combining scientific knowledge, citizen engagement and robust policy frameworks, we can collectively preserve soil health, safeguarding this invaluable resource for the benefit of present and future generations and securing the health and well-being of our planet.

The State of Soils
in Europe
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