# The Emporion in Context

Michael Dietler, Eric Gailledrat, Rosa Plana-Mallart

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Michael Dietler, Eric Gailledrat, Rosa Plana-Mallart. The Emporion in Context. Michael Dietler; Eric Gailledrat; Rosa Plana-Mallart. The emporion in the Ancient Western Mediterranean. Trade and Colonial Encounters from the Archaic to the Hellenistic Period, Presses Universitaires de la Méditerranée, pp.11-16, 2018, Mondes Anciens, 978-2-36781-275-5. halshs-05229729

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# The *Emporion* in Context

Michael Dietler

Eric Gailledrat

Rosa Plana-Mallart

Twenty-five years ago, publication of the landmark volume *L'emporion* (Bresson, Rouillard 1993) had a major impact on studies of the ancient Mediterranean. It marked one of the first attempts to focus attention systematically on the kinds of trade enclaves that ancient Greeks named “*emporia*” and to review the existing textual and archaeological evidence concerning these spaces of cross-cultural encounter and the roles they played in ancient economic systems and processes of colonial interaction. The questions, enigmas, and evidentiary lacunae revealed by this exploratory venture provoked a couple of decades of vigorous empirical research and theoretical debate, especially in the western Mediterranean, where programs of archaeological research on this theme became particularly active in France, Italy, and Spain.

The current volume is designed to re-examine collectively the phenomenon of the *emporion* in the light of this subsequent wealth of new studies and data. However, it also seeks to set the analysis within an expanded international and cross-disciplinary framework and to enlarge the audience for this discussion: it includes chapters by scholars from France, Italy, Spain, and the United States, and from the fields of anthropology, archaeology, classics, and history. The volume is divided into four sections. The first includes chapters offering critical historical analyses of discussions of the definitions, roles and significance of the *emporion* in the ancient Mediterranean as a whole. Sections two and three offer new analyses of case studies of ancient *emporia* in Iberia and Gaul and in Italy, respectively. The final section offers a range of chapters treating theoretical issues centering on *emporia* from a broader comparative perspective.

In the interests of coherence, the geographical focus of detailed treatments of archaeological cases in the volume has been deliberately restricted to the Western Mediterranean, the region that, as noted, has witnessed the most intensive and sustained research focus on this theme. However, the spatial and temporal range of cases explored in the comparative theoretical discussion is intentionally extensive, including ports of trade in colonial West Africa and other kinds of trade enclaves and diasporas in a variety of contexts. Hence, the goal of the volume is not only to present and assess the large amount of new information amassed over the past couple of decades, but to bring into conversation a variety of different theoretical approaches, sources of data, and innovative methods.

The book should be of interest to archaeologists and historians working well beyond the Mediterranean precisely because it offers a set of well-documented and intensively studied examples within a delimited region that is used to engage a broad range of theoretical questions and methodological issues from several disciplines, including especially anthropology and history. Indeed, the concept of the *emporion* has been picked up and applied in a wide range of historical contexts beyond the Mediterranean, from Anglo-Saxon Britain to Asia, Africa, and the Middle East (for example, see Andaya 2009; Anderton 1999; Dale 2010; Hodges 1996, 2004, 2008; Pestell 2011; Ptak, Rothermund 1991: Moreover, the role of trade and ethnic enclaves in the modern globalized economy and of the “enclave economy” in post-
colonial relations of dependency have also been topics of debate in economics, political science, and sociology (for example, see Conning, Robinson 2009; Gupta, Gupta 1998; Vinokurow 2007: To be sure, the nature, functions, and contexts of recent and contemporary enclaves present many contrasts with ancient *emporia* and other pre-capitalist historical examples, which already exhibited considerable diversity. But the goal of the comparative perspective adopted in this volume is precisely to use contrasts and similarities from cases ranging widely across time and space in order both to better understand the specificity of ancient Mediterranean *emporia* and to use the detailed empirical study of Mediterranean *emporia* to contribute to broader theoretical debates spanning several disciplines.

During the past two decades, study of the ancient Mediterranean has been stimulated by the exploration of novel theoretical orientations and the opening of new questions, and this has resulted in a rich outpouring of new research. In particular, work has focused on issues such as the representation and perception of the Mediterranean as a region, on individual and collective mobility, on social and economic networks, on modes of colonial implantation, and on the consequences of encounters between different cultures. Especially productive debates have been animated by the influence of postcolonial theory and the anthropology of colonialism, trade, and consumption. These debates have both challenged many traditional research frameworks and reinvigorated and expanded the scope of some earlier concepts and programs (for example, see Cunliffe 2005; Demetriou 2012; Dietler 1997, 1998, 2005, 2010; Dietler, Lopez-Ruiz 2009; Étienne 2010; Gailledrat 2014; Harris 2005; Horden, Purcell 2000; Hurst, Owen 2005; Lombardo, Frisone 2009; Malkin 2004; Morris 2005; Osborne 1998; van Dommelen 2005a; Zurbach 2008:

The *emporion* occupies an important place in these new currents of Mediterranean research. New approaches to things such as ancient Mediterranean mobility and networks (for example, Capdetrey, Zurbach 2012; Malkin 2012) have developed in tandem with the study of the places where commercial or other kinds of exchange took place, which has been a longstanding and fundamental research focus. The concept of the *emporion*, as a generic term characterizing an emblematic structure of ancient trade, has long influenced conceptualization of the spaces and institutions through which the commercial exchanges stimulated by Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans took place. However, the polysemic nature of this term was critically exposed in the *L'emporion* volume (Bresson, Rouillard 1993), and this was accompanied by a call to expand analysis beyond the handful of sites that have habitually been invoked to generalize on a pan-Mediterranean scale in favour of careful empirical attention to the material reality of these trading sites in their full diversity and complexity (see Demetriou 2012:

The term *emporion* is of ancient Greek origin, but is not attested in textual sources before the 6th century BC. From that point on, it was used to designate both commercial zones in Greek cities and trade enclaves in foreign lands. Questions about the function, form, and relationship to the surrounding people of these latter entities still present many challenges because the term was applied to sites of quite different kinds that were implanted into very different cultural contexts, and they were not even necessarily coastal sites (Bresson 2000, 2002, 2016; Gailledrat 2014; Hansen 1997; Lombardo 2002; Plana-Mallart 1994, 2004: Hence, a simple typology of *emporia* is illusory. Instead, what is needed is detailed documentation of the variety of different situations in which varying ethnic, social, and geographic contexts were crucial determinants.

If one accepts that the designation *emporion* was based originally on a perceived *function* rather than on a *juridical category* or an *identity* (Casevitz 1993; Counillon 1993; Hansen 1997), then the term becomes applicable to the many trade enclaves that fringed the Mediterranean beginning in the Archaic period. In this sense, *emporia* are above all defined
by their commercial vocation, whatever the multiform nature and mechanisms that underlie
their existence.

This primacy of the commercial dimension implies that there must have existed at these
places a set of mechanisms or rules governing the interactions of the diverse agents engaging
each other in exchanges. To variable degrees, indigenous societies must have been an
important force in determining such features at these sites, which were frequented by a
heterogeneous range of people and linked to a diversity of Mediterranean agents and networks
of trade. These sites also had a varied range of statuses, which raises immediately the question
of the political powers that controlled this structure, or “instrument,” that was the *emporion*.
Indigenous societies adopted different attitudes that reflect different solutions to the problem
of navigating between trust and suspicion, between acceptance and rejection of interaction
with alien agents and goods. The “intrusive” quality that is an inevitable aspect of a foreign
presence and, more generally, of colonial situations, must be balanced against the acceptance
of foreign goods and their bearers and the unintended consequences of cross-cultural
consumption (Dietler 2010: This feature clearly raises the question of the territorial status of
these enclaves and the territorial transformations they may have experienced or engendered
(Gailledrat 2014; Plana Mallart, Martin Ortega 2002; Zurbach 2008:

The ethnic diversity that characterized these settlements has been recognized for some time,
but the relative degrees of participation of different factions in the social life and political
management of the sites has remained an open question. Once again, the situations differ
according to the regions and periods concerned, from the ports/emporia of an Etruscan city to
the mixed enclaves of the southern French coast, to the Phoenician enclaves clinging to the
edge of a territory at the ends of the Tartessian world. The contribution of written sources to
clarifying some of these issues is undeniable, but epigraphic and historical data can take us
only so far. Aside from various historiographic and epistemological issues, such textual
evidence relates to only a very limited number of sites in the region considered in this
volume. Hence, scholars have been forced to develop new lines of analysis capable of
interrogating often ambiguous archaeological data.

Moving beyond the mere acceptance of exchange that results from a convergence of interests,
as noted earlier, the operation of an *emporion* also necessarily is subject to a number of rules
or constraints. These must be specified, while recognizing the diversity of situations noted
above. In this context, the political and religious dimensions appear to be fundamentally
important, even if they are often difficult to discern. The *emporion* is, in effect, a space of
power, or the representation of power. It is also a space of security for goods, persons, and the
regularity of transactions. More than simply a “market,” it is a space of simultaneous
economic, social, and cultural exchanges where colonial encounters take form on a micro-
scale and where they develop a particular character.

Comprehending these establishments as spaces of ethnic mixing and the reformation of
identities (Demetriou 2012; Dietler 1997, 2010; Gailledrat 2014, 2015; Malkin 2012; Plana
Mallart 2004, 2012) raises a crucial issue. Although proximity to, or interaction with, the
indigenous world constitutes a general pattern, it is one that must be understood in a nuanced
way in specific local situations. For example, the *emporion* was a space of encounter yielding
technical and cultural innovation (Gailledrat 2010: The installation of Greek, Etruscan, or
Phoenician craftsmen in what are fundamentally indigenous settlements, or sometimes even
the direct participation of these alien agents in the construction of these sites, created the
necessary conditions for the sharing of experience and expertise. This is one reason why these
enclaves provide a context for the precocity and originality of processes of urbanization (van
Dommelen 2005b:
To reiterate, the goal of the book is to revisit the *emporion* from several different directions that target the nature of the institution itself, its components, its structure, and its integration into a wider territorial framework. The *emporion* represents a context of economic and cultural opening of the Mediterranean that had a profound impact on the history of the 1st millennium BC. Trade was an economic engine that brought into contact a wide range of societies that exchanged and evolved together around a shared sea that became a space of interconnection (Horden, Purcell 2010: The rhythms, forms, and modes of these interactions were quite varied, but certain novel configurations emerged that, in their geographic, cultural, and temporal diversity, shed new light on the functioning of Mediterranean *emporia*. Arriving at a better understanding of this process requires both a concentrated program of empirical archaeological research on specific local histories and a broader comparative engagement with theoretical work arising from anthropological and historical studies of similar phenomena in other contexts. This book is designed to highlight both aspects of this dialectical strategy, presenting two decades of recent developments in international work on ancient Mediterranean *emporia* in the context of a multidisciplinary discussion of trading enclaves and diasporas and their roles in colonial situations.

In terms of interlocutors, this book is in conversation with a several streams of work in anthropology, classics, and history that deal with colonial encounters, economic history, ports of trade, ancient Mediterranean history and archaeology, and the like.

**Emporia/ports of trade/trade enclaves/trade diasporas:** there have been many studies in anthropology, history, and geography engaged on a broad comparative scale with the issue of trade enclaves and trade diasporas as economic, political, social, and spatial phenomena (some seminal examples include Cohen 1971; Curtin 1984; Gray, Birmingham 1970; Polanyi 1963; Polanyi et al. 1958: The work of Polanyi on "ports of trade" was especially influential in the early evolution of the fields of economic anthropology and economic geography, and this model was subsequently adopted by archaeologists and historians working in areas around the globe, including some classical archaeologists (e.g. Berdan 1978; Gallaway 2005; Hall 2009; Hodges 1978; Lovejoy 1982: These studies are directly relevant to the discussion of the *emporion*, and vice-versa, although such analyses have tended to pay only slight attention to this ancient Mediterranean phenomenon. In any case, as noted, the new understanding emerging from recent archaeological work has considerably altered the picture available to these earlier scholars, which makes renewing this conversation all the more crucial.

As further noted earlier, the specific concept of the *emporion* has also been deployed in a variety of situations beyond that of its original ancient Greek context. These include not only other time periods in the Mediterranean, but also other parts of Europe and other continents (in addition to the works cited earlier, examples include Balzaretti 1996; Di Cosmo, 2009; Gelichi 2007; Hamerow 2007; Hansen 2006; Hind 1995; McCormick 2007; Rothermund 1991; Saunders 2001; Scull 2001; Sherman, 2008; Verhulst 2000; Whyman 2002: These works have often borrowed concepts loosely and not been informed by recent advances in the archaeology of Mediterranean *emporia* (see the critique by Samson 1999: Hence, there is a need for careful consideration of the particularities of ancient Mediterranean *emporia* and the potential benefits and dangers of extending concepts beyond this realm.

**Colonial encounters, cross-cultural consumption, and identity:**
For the reasons explained earlier, the *emporion* has been an important vector in the history of colonial encounters in the ancient Mediterranean (see also Aubet 2001, 2003; Rouillard 1991), and the same is true of trade enclaves in other colonial situations. Hence, a comparative dialogue, informed by the latest evidence, should contribute to the progress of theory on both sides. As privileged locations of sustained direct encounter between people of different cultures, such trade enclaves constitute a distinctive space in what has been termed a “contact zone” (Pratt 1992), or “middle ground” (White 1991), where mutually misunderstood cultural differences were worked through in economic and political practice, and pidgins and creole languages. Such spaces provide a micro-arena for the development of colonial relations and the emergence of the intertwined sets of interests that Sahlins (1985) called “structures of the conjuncture.” They also constitute a space where one can study the cultural and social logic of demand for alien objects and the process of “entanglement” (Dietler 1998, 2010), in which the unintended consequences of cross-cultural consumption gradually ensnare communities of people in new webs of economic and political relations. They are also laboratories for the formation of new identities and cultural boundaries, both locally and in terms of far-flung diasporas, through conflicting processes of fusion and exclusion.

The anthropology, archaeology, and history of colonialism, including especially studies of consumption, identity, and diasporas, are prime interlocutor for the current volume. Again, this is an engagement of mutual benefit in which archaeologists working on ancient Mediterranean *emporia* have much to gain by exploring this literature, but also have a significant contribution to make to the conversation. In that spirit, works listed in the references include selected examples of relevant literature in addition to texts cited in the introduction.

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