<table><caption>Table A6: 1/2: List of dates and sources for Israeli involvement in other regional conflicts</caption><thead><tr><th>Date</th><th>Description</th><th>Source (accessed July 20, 2025)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="3">Clashes at Israel-Lebanon border:</td></tr><tr><td>08-03-2010</td><td>Israel-Lebanon border clash</td><td>https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/04/world/middleeast/04mideast.html</td></tr><tr><td>08-01-2011</td><td>Israel-Lebanon border clash</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/2011-08-02 ty-article/idf-exchanges-fire-with-lebanon-across-border/0000017f-e755-dea7-adff-7f7fd0t30000</td></tr><tr><td>11-29-2011</td><td>Lebanese rocket attacks on Israel</td><td>https://www.un.orgsg/en/content/sg/statement-attributeable-the-spokesperson-for-the-secretary-general-lebanon-firing-of-rockets-against-israel</td></tr><tr><td>10-06-2012</td><td>Israel-Lebanon border clash</td><td>https://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/07/world/most/israel-downed-drone_index.html?hpt=hp_t1</td></tr><tr><td>08-07-2013</td><td>Israel-Hezbollah border clashes</td><td>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2013/8/7/israel-soldiers-wounded-in-lebanon-incursion</td></tr><tr><td>12-04-2013</td><td>Israel-Lebanon border clash</td><td>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/04/hezbollah-commander-shot-dead-beirut-shia-israel-sunni</td></tr><tr><td>12-15-2013</td><td>Hanikra border clash</td><td>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/15/lebanon-israel-border-shooting-soldier-killed</td></tr><tr><td>12-16-2013</td><td>Hanikra border clash</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-25399340</td></tr><tr><td>02-24-2014</td><td>Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-jets-reportedly-strike-targets-near-lebanon-syria-border</td></tr><tr><td>03-14-2014</td><td>Israel-Hezbollah border clashes</td><td>https://haaretz.com/2014-03-14 ty-article/blast-rocks-israel-lebanon-border/0000017f-efad-ddba-a37f-efef5ebc0000</td></tr><tr><td>09-05-2014</td><td>Israel-Lebanon border clash</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/lebanon-accuses-israel-of-deadly-blast-in-south/</td></tr><tr><td>01-18-2015</td><td>Israel-Hezbollah border clashes</td><td>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/18/israel-helicopter-strike-syria-kills-hezbollah</td></tr><tr><td>06-21-2015</td><td>Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon</td><td>https://www.theguardian.com/article/us-lebanon-israel-idUSKCN0PL07H20150711</td></tr><tr><td>07-11-2015</td><td>Israel-Lebanon border clash</td><td>https://www.reuters.com/article/10-lebanon-israel-idUSKCN0PL07H20150711</td></tr><tr><td>05-10-2016</td><td>Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/nasrallah-next-war-with-israel-could-be-waged-inside-israeli-territory</td></tr><tr><td>03-25-2018</td><td>Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/reports-say-israel-jets-hit-hezbollah-positions-along-syria-lebanon-border</td></tr><tr><td>03-31-2018</td><td>Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon</td><td>https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/middle-east/171210-180331-israel-drone-crashes-in-lebanon-hezbollah-s-al-manar-tv</td></tr><tr><td>05-27-2019</td><td>Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon</td><td>https://haaretz.com/israel-news/2019-05-28 ty-article/israel-strikes-syrian-anti-aircraft-target-and-a-spying-device-in-lebanon/0000017f-f7a3-d460-aff-ffe7bc640000</td></tr><tr><td>08-25-2019</td><td>Israeli airstrikes in Lebanon</td><td>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-lebanon-hezbollah-idUSKCN1FV00Y</td></tr><tr><td>08-26-2019</td><td>Israel-Hezbollah border clash</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-Hezbollah-palestinian-terror-base-deep-inside-lebanon</td></tr><tr><td>09-01-2019</td><td>Israel-Lebanon border clash</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-4954819</td></tr><tr><td>10-31-2019</td><td>Israel-Lebanon border clash</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/hezbollah-shoots-at-israeli-drone-over-southern-lebanon</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">Clashes on the Golan Heights along the Israel-Syria ceasefire line:</td></tr><tr><td>09-25-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-first-mortars-from-syria-land-in-golan</td></tr><tr><td>09-26-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/160093</td></tr><tr><td>11-05-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/2012-11-06 ty-article/stray-bullet-from-syria-hits-israeli-jc9p/0000017f-e968-df5f-a17f-fbfe13e00000</td></tr><tr><td>11-06-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/2012-11-06 ty-article/stray-bullet-from-syria-hits-israeli-jc9p/0000017f-e968-df5f-a17f-fbfe13e00000</td></tr><tr><td>11-11-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/now/11/israel-fires-missile-into-syria</td></tr><tr><td>11-12-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/now/12/israel-fires-syria-second-day</td></tr><tr><td>11-17-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.yuetnews.com/articles/0.7340.L-1307409.00.html</td></tr><tr><td>11-20-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/fire-from-syria-strikes-idf-vehicle-in-the-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>11-25-12</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/golan-heights-residents-report-explosion-near-syria-border</td></tr><tr><td>01-30-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/middle-east/80156-150729-israel-kills-two-pro-assad-militants-in-air-strike</td></tr><tr><td>03-24-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/israeli-military-responds-to-fire-from-syria-in-golan-heights/2013/03/24/1473aed2-949d-11e2-bc8a-934ce979aa74_story.html</td></tr><tr><td>04-02-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-shell-hits-golan-hours-after-defense-chief-vows-response</td></tr><tr><td>04-12-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-shot-at-along-syrian-border</td></tr><tr><td>04-27-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-tank-shell-lands-in-golan-heights-town</td></tr><tr><td>05-03-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-forces-on-high-alert-in-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>05-05-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/05/israel-more-air-strikes-syria</td></tr><tr><td>05-15-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/opinion/editorials/warning-syria-313430</td></tr><tr><td>05-21-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-22608489</td></tr><tr><td>06-05-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-22799239</td></tr><tr><td>06-16-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>english.alarabiana.net/views/news/middle-east/2013/06/16/The-going-gets-tough-in-the-Golan</td></tr><tr><td>07-05-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/report-israeli-submarine-strike-hit-syrian-arms-depot-319756</td></tr><tr><td>07-16-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>english.alarabiana.net/News/middle-east/2013/07/17/Syrian-mortar-shells-hit-Israeli-occupied-ceasefire-zone</td></tr><tr><td>07-17-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/defense/idf-patrol-comes-under-fire-on-golan-border-320067</td></tr><tr><td>07-27-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.yuet.co.il/articles/0.7340.L-4570246.00.html#google_vignette</td></tr><tr><td>08-17-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-retaliates-after-mortars-fired-from-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>10-09-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.france24.com/en/20190121-israel-says-currently-striking-iranian-targets-syria</td></tr><tr><td>10-21-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10419145/Israel-jets-launch-Syria-strike-to-destroy-missiles.html</td></tr><tr><td>10-30-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.esisc.org/publications/briefings/risk-of-a-new-war-in-the-golan</td></tr><tr><td>11-14-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/explosion-near-idf-patrol-in-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>12-06-13</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.comEXPLOSION-NEAR-IDF-PATROL-IN-GOLAN-HGHTS</td></tr><tr><td>01-26-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://news.sky.com/story/syria-conflict-sees-israel-tighten-security-10419892</td></tr><tr><td>02-24-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-jets-reportedly-strike-targets-near-lebanon-syria-border</td></tr><tr><td>03-01-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.syriahr.com/en/4272</td></tr><tr><td>03-05-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>joedantimes.com/news/region/israel-vows-response-l-troops-wounded-golan-blast</td></tr><tr><td>03-08-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.syriahr.com/en/44414</td></tr><tr><td>03-18-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.reuters.com/article/world/israel-bombs-syrian-posts-over-golan-attack-on-its-troops-idUSBREA2J063</td></tr><tr><td>03-28-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/defense/idf-soldiers-shoot-two-gunmen-attempting-to-sabotage-border-fence-on-golan-346838</td></tr><tr><td>06-02-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/defense/iaf-attacks-in-response-to-rocket-fire-from-syria-gaza-strip-355080</td></tr><tr><td>06-04-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.yuetnews.com/articles/0.7340.L-1527044.00.html</td></tr><tr><td>06-22-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.reuters.com/article/israel-syria-border/israel-strikes-kill-ten-members-of-syrian-army-monitoring-group-idUSKBN0EY13O20140623</td></tr><tr><td>07-07-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-fires-into-syria-after-mortar-shell-hits-golan</td></tr><tr><td>07-13-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/operation-protective-edge/rocket-fired-at-nahariya-in-north-iron-dome-shoots-down-barrage-over-ashkelon-362648</td></tr><tr><td>07-15-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>english.alarabiana.net/ views/news/middle-east/2014/07/15/Israel-warplanes-hit-syria-s-Golan-killing-four-NGO</td></tr><tr><td>08-24-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/rockets-from-syria-land-in-golan-heights-after-lebanese-katyusha-strikes-israel-372043</td></tr><tr><td>08-27-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/syrian-mortar-falls-in-northern-golan-heights-lightly-injuring-one-372526</td></tr><tr><td>08-31-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/drone-shot-down-by-idf-was-iranian</td></tr><tr><td>09-02-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.reuters.com/news picture/clashes-in-golan-heights-idUKRTR44P9P</td></tr><tr><td>09-04-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-Israeli-conflict/idf-soldier-on-golan-lightly-injured-from-stray-bullet-fired-from-syria-374781</td></tr><tr><td>09-08-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/24/world/middleeast/israel-syria.html</td></tr><tr><td>09-23-14</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30370670</td></tr><tr><td>01-18-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30873402</td></tr><tr><td>01-27-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/two-projectiles-fired-from-syria-land-in-golan-heights-389103</td></tr><tr><td>03-10-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://haaretz.com/2015-03-10 ty-article/idf-comes-under-fire-along-syrian-border/0000017f-eb46-d0f7-a9f-ec7964a0000</td></tr><tr><td>04-15-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.inn.co.il/news/296627</td></tr><tr><td>04-22-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://haaretz.com/2015-04-27 ty-article/israel-denies-it-struck-near-syria-lebanon-border/0000017f-e55c-d9aa-aff-df5c3fa0000</td></tr><tr><td>04-25-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/iaf-struck-missile-bases-in-syria-al-jazera-report-says-399126</td></tr><tr><td>04-26-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32479263</td></tr><tr><td>04-27-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://haaretz.com/2015-04-27 ty-article/israel-denies-it-struck-near-syria-lebanon-border/0000017f-e55c-d9aa-aff-df5c3fa0000</td></tr><tr><td>06-17-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33166040</td></tr><tr><td>06-18-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30873402</td></tr><tr><td>06-21-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-Israeli-conflict/report-israeli-fighter-jets-strike-in-lebanon-406659</td></tr><tr><td>06-23-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-23/303458-israel-vows-crackdown-after-druze-lynching-of-syria.ashx</td></tr><tr><td>06-28-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-Israeli-conflict/rocket-alert-sirens-sound-in-northern-golan-heights-407379</td></tr><tr><td>07-08-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-Israeli-conflict/report-israeli-jets-strike-target-in-syria-killing-three-people-410476</td></tr><tr><td>07-29-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-Israeli-conflict/report-israeli-jets-strike-target-in-syria-killing-three-people-410476</td></tr><tr><td>08-08-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/2-mortar-shells-explode-in-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>08-20-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.nabaret.com/stories/en/187029-l-rockets-from-syria-hit-israel-golan</td></tr><tr><td>08-21-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>edition.cnn.com/2015/08/21/middleeast/israel-golan-heights-attacks-syria</td></tr><tr><td>09-26-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-israel-idUSKCN0RR0X820150927</td></tr><tr><td>09-27-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://aljazera.com/news/2015/9/27/israel-strikes-syria-after-stray-rockets-land-in-golan</td></tr><tr><td>10-30-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2015-10-31 ty-article/premium/report-israel-air-force-struck-hezbollah-syrian-regime-facilities/0000017f-e88a-dc7e-adff-8fa8c8bh0000</td></tr><tr><td>11-01-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.makorishon.com/irrg online/1 ART2/734/854.html</td></tr><tr><td>11-11-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/syria-says-israel-airstrikes-hit-near-damascus-airport</td></tr><tr><td>11-23-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/report-israel-air-force-strikes-targets-in-syria-near-lebanese-border-435233</td></tr><tr><td>11-26-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://web.archive.org/web/20151212123416 http://bwabtk.com/syria/88729.html</td></tr><tr><td>11-28-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/report-israel-air-force-strikes-targets-in-syria-near-lebanese-border-435694</td></tr><tr><td>12-04-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-jets-carry-out-strikes-north-of-damascus-reports</td></tr><tr><td>12-19-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://longwarjournal.com/archives/2015/12/israel-air-force-kills-notorious-hezbollah-commander-in-syria.php</td></tr><tr><td>12-26-15</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/syrian-media-claims-israeli-air-strikes-hit-hezbollah-bases-438529</td></tr><tr><td>01-11-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://israelnationahews.com/news/206253</td></tr><tr><td>02-09-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/syrian-media-claims-israeli-jets-struck-army-base-hezbollah-base-44368</td></tr><tr><td>02-17-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>news.trust.org/item/20160217220218-pmykw</td></tr><tr><td>05-10-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.makorishon.com.irrg online/1 ART2/777/032.html</td></tr><tr><td>05-12-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.makorishon.com.irrg online/1 ART2/777/032.html</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: The table lists dates on which Israel was involved in other armed conflicts in the region. Based on this information, we construct a binary variable indicating whether each date in our sample corresponds to such a conflict.
<table><caption>Table A7: 2/2: List of dates coded for Israeli involvement in other regional conflicts</caption><thead><tr><th>Date</th><th>Description</th><th>Source (accessed July 20, 2025)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td></td><td>Clashes on the Golan Heights along the Israel-Syria ceasefire line:</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>06-06-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20160609-israeli-raids-on-syrian-army-sites-in-homs</td></tr><tr><td>06-07-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://debka.com/mivzak/iaf-bombs-syrian-military-base-near-damascus-arab-sources</td></tr><tr><td>07-17-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.timesofisrael.com/2-idf-soldiers-die-in-grenade-blast-during-training-in-golan</td></tr><tr><td>07-20-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/israeli-planes-reported-to-strike-target-in-southern-syria</td></tr><tr><td>07-25-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2016-07-25/ty-article/israel-attacks-in-syria-after-errant-fire-from-quneitra-hits-israeli-golan/0000017f-e99c-da9b-a1ff-ccff5af80000</td></tr><tr><td>07-27-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://mepc.org/commentaries/attack-in-israels-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>08-22-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.i2news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy-defense/12388-160822-israel-strikes-target-in-syria-after-mortar-shell-lands-in-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>09-04-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/israel-shells-syria-in-retaliation-for-mortar-hitting-golan</td></tr><tr><td>09-07-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/projectile-fired-from-syria-strikes-israeli-side-of-golan</td></tr><tr><td>09-08-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://english.almanar.com.lb/23615</td></tr><tr><td>09-10-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/second-mortar-of-the-day-hits-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>09-12-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/stray-mortar-hits-golan-after-syria-truce-takes-hold</td></tr><tr><td>09-13-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/stray-mortar-hits-hits-after-syria-truce-takes-hold</td></tr><tr><td>09-17-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/syrian-soldier-said-killed-by-israeli-retalatory-fire-on-golan</td></tr><tr><td>11-09-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/errant-shell-from-syria-hits-golan-heights-no-injuries</td></tr><tr><td>11-27-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/27/world/middleeast/israeli-military-kills-4-isis-linked-militants-in-golan-heights.html</td></tr><tr><td>11-28-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-38129683</td></tr><tr><td>11-29-16</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.i2news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy-defense/131314-161129-islamic-state-likely-not-opening-front-against-israel-in-golan-says-general</td></tr><tr><td>02-08-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2017/02/mil-17028-pressrv07.htm</td></tr><tr><td>03-17-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://edition.cnn.com/2017/03/17/middleeast/israel-jets-syria-strikes/index.html</td></tr><tr><td>03-19-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/israel-said-to-strike-syria-for-second-time-in-24-hours-amid-threats-from-damascus</td></tr><tr><td>03-20-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/israel-said-to-strike-syria-for-second-time-in-24-hours-amid-threats-from-damascus</td></tr><tr><td>03-21-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwconfirms-israeli-drone-shot-down-in-syria</td></tr><tr><td>04-06-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.inm.co.il/news/343942</td></tr><tr><td>04-21-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/siren-warning-of-incoming-rocket-fire-sounds-in-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>04-22-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2017-04-22/ty-article/idf-strikes-in-syria-after-mortar-shells-hit-israeli-golan-heights/0000017f-e697-dc7e-adff-f6bf49cc0000</td></tr><tr><td>04-23-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.aljazera.com/news/2017/4/23/deadly-israeli-strikes-target-syrias-quneitra-province</td></tr><tr><td>04-27-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/patriot-missile-intercepts-drone-over-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>04-29-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/arab-media-reports-israeli-strike-on-syrian-army-near-border</td></tr><tr><td>05-26-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/hezollah-affiliated-radio-denies-israeli-attack-in-syria</td></tr><tr><td>06-26-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.aljazera.com/news/2017/06/24/middleeast/israel-golan-heights-strike/index.html</td></tr><tr><td>06-27-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.dw.com/en/israel-strikes-syrian-army-after-stray-fire-lands-in-golan-a-39403897</td></tr><tr><td>06-28-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.aljazera.com/news/2017/6/26/fighting-intensifies-in-israel-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>07-09-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/resist-border-area-in-golan-heights-closed-off-to-civilians</td></tr><tr><td>06-28-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-syria-iusKBKN1912RS-7il-0</td></tr><tr><td>06-29-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://english.alarabia.net/News/middle-east/2017/06/29/Israel-strikes-Syrian-army-positon-in-Quneitra-in-response-to-mortal-fire</td></tr><tr><td>06-30-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.i2news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy-defense/149218-170630-projectile-from-syria-landed-in-israel-s-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>07-04-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=69416</td></tr><tr><td>09-19-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/idfs-patriot-intercepts-apparent-hezollah-drone-from-syria</td></tr><tr><td>09-22-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/israeli-jets-said-to-strike-weapons-convoy-outside-damascus</td></tr><tr><td>09-26-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://x.com/jisrtv/status/912616285061274881</td></tr><tr><td>10-10-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.inm.co.il/news/356951</td></tr><tr><td>10-16-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2017-10-16/ty-article/israels-latest-strike-in-syria-what-we-know-so-far/0000017f-db12-d0f-a17f-df5357e40000</td></tr><tr><td>10-19-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.i2news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy-defense/158102-171019-stray-projectile-from-syria-lands-in-golan-heights-israeli-army-says</td></tr><tr><td>10-21-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/israel-attacks-syrian-army-positions-508000</td></tr><tr><td>10-23-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.aljazera.com/features/2017/10/23/why-does-israel-keep-attacking-syria</td></tr><tr><td>11-01-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-4184727</td></tr><tr><td>11-03-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.aljazera.com/news/2017/11/3/violence-hits-druze-village-hader-in-syrias-quneitra</td></tr><tr><td>11-11-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/11/middleeast/israel-syria-drone-golan-heights</td></tr><tr><td>11-13-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://syriahr.com/en/?p=78278</td></tr><tr><td>11-18-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/idf-tank-fires-warning-shot-at-syrian-forces-near-golan-border</td></tr><tr><td>11-19-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/idf-again-fires-at-syrian-forces-in-golan-demilitarized-zone</td></tr><tr><td>11-28-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://web.archive.org/web/20180728160846/https://www.almadannews.com/article/exclusive-israel-free-syrian-army-launch-joint-offensive-southern-syria</td></tr><tr><td>12-01-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/analysis-airstrike-on-iranian-base-in-syria-raises-questions-51579</td></tr><tr><td>12-04-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://sana.sy/en/?p=120124</td></tr><tr><td>12-05-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.aljazera.com/news/2017/12/5/israel-again-fires-missiles-at-syria-site-observatory</td></tr><tr><td>12-22-17</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://en.zamanalwsl.net/article/31845</td></tr><tr><td>01-09-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2018-01-09/ty-article/syrian-army-israel-strikes-near-damascus-with-jets/0000017f-e58a-dc7e-adff-f5af29460000</td></tr><tr><td>02-01-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/reports-israel-bombed-islamic-state-positions-in-southern-syriahttps://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/reports-israel-bombed-islamic-state-positions-in-southern-syria</td></tr><tr><td>02-07-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-5094804,00.html</td></tr><tr><td>02-10-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-43019682</td></tr><tr><td>03-07-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://orient-news.net/ar/news_show/146506/0</td></tr><tr><td>03-25-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/reports-say-israel-jets-hit-hezollah-positions-along-syria-lebanon-border</td></tr><tr><td>03-31-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/hezollah-tv-says-israel-spy-drone-crashed-in-lebanon</td></tr><tr><td>04-16-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-5232871,00.html</td></tr><tr><td>04-23-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/israel-retaliates-after-errant-mortar-shell-falls-in-golan-heights-552539</td></tr><tr><td>05-05-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/nabbed-hezollah-member-says-he-was-awaiting-orders-to-fire-rockets-at-israel/</td></tr><tr><td>05-06-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-5253741,00.html</td></tr><tr><td>05-08-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/alleged-israeli-strike-reported-in-syria-after-idf-sounds-alarm-in-north</td></tr><tr><td>05-09-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Shots-fired-towards-Israeli-communities-in-the-Golan-556017</td></tr><tr><td>05-10-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2018-05-11/ty-article/israel-launches-extensive-syria-strike-after-iranian-rocket-barrage/0000017f-e37c-d568-ad7f-f37fb7b7b0000</td></tr><tr><td>05-11-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/rocket-sky-highs-in-golan-heights-idf-investigating</td></tr><tr><td>05-21-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://debka.com/iranian-electronic-warfare-facility-blown-up-south-of-damascus-second-explosion-in-4-days</td></tr><tr><td>06-05-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/240987</td></tr><tr><td>06-11-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://infos-israelnews/%F0%9F%9%4B4-une-usage-de-missiles-a-expose-in-syrie-pres-de-la-frontiere-syro-libanaise</td></tr><tr><td>06-14-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://stepagency-sy.net/archives/198863</td></tr><tr><td>06-15-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://orient-news.net/en/news_show/150146/0/Israel-targets-Iran-affiliated-missile-system-in-south-of-Syria</td></tr><tr><td>06-19-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-5291601,00.html</td></tr><tr><td>06-24-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/patriot-interceptor-reportedly-fired-in-northern-israel-circumstances-unclear</td></tr><tr><td>06-26-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/syrian-media-two-israéli-missiles-strike-near-damascus-airport-560869</td></tr><tr><td>07-03-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/reports-of-blast-at-syrian-warehouse-used-by-iranian-backed-militias</td></tr><tr><td>07-06-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/idf-strikes-syrian-regime-post-after-mortar-lands-in-buffer-zone-561825</td></tr><tr><td>07-07-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.thebaghdadpost.com/ar/story/111187</td></tr><tr><td>07-11-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/politics-and-diplomacy/idf-spokesperson-patriot-missile-launched-against-syrian-drone-562226</td></tr><tr><td>07-12-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/248788</td></tr><tr><td>07-13-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/patriot-missile-fired-against-drone-on-syrian-border-562445</td></tr><tr><td>07-18-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/rocket-sirens-heard-in-golan-heights-562770</td></tr><tr><td>07-22-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://sana.sy/en/?p=143049</td></tr><tr><td>07-23-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2018-07-23/ty-article/sirens-sound-in-upper-galilee-in-northern-israel/0000017f-dbbe-db22-a17f-ffbfa2ba0000</td></tr><tr><td>07-24-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/israel-fires-patriot-missiles-against-syrian-jet-in-golan-heights-563275</td></tr><tr><td>07-25-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/islamic-state-firing-at-israel-in-hid-to-draw-it-into-syria-ex-intel-chief</td></tr><tr><td>08-01-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-midwest-crisis-syria-israel/israel-says-it-kill-ed-seven-insurgents-on-syria-frontier-talks-up-assad-idUKKBN1KN12R</td></tr><tr><td>08-23-18</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://wwwtimesofisraeln.com/idf-opens-fire-at-gunmen-approaching-golan-heights-border-fence-from-syria</td></tr><tr><td>01-24-19</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/id-fces-fired-on-near-syrian-border-no-injuries-578460</td></tr><tr><td>06-02-19</td><td>Golan Heights Incident</td><td>https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2019-06-03/ty-article/israel-syria-strike-after-rocket-at-golan-heights-iran-hezollah-killed/0000017f-db8b-d3a5-a7f-ffaf5d1e0000</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: The table lists dates on which Israel was involved in other armed conflicts in the region. Based on this information, we construct a binary variable indicating whether each date in our sample corresponds to such a conflict.
<table><caption>**Table A8:** List of stemmed keywords used to measure topic coverage</caption><thead><tr><th>Topic:</th><th>Stemmed keyword(s) included in the topic:</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Mentions of civilians, civilian casualties, and reporters</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Civilians</td><td>peopl*; palestinian*population; israeli*population; gaza*citizens; israel*citizens; gaza*civilian; israeli*civilian</td></tr><tr><td>Youth and babies</td><td>old*baby; baby*girl; young*israeli; young*palestinian; palestinian*youth</td></tr><tr><td>Civilian casualties</td><td>civilian*death; civilian*casualti*; civilian*kill</td></tr><tr><td>Pictures & videos</td><td>amateur*video; dramatic*video; israel*picture; gaza*pictures</td></tr><tr><td>Reporters</td><td>reporter; foreign*correspondent</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Mentions of officials and elections</strong></td></tr><tr><td>IL & PS leaders</td><td>netanyahu; abbas; israeli*government; palestinian*leader; palestinian*authority</td></tr><tr><td>US foreign officials</td><td>us*secretary*state; president*united*state</td></tr><tr><td>Elections</td><td>presidential*election; candidate</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>References to social media and news agencies</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Twitter</td><td>twitter</td></tr><tr><td>Facebook</td><td>facebook</td></tr><tr><td>Instagram</td><td>instagram</td></tr><tr><td>Youtube</td><td>youtube</td></tr><tr><td>News agency</td><td>news*agency</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>References to social media and news agencies</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Israeli army</td><td>defense*force; military*force; israeli*army; israeli*soldier</td></tr><tr><td>Military operations</td><td>military*operation; military*activity; military*intervention; military*presence</td></tr><tr><td>Heavy ammunitions</td><td>missil; rocket; fire; airstrike; bomb; tank</td></tr><tr><td>Hamas</td><td>hamas</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table A9:** Performance of the algorithm classifying tweets into conflict-related and conflict-unrelated</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Machine coding<br>(Naive Bayes algorithm)</th><th>Human coding<br>(Research assistant)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Accuracy</td><td>0.80</td><td>0.80</td></tr><tr><td>Precision</td><td>0.85</td><td>0.92</td></tr><tr><td>Recall</td><td>0.82</td><td>0.79</td></tr><tr><td>F-score</td><td>0.83</td><td>0.85</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table presents the comparison of performance of machine coding and human coding by a research assistant for the algorithm classifying the tweets into conflict-related and conflict-unrelated. *Accuracy* is defined as the share of correctly classified tweets. *Precision* is defined as the share of true positives among all selected elements. *Precision* reflects how many tweets classified as conflict-related actually are conflict-related. *Recall* is defined as a share of true positives among all relevant elements. *Recall* reflects how many of all conflict-related tweets are classified as conflict-related. $F-score = 2\frac{Precision \times Recall}{Precision + Recall}$. The Lidstone smoothing hyper-parameter $\alpha$ is chosen to maximize F-score.
<table><caption>**Table A10:** Verification that the “BGP Prefix Count” is not driven by demand for internet use</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th><th>(4)</th><th>(5)</th><th>(6)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="7">Panel A: Weekends versus week days</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">Dependent variable, this panel:</td></tr><tr><td></td><td colspan="3">Log(All tweets) in conflict zone</td><td colspan="3">Hourly BGP Prefix Count / 100 in conflict zone</td></tr><tr><td>Weekend</td><td>-0.320***<br>(0.020)</td><td>-0.323***<br>(0.018)</td><td>-0.326***<br>(0.015)</td><td>0.033<br>(0.139)</td><td>0.017<br>(0.066)</td><td>0.017<br>(0.066)</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>2480</td><td>2480</td><td>2480</td><td>14878</td><td>14878</td><td>14878</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>7.39</td><td>7.39</td><td>7.39</td><td>4.34</td><td>4.34</td><td>4.34</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">Panel B: Day versus night time</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">Dependent variable, this panel:</td></tr><tr><td></td><td colspan="3">Log(Hourly number of all tweets) in conflict zone</td><td colspan="3">Hourly BGP Prefix Count / 100 in conflict zone</td></tr><tr><td>Day time</td><td>0.698***<br>(0.005)</td><td>0.698***<br>(0.005)</td><td>0.698***<br>(0.005)</td><td>-0.003<br>(0.008)</td><td>0.002<br>(0.004)</td><td>0.002<br>(0.004)</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>4955</td><td>4955</td><td>4955</td><td>28252</td><td>28252</td><td>28252</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>4.31</td><td>4.31</td><td>4.31</td><td>4.38</td><td>4.38</td><td>4.38</td></tr><tr><td>Autonomous system FEs</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Year, MoY, DoW FEs</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Controls</td><td></td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td></td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table reports estimates of the effect of weekends and daytime on tweeting activity and BGP prefix counts in the conflict zone. The unit of observation varies across panels: day in columns 1–3 (Panel A); day × day/night time in columns 7–9 (Panel B); day × autonomous system in columns 4–6 (Panel A); and day × autonomous system × day/night time in columns 10–12 (Panel B). The dependent variable in columns 7–9 is the average of the log (hourly number of all tweets) at the day × day/night time level. In columns 4–6 and 10–12, the dependent variable is the average of (hourly BGP prefix count / 100), calculated at the day × autonomous system and day × autonomous system × day/night time levels, respectively. “Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each calendar year, each month of the year, and each day of the week. All specifications include the following controls: dummies for Palestinian fatality incidence, Israeli fatality incidence, and the Gaza war; the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day t; U.S. domestic news pressure; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection (collectively referred to as “Controls”). Robust standard errors reported in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A11:** Conflict-zone Twitter activity: Palestinian and Israeli users are equally affected by internet outages</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Dependent variable:</th><th colspan="3">Among all conflict-related tweets posted by users located in the conflict zone, share of tweets (x100) by:</th></tr><tr><th>users located in Palestine</th><th>users tweeting only in English</th><th>users tweeting in English and Arabic</th></tr><tr><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Panel A: Internet Outages</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Internet outage, conflict zone</td><td>0.045<br>(0.445)</td><td>0.185<br>(0.281)</td><td>-0.412<br>(0.358)</td></tr><tr><td>R-squared</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.48</td><td>0.77</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>3631</td><td>3631</td><td>3631</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>45.33</td><td>35.85</td><td>28.35</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Panel B: Lightning Strikes</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Lightning strike, conflict zone</td><td>0.114<br>(0.513)</td><td>-0.040<br>(0.351)</td><td>-0.220<br>(0.439)</td></tr><tr><td>R-squared</td><td>0.64</td><td>0.48</td><td>0.77</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>3631</td><td>3631</td><td>3631</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>45.33</td><td>35.85</td><td>28.35</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Panel C: Absence of traffic</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Absence of traffic, conflict zone</td><td>-0.170<br>(0.750)</td><td>0.459<br>(0.408)</td><td>-0.554<br>(0.539)</td></tr><tr><td>R-squared</td><td>0.66</td><td>0.58</td><td>0.78</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>2512</td><td>2512</td><td>2512</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>42.90</td><td>36.24</td><td>23.50</td></tr><tr><td>Year, MoY, DoW FEs</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Controls</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table presents the estimations of the effect of our main instrument (internet outage, a binary variable indicating either the presence of a lightning strike or the absence of traffic in the conflict zone) and its two components (lightning strikes, a binary variable indicating the presence of strikes hitting a cellular antenna; and the absence of traffic, a binary variable indicating a drop in traffic caused by technical failure) on the share of tweets (x 100) in all conflict-related tweets posted by different accounts located in the conflict zone: those from Palestine (column 1), those tweeting in English only (column 2), and those tweeting in English and Arabic (in column 3), in the total number of tweets posted by all users in the conflict zone. The unit of observation is a day. “Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each each calendar year, each month of the year, and each day of the week. All specifications include the following controls: dummies for Palestinian fatality incidence, Israeli fatality incidence, and the Gaza war; the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day t; U.S. domestic news pressure; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection (collectively referred to as “Controls”). Robust standard errors reported in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A12:** Verification of the relevance of the instrument with a Twitter bot</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="2">Dependent variable:</th><th colspan="6">Prayer bot in conflict zone did not tweet<br>(when scheduled)</th></tr><tr><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th><th>(4)</th><th>(5)</th><th>(6)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Internet outage, conflict zone</td><td>0.062**<br>(0.025)</td><td>0.063**<br>(0.025)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lightning strike, conflict zone</td><td></td><td></td><td>0.055*<br>(0.029)</td><td>0.056**<br>(0.029)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Absence of traffic, conflict zone</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>0.077*<br>(0.042)</td><td>0.074*<br>(0.042)</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>1682</td><td>1682</td><td>1682</td><td>1682</td><td>1175</td><td>1175</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.08</td></tr><tr><td>Year, MoY, DoW FEs</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Weather controls</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Other controls</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** This table presents the effect of our main instrument (internet outage, a binary variable indicating either the presence of a lightning strike or the absence of traffic) and its two components (lightning strikes, a binary variable indicating the presence of strikes hitting a cellular antenna; and the absence of traffic, a binary variable indicating a drop in traffic caused by technical failure). The dependent variable is a dummy indicating whether the bot account @IPT_Gaza failed to tweet as scheduled on a given day. The time period begins on August 3, 2011, when @IPT_Gaza started tweeting, and ends on April 6, 2016, when we stopped observing this account's activity. The unit of observation is a day. “Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each calendar year, each month of the year, and each day of the week. All specifications include the “weather controls:” a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity. Specifications in columns 2, 4 and 6 include the “other controls:” dummies for Palestinian fatality incidence, Israeli fatality incidence, and the Gaza war; the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day *t*; U.S. domestic news pressure; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection. Robust standard errors reported in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A13: Conflict-zone internet outages and the extent of conflict coverage on U.S. TV – Reduced form and covariates**</caption><thead><tr><th>Dependent variable:</th><th>Number of keywords on U.S. TV</th><th>Number of stories on U.S. TV</th><th>Prime time coverage on U.S. TV</th><th>Length in minutes on U.S. TV</th><th>Log(Length in minutes) on U.S. TV</th></tr><tr><th>Subsample:</th><th colspan="5">TV Coverage=1</th></tr><tr><th>Estimation model:</th><th>PPML</th><th>PPML</th><th>Linear</th><th>PPML</th><th>Linear</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th colspan="6" style="text-align: center;">Panel A: Full sample</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th><th>(4)</th><th>(5)</th></tr><tr><th>Internet outage, conflict zone</th><td>0.695***<br>(0.080)</td><td>0.457***<br>(0.061)</td><td>0.027***<br>(0.008)</td><td>0.612***<br>(0.073)</td><td>0.234***<br>(0.065)</td></tr><tr><th>Palestinian fatality incidence</th><td>0.870***<br>(0.057)</td><td>0.722***<br>(0.042)</td><td>0.057***<br>(0.009)</td><td>0.779***<br>(0.053)</td><td>0.289***<br>(0.059)</td></tr><tr><th>Israeli fatality incidence</th><td>0.558***<br>(0.122)</td><td>0.482***<br>(0.071)</td><td>0.089***<br>(0.026)</td><td>0.571***<br>(0.105)</td><td>0.274*<br>(0.143)</td></tr><tr><th>Gaza war</th><td>0.139<br>(0.159)</td><td>0.051<br>(0.101)</td><td>0.484***<br>(0.044)</td><td>0.174<br>(0.136)</td><td>1.017***<br>(0.182)</td></tr><tr><th>US domestic news pressure</th><td>-0.791***<br>(0.123)</td><td>-0.531***<br>(0.079)</td><td>-0.033***<br>(0.011)</td><td>-0.678***<br>(0.102)</td><td>-0.186**<br>(0.092)</td></tr><tr><th>Observations</th><td>27596</td><td>27596</td><td>27596</td><td>27596</td><td>5854</td></tr><tr><th>Mean dep. var.</th><td>19.998</td><td>0.817</td><td>0.086</td><td>11.075</td><td>3.233</td></tr><tr><th colspan="6" style="text-align: center;">Panel B: Subsample with data on newswires</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>(6)</th><th>(7)</th><th>(8)</th><th>(9)</th><th>(10)</th></tr><tr><th>Internet outage, conflict zone</th><td>-0.620***<br>(0.086)</td><td>-0.400***<br>(0.068)</td><td>-0.019**<br>(0.008)</td><td>-0.544***<br>(0.081)</td><td>-0.205***<br>(0.069)</td></tr><tr><th>Palestinian fatality incidence</th><td>0.921***<br>(0.063)</td><td>0.753***<br>(0.049)</td><td>0.056***<br>(0.009)</td><td>0.825***<br>(0.060)</td><td>0.319***<br>(0.067)</td></tr><tr><th>Israeli fatality incidence</th><td>0.357***<br>(0.113)</td><td>0.337***<br>(0.070)</td><td>0.083***<br>(0.027)</td><td>0.399***<br>(0.101)</td><td>0.249*<br>(0.150)</td></tr><tr><th>Gaza war</th><td>0.150<br>(0.159)</td><td>0.036<br>(0.100)</td><td>0.463***<br>(0.046)</td><td>0.197<br>(0.134)</td><td>0.984***<br>(0.186)</td></tr><tr><th>US domestic news pressure</th><td>-1.262***<br>(0.145)</td><td>-0.763***<br>(0.092)</td><td>-0.042***<br>(0.011)</td><td>-1.029***<br>(0.124)</td><td>-0.191*<br>(0.106)</td></tr><tr><th>Observations</th><td>22283</td><td>22283</td><td>22283</td><td>22283</td><td>4509</td></tr><tr><th>Mean dep. var.</th><td>19.219</td><td>0.776</td><td>0.081</td><td>10.640</td><td>3.216</td></tr><tr><th>Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW FEs</th><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><th>Controls</th><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table reports estimates of the effect of the absence of internet outages (the reduced form) on the extent of conflict coverage by U.S. television. Results are presented for the full sample (Panel A) and for the subsample of dates for which data from news agencies are available (09/2012-12/2019; Panel B). The unit of observation is day × TV network. The dependent variables are: the number of times each network mentioned keywords from the conflict zone (columns 1 and 6); the number of news stories about the conflict (columns 2 and 7); a dummy indicating whether a network aired a story about the conflict zone during prime-time news (columns 3 and 8); the total length (in minutes) of conflict-related news (columns 4 and 9); and the logarithm of the total length (in minutes) of conflict-related news (columns 5 and 10). Columns 1 to 4 and 6 to 9 use the full sample of day × TV network observations, while columns 5 and 10 focus on the subsample of day × TV network observations with conflict coverage. “Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each TV network, calendar year, month of the year, and day of the week. All specifications include the following controls in addition to those displayed in the table: the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day t; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection (collectively referred to as “Controls”). Standard errors are clustered at the date level and reported in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A14:** Conflict-zone internet outages and the slant of conflict coverage on U.S. TV: direct effect only</caption><thead><tr><th>Dependent variable:</th><th>Slant score: from -2 to +2<br>(very pro-IL to very pro-PS)<br>on U.S. TV</th><th>Pro-Palestinian slant<br>dummy<br>on U.S. TV</th><th>Pro-Israeli slant<br>dummy<br>on U.S. TV</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Subsample: TV coverage=1</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>(1)</td><td>(2)</td><td>(3)</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(4)</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(5)</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>(6)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Reduced Form:</td></tr><tr><td>No internet outage, conflict zone</td><td>-0.000<br>(0.010)</td><td>-0.040<br>(0.042)</td><td>0.011<br>(0.009)</td><td>-0.025<br>(0.025)</td><td>0.011*<br>(0.007)</td><td>0.018<br>(0.024)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">IV:</td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>-0.001<br>(0.075)</td><td>-0.211<br>(0.225)</td><td>0.087<br>(0.071)</td><td>-0.131<br>(0.132)</td><td>0.085<br>(0.052)</td><td>0.092<br>(0.126)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">OLS:</td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>0.107***<br>(0.011)</td><td>0.111***<br>(0.024)</td><td>0.174***<br>(0.011)</td><td>0.073***<br>(0.015)</td><td>0.042***<br>(0.006)</td><td>-0.081***<br>(0.014)</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>0.051</td><td>0.242</td><td>0.127</td><td>0.599</td><td>0.069</td><td>0.324</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>27596</td><td>5854</td><td>27596</td><td>5854</td><td>27596</td><td>5854</td></tr><tr><td>F-stat, excluded instrument</td><td>27.99</td><td>25.47</td><td>27.99</td><td>25.47</td><td>27.99</td><td>25.47</td></tr><tr><td>Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW FEs</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Controls</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table presents the estimation of the effect of the absence of internet outage (the reduced form), as well as the log of all conflict-related tweets in the conflict zone (estimated using 2SLS and OLS), on the slant of conflict coverage by U.S. TV. The unit of observation is day × TV network. The estimation model is linear. The dependent variables are the slant score, ranging from -2 (very pro-IL) to 2 (very pro-PS) in columns 1-2; the Palestinian slant dummy, which indicates that the slant score is above 0.1 (in columns 3-4); and the Israeli slant dummy, which indicates that the slant score is below -0.1 (in columns 5-6) of conflict-related broadcasts, across days and TV networks. The explanatory variables alternatively include the dummy indicating no internet outage or the log of all conflict-related tweets in the conflict zone. Columns 1, 3 and 5 use the full sample of day × TV network observations, while columns 2, 4 and 6 focus on the subsample of day × TV network observations with conflict coverage. “Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each TV network, each calendar year, each month of the year, and each day of the week. All specifications include the following controls: dummies for Palestinian fatality incidence, Israeli fatality incidence, and the Gaza war; the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day t; U.S. domestic news pressure; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection (collectively referred to as “Controls”). Standard errors are clustered at the date level and reported in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A15:** Conflict-zone internet outages and additional topics (measured by keywords) on conflict-related U.S.TV news</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Dependent variable:</th><th colspan="4">The number of keywords on the following topic divided by the total number of words (×1000), on U.S. TV:</th></tr><tr><th>Israeli army</th><th>Military operations</th><th>Heavy weapons</th><th>Hamas</th></tr><tr><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th><th>(4)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="5" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">Reduced Form:</td></tr><tr><td>No internet outage, conflict zone</td><td>0.007<br>(0.009)</td><td>0.002<br>(0.001)</td><td>0.128<br>(0.140)</td><td>0.057<br>(0.087)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">IV:</td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>0.038<br>(0.046)</td><td>0.009<br>(0.006)</td><td>0.672<br>(0.687)</td><td>0.300<br>(0.442)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="5" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">OLS:</td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>0.027***<br>(0.008)</td><td>0.006***<br>(0.001)</td><td>1.269***<br>(0.107)</td><td>0.679***<br>(0.057)</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>0.053</td><td>0.007</td><td>1.755</td><td>0.789</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td></tr><tr><td>F-stat, excluded instrument</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td></tr><tr><td>Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW FEs</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Controls</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table presents the estimation of the effect of the absence of internet outage (the reduced form), as well as the log of all conflict-related tweets in the conflict zone (estimated using 2SLS and OLS), on the topics covered by U.S. TV conflict news. The unit of observation is day × TV network. The dependent variables are, respectively, the number of keywords related to the following topics, divided by the total number of words and multiplied by 1,000: “Israeli army,” “Military operations,” “Heavy weapons,” and “Hamas.” “Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each TV network, each calendar year, each month of the year, and each day of the week. All specifications include the following controls: dummies for Palestinian fatality incidence, Israeli fatality incidence, and the Gaza war; the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day *t*; U.S. domestic news pressure; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection (collectively referred to as “Controls”). Standard errors are clustered at the date level and reported in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A16:** Conflict-zone internet outages and topics (measured with CorEx) on conflict-related U.S.TV news</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Dependent variable:</th><th colspan="6">The dummy indicating a mention of the following topic on U.S. TV:</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2">Civilian casualties and family</th><th colspan="2">Identity, culture, antisemitism</th><th colspan="2">International relations and diplomacy</th></tr><tr><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th><th>(4)</th><th>(5)</th><th>(6)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="7" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">Reduced Form:</td></tr><tr><td>No internet outage, conflict zone</td><td>0.043**<br>(0.019)</td><td>0.038**<br>(0.018)</td><td>-0.050*<br>(0.026)</td><td>-0.060**<br>(0.026)</td><td>0.032*<br>(0.018)</td><td>0.030*<br>(0.018)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">IV:</td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>0.225**<br>(0.102)</td><td>0.238*<br>(0.123)</td><td>-0.260*<br>(0.138)</td><td>-0.379**<br>(0.169)</td><td>0.169*<br>(0.102)</td><td>0.188<br>(0.123)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">OLS:</td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>0.044***<br>(0.012)</td><td>0.030**<br>(0.013)</td><td>-0.048***<br>(0.017)</td><td>-0.089***<br>(0.016)</td><td>-0.053***<br>(0.009)</td><td>-0.068***<br>(0.010)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7" style="text-align: left;">Controls:</td></tr><tr><td>Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW FEs</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Baseline controls</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Length (number of tokens)</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td><td></td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table presents the estimation of the effect of the absence of internet outage (the reduced form), as well as the log of all conflict-related tweets in the conflict zone (estimated using 2SLS and OLS), on the topics covered by U.S. TV conflict news. The unit of observation is day × TV network. Topics are identified using an unsupervised CorEx model with 50 topics. The dependent variables are binary indicators for the presence of the topics “civilian casualties and family,” “identity, culture, and antisemitism,” and “international relations and diplomacy.” These indicators are set to 1 if the average probability of the topic appearing in conflict-related stories broadcast by a given TV network on a given day is greater than 0.5. In columns 5 and 6, we group six topics related to “international relations and diplomacy,” calculate the average probability of these topics appearing in stories broadcast by the TV network on that day, and set the dummy to 1 for the presence of this broader topic if the average probability exceeds 0.5. “Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each TV network, each calendar year, each month of the year, and each day of the week. All specifications include the following controls: dummies for Palestinian fatality incidence, Israeli fatality incidence, and the Gaza war; the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day t; U.S. domestic news pressure; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection (collectively referred to as “Baseline controls”). In columns 2, 4, and 6, we also include the length of conflict stories, measured by the number of tokens. Standard errors are clustered at the date level and reported in parentheses.
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A17:** Conflict-zone internet outages and aggregate as well as individual emotion measures in conflict-related U.S. TV news, computed with the revised binary NRC Emotion Lexicon (Mohammad, 2018; Zad et al., 2021).</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Dependent variable:</th><th colspan="5">Negative emotions<br>on U.S. TV</th><th colspan="3">Positive emotions<br>on U.S. TV</th><th colspan="3">Neutral emotions<br>on U.S. TV</th></tr><tr><th>All negative</th><th>Anger</th><th>Fear</th><th>Disgust</th><th>Sadness</th><th>All positive</th><th>Joy</th><th>Trust</th><th>All neutral</th><th>Anticipation</th><th>Surprise</th></tr><tr><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th><th>(4)</th><th>(5)</th><th>(6)</th><th>(7)</th><th>(8)</th><th>(9)</th><th>(10)</th><th>(11)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="12" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">Reduced Form:</td></tr><tr><td>No internet outage, conflict zone</td><td>0.177**<br>(0.087)</td><td>0.052*<br>(0.029)</td><td>0.091***<br>(0.033)</td><td>0.025*<br>(0.014)</td><td>0.026<br>(0.026)</td><td>0.060<br>(0.051)</td><td>0.032<br>(0.027)</td><td>0.029<br>(0.030)</td><td>0.074**<br>(0.037)</td><td>0.070**<br>(0.032)</td><td>0.015<br>(0.016)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="12" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">IV:</td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>0.928**<br>(0.442)</td><td>0.270*<br>(0.144)</td><td>0.478***<br>(0.175)</td><td>0.133*<br>(0.071)</td><td>0.135<br>(0.130)</td><td>0.317<br>(0.262)</td><td>0.167<br>(0.139)</td><td>0.151<br>(0.156)</td><td>0.387**<br>(0.197)</td><td>0.368**<br>(0.174)</td><td>0.079<br>(0.082)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="12" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">OLS:</td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>0.684***<br>(0.053)</td><td>0.267***<br>(0.018)</td><td>0.250***<br>(0.019)</td><td>0.120***<br>(0.011)</td><td>0.165***<br>(0.016)</td><td>0.159***<br>(0.037)</td><td>0.095***<br>(0.019)</td><td>0.119***<br>(0.022)</td><td>0.165***<br>(0.025)</td><td>0.123***<br>(0.021)</td><td>0.119***<br>(0.012)</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>2.856</td><td>0.901</td><td>1.001</td><td>0.382</td><td>0.712</td><td>1.709</td><td>0.737</td><td>1.033</td><td>1.823</td><td>1.495</td><td>0.418</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td></tr><tr><td>F-stat, excluded instrument</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td><td>25.47</td></tr><tr><td>Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW FEs</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Controls</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table presents the estimation of the effect of the absence of internet outage (the reduced form), as well as the log of all conflict-related tweets in the conflict zone (estimated using 2SLS and OLS), on the emotional intensity of TV conflict news, for 8 emotions individually. The unit of observation is a day × TV network, and all estimates are based on the subsample of day × TV network observations with conflict coverage. The dependent variables are scores based on the revised NRC Emotion Lexicon (Mohammad, 2018) by Zad et al. (2021), corresponding to specific emotions: negative emotions—namely, all of them (column 1), anger (column 2), fear (column 3), disgust (column 4), and sadness (column 5); positive emotions—namely, all of them (column 6), joy (column 7) and trust (column 8); and neutral emotions—namely, all of them (column 9), anticipation (column 10) and surprise (column 11). “Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each TV network, each calendar year, each month of the year, and each day of the week. All specifications include the following controls: dummies for Palestinian fatality incidence, Israeli fatality incidence, and the Gaza war; the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day t; U.S. domestic news pressure; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection (collectively referred to as “Controls”). Standard errors are clustered at the date level and reported in parentheses. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A18:** Conflict-zone internet outages and similarity of U.S. conflict news across outlets: heterogeneity</caption><thead><tr><th rowspan="3">Dependent variable:</th><th colspan="3">Similarity of conflict-related stories across:</th></tr><tr><th>U.S. cable TV</th><th colspan="2">US TV</th></tr><tr><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>Reduced Form:</strong></td></tr><tr><td>No internet outage, conflict zone</td><td>0.045***<br>(0.015)</td><td>0.023**<br>(0.009)</td><td>0.021**<br>(0.009)</td></tr><tr><td>... × liberal-liberal dyad</td><td>-0.024<br>(0.021)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>... × ideology diff below median</td><td></td><td>-0.005<br>(0.009)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>... × slant diff below median</td><td></td><td></td><td>-0.001<br>(0.009)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>IV:</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>0.202**<br>(0.089)</td><td>0.084**<br>(0.037)</td><td>0.082**<br>(0.040)</td></tr><tr><td>... × liberal-liberal dyad</td><td>[0.104,0.397]*<br>-0.088<br>(0.121)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>... × ideology diff below median</td><td>-0.419,0.111]</td><td>-0.006<br>(0.032)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>... × slant diff below median</td><td></td><td></td><td>-0.001<br>(0.031)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><strong>OLS:</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td><td>-0.020**<br>(0.009)</td><td>0.012**<br>(0.005)</td><td>0.011**<br>(0.005)</td></tr><tr><td>... × liberal-liberal dyad</td><td>0.006<br>(0.009)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>... × ideology diff below median</td><td></td><td>0.000<br>(0.004)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>... × slant diff below median</td><td></td><td></td><td>0.002<br>(0.003)</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>0.231</td><td>0.214</td><td>0.214</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>3362</td><td>16202</td><td>16202</td></tr><tr><td>F-stat, excluded instrument</td><td>17.71</td><td>34.73</td><td>28.86</td></tr><tr><td>F-stat, excluded instrument with interaction</td><td>5.03</td><td>12.41</td><td>13.17</td></tr><tr><td>Network dyad-, Year-, MoY-, DoW FEs</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Controls</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** The table presents the estimation of the effect of the absence of internet outage (the reduced form), as well as the log of all conflict-related tweets in the conflict zone (estimated using 2SLS and OLS), on the similarity in TV conflict news. The unit of observation is day × TV network pair, and all estimates are based on the subsample of day × TV network pairs with conflict coverage. The dependent variables are similarity scores attributed to the conflict-related content of a TV network pair on a given day, calculated for specific sets of TV network pairs: U.S. cable TV—namely, all pairs among CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC (column 1)—and all U.S. TV network pairs, which include all pairs among ABC, Bloomberg, CBS, CNN, Fox News, MSNBC, NBC, and PBS (columns 2 and 3). The main explanatory variable is interacted with three dummies: (i) a dummy set to 1 if both TV networks in the pair are liberal networks (CNN and MSNBC), (ii) a dummy set to 1 if the difference in ideology (liberal-conservative, as defined in Figure A11) is below the median, and (iii) a dummy set to 1 if the difference in slant (measured on a scale from very pro-Israeli to very pro-Palestinian) is below the median. “Network dyad-, Year-, MoY-, DoW- FEs” denotes fixed effects for each TV network pair, each calendar year, each month of the year, and each day of the week. All specifications include the following controls: dummies for Palestinian fatality incidence, Israeli fatality incidence, and the Gaza war; the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation of the total number of casualties on each side of the conflict during the 28 days prior to day t; U.S. domestic news pressure; a dummy for other conflicts involving Israel; a dummy for days with rain; rain and wind intensity; and a dummy for the second wave of Twitter data collection (collectively referred to as “Controls”). Standard errors are clustered at the date level and reported in parentheses. Weak instrument robust confidence set (90%) from the linear combination test (Sun, 2018) presented in brackets (in column 1 of the IV panel). *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
<table><caption>**Table A19:** Conflict-zone internet outages and extent of coverage, mentions of civilians, slant in U.S. TV conflict news, as well as online engagement with U.S. TV content: allowing for serial correlation across U.S. TV networks</caption><thead><tr><th>Dependent variable:</th><th colspan="3">Length in minutes<br>IHS<br>on U.S. TV</th><th colspan="3">Mentions of civilians<br>on U.S. TV</th><th colspan="3">Online engagement with<br>U.S. TV content:<br>Likes in top 20%</th><th colspan="3">Pro-Palestinian slant<br>dummy<br>on U.S. TV</th></tr><tr><th>Replication of specification:</th><th colspan="3">Table 3, column 4</th><th colspan="3">Table 5, column 1</th><th colspan="3">Table 9, column 4</th><th colspan="3">Table 4, column 4</th></tr><tr><th>Estimation model:</th><th colspan="3">Linear instead of PPML</th><th colspan="3">Linear</th><th colspan="3">Linear</th><th colspan="3">Linear</th></tr><tr><th>Assumption of correlation across networks and days ±:</th><th>1 day</th><th>3 days</th><th>7 days</th><th>1 day</th><th>3 days</th><th>7 days</th><th>1 day</th><th>3 days</th><th>7 days</th><th>1 day</th><th>3 days</th><th>7 days</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>(1)</th><th>(2)</th><th>(3)</th><th>(4)</th><th>(5)</th><th>(6)</th><th>(7)</th><th>(8)</th><th>(9)</th><th>(10)</th><th>(11)</th><th>(12)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">Reduced Form:</td></tr><tr><td>No internet outage, conflict zone</td><td>0.137**<br>[0.018]</td><td>0.137**<br>[0.027]</td><td>0.137**<br>[0.034]</td><td>0.267**<br>[0.028]</td><td>0.267**<br>[0.028]</td><td>0.267**<br>[0.027]</td><td>0.040*<br>[0.075]</td><td>0.040*<br>[0.068]</td><td>0.040*<br>[0.068]</td><td>-0.042<br>[0.122]</td><td>-0.042<br>[0.136]</td><td>-0.042<br>[0.151]</td></tr><tr><td>... × PS fatality incidence</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>0.100**<br>[0.039]</td><td>0.100**<br>[0.040]</td><td>0.100**<br>[0.038]</td></tr><tr><td>... × IL fatality incidence</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>-0.188*<br>[0.063]</td><td>-0.188*<br>[0.066]</td><td>-0.188*<br>[0.070]</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">First-stage:</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align: left; font-weight: bold;">Post-estimation tests for first-stage specification, with dependent variable:</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align: left; font-weight: bold;">(1) Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone</td></tr><tr><td>F-stat (Columns 1-9); χ²-stat (Columns 10-12)</td><td>21.35</td><td>15.45</td><td>10.72</td><td>21.71</td><td>17.45</td><td>13.88</td><td>12.02</td><td>9.08</td><td>7.28</td><td>35.26</td><td>29.53</td><td>23.94</td></tr><tr><td>p-value of joint significance of excluded instruments</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.001]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.002]</td><td>[0.006]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align: left; font-weight: bold;">(2) Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone × PS fatality incidence</td></tr><tr><td>χ²-stat</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>33.38</td><td>30.85</td><td>28.07</td></tr><tr><td>p-value of joint significance of excluded instruments</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td></tr><tr><td colspan="14" style="text-align: left; font-weight: bold;">(3) Log(Conflict tweets), conflict zone × IL fatality incidence</td></tr><tr><td>χ²-stat</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>23.66</td><td>23.15</td><td>21.70</td></tr><tr><td>p-value of joint significance of excluded instruments</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td><td>[0.000]</td></tr><tr><td>Mean dep. var.</td><td>0.833</td><td>0.833</td><td>0.833</td><td>3.290</td><td>3.290</td><td>3.290</td><td>0.200</td><td>0.200</td><td>0.200</td><td>3.164</td><td>3.164</td><td>3.164</td></tr><tr><td>Observations</td><td>27596</td><td>27596</td><td>27596</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>2614</td><td>2614</td><td>2614</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td><td>5854</td></tr><tr><td>Network-, Year-, MoY-, DoW FEs and Controls</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table>

**Note:** This table presents the results of estimations testing the robustness of our main results to alternative assumptions about the variance-covariance matrix. We re-calculate standard errors under the assumption that, in addition to correlation across different TV networks, there is also serial correlation over a moving time window, i.e., error terms on a given date are correlated with those from the days before and after. We consider three windows: ±1 day (columns 1, 4, 7, and 10), ±3 days (columns 2, 5, 8, and 11), and ±7 days (columns 3, 6, 9, and 12). The table presents reduced-form estimates as well as first-stage post-estimation tests, for specification with the following dependent variables: (i) total length (in minutes) of conflict-related news (columns 1-3); (ii) the number of keywords related to the Civilians topic, divided by total word count and multiplied by 1,000 (columns 4-6); (iii) a dummy indicating whether the number of likes on Facebook posts about TV conflict news falls within the top 20% of the in-sample distribution (columns 7-19); and (iv) a “Pro-Palestinian slant” dummy, indicating whether the slant score of U.S. TV conflict coverage exceeds 0.1 (columns 10-12). The unit of observation is a day × TV network. Estimates are based on the full sample (columns 1-3), the subsample of day × TV network observations with conflict coverage (columns 4-6 and 10-12) and the subsample with at least one Facebook post related to the conflict zone (columns 7-9). Specifications match those referenced in “Replication of specification:” except for two differences: (1) standard errors are computed differently, and (2) in columns 1-3, we use a linear model instead of PPML and apply the inverse hyperbolic sine transformation to the dependent variable, as standard errors cannot be computed under the serial correlation assumption with PPML.
## B Keywords in CorEx topics

In this section, we present: (a) keyword lists in Table A20 and corresponding word clouds in Figure A13 for CorEx topics that are affected by internet outages in the conflict zone; (b) keyword lists for interpretable CorEx topics that are unaffected by internet outages, shown in Table A21; (c) keyword lists for CorEx topics that we were unable to interpret in Table A22, and (d) summary statistics for the main CorEx variables used in the analysis in Table A23.

<table><caption>**Table A20:** List of the main CorEx topics and top 20 keywords</caption><thead><tr><th>Topic label:</th><th>Top 20 keywords:</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Topics affected positively</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Civilian casualties and family</td><td>family; home; hospital; body; hour; mother; school; scene;<br>woman; video; death; investigator; injury; father; murder;<br>parent; neighborhood; news; investigation; daughter</td></tr><tr><td>Identity, culture, antisemitism</td><td>history; reality; language; jewish; religion; holocaust; antisemitism;<br>jews; zionism; existence; culture; homeland; audience; hate;<br>voice; palestinian author; represent; character; faith; writer</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><strong>Topics jointly affected negatively</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Middle East negotiations and UN leadership</td><td>administration; issue; policy; peace process; iran; relationship;<br>negotiation; talk; question; fact; solution; position; president; term;<br>interest; speech; united nation; middle east; view; leadership</td></tr><tr><td>Intelligence and security</td><td>intelligence; house; weapon; ambassador; secretary state; hill;<br>committee; information; capitol; david; petraeus; director;<br>department; capability; press; benghazi; option; washington post;<br>washington; chairman</td></tr><tr><td>Israeli-Palestinian conflict and peace deals</td><td>prime minister; agreement; deal; security; region; benjamin net<br>east jerusalem; israeli settlement; meeting; syria; meet; jordan; status;<br>threat; mahmoud abbas; progress; future; reach; hope; discuss</td></tr><tr><td>Arab revolutions and regional political stability</td><td>arab; regime; democracy; revolution; influence; hezbollah; terrorism;<br>program; spring; saudi arabia; freedom; stability; treaty; mubarak;<br>sponsor; tunisia; gulf; dialogue; hussein; institution</td></tr><tr><td>Egyptian politics and Muslim brotherhood</td><td>muslim brotherhood; egypt; morsi; foundation; stowe; freeman;<br>hosni mubarak; honolulu; vermont; presentation; macarthur; kcet;<br>range; islamist; sinai; catherine; tahrir; union; kovler; democratization</td></tr><tr><td>Geopolitics and conflicts involving Israel</td><td>fighter; army; israeli force; group; rebel; report; prison; control; month;<br>court; sentence; release; ministry; journalist;<br>bashar al assad; jail; faction; prisoner; bashar assad; hold</td></tr></tbody></table>

<footnote>Note: The table displays the list of top 20 keywords for the CorEx topics positively and jointly negatively affected by the absence of an internet outage. We use an unsupervised CorEx model and set the total number of topics to 50.</footnote>
<caption>Figure A13: Word clouds of the main CorEx topics</caption>

Panel A: topics affected positively

<figure><img src="image_25.png" /></figure>

Panel B: topics jointly affected negatively

<figure><img src="image_26.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_27.png" /></figure>

<figure><img src="image_28.png" /></figure>

Note: The figure displays word clouds for the CorEx topics positively and jointly negatively affected by the absence of an internet outage. We use an unsupervised CorEx model and set the total number of topics to 50. Each word cloud includes up to 1,000 of the most prominent keywords (including 2-grams and 3-grams), with keyword size proportional to its probability within the topic. The arrangement of keywords in the cloud is random and carries no additional meaning.
<table><caption>Table A21: List of unaffected CorEx topics and top 20 keywords</caption><thead><tr><th>Topic label:</th><th>Top 20 keywords:</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Occupied territories</td><td>government; west Jerusalem; occupation; opposition; international community; occupy; west bank; refugee; occupied territory; parliament; movement; coalition; rule; palestine; demand; settler; part; authority; camp; ramallah</td></tr><tr><td>Attacks in Israel and Palestine</td><td>rocket; hamas; cease fire; missile; tunnel; target; casualty; ground; gaza strip; truce; launch; operation; death toll; iron dome; shelter; plane; tank; flight; invasion; destroy</td></tr><tr><td>Conflict and operations</td><td>attack; border; defense force; troop; child; violence; fight; bomb; soldier; cross; battle; begin; claim; drone; accord; fear; facility; blame; commander; spokesman</td></tr><tr><td>Conflict and aggression</td><td>conflict; situation; destruction; continue; responsibility; development; activity; aggression; cabinet; prepare; danger; circumstance; viewer; restraint; exchange; assassination; reporting; intensity; force; noise</td></tr><tr><td>Police violence and civil clashes</td><td>police; kill; shoot; city; officer; injure; year old; area; arrest; year; fire; mosque; town; teenager; victim; street; attacker; bullet; incident; clash</td></tr><tr><td>Protests and political activism</td><td>al jAZEERA; protest; donald trump; capital; protester; province; demonstration; percent; corruption; ministration; doha; village; trumpet; fence; demonstrator; activist; south korea; summit; john kerry; decker</td></tr><tr><td>Death of political leaders</td><td>arafat; yasser; sharon; rabin; ariel; shimon; yitzhak; poison; polonium; prize; assassin; mossad; coma; menachem; transfix; dubai; thickness; ronen; predent; yassar</td></tr><tr><td>Economy and financial markets</td><td>economy; market; business; money; dollar; growth; stock; investor; company; rate; investment; price; debt; cost; revenue; fund; unemployment; taxis; budget; spending</td></tr><tr><td>Global trade and sovereignty</td><td>form; century; decade; medium; russia; challenge; division; announce; sovereignty; qatar; golan; trade; china; unity; project; minority; implement; withdrawal; kingdom; riyadh</td></tr><tr><td>Aid and crisis</td><td>food; water; supply; electricity; blockade; aid; world health organization; organization; plant; crisis; agency; import; shortage; health; boat; restriction; fuel; industry; ship; access</td></tr><tr><td>Elections</td><td>election; party; vote; voter; candidate; campaign; poll; support; country; majority; leader; decision; office; supporter; promise; victory; seat; politician; favor; ballot</td></tr><tr><td>U.S. politics I</td><td>senator; congress; senate; congressman; bill clinton; obama; george bush; speaker; john mccain; debate; democrat; john boehmer; clinton; nomination; race; newt; paul; lindsey graham; caucus; ted cruz</td></tr><tr><td>U.S. politics II</td><td>mitt romney; governor; today; rick; new york; wolf; blitzer; perry; folk; chris; sound; alert; leland; okay; raiser; hampshire; iowa; santorum; vittert; sarah palin</td></tr><tr><td>US traffic and accidents</td><td>county; san francisco; california; traffic; driver; weekend; oakland; philadelphia; lane; park; jose; foot; crew; firefighter; camera; new jersey; accident; mile; check; santa</td></tr><tr><td>Religion and Holy sites</td><td>church; holy; muslim; pope francis; christianity; jesus; roman; bethlehem; judaism; nativity; jesus christ; christmas; mark; heritage; celebrate; celebration; bishop; prophet; manger; tourist</td></tr><tr><td>Weather and natural disasters</td><td>weather; rain; temperature; storm; wind; cloud; forecast; shower; degree; thunderstorm; coast; sunshine; meteorologist; humidity; flood; celsius; rainfall; hurricane; moisture; flooding</td></tr><tr><td>Advertising</td><td>announcer; insurance; male; taste; geico; card; network; comcast; technology; heartburn; wifi; brand; internet; switch; love; customer; liberty; seltzer; click; nutrition</td></tr><tr><td>Medical treatments and diseases</td><td>doctor; symptom; blood; infection; disease; treatment; cancer; medication; medicine; tuberculosis; kidney; patient; prescription; treat; hepatitis; liver; nausea; sore; inflammation; skin</td></tr><tr><td>Pain relief and health conditions</td><td>pain; relief; headache; stomach; muscle; pill; arthritis; constipation; throat; diarrhea; erection; protein; allergy; aspirin; decrease; ache; cialis; ingredient; gram; tylenol</td></tr><tr><td>Cooking and cuisine</td><td>cook; onion; pomegranate; marinate; zucchini; skewer; watermelon; mazel; depopulate; knead; cuisine; contravention; ethnicity; pulp; falafel; duwan; provence; speciality; liberate; familiarity</td></tr><tr><td>Legal issues and social media</td><td>attorney; tweet; name; lawyer; university; boycott; student; charge; twitter; film; omar; social media; judge; college; counsel; visit; racism; facebook; trump; star</td></tr><tr><td>Sports and championships</td><td>football; game; player; sport; team; championship; coach; match; league; tournament; baseball; stadium; champion; title; soccer; basketball; club; teammate; score; tennis</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: The table displays the list of top 20 keywords for the CorEx topics unaffected by the absence of an internet outage. We use an unsupervised CorEx model and set the total number of topics to 50.
<table><caption>**Table A22:** List of vague CorEx topics and top 20 keywords</caption><thead><tr><th>Topic label:</th><th>Top 20 keywords:</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Vague topic 1</td><td>cause; system; stop; condition; break; head; turn; cover; road; picture; loss; block; door; summer; lift; blow; pull; field; track; spread</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 2</td><td>call; action; member; response; official; week; concern; respond; correspondent; plan; sign; evidence; detail; source; describe; chief; condemn; confirm; conduct; indication</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 3</td><td>course; effort; pressure; step; move; statement; time; push; focus; broker; analyst; consequence; engage; proposal; leverage; reject; diplomat; frustration; momentum; exercise</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 4</td><td>moment; number; bring; hear; happen; event; couple; room; wait; coverage; well; count; front; raise; size; surprise; past; hell; heard; fashion</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 5</td><td>order; lead; result; face; maintain; gain; manage; zionist; professor; emerge; date; structure; manner; grant; participate; immunity; sheer; consolidate; repercussion; grip</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 6</td><td>case; base; commit; message; declaration; newspaper; account; conclusion; request; editor; deliver; knowledge; violate; limit; behalf; colleague; conclude; presumption; briefly; provision</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 7</td><td>world; become; amount; infrastructure; impact; television; draw; health care; feeling; sacrifice; producer; fault; mentality; receive; strife; sustain; disproportionate; monopoly; bread; propose</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 8</td><td>lifelock; identity; theft; shredder; promo; thief; radio; steal; layer; channel; montage; biography; code; humane; garden; haspel; alternate; theme; foil; commonality</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 9</td><td>idea; create; difference; understand; matter; book; america; look; value; respect; argument; answer; notion; choice; truth; charlie; enemy; pleasure; share; piece</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 10</td><td>judy woodruff; ifill; broadcasting; hari; warner; corporation; gwe;n sreenivasan; suarez; lehrer; kwame; holman; translate; brown; margaret; makovsky; bnsf; macneil; wnet; literacy</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 11</td><td>cola; coca; benn; aluf; airstrip; presint; heathrow; peoe; pple; wink; nuremberg; inhe; aretz; dynamite; coke; plfp; wahlalalallalla; indescribable; dictor; israis</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 12</td><td>woodruff; sparkly; ajami; fouad; amos; castle; dhaliwal; daljit; refund; abrupt; carriage; operative; worldfocus; prerequisite; sari; yadlin; scuba; dara; tamara; shockwave</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 13</td><td>lexi; plate; miracle; choctaw; medallion; ancestry; insulation; dvds; henchman; adjudicate; cellblock; meister; poetry; neck; paige; rimonim; vibrate; crap; encounter; hamlet</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 14</td><td>entebbe; emphasis; passivity; minter; competent; vacate; alder; funder; chassis; publicity; opec; curity; daditude; sword; impress; jubilation; freud; somef; ssword; wiwfii</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 15</td><td>isrl; pekoe; churchill; stat; gaster; lloyd; psychs; sokolow; ther; winston; secuty; gion; presidt; showpiece; peasant; pretension; chemist; theye; asquith; therab</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 16</td><td>side; problem; sense; help; need; effect; work; heart; join; risk; feel; line; vision; goal; chance; possibility; israel; increase; difficulty; context</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 17</td><td>word; conversation; friend; experience; mind; reaction; interview; ability; guess; quote; medicare; supplement; aarp; appreciate; care; right; trip; stuff; mistake; guide</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 18</td><td>reason; change; power; example; society; opinion; period; self; direction; trust; balance; legitimacy; capacity; guarantee; determination; confidence; figure; decide; instance; define</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 19</td><td>life; population; place; land; story; generation; return; center; dream; brother; neighbor; journey; grow; bear; image; travel; citizen; humanity; study; walk</td></tr><tr><td>Vague topic 20</td><td>cuban; havana; cuba; castro; riddle; fidel; romanticism; vanguard; industrialist; kosher; eloquent; bazooka; drugstore; sharm; jackal; martinez; squander; bavaria; pendulum; raul</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: The table displays the list of top 20 keywords for the “vague” CorEx topics. We use an unsupervised CorEx model and set the total number of topics to 50.
<table><caption>Table A23: Summary statistics: topics measured with CorEx</caption><thead><tr><th></th><th>Observations<br>(Network Pair<br>× Day)</th><th>Mean</th><th>Standard<br>deviation</th><th>Median</th><th>Min</th><th>Max</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="7"><strong>The dummy indicating a mention of the following topic on U.S. TV:</strong></td></tr><tr><td>Civilian casualties and family</td><td>5854</td><td>0.22</td><td>0.42</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>1.00</td></tr><tr><td>Identity, culture, antisemitism</td><td>5854</td><td>0.55</td><td>0.50</td><td>1.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>1.00</td></tr><tr><td>International relations and diplomacy</td><td>5854</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.34</td><td>0.00</td><td>0.00</td><td>1.00</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: The table presents summary statistics for variables measuring the mention of topics in conflict-related stories broadcast by U.S. TV networks. The unit of observation is day × TV network. Topics are identified using an unsupervised CorEx model with 50 topics. The variables are binary indicators for the presence of the topics “civilian casualties and family,” “identity, culture, and antisemitism,” and “international relations and diplomacy.” Each indicator is set to 1 if the average probability of the corresponding topic appearing in conflict-related stories broadcast by a given TV network on a given day exceeds 0.5. For “international relations and diplomacy,” which encompasses six related topics, we calculate the average probability of those six topics appearing in the network’s stories on that day and set the indicator to 1 if the average exceeds 0.5.