# A comprehensive review on the study of wines and their clinical effect on human health

Abhishek Bisht, Sury Pratap Singh

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Abhishek Bisht, Sury Pratap Singh. A comprehensive review on the study of wines and their clinical effect on human health. Archives of Ecotoxicology, 2024, 6 (2), pp.42-56. 10.36547/ae.2024.6.2.42-56. hal-04946850

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# A comprehensive review on the study of wines and their clinical effect on human health

Abhishek Bisht* and Sury Pratap Singh

Department of Food Technology, School of Allied Sciences, Dev Bhoomi Uttarakhand University, Navgaon, Manduwala, Chakrata Road, Dehradun - 248007, Uttarakhand, India

**Article info**

Received 8 March 2024
Revised 20 July 2024
Accepted 25 July 2024
Published online 3 October 2024

Review

**Keywords:**

Wine,
Anthocyanins,
Melatonin,
Carcinogen,
Potential risk

**Abstract**

In recent years, the world of wine has transcended its mere existence as a beverage, transforming into a veritable cornerstone of the global economy. It has, unequivocally, solidified its position as a pivotal player within the industry, and this ascent can be attributed to the enigmatic and multifaceted characteristics it embodies, primarily its unique aroma and flavor profiles that have captivated palates worldwide. Within the enchanting realm of viticulture and oenology, it has been revealed through recent studies that there exists a staggering array of over 10,000 distinct wine grape varieties across the globe, each with its distinctive attributes and potential for crafting exceptional wines. Among the myriad factors that influence the delicate art of winemaking, the process of bottling stands as a critical juncture, a pivotal moment that wields immense power over the ultimate quality, stability, and aging potential of a wine. Due to its polyphenolic components, moderate wine consumption, particularly red wine, can offer a range of health benefits. It has the potential to reduce the likelihood of various cancers, and improve lipid metabolism, insulin sensitivity, and cardiovascular well-being. Nevertheless, excessive alcohol intake, even in the form of wine, can lead to adverse health consequences, including an increased cancer risk and other alcohol-related problems. Individuals should practice moderation when consuming wine, considering both its positive and negative aspects and their individual health circumstances. "This comprehensive review paper endeavours to illuminate the profound significance of wine-making in the modern era with the pros and cons of consuming wine.

**1. Introduction**

The name "wine" traces back to the Proto-Germanic term "Winam," an early adaptation of the Latin "Vinum" meaning "vine" (Johnson, 1989). Wine is one of the oldest fermented products which is a fruit product. Wine is made from fermented grapes or other fruits like peaches, cherries, apples and bananas by the action of yeast on sugar. The traces of the consumption of wine can be seen 7,000 years ago by the Egyptians. The French Paradox, a 1992 study linking moderate wine consumption to lower heart disease risk in France, significantly boosted public interest in the potential health advantages of wine (Facco, 2007). Historical records show that wine was used as a medicinal property in ancient times by Romans, Greeks, Egyptians, and Hindu peoples (Johnson, 1989). The wine has its unique aroma and flavour which contribute to the overall taste sensation. Also, wine fragrance blends can be categorized based, on their source, alcoholic fermentation, and aging conditions with the storage temperature of wines (Polaskova et al., 2008).

Studies from throughout the world demonstrate that moderate wine consumption benefits human health (Tomera, 1999). Despite being a fermented product wine has therapeutic properties such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer and reduces cardiovascular diseases in the human body. Wine salts are a complex mixture of mineral and organic compounds, containing

both (-ve) charged ions (anions) like sulfate, phosphate, and chloride, and (+ve) charged ions (cations) like iron, copper, calcium, sodium, potassium, and aluminium (Vogt et al., 1989). The alcoholic content of wine is usually expressed as volume percent. Based on this wine can be classified into three categories such as light wine which contain (7-9%) volume strength, medium wine contains (9-16%) volume strength and 16-21% considered strong wine.

Wines are made in many nations and areas using various grape varieties, climates, and soils to create various wine mixes (Velikova et al., 2015). There are many more characteristics of wine, both external and internal (Bruwer and Buller, 2012). The packaging, vintage style, brand name, capacity to age, the attractiveness of the label, pricing region, grape type, and winemaker are some examples of extrinsic signals that are not inherent to the product itself in the case of wine (Chaters and Pettigrew, 2007).

Grapes, rich in nutrients and with antiviral, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties, can be eaten fresh or dried (Salma Akbar Bagwan et al., 2022). Grapes grown in warmer regions generally have lower acidity, especially in terms of malic acid, contrast to those grown in colder regions. The presence of these acids is crucial for transforming grape juice into wine, enhancing its maturity over time, and shaping its unique taste profile. Tartaric acid is notably stronger than malic acid. Acetaldehyde,
a key intermediate in alcoholic fermentation, is the most significant aldehyde found in wine. Its accumulation negatively impacts the quality of table wines, but its presence in significant amounts in sherry is considered normal. When acetaldehyde levels exceed 100 mg per liter, table wines tend to have a flat or oxidized taste, whereas levels of 200 to 300 mg are typical. Wines contain various enzymes beyond those associated with yeast cells and alcoholic fermentation, including polyphenols oxidase, catalase, esterase, and invertase, pectolytic, and protolytic enzymes. Among these, polyphenols oxidase is possibly the most important, as it triggers the oxidation of polyphenols, which is the primary reaction when grape juices are exposed to the air. The aroma of wines is of utmost significance for their quality. Specific grape varieties, such as muscats, contribute distinctive scents to the wine, likely due to specific compounds or compound groups. For instance, the Concord flavor in certain grape varieties grown in the U.S.A east is believed to originate primarily from methyl anthranilate.

<table><caption>**Table 1** The 2005 global wine production industry's overall energy used</caption><thead><tr><td>Category</td><td>Winegrowing (Gigajoule)</td><td>Vineyard (Gigajoule)</td><td>Winery (Gigajoule)</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Electricity</td><td>35,782,820</td><td>13,851,850</td><td>21,930,970</td></tr><tr><td>Stationary</td><td>10,524,360</td><td>1,900</td><td>10,522,460</td></tr><tr><td>Site Transport</td><td>58,936,420</td><td>28,878,850</td><td>30,057,570</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>105,243,600</td><td>42,732,600</td><td>62,511,000</td></tr></tbody></table>

Source: Smyth *et al.*, 2009

## 2. Process of making wine

From grape juice to finished wine, is a multi-stage process done scientifically and historically. Both the conversion of sugars into alcohol through fermentation and the extraction of flavor compounds from grape skins during maceration significantly contribute to the sensory attributes of the finished wine (El Haloui *et al.*, 1989).

<figure><img src="image_3.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 1** Process of making wine and sewage</figcaption></figure>

### 2.1 Harvesting

Numerous biochemical reactions occur at various speeds and are state-specific during grape ripening (Zamboni *et al.*, 2010). As a result, the compound makeup of fruits used to make wine may be determined throughout time. At a certain stage of grape growth, grape derived chemicals that may have an effect on the chemistry and sensual qualities of wine may be in a condition of rising, declining, or remaining constant. Consequently, choosing a harvest date for commercial winemaking necessities taking numerous aspects into account. Pinpointing the ideal harvest time for "perfectly ripe" grapes hinges on understanding how their composition impacts the desired wine style. This means carefully considering the grape variety, the land's lay, the prevailing temperature, the seasonal weather patterns, and the unique traits of the specific vineyard. Traditionally, assessing grape ripeness involved measuring the sugar content in the

juice. This, however, is an administrative undertaking. Instead, monitoring other parameters like titratable acid levels can offer indirect but efficient ways to predict the increase in grape sugar or decrease in acidity, thereby indicating maturity (Jackson and Lombard, 1992).

The fluctuations in the chemical and mechanical makeup of berries from year to year, as well as their final consumer qualities, are influenced by temperature, precipitation, and sun radiation (Failla *et al.*, 2004). Kelvin is thought to be the primary factor restrains agricultural advancement in Russia. It is commonly known that grapes need a certain range of temperatures to grow well. Since the conclusion of the grapes' vegetative phase is 10 degrees Celsius, the hottest month's average temperature should be at a minimum of 16 degrees Celsius, the highest temperature should not exceed 35°C or 40°C, and winter temperature should be greater than 15°C - 20°C for exposed farming, and beyond 35°C with the normal precautions due to the cold (Foroni *et al.*, 2017). Also when the temperatures are greater during ripening, the quality of wine the wine is higher; when it is wet the quality is lower (Jones, 2012).

Harvesting of grapes can be done by mechanical process or by manually. Grapes used to make wine have traditionally only been picked by hand. Vineyards have been harvesting wine grapes mechanically more often since the early 1970s. Today, winegrowing is using this production process more frequently, as seen by less expensive hand harvesting, while maintaining the integrity of the final product (Galletto and Barisan, 2007; Pezzi and Martelli, 2015; Sarri *et al.*, 2015). Also when the fruit is mechanically picked and transported across great distances, the resulting juices contain more protein than those produced by plucked-hand fruit (Pocock *et al.*, 1998). It is generally accepted that the mechanical harvesting process, with all the damage it causes, and the maceration of berry peels and solids that occurs during transportation, cause a greater extraction of proteins that cause haze in the juice than when these tissues are crushed in freshly harvested fruits (Pocock *et al.*, 1998). Therefore it can be assumed that wines prepared from these juices would need more bentonite and have a greater protein content achieving protein stability by fining rates (Paetzold *et al.*, 1990). Although the use of machinery is the most popular harvesting technique at the moment, some wines from different nations ( such as Italy, Argentina, California, New Zealand, and France) are now claiming to be "hand-harvested" or "harvested by hand," notify this procedure of production at the packaging (Messer *et al.*, 2017).

<figure><img src="image_4.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 2** Country wise percentage of mechanical harvesting of grapes used for wine production (Source: Dokoozlian, 2013; Sarri *et al.*, 2016; Melotti *et al.*, 2009)</figcaption></figure>
## 2.2 Crushing and pressing

The process of taking out phenolic compounds from juice using a variety of methods is an important factor in determining the wine's sensory qualities, especially its hue, and astringency. The process for the extraction of phenolic substances and other essential elements is evolving as enology procedures like as pre-fermentation; cold fermentation, warm fermentation, and hydraulic press are developed (Gil et al., 2012; Şener and Yildirim, 2013). When the extraction of phenolic compounds from grapes is insufficient winemakers add the tannins to improve the quality of wine (Soares et al., 2017). While this is going on, it is crucial to avoid over treating the skins of grapes and seeds since doing so might cause a large amount of phenolic chemicals, which would change the taste of the wine. Procedures for harvesting, moving receiving, and pressing grapes all have a significant impact on the components of the wine and, consequently, the final wine's flavor (Freund and Christmann, 2010). Grape skin ripping and seed breakage occurred during destemming, smashing and pressing, and the conveyance of must through pipelines if high mechanical stress was used. This resulted in more phenolic compounds being extracted as well as the release of unfavorable flavor compounds (Scollary, 2016).

## 2.3 Fermentation

Wine is created through the process of alcoholic fermentation (AF), where tiny yeast munch on grape sugars, transforming them into the bubbly magic of ethanol and carbon dioxide. This fermentation also leads to various chemical alterations due to the metabolic actions of the yeast. As a result of these processes, a significant portion of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are released, playing an important factor in shaping the flavor of the wine (Belda et al., 2017). *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* plays a prominent role in carrying out alcoholic fermentation during the wine-making process (Tufariello et al., 2019). Various yeast species and/or strains can interact with one another throughout wine fermentation because of the without sterilization surroundings, the creation of hazardous chemicals, or competing for resources.

The primary illustration of suppressive interactions involving harmful metabolites is observed in the synthesis of ethanol by *S. cerevisiae*. The predominance of *S. cerevisiae* over non-Saccharomyces yeast species is largely credited to the selective influence exerted by substantial amounts of ethanol (Pretorius, 2000). In mixed wine fermentation, alongside ethanol, various other factors can exert significant selective pressure. Notably, the synthesis of medium-chain fatty acids and the accumulation of acetic acid in high quantities can detrimentally impact the growth of yeast species that are co-fermenting. *S. cerevisiae* interactions with several non-Saccharomyces species, like *Torulaspora delbrueckii*, *Hanseiaspora uvarum*, and *Kluyveromyces thermotolerans*; seem to involve direct cell-to-cell contact, suggesting something beyond just chemical factors plays a role (Arneborg et al., 2005). The impact of oxygen is another factor that determines the presence and quantity of yeast species during the fermentation process of wine. Lack of oxygen might be a major deciding factor when choosing blended yeast strains during the process of fermentation of grape juice. In fact, the reduced ability of *K. thermotolerans* and *T. delbrueckii* to thrive in low-oxygen environments might contribute to their competitiveness, ultimately leading to their swift decline when *S. cerevisiae* is present (Holm Hansen et al., 2001).

In order to ensure successful alcoholic fermentation, it is essential that the grape juice, known as must, possesses sufficient nitrogen compounds. These compounds are crucial for promoting the rapid multiplication of yeast at the start of fermentation and for encouraging yeast to produce a lot of

components that lead to the unique qualities of the wine. Any alterations in the nitrogen content and concentration must have the potential to influence the final wine's composition, either positively or negatively (Bell *et al.*, 2005). A low level of nitrogen compounds in the must can lead to reduced biomass production and, consequently, a slower fermentation process. This may be associated with incomplete fermentation and wines that exhibit lower concentrations of varietal aromas, often overshadowed by the presence of fermentation by-products (Ancin *et al.*, 1996). Conversely, elevated nitrogen content in grape juice may lead to wine exhibiting herbaceous scents or undesirable overpowering fragrances (Ribereau-Gayon *et al.*, 1975).

## 2.4 Clarification

Core objectives of clarification and fining in the wine production process encompass the elimination of excessive levels of specific wine components and achieving and maintaining clarity, particularly from a physicochemical perspective. In winemaking, the word "fining" is utilized to demonstrate the intentional introduction of an adsorbent substance, followed by the precipitation of wine's partly soluble ingredients. Even though the chemicals they target and the methods by which they are eliminated may differ, the materials utilized to achieve these goals are often referred to as fining agents. The decision to use these treatments is often influenced by the winemaking techniques used in addition to the qualities of the musts (Boulton *et al.*, 1999). For instance these fining reactions include:

* The process of wine proteins soaking onto clays such as bentonites.

* The reduction of monomeric and little polymeric phenols with polyamide substances like polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP, also known as Polyclar AT) and nylon.

* The removal of unwanted fumes through the application of copper sulfate or alternative methods.

* The sieving effect of other gelatinous materials to eliminate fine colloidal particles and early-stage precipitates (Bauer *et al.*, 1972).

## 2.5 Ageing and bottling

The process of wine maturation in barrels is a widely employed technique in winemaking, with a history spanning over two millennia, as noted by Jackson in 1994. Oak wood has been the primary material used for crafting wine barrels. The primary oak species employed for this purpose include *Quercus Alba* sourced from North America, as well as *Q. robur* (also known as *Q. pedunculata*) and *Q. sessilis* (alternatively known as *Q. petraea* or *Q. sessiliflora*) from France. Oak barrels provide dual benefits to wines. Firstly, they aid in the transmission of aromatic components and phenolic substances related to astringency that comes from oak throughout age. Secondly, the permeation of atmospheric oxygen through the barrel walls enables gentle oxidation of specific compounds, resulting in a decrease of pungency and alterations in color (Bozalongo *et al.*, 2007). Various investigations have explored the method of storing wine in barrels made of wood yielding several noteworthy findings. To begin with, the type of oak wood and its geographic source significantly influence variations in oak composition and the rate at which oxygen permeates the barrel. For instance, American oak tends to contain a higher concentration of cis-lactone, a compound of considerable sensory importance, when compared to French oak (Sauvageot and Feuillat, 1999).

Compared to wines matured in French oak, those aged in American oak barrels often have a greater percentage of cis and
trans-lactones. The different qualities of wood might be connected to this. Because French oak has a larger porosity, more oxygen may naturally enter the barrels, which may have an impact on how these chemicals develop (Nevares and Alamo, 2008). Furthermore, the process of wood maturity and toasting in cooperage is essential to create top-notch barrels suitable for aging wine. Seasoning serves the dual purpose of reducing excess moisture in the wood to align it with the surrounding humidity levels and enhancing wood maturation. Consequently, this leads to a decrease in bitterness and astringency while boosting aromatic qualities, all of which are crucial for producing high-quality wine barrels (Simon *et al.*, 2010). Furthermore, three significant, insoluble polymers make up the majority of oak wood: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Moreover, it contains a wide range of compounds with lower molecular masses, such as sugars, terpenes, volatile phenols, lactones, steroids, and volatile and nonvolatile acids. You can use hydroalcoholic solvents or wine to extract these chemicals (Arapitsas *et al.*, 2004; Nykanen, 1986). The characteristics of wine are influenced by various factors related to aging conditions, including aspects like temperature and humidity in the wine cellar, as well as the duration of time spent in barrels (Dubois, 1989). Toasting is employed during the assembly of barrels to facilitate the bending of wood and promote the breakdown of lignin, tannins, and hemicelluloses through pyrolysis. Light, medium, and heavy toasting intensities are the three different levels. Reduced pyrolytic byproducts from light toasting result in a decrease in aromatic compounds but a rise in tannins. The process of medium toasting produces a large number of phenolic and furanilic aldehydes, which give the wood a roasted and vanillin flavor. On the other hand, intense toasting produces free phenols that give food a Smokey and spicy flavor while also preventing or reducing the production of phenolic and furanilic aldehydes. Based on their unique needs, winemakers can select the degree of toasted strength for their casks (Jackson, 1993).

### 3. Types of wine

Wine comprises an intricate blend of natural and non-organic substances (Odibo *et al.*, 2002; Amerine *et al.*, 1980). Wine categorization encompasses various classifications, including table wine, sparkling wine, fruit wine, fortified wine, dry wine, and sweet wine. Additionally, wines can be grouped based on their country of origin or the type of fruit they are derived from. To illustrate, red table wines originate from black grapes, whereas white wines can be crafted from either black or white grapes. It's interesting to note that other fruits, such as oranges, bananas, mangoes, pineapples, lemons, etc., can also be used to make wine; in these situations, the finished product is named by the fruit that was used to produce it (Amerine *et al.*, 1980).

<figure><img src="image_5.png" /><figcaption>**Figure 3** Various types of wines</figcaption></figure>

<table><caption>**Table 2** Fruits used as substrate for wine production</caption><thead><tr><td>Types of wines</td><td>Latin name</td><td>Family</td><td>Fermentative microorganism used</td><td>References</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Banana</td><td>Musa sapientum L.</td><td>Musaceae</td><td>S. cerevisiae</td><td>Akubor et al., 2003; Awe et al., 2013</td></tr><tr><td>Mango</td><td>Mangifer a indica L.</td><td>Anacardiaceae</td><td>S.cerevisiae CFTRI 101</td><td>Reddy and Reddy 2005; Spreer et al., 2009; Obisanya et al., 1987</td></tr><tr><td>Papaya</td><td>Carica papaya L.</td><td>Caricaceae</td><td>Williopsis saturnus var. Mrakii NCYC 225</td><td>Lee et al., 2010; Rice et al., 1987, Berry, 2000</td></tr><tr><td>Cherry</td><td>Prunus cerasus L.</td><td>Rosaceae</td><td>S. cerevisiae</td><td>Sun et al., 2011; Han et al., 2008</td></tr><tr><td>Pineapple</td><td>Ananas comosus (l.) merr.</td><td>Bromeliaceae</td><td>Dried bakery yeast</td><td>Pino and Queries, 2010; Ayogu, 1999; Chanprasartsuk et al., 2010</td></tr><tr><td>Elderberry</td><td>Sambucus nigra L.</td><td>Caprifoliaceae</td><td>Wine yeast</td><td>Schmitzer et al., 2010</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><caption>**Table 3** Comparative studies of different varieties of wine (continuing)</caption><thead><tr><th>Wines</th><th>Raw Material</th><th>Ph</th><th>Alcohol content (v/v)</th><th>Color</th><th>Astringency</th><th>Storage temperature</th><th>Chemical Composition</th><th>Sources</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Red wine</td><td>V. vinifera</td><td>3.50</td><td>11.90</td><td>Wine's color is mostly attributed to free anthocyanins.</td><td>The tartness of red wine predominantly arises from the interplay among its polyphenols.</td><td>Storage temperatures below 20°C.</td><td>The grape has a high concentration of minerals, aromatic compounds, and phenols. In contrast, the inner center zone has a high acid and sugar content. On the other hand, the seeds mostly contain catechins and natural oils, which provide bitter and herbal aromas.</td><td>Comuzzo and Battistutta, 2019;<br/>Culbert et al., 2015;<br/>Mulinacci et al., 2008;<br/>Mazza et al., 1995;<br/>Perez-Maldonado et al., 1995;<br/>Timberlake and Bridle, 1977</td></tr><tr><td>Rose wine</td><td>V. vinifera</td><td>3.60</td><td>11.60</td><td>The production of rose wine falls somewhere between that of red and white wine. Initially the of rose wine is red, but it undergoes a transformation to and achieve its pink color.</td><td>Anthocyanins and aromas can be extracted subtropical by insufficient or excessive skin contact time, or undesirable chemicals linked to bitterness and astringency may be unintentionally extracted.</td><td>Should be stored at 15°C.</td><td>While the inner center section of the grape is rich in sugar and acids, the exterior part of the grape, or skin, has a high concentration of minerals, aromatic compounds, and phenols. On the other hand, the seeds' main ingredients include catechins and natural oils, which provide bitter and herbal aromas.</td><td>Salinas et al., 2005;<br/>European Commission, 2019;<br/>Grainger and Tattersall, 2016;<br/>Darias-Martin et al., 2004;<br/>Suriano et al., 2015;<br/>Maggu et al., 2007;<br/>Radeka et al., 2012;<br/>Jung et al., 2014</td></tr><tr><td>Sparkling wine</td><td>V. vinifera</td><td>3.20</td><td>11</td><td>Generally yellow in colour.</td><td>Tannis are responsible for the astringency.</td><td>Having CO2 pressure not less than 3.5 bars at 20°C.</td><td>The outer part of the grape (i.e., the skin) Contains a high concentration of minerals aromatic compounds and phenols while the inner central region is rich in sugar and acids. In contrast the</td><td>Dry and Edward, 1985;<br/>Payne et al., 2008;<br/>Charpentier and Feuillat 1993;<br/>Fornairon-Bonnefond et al., 2001;<br/>Brossard et al., 2020</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fortified wine</td><td>White grapes</td><td>3.50</td><td>16</td><td>Acetaldehyde plays a role in the browning process or gives color to The fortified wines.</td><td>Acetaldehyde.</td><td>The fortified Wine should be stored at 15°C to 18°C.</td><td>White grape pulp and seeds are abundant in minerals, including iron, copper, manganese, and strontium.</td><td>Culbert et al., 2015; Tredoux et al., 2012; Zea et al., 2007; Duplay et al., 2014</td></tr><tr><td>Chardonnay wine</td><td>White grapes</td><td>3.20</td><td>11.9</td><td>Pale yellow in color due to oak ageing process.</td><td>Astringency is due to phenolic compounds.</td><td>Storage temperature should be at least 20°C.</td><td>The pulp and seeds of white grapes are rich in iron, copper, manganese, and strontium.</td><td>Culbert et al., 2015; Knipper et al., 2019; Zoecklein et al., 2000; Bueno et al., 2006; Ortega-Heras et al., 2004; Morata et al., 2019; Cliff and Dever, 1999; Okamura et al., 1981; Duplay et al., 2014</td></tr><tr><td>Banana wine</td><td>Banana</td><td>3.30</td><td>5</td><td>Light brown colored.</td><td>Astringency is due to the presence of tannis compounds in banana.</td><td>Banana wine can be stored between the ranges of 10 to 12°C.</td><td>Banana contain high nutrition sources of carbohydrates as well as vitamins such as (B1, B2, B3, B12, ascorbic acid and tocopherol) and rich in potassium.</td><td>Gopinath, 1995; Awe, 2018; Byarugaba-Bazirake et al., 2014; Akubor et al., 2003</td></tr><tr><td>Mango wine</td><td>Mango</td><td>3.80</td><td>6.80</td><td>The color of mango wine has light golden yellow color with brilliant appearance.</td><td>Astringency is lower due to the lower content of tannis.</td><td>Mango wine can be stored at 10°C to 12°C.</td><td>Mangoes are rich source of vitamins such as (retinol and ascorbic acid).</td><td>Reddy and Reddy, 2005; Ancin et al., 1966; Giri et al., 1953; Akingbala et al., 1994; Wattanakul et al., 2020; Anon, 1962</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><td>Papaya wine</td><td>Papaya</td><td>3.50</td><td>11.3</td><td>The carotenoid pigments in the papaya wine are primarily responsible for its hue and also, papain enzyme is obtained From papaya.</td><td>Tannis is responsible for the astringency in papaya wine.</td><td>Stored at 29.4°C for ageing.</td><td>Papaya is rich source of fat, fiber, protein and minerals like copper, iron, calcium etc. as well as vitamins like retinol, and tocopherol.</td><td>Kin et al., 2013; Devitt et al., 2010; Umeh et al., 2015;m Cheng et al., 2023; Abhishek Timbadiya et al., 2023</td></tr><tr><td>Cherry wine</td><td>Cherry</td><td>3.68</td><td>11</td><td>Because anthocyanins are present, cherry wine has a pinkish red color.</td><td>Cherry wines are astringent because of phenolic components.</td><td>Can be stored Between 14°C to 16°C</td><td>Cherries are rich source of polyphenols and ascorbic acid</td><td>Niu et al., 2012; Czyzowska and Pogorzelski, 2002</td></tr><tr><td>Pineapple wine</td><td>Pineapple</td><td>3.80</td><td>10.8</td><td>Bright yellow color</td><td>Pineapple wine's astringency is caused by phenolic chemicals.</td><td>Storage temperature is 25°C</td><td>Pineapple is rich source of antioxidant, Ascorbic acid and fibre</td><td>Pino et al., 2010; Youravong et al., 2010</td></tr></table>

<figure><img src="image_6.png" /><figcaption>Figure 4 Pictures A, B, C, D, depicts red winse, rose wine, sparkling wine, white wine, respectively</figcaption></figure>

## 4. Health benefits of wine

The field of science has paid special focus on wine because of its high polyphenols content. Numerous epidemiological studies and randomized therapeutic intervention trials, including the International MONICA (Monitoring of Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease) research, have sparked interest in this topic (Estruch et al., 2018). Intriguing research hints that including moderate wine consumption within a healthy lifestyle might offer some protection against diverse chronic diseases. While ethanol is undeniably present, substantial evidence accumulated through various studies-including epidemiological investigations, controlled lab experiments, and even some initial human trials-suggests that moderate wine intake may be associated with a decreased risk of developing diabetes, neurodegenerative conditions, and various cardiovascular issues (Estruch et al., 2013; Artero et al., 2015). The polyphenols composition of wine is primarily responsible for these observed effects. White wines typically contain approximately 150-400 mg/l of polyphenols, while young red wines are estimated to

have higher levels, ranging from 900-1400 mg/l (Cueva et al., 2016).

<table><caption>**Table 4** The bioactivities of key photochemical found in fruit wines</caption><thead><tr><td>Phytochemicals</td><td>Wine source</td><td>Bioactivities</td><td>References</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Phenolic compounds (Hesperidins, anthocyanins, ellagic acid, quercetin)</td><td>Blueberry, blackberry, Elderberry-fruit belong to Myrtaceae orange, rasberry, sweet potato</td><td>Antioxidants is present in all</td><td>Towantakavanit et al., 2011; Mena et al., 2012</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tr><td>Carotenoid</td><td>Mango</td><td>Antioxidant.</td><td>Varakumar et al., 2011</td></tr><tr><td>Polysaccharide</td><td>Korean black berry</td><td>Immune inducing exercises.</td><td>Hwang and Shin, 2011</td></tr><tr><td>Melatonin</td><td>Pomegranate wine</td><td>The role of neurohormones in circadian rhythm controls the metabolism of bone and antioxidant.</td><td>(Mena et al., 2012).</td></tr></table>

## 4.1 Antioxidant

The polyphenolics combine with other molecules to create complexes, including proteins, polysaccharides, and pigments like chlorophyll and anthocyanin (Nidhi et al., 2021). Polyphenols, which are individual antioxidants present in various red and purple berry fruits like red grapes and Aronia, have been subject to research by Kim regarding their potential to mitigate the chance of cardiac arrest (Kim et al., 2013). Qureshi research findings indicate that among a cohort of women aged 50 to 69; specific dietary items and drinks played a significant role in bolstering their antioxidant consumption. Notably, those women who maintained a higher intake of antioxidants, primarily deriving from sources such as coffee, tea, red wine, blueberries, walnuts, oranges, and broccoli, exhibited reduced susceptibility to cardiovascular ailments, heart arrhythmias, hypertension, and diabetes. Additionally, the study identified that women who regularly included red wine in their diets displayed the lowest risk of these health conditions (Qureshi et al., 2014). The wine's phenolic composition features a captivating blend. Individual flavan-3-ols like epicatechin and catechin play a starring role, accompanied by intricate clusters of these molecules known as proanthocyanidins. Moreover, it contains flavonols such as myricetin, kaempferol, and quercetin, as well as the glycosides of these anthocyanins, the majority of which are malvidin-3-O-glucoside. Apart from flavonoids, the mix boasts a variety of other beneficial compounds, including phenolic alcohols, stilbenes, ellagitannins, and both hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids. Several variables, including diet polyphenols' bioavailability, absorption, and metabolic processes, significantly impact how they affect the well-being of people (Stahl et al., 2002).

## 4.2 Blood pressure

Wine's antioxidants and booze have both been shown to lower blood pressure (Gilman et al., 1995; Carollo et al., 2007). The interaction among alcohol consumption and systolic BP exhibits a J-shaped pattern, showing that individuals who consume one to three drinks per day tend to have lower blood pressure levels. A similar drift has also been notified in the context of wine consumption, where a heightened risk of hypertension is observed among those who consume alcohol excessively (Chrysohoou et al., 2003). The polyphenolic extract from red wine, whether or not combined with ethanol, lowered blood pressure in rats with insulin resistance. This outcome was linked to depletion in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Awwadi et al., 2004). This aligns with the impact of polyphenols on the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and endothelial dysfunction mentioned earlier, reinforcing their potential to promote blood vessel relaxation. Another plausible explanation for the antihypertensive effects of polyphenols in

wine is their ability to reduce the expression of sodium channels in the kidneys, leading to decreased sodium reabsorption and consequently affecting blood pressure (Carollo et al., 2007).

## 4.3 Lipid metabolism

The result of a new meta-analysis involving two hundred eighty two participants from seven randomized controlled trials (RCTs), it was observed that supplementation with resveratrol had no effect in any changes in lipid quantity. Nonetheless, it did exhibit a shielding effect. Against LDL, an important component in the formation of atherosclerosis (Sahebkar, 2013). Nevertheless, the situation may differ when considering the consumption of wine itself. In the study of red wine, it was found to have a positive impact on blood lipid parameters, leading to a reduction in total cholesterol and LDL-C levels among post-myocardial infarction patients (Rifler et al., 2012). In a prospective randomized study, red wine was shown to decrease the LDL/HDL ratio by (13%), achieved by reducing LDL-C and increasing HDL-C levels in individuals with carotid atherosclerosis (Droste DW et al., 2013). It remains uncertain whether this beneficial effect of wine can be attributed to alcohol, polyphenols, other Phytochemicals, or their combined influence. It is worth noting that alcohol itself may play a role, as indicated by a study conducted in postmenopausal women in the United States, where moderate alcohol consumption (15-30 grams of alcohol per day) was associated with decreased levels of circulating LDL-C and triglycerides, along with an increase in HDL-C levels (Baer DJ et al., 2002). Additionally, experiments conducted with established hyperglycemic animal models for atherosclerosis, such as hypercholesterolemic rabbits or apoE-/- mice, have consistently demonstrated a significant reduction in atherosclerotic plaques when exposed to resveratrol, red wine, or dealcoholized red wine (Wang z et al., 2005; Do G-M et al., 2008).

## 4.4 Diabetes mellitus

One of the most prevalent chronic illnesses is diabetes (Sury Pratap Singh and Rishabh Raj, 2022). Da Luz conducted research into the potential health advantages of moderate red wine utilization, specifically examining its result on glucose levels and the occurrence of diabetes. The study involved 101 individuals who consumed alcohol and were approximately 60 years old, as well as 104 abstainers. The results showed that those who frequently drank red wine had lower blood sugar levels and a decreased risk of developing diabetes than people who abstained (Da Luz et al., 2014). In a study by Bresciani, 73 male rats aged 13 weeks were given varying amounts of resveratrol to assess its impact on blood glucose and hemodynamic function. The two groups with the highest glucose levels were those that received no resveratrol or the lowest dose. Interestingly, after three weeks, the rats given the highest dose of resveratrol exhibited the lowest blood glucose levels. Additionally, the highest dose significantly improved hemodynamic function compared to the lower doses (Bresciani et al., 2014).

In a four-week study explore the role of alcohol in glucose metabolism; Chiva-Blanch assessed three options: red wine, dealcoholized red wine, and gin. All groups received equivalent moderate alcohol doses (30 g/day) interestingly, both red wine options, with or without alcohol, led to reductions in plasma insulin levels and a rise in insulin sensitivity. This suggests a potential protective effect of red wine against type 2 diabetes, possibly through enhanced insulin response (Chiva-Blanch et al., 2013). Focusing on type 2 diabetics, Blomster's research explored the possible connection between moderate alcohol consumption and cardiovascular health. Acknowledging the association between inactivity, overeating, and weight gain with
type 2 diabetes' increased cardiovascular risk, the study investigated how moderate alcohol intake influences heart health in this population. Intriguingly, results showed that moderate drinkers experienced fewer cardiovascular events and had lower overall mortality compared to abstainers. Interestingly, the positive effects were particularly noticeable among those who primarily enjoyed wine (Blomster et al., 2014).

## 4.5 Cancer

Cancer-related diseases have a big impact on civilization worldwide (Bhuneshwari Rohilla and Sury Pratap Singh, 2022). Despite alcohol's established link to cancer, intriguing evidence suggests moderate wine consumption could offer protection against specific cancers, including prostate, ovarian, colon, and basal cell carcinoma. This intriguing possibility warrants further research (Bianchini and Vainio, 2003). Compared to people who drink regularly or don't drink at all, those who drink one glass of wine per day are linked to a lower incidence of The esophageal adenocarcinoma precursor Barrett's esophagus (Kubo et al., 2009). Women who had regularly included wine in their routine for at least 25 years had a 33% lower death risk and a 26% lower chance of experiencing a relapse or getting secondary cancer in the five years following their diagnosis than women who did not drink. No advantage was observed for beer or other alcoholic beverages. However, it's important to note that heavy drinking, alcoholism, and smoking are significant contributors to upper aero-digestive cancers. A substantial body of data, originating from animal research as well as epidemiological inquiries, suggests a link between long-term alcohol use and an increased risk of breast cancer (Dumitrescu and Shields, 2005). A variety of cancer cell types, including lymphoid, myeloid, stomach, colon, pancreatic, thyroid, skin, head and neck, ovarian, and cervical cancers, can be inhibited by resveratrol. Early studies in animals suggest resveratrol may hinder tumor development in various tissues, including skin, mouth, stomach, esophagus, liver, brain, and colon. However, its effectiveness against breast, intestinal, and lung cancers remains unclear. Resveratrol's potential stems from its ability to interfere with multiple stages of cancer growth, from initial activation to uncontrolled progression (Jang et al., 1997). Through its actions as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, anti-metastatic, anti-angiogenic, anti-differentiation, anti-proliferative, and pro-apoptotic agents, resveratrol has been shown to obstruct the growth of cancer through several mechanisms. Furthermore, it regulates several biological functions, such as immune response, cytokines, growth factors, caspases, interleukins, prostaglandin production, transcription factors, immune system reaction, and amino acids involved in cell cycle regulation.

## 4.6 Gastrointestinal problems

A current analysis involving nine thousand seven hundred thirty three older adults suggests a potential connection between a modest intake of alcohol and a lower risk of developing Helicobacter pylori infection. Notably, this link seemed stronger for wine drinkers compared to beer soakers (Gao et al., 2010). The components present in wine have demonstrated their effectiveness as antibiotics against H. pylori strains and have also shown promise in protecting against gastric damage associated with this bacterium in mouse experiments (Daroch et al., 2001; Mahady et al., 2003; Ruggiero et al., 2007; Martini et al., 2009). Studies have indicated that white wine can trigger gastro esophageal reflux (GER) in both individuals without GER and those with GER symptoms (Vandenbroucke 1991; Grande et al., 1997; Pehl et al., 2000; Levanon et al., 2002; Pehl et al., 2006). According to several studies, wine may interfere with the way

food is properly metabolized after a meal because it may affect how the muscles in the stomach and esophagus contract. This may result in recurrent episodes of acid reflux. Therefore, it is recommended that those who are prone to this kind of pain keep their daily wine consumption to 300 ml or less.

# 5. Negative aspects of wine

In numerous regions globally over the last two decades, there has been a rise in issues associated with alcohol. In many places across the world, the problem and unsafe alcohol use, particularly among the younger generation, has become a serious societal, economic, and health concern. Alcohol plays a substantial role in the worldwide impact of disease, standing as the third most influential risk factor on a global scale and holding the primary position in middle-income countries (World Health Organization, 2019; Poznyak et al., 2014). In the European Union, harmful alcohol intake is thought to be the third biggest reason of early loss of life and health problems (Hallgren et al., 2009).

## 5.1 Gastric cancer

Worldwide, gastric cancer is a grave health concern that affects individuals. It is among the most prevalent kinds of cancer caused by the Helicobacter pylori (Bray et al., 2018) so, Wine when consumed as a hydro-alcoholic solution, adds alcohol to one's dietary intake, and even a moderate consumption of alcohol can have detrimental effects on health. Notably, regular alcohol consumption is directly correlated with several non-communicable diseases, including liver cirrhosis and various types of cancers. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) categorizes alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen, meaning it is definitively linked to the occurrence of cancers in the liver and upper gastrointestinal tract. There is also substantial evidence indicating a positive association with colorectal and breast cancer in females. During the process of metabolizing alcohol, it undergoes conversion into acetaldehyde, a highly reactive substance that likely plays a central role in ethanol-induced toxicity, lead to the occurrence of chronic illness such as liver and cardiovascular conditions, as well as cancer (Ceni et al., 2010).

Wine consumption on its own dramatically increases the chance of upper gastrointestinal tract cancer, according to a case-control study conducted in Italy's northern region. 305 male participants with pharyngeal and oral cancer were included in the research. Furthermore, the study found that a notable element in predicting the risk of malignant tumors was the primary alcoholic beverage drank by participants in each trial (Barra et al., 1990).

## 5.2 Migraine headache

The neurotransmitter serotonin was first discovered in 1868, when scientists found that the serum of clotted blood contained a substance that could narrow blood vessels (Rapport et al., 1948). Numerous red wines can cause blood platelets to release serotonin, with some consistently causing a larger serotonin release than others. By producing red wines that are free of serotonin, the harmful effects linked with this chemical may be lessened (Pattichis et al., 1995). There is a close relationship between the processes driving sensitivity to cheese, chocolate, and red wine, according to a study including 577 participants. Contrary to the more chronic tension-type headache, these processes seem to be more closely related to migraine. On the other hand, different processes underlie the overall sensitivity to alcoholic drinks (Sandler et al., 1995).
People in excellent health had higher levels of post-meal esophagus contact with stomach acid when they drank modest amounts of red wine with the food they ate (Grande *et al.*, 1997). Red and white wine were linked to elevated but comparable heartburn ratings, challenging the widely-held notion that red wines trigger significantly more heartburn than white wines. Furthermore, both red and white wines evenly stimulate the secretion of acid into the stomach and this stimulative impact on acid secretion remains unaffected by their alcohol content (Peterson *et al.*, 1986). Heartburn symptoms may result from one of two probable alcohol-related causes. First off, drinking alcohol may actually irritate and damage the stomach mucosa, which can cause heartburn. Second, it can lessen lower esophageal reflux pressure (LES), which is a recognized side effect of alcohol use and can cause heartburn. Both of these alcohol-related effects, or either one alone, may cause acid reflux symptoms. Even modest use of strong alcoholic beverages, such as 40% proof whiskey, might impede the evacuation of acid in the esophagus, especially while people are reclining, according to research on healthy volunteers (Vitale *et al.*, 1987).

Wines were linked to nearly twice as many occurrences of heartburn as juice from grapes, although they have equal pH and titratable acidities. As a result, it may be assumed that acidity and perhaps alcohol in wine contribute to the reported occurrences of heartburn. Beer is also known to cause the production of stomach acid (McArthur *et al.*, 1982; Peterson *et al.*, 1986).

## 6. Conclusion

In summary, this comprehensive review underscores that the wine can be perceived as a valuable addition to a balanced diet, offering numerous potential health benefits due to presence of resveratrol, catechins and quercetin. Wine has also the remarkable healing properties that have the potential to contribute positively to the management of various health conditions. The excellence of wine depends on many elements such as climate, soil composition, and grape varieties are just a few of the diverse elements that influence the overall value and unique characteristics of wine. It is prudent to consider incorporating wine into our dietary choices due to its array of health-enhancing attributes. When consumed responsibly and with appropriate guidance, wine can be an enjoyable and health-promoting beverage. Therefore, embracing wine in moderation, as part of a well-rounded lifestyle, may offer a delightful means of reaping its therapeutic and nutritional advantages. In the future, expect to see a rise in sustainable and organic wine production, reflecting consumer preferences for environmentally conscious practices. Ultimately, the prudent enjoyment of wine can be a harmonious blend of taste and well-being.

## Declaration of interest

The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper.

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