Carbonaceous feedstocks for forming carbon allotropes

Methods and systems are provided for forming carbon allotropes. An exemplary method includes treating a carbonaceous compound to form a feedstock that includes at least about 10 mol % oxygen, at least about 10 mol % carbon, and at least about 20 mol % hydrogen. Carbon allotropes are formed from the feedstock in a reactor in a Bosch reaction at a temperature of at least about 500° C. The carbon allotropes are separated from a reactor effluent stream.

FIELD

The present techniques relate to an industrial scale process for forming carbon allotropes, such as carbon fibers and carbon nanomaterials. More specifically, the techniques disclose methods and systems for forming treating carbonaceous compounds to form feedstocks for forming form carbon allotropes.

BACKGROUND

This section is intended to introduce various aspects of the art, which may be associated with exemplary embodiments of the present techniques. This discussion is believed to assist in providing a framework to facilitate a better understanding of particular aspects of the present techniques. Accordingly, it should be understood that this section should be read in this light, and not necessarily as admissions of prior art.

Materials formed predominately of solid or elemental carbon, e.g., carbon allotropes, have been used in numerous products for many years. For example, carbon black is a high carbon content material used as a pigment and reinforcing compound in rubber and plastic products, such as car tires. Carbon black is usually formed by the incomplete thermal pyrolysis of hydrocarbons, such as methane or heavy aromatic oils. Thermal blacks, formed by the pyrolysis of natural gas, include large unagglomerated particles, for example, in the range of 200-500 nm in size, among others. Furnace blacks, formed by the pyrolysis of heavy oils, include much smaller particles, in the range of 10-100 nm in size, that agglomerate or stick together to form structures. In both cases, the particles may be formed from layers of graphene sheets that have open ends or edges. Chemically, the open edges form reactive areas that can be used for absorption, bonding into matrices, and the like.

More recent allotropes of elemental carbon, such as fullerenes, have been developed, and are starting to be developed in commercial applications. In contrast to the more open structures of carbon black, fullerenes are formed from carbon in a closed graphene structure, i.e., in which the edges are bonded to other edges to form spheres, tubes, and the like. Two structures, carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes, have numerous potential applications, ranging from batteries and electronics to use in concrete in the construction industry. Carbon nanomaterials may have a single wall of graphene or multiple nested walls of graphene or form a fiber structure from a stacked set of sheets in a cup or plate form. The ends of the carbon nanotubes are often capped with hemispherical structures, in a fullerene-like configuration. Unlike for carbon black, large scale production processes have not been implemented for carbon nanomaterials. However, research has been conducted on a number of proposed production processes.

Arc-based, laser-based ablation techniques and chemical vapor deposition have classically been used to generate carbon nanotubes from a carbon surface. For example, techniques for generating carbon nanotubes are reviewed in Karthikeyan, et al., “Large Scale Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes,” E-Journal of Chemistry, 2009, 6(1), 1-12. In one technique described, an electric arc is used to vaporize graphite from electrodes in the presence of metal catalysts, achieving production rates of about 1 gram/min. Another technique described uses laser ablation to vaporize carbon from a target electrode in an inert gas stream. However, the laser technique uses high purity graphite and high power lasers, but provides a low yield of carbon nanotubes, making it impractical for large scale synthesis. A third technique described by the authors, is based on chemical vapor deposition (CVD), in which a hydrocarbon is thermally decomposed in the presence of a catalyst. In some studies, these techniques have achieved production rates of up to a few kilograms/hour at a 70% purity level. However, none of the processes described are practical for large scale commercial production.

Hydrocarbon pyrolysis is used in the production of carbon black and various carbon nanotube and fullerene products. Various methods exist for creating and harvesting various forms of solid carbon through the pyrolysis of hydrocarbons using temperature, pressure, and the presence of a catalyst to govern the resulting solid carbon morphology. For example, Kauffman et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 2,796,331) discloses a process for making fibrous carbon of various forms from hydrocarbons in the presence of surplus hydrogen using hydrogen sulfide as a catalyst, and methods for collecting the fibrous carbon on solid surfaces. Kauffman also claims the use of coke oven gas as the hydrocarbon source.

In another study, a flame based technique is described in Vander Wal, R. L., et al., “Flame Synthesis of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes and Nanofibers,” Seventh International Workshop on Microgravity Combustion and Chemically Reacting Systems, August 2003, 73-76 (NASA Research Publication: NASA/CP-2003-212376/REV1). The technique used the introduction of a CO or CO/C2H2mixture into a flame along with a catalyst to form the carbon nanotubes. The authors noted the high productivity that could be achieved using flame based techniques for the production of carbon black. However, the authors noted that scaling the flame synthesis presented numerous challenges. Specifically, the total time for catalyst particle formation, inception of the carbon nanotubes, and growth of the carbon nanotubes was limited to about 100 milliseconds.

International Patent Application Publication WO/2010/120581, by Noyes, discloses a method for the production of various morphologies of solid carbon product by reducing carbon oxides with a reducing agent in the presence of a catalyst. The carbon oxides are typically either carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide. The reducing agent is typically either a hydrocarbon gas or hydrogen. The desired morphology of the solid carbon product may be controlled by the specific catalysts, reaction conditions and optional additives used in the reduction reaction.

The techniques described allow for the formation of carbon nanotubes from pure gas streams. However, the economics of the production process may not be optimum, since the feedstocks are obtained from sources that are already at relatively high purity levels.

SUMMARY

An embodiment disclosed herein provides a method for forming carbon allotropes. The method includes treating a carbonaceous compound to form a feedstock that includes at least about 10 mol % oxygen, at least about 10 mol % carbon, and at least about 20 mol % hydrogen. Carbon allotropes are formed from the feedstock in a reactor in a Bosch reaction at a temperature of at least about 500° C. The carbon allotropes are separated from a reactor effluent stream.

Another embodiment provides a system for the production of carbon allotropes. The system includes a carbonaceous compound, wherein the carbonaceous compound is treated to form a feedstock that includes at least about 10 mol % oxygen, at least about 10 mol % carbon, and at least about 20 mol hydrogen. A feed gas heater is configured to heat the feedstock with waste heat from a waste gas stream. A reactor is configured to form carbon allotropes from the feedstock in a Bosch reaction. A separator is configured to separate the carbon allotropes from a reactor effluent stream forming the waste gas stream, and a water removal system, which includes an ambient temperature heat exchanger and separator, is configured to separate the bulk of the water from the waste gas stream to form a dry waste gas stream.

Another embodiment provides a reaction system for forming carbon nanotubes. The system includes a treatment system that is configured to form a feedstock from a carbonaceous compound, wherein the feedstock includes at least about 10 mol % oxygen, at least about 10 mol % carbon, and at least about 20 mol % hydrogen. A purification system is configured to remove compounds including elements other than carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from the feedstock. A feed heater upstream of the reactor is configured to convert the feedstock to a gaseous stream and to heat the feedstock prior to injection into a reactor. A reactor is configured to form carbon nanotubes from the gaseous stream using a Bosch reaction. A separation system downstream of the reactor is configured to remove carbon nanotubes from an effluent from the reactor. A feed heater downstream of the separation system includes a heat exchanger that is configured to heat a feed gas stream for a following reactor using waste heat from the effluent from the reactor. An ambient temperature heat exchanger downstream of the feed heater is configured to remove water from the effluent, forming a waste stream. A compressor is configured to increase the pressure of the waste stream. An ambient temperature heat exchanger downstream of the compressor is configured to remove water from the waste stream. A gas fractionation system is configured to separate the waste stream into a methane enriched stream and a carbon dioxide enriched stream, and a mixer is configured to blend the methane enriched stream or the carbon dioxide enriched stream into an initial feed stream.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the following detailed description section, specific embodiments of the present techniques are described. However, to the extent that the following description is specific to a particular embodiment or a particular use of the present techniques, this is intended to be for exemplary purposes only and simply provides a description of the exemplary embodiments. Accordingly, the techniques are not limited to the specific embodiments described below, but rather, include all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents falling within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.

At the outset, for ease of reference, certain terms used in this application and their meanings as used in this context are set forth. To the extent a term used herein is not defined below, it should be given the broadest definition persons in the pertinent art have given that term as reflected in at least one printed publication or issued patent. Further, the present techniques are not limited by the usage of the terms shown below, as all equivalents, synonyms, new developments, and terms or techniques that serve the same or a similar purpose are considered to be within the scope of the present claims.

An “acid gas removal unit” broadly refers to any suitable device or equipment to separate at least a portion of an acid gas stream from another process stream, such as a hydrogen or hydrocarbon containing stream. Acid gas broadly refers to a gas or vapor that contains hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, other similar contaminants, or the like. Desirably, the acid gas removal unit can separate or form a hydrogen stream, a purified syngas stream, or hydrocarbon stream, and an acid gas stream. The acid gas removal unit may also separate the acid gas stream into one or more components or constituents, such as into a carbon dioxide stream and a hydrogen sulfide stream. The acid gas removal unit may include any suitable device or equipment, such as pumps, valves, pipes, compressors, heat exchangers, pressure vessels, distillation columns, control systems, and the like. According to one embodiment, the acid gas removal unit includes one or more absorber towers and one or more stripper towers. The acid gas removal unit may recover or separate any suitable amount of acid gas from a process stream, such as at least about 50 percent (%), at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or the like on a mass basis, a volume basis, a mole basis, or the like. The acid gas removal unit may include solvent based Rectisol systems from Linde AG, Munich, Germany, or Lurgi GmbH, Frankfurt, Germany, methanol systems, alcohol systems, amine systems, promoted amine systems, hindered amine systems, glycol systems, ether systems, potassium carbonate systems, water scrubbing systems, other suitable solvents, and the like. Other systems may be used, including direct distillation, such the Controlled Freeze Zone, Ryan/Holmes, bulk fractionation processes, or a combination of both.

“Biomass” refers to any material of organic origin, including, but not limited to, pulp and paper waste, wood products such as shredded bark, wood chips or sawdust, sewage and sewage sludge, food waste, plant matter, rice straw, agricultural and animal waste, such as manure, cellulosic type industrial waste (e.g., construction waste), waste wood, fresh wood, remains from fruit, vegetable and grain processing, and grass.

“Carbonaceous feedstock” and “feedstock”, are defined to refer to carbonaceous material that can be used in a pyrolysis or gasification system, for example, as discussed with respect toFIG. 3. Examples of suitable feedstock include, but are not limited to, fossil fuel based feedstocks, such as bitumen, coal, oil shale, kerogen, coke (including petroleum coke or “petcoke” and kerogen coke) and heavy oils, as well as other carbonaceous feedstocks, such as: biomass; hazardous and non-hazardous waste materials, including municipal solid waste (MSW); wastes produced by industrial activity; biomedical wastes; carbonaceous material inappropriate for recycling, including non-recyclable plastics; sewage sludge; heavy refinery residuals; refinery wastes; hydrocarbon contaminated solids; agricultural wastes; and any mixtures thereof. The feedstock may be provided as a mixture of two or more of the above feedstocks in various relative proportions.

Carbon fibers, nanofibers, and nanotubes are allotropes of carbon that have a cylindrical structure, which can be in the nanometer range. Carbon nanofibers and nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family, which includes the spherical carbon balls termed “Buckminster fullerene.” The walls of the carbon nanotubes are formed from sheets of carbon in a graphene structure. As used herein, nanotubes may include single wall nanotubes and multiple wall nanotubes of any length. It can be understood that the term “carbon allotropes” as used herein and in the claims, includes all allotropes of carbon, such as carbon fibers, carbon nanofibers, and other carbon nanostructures, as well as graphenes, graphite, and amorphous carbon.

A “compressor” is a device for compressing a working gas, including gas-vapor mixtures or exhaust gases, and includes pumps, compressor turbines, reciprocating compressors, piston compressors, rotary vane or screw compressors, and devices and combinations capable of compressing a working gas. In some embodiments, a particular type of compressor, such as a compressor turbine, may be preferred. A piston compressor may be used herein to include a screw compressor, rotary vane compressor, and the like.

“Cracking” refers to a process involving decomposition and molecular recombination of organic compounds to produce a greater number of molecules than were initially present. In cracking, a series of reactions take place accompanied by a transfer of hydrogen atoms between molecules. For example, naphtha may undergo a thermal cracking reaction to form ethylene (ethene) and H2among other molecules.

As used herein, a “plant” is an ensemble of physical equipment in which chemical or energy products are processed or transported. In its broadest sense, the term plant is applied to any equipment that may be used to produce energy or form a chemical product. Examples of facilities include polymerization plants, carbon black plants, natural gas plants, and power plants.

A “hydrocarbon” is an organic compound that primarily includes the elements hydrogen and carbon, although nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, metals, or any number of other elements may be present in small amounts. As used herein, hydrocarbons generally refer to components found in natural gas, oil, or chemical processing facilities.

As used herein, the term “natural gas” refers to a multi-component gas obtained from a crude oil well or from a subterranean gas-bearing formation. The composition and pressure of natural gas can vary significantly. A typical natural gas stream contains methane (CH4) as a major component, i.e., greater than 50 mol % of the natural gas stream is methane. The natural gas stream can also contain ethane (C2H6), higher molecular weight hydrocarbons (e.g., C3-C20hydrocarbons), one or more acid gases (e.g., hydrogen sulfide), or any combination thereof. The natural gas can also contain minor amounts of contaminants such as water, nitrogen, iron sulfide, wax, crude oil, or any combination thereof. The natural gas stream may be substantially purified prior to use in embodiments, so as to remove compounds that may act as poisons.

A “low-BTU natural gas” is a gas that includes a substantial proportion of CO2as harvested from a reservoir. For example, a low BTU natural gas may include 10 mol % or higher CO2in addition to hydrocarbons and other components. In some cases, the low BTU natural gas may include mostly CO2.

As used herein, an “oxygenate” is any compound that primarily includes carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Oxygenates include, for example, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, and any number of other compounds.

Overview

Embodiments described herein provide systems and methods for making carbon fibers, nanofibers, and nanotubes (CNTs) on an industrial scale using feedstocks that can include mixtures of carbon oxides and hydrocarbons, among others. In some embodiments, the feedstocks are higher in hydrocarbons, such as CH4, while in other embodiments, the feedstocks are higher in carbon oxides, such as CO2. Other feedstocks may be used, including mixtures of H2, CO, CO2, and other hydrocarbons. The process is conducted under high temperature and pressure conditions using a Bosch reaction, as discussed with respect toFIG. 2.

The process may be slightly exothermic, energy neutral, or slightly endothermic. Accordingly, at least a portion of the heat from the reaction can be recovered and used to heat the feed gases, providing a portion of the heat used by the process during continuous operations. As a high pressure process is used, an ambient temperature heat exchanger is sufficient for the removal of water vapor from the product stream, without using cryogenic coolers. After separation of the product and water formed during the reaction, a gas fractionation system is used to separate any remaining amounts of the limiting reagent from a waste gas mixture and recycle this reagent to the process.

As used herein, an ambient temperature heat exchanger can include water chillers, air coolers, or any other cooling system that exchanges heat with a source that is at substantially ambient temperature. It can be understood that ambient temperature is substantially the temperature of the outside air at the location of the facility, e.g., ranging from about −40° C. to about +40° C., depending on the location of the facility. Further, different types of ambient temperature heat exchangers may be used depending on current ambient temperature. For example, a facility that uses water chillers in a summer season may use air coolers in a winter season. It can be understood that an appropriate type of heat exchanger may be used at any point herein that describes the use of an ambient temperature heat exchanger. The ambient temperature heat exchangers may vary in type across the plant depending on the amount of cooling needed.

Embodiments described herein can be used to produce industrial quantities of carbon allotropes such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon fibers, graphite, carbon black, and graphene, among others, using any number of carbonaceous feedstocks as the carbon source. The balance of the possible products may be adjusted by the conditions used for the reaction, including catalyst compositions, temperatures, pressures, feedstocks, and the like. In a reactor system, the carbon oxides are catalytically converted to solid carbon and water. The carbon oxides may be obtained from numerous sources, including the atmosphere, combustion gases, process off-gases, well gas, and other natural and industrial sources.

The carbonaceous feedstocks can be treated, for example, by cracking or gasification, to generate lower molecular weight feedstocks. The lower molecular weight feedstocks may include liquids that can be vaporized, or gaseous feedstocks.

For example, treatment of the carbonaceous compound can produce a gaseous feedstock such as a carbon oxide, e.g., carbon dioxide (CO2) or carbon monoxide (CO), and a reducing agent, e.g., methane (CH4) or other hydrocarbons, hydrogen (H2), or combinations thereof. A hydrocarbon gas can act as both an additional carbon source and as the reducing agent for the carbon oxides. The treatment process may produce syngas, that may form a portion of the feed. These gases can also be used as the reducing agent. Syngas, or “synthetic gas,” includes carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) and, thus, includes both the carbon oxide and the reducing gas in a single mixture. Syngas may be used as all or portion of the feed gas.

Carbon oxides, particularly carbon dioxide, are abundant gases that may be extracted from carbonaceous materials, exhaust gases, low-BTU well gas, and from some process off-gases. Although carbon dioxide may also be extracted from the air, other sources often have much higher concentrations and are more economical sources from which to harvest the carbon dioxide. Further, carbon dioxide is available as a by-product of power generation. The use of CO2from these sources may lower the emission of carbon dioxide by converting a portion of the CO2into carbon products.

The systems described herein may be incorporated into waste treatment systems or refineries for generating higher value carbon allotropes. For example, waste streams may be treated to form the carbon oxides and hydrocarbons that may be used as feedstocks for this process.

As used herein, an industrial scale process may provide large quantities of carbon allotropes in short periods of time. For example, the techniques used herein may provide carbon allotropes in quantities greater than about 0.5 Kg/hr, greater than about 1 Kg/hr, greater than about 2 Kg/hr, greater than about 5 Kg/hr, greater than about 10 Kg/hr, greater than about 100 Kg/hr, or greater than 1000 Kg/hr. The amounts produced depend on the scale of the equipment and the catalysts chosen.

FIG. 1is a block diagram of a reaction system100that generates carbon allotropes, for example, from feedstocks generated in a waste treatment process. In the reaction system100, a carbonaceous compound102is treated in a processing system104to form a hydrocarbon stream106.

The hydrocarbon stream106may contain compounds having other elements besides carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, such as sulfur compounds or metal compounds. Many of these compounds may act as poisons to the catalytic reaction used to form carbon allotropes, or may be too high in molecular weight to act as an effective feedstock. For example, the processing of tires can form hydrogen sulfide, which can act as a poison in the process. Similarly, the processing of fibrous plant materials, e.g., containing large amounts of lignites, can also release sulfur compounds. Thus, the hydrocarbon stream106may be treated in a purification system108to remove problematic compounds. The purification system108can create a waste material110, which can be discarded or used as a feedstock for additional chemical processing. The purification system108generates a feedstock112, which may be used to generate carbon nanotubes.

The feedstock112, is not limited to materials formed by the processes above, but may include any hydrocarbon or oxygenate that is capable of being mixed to form a blend. The mole ratios of elements in the feedstocks may vary, generally including materials that have a 1:1 ratio of carbon to oxygen and a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen. As one example, the feedstock formed may be a mixture of CO2and CH4, which has a mole ratio of 2C:2O:4H or 1:1:2. These ratios are merely exemplary, and any number of other elemental ratios may be used. Generally, the mole ratio of carbon in the feedstock112will be higher than the mole ratio of oxygen, e.g., greater than 1:1, and the mole ratio of hydrogen will be greater than twice the mole ratio of oxygen, e.g., greater than 2:1.

In some embodiments, a higher concentration of carbon oxides, such as CO or CO2are used, while in other embodiments, hydrocarbons, such as CH4, are at a higher concentration. Other components may be present in the feedstock112, such as C2H6, C2H4, and the like. In one embodiment, the feedstock112has been treated to remove these components, for example, in the purification system108. The feedstock may also include oxygenates.

The feedstock112is passed through a heat exchanger114to be heated for reaction. The heating may also vaporize any liquid in the feedstock112, as discussed with respect toFIG. 9. During continuous operation, a portion of the heating is provided using heat116recovered from the reaction. The remaining heat for the reaction may be provided by an auxiliary heater, as described below. During start-up, the auxiliary heater is used to provide the total heat to bring the feed to the appropriate reaction temperature, e.g., about 500° C. (about 930° F.). In one embodiment, the feed is heated to between about 500° C. (about 932° F.) to about 550° C. (about 1022° F.). In another embodiment, the feed is heated to between about 700° C. (about 1292° F.) to about 750° C. (about 1382° F.). In another embodiment, the feed is heated to between about 800° C. (about 1472° F.) to about 850° C. (about 1562° F.). The heated feed gas118is fed to a reactor120.

In the reactor120, a catalyst reacts with a portion of the heated feed gas118to form carbon allotropes122using the Bosch (or Bosch like Reverse Gasification) reactions. As described in more detail below, the reactor120can be a fluidized bed reactor that uses any number of different catalysts, including, for example, metal shot, supported catalysts, and the like. The carbon allotropes122are separated from the flow stream124out of the reactor120, leaving a waste gas stream126containing excess reagents and water vapor. At least a portion of the heat from the flow stream124is used to form the heated feed gas118prior to the flow stream124entering the chiller as waste gas stream126.

The waste gas stream126is passed through an ambient temperature heat exchanger, such as water chiller128, which condenses out the water130. The resulting dry waste gas stream132is used as a feed stream for a gas fractionation system134. It can be understood that a dry waste gas stream, as used herein, has the bulk of the water removed, but may still have small amounts of water vapor. For example, the dew point of a dry waste gas stream may be greater than about −5° C., greater than about 0° C., greater than about 5° C., greater than about 10° C., greater than about 20° C., or higher. A dryer may be used to lower the dewpoint, for example, to about −50° C., about −70° C., or lower, prior to gas fractionation.

The gas fractionation system134removes a portion of the reagent having the lower concentration in the feedstock112and recycles it to the process, for example, by blending a recycle stream136with the feed gas112. The higher concentration gas in the feed gas112can be disposed of as excess feed138, for example, by sales to downstream users. As an example, if CO2is the highest concentration gas in a blend with CH4, the gas fractionation system134can be used to remove CH4or syngas remaining in the waste gas stream, and send it back into the process as recycle136. The process functions as an equilibrium reaction between the reagents and solid carbon, as discussed further with respect toFIG. 2. The gas fractionation system134may not be needed when the CH4and syngas components, CO & H2are in excess, as much of the CO2may be consumed in the reaction. Thus, the excess feed138that contains the CH4, and that may also contain H2, CO, and other gases, may be used to generate power in a power plant or used as a fuel for other purposes without further purification or gas separation, as discussed with respect toFIG. 1C.

FIG. 2is an equilibrium diagram that identifies conditions under which a solid carbon product will form. This diagram is a triangular diagram200with the elements, C202, H204, and O206, at the apexes of the triangle. As one moves from any location towards an apex the molar ratio of the element, C202, H204, and O206, increases. In this way all of the possible compositions of the three elements can be mapped onto the triangular diagram200.

Any chemical compound, or mixture, with any two or all these three elements can be mapped onto the triangular diagram200as indicated by the exemplary points marked. Some of the chemical compounds include hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes and alkynes as well as many other types of hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons are located on the C—H edge208connecting C202and H204. Chemical compounds that include only the elements C202and O206, including carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), occur along the C—O edge210connecting C202and O206. Chemical compounds that include only the elements H204and O206, such as water (H2O), occur along the H—O edge212connecting H204and O206.

In the central region of the triangular diagram200are chemical compounds and mixtures that have all three elements, C202, H204, and O206. For example, these chemical compounds may include a very large number of individual components, such as alcohols, aldehydes, ethers, and materials with more complex structures, such as carbohydrates. Further, mixtures of compounds such as hydrogen, carbon oxides, and hydrocarbons may also be present.

Some of the first experiments to form fullerenes, C60and C70, as well as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were performed by laser ablation of a carbon electrode, capturing the carbon material in a mass spectrometer. The curves214shown inFIG. 2show the limit of carbon production at various temperatures. These curves214were determined by performing a stoichiometrically constrained Gibbs minimization, which minimizes the Gibbs free energy of the resulting compounds based on the constraint that the amount of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are to be the same both before and after the reaction. The point where solid carbon formation occurs for the first time was noted as the composition was moved from a first composition point to a second composition point on the triangular diagram200.

In thermodynamic terms, the curves214identify the points where the activity of carbon is about 1.0. Above a carbon activity of about 1.0, solid carbon forms, in the center region, while below the carbon activity of about 1.0, no solid carbon forms. The triangle diagram200is useful for identifying the conditions where carbon allotropes, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can possibly be produced, as well as determining compounds and mixtures that can be used for their production.

At the temperatures indicated inFIG. 2, most hydrocarbons, and other organic compounds, undergo thermal decomposition to produce small, thermodynamically stable, gas molecules, such as CO, CO2, CH4, H2O, H2, and the like. Under certain reaction conditions, these small gas molecules can react to produce carbon allotropes. In some cases, the carbon allotropes will be in the form of CNTs. Both single walled and multi-walled CNTs of various dimensions and chiralities can be made in these ways.

Pyrolysis Reaction Systems

FIG. 3is a simplified process flow diagram of a pyrolysis system300that can be used to generate feedstocks for forming CNTs. In the pyrolysis system300, a feed material302can be fed to a pyrolysis reactor304. The feed material may include any number of carbonaceous materials, such as shredded tires, sawdust, plant wastes, refinery wastes, and the like. Heaters306heat the pyrolysis reactor304to between 1000° C. and 2500° C., between about 1200° C. and about 2000° C., or between about 1500° C. and 1700° C., and an inert gas308is injected to sweep degradation products310from the reactor304. It can be understood that a pyrolysis system may be referred to as a gassifier.

A cyclonic separator312may be used to remove larger particles of carbon or char314, as well as any other debris, from the degradation products310. After the char314is removed, the resulting flow316can be sent through a heat exchanger318, for example, to be cooled by chilled water320. The cooling condenses heavier liquids322, including, for example, materials with a boiling point greater than about 20° C., about 30° C., about 40° C., or about 50° C. The liquids322may be sold as a separate stream. In some embodiments, a portion of the liquids322may be combusted to provide the heat for the heaters306. The liquids322may also be recycled to the reactor304for further degradation to form lower molecular weight compounds.

The resulting gas stream324can be further treated to remove fine particles that passed through the cyclonic separator312. For example, an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)326can be used to remove fine particles, such as char and ash328. The cleaned gas stream330can be flowed through another heat exchanger332to condense light organic compounds334. The coolant system336may be a glycol system providing temperatures down to about |50° C. Using this system, alkanes such as butanes, or even propane, may be removed from the cleaned gas stream330. The resulting gas stream338may be mostly methane, sulfur compounds, and carbon oxides, depending on the oxygen and sulfur content of the feed material. The char314may be combusted with oxygen to form carbon oxides, which can be combined into the gas stream338to form the feedstock. In some embodiments, the char314is reacted with steam to form a syngas, which is a mixture of CO, H2, and other impurities. The syngas can also be combined with the gas stream338to form the feedstock.

In some embodiments, other cooling systems may be used to provide lower temperatures, such as, for example, a cryogenic system capable of providing temperatures down to about −100° C., or about −150° C., or lower. At those temperatures, removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide may be performed. If these temperatures are not used, the resulting gas stream338can be purified to remove the hydrogen sulfide prior to use, as discussed with respect toFIG. 4.

Embodiments are not limited to pyrolysis, as any number of other techniques may be used to generate the feedstock. For example, a gassifier may be used to generate syngas from a feed material. In this process, the material is directly reacted with oxygen, steam, or both, to form the syngas.

Purification Systems

Any number of purification systems may be used to remove compounds that include elements other than C, H, and O. Compounds including these elements may poison the catalyst in the CNT reaction, either lowering the efficiency or causing the formation of less valuable carbon allotropes. Systems that can be used include amine scrubbers to remove sulfur compounds as discussed further with respect toFIG. 4. Other processes, such as a direct distillation process, may also be used.

FIG. 4is a simplified process flow diagram of an amine adsorbent system400that can be used to remove hydrogen sulfide from a gas stream336. The gas stream336is injected into an amine contactor402near the bottom. A lean amine stream404is injected into the top of the amine contactor402. A makeup water stream405is also injected into the amine contactor402, controlling the concentration of an aqueous solution in the amine contactor402. Any number of amine compounds may be used in the amine absorbent system400, including monoethylamine, diethylamine, methyldiethylamine, monoethanolamine, diisopropylamine, and aminoethoxyethanol, among others. The concentration of the amine in water depends on the amine used and the compound targeted. For example, a concentration of about 20% monoethanolamine may be used to remove both H2S and CO2, while a concentration of about 32% may target the removal of CO2. Other amine concentrations and types may be used to target removal of H2S only.

A series of plates406(or packing not shown) may be used to improve mixing in the amine contactor402, by forcing a cross current contact of the gas336with the amine404. The purified gas stream410leaves the top of the amine contactor402and can be used to provide the feedstock412for forming carbon allotropes.

A rich amine stream408, i.e., having an enhanced concentration of leaves the contactor from the bottom. The rich amine stream408is fed to a stripping column414to remove the sulfur compounds. A reboiler416heats the stripping column414. A portion of the liquid from the stripping column414is fed to a pump418, which provides the lean amine stream404back to the amine contactor402via cooler403. An overhead stream420is passed through a chiller422to condense liquids. The stream is then fed to a phase separator424. The liquid phase is passed through a pump426for reinjection into the stripping column414. The gas stream428from the phase separator424includes CO2and H2S, which may be disposed, for example, in an injection well, or may be used as a feedstock for further chemical processes, such as the Claus process used to make elemental sulfur. A small portion of the water may be removed in the overhead stream410and the gas stream428, and more makeup water405can be injected to adjust the concentration. Stream408and404may transfer heat in an optional heat exchange step prior to the lean stream entering cooler403. In addition, there may be a flash drum409used on the rich stream at an intermediate pressure level to reject gas stream409A to reduce the load on the stripping column414.

Embodiments are not limited to amine scrubbing for the purification process, but may use any number of other processes to remove compounds that have elements other than carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. For example, a staged cryogenic separation process may be used to remove various compounds at various stages. A first, warmer, stage may remove liquid hydrocarbons, such as propane, butanes, hexanes, and the like. A second, colder, stage may then be used to remove CO2and H2S from the gas. Other systems that may be used to remove impurities include activated carbon beds, for example, using the char328from the pyrolysis system300ofFIG. 3. Other systems that can be used may be based on zeolites or molecular sieves. As mentioned, Selexol, Rectisol, or other physical solvents, may also be used to remove sulfur impurities.

Reactor Systems

FIG. 5is a simplified process flow diagram of a one reactor system500for making carbon allotropes from a gas feed that includes carbon dioxide and methane. As shown, the one reactor system500can be used for feed gas502that is higher in carbon oxides or higher in hydrocarbons, such as the gaseous feedstock412provided by the amine adsorbent system400ofFIG. 4. In the reaction system500, the feed gas502is combined with a recycle gas504that has an enhanced concentration of the lesser gas. The mixing can be performed using a static mixer506.

The combined gas stream508is passed through a heat exchanger510or set of heat exchangers510in series to be heated by a reactor effluent stream. The temperature can be raised from a near ambient temperature, as defined herein, to an appropriate reaction temperature, such as about 500° C. (930° F.), about 600° C. (about 1112° F.), about 700° C. (about 1292° F.), about 800° C. (about 1472° F.), or about 900° C. (about 1652° F.) for the heated gas stream512. This temperature may be sufficient for maintaining the reaction during continuous operations. However, part of the heat may be provided by a package heater514, which may be especially useful for adding heat to bring the reactants up to temperature during start-up. The hot gas stream516is then introduced into a fluidized bed reactor518. A general fluidized bed reactor that may be used in embodiments is discussed with respect toFIG. 7. As noted previously, the feedstocks are not limited to gaseous feedstock412, but may include liquid feedstocks519that are vaporized and injected directly into the reactor518, for example, provided as the light liquids322or the light organic liquids334from the gasification process300.

The carbon allotropes are carried from the fluidized bed reactor518in a reactor effluent stream520. The reactor effluent stream520may be at an elevated temperature, for example, about 600° C. (about 1112° F.), about 700° C. (about 1292° F.), about 800° C. (about 1472° F.), or about 900° C. (about 1652° F.), and may be cooled by exchanging heat with the combined gas stream508, for example, providing some or all of the heat used to heat the reactants. Either prior to or after cooling, the reactor effluent stream520is passed through a separation device522, such as a cyclonic separator, to remove the carbon allotropes524. The resulting waste gas stream526can used to provide heat to the combined gas stream508in the heat exchanger510. The carbon allotropes may also be removed in secondary separation devices (not shown) at lower temperatures than the waste gas stream526.

After providing heat to the combined gas stream508, the cooled waste stream528is passed through an ambient temperature heat exchanger530and then fed to a separation vessel532. Water534settles in the separation vessel532and is removed from the bottom. The water534may then be fed into a water purification system536. The water purification system536may produce a purified water stream538, as well as a waste stream540.

The water purification system536may be used to remove carbon allotropes from the cooled waste stream528through a number of separation techniques. In various embodiments, the water purification system536may be configured to produce a carbon oxide from the carbon allotropes within the water534. In some embodiments, an air sparging process may be used to effect a separation of the carbon allotropes from the water534.

The resulting gas stream542from the separation vessel532may be significantly cooler, for example, at about 30° C., about 38° C. (about 100° F.), or about 40° C. and at a pressure of about 2500, kiloPascals (kPa), about 3000 kPa, about 3720 kPa (about 240 psia), or about 4000 kPa. In one embodiment, the gas is then dried to a low dew point in a drier (not shown). The stream enters a compressor544that increases the pressure of the gas stream542, for example, to about 5000 kPa, about 6000 kPa, about 7000 kPa, about 7,240 kPa (about 1050 psia), or about 8000 kPa, forming a high pressure stream546, which is passed through another ambient temperature heat exchanger548. From the ambient temperature heat exchanger548, the high pressure stream546is fed to a separation vessel550for removal of any remaining water534, for example, if a drier has not been used. The water534may be combined with the water534from the separation vessel532and fed into the water purification system536.

In embodiments in which the carbon oxides, such as CO2, are in excess in the feed gas502, the dried gas stream552can be sent to a gas fractionation system554, which separates the excess feed556from the recycle gas504. In reaction systems500based on a proportionate excess of CO2, the excess feed556may primarily include CO2, and the recycle gas504may primarily include CH4. In reaction systems500based on a proportionate excess of CH4, the excess feed556will not have a substantial CO2content, and a portion may be recycled without further purification, for example, replacing the gas fractionation system554with a manifold. In some embodiments, a portion of the excess feed556, the recycle gas504, or both may be used to provide a fuel gas stream, a purge gas stream, or both for use in the plant.

FIG. 6is another simplified process flow diagram of a one reactor system600for making carbon allotropes from a gas feed that includes carbon oxides, hydrocarbons, or oxygenates. InFIG. 6, like number items are as described with respect toFIG. 5. As described with respect toFIG. 5, the feed gas502passes through a static mixer506where it is combined with a recycle gas504, which is high in methane. The combined gas stream508is passed through a heat exchanger510, for example, including multiple shell and tube heat exchangers602. The main difference between the more detailed process flow diagram ofFIG. 6and that ofFIG. 5is the use of heat exchangers to cool the reactor effluent stream520prior to separating the carbon allotropes from the reactor effluent stream520.

In this embodiment, the heated gas stream512is raised to a temperature of about 300° C., about 400° C., about 427° C. (about 800° F.), or about 500° C. in the heat exchanger510prior to flowing through a second heat exchanger604. In the second heat exchanger604, the heated gas stream512flows through a first ceramic block heat exchanger606, as indicated by arrows608. Heat stored in the first ceramic block heat exchanger606is exchanged to the heated gas stream512and may increase the temperature to between about 500° C. (about 932° F. and to about 550° C. (about 1022° F.). In another embodiment, the feed is heated to between about 700° C. (about 1292° F.) to about 750° C. (about 1382° F.). In another embodiment, the feed is heated to between about 800° C. (about 1472° F.) to about 850° C. (about 1562° F.).

While the first ceramic block heat exchanger606is used to heat the heated gas stream512, a second ceramic block heater610is used to cool the reactor effluent stream520by flowing this stream through the second ceramic block heater610, as indicated by arrows612. When the second ceramic block heat exchanger610reaches a selected temperature, or the first ceramic block heat exchanger606drops to a selected temperature, the positions of the inlet valves614and outlet valves616are changed. In other words, open valves are closed and closed valves are opened. The change in the positions of the valves changes which ceramic block heat exchanger606or610is being heated by the flow from the reactor518, as well as which ceramic block heat exchanger606or610is used to heat the heated gas stream512.

The heat exchangers510and604may also be used to vaporize the liquid feedstock519in preparation for injection into the reactor518. For example, a portion of each ceramic block heat exchanger606and610in the second heat exchanger604may have a flow path dedicated to flashing the liquid feedstock519to a vapor. The liquid flows through the ceramic block heat exchangers606and610may be reversed, as described for the gas flows above, as the ceramic block heat exchangers606and610cool.

The recycle heat may not be sufficient to increase the temperature of the heated gas stream512for reaction. Thus, as described with respect toFIG. 5, a package heater514can be used to further boost the temperature of the heated gas stream512, forming the hot gas stream516, which can be fed to the fluidized bed reactor518. Carbon allotropes are formed in the fluidized bed reactor518, and carried out in the reactor effluent stream520.

After flowing through the second ceramic block heater610, the reactor effluent520is flowed to a separation system618, which is used to remove the carbon allotropes from the reactor effluent520. In this embodiment, the separation system618for the carbon allotropes includes a cyclonic separator620, a lock hopper622, and a filter624. After the majority of the carbon allotropes are removed by the cyclonic separator620and deposited into the lock hopper622, the filter624is used to remove remaining carbon allotropes from the waste gas stream626. This may help to prevent plugging, or other problems, caused by residual carbon allotropes in the waste gas stream626. The filter624can include bag filters, sintered metal filters, and ceramic filters, among other types. From the separation system618, the carbon allotropes may be directed to a packaging system. After the filter624, the waste gas stream626is flowed through the heat exchanger510before flowing to the ambient temperature heat exchanger530and then fed to a separation vessel532for separation of the water534. After flowing through the separation vessel532, the flow is as described with respect toFIG. 5.

The individual streams504and556can be used to supply other gases for the process. For example, a fuel gas stream628may be removed from the high methane recycle gas504and used for powering turbines, boilers, or other equipment in order to provide power to the system600or to an electric grid. Further, a purge gas stream630may be removed from the CO2waste stream556. The purge gas stream630may be used for cooling and purging the carbon allotropes during packaging. The purge gas may also be used for various cleaning functions in the plant, such as blowing residual carbon allotropes out of a ceramic heat exchanger606or610when flow is reversed.

A similar plant configuration may be used for a high hydrocarbon feed gas. In this case, however, a gas fractionation system may not be needed, as the resulting gas can be directly recycled without further treatment. Further, the recycle and effluent waste streams can contain substantial quantities of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, e.g., greater than about 1 mol % each, about 5 mol % each, about 10 mol % each, or about 20 mol % of each component. These components will generally be present in the feed and all non-CO2product streams, i.e., the recycle methane will always contain some CO and H2.

FIG. 7is a drawing of a fluidized bed reactor700for forming carbon allotropes, such as carbon nanotubes702. A hot gas feed stream704is fed through a line706into the bottom of the fluidized bed reactor700. A control valve708may be used to regulate the flow of the hot gas feed stream704into the reactor. The hot gas feed stream704flows through a distributor plate710and will fluidize a bed of catalyst beads712held in place by the reactor walls714. As used herein, “fluidize” means that the catalyst beads712will flow around each other to let gas bubbles through, providing a fluid-like flow behavior. As discussed herein, the reaction conditions are very harsh to any exposed metal surface, as the metal surface will perform as a catalyst for the reaction. Thus, the reaction will result in the slow degradation of an exposed metal surface. Accordingly, the interior surface of the fluidized bed reactor700, including the reactor walls714and heads715, as well as the distributor plate710, and other parts, can be made of a non-reactive material, such as ceramic or gold, to protect the surfaces.

As the hot gas feed stream704flows through the fluidized bed of catalyst particles712, CNTs702will form from catalyst beads712. The flowing hot gas feed stream704carries the CNTs702into an overhead line716where they are removed from the fluidized bed reactor700. Depending on the flow rate, for example, as adjusted by the control valve708, some amount of catalyst beads712, or particles fragmented from the catalyst beads712, may be carried into the overhead line716. Accordingly, a catalyst separator718may be used to separate catalyst beads712, and larger particles, from a reactor effluent stream720and return them to the fluidized bed reactor700through a recycle line722. Any number of configurations may be used for the catalyst separator718, including a cyclonic separator, a settling tank, a hopper, and the like.

In addition to the hot gas feed stream704flowing in from the bottom of the fluidized bed reactor700, an additional line722may be used to add a liquid feed stream724to the fluidized bed reactor700. The liquid feed stream724can be vaporized in a heater726, which may use recovered heat from the reaction to vaporize the liquid feed stream724. For example, the heater726may be a separate flow section of the ceramic block heat exchangers606and610, described with respect toFIG. 6. The vaporized feed stream728may be metered into the reactor through a control valve730, and injected into the hot gas feed stream704through a distribution ring732. The reactions that take place in the fluidized bed are discussed in more detail inFIG. 8.

FIG. 8is a schematic of a catalytic reaction800for the formation of carbon allotropes, such as carbon nanotubes, on a catalyst bead802. An initial reaction804between a portion of the compounds in a feed stream806results in the formation of CO and H2in stoichiometric amounts. In some embodiments, a syngas that includes CO and H2may be used as the reactor feedstock, in which case, the initial reaction804may not occur. In other cases, various combinations of hydrocarbons, carbon oxides, and H2may be used. In some embodiments, the ratio between C and O in the feedstock is about 1:1, and the molar ratio of O to H is about 1:2. As noted, the amounts are not fixed at these ratios, for example, the ratio of C to O may be greater than 1:1, and the ratio of O to H may be less than 1:2. As an example, the feedstock may include an equal amount of CH4and CO2. The feedstock may also include CH4, CO2, CO, and H2, for example, as a portion of recycle gas is used.

However, the feedstock is not limited to these components, as any materials that provide the basic component elements for the Bosch reaction in the appropriate ratios may be used. These compounds may include hydrocarbons or oxygenates, including any combinations of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, ketones, carbon oxides, hydrogen, H2O, and others. Examples of compounds that may be used include ethane, ethene (ethylene), ethyne (acetylene), propane, butanes, pentanes, hexanes, methanol, ethanol, propanols, butanols, pentanols, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), methyl methyl ketone (actetone), and many others. Generally, the liquid feedstocks will be vaporized prior to introduction to the reactor to prevent the heat of vaporization from lowering the temperature in the reactor.

Excess amounts of the feed stream806continue to flow through the reactor, helping to fluidize the bed and carrying away CNTs808and catalyst particles810. The reactions that form the CNTs808take place on the catalyst bead802. The size of the CNTs808, and the type of CNTs808, e.g., single wall or multiwall CNTs808, may be controlled by the size of the grains812. Without being limited by theory, a nucleus of iron atoms of sufficient size at the grain boundary may form the nucleating point for the growth of the carbon products on the catalyst bead802. Generally, smaller grains812will result in fewer layers in the CNTs808, and may be used to obtain single wall CNTs808. Other parameters may be used to affect the morphology of the final product as well, including reaction temperature, pressure, and feed gas flow rates.

The CO and H2react at grain boundaries814, lifting active catalyst particles816off the catalyst bead802, and forming H2O818and the solid carbon of the CNTs808. The CNTs808break off from the catalyst bead802and from the catalyst particle810. Larger catalyst particles810can be captured and returned to the reactor, for example, by the catalyst separator718discussed with respect toFIG. 7, while very fine catalyst particles810will be carried out with the CNTs808. The final product may about 70 mol % solid carbon and about 15 mol % metal, about 80 mol % solid carbon and about 10 mol % metal, about 90 mol % solid carbon and about 7 mol % metal, or about 95 mol % solid carbon and about 5 mol % metal. The CNTs808will often agglomerate to form clusters820, which are the common form of the final product. Some amount of the CO and H2passes through the reactor without reacting and are contaminants in the reactor effluent streams. Although some amount of lower carbon number hydrocarbons, such as methane, may also flow through the reactor, larger carbon number hydrocarbons, such as C2s, C3s, and the like, may be degraded to methane or carbon oxides before exiting the reactor. The reactor effluent will also contain water formed in the reaction.

As the reaction proceeds, the catalyst bead802is degraded and finally consumed. Accordingly, the reaction may be described as a metal dusting reaction. In some embodiments, metal surfaces are protected from attack by a protective lining, such as ceramic or gold, since the metal surfaces in contact with the reaction conditions would not only degrade, but may also result in the formation of poorer quality products.

In addition to iron, the catalyst bead802can include any number of metals from different IUPAC Groups on the periodic table, such as Group 10 (e.g., nickel), Group 8 (e.g., iron or ruthenium), Group 9 (e.g., cobalt), or Group 6 (e.g., chromium or molybdenum), among others. Other metals that may be present include Group 7 metals (e.g., manganese), or Group 5 metals (e.g., cobalt), among others. It can be understood that the metals listed above are merely exemplary of the Groups mentioned and other metals from those Groups may be included. However, the catalytic sites on the catalyst beads802are principally composed of iron atoms. In one embodiment, the catalyst bead802includes metal shot, for example, about 25-50 mesh metal beads that are used for shot blasting. In one embodiment, the catalyst may be a stainless ball bearing, and the like.

Gas Fractionation System

FIG. 9is a simplified process flow diagram of a gas fractionation system900that can be used in a reactor system for the production of carbon nanotubes. The gas fractionation system900is a bulk fractionation process that may be used with a high CO2reactor system, such as that discussed with respect toFIG. 6. Further, the gas fractionation system900may be used to purifying a gas stream formed in a gassifier, such as the system discussed with respect toFIG. 3.

In the gas fractionation system900, the feed gas902is fed to a dryer904to reduce the dew point to about −40° C., about −50° C., about −56.7° C. (about −70° F.), about −60° C., about −70° C., about −80° C., or lower. The feed gas902can correspond to the dried gas stream552discussed with respect toFIGS. 5 and 6or may be the gaseous feedstock338described with respect toFIG. 3. The dryer904can be a fixed or fluidized dryer bed, containing an adsorbent, such as molecular sieves, desiccants, and the like. Other dryer technologies may also be used, such as cryogenic drier systems. In some embodiments, the dryer can be located prior to the compressor358, which may eliminate the need for the ambient temperature heat exchanger362.

The dry gas feed906is then fed through a cryogenic chiller908to reduce the temperature in preparation for the separation. As CO2will condense from the gas at about −61° C. (about −77° F.), a multistage chilling system910may be used to reduce the temperature to around this level. The multistage chilling system910may include a heat recovery system912used to heat the outlet gas with energy913from the dry feed gas906. The multistage chilling system910may also include other refrigeration systems914, such as medium pressure propane chillers and high pressure propane chillers.

The chilled feed916is fed to a separation vessel918to separate a liquid stream920and a vapor stream922. The vapor stream922is passed through an expander924to lower the temperature by generating mechanical work926in an adiabatic expansion process. In one embodiment, the mechanical work926is used to drive a generator928, which may provide a portion of the electricity used in the plant. In another embodiment, the mechanical work926is used to drive a compressor, for example, for compressing a refrigerant stream for the multistage chilling system910. The expansion can result in a two phase stream930.

The liquid stream920and the two phase stream930are fed to a separation column932, for example, at different points along the separation column932. Heat is supplied to the separation column932by a reboiler934. The reboiler932is heated by a stream from a heat exchanger936. In practice, one or more side reboilers in addition to the column reboiler may be used to meet the column heat duty. The heat exchanger936may be part of a chiller system that is warmer than the separation column932, although below ambient temperature. The column bottom stream938is passed through the reboiler934and a portion940is reinjected after being warmed. An outlet stream942from the reboiler934provides the CO2product944. A portion946of the CO2product944may be recycled through the heat exchanger936to carry energy to the reboiler934or another heat exchanger used a side reboiler.

The overhead stream948from the separation column932is a methane enhanced stream, for example, including about 55 mol % CH4and about 40 mol % CO2, about 60 mol % CH4and about 35 mol % CO2, about 70 mol % CH4and about 25 mol % CO2, about 73 mol % CH4and about 23 mol % CO2, or about 80 mol % CH4and about 15 mol % CO2. As noted, the overhead stream948may be used in a chiller system912to cool the dry gas feed906, warming the overhead stream948to form the recycle gas950. Other components may be present in the recycle gas950including, for example, about 1 mol % CO and H2, about 2 mol % CO and H2, about 3.5 mol % CO and H2, about 4 mol % CO and H2, or about 5 mol % CO and H2.

The configurations and units discussed with respect toFIG. 9are merely exemplary. Any number of variations may be made to these systems. Further, other gas separation systems may be used in embodiments, so long as flow rates and purity levels can be achieved.

Method

FIG. 10is a process flow diagram of a method1000for forming carbon allotropes, such as carbon nanotubes, from a carbonaceous feedstock. The method begins at block1002by obtaining an organic waste. As discussed, the organic waste can include any number of materials, such as shredded tires, organic wastes, refinery wastes, land fill materials and the like.

At block1004, the wastes are broken down into smaller molecular weight components, such as in a gassifier, a cracker, and the like. At block1006, the materials from the gasification are further purified, for example, by amine treating as discussed with respect toFIG. 4, or cryogenic separation, as discussed with respect toFIG. 9, among others. Liquid feedstocks formed in the gasification process may be purified by distillation, column separation, amine treating, and the like. At block1008, the purified feedstocks are used to form carbon allotropes, for example, as discussed with respect toFIG. 11.

FIG. 11is a process flow diagram of a method1100for generating carbon allotropes, such as carbon nanotubes, from a feed gas that can include carbon oxides and hydrocarbons. The method1100begins at block1102, at which a feedstock is obtained. The feedstock may be generated from any number of sources, and may include carbon oxides and low molecular weight hydrocarbons, among others. As mentioned, the feedstock may include gases and liquids formed form treating a carbonaceous material. Further, the feedstock may also include a natural gas harvested from a sub-surface reservoir, an exhaust gas from a power generation plant, or any number of other gases or liquids from natural or plant sources. Further, other feedstocks may be used in embodiments, including other materials, such as syngas, CO, H2, other hydrocarbons, and the like.

At block1104, the feedstock is heated with waste heat recovered from the reaction process. A recycled gas stream, obtained from the wastes gases generated in the process, can also be heated with waste heat from the reaction. As described herein, the recycle gas may be obtained from the waste gases by cryogenic gas fractionation, as well as any number of other techniques, or may be a directly recycled stream. The heating of the recycle gas may be performed in a separate heat exchanger from the heating or flashing of the fresh feedstock, for example, in the case of a liquid feedstock, or in a mixture with a fresh gaseous feedstock. At block1106, the feedstock and the recycle gas are injected into the reactor. After heating, at block1108, the combined gas stream is reacted with a metal catalyst in a reactor to form the CNTs. At block1110the CNTs are separated from the waste gas. At block1112, the separated CNTs are purged, cooled, and packaged to be sent to market. At block1114, the waste gas is cooled to remove excess water formed during the reaction. As the process is conducted at high temperatures and pressures, an ambient temperature heat exchanger provides sufficient cooling to condense out the water vapor.

At block1116, the waste gas is fractionated into a CO2enriched stream and a CH4enriched stream. At block1118, whichever stream contains the excess reagent can be sold, while the other stream can be recycled to block1104to be used in the process.

Still other embodiments of the claimed subject matter may include any combinations of the elements listed in the following numbered paragraphs:

1. A method for forming carbon allotropes, including:

treating a carbonaceous compound to form a feedstock including at least about 10 mol % oxygen, at least about 10 mol % carbon, and at least about 20 mol % hydrogen;

forming carbon allotropes from the feedstock in a reactor in a Bosch reaction at a temperature of at least about 500° C.; and

separating the carbon allotropes from a reactor effluent stream.

2. The method of paragraph 1, wherein treating the carbonaceous compound includes flashing a liquid into a gas to form the feedstock.

3. The method of paragraphs 1 or 2, wherein treating the carbonaceous compound includes cracking the carbonaceous compound.

4. The method of paragraphs 1, 2, or 3, wherein treating the carbonaceous compound includes steam reforming the carbonaceous compound.

5. The method of any of paragraphs 1-4, wherein treating the carbonaceous compound includes shredding a material.

6. The method of any of paragraphs 1-5, wherein treating the carbonaceous compound includes treating the carbonaceous compound in a gassifier.

7. The method of any of paragraphs 1-6, wherein treating the carbonaceous compound includes removing compounds including elements other than carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

8. A system for the production of carbon allotropes, including:

a carbonaceous compound, wherein the carbonaceous compound is treated to form a feedstock including at least about 10 mol % oxygen, at least about 10 mol % carbon, and at least about 20 mol % hydrogen;

a feed gas heater configured to heat the feedstock with waste heat from a waste gas stream;

a reactor configured to form carbon allotropes from the feedstock in a Bosch or Bosch like Reverse Gasification reaction;

a separator configured to separate the carbon allotropes from a reactor effluent stream forming the waste gas stream; and

a water removal system, including an ambient temperature heat exchanger and separator configured to separate the bulk of the water from the waste gas stream to form a dry waste gas stream.

9. The system of paragraph 8, wherein the carbonaceous compound includes lignin, lignites, cellulose, plant wastes, wood products, or algae.

10. The system of paragraphs 8 or 9, wherein the wherein the carbonaceous compound includes used tires, recycled plastics, or recycled paper products.

11. The system of paragraphs 8, 9, or 10, wherein the carbonaceous compound includes coal, kerogen, bitumen, oil, natural gas, or natural gas liquids.

12. The system of any of paragraphs 8-11, wherein the carbonaceous compound includes an organic liquid.

13. The system of any of paragraphs 8-12, wherein the carbonaceous compound includes syngas.

14. The system of any of paragraphs 8-13, including a refinery.

15. The system of any of paragraphs 8-14, including a gassifier.

16. The system of any of paragraphs 8-15, wherein the ambient temperature heat exchanger includes a water chiller.

17. The system of any of paragraphs 8-16, wherein the feedstock includes at least about 20 mol % oxygen, at least about 20 mol % carbon, and at least about 40 mol % hydrogen.

18. The system of any of paragraphs 8-17, wherein the feedstock includes carbon dioxide and methane.

19. The system of any of paragraphs 8-18, wherein the feedstock includes carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

20. The system of any of paragraphs 8-19, wherein the ambient temperature heat exchanger includes an air cooled heat exchanger.

21. The system of any of paragraphs 8-20, including a package heater configured to heat the feedstock.

22. The system of any of paragraphs 8-21, including:

a compressor configured to increase the pressure of the dry waste gas stream; and

a water removal system configured to remove water from the dry waste gas stream.

23. The system of any of paragraphs 8-22, including a system configured to adjust the composition of the feedstock.

24. The system of paragraph 23, including a system configured to mix a methane rich stream, or a CO2rich stream, or both, with a recycle gas stream to form the feedstock.

25. The system of any of paragraphs 8-24, wherein the reactor is a fluidized bed reactor using a bottom fed flow of feedstock to fluidize a catalyst.

26. The system of any of paragraphs 8-25, including a gas fractionation system configured to separate a methane rich stream and a CO2rich stream from the waste gas stream.

27. The system of any of paragraphs 8-26, including a mixing system configured to mix the methane rich stream into the feed gas before the feed gas heater.

28. A reaction system for forming carbon nanotubes, including:

a treatment system configured to form a feedstock from a carbonaceous compound, wherein the feedstock includes at least about 10 mol % oxygen, at least about 10 mol % carbon, and at least about 20 mol % hydrogen;

a purification system configured to remove compounds including elements other than carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from the feedstock;

a feed heater upstream of the reactor, wherein the feed heater is configured to convert the feedstock to a gaseous stream and to heat the feedstock prior to injection into a reactor;

a reactor configured to form carbon nanotubes from the gaseous stream using a Bosch or Bosch like Reverse Gasification reaction;

a separation system downstream of the reactor, wherein the separation system is configured to remove carbon nanotubes from an effluent from the reactor;

a feed heater downstream of the separation system, wherein the feed heater includes a heat exchanger configured to heat a feed gas stream for a following reactor using waste heat from the effluent from the reactor;

an ambient temperature heat exchanger downstream of the feed heater, wherein the ambient temperature heat exchanger is configured to remove water from the effluent, forming a waste stream;

a compressor configured to increase the pressure of the waste stream;

an ambient temperature heat exchanger downstream of the compressor, configured to remove water from the waste stream;

a gas fractionation system configured to separate the waste stream into a methane enriched stream and a carbon dioxide enriched stream; and

a mixer configured to blend the methane enriched stream or the carbon dioxide enriched stream into an initial feed stream.

29. The reaction system of paragraph 28, including a package heater configured to heat an initial feed stream.

30. The reaction system of paragraph 29, wherein the package heater is used to heat a feed stream to a subsequent reactor.

31. The reaction system of paragraph 29, wherein the package heater is a heater configured to be field erected, or an electric power heater, a commercial heater configured for heating gases, or any combinations thereof.

32. The reaction system of paragraph 29, wherein the package heater is configured to heat a reducing gas stream without substantial damage.

While the present techniques may be susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, the embodiments discussed above have been shown only by way of example. However, it should again be understood that the techniques is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments disclosed herein. Indeed, the present techniques include all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents falling within the true spirit and scope of the appended claims.