Method and apparatus for controlling electric power flow in a battery system

A battery system is electrically connected to a power bus that is arranged to supply electric power to an on-vehicle actuator such as an electric traction machine. Controlling electric power flow in the battery pack includes determining states of charge for the plurality of battery packs, identifying one of the battery packs as a weakest battery pack based upon the states of charge, and determining an internal circulating current being transferred via the wiring harness that is associated with charging of the weakest battery pack. Electric power transfer through the wiring harness and the power bus is controlled such that the internal circulating current is less than an internal circulating current limit. In one embodiment, the internal circulating current limit is determined in relation to battery temperature.

INTRODUCTION

Vehicles and other systems employ DC power supplies in the form of rechargeable battery packs to supply electric power for vehicle propulsion and to provide other functions. A battery system may include multiple battery packs that are arranged in parallel and/or in series.

There may be an imbalance between states of charge of the battery packs employed in a battery system, wherein one of the battery packs has a higher state of charge than another of the battery packs. Imbalances between states of charge of the battery packs employed in a battery system may be difficult to avoid due to current flow characteristics associated with battery voltage potentials, charging schemes, especially so-called fast-charging schemes, differential aging of battery packs, temperature-induced differences in battery packs, and errors in estimating states of charge.

A difference in the states of charge may lead to an internal circulating current, wherein one battery pack of a battery system having a greater state of charge transfers electric energy to another of the battery packs that has a lesser state of charge. Occurrence of an uncontrolled internal circulating current charges the weakest battery pack having the lesser state of charge under some conditions, including, e.g., at very low battery temperature conditions, which may cause lithium plating and other effects in the battery. Furthermore, under cold weather conditions, high discharge loads can drive different amounts of polarization between the battery packs in a battery system, which can cause an uncontrolled circulating current once the load is removed and may cause lithium plating and other effects in the battery. Lithium plating in a battery may serve to increase internal battery impedance and reduce battery charge capacity, thus affecting service life of the battery pack.

As such, there is a need to manage and control internal circulating current between batteries in a battery system employing multiple battery packs, including in a manner that reduces or eliminates a likelihood of occurrence of lithium plating and other effects.

SUMMARY

The concepts described herein provide a method and associated system for controlling electric power flow in a battery pack that includes a plurality of electrically connected lithium-ion battery packs, wherein the battery system is electrically connected to a power bus to supply electric power to one or multiple electric machines and/or electrical actuators. In one embodiment, and as described herein, the battery system is employed on-vehicle, and includes a plurality of lithium-ion battery packs that are electrically connected via a wiring harness. instruction set executable The battery pack is electrically connected to a power bus that is arranged to supply electric power to an on-vehicle actuator such as an electric traction machine. Overall, controlling the electric power flow in the battery system includes determining states of charge for the plurality of battery packs, identifying one of the battery packs as a weakest battery pack based upon the states of charge and its impedance, and determining an internal circulating current being transferred via the wiring harness that is associated with charging of the weakest battery pack. Electric power transfer through the wiring harness and the power bus is controlled such that the internal circulating current that charges a weakest battery pack is less than an internal circulating current limit. In one embodiment, the internal circulating current limit is determined in relation to battery temperature.

An aspect of the disclosure includes controlling the electric power transfer through the wiring harness and the power bus such that the internal circulating current is less than the internal circulating current limit for the weakest pack, including identifying one of the battery packs as a weakest pack based upon the states of charge, and the pack impedances, determining the internal circulating current being transferred to the weakest battery pack via the wiring harness, and disconnecting the weakest battery pack from the wiring harness when the internal circulating current is greater than the internal circulating current limit.

Another aspect of the disclosure includes determining that the vehicle is in a key-off state, and disconnecting the weakest battery pack from the wiring harness when the internal circulating current is greater than the internal circulating current limit and the vehicle is in the key-off state.

Another aspect of the disclosure includes controlling electric power transfer through the wiring harness and the power bus such that the internal circulating current at vehicle light load or at vehicle stop is less than the internal circulating charge current limit, which includes executing feed-forward control based upon the battery states for the plurality of battery packs to determine a first load current for the given internal circulating current limit, executing feedback control based upon the weakest pack current measurement of internal circulating current and the corresponding current limit to determine a current feedback term, determining a bias load current based upon the first load current and the current feedback term, and controlling operation of an electrically-powered accessory device to control the internal circulating current based upon the bias load current.

Another aspect of the disclosure includes an electric machine being electrically connected to the power bus, and further includes monitoring electric load demand under vehicle high load states, identifying one of the battery packs as a strongest battery pack based upon the states of charge and the impedances of the battery packs, and, decreasing the electric load demand being delivered to the electric machine to control the electric power transfer through the wiring harness such that the discharge current of the strongest pack is less than a discharge current limit.

Another aspect of the disclosure includes introducing the bias load current onto the power bus to control the internal circulating current to be less than the internal circulating current limit.

Another aspect of the disclosure includes introducing the bias load current onto the power bus by introducing a resistive load onto the power bus to control the internal circulating current to be less than the internal circulating current limit.

Another aspect of the disclosure includes controlling operation of an electrically-powered accessory device to control the internal circulating current to be less than the internal circulating current limit.

Another aspect of the disclosure includes an electric power system for a vehicle that includes a battery system including plurality of battery packs, a plurality of sensors arranged to monitor the battery packs, a high-voltage DC power bus, a plurality of switches interposed between the plurality of battery packs and the power bus, an electric machine, and a controller. The battery packs are electrically connected via the wiring harness, and are electrically connected via the wiring harness to the power bus. The controller is in communication with the plurality of sensors, the plurality of switches, and the electric machine, and includes an instruction set that is executable to monitor, via the plurality of sensors, parameters associated with the plurality of battery packs, determine states of charge for the plurality of battery packs, determine an internal circulating current that is being transferred between the plurality of battery packs via the wiring harness based upon the states of charge, and control electric power transfer through the wiring harness and the power bus such that the internal circulating current is less than an internal circulating current limit.

The above summary is not intended to represent every possible embodiment or every aspect of the present disclosure. Rather, the foregoing summary is intended to exemplify some of the novel aspects and features disclosed herein. The above features and advantages, and other features and advantages of the present disclosure, will be readily apparent from the following detailed description of representative embodiments and modes for carrying out the present disclosure when taken in connection with the accompanying drawings and the claims.

The appended drawings are not necessarily to scale, and may present a somewhat simplified representation of various preferred features of the present disclosure as disclosed herein, including, for example, specific dimensions, orientations, locations, and shapes. Details associated with such features will be determined in part by the particular intended application and use environment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The components of the disclosed embodiments, as described and illustrated herein, may be arranged and designed in a variety of different configurations. Thus, the following detailed description is not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure, as claimed, but is merely representative of possible embodiments thereof. In addition, while numerous specific details are set forth in the following description in order to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments disclosed herein, some embodiments can be practiced without some of these details. Moreover, for the purpose of clarity, certain technical material that is understood in the related art has not been described in detail in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the disclosure. Furthermore, the drawings are in simplified form and are not to precise scale. For purposes of convenience and clarity only, directional terms such as top, bottom, left, right, up, over, above, below, beneath, rear, and front, may be used with respect to the drawings. These and similar directional terms are not to be construed to limit the scope of the disclosure. Furthermore, the disclosure, as illustrated and described herein, may be practiced in the absence of an element that is not specifically disclosed herein.

As used herein, the term “system” may refer to one or a combination of mechanical and electrical hardware, sensors, controllers, application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC), combinatorial logic circuits, software, firmware, and/or other components that are arranged to provide the described functionality.

Referring to the drawings, wherein like reference numerals correspond to like or similar components throughout the several Figures,FIG. 1, consistent with embodiments disclosed herein, illustrates an electric power system10that is arranged to supply electric power for operating an electric machine12of a vehicle100. In one embodiment, the electric machine12is a multi-phase traction motor that generates and transfers tractive torque to a vehicle driveline in response to an operator torque request. The vehicle100may include, but not be limited to a mobile platform in the form of a commercial vehicle, industrial vehicle, agricultural vehicle, passenger vehicle, aircraft, watercraft, train, all-terrain vehicle, personal movement apparatus, robot and the like to accomplish the purposes of this disclosure. Alternatively, the electric power system10may be arranged to supply electric power for operating an electric machine of a stationary system.

The electric power system10includes a battery system20that electrically connects via a high-voltage (HV) DC power bus15and a power inverter14to the electric machine12. The battery system20also electrically connects via the HV DC power bus15to a controllable electric load50. A controller36monitors and/or controls operation of various elements of the electric power system10. A charger40electrically connects to the battery system20via the HV DC power bus15, which includes a positive HV bus16and a negative HV bus18. The battery system20includes a plurality of lithium-ion battery packs, including first and second battery packs22,24, respectively, as shown. As employed herein, the battery system20is a unitary device that includes a plurality of battery packs, and is configured to deliver a desired voltage, current, and/or power density to the electric power system10. As employed herein, the term “battery pack” describes a subset of the battery system, and includes a plurality of identical battery cells that are arranged in series, in parallel or in another combination to deliver a desired voltage, current, and/or power density to the battery system20. The first and second battery packs22,24, respectively as shown are electrically connected via a wiring harness26, which electrically connects to the positive HV bus16. An internal circulating current25is defined as a magnitude of current that flows between the first and second battery packs22,24via the wiring harness26. The wiring harness26includes first and second switches28,30, respectively, which are controllable by the controller36. The first switch28is arranged to electrically connect or disconnect the first battery pack22to the positive HV bus16, and the second switch30is arranged to electrically connect or disconnect the second battery pack24to the positive HV bus16. The first battery pack22electrically connects to the negative HV bus18via a first sensor pack32, and the second battery pack24electrically connects to the negative HV bus18via a second sensor pack34. The first and second sensor packs32,34include sensing elements that monitor first and second voltage, current and temperature (VIT) parameters33,35, respectively, of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively. The first and second sensor packs32,34communicate the first and second VIT parameters33,35to the controller36. The controllable electric load50may include, by way of non-limiting examples, electrically-powered on-vehicle actuators such as a battery heater, an HVAC compressor, a cabin heater, a cabin fan, a coolant pump, an electric seat heater, a DC-DC charger, etc.

As described with reference toFIG. 2, et seq., the controller36monitors and/or controls operation of various elements of the electric power system10, including monitoring inputs from the first and second sensor packs32,34, controlling activation of the first and second switches28,30, controlling operation of the controllable electric load50, and controlling operation of the power inverter14to control the electric machine12. Overall, monitoring and controlling operation of various elements of the electric power system10includes determining states of charge and associated temperatures for the plurality of battery packs, e.g., the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively, identifying one of the battery packs as a weakest battery based upon the states of charge and impedances, and determining the internal circulating current25that occurs in the wiring harness26and is associated with the weakest battery at vehicle light load or no load. The controller36controls electric power transfer between the first and second battery packs22,24, and controls electric power transfer between the battery system20and the HV DC power bus15such that the internal circulating current25is less than an internal circulating current limit in order to preclude deposition and plating of lithium onto battery electrodes of the battery packs.

FIG. 2, et seq. schematically illustrate control routines associated with methods for controlling operation of the operations of the electric power system10and the vehicle100to preclude deposition and plating of lithium onto battery electrodes of battery packs that may be caused by internal circulating current at low vehicle load or no vehicle load. The method is illustrated as a collection of blocks in a logical flow graph, which represents a sequence of operations that can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination thereof. In the context of software, the blocks represent computer instructions that, when executed by one or more processors, perform the recited operations.

Referring now toFIG. 2, with continued reference to the elements of the electric power system10for the vehicle100that are described with reference toFIG. 1, a first control routine200is described, and is associated with operations to preclude deposition and plating of lithium onto battery electrodes of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively, by controlling the internal circulating current25, including under conditions that include a vehicle key-on/key-off state. Execution of the first control routine200includes determining and evaluating the internal circulating current25under vehicle operating conditions that include the vehicle100being in a key-off state. This includes determining various vehicle parameters by direct monitoring, modelling, simulation, or another method. The vehicle parameters include vehicle speed (201); states of charge of the first and second battery packs22,24(202); battery temperatures T1and T2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (203); the key-off state (204); internal circulating (charge) current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (205); and battery states (206). The internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively may be determined in relation to the battery temperatures T1and T2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively, and represent maximum allowable charging current levels to prevent lithium plating at the respective temperature. The aforementioned vehicle parameters are input to a routine210to estimate, measure or otherwise determine the internal circulating current25when the vehicle100is in a power-off state. The routine210determines the internal circulating current25in accordance with the following relationship:

i1represents the internal circulating current25, and is associated with the weakest of the first and second battery packs22,24;

VT1represents the terminal voltage measured at the first battery pack22;

VT2represents the terminal voltage measured at the second battery pack24;

L represents inductance in the wiring harness26; and

Rs2represents resistance in the wiring harness26.

Alternatively, the internal circulating current25may be directly measured by the first and second sensor packs32,34. The internal circulating current25is compared with the internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively, which are determined as maximum current levels to prevent lithium plating, in relation to temperature (215).

When the internal circulating current25is less than the internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (215)(0), no action is required (216), and this iteration ends.

When the internal circulating current25is greater than the internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (215)(1), the states of charge of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively are evaluated to identify one of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively as being the weakest battery pack, with the weakest battery pack being the one of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively that has the lesser state of charge.

The one of the first and second switches28,30that is associated with the identified weakest battery pack is opened to electrically disconnect the weakest battery pack from the other battery pack and thus interrupt the internal circulating current25(220).

The vehicle key-on/key-off status continues to be monitored (222). When the key-on/key-off status indicates that the vehicle100is in the key-on state (222)(1), a desired discharge load power to prevent lithium plating is estimated (224), and when an actual discharge load power is substantially greater than the desired discharge load power (226), the opened one of the first and second switches28,30associated with the identified weakest battery pack is closed to electrically reconnect the weakest battery pack to the other battery pack and the HV DC power bus15(226).

When the key-on/key-off status indicates that the vehicle100remains in the key-off state (222)(0), an internal circulating current associated with an increased battery temperature is estimated (230), and evaluated by comparing the estimated internal circulating current with the internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (232). When the estimated internal circulating current is greater than the internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (232)(0), the vehicle key-on/key-off status is again monitored (222). However, when the estimated internal circulating current is less than the internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (232)(1), the opened one of the first and second switches28,30associated with the identified weakest battery pack is closed to electrically reconnect the weakest battery pack to the other battery pack and the HV DC power bus15(234). In this manner, the first control routine200accommodates operation that includes a vehicle key-off state, including evaluating operation in relation to battery temperature.

Referring now toFIG. 3, with continued reference to the elements of the electric power system10for the vehicle100that are described with reference toFIG. 1, a second control routine300is described, and is associated with operations to preclude deposition and plating of lithium onto battery electrodes of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively, by controlling the internal circulating current25under the charge current limit at vehicle light load or no load, including increasing power bus load by turning on additional accessory loads, such as electrical system heater, raising cabin or heated seat temperature. On the other hand, when the vehicle100is operating in a full load discharge state, the discharge current from the strongest of the battery packs22or24will be controlled to operate below its discharge current limit by operating the electric machine12to generate less tractive power. The second control routine300may be in the form of an executable instruction set that is implemented in the controller36.

Execution of the second control routine300includes determining and evaluating the internal circulating current25under vehicle operating conditions that include the vehicle100being in a key-on or key-off state, by determining various vehicle parameters by direct monitoring, modelling, simulation, or another method. The vehicle parameters include states of charge of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (302); battery temperatures T1and T2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (303); internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively (305); and other battery states (306), such as polarization voltage of the first and second battery packs22,24. The polarization voltage is the battery internal voltage drop other than its open circuit voltage. The aforementioned vehicle parameters are input to a routine310to determine a first, feed-forward load current315for operating the vehicle100.

The feed-forward load current315may be determined by employing a physics-based feed-forward estimator as follows in EQ. 2:

wherein

i represents a total current load applied to the battery system20;

L represents inductance in the wiring harness26;

Rm1represents internal resistance of the first battery pack22;

Rm2represents internal resistance of the second battery pack24;

IL1represents an internal circulating current limit for the first battery pack22that is assumed to be the weakest battery;

IR_Free_V1represents the voltage of the first battery pack22minus the voltage drop Rm1i1;

IR_Free_V2represents the voltage of the second battery pack24minus the voltage drop Rm2i2; and

Rs2represents resistance in the wiring harness26.

EQ. 2 may be simplified as follows:

i represents the total current load applied to the battery system20;

L represents inductance in the wiring harness26;

Rm1represents internal resistance of the first battery pack22;

Rm2represents internal resistance of the second battery pack24;

OCV1represents open circuit voltage at the first battery pack22;

OCV2represents open circuit voltage at the second battery pack24; and

IL1represents an internal circulating current limit for the weakest battery, e.g., the first battery pack22in one embodiment.

Coincidently, the first and second voltage, current and temperature (VIT) parameters33,35, respectively, from the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively are evaluated in a feedback loop to select the current29(332) either from a weakest pack or from a strongest pack based on control needs, for example, when controlling internal circulating current under charge current limit under vehicle light load or no load conditions, the current of the weakest pack being charged is selected; likewise, at vehicle full load request or discharge state, the discharge current of the strongest pack is selected, which is provided as feedback to an adder function318, and subtracted from the corresponding charge current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively to determine a current difference319, which is provided as input to a proportional-integral (PI) controller320. The PI controller320generates a current feedback term325based upon the current difference319. The current feedback term325is combined with the feed-forward load current315by adder327to determine a bias load current335, which is subjected to an anti-windup and saturation control term330, which is graphically portrayed.

The bias load current335is provided as feedback to an integrator anti-windup function336, which generates the anti-windup term338that is provided to the PI controller320to generate the current feedback term325.

At vehicle light load or no load, to control the internal circulating current under charge current limit, the bias load current335is added to a present operating load current340to determine a final load current350. The final load current350is employed by the controller36to control operation of the one or a plurality of the vehicle accessory loads to ensure that the internal circulating current25is less than the internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively, to preclude deposition and plating of lithium onto battery electrodes of the first and second battery packs22,24respectively. Similarly, at vehicle full load demand, the determined final load current350from the feedforward and feedback control will be achieved by derating motor torque or motor current that is delivered to the electric machine12.

Referring now toFIG. 4, another control routine400is described, and is associated with operations to preclude deposition and plating of lithium onto battery electrodes of first and second battery packs422,424, respectively, of an electrical power system410by controlling an internal circulating current425. The control routine400is associated with and acts to control the electrical power system410that includes a controllable resistive load450that is arranged on a HV DC power bus415. This includes controlling the controllable resistive load to introduce a bias load onto the HV DC power bus415to control the internal circulating current425to be less than an internal circulating current limit.

The electric power system410includes a battery pack420that electrically connects via the HV DC power bus415to a vehicle load412, which may include a power inverter and electric machine. The battery pack420also electrically connects via the HV DC power bus415to a controllable resistive load450. A controller436monitors and/or controls operation of various elements of the electric power system410. The HV DC power bus415includes a positive HV bus416and a negative HV bus418. The battery pack420includes a plurality of lithium-ion battery packs, including first and second battery packs422,424, respectively, as shown. The first and second battery packs422,424, respectively as shown are electrically connected via a wiring harness426, which electrically connects to the positive HV bus416. The internal circulating current425is defined as a magnitude of current that flows between the first and second battery packs422,424via the wiring harness426. The wiring harness426includes first and second switches428,430, respectively, which are controllable by the controller436. The first switch428is arranged to electrically connect or disconnect the first battery pack422to the positive HV bus416, and the second switch430is arranged to electrically connect or disconnect the second battery pack424to the positive HV bus416. The first battery pack422electrically connects to the negative HV bus418via a first sensor pack432, and the second battery pack424electrically connects to the negative HV bus418via a second sensor pack434. The first and second sensor packs432,434include sensing elements that monitor first and second voltage, current and temperature (VIT) parameters of the first and second battery packs22,24, respectively. The first and second sensor packs432,434communicate the first and second VIT parameters to the controller436. The controllable resistive load450is a variable resistive device that is arranged between the positive and negative HV buses416,418, and is connected thereto by a switch405that is controlled by the controller436.

The control routine400may be implemented in the controller436in the form of an executable instruction set that is implemented therein, including when operating the electric machine12to generate tractive power at low load or no load. The control routine400includes evaluating first and second voltage, current and temperature (VIT) parameters from the first and second battery packs422,424, respectively, to determine a minimum current429. The minimum current429and internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs422,424(465) are input to a PI feedback control480, which generates a resistance correction term485based upon a current difference therebetween. The internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2of the first and second battery packs422,424, respectively, are determined in relation to the respective battery temperatures T1and T2. The internal circulating current limits IL1, IL2are also provided to a feed-forward routine470to determine a feed-forward internal circulating resistance475. The feed-forward internal circulating resistance475and the resistance correction term485are combined to determine a bias load resistance495, which is provided as input to control the controllable resistive load450.

The feed-forward routine470determines the feed-forward internal circulating resistance475in accordance with the following relation:

R represents the feed-forward internal circulating resistance475;

V represents battery system terminal voltage;

i represents the desired load current, determined based upon EQS. 2 and 3; and

PwL represents vehicle load power.

The controller436controls the switch405to activate the controllable resistive load450between the positive and negative HV buses416,418when a difference between the desired discharge power, V*i and the vehicle load power, PwL is greater than 0 (490). The magnitude of the bias load resistance495induced by the controllable resistive load450is determined based upon the combining of the feed-forward internal circulating resistance475and the resistance correction term485.

FIG. 5schematically shows an electric power system510that includes a battery system520that electrically connects via the HV DC power bus515to a vehicle load512, which may include a power inverter and an electric machine, and to other vehicle accessory loads, indicated by numeral550. The HV DC power bus515includes a positive HV bus516and a negative HV bus518. The battery system520includes a plurality of lithium-ion battery packs, including, in one embodiment and as shown, first, second, third, and fourth battery packs521,522,523, and524, respectively. The first, second, third, and fourth battery packs521,522,523, and524are electrically connected between the positive HV bus516via switches531,532,533, and534, respectively, and the negative HV bus518. Currents i1, i2, i3, and i4from the respective first, second, third, and fourth battery packs521,522,523, and524are monitored by VIT sensors541,542,543, and544, respectively.

In operation, the controller536monitors information from the VIT sensors541,542,543, and544to determine parameters for the respective first, second, third, and fourth battery packs521,522,523, and524, including, e.g., currents, cell voltages, and pack temperatures. The parameters for the respective first, second, third, and fourth battery packs521,522,523, and524are employed to determine respective charge and discharge current limits IL1, IL2, IL3, IL4. When one or more of the currents i1, i2, i3, and i4from the respective first, second, third, and fourth battery packs521,522,523, and524is greater in magnitude than the respective current limit IL1, IL2, IL3, IL4, actions are undertaken to control the respective circulating charging current by deactivating the respective one of the switches531,532,533, and534when there is no load or at light load, or by inducing a bias load to one of the vehicle accessories550to reduce the respective charging current.

When at full load driving demand, actions are undertaken to control the respective discharge current from the strongest pack within the discharge current limit by derating a motor torque or current or other electric power consumption in vehicles. This includes monitoring electric load demand being delivered to the electric machine, identifying one of the battery packs as a strongest battery pack based upon the states of charge and the impedances of the battery packs, and decreasing the electric load demand being delivered to the electric machine to control the electric power transfer through the wiring harness such that the discharge current of the strongest pack is less than a discharge current limit. This facilitates controlling electric power transfer through the wiring harness and the power bus such that in case a driver demands a full power in cold weather, the discharge current of the strongest battery pack in a battery system is less than the battery discharge current limit. This includes executing feed-forward control based upon the battery states for the plurality of battery packs to determine a first load current for the given discharge current limit, executing feedback control based on the actual strongest pack current measurement and the discharge current limit to determine a current feedback term, determining a bias load current based upon the first load current and the current feedback term, and controlling operation of one or more electric motors or actuators by deducting the bias load current from the electric motors, such that the current of the strongest pack will not exceed the discharge current limit.

The term “controller” and related terms such as microcontroller, control module, module, control, control unit, processor and similar terms refer to one or various combinations of Application Specific Integrated Circuit(s) (ASIC), Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), electronic circuit(s), central processing unit(s), e.g., microprocessor(s) and associated non-transitory memory component(s) in the form of memory and storage devices (read only, programmable read only, random access, hard drive, etc.). The non-transitory memory component is capable of storing machine readable instructions in the form of one or more software or firmware programs or routines, combinational logic circuit(s), input/output circuit(s) and devices, signal conditioning, buffer circuitry and other components, which can accessed by and executed by one or more processors to provide a described functionality. Input/output circuit(s) and devices include analog/digital converters and related devices that monitor inputs from sensors, with such inputs monitored at a preset sampling frequency or in response to a triggering event. Software, firmware, programs, instructions, control routines, code, algorithms and similar terms mean controller-executable instruction sets including calibrations and look-up tables. Each controller executes control routine(s) to provide desired functions. Routines may be executed at regular intervals, for example each 100 microseconds during ongoing operation. Alternatively, routines may be executed in response to occurrence of a triggering event. Communication between controllers, actuators and/or sensors may be accomplished using a direct wired point-to-point link, a networked communication bus link, a wireless link or another suitable communication link. Communication includes exchanging data signals in suitable form, including, for example, electrical signals via a conductive medium, an electromagnetic signal via air, optical signals via optical waveguides, and the like. The data signals may include discrete, analog or digitized analog signals representing inputs from sensors, actuator commands, and communication between controllers.

The term “signal” refers to a physically discernible indicator that conveys information, and may be a suitable waveform (e.g., electrical, optical, magnetic, mechanical or electromagnetic), such as DC, AC, sinusoidal-wave, triangular-wave, square-wave, vibration, and the like, that is capable of traveling through a medium.

The term ‘model’ refers to a processor-based or processor-executable code and associated calibration that simulates a physical existence of a device or a physical process. As used herein, the terms ‘dynamic’ and ‘dynamically’ describe steps or processes that are executed in real-time and are characterized by monitoring or otherwise determining states of parameters and regularly or periodically updating the states of the parameters during execution of a routine or between iterations of execution of the routine.

The terms “calibration”, “calibrated”, and related terms refer to a result or a process that correlates a desired parameter and one or multiple perceived or observed parameters for a device or a system. A calibration as described herein may be reduced to a storable parametric table, a plurality of executable equations or another suitable form that may be employed as part of a measurement or control routine.

A parameter is defined as a measurable quantity that represents a physical property of a device or other element that is discernible using one or more sensors and/or a physical model. A parameter can have a discrete value, e.g., either “1” or “0”, or can be infinitely variable in value.