Selective retention of multivalent ions

Disclosed herein are systems and methods in which multivalent ions are selectively retained in an aqueous stream. According to certain embodiments, multiple separations may be used to process an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions to produce a stream enriched in the solubilized multivalent ions. The separations may be arranged, according to certain embodiments, to enhance the overall separation process such that the product stream contains—relative to the initial aqueous feed stream—a high amount of solubilized multivalent ions, a high amount of water from the aqueous feed stream, and/or a high ratio of solubilized multivalent ions to solubilized monovalent ions.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Systems and methods in which solubilized multivalent ions are selectively retained in an aqueous stream are generally described.

SUMMARY

Selective retention of solubilized multivalent ions in aqueous streams is generally described. Certain embodiments are related to inventive arrangements of separation membranes, which can lead to enhancements in efficiency. For example, in some embodiments, one or more osmotic membrane separators can be used to at least partially separate water from solubilized monovalent ions and/or solubilized multivalent ions. The subject matter of the present invention involves, in some cases, interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and/or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and/or articles.

According to certain embodiments, a method is provided. The method comprises, in some embodiments, transporting an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions between an ion-selective membrane and an osmotic membrane, such that: the aqueous feed stream is transported across a first side of the ion-selective membrane and across a first side of the osmotic membrane; and at least a portion of the solubilized monovalent ions and the water from the aqueous feed stream is transported from the first side of the ion-selective membrane, through the ion-selective membrane, to a second side of the ion-selective membrane; and transporting at least a portion of the water from the second side of the ion-selective membrane to a second side of the osmotic membrane, such that at least a portion of the water from the second side of the osmotic membrane is transported from the second side of the osmotic membrane, through the osmotic membrane, to the first side of the osmotic membrane.

In some embodiments, the method comprises transporting an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions into an ion-selective separator to produce a monovalent-ion-enriched stream containing at least about 75% of the solubilized monovalent ions from the aqueous feed stream and a multivalent-ion-enriched stream containing at least about 75% of the solubilized multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream; transporting at least a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream across a first side of an osmotic membrane and at least a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream across a second side of the osmotic membrane such that at least a portion of the water in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported through the osmotic membrane and into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream.

The method comprises, in some embodiments, exposing an ion-selective membrane to an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions to produce a monovalent-ion-enriched stream containing water and at least about 75% of the solubilized monovalent ions from the aqueous feed stream; transporting at least a portion of the water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream from a first side of an osmotic membrane, through the osmotic membrane, and to a second side of the osmotic membrane; and combining the portion of the water transported through the osmotic membrane with a stream on the second side of the osmotic membrane, wherein the stream on the second side of the osmotic membrane comprises at least a portion of the solubilized multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream.

In some embodiments, a system is provided. The system comprises, in certain embodiments, a housing; an ion-selective membrane positioned at least partially within the housing, the ion-selective membrane having a first side and a second side; an osmotic membrane positioned at least partially within the housing, the osmotic membrane having a first side facing the first side of the ion-selective membrane, and a second side, wherein at least a portion of the first side of the ion-selective membrane and at least a portion of the first side of the osmotic membrane define a flow pathway between the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane; and a conduit fluidically connecting the second side of the ion-selective membrane to the second side of the osmotic membrane.

In some embodiments, the system comprises an ion-selective separator configured to at least partially separate solubilized monovalent ions from solubilized multivalent ions, the ion-selective separator comprising an inlet, a first outlet configured to output a monovalent-ion-enriched stream, and a second outlet configured to output a multivalent-ion-enriched stream; and an osmotic membrane separator fluidically connected to the ion-selective separator, such that the first outlet of the ion-selective separator is fluidically connected to a first side of an osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator, and the second outlet of the ion-selective separator is fluidically connected to a second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein are systems and methods in which multivalent ions are selectively retained in an aqueous stream. According to certain embodiments, multiple separations may be used to process an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions to produce a stream enriched in the solubilized multivalent ions. The separations may be arranged, according to certain embodiments, to enhance the overall separation process such that the product stream contains—relative to the initial aqueous feed stream—a high amount of solubilized multivalent ions, a high amount of water from the aqueous feed stream, and/or a high ratio of solubilized multivalent ions to solubilized monovalent ions.

Some embodiments are related to inventive arrangements of separation membranes. For example, according to certain embodiments, multiple separation membranes are arranged in a single housing. The membranes may be spaced apart from each other such that an aqueous stream comprising both solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions is transported between the membranes. According to certain embodiments, the membranes may be arranged, and the flow rates of certain streams may be configured, such that water and solubilized monovalent ions are transported out of the aqueous feed stream through the first membrane (while the transport of solubilized multivalent ions is restricted) and such that water is transported back into the aqueous feed stream through the second membrane (while the transport of solubilized monovalent ions back into the aqueous feed stream is restricted). Such arrangements can, in some instances, increase the efficiency with which the multivalent-ion enriched stream is produced. For example, in some cases, such arrangements can allow for the production of aqueous streams enriched in solubilized multivalent ions using relatively compact equipment and/or using relatively low amounts of energy.

Certain embodiments are related to inventive systems and methods for performing multiple membrane-based separation steps in an efficient manner. In some such embodiments, an ion-selective membrane can be used to produce a monovalent-ion-enriched stream (containing water and solubilized monovalent ions) from an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions. In some such embodiments, at least a portion of the water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream can be transported through an osmotic membrane to a stream on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. The stream on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane can contain at least a portion of the multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream. By performing the ion-selective separation and osmotic separation steps in this manner, according to certain embodiments, the amount of energy needed to achieve a given level of multivalent ion purity can be reduced.

Certain embodiments are related to systems for producing aqueous streams that are enriched in solubilized multivalent ions from an aqueous feed stream comprising a mixture of the solubilized multivalent ions and solubilized monovalent ions. Some embodiments are related to systems in which an ion-selective membrane and an osmotic membrane are spatially arranged and integrated with a housing to efficiently produce a multivalent-ion enriched stream from an aqueous feed stream comprising a combination of solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions. According to some embodiments, the system comprises a housing, an ion-selective membrane positioned at least partially within the housing, and an osmotic membrane positioned at least partially within the housing. One exemplary system is illustrated inFIG. 1A, in which system100comprises housing110, ion-selective membrane120positioned within housing110, and osmotic membrane130positioned within housing110. While housing110is shown as being enclosed (with the exception of the inlets and outlets), an enclosed housing is not necessarily required, and in certain embodiments, the housing can have one or more openings. For example, in some cases, it may not be necessary to pressurize a particular compartment within the housing, in which case, such compartment may be open to the surrounding environment.

According to certain embodiments, the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane can be positioned relative to each other such that they spatially define a flow pathway between them. For example, the ion-selective membrane can have a first side, and the osmotic membrane can have a first side facing the first side of the ion-selective membrane. Referring toFIG. 1A, for example, ion-selective membrane120has first side122and second side124, and osmotic membrane130has first side132and second side134. In addition, inFIG. 1A, first side132of osmotic membrane130is facing first side122of ion-selective membrane120. InFIG. 1A, ion-selective membrane120and osmotic membrane130are positioned relative to each other such that they define flow pathway (indicated by dashed arrow136) between them.

While ion-selective membrane120and osmotic membrane130are illustrated as being parallel and planar inFIG. 1A, the membranes do not necessarily have to be parallel or planar in all embodiments. In certain embodiments, the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane can be rolled together (while the spacing between them is maintained), for example, to form a “jelly-roll” arrangement. In certain embodiments, the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane can be planar (or substantially planar) but not perfectly parallel. For example, the planar or substantially planar membranes can be parallel to within 10°, within 5°, within 2°, or within 1°, in certain embodiments. Non-parallel membranes could also be employed.

Suitable separation between the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane (which can allow for a suitable flow pathway to be formed between the two) can be maintained via a variety of suitable methods. For example, in some embodiments, spacers can be arranged between the membranes to prevent facial contact between the first side of the ion-selective membrane and the first side of the osmotic membrane, at least in a sufficient number of regions to allow for flow of fluid between the first side of the ion-selective membrane and the first side of the osmotic membrane.

According to certain embodiments, the facial surface of the first side of the ion-selective membrane and the facial surface of the first side of the osmotic membrane can be spaced relatively close together. For example, in some embodiments, the shortest distance between the facial surface the first side of the ion-selective membrane and the facial surface of the first side of the osmotic membrane is less than about 1 cm, less than about 5 mm, less than about 1.5 mm, or less than about 1 mm. In some embodiments, the average distance between the facial surface the first side of the ion-selective membrane and the facial surface of the first side of the osmotic membrane is less than about 1 cm, less than about 5 mm, less than about 1.5 mm, or less than about 1 mm.

A variety of types of ion-selective membranes may be used, according to certain embodiments. Generally, the ion-selective membrane is chosen such that it may transmit solubilized monovalent ions while inhibiting (or completely preventing) the transmission of solubilized multivalent ions. For example, inFIG. 1A, ion-selective membrane120may be configured to transmit solubilized monovalent ions from first side122to second side124while inhibiting (or completely preventing) the transmission of solubilized multivalent ions from first side122to second side124, as described in more detail below. Such selective separation may be achieved, for example, by using a membrane having appropriately sized pores (e.g., pores with sizes that allow for transmission of solubilized monovalent ions and the retention of solubilized multivalent ions). Achieving appropriate separation may also involve, according to certain embodiments, establishing appropriate stream flow rate(s) and/or applying an appropriate hydraulic pressure to the retentate side of the membrane, as discussed in more detail below. In some embodiments, the ion-selective membrane is made of a bulk material (e.g., a polymer such as polyethylene terephthalate, polysulfone, polyethersulfone; a metal such as aluminum; oxides such as alumina; and composites of these) through which pores extend. According to certain embodiments, the ion-selective membrane has a molecular weight cut off of at least about 200 Da, such as from about 200 Da to about 1000 Da, from about 200 Da to about 800 Da, or from about 200 Da to about 400 Da. The molecular weight cutoff of a membrane can be measured, for example, by determining the lowest molecular weight of polyethylene glycol (PEG) or polyethylene oxide (PEO) at which rejection of the PEG or PEO with that molecular weight is greater than 90%, when present at a feed concentration of 200 ppm, a feed pressure of 15 psi, and a feed temperature of 20° C. The ion-selective membrane may have, according to certain embodiments, an average pore size of at least about 1 nanometer, such as from about 1 nanometer to about 10 nanometers. While the ion-selective membranes are generally illustrated as being planar in the figures, it should be understood that the membranes need not necessarily be planar. For example, in some embodiments, the ion-selective membrane(s) can be a spiral-wound membrane or have any other suitable form factor. In some embodiments, the ion-selective membrane comprises a nanofiltration membrane. Examples of commercially available membranes that can be used as an ion-selective membrane include, according to certain embodiments, Dow Filmtec NF-90, GE Osmonics DK series, and Synder NFW membranes.

A variety of types of osmotic membranes may also be used, according to certain embodiments. Those of ordinary skill in the art are familiar with osmotic membranes. Generally, osmotic membranes selectively transmit water while inhibiting (or completely preventing) the transmission of ions (including both solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions) through the membrane. For example, inFIG. 1A, osmotic membrane130may be configured to transmit water from second side134to first side132while inhibiting (or completely preventing) the transmission of solubilized monovalent ions from second side134to first side132, as described in more detail below. Such selective separation may be achieved, for example, by selecting a membrane having appropriately sized pores. In some embodiments, the osmotic membrane is made of a bulk material through which pores extend. The osmotic membrane may have, according to certain embodiments, an average pore size of less than about 1 nanometer. According to certain embodiments, the osmotic membrane has a molecular weight cut off about 100 Da or less. Generally, the sizes of the pores within the osmotic membrane that allow for selective retention of ions will be smaller than the pores within the ion-selective membrane that allow for the transmission of solubilized monovalent ions and the retention of solubilized multivalent ions. The bulk material of the osmotic membrane can comprise, for example, a metal, a ceramic, a polymer (e.g., polyamides, polyethylenes, polyesters, poly(tetrafluoroethylene), polysulfones, polyethersulfones, polycarbonates, polypropylenes, poly(acrylates)), and/or composites or other combinations of these. While the osmotic membranes are generally illustrated as being planar in the figures, it should be understood that the osmotic membranes need not necessarily be planar. For example, in some embodiments, the osmotic membrane(s) can be a spiral-wound membrane or have any other suitable form factor. Examples of commercially available osmotic membranes that can be used in association with certain of the embodiments described herein include, but are not limited to, those commercially available from Dow Water and Process Solutions (e.g., FilmTec™ membranes), Hydranautics, GE Osmonics, and Toray Membrane, among others known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

According to certain embodiments, the system comprises a conduit fluidically connecting the second side of the ion-selective membrane to the second side of the osmotic membrane. For example, inFIG. 1A, system100comprises a conduit (which can contain stream150, described further below) fluidically connecting second side124of ion-selective membrane120to second side134of osmotic membrane130(via outlet152and inlet154). In certain embodiments, the conduit fluidically connecting the second side of the ion-selective membrane to the second side of the osmotic membrane can establish a direct fluidic connection between the second side of the ion-selective membrane and the second side of the osmotic membrane. For example, inFIG. 1A, stream150is illustrated as establishing a direct fluidic connection between outlet152and inlet154. The direct fluidic connection between the second side of the ion-selective membrane and the second side of the osmotic membrane is optional, and in other embodiments, an indirect fluidic connection can be established between the second side of the ion-selective membrane and the second side of the osmotic membrane.

In some embodiments, the ion-selective membrane can be configured such that a stream (e.g., the aqueous feed stream) can be transported across the facial area of the first side of the ion-selective membrane. Such transport may be useful, for example, when the ion-selective membrane is operated as a cross-flow separator. The ion-selective membrane could also be operated, for example, as a co-flow or a counter-flow separator. For example, in some embodiments, another stream (e.g., a portion of aqueous feed stream160and/or another stream) could be transported across second side124of ion-selective membrane120, either in a co-flow or a counter-flow configuration relative to stream136. Transportation of a stream across the facial area of the first side of the ion-selective membrane can be achieved, for example, by arranging an inlet and an outlet such that they span at least a portion of the facial area of the first side of the ion-selective membrane. In some such embodiments, when a fluid is transported from the inlet to the outlet, it is transported across at least a portion of the facial area of the first side of the ion-selective membrane. For example, inFIG. 1A, system100comprises inlet162and outlet164, and when aqueous feed stream160is transported from inlet162to outlet164, the fluid is transported across the facial area of first side122of ion-selective membrane120.

Unless explicitly indicated otherwise, streams that are transported “across” a side of a membrane are transported along the facial area of the membrane, while streams that are transported “through” a membrane are transported through the thickness of the membrane. For example, referring toFIG. 1A, aqueous feed stream160is transported across first side122of ion-selective membrane120when aqueous feed stream is transported from inlet162to outlet164. In the other hand, a portion of the water within the aqueous feed stream is transported through ion selective membrane120when it is transported from first side122of ion-selective membrane120to second side124of ion-selective membrane120.

According to certain embodiments, the osmotic membrane can be configured such that a stream (e.g., the aqueous feed stream) can be transported across the facial area of the first side of the osmotic membrane. Such transport may be useful, for example, when the osmotic membrane is operated as a co-flow or a counter-flow osmotic membrane separator. Transportation of a stream across the facial area of the first side of the osmotic membrane can be achieved, for example, by arranging an inlet and an outlet such that they span at least a portion of the facial area of the first side of the osmotic membrane. In some such embodiments, when a fluid is transported from the inlet to the outlet, it is transported across at least a portion of the facial area of the first side of the osmotic membrane. For example, inFIG. 1A, system100comprises inlet162and outlet164, and when aqueous feed stream160is transported from inlet162to outlet164, the fluid is transported across the facial area of first side132of osmotic membrane130.

In some embodiments, the osmotic membrane can be configured such that a stream can be transported across the facial area of the second side of the osmotic membrane. Such transport may be useful, for example, when the osmotic membrane is operated as a co-flow or a counter-flow osmotic membrane separator. Transportation of a stream across the facial area of the second side of the osmotic membrane can be achieved, for example, by arranging an inlet and an outlet such that they span at least a portion of the facial area of the second side of the osmotic membrane. In some such embodiments, when a fluid is transported from the inlet to the outlet, it is transported across at least a portion of the facial area of the second side of the osmotic membrane. For example, inFIG. 1A, system100comprises inlet154and outlet156, and when fluid is transported from inlet154to outlet156, the fluid is transported across the facial area of second side134of osmotic membrane130.

Certain embodiments are related to methods of operating a system comprising an ion-selective membrane and an osmotic membrane to produce an aqueous stream enriched in solubilized multivalent ions from an aqueous feed stream comprising a mixture of the solubilized multivalent ions and solubilized monovalent ions.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises transporting an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions between the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane. For example, referring toFIG. 1A, certain embodiments comprise transporting aqueous feed stream160, which can contain solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions, between ion-selective membrane120and osmotic membrane130. According to certain embodiments, the aqueous feed stream is transported across a first side of the ion-selective membrane and across a first side of the osmotic membrane. For example, inFIG. 1A, aqueous feed stream160is transported across first side122of ion-selective membrane120and across first side132of osmotic membrane130, from inlet162to outlet164. The aqueous feed stream can simultaneously contact the first side of the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane, according to certain embodiments, as it is transported between the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane. For example, inFIG. 1A, aqueous feed stream160simultaneously contacts both first side122of ion-selective membrane120and first side132of osmotic membrane130as it is transported along flow pathway136between ion-selective membrane120and osmotic membrane130.

The ion-selective membrane can be configured, according to certain embodiments, such that when the first side of the ion-selective membrane is exposed to the aqueous solution containing both solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions (and, optionally, a hydraulic pressure is applied to the solution on the first side), at least a portion (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from the aqueous feed stream are transported through the ion-selective membrane from the first side to a second side. In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream are prevented from being transported through the ion-selective membrane, and remain on the first side of the ion-selective membrane. Operation in this manner can result in the creation of a multivalent-ion-enriched stream (corresponding to the retentate of the ion-selective membrane) and a monovalent-ion-enriched stream (corresponding to the permeate of the ion-selective membrane).

Certain embodiments comprise transporting the aqueous feed stream containing the solubilized monovalent ions and the solubilized multivalent ions across the ion-selective membrane to at least partially separate the solubilized monovalent ions and the solubilized multivalent ions and to produce a monovalent-ion-enriched stream and a multivalent-ion-enriched stream. According to certain embodiments, operation of the system comprises transporting at least a portion of the solubilized monovalent ions and the water from the aqueous feed stream from the first side of the ion-selective membrane, through the ion-selective membrane, to a second side of the ion-selective membrane. Solubilized multivalent ions, on the other hand, can be selectively retained by the ion-selective membrane.

For example, referring toFIG. 1A, in some embodiments, aqueous feed stream160(containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions) is transported across ion-selective membrane120(along flow pathway136) to at least partially separate the solubilized monovalent ions and the solubilized multivalent ions to produce monovalent-ion-enriched stream150and multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165. Certain embodiments comprise exposing first side122of ion-selective membrane120to aqueous feed stream160(and, optionally, applying a hydraulic pressure to first side122of ion-selective membrane120) such that at least a portion (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from aqueous feed stream160are transported from first side122of ion-selective membrane120, through ion-selective membrane120, to second side124of ion-selective membrane120. In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from aqueous feed stream160are prevented from being transported through ion-selective membrane120, and remain on first side122of ion-selective membrane120. Thus, according to certain such embodiments, as the aqueous feed stream is transported across the first side of the ion-selective membrane, the aqueous feed stream can become more concentrated in solubilized multivalent ions, relative to the concentration of solubilized multivalent ions present within the aqueous feed stream as it enters the system. In addition, in some such embodiments, because solubilized monovalent ions are being transported through the ion-selective membrane at a faster rate than are solubilized multivalent ions, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions to solubilized monovalent ions within the aqueous feed stream may also increase as the aqueous feed stream is transported along the flow pathway between the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane. Referring toFIG. 1A, in some embodiments, as aqueous feed stream160is transported across first side122of ion-selective membrane120, aqueous feed stream160can become more concentrated in solubilized multivalent ions, relative to the concentration of solubilized multivalent ions present within the aqueous feed stream at inlet162. In some such embodiments, because solubilized monovalent ions are being transported through ion-selective membrane120at a faster rate than are solubilized multivalent ions, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions to solubilized monovalent ions within aqueous feed stream160may also increase as the aqueous feed stream is transported along flow pathway136between ion-selective membrane120and osmotic membrane130. Operation in this manner can result in the creation of multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165(corresponding to the retentate of ion-selective membrane120) and monovalent-ion-enriched stream150(corresponding to the permeate of ion-selective membrane120).

As noted above, certain embodiments comprise using an osmotic membrane in combination with the ion-selective membrane. In some such embodiments, the osmotic membrane can be used to separate at least a portion of the solubilized monovalent ions and the water within the monovalent-ion-enriched stream. According to certain embodiments, at least a portion of the water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream can be added back to the aqueous stream being transported between the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane, which can produce a monovalent-ion-enriched stream with a relatively high amount of water, relative to the amount of water that would be present in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream were the osmotic water addition not included.

According to certain embodiments, water can be added back to the aqueous stream by transporting at least a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream across the second side of the osmotic membrane. For example, certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 85 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at least about 99 wt %) of the water from the second side of the ion-selective membrane to a second side of the osmotic membrane. Some such embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10%, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from the second side of the ion-selective membrane to a second side of the osmotic membrane (e.g., along with the portion of the water that is transported to the second side of the osmotic membrane). Referring toFIG. 1A, for example, some embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 85 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at least about 99 wt %) of the water from second side124of ion-selective membrane120to second side134of osmotic membrane130via monovalent-ion-enriched stream150. Some such embodiments also comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10%, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from second side124of ion-selective membrane120to second side134of osmotic membrane130via monovalent-ion-enriched stream150. According to other embodiments, the solubilized monovalent ions may be removed from the portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream that is transported to the second side of the osmotic membrane. For example, as described in more detail below, in some embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched stream may be treated using one or more intermediate osmosis steps, and substantially only water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream (e.g., stream150) may be transported to the second side of the osmotic membrane. An example of one such arrangement is illustrated inFIG. 1B. InFIG. 1B, ion-enriched stream150can be transported to first side702of osmotic membrane701of intermediate osmotic separator700. In some such embodiments, the output of second side134of osmotic membrane130, illustrated as stream118inFIG. 1B, can be used as a draw stream and transported to second side703of osmotic membrane701. In some embodiments, water can be transferred from stream150from first side702of osmotic membrane701to second side703of osmotic membrane701and combined with stream118to produce product stream119. In some such embodiments, the water can be transferred from stream150to stream118by applying a hydraulic pressure to side702of osmotic membrane701. In some such embodiments, product stream119can be transported to second side134of osmotic membrane130. Water may be transferred from stream119, across osmotic membrane130(from side134to side132) according to certain such embodiments. In some such embodiments, a hydraulic pressure can be applied to side134of osmotic membrane130to provide at least a portion of the driving force for transferring water from side134to side132.

In certain embodiments, the housing comprises an outlet on the second side of the ion-selective membrane and an inlet on the second side of the osmotic membrane. A fluidic connection can be established between the outlet on the second side of the ion-selective membrane and the inlet on the second side of the osmotic membrane, for example, via a conduit. Referring toFIG. 1A, for example, monovalent-ion-enriched aqueous solution can be transported out of outlet152, through a conduit (along the pathway for stream150), and into inlet154. While a direct fluidic connection is shown between outlet152and inlet154inFIG. 1A, direct fluidic connections are not necessarily required in all embodiments. Accordingly, in other embodiments, outlet152and inlet154can be indirectly fluidically connected. For example in some cases, monovalent-ion-enriched outlet stream150may be transported through one or more intermediate osmotic membrane separators before at least a portion of the water within monovalent-ion-enriched outlet stream150is transported to second side134of osmotic membrane130.

According to certain embodiments, water can be selectively transported through the osmotic membrane (from the second side of the osmotic membrane to the first side of the osmotic membrane), such that the aqueous stream being transported between the ion-selective membrane and the osmotic membrane is diluted while maintaining a suitable ratio of solubilized multivalent ions to solubilized monovalent ions. In some embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 85 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at least about 99 wt %, or between about 10 wt % and about 99 wt %, or between about 10 wt % and about 90 wt %) of the water from the second side of the osmotic membrane is transported from the second side of the osmotic membrane, through the osmotic membrane, to the first side of the osmotic membrane. InFIG. 1A, for example, at least a portion of the water within monovalent-ion-enriched stream150is transported from second side134of osmotic membrane130to first side132of osmotic membrane130. In some such embodiments, a relatively large percentage (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched stream are transported to and prevented from being transported through the osmotic membrane. InFIG. 1A, for example, at least a portion of the monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched stream150is prevented from being transported from second side134of osmotic membrane130to first side132of osmotic membrane130. In some embodiments, the ratio to the number of water molecules to the number of ions transported through the osmotic membrane can be at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 25:1, or at least about 50:1 (and/or, up to about 100:1, up to about 1000:1, or greater).

Selective transport of water (relative to solubilized species such as solubilized monovalent and/or solubilized multivalent ions) through an osmotic membrane can be achieved via a transmembrane net driving force (i.e., a net driving force through the thickness of the membrane), according to certain embodiments. Generally, the transmembrane net driving force (Δχ) is expressed as:
Δχ=ΔP−ΔΠ=(PR−PP)−(ΠR−ΠP)  [1]
wherein PRis the hydraulic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane, PPis the hydraulic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane, ΠRis the osmotic pressure of the stream on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane, and ΠPis the osmotic pressure of the stream on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. (PR−PP) can be referred to as the transmembrane hydraulic pressure gradient, and (ΠR−ΠP) can be referred to as the transmembrane osmotic pressure gradient.

Those of ordinary skill in the art are familiar with the concept of osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure of a particular liquid is an intrinsic property of the liquid. The osmotic pressure can be determined in a number of ways, with the most efficient method depending upon the type of liquid being analyzed. For certain solutions with relatively low molar concentrations of ions, osmotic pressure can be accurately measured using an osmometer. In other cases, the osmotic pressure can simply be determined by comparison with solutions with known osmotic pressures. For example, to determine the osmotic pressure of an uncharacterized solution, one could apply a known amount of the uncharacterized solution on one side of a non-porous, semi-permeable, osmotic membrane and iteratively apply different solutions with known osmotic pressures on the other side of the osmotic membrane until the differential pressure through the thickness of the membrane is zero.

The osmotic pressure (Π) of a solution containing n solubilized species may be estimated as:
Π=Σj=1nijMjRT[2]
wherein ijis the van't Hoff factor of the jthsolubilized species, Mjis the molar concentration of the jthsolubilized species in the solution, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature of the solution. Equation 2 generally provides an accurate estimate of osmotic pressure for liquid with low concentrations of solubilized species (e.g., concentrations at or below between about 4 wt % and about 6 wt %). For many liquid comprising solubilized species, at species concentrations above around 4-6 wt %, the increase in osmotic pressure per increase in salt concentration is greater than linear (e.g., slightly exponential).

The osmotic membrane can be used to perform, according to certain embodiments, a reverse osmosis process. Reverse osmosis generally occurs when the osmotic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane is greater than the osmotic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane, and a hydraulic pressure is applied to the retentate side of the osmotic membrane such that the hydraulic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane is sufficiently greater than the hydraulic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane to cause water to be transported from the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. Generally, such situations result when the transmembrane hydraulic pressure gradient (PR−PP) is greater than the transmembrane osmotic pressure gradient (ΠR−ΠP) such that water is transported from the first side of the osmotic membrane to the second side of the osmotic membrane (rather than having water transported from the second side of the osmotic membrane to the first side of the osmotic membrane, which would be energetically favored in the absence of the pressure applied to the first side of the osmotic membrane). Operating the osmotic membrane to perform reverse osmosis can comprise applying a hydraulic pressure to the stream on the second side of the osmotic membrane, according to certain embodiments. Referring toFIG. 1A, for example, osmotic membrane130can be used to perform reverse osmosis, for example, when the osmotic pressure on second side134of osmotic membrane130is higher than the osmotic pressure on first side132, a hydraulic pressure is applied to second side134such that the hydraulic pressure on second side134is higher than the hydraulic pressure on first side132, and the difference between the hydraulic pressure on second side134and the hydraulic pressure on first side132is greater than the difference between the osmotic pressure on second side134and the osmotic pressure on first side132. In such cases, water can be transported from second side134of osmotic membrane130to first side132of osmotic membrane130.

Arranging the system such that the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is positioned on one side of the osmotic membrane and the multivalent-ion-enriched stream is positioned on the other side of the osmotic membrane can, according to certain embodiments, enhance the efficiency with which water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream via reverse osmosis, relative to the efficiency that could be achieved were water removed from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream in a standalone reverse osmosis process. In particular, according to certain embodiments, the presence of the multivalent ions on the side of the osmotic membrane opposite the monovalent-ion-enriched stream can reduce the amount of hydraulic pressure that needs to be applied to the monovalent-ion-enriched stream to achieve a desired level of separation.

In certain embodiments, the osmotic membrane can be used to perform forward osmosis. Forward osmosis generally occurs when the osmotic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane is greater than the osmotic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane such that water is transported from the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. In forward osmosis systems, water generally is transported from the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to the permeate side of the osmotic membrane as long as the hydraulic pressure difference between the permeate side of the osmotic membrane and the retentate side of the osmotic membrane is not sufficiently high to overcome the osmotic pressure difference between the retentate and permeate sides of the osmotic membrane. In this way, the permeate flow and the osmotic driving force are aligned in the same direction. In certain forward osmosis arrangements, the stream on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane can initiate the transport of water from the stream on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane and through the osmotic membrane from the retentate side to the permeate side. Referring toFIG. 1A, in some embodiments, osmotic membrane130can be used to perform forward osmosis, for example, when the osmotic pressure on first side132of osmotic membrane130is greater than the osmotic pressure on second side134of osmotic membrane130, and when the hydraulic pressure gradient from first side132to second side134(P132-P134) is not large enough to overcome the difference in the osmotic pressure between second side134and first side132. In such cases, water can be transported from second side134of osmotic membrane130to first side132of osmotic membrane130. According to certain embodiments, arranging the system such that the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is positioned on one side of the osmotic membrane and the multivalent-ion-enriched stream is positioned on the other side of the osmotic membrane can allow one to perform the forward osmosis process. In particular, according to certain embodiments, the presence of the multivalent ions at a relatively high concentration on the side of the osmotic membrane opposite the monovalent-ion-enriched stream can provide at least a portion of the driving force for performing the forward osmosis process.

In some cases, hydraulic pressure may be applied to the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to enhance the forward osmosis process. For example, in some instances in which the stream on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane has a lower osmotic pressure than the stream on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane, a hydraulic pressure may be applied to the retentate side of the osmotic membrane such that the hydraulic pressure of the stream on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane is higher than the hydraulic pressure of the stream on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. The applied pressure can increase the rate at which water is transported from the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. Such arrangements are sometimes referred to herein as pressure-assisted forward osmosis (which is a particular type of forward osmosis). Referring toFIG. 1A, for example, osmotic membrane130can be used to perform pressure assisted forward osmosis, for example, by applying a hydraulic pressure to second side134of osmotic membrane130such that the hydraulic pressure of the stream on second side134of osmotic membrane130is higher than the hydraulic pressure of the stream on first side132of osmotic membrane130. Of course, the use of an applied pressure to enhance forward osmosis is not generally required, and in some embodiments, forward osmosis is performed in the substantial absence of an applied pressure (e.g., such that the hydraulic pressure gradient through the osmotic membrane is less than or equal to about 0.1 bar).

Generally, whether the osmotic membrane is used to perform reverse osmosis or forward osmosis is determined by the osmotic pressures of the streams on either side of the osmotic membrane. For example, referring toFIG. 1A, according to certain embodiments, if the osmotic pressure on second side134of osmotic membrane130is higher than the osmotic pressure on first side132of osmotic membrane130, and transport of water from second side134to first side132is desired, reverse osmosis will be performed. On the other hand, in some embodiments, the osmotic pressure on second side134of osmotic membrane130may be lower than the osmotic pressure on first side132of osmotic membrane130, and transport of water from second side134to first side132may be desired, in which case, forward osmosis (pressure assisted or otherwise) may be performed.

According to certain embodiments, transporting at least a portion of the water in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream through the osmotic membrane and into the aqueous feed stream produces a multivalent-ion-enriched product stream. For example, referring toFIG. 1A, transporting at least a portion of the water in monovalent-ion-enriched stream150through osmotic membrane130(from second side134to first side132) produces multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165.

In some embodiments, a relatively large percentage of the solubilized multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream is present in the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream. For example, in some embodiments, the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream contains at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 1A, multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165can contain, according to certain embodiments, at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from aqueous feed stream160.

Transporting at least a portion of the water in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream through the osmotic membrane and into the aqueous feed stream can also produce a monovalent-ion-enriched product stream, according to certain embodiments. For example, referring toFIG. 1A, transporting at least a portion of the water in monovalent-ion-enriched stream150through osmotic membrane130(from second side134to first side132) and into aqueous feed stream160produces monovalent-ion-enriched product stream170.

In some embodiments, the amount of solubilized monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream is relatively high. In some embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream contains at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 1A, monovalent-ion-enriched product stream170can contain at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from aqueous feed stream160.

According to certain embodiments, the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream can contain a relatively high amount of solubilized multivalent ions and a relatively low amount of solubilized monovalent ions. For example, in some embodiments, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream to solubilized monovalent ions within the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more. For example, inFIG. 1A, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165to solubilized monovalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more.

In some embodiments, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream to solubilized multivalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more. For example, inFIG. 1A, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165to solubilized multivalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream170is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more.

According to certain embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream can contain a relatively high amount of solubilized monovalent ions and a relatively low amount of solubilized multivalent ions. For example, in some embodiments, the ratio of solubilized monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream to solubilized multivalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more. For example, inFIG. 1A, the ratio of solubilized monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream170to solubilized multivalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream170is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more.

In some embodiments, the ratio of solubilized monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream to solubilized monovalent ions within the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more. For example, inFIG. 1A, the ratio of solubilized monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream170to solubilized monovalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more.

In some embodiments, a relatively large percentage of the water from the aqueous feed stream is present in the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream. For example, in certain embodiments, the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream contains at least about 75 wt % (or at least about 85 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at least about 99 wt %) of the water from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 1A, multivalent-ion-enriched product stream165can contain, according to certain embodiments, at least about 75 wt % (or at least about 85 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at least about 99 wt %) of the water from aqueous feed stream220.

While embodiments have been described in which ion-selective separation and subsequent osmotic separation are performed using an integrated device, the ion-selective separation and osmotic separation can performed using different separators, according to certain embodiments.FIG. 2is a schematic illustration of one such exemplary system200.

In certain embodiments, the system comprises an ion-selective separator configured to at least partially separate solubilized monovalent ions from solubilized multivalent ions. For example, referring toFIG. 2, in some embodiments, system200comprises ion-selective separator210. The ion-selective separator comprises, according to certain embodiments, an inlet. Referring toFIG. 2, for example, ion-selective separator210comprises inlet215. The inlet may be configured to receive an aqueous feed stream containing a mixture of solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions, as described in more detail below. For example, inFIG. 2, inlet215is configured to receive aqueous feed stream220.

According to certain embodiments, the ion-selective separator comprises a first outlet configured to output a monovalent-ion-enriched stream and a second outlet configured to output a multivalent-ion-enriched stream. Referring toFIG. 2, for example, ion-selective separator210comprises first outlet225configured to output monovalent-ion-enriched stream230and second outlet235configured to output multivalent-ion-enriched stream240.

According to certain embodiments, operation of the ion-selective separator comprises transporting an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions into the ion-selective separator to at least partially separate the solubilized monovalent ions and the solubilized multivalent ions and to produce a monovalent-ion-enriched stream and a multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, referring toFIG. 2, in some embodiments, aqueous feed stream220containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions is transported into ion-selective separator210to at least partially separate the solubilized monovalent ions and the solubilized multivalent ions to produce monovalent-ion-enriched stream230and multivalent-ion-enriched stream240. In some embodiments, the multivalent-ion-enriched stream contains at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 2, multivalent-ion-enriched stream240can contain at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from aqueous feed stream220. According to certain embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched stream contains at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 2, monovalent-ion-enriched stream230can contain at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from aqueous feed stream220.

The ion-selective separator can comprise any suitable separation apparatus capable of at least partially separating solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions.

According to certain embodiments, the ion-selective separator is an ion-selective membrane separator. The ion-selective membrane separator can comprise an ion-selective membrane. Examples of suitable ion-selective membranes include, for example, the ion-selective membranes described elsewhere herein with respect toFIG. 1A.

The ion-selective membrane can be configured, according to certain embodiments, such that when a first side of the membrane is exposed to an aqueous solution containing both solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions (and, optionally, a hydraulic pressure is applied to the solution on the first side), at least a portion (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from the aqueous feed stream are transported through the ion-selective membrane from the first side to a second side. In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream are prevented from being transported through the ion-selective membrane, and remain on the first side of the ion-selective membrane. Operation in this manner can result in the creation of a multivalent-ion-enriched stream (corresponding to the retentate of the ion-selective membrane separator) and a monovalent-ion-enriched stream (corresponding to the permeate of the ion-selective membrane separator).

FIG. 3is a schematic illustration of an exemplary system300, in which the ion-selective separator is an ion-selective membrane separator. As shown inFIG. 3, ion-selective membrane separator310comprises ion-selective membrane325, which comprises first side355and second side360. Certain embodiments comprise transporting an aqueous feed stream containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions into the ion-selective membrane separator to at least partially separate the solubilized monovalent ions and the solubilized multivalent ions and to produce a monovalent-ion-enriched stream and a multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, referring toFIG. 3, in some embodiments, aqueous feed stream220containing solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions is transported into ion-selective membrane separator310to at least partially separate the solubilized monovalent ions and the solubilized multivalent ions to produce monovalent-ion-enriched stream230and multivalent-ion-enriched stream240. Certain embodiments comprise exposing first side355of ion-selective membrane325within ion-selective membrane separator310to aqueous feed stream220(and, optionally, applying a hydraulic pressure to first side355of ion-selective membrane325) such that at least a portion (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from aqueous feed stream220are transported from first side355of ion-selective membrane325, through ion-selective membrane325, to second side360of ion-selective membrane325. In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from aqueous feed stream220are prevented from being transported through ion-selective membrane325, and remain on first side355of ion-selective membrane325. Operation in this manner can result in the creation of multivalent-ion-enriched stream240(corresponding to the retentate of ion-selective membrane separator310) and monovalent-ion-enriched stream230(corresponding to the permeate of ion-selective membrane separator310). At least portions of streams230and/or240may, according to certain embodiments, be transported to an osmotic membrane separator and processed, for example, as described elsewhere herein.

A variety of ion-selective membranes can be used in the ion-selective membrane separator. Examples of such separators include, but are not limited to, those described above with respect toFIG. 1A.

While the use of ion-selective membrane separators may provide advantages according to certain, but not necessarily all, embodiments, the invention is not limited to the use of such separators, and in other embodiments, other ion-selective separators can be used. For example, in some embodiments, the ion-selective separator comprises an electrodialysis separator. Operation of the electrodialysis separator generally involves the transportation of salt ions from one solution through ion-exchange membranes to another solution under the influence of an applied electric potential difference. In certain embodiments, solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions can be transported at different rates, allowing for at least partially separation of the solubilized monovalent ions and the solubilized multivalent ions. An example of a commercially available electrodialysis separator that can be used, according to certain embodiments, is a 2020EDR system, manufactured by GE.

In some embodiments, the system comprises an osmotic membrane separator fluidically connected to the ion-selective separator. For example, inFIG. 2, osmotic membrane separator245is fluidically connected to ion-selective separator210. The osmotic membrane separator can comprise an osmotic membrane, which can be used to transport at least a portion of the water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream into at least a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, inFIG. 2, osmotic membrane separator245comprises osmotic membrane250, which has a first side255and a second side260. Osmotic membrane separator245can be used to transport at least a portion of the water within monovalent-ion-enriched stream into at least a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream240(e.g., by transporting water from first side255, through osmotic membrane250, to second side260).

In some such embodiments, an ion-selective separator and an osmotic membrane separator are fluidically connected such that the first outlet of the ion-selective separator is fluidically connected to a first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator, and the second outlet of the ion-selective separator is fluidically connected to the second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 2, ion-selective separator210can be fluidically connected to osmotic membrane separator245such that first outlet225of ion-selective separator210is fluidically connected to first side255of osmotic membrane250, and second outlet235of ion-selective separator210is fluidically connected to second side260of osmotic membrane250.

In some embodiments, the first outlet of the ion-selective separator is directly fluidically connected to a first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. In certain embodiments, the second outlet of the ion-selective separator is directly fluidically connected to the second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIGS. 2-3, first outlet225of ion-selective separator210is directly fluidically connected to first side255of osmotic membrane250, and second outlet235of ion-selective separator210is directly fluidically connected to second side260of osmotic membrane250

In certain embodiments in which the ion-selective separator comprises an ion-selective membrane separator, the first side of the ion-selective membrane (which can be the retentate side) can be fluidically connected to the second side of the osmotic membrane separator (which can be the permeate side). For example, inFIG. 3, first (retentate) side355of ion-selective membrane325is fluidically connected to second (permeate) side260of osmotic membrane250. In some such embodiments, the first side of the ion-selective membrane can be directly fluidically connected to the second side of the osmotic membrane separator, as illustrated inFIG. 3. In other embodiments, the fluidic connection between the first side of the ion-selective membrane and the second side of the osmotic membrane can be indirect.

In some embodiments in which the ion-selective separator comprises an ion-selective membrane separator, the second side of the ion-selective membrane separator (which can be the permeate side) can be fluidically connected to the first side of the osmotic membrane separator (which can be the retentate side). For example, inFIG. 3, second (permeate) side360of ion-selective membrane325is fluidically connected to first (retentate) side255of osmotic membrane250. In some embodiments, the second side of the ion-selective membrane can be directly fluidically connected to the first side of the osmotic membrane separator, as illustrated inFIG. 3. In other embodiments, the fluidic connection between the second side of the ion-selective membrane and the first side of the osmotic membrane can be indirect (e.g., as described in association withFIGS. 4A-4Bbelow).

Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream across a second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator such that at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, or more) of the water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported through the osmotic membrane and into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, inFIG. 2, at least a portion of multivalent-ion-enriched stream240can be transported across second side260of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245such that at least a portion of the water from monovalent-ion-enriched stream230is transported through osmotic membrane250(from first side255to second side260) and into multivalent-ion-enriched stream240.

Arranging the system such that the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is positioned on one side of the osmotic membrane and the multivalent-ion-enriched stream is positioned on the other side of the osmotic membrane can, according to certain embodiments, enhance the efficiency with which water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream, relative to the efficiency that could be achieved were water removed from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream in a standalone osmosis process. In particular, according to certain embodiments, the presence of the multivalent ions on the side of the osmotic membrane opposite the monovalent-ion-enriched stream can reduce the amount of hydraulic pressure that needs to be applied to the monovalent-ion-enriched stream to achieve a desired level of separation.

According to certain embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched stream are transported through the osmotic membrane during operation of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 2, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched stream230are transported from first side255of osmotic membrane250to second side260of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245. In some embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions within the multivalent-ion-enriched stream are transported through the osmotic membrane during operation of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 2, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched stream240are transported from second side260of osmotic membrane250to first side255of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245.

As noted above, the osmotic membrane separator comprises an osmotic membrane, according to certain embodiments.

The osmotic membrane separator (e.g., osmotic membrane separator245inFIG. 2) can be used to perform, according to certain embodiments, a reverse osmosis process. As noted above, reverse osmosis generally occurs when the osmotic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane is greater than the osmotic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane, and a hydraulic pressure is applied to the first side of the osmotic membrane such that the hydraulic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane is sufficiently greater than the hydraulic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane to cause water to be transported from the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. Operating the osmotic membrane separator to perform reverse osmosis can comprise applying a hydraulic pressure to the retentate side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. Referring toFIG. 2, for example, osmotic membrane separator245can be used to perform reverse osmosis, for example, when the osmotic pressure on first side255of osmotic membrane separator245is higher than the osmotic pressure on second side260, a hydraulic pressure is applied to first side255such that the hydraulic pressure on first side255is higher than the hydraulic pressure on second side260, and the difference between the hydraulic pressure on first side255and the hydraulic pressure on second side260is greater than the difference between the osmotic pressure on first side255and the osmotic pressure on second side260. In such cases, water can be transported from first side255of osmotic membrane250to second side260of osmotic membrane250.

In certain embodiments, the osmotic membrane separator can be used to perform forward osmosis. As noted above, forward osmosis generally occurs when the osmotic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane is greater than the osmotic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane such that water is transported from the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. Referring toFIG. 2, in some embodiments, the osmotic membrane separator245can be used to perform forward osmosis, for example, when the osmotic pressure on second side260of osmotic membrane250is greater than the osmotic pressure on first side255of osmotic membrane250, and when the hydraulic pressure gradient from second side260to first side255(P260-P255) is not large enough to overcome the difference in the osmotic pressure between first side255and second side260. In such cases, water can be transported from first side255of osmotic membrane250to second side260of osmotic membrane250.

In some cases, hydraulic pressure may be applied to the retentate side of the osmotic membrane separator to enhance the forward osmosis process. For example, in some instances in which the stream on the first side of the osmotic membrane has a lower osmotic pressure than the stream on the second side of the osmotic membrane, a hydraulic pressure may be applied to the first side of the osmotic membrane such that the hydraulic pressure of the stream on the first side of the osmotic membrane is higher than the hydraulic pressure of the stream on the second side of the osmotic membrane. The applied pressure can increase the rate at which water is transported from the first side of the osmotic membrane to the second side of the osmotic membrane. Such arrangements are sometimes referred to herein as pressure-assisted forward osmosis (which is a particular type of forward osmosis). Referring toFIG. 2, for example, osmotic membrane separator245can be used to perform pressure assisted forward osmosis, for example, by applying a hydraulic pressure to first side255of osmotic membrane250such that the hydraulic pressure of the stream on first side255of osmotic membrane250is higher than the hydraulic pressure of the stream on second side260of osmotic membrane250. Of course, the use of an applied pressure to enhance forward osmosis is not generally required, and in some embodiments, forward osmosis is performed in the substantial absence of an applied pressure (e.g., such that the hydraulic pressure gradient through the osmotic membrane is less than or equal to about 0.1 bar).

Generally, whether the osmotic membrane separator is used to perform reverse osmosis or forward osmosis is determined by the osmotic pressures of these streams on either side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 2, according to certain embodiments, if the osmotic pressure on first side255of osmotic membrane250is higher than the osmotic pressure on second side260of osmotic membrane250, and transport of water from first side255to second side260is desired, reverse osmosis will be performed. On the other hand, in some embodiments, the osmotic pressure on first side255of osmotic membrane250may be lower than the osmotic pressure on second side260of osmotic membrane250, and transport of water from first side255to second side260may be desired, in which case, forward osmosis (pressure assisted or otherwise) may be performed.

This osmosis process (e.g., reverse osmosis and/or forward osmosis, and involving the osmotic membrane separator (e.g., separator245) and/or one or more intermediate osmotic membrane separators) can result, according to certain embodiments, in the production of a monovalent-ion-enriched product stream. The monovalent-ion-enriched product stream can have, according to certain embodiments, a higher osmotic pressure than the monovalent-ion-enriched stream exiting the ion-selective separator (e.g., the ion-selective membrane separator). For example, referring toFIG. 2, in some embodiments, the osmosis process within osmotic membrane separator245can result in the production of monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280, which can have a higher osmotic pressure than monovalent-ion-enriched stream230. In some embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream (e.g., stream280) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, at least about 5 times, at least about 10 times, or at least about 50 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream (e.g., stream230). The increase in osmotic pressure can be due, at least in part, to an increase in the concentration of solubilized monovalent ions in the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream, relative to the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream fed to the osmotic membrane separator. For example, the osmosis process can produce, according to certain embodiments, a monovalent-ion-enriched product stream having a higher concentration of solubilized monovalent ions than the monovalent-ion-enriched stream exiting the ion-selective separator (and, in the case ofFIG. 2, the concentration of solubilized monovalent ions fed to the osmotic membrane separator). While the multivalent-ion-enriched product streams is shown as exiting first side255of osmotic membrane separator245inFIG. 2, in other embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream may be formed in and exit from an intermediate osmotic membrane separator (e.g., in the embodiments described below with respect toFIGS. 4A-4B).

The osmosis process can also result in the production of a multivalent-ion-enriched product stream having a lower osmotic pressure than the multivalent-ion-enriched stream exiting the ion-selective separator (and/or having a lower osmotic pressure than the multivalent-ion-enriched stream fed to the osmotic membrane separator). For example, inFIG. 2, osmotic membrane separator245can be used to perform osmosis such that multivalent-ion-enriched product stream270has a lower osmotic pressure than multivalent-ion-enriched stream240fed to osmotic membrane separator245. In some embodiments, the multivalent-ion-enriched stream (e.g., stream240) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, at least about 5 times, at least about 10 times, or at least about 50 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream (e.g., stream270). The decrease in osmotic pressure can be due, at least in part, to a decrease in the concentration of solubilized multivalent ions in the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream, relative to the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream fed to the osmotic membrane separator. For example, the osmosis process can produce, according to certain embodiments, a multivalent-ion-enriched product stream having a lower concentration of solubilized multivalent ions than the multivalent-ion-enriched stream exiting the ion-selective separator (and/or having a lower concentration of solubilized multivalent ions than the multivalent-ion-enriched stream fed to the osmotic membrane separator).

Certain embodiments comprise applying a hydraulic pressure to the stream on the first side of the osmotic membrane (e.g., the monovalent-ion-enriched stream inFIG. 2, or a draw product stream inFIGS. 4A-4B, described below) such that at least a portion of the water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported through the osmotic membrane and into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream. The hydraulic pressure may be applied, according to certain embodiments, regardless of whether the osmotic membrane separator is used to perform reverse osmosis or forward osmosis. In cases where the osmotic membrane separator is used to perform reverse osmosis, the applied hydraulic pressure can be used as part of the driving force to transport water through the osmotic membrane. In the case of forward osmosis, as mentioned above, application of the hydraulic pressure may enhance the rate at which water is transported through the osmotic membrane.

According to certain embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched stream are transported through an osmotic membrane during the osmosis process. For example, referring toFIG. 2, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched stream230are transported from first side255of osmotic membrane250to second side260of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245. In some embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions within the multivalent-ion-enriched stream are transported through an osmotic membrane during operation of osmosis process. For example, referring toFIG. 2, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched stream240are transported from second side260of osmotic membrane250to first side255of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245.

According to certain embodiments, transporting at least a portion of the water in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream through the osmotic membrane and into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream produces a multivalent-ion-enriched product stream. For example, referring toFIG. 2, transporting at least a portion of the water in monovalent-ion-enriched stream230through osmotic membrane250(from first side255to second side260) and into multivalent-ion-enriched stream240produces multivalent-ion-enriched product stream270.

In some embodiments, a relatively large percentage of the solubilized multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream is present in the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream. For example, in some embodiments, the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream contains at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 2, multivalent-ion-enriched product stream270can contain at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions from aqueous feed stream220.

Transporting at least a portion of the water in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream through the osmotic membrane and into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream can also produce a monovalent-ion-enriched product stream. For example, referring toFIG. 2, transporting at least a portion of the water in monovalent-ion-enriched stream230through osmotic membrane250(from first side255to second side260) and into multivalent-ion-enriched stream240produces monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280. As noted above, while the multivalent-ion-enriched product streams is shown as exiting first side255of osmotic membrane separator245inFIG. 2, in other embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream may be formed in and exit from an intermediate osmotic membrane separator (e.g., in the embodiments described below with respect toFIGS. 4A-4B).

In some embodiments, the amount of solubilized monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream is relatively high. For example, in some embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream contains at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the monovalent ions from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 2, monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280can contain at least about 75% (or at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions from aqueous feed stream220.

According to certain embodiments, the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream can contain a relatively high amount of solubilized multivalent ions and a relatively low amount of solubilized monovalent ions. For example, in some embodiments, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream to solubilized monovalent ions within the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more. For example, inFIG. 2, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream270to solubilized monovalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream270is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more.

According to certain embodiments, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream to multivalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more. For example, inFIG. 2, the ratio of solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream270to solubilized multivalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more.

In certain embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized multivalent ions in the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 500,000 ppm, or more). Multivalent-ion-enriched product streams with solubilized multivalent ion concentrations outside these ranges could also be produced. For example, in some embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized multivalent ions in the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream is as little as 10,000 ppm, 1000 ppm, 100 ppm, or less.

According to certain embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream can contain a relatively high amount of solubilized monovalent ions and a relatively low amount of solubilized multivalent ions. For example, in some embodiments, the ratio of solubilized monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream to solubilized multivalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more. For example, inFIG. 2, the ratio of solubilized monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280to solubilized multivalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more.

In certain embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized monovalent ions in the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 500,000 ppm, or more). Monovalent-ion-enriched product streams with solubilized monovalent ion concentrations outside these ranges could also be produced. For example, in some embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized monovalent ions in the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream is as little as 10,000 ppm, 1000 ppm, 100 ppm, or less.

In some embodiments, the ratio of monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream to solubilized monovalent ions within the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more. For example, inFIG. 2, the ratio of solubilized monovalent ions within monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280to solubilized monovalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched product stream270is at least about 3:1, at least about 5:1, at least about 10:1, at least about 50:1, at least about 100:1, at least about 1000:1, at least about 10,000:1, or more.

In some embodiments, a relatively large percentage of the water from the aqueous feed stream is present in the multivalent-ion-enriched product stream. For example, in certain embodiments, multivalent-ion-enriched product stream contains at least about 75 wt % (or at least about 85 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at least about 99 wt %) of the water from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 2, multivalent-ion-enriched product stream270can contain at least about 75 wt % (or at least about 85 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at least about 99 wt %) of the water from aqueous feed stream220.

According to certain embodiments, the system comprises multiple osmotic membrane separators. The osmotic membrane separators can be arranged, according to certain embodiments, in series. The series-connected osmotic membrane separators may be arranged, according to certain embodiments, such that water and solubilized monovalent ions are separated via a plurality of successive osmotic separation steps. The use of successive separation steps can be advantageous, for example, when the concentration of solubilized monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is relatively high and reverse osmosis is being used to separate water and solubilized monovalent ions. In some such cases, the use of multiple osmotic membranes can reduce the minimum amount of hydraulic pressure that needs to be applied to the membranes, resulting in more efficient overall separation. One example of a system including an intermediate osmotic membrane separator is shown inFIG. 4A. InFIG. 4A, system400comprises osmotic membrane separator245and first intermediate osmotic membrane separator410. The first intermediate osmotic membrane separator can comprise an osmotic membrane, which can be used to at least partially separate solubilized monovalent ions from water. For example, inFIG. 4A, first intermediate osmotic membrane separator410comprises osmotic membrane411, which has a first side412and a second side414. Additional intermediate osmotic membrane separators can also be employed. For example, inFIG. 4B, system400comprises a second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420, in addition to first intermediate membrane separator410. Second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420comprises osmotic membrane421, which comprises first side422and second side424.

Accordingly, whileFIGS. 2-3illustrate embodiments in which the first outlet of the ion-selective separator is directly fluidically connected to a first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator and the second outlet of the ion-selective separator is directly fluidically connected to the second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator, it should be understood that, in other embodiments, the first outlet of the ion-selective separator may be indirectly fluidically connected to a first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator and/or the second outlet of the ion-selective separator may be indirectly fluidically connected to the second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, in some embodiments, a stream exiting the first outlet of the ion-selective separator (through which the monovalent-ion-enriched stream may be transported, and which may correspond to an outlet from the permeate side of the ion-selective membrane separator, when such separators are used) may pass through one or more intermediate osmotic membrane separators before being transported to the first side of the osmotic membrane. For example, inFIG. 4A, in which system400comprises intermediate osmotic membrane separator410, a fluidic connection between outlet225of ion-selective separator210and first side255of osmotic membrane250extends from outlet225, into intermediate osmotic membrane separator410on side412of osmotic membrane411, from first side412of osmotic membrane411to second side414of osmotic membrane411, and into first side255of osmotic membrane250via streams416and418. As another example, inFIG. 4B—in which system450comprises first intermediate osmotic membrane separator410and second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420are present—a fluidic connection between outlet225of ion-selective separator210and first side255of osmotic membrane250extends from outlet225, into first intermediate osmotic membrane separator410on side412of osmotic membrane411, from first side412of osmotic membrane411to second side414of osmotic membrane411, into first side422of osmotic membrane421of second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420via streams416and418, from first side422of osmotic membrane421to second side424of osmotic membrane421, and into first side255of osmotic membrane250via streams426and428.

According to certain embodiments, transporting at least a portion of the water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream across the first (retentate) side of the osmotic membrane (and, subsequently, into at least a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream) comprises transporting at least a portion of water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream through at least one intermediate osmotic membrane separator. Examples of such processes are shown inFIGS. 4A-4B, and are described in more detail below. Employing multi-stage osmotic membrane separation may be useful, for example, when the monovalent-ion-enriched stream has a relatively high concentration of solubilized monovalent ions, and reverse osmosis is being used to separate solubilized monovalent ions and water within the monovalent-ion-enriched stream. Such situations may arise, for example, in certain cases in which produced water or other high-salinity aqueous streams are used as the aqueous feed stream. In some such cases, transporting water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream through a series of multiple osmotic membrane separators (rather than transporting all or a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream directly to the osmotic membrane separator to which a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream is transported) can reduce the minimum applied hydraulic pressure needed to achieve effective osmotic separation. As an exemplary, non-limiting illustration, if one desires to remove monovalent ions from a monovalent-ion-enriched stream with an osmotic pressure of 60 bar using a single osmotic membrane and without having a saline stream on the opposite side of the osmotic membrane, one would need to use a mechanically robust osmotic membrane capable of withstanding very high hydraulic pressures (e.g., above 60 bar). Such membranes are typically difficult and expensive to manufacture. Certain embodiments employ the recognition that the use of multiple reverse osmosis membranes, each operated using relatively low hydraulic pressure gradients applied across the osmotic membrane, can be used to perform a stepwise process in which each reverse osmosis step gradually increases the purity of water until the desired final level of water purity is achieved. In addition, certain embodiments employ the recognition that the use of one or more draw streams including a solubilized species (e.g., ion or non-ion species) that raises the osmotic pressure of the draw stream(s) can lower the differential hydraulic pressure required to transport water across a given osmotic membrane.

Accordingly, in certain embodiments, at least a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported to at least one intermediate osmotic membrane separator before a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported to the osmotic membrane separator to which a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream is transported. Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream across a first side of the osmotic membrane of an intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, at least a portion of monovalent-ion-enriched stream230can be transported across first side412of osmotic membrane411of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410. In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the water in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported across a first side of the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, the portion of monovalent-ion-enriched stream230that is transported across first side412of osmotic membrane411of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410can contain at least a portion of the water from monovalent-ion-enriched stream230that is transported out of ion-selective separator210. In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, or more, on a molar basis) of the solubilized monovalent ions within the monovalent-ion-enriched stream is transported across a first side of the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, the portion of monovalent-ion-enriched stream230that is transported across first side412of osmotic membrane411of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410can contain at least a portion of the solubilized monovalent ions from monovalent-ion-enriched stream230that is transported out of ion-selective separator210.

Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion of a draw inlet stream across the second side of the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, draw inlet stream418can be transported across second side414of osmotic membrane411of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410. The draw inlet stream (e.g., stream418inFIG. 4A) can comprise, according to certain embodiments, any component(s) suitable for imparting an appropriate osmotic pressure to perform the osmotic membrane separations described herein. In some embodiments, the draw inlet stream is an aqueous solution comprising one or more solubilized species, such as one or more dissolved ions and/or one or more dissociated molecules. For example, in some embodiments, the draw inlet stream comprises Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, and/or Cl−. In some embodiments, the draw inlet stream comprises at least one solubilized monovalent cation, such as Na+and/or K+. In certain embodiments, the draw inlet stream comprises at least one solubilized monovalent anion, such as Cl−and/or Br−. Cations and/or anions having other valencies may also be present in the draw inlet stream. Other species could also be used in the draw stream. For example, in some embodiments, the draw inlet stream can be an aqueous stream comprising a solubilized non-ionic species, such as ammonia (NH3). The draw inlet stream may be prepared, according to certain embodiments, by suspending and/or dissolving one or more species in a solvent, such as an aqueous solvent) to solubilize the species in the solvent. For example, in some embodiments, one or more draw inlet streams can be made by dissolving one or more solid salts in an aqueous solvent. Non-limiting examples of salts that may be dissolved in water include NaCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, and the like. In some embodiments, the draw stream can be prepared by mixing ammonia with water.

Certain embodiments comprise applying a hydraulic pressure to the first side of the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator such that water is transported from the first side of the intermediate osmotic separator (from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream) to the second side of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, a hydraulic pressure can be applied to first side412of osmotic membrane411of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410such that at least a portion of water from monovalent-ion-enriched stream230is transported from first side412, through osmotic membrane411, to second side414. In some embodiments, water transported through the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator can be combined with the draw inlet stream to produce a draw product stream. For example, inFIG. 4A, water transported from first side412to the second side414of osmotic membrane411can be combined with draw inlet stream418to produce draw product stream416. The draw product stream can have a lower osmotic pressure than the draw inlet stream. For example, inFIG. 4A, draw product stream416can have a lower osmotic pressure than draw inlet stream418. In some embodiments, the draw inlet stream (e.g., stream418) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, at least about 5 times, at least about 10 times, or at least about 50 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the draw product stream (e.g., stream416). Operation of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator can also produce a monovalent-ion-enriched product stream, which can have a higher osmotic pressure than the monovalent-ion-enriched stream from the ion-selective separator. For example, referring toFIG. 4A, operation of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410can result in the production of monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280, which can have a higher osmotic pressure than monovalent-ion-enriched stream230. In some embodiments, the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream (e.g., stream280) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, at least about 5 times, at least about 10 times, or at least about 50 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream (e.g., stream230).

Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the draw product stream (which itself, as described above, may contain at least a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream, such as at least a portion of the water from the monovalent-ion-enriched stream) across a first side of the osmotic membrane of an osmotic membrane separator and transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream across a second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 4A, certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion of draw product stream416across first side255of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245and transporting at least a portion of multivalent-ion-enriched stream240across second side260of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245.

In some embodiments, all or a portion of the draw product stream can be transported directly to the first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, all or a portion of draw product stream416can be transported directly to first side255of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245, in which case inlet stream430corresponds to draw product stream416. In other embodiments, one or more additional intermediate osmotic membrane separators may be used to process draw products stream416, in which case, inlet stream430could contain a portion of the water within draw product stream416, but would not be directly fluidically connected to draw product stream416. One example of such a process is shown inFIG. 4B, and is described in more detail below.

According to certain embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the water in the draw product stream is transported across a first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, the portion of the draw product stream that is transported through stream430and across first side255of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245can contain at least a portion of the water from draw product stream416that is transported out of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410.

In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10%, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, or more, on a molar basis) of a solubilized species (e.g., an ion or non-ion solubilized species) within the draw product stream is transported across a first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, the portion of draw product stream that is transported through stream430and across first side255of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245can contain at least a portion of a solubilized species present within draw product stream416that is transported out of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410. It may not be necessary in all embodiments, however, to transport solubilized species from the first draw product stream across the first side of the osmotic membrane separator that is used to transport water into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream portion. For example, as described below with respect toFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, the solubilized species within the draw product stream may be (although they need not necessarily be) completely separated from the water within the draw product stream (e.g., using one or more additional intermediate osmotic membrane separators) prior to transporting the portion of the water from the draw product stream across the osmotic membrane that is used to transport water into at least a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream.

Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream across a second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator such that at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, or more) of the water from the draw product stream is transported through the osmotic membrane and into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, inFIG. 4A, at least a portion of multivalent-ion-enriched stream240can be transported across second side260of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245such that at least a portion of the water from draw product stream416is transported through osmotic membrane250(from first side255to second side260) and into multivalent-ion-enriched stream240.

In some embodiments, operation of the osmotic membrane separator within which water is added to the multivalent-ion-enriched stream generates a stream exiting the first side of the osmotic membrane and having a higher osmotic pressure than the stream fed to the first side of the osmotic membrane. For example, referring toFIG. 4A, in some embodiments, operation of osmotic membrane separator245(within which water is added to multivalent-ion-enriched stream240) generates stream432exiting first side255of osmotic membrane250and having a higher osmotic pressure than stream430fed to first side255of osmotic membrane250. In some such embodiments, the product stream from the first side of the osmotic membrane separator (e.g., stream432) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, at least about 5 times, at least about 10 times, or at least about 50 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the draft product stream fed to the first side of the osmotic membrane separator (e.g., stream430)

According to certain embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized species within a draw product stream are transported through the osmotic membrane during operation of the osmotic membrane separator used to add water to the multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, referring toFIG. 4A, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized species within stream430(which may originate from, for example, stream416or the draw product stream of another intermediate osmotic membrane separator) are transported from first side255of osmotic membrane250to second side260of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245. In some embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions within the multivalent-ion-enriched stream are transported through the osmotic membrane during operation of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 4A, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched stream240are transported from second side260of osmotic membrane250to first side255of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245.

The intermediate osmotic membrane separator can be operated as a reverse osmosis membrane separator, according to certain embodiments. That is to say, in some embodiments, water can be transported from the first side of the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator to the second side of the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator by applying a hydraulic pressure to the first side of the membrane as a driving force, such that local osmotic pressure gradients through the thickness of the membrane that would otherwise favor the transport of water from the second side of the membrane to the first side of the membrane are overcome by the applied hydraulic pressure. In some embodiments, the osmotic pressure of the stream on the first side of the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator can be higher than the osmotic pressure of the stream on the second side of the osmotic membrane of the intermediate osmotic membrane separator, such that water is transported through the osmotic membrane due to a hydraulic pressure applied to the first side of the osmotic membrane.

In certain embodiments, two or more intermediate osmotic membrane separators can be used in the system. In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the draw product stream from the first intermediate osmotic membrane separator (e.g., intermediate osmotic membrane separator410inFIGS. 4A-4B) is transported to at least one additional intermediate osmotic membrane separator before a portion of the draw product stream is transported to the osmotic membrane separator to which a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream is transported. Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the draw product stream from the first intermediate osmotic membrane separator across a first side of the osmotic membrane of a second intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, at least a portion of draw product stream416from first intermediate osmotic membrane separator410can be transported across first side422of osmotic membrane421of second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420. In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the water in the draw product stream from the first intermediate osmotic membrane separator is transported across a first side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, the portion of draw product stream416that is transported across first side422of osmotic membrane421of second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420can contain at least a portion of the water from draw product stream416from first intermediate osmotic membrane separator410. In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, or more, on a molar basis) of the solubilized species (e.g., ion or non-ion solubilized species) within the draw product stream from the first intermediate osmotic membrane separator is transported across a first side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, the portion of draw product stream416from intermediate osmotic membrane separator410that is transported across first side422of osmotic membrane421of intermediate osmotic membrane separator420can contain at least a portion of the solubilized species from draw product stream416that is transported out of first intermediate osmotic membrane separator410.

Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion of a second draw inlet stream across the second side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, second draw inlet stream428can be transported across second side424of osmotic membrane421of second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420. Certain embodiments comprise applying a hydraulic pressure to the first side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator such that water is transported from the first side of the second intermediate osmotic separator (from the first draw product stream) to the second side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, a hydraulic pressure can be applied to first side422of osmotic membrane421of second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420such that at least a portion of water from draw product stream416is transported from first side422, through osmotic membrane421, to second side424. In some embodiments, water transported through the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator can be combined with the second draw inlet stream to produce a second draw product stream. For example, inFIG. 4B, water transported from first side422to second side424of osmotic membrane421can be combined with second draw inlet stream428to produce second draw product stream426. The second draw product stream can have a lower osmotic pressure than the second draw inlet stream. For example, inFIG. 4B, second draw product stream426can have a lower osmotic pressure than second draw inlet stream428. In some embodiments, the second draw inlet stream (e.g., stream428) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, at least about 5 times, at least about 10 times, or at least about 50 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the second draw product stream (e.g., stream426). Operation of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator can also produce a product stream having a higher osmotic pressure than the first draw product stream from the first intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 4B, operation of second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420can result in the production of product stream423, which can have a higher osmotic pressure than first draw product stream416. In some embodiments, the product stream (e.g., stream423) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, at least about 5 times, at least about 10 times, or at least about 50 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the first draw product stream (e.g., stream416).

The second draw inlet stream can include solubilized species (e.g., solubilized ion species) that are the same as or different from those present in the first draw inlet stream. In certain embodiments, the osmotic pressure of the first draw inlet stream can be higher than the osmotic pressure of the second draw inlet stream. For example, in some embodiments, the first draw inlet stream (e.g., stream418) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, or at least about 5 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 10 times, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the second draw inlet stream (e.g., stream428). In some embodiments, the total molar concentration (in units of molarity) of solubilized species (e.g., solubilized ions) in the second draw inlet stream is lower than the total molar concentration of solubilized species (e.g., solubilized ions) in the first draw inlet stream.

Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the second draw product stream (which itself, as described above, may contain at least a portion of the first draw product stream and at least a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream, such as at least a portion of the water from the first draw product stream and/or the monovalent-ion-enriched stream) across a first side of the osmotic membrane of an osmotic membrane separator and transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream across a second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 4B, certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion of second draw product stream426across first side255of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245and transporting at least a portion of multivalent-ion-enriched stream240across second side260of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245.

In some embodiments, all or a portion of the second draw product stream can be transported directly to the first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, all or a portion of second draw product stream426can be transported directly to first side255of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245, in which case inlet stream430corresponds to second draw product stream426. In other embodiments, one or more additional intermediate osmotic membrane separators may be used to process second draw product stream426, in which case, inlet stream430could contain a portion of the water within second draw product stream426, but would not be directly fluidically connected to second draw product stream426.

According to certain embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the water in the second draw product stream is transported across a first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, the portion of the second draw product stream that is transported across first side255of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245can contain at least a portion of the water from second draw product stream426that is transported out of second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420.

In some such embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 98%, or more, on a molar basis) of a solubilized species (e.g., an ion or non-ion solubilized species) within the second draw product stream is transported across a first side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, the portion of second draw product stream426that is transported across first side255of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245can contain at least a portion of a solubilized species present within second draw product stream426that is transported out of intermediate osmotic membrane separator420. It may not be necessary in all embodiments, however, to transport solubilized species from the second draw product stream across the first side of the osmotic membrane separator that is used to transport water into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream portion. For example, in some embodiments, the solubilized species within the draw product stream may be (although they need not necessarily be) completely separated from the water within the second draw product stream (e.g., using one or more additional intermediate osmotic membrane separators) prior to transporting the portion of the water from the second draw product stream across the osmotic membrane that is used to transport water into at least a portion of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream.

Certain embodiments comprise transporting at least a portion (e.g., at least about 10 wt %, at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 98 wt %, or more) of the multivalent-ion-enriched stream across a second side of the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator such that at least a portion (e.g., at least about 25 wt %, at least about 50 wt %, at least about 75 wt %, or more) of the water from the second draw product stream is transported through the osmotic membrane and into the multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, inFIG. 4B, at least a portion of multivalent-ion-enriched stream240can be transported across second side260of osmotic membrane250of osmotic membrane separator245such that at least a portion of the water from second draw product stream426is transported through osmotic membrane250(from first side255to second side260) and into multivalent-ion-enriched stream240.

In some embodiments, operation of the osmotic membrane separator within which water is added to the multivalent-ion-enriched stream generates a stream exiting the first side of the osmotic membrane and having a higher osmotic pressure than the stream fed to the first side of the osmotic membrane. For example, referring toFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, operation of osmotic membrane separator245(within which water is added to multivalent-ion-enriched stream240) generates stream432exiting first side255of osmotic membrane250and having a higher osmotic pressure than stream430fed to first side255of osmotic membrane250. In some such embodiments, the product stream from the first side of the osmotic membrane separator (e.g., stream432) can have an osmotic pressure that is at least about 1.01 times, at least about 1.1 times, at least about 1.5 times, at least about 2 times, at least about 5 times, at least about 10 times, or at least about 50 times (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 100 times, up to about 500 times, up to about 1000 times, up to about 5000 times, or more) the osmotic pressure of the draft product stream fed to the first side of the osmotic membrane separator (e.g., stream430)

According to certain embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized species within a draw product stream are transported through the osmotic membrane during operation of the osmotic membrane separator used to add water to the multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, referring toFIG. 4A, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized species within stream430(which may originate from, for example, stream426or the draw product stream of another intermediate osmotic membrane separator) are transported from first side255of osmotic membrane250to second side260of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245. According to certain embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized species within the second draw product stream are transported through the osmotic membrane during operation of the osmotic membrane separator used to add water to the multivalent-ion-enriched stream. For example, referring toFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized species within second draw product stream426are transported from first side255of osmotic membrane250to second side260of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245. In some embodiments, less than about 5% (or, in some embodiments, less than about 2%, less than about 1%, or less than about 0.1%, on a molar basis) of the solubilized multivalent ions within the multivalent-ion-enriched stream are transported through the osmotic membrane during operation of the osmotic membrane separator. For example, referring toFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, less than 5% of the solubilized multivalent ions within multivalent-ion-enriched stream240are transported from second side260of osmotic membrane250to first side255of osmotic membrane250during operation of osmotic membrane separator245.

The second intermediate osmotic membrane separator can be operated as a reverse osmosis membrane separator, according to certain embodiments. That is to say, in some embodiments, water can be transported from the first side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator to the second side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator by applying a hydraulic pressure to the first side of the membrane as a driving force, such that local osmotic pressure gradients through the thickness of the membrane that would otherwise favor the transport of water from the second side of the membrane to the first side of the membrane are overcome by the applied hydraulic pressure. In some embodiments, the osmotic pressure of the stream on the first side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator can be higher than the osmotic pressure of the stream on the second side of the osmotic membrane of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator, such that water is transported through the osmotic membrane due to a hydraulic pressure applied to the first side of the osmotic membrane.

While embodiments with a single intermediate osmotic membrane separator and two intermediate osmotic membrane separators have been described, additional intermediate osmotic membrane separators can be used, according to certain embodiments.

According to certain embodiments, streams within the system can be recycled. For example, in certain embodiments, at least a portion of the product stream from the first side of the osmotic membrane separator is recycled to the second side of the first intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4A, in some embodiments, at least a portion of product stream432is transported to second side414of intermediate osmotic membrane separator410via draw inlet stream418. According to certain embodiments, at least a portion of the product stream from the first side of the osmotic membrane separator is recycled to the second side of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, at least a portion of product stream432is transported to second side424of second intermediate osmotic membrane separator420via draw inlet stream428. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the product stream from the first side of the second intermediate osmotic membrane separator is recycled to the second side of the first intermediate osmotic membrane separator. For example, inFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, at least a portion of product stream423is transported to second side414of first intermediate osmotic membrane separator410via draw inlet stream418. Recycling of the streams in this manner can, according to certain although not necessarily all embodiments, simplify operation of the desalination system, reduce the volume of waste generated by the desalination system, and allow steady-state operation to be achieved more easily.

One advantage of certain, although not necessarily all, embodiments is that one or more of the osmotic-membrane-based separation steps can be performed to achieve a desired degree of separation while using relatively low transmembrane osmotic pressure gradients. Such low transmembrane osmotic pressure gradients can be advantageous, for example, in certain cases in which reverse osmosis is used to perform separations, as relatively low transmembrane osmotic pressure gradients can allow one to perform separations using relatively low applied hydraulic pressures, thus potentially reducing energy requirements and/or equipment costs compared to higher hydraulic pressure applications. In some embodiments, at at least one location on the osmotic membrane of the osmotic membrane separator, the difference between an osmotic pressure on a first side of the first osmotic membrane and an osmotic pressure on a second side of the first osmotic membrane (i.e., opposite the first side of the first osmotic membrane) is less than about 45 bar, less than about 40 bar, less than about 35 bar, less than about 30 bar, less than about 25 bar, less than about 20 bar, or less (and/or, in some embodiments, at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, or more).

For example, inFIG. 1A, in some embodiments, at at least one location on osmotic membrane130, the difference between an osmotic pressure on first side132of osmotic membrane130and an osmotic pressure on second side134of osmotic membrane130is less than about 45 bar, less than about 40 bar, less than about 35 bar, less than about 30 bar, less than about 25 bar, less than about 20 bar, or less (and/or, in some embodiments, at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, or more). As another example, inFIGS. 2, 3, 4A, and/or4B, in some embodiments, at at least one location on osmotic membrane250, the difference between an osmotic pressure on first side255of osmotic membrane250and an osmotic pressure on second side260of osmotic membrane250is less than about 45 bar, less than about 40 bar, less than about 35 bar, less than about 30 bar, less than about 25 bar, less than about 20 bar, or less (and/or, in some embodiments, at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, or more). As yet another example, inFIGS. 4A and/or 4B, in some embodiments, at at least one location on osmotic membrane411, the difference between an osmotic pressure on first side412of osmotic membrane411and an osmotic pressure on second side414of osmotic membrane411is less than about 45 bar, less than about 40 bar, less than about 35 bar, less than about 30 bar, less than about 25 bar, less than about 20 bar, or less (and/or, in some embodiments, at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, or more). As yet another example, inFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, at at least one location on osmotic membrane421, the difference between an osmotic pressure on first side422of osmotic membrane421and an osmotic pressure on second side424of osmotic membrane421is less than about 45 bar, less than about 40 bar, less than about 35 bar, less than about 30 bar, less than about 25 bar, less than about 20 bar, or less (and/or, in some embodiments, at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, or more).

According to certain embodiments, the transmembrane osmotic pressure gradient spatially-averaged across the facial area of one or more of the osmotic membranes (e.g., such as osmotic membrane130inFIG. 1A; osmotic membrane250inFIGS. 2, 3, and 4A-4B; osmotic membrane411inFIGS. 4A-4B; and/or osmotic membrane421inFIG. 4B)) is relatively small. The spatially-averaged transmembrane osmotic pressure gradient across a facial area of a particular osmotic membrane can be calculated by measuring the osmotic pressure at all points along the facial area of the first side of the osmotic membrane, measuring the osmotic pressure at all points along the facial area of the second side of the osmotic membrane, and calculating the two-dimensional distribution (across the facial area of the membrane) of the transmembrane osmotic pressure gradient (by subtracting, at each point across the facial area of the osmotic membrane, the osmotic pressure on the second side of the osmotic membrane from the osmotic pressure on the opposite point on the first side of the osmotic membrane). One can then spatially average the two-dimensional distribution of the transmembrane osmotic pressure gradient. In certain embodiments, the transmembrane osmotic pressure gradient, spatially-averaged across the facial area of the membrane, for one or more of the osmotic membranes within the system is less than about 45 bar, less than about 40 bar, less than about 35 bar, less than about 30 bar, less than about 25 bar, less than about 20 bar, or less (and/or, in some embodiments, at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, or more).

Achieving a relatively low spatially-averaged transmembrane osmotic pressure gradient across a facial area of an osmotic membrane can be achieved, for example, by controlling the osmotic pressure of the streams fed to either side of the osmotic membrane (e.g., by controlling salt types and/or salt concentrations within the streams). According to certain embodiments, the difference between the osmotic pressure within the monovalent-ion-enriched stream fed to the first intermediate osmotic membrane separator and the osmotic pressure within the first draw product stream is less than about 45 bar, less than about 40 bar, less than about 35 bar, less than about 30 bar, less than about 25 bar, less than about 20 bar, or less (and/or, in some embodiments, at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, or more). In certain embodiments, the difference between the osmotic pressure of the first draw product stream and the osmotic pressure of the second draw product stream is less than about 45 bar, less than about 40 bar, less than about 35 bar, less than about 30 bar, less than about 25 bar, less than about 20 bar, or less (and/or, in some embodiments, at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, or more).

According to certain embodiments, the streams on either side of an osmotic membrane can be operated in counter-current configuration. Operation of the osmotic membrane separators in this manner can, according to certain but not necessarily all embodiments, allow for more efficient operation of the osmotic membrane separator. An example of counter-current flow is illustrated inFIG. 1A, in which aqueous feed stream160is transported across first side132of osmotic membrane130in the direction of arrow136while monovalent-ion-enriched stream150is transported across second side134of osmotic membrane130in a direction opposite of the direction of arrow136. It should be understood that two streams do not have to be transported in perfectly parallel and opposite directions to be considered to be in counter-current configuration, and in some embodiments, the primary flow directions of two streams that are in a counter-current flow configuration can form an angle of up to about 10° (or, in some cases, up to about 5°, up to about 2°, or up to about 1°). In certain embodiments, the streams on either side of osmotic membrane130(inFIG. 1A), osmotic membrane250(inFIGS. 2, 3, and 4A-4B), osmotic membrane411(inFIGS. 4A-4B), and/or osmotic membrane421(inFIG. 4B) are transported across the osmotic membrane in a counter-current configuration.

It should be understood that, where a single membrane is shown or described, such single membranes could be replaced with multiple, parallel-connected osmotic membranes. The use of multiple, parallel-connected osmotic membranes can, for example, increase the capacity of the system.

In some embodiments, at least a portion of the energy used to pressurize one or more streams (e.g., for performing reverse osmosis) is recovered from the system. The recovered energy may be used, for example, to heat and/or pressurize another stream within the desalination system. Certain embodiments comprise, for example, increasing the pressure of the aqueous feed stream, before the aqueous feed stream is transported into the ion-selective separator, using at least a portion of the pressure of at least one retentate product stream from an osmotic membrane separator.

Energy from a pressurized stream can be recovered via any suitable method. For example, in some embodiments, a pressure exchange device can be used to recover energy from a pressurized stream. Those of ordinary skill in the art are familiar with pressure exchange devices, in which pressure energy from a high pressure fluid stream is transferred to a low pressure fluid stream. An exemplary type of pressure exchange device is a rotary pressure exchanger, for example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,306,437. For example, in some embodiments, energy (e.g., as direct hydraulic pressure) can be recovered by directly contacting a pressurized stream with a stream at a lower pressure, such that the lower pressure stream is pressurized and the higher pressure stream is depressurized (e.g., throttled). Energy can also be recovered in the system using other devices such as, for example, a turbine (e.g., a Pelton wheel).

As noted above, certain embodiments comprise reducing the pressure of at least one retentate product stream from an osmotic membrane separator. For example, some embodiments comprise, after transporting at least a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream across an osmotic membrane, reducing a pressure of the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream. For example, referring toFIG. 1A, in some embodiments, after transporting at least a portion of monovalent-ion-enriched stream150across second side134of osmotic membrane130to produce monovalent-ion-enriched product stream170, the pressure of the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream170can be reduced. As another example, referring toFIGS. 2-3, in some embodiments, after transporting at least a portion of monovalent-ion-enriched stream230across first side255of osmotic membrane250to produce monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280, the pressure of the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280can be reduced. As yet another example, referring toFIGS. 4A-4B, in some embodiments, after transporting at least a portion of monovalent-ion-enriched stream230across first side412of osmotic membrane411to produce monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280, the pressure of the monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280can be reduced.

Certain embodiments comprise, after transporting at least a portion of a draw product stream across an osmotic membrane, reducing a pressure of the osmotic retentate stream. For example, referring toFIG. 4A, in some embodiments, after transporting at least a portion of stream430across first side255of osmotic membrane250to produce product stream432, the pressure of product stream432can be reduced. As another example, referring toFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, after transporting at least a portion of draw product stream416across first side422of osmotic membrane421to produce product stream423, the pressure of product stream423can be reduced. As yet another example, referring toFIG. 4B, in some embodiments, after transporting at least a portion of430across first side255of osmotic membrane250to produce product stream432, the pressure of product stream432can be reduced.

Certain embodiments comprise recovering at least a portion of the energy released by reducing the pressure of at least one retentate product stream from an osmotic membrane separator. The recovered energy can be used, according to certain embodiments, to increase the pressure of at least one inlet stream to the retentate side of an ion-selective membrane separator and/or to increase the pressure of at least one inlet stream to the retentate side of an osmotic membrane separator. For example, in some embodiments, the recovered energy is used to increase the pressure of the aqueous feed stream before it is transported into the ion-selective separator. For example, referring toFIGS. 1A, 2, 3, and 4A-4B, in some embodiments, at least a portion of the energy released by reducing the pressure of a retentate product stream from an osmotic membrane separator can be used to pressurize aqueous feed stream160.FIG. 5Ais a schematic illustration of system500A, which includes one example of such pressurization. InFIG. 5A, pressure exchange device510is used to recover pressure from stream170and to pressurize aqueous feed stream160before aqueous feed stream160is transported into inlet162.FIG. 5Bis a schematic illustration of system500B, which includes another example of such pressurization. InFIG. 5B, pressure exchange device510is used to recover pressure from stream monovalent-ion-enriched product stream280and to pressurize aqueous feed stream220before aqueous feed stream220is transported into inlet ion-selective separator210.

The systems and methods described herein can be used to process a variety of aqueous feed streams. As noted above, the aqueous feed stream fed to the system generally contains both solubilized monovalent ions and solubilized multivalent ions. For example, referring toFIG. 1A, aqueous feed stream160can comprise at least one solubilized monovalent ion species and at least one solubilized multivalent ion species. As another example, referring toFIGS. 2, 3, and 4A-4B, aqueous feed stream220can comprise at least one solubilized monovalent ion species and at least one solubilized multivalent ion species. The solubilized ion(s) may originate, for example, from a salt that has been dissolved in the aqueous stream. A solubilized ion is generally an ion that has been solubilized to such an extent that the ion is no longer ionically bonded to a counter-ion. The aqueous feed stream can comprise any of a number of solubilized ion species including, but not limited to, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Cl−, carbonate anions, bicarbonate anions, sulfate anions, bisulfate anions, and/or dissolved silica. In some embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises at least one solubilized monovalent cation (i.e., a cation with a redox state of +1 when solubilized). For example, in some embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises Na+and/or K+. In certain embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises at least one solubilized monovalent anion (i.e., an anion having redox state of −1 when solubilized). For example, in some embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises Cl−and/or Br−. In some embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises at least one solubilized monovalent cation and at least one solubilized monovalent anion. In some embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises one or more divalent cations (i.e., a cation with a redox state of +2 when solubilized) and/or one or more divalent anions (i.e., an anion with a redox state of −2 when solubilized). In certain embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises at least one of Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, and sulfate anions. In some embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises at least one of Mg2+, Ca2+, and sulfate anions. Cations and/or anions having other valencies may also be present in the aqueous feed stream, in some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized ions in the aqueous feed stream fed to the system (e.g., stream160fed to system100inFIG. 1A; stream220fed to ion-selective separator210inFIGS. 2, 3, and 4A-4B) can be relatively high. As noted elsewhere, one advantage associated with certain embodiments is that initial aqueous feed streams with relatively high solubilized ion concentrations can be desalinated without the use of energy intensive desalination methods.

In certain embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized ions in the aqueous feed stream transported to the ion-selective separator is at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 500,000 ppm, or more). Aqueous feed streams with solubilized ion concentrations outside these ranges could also be used. For example, in some embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized ions in the aqueous feed stream transported to the ion-selective separator is as little as 10,000 ppm, 1000 ppm, 100 ppm, or less.

In certain embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized monovalent ions in the aqueous feed stream transported to the ion-selective separator is at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 500,000 ppm, or more). Aqueous feed streams with solubilized monovalent ion concentrations outside these ranges could also be used. For example, in some embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized monovalent ions in the aqueous feed stream transported to the ion-selective separator is as little as 10,000 ppm, 1000 ppm, 100 ppm, or less.

In certain embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized multivalent ions in the aqueous feed stream transported to the ion-selective separator is at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 500,000 ppm, or more). Aqueous feed streams with solubilized multivalent ion concentrations outside these ranges could also be used. For example, in some embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized multivalent ions in the aqueous feed stream transported to the ion-selective separator is as little as 10,000 ppm, 1000 ppm, 100 ppm, or less.

In certain embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized monovalent ions in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream exiting the ion-selective separator (e.g., exiting an ion-selective membrane) is at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 500,000 ppm, or more). Monovalent-ion-enriched streams with solubilized monovalent ion concentrations outside these ranges could also be used. For example, in some embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized monovalent ions in the monovalent-ion-enriched stream exiting the ion-selective separator (e.g., exiting an ion-selective membrane) is as little as 10,000 ppm, 1000 ppm, 100 ppm, or less.

In certain embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized multivalent ions in the multivalent-ion-enriched stream exiting the ion-selective separator (e.g., exiting an ion-selective membrane) is at least about 60,000 ppm, at least about 80,000 ppm, or at least about 100,000 ppm (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 500,000 ppm, or more). Multivalent-ion-enriched streams with solubilized multivalent ion concentrations outside these ranges could also be used. For example, in some embodiments, the total concentration of solubilized multivalent ions in the multivalent-ion-enriched stream exiting the ion-selective separator (e.g., exiting an ion-selective membrane) is as little as 10,000 ppm, 1000 ppm, 100 ppm, or less.

In some embodiments, the aqueous feed stream can be derived from seawater, ground water, brackish water, and/or the effluent of a chemical process. In the oil and gas industry, for example, one type of aqueous feed stream that may be encountered is produced water (e.g., water that emerges from oil or gas wells along with the oil or gas). Due to the length of time produced water has spent in the ground, and due to high subterranean pressures and temperatures that may increase the solubility of certain salts and minerals, produced water often comprises relatively high concentrations of dissolved salts and minerals. For example, some produced water streams may comprise a supersaturated solution of dissolved strontium sulfate (SrSO4). In contrast, another type of aqueous feed stream that may be encountered in the oil and gas industry is flowback water (e.g., water that is injected as a fracking fluid during hydraulic fracturing operations and subsequently recovered). Flowback water often comprises a variety of constituents used in fracking, including surfactants, proppants, and viscosity reducing agents, but often has a lower salinity than produced water. In some cases, the systems and methods described herein can be used to produce multivalent-ion-enriched streams from aqueous feed streams comprising and/or derived from such process streams.

According to certain embodiments, the aqueous feed stream comprises a suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase. Generally, a suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase is a material that is not soluble in water to a level of more than 10% by weight at the temperature and other conditions at which the stream is operated. In some embodiments, the suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase comprises oil and/or grease. The term “oil” generally refers to a fluid that is more hydrophobic than water and is not miscible or soluble in water, as is known in the art. Thus, the oil may be a hydrocarbon in some embodiments, but in other embodiments, the oil may comprise other hydrophobic fluids. In some embodiments, at least about 0.1 wt %, at least about 1 wt %, at least about 2 wt %, at least about 5 wt %, or at least about 10 wt % (and/or, in some embodiments, up to about 20 wt %, up to about 30 wt %, up to about 40 wt %, up to about 50 wt %, or more) of the aqueous feed stream is made up of a suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase.

It can be undesirable, according to certain embodiments, to allow certain suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phases to enter the system. For example, in certain embodiments in which ion-selective membranes are employed, the membranes can be made of a material (e.g., polysulfones, polyethersulfone) that can be damaged when they are exposed to oil and/or other hydrocarbons. Osmotic membranes can also be damaged when exposed to such chemicals. Accordingly, removal of the oil and/or other hydrocarbons upstream of the system can be desirable.

Accordingly, certain embodiments comprise removing at least a portion of a suspended or emulsified immiscible phase from the aqueous feed stream before the aqueous feed stream is transported to an ion-selective separator and/or an ion-selective membrane. In certain embodiments, the system is configured such that little or none of the suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase is transported to the ion-selective separator and/or an ion-selective membrane.

For example, in some embodiments, a water-immiscible phase separator can be configured to remove at least a portion of (e.g., at least about 50%, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 99 wt %, or more) of the suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase from the aqueous feed stream before the aqueous feed stream is transported to the ion-selective membrane.FIG. 6Ais an exemplary schematic illustration of a system100in which water-immiscible phase separator600is used to remove at least a portion of a suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase from aqueous feed stream160B to produce aqueous feed stream160. The water-immiscible phase separator illustrated inFIG. 6Acan be used, for example, to remove at least a portion of the suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase before the aqueous feed stream is transported to any of the systems illustrated inFIGS. 1A and 5A.

In certain embodiments, a water-immiscible phase separator can be configured to remove at least a portion of (e.g., at least about 50%, at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, at least about 99 wt %, or more) of the suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase from the aqueous feed stream before the aqueous feed stream is transported to the ion-selective separator.FIG. 6Bis an exemplary schematic illustration of a system100in which water-immiscible phase separator600is used to remove at least a portion of a suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase from aqueous feed stream220B to produce aqueous feed stream220. The water-immiscible phase separator illustrated inFIG. 6Bcan be used, for example, to remove at least a portion of the suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase before the aqueous feed stream is transported to any of the systems illustrated inFIGS. 2, 3, 4A-4B, and 5B.

In certain embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator can be configured to output an aqueous feed stream (e.g., to an ion-selective membrane and/or an ion-selective membrane separator) having a concentration of suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase(s) of less than about 10 ppm, less than about 1 ppm, or less than about 0.1 ppm. In certain embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator can be configured to output an aqueous feed stream (e.g., to an ion-selective membrane and/or an ion-selective membrane separator) having a concentration of oil of less than about 10 ppm, less than about 1 ppm, or less than about 0.1 ppm.

Optionally, the water-immiscible phase separator can produce an immiscible-phase-rich stream, which can contain at least a portion (or all) of the immiscible phase that is separated from the aqueous feed stream. For example, inFIG. 6A, water-immiscible phase separator600can produce optional immiscible-phase-rich stream620, according to certain embodiments. As another example, inFIG. 6B, water-immiscible phase separator600can produce optional immiscible-phase-rich stream620, according to certain embodiments.

While the water-immiscible phase separator can be used to separate a suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase from an incoming aqueous feed stream, such separation is optional. For example, in some embodiments, the aqueous feed stream transported to the system is substantially free of a suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase, or it contains an amount of suspended and/or emulsified immiscible phase that is sufficiently low that acceptable operation of the system can be obtained without using a water-immiscible phase separator.

A variety of water-immiscible phase separators are suitable for use according to certain of the embodiments described herein. In some embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator at least partially separates the immiscible phase from the aqueous stream via gravity, centrifugal force, adsorption, and/or using a barrier. In some embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator comprises a hydrocyclone, such as a de-oiling hydrocyclone. In some embodiments, the hydrocyclone can be configured to remove droplets of the immiscible phase having a diameter of greater than about 10 micrometers. In certain embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator comprises a corrugated plate interceptor. In some embodiments, the corrugated plate interceptor can be configured to remove droplets of the immiscible phase having a diameter of greater than about 50 micrometers. In some embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator comprises an adsorption media filter. The adsorption media filter can contain an adsorption medium. The adsorption medium may comprise, for example, walnut shells. In some embodiments, the adsorption media filter can be configured to remove droplets of the immiscible phase having a diameter of greater than about 150 micrometers. The water-immiscible phase separator comprises, according to certain embodiments, a coalescing media filter. The coalescing media filter can be configured, in some embodiments, to remove droplets of the immiscible phase having a diameter of less than about 2 micrometers. In some embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator comprises a membrane filter. In certain embodiments, the membrane filter can be configured to remove droplets of the immiscible phase having a diameter of less than about 1 micrometer. In certain embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator comprises a settling zone in which water and the immiscible phase are at least partially physically separated. The settling zone may comprise, for example, a crystallization tank (which can be, in some embodiments, a settling tank). As one example, the water-immiscible phase separator may comprise, according to certain embodiments, an American Petroleum Institute separator, commonly referred to as API separators. In some embodiments, the API separator can be configured to remove droplets of the immiscible phase having a diameter of greater than about 150 micrometers. According to some embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator comprises a skimmer. In some embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator comprises a dissolved gas floatation (DGF) apparatus. In certain embodiments, the water-immiscible phase separator comprises an induced gas flotation (IGF) apparatus. In some embodiments, the DGF and/or IGF apparatus can be configured to remove droplets of the immiscible phase having a diameter of greater than about 20 micrometers.

Certain embodiments are related to producing multivalent-ion-enriched streams for use in oil recovery. Oil reservoirs generally include porous rocks, the pores of which may contain oil. In some cases, injection of water rich in solubilized multivalent ions can aid in the extraction of oil from such pores. Accordingly, some embodiments comprise injecting a multivalent-ion-enriched product stream (e.g., any of the multivalent-ion-enriched product streams described herein) into a subterranean space. The subterranean space may comprise, for example, oil contained within the pores of a porous material (e.g., porous rocks or other porous materials). In certain embodiments, the subterranean space may be part of an oil well. In certain embodiments, the multivalent-ion-enriched stream that is injected into the subterranean space can be injected under pressure (e.g., under a gauge pressure of at least about 1 bar, at least about 2 bar, at least about 5 bar, at least about 10 bar, at least about 25 bar, or more). Certain embodiments can comprise recovering at least a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream from the subterranean space. In certain embodiments, the aqueous feed stream used in the system (e.g., any of the aqueous feed streams described herein) can comprise at least a portion of the monovalent-ion-enriched stream recovered from the subterranean space.

Various components are described herein as being either directly fluidically connected or indirectly fluidically connected. Generally, a direct fluidic connection exists between a first region and a second region (and the two regions are said to be directly fluidically connected to each other) when they are fluidically connected to each other and when the composition of the fluid at the second region of the fluidic connection has not substantially changed relative to the composition of the fluid at the first region of the fluidic connection (i.e., no fluid component that was present in the first region of the fluidic connection is present in a weight percentage in the second region of the fluidic connection that is more than 5% different from the weight percentage of that component in the first region of the fluidic connection). As an illustrative example, a stream that connects first and second unit operations, and in which the pressure and temperature of the fluid is adjusted but the composition of the fluid is not altered, would be said to directly fluidically connect the first and second unit operations. If, on the other hand, a separation step is performed and/or a chemical reaction is performed that substantially alters the composition of the stream contents during passage from the first component to the second component, the stream would not be said to directly fluidically connect the first and second unit operations. In some embodiments, a direct fluidic connection between a first region and a second region can be configured such that the fluid does not undergo a phase change from the first region to the second region. In some embodiments, the direct fluidic connection can be configured such that at least about 50 wt % (or at least about 75 wt %, at least about 90 wt %, at least about 95 wt %, or at least about 98 wt %) of the fluid in the first region is transported to the second region via the direct fluidic connection.

Certain components (e.g., sides of membranes) are described according to certain embodiments as facing other components (e.g., sides of other membranes). As used herein, a surface (or surface portion) is said to be “facing” an object when any line extending normal to the surface and away from the bulk of the material comprising the surface intersects the object. For example, a first surface would be facing a second surface if a line normal to the first surface and extending away from the bulk of the material comprising the first surface intersects the second surface. A surface can be facing another object when it is in contact with the other object, or when one or more intermediate materials are positioned between the surface and the other object. For example, two surfaces that are facing each other can be in contact or can include one or more intermediate materials between them.

U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/205,633, filed Aug. 14, 2015 and entitled “Selective Retention of Multivalent Ions” is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.