MICROFLUIDIC CHIP

A lab-on-chip platform is provided and includes a substrate. The substrate includes a microfluidic path. The microfluidic path has multiple inputs and an output and an analysis area downstream from a mixing area. The lab-on-chip platform further includes a cover disposed on the substrate to partially enclose the microfluidic path, a mineral layer deposited in at least the mixing area and obstructions. The mineral layer is configured to at least partially chemically react with fluid within the microfluidic path to form at least first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles. The obstructions are formed or disposed in the analysis area and configured to capture the first particles in the analysis area and to allow the second particles and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area.

BACKGROUND

The present invention generally relates to fabrication methods and resulting structures for microfluidic chips. More specifically, the present invention relates to a microfluidic chip that may be utilized in, for example, carbon dioxide mineralization studies.

Carbon sequestration is part of the natural carbon cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of Earth. Carbon in a format of carbon dioxide (CO2) is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical and physical processes and is stored in ocean, soil and rock reservoirs. Besides natural processes, CO2 capture and storage can be also performed by artificial processes.

CO2 storage technologies can store CO2 in geological formations by the reaction of CO2 with metal oxides to produce stable carbonates.

SUMMARY

According to an aspect of the invention, a lab-on-chip platform is provided. A non-limiting example of the lab-on-chip platform includes a substrate. The substrate includes a microfluidic path. The microfluidic path has multiple inputs and an output and an analysis area downstream from a mixing area. The lab-on-chip platform further includes a cover disposed on the substrate to partially enclose the microfluidic path, a mineral layer deposited in at least the mixing area and obstructions. The mineral layer is configured to at least partially chemically react with fluid within the microfluidic path to form at least first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles. The obstructions are formed or disposed in the analysis area and configured to capture the first particles in the analysis area and to allow the second particles and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area. Additionally or alternatively, the lab-on-chip platform provides for a microfluidic chip that can be used to quantify key mineralization aspects, for instance, carbonate volume generated, mineralization rate, rock dissolution rate, crystal formation time, etc.

According to an aspect of the invention, a method of mineralization rate measurement is provided. A non-limiting example of the method includes forming a lab-on-chip platform with a microfluidic path having multiple inputs and an output and an analysis area downstream from a mixing area, depositing a mineral layer in at least the mixing area, forming or disposing obstructions in the analysis area and disposing a cover on a substrate to partially enclose the microfluidic path. The method further includes flowing a fluid along the microfluidic path such that, in the mixing area, the fluid forms first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles, through chemical interactions with the mineral layer or remains unreacted, and, in the analysis area, the obstructions capture the first particles and allow the second particles and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area. In addition, the method includes analyzing a presence of the first particles captured in the analysis area to determine a mineralization rate. Additionally or alternatively, the method provides for quantification of key mineralization aspects, for instance, carbonate volume generated, mineralization rate, rock dissolution rate, crystal formation time, etc.

According to an aspect of the invention, a lab-on-chip platform is provided. A non-limiting example of the lab-on-chip platform includes a substrate in which a microfluidic path is formed having multiple inputs and an output and an analysis area, a cover placed on the substrate to partially enclose the microfluidic path and a mineral layer disposed in the microfluidic path and including a central mineral layer sandwiched between non-mineral layers. The central mineral layer is exposed to and etched by fluid flowing along the microfluidic path such that a capacitance of the mineral layer changes over time. Additionally or alternatively, the lab-on-chip platform provides for a microfluidic chip that can be used to quantify key mineralization aspects, for instance, carbonate volume generated, mineralization rate, rock dissolution rate, crystal formation time, etc.

In the accompanying figures and following detailed description of the described embodiments, the various elements illustrated in the figures are provided with two-or three-digit reference numbers. With minor exceptions, the leftmost digit(s) of each reference number corresponds to the figure in which its element is first illustrated.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

According to an aspect of the invention, a lab-on-chip platform is provided. A non-limiting example of the lab-on-chip platform includes a substrate. The substrate includes a microfluidic path. The microfluidic path has multiple inputs and an output and an analysis area downstream from a mixing area. The lab-on-chip platform further includes a cover disposed on the substrate to partially enclose the microfluidic path, a mineral layer deposited in at least the mixing area and obstructions. The mineral layer is configured to at least partially chemically react with fluid within the microfluidic path to form at least first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles. The obstructions are formed or disposed in the analysis area and configured to capture the first particles in the analysis area and to allow the second particles and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area. Additionally or alternatively, the lab-on-chip platform provides for a microfluidic chip that can be used to quantify key mineralization aspects, for instance, carbonate volume generated, mineralization rate, rock dissolution rate, crystal formation time, etc.

In embodiments, the microfluidic path includes the multiple inputs upstream from the mixing area by which multiple fluids and/or chemicals are flown into the microfluidic path for mixing in the mixing area and the output downstream from the analysis area which is receptive of the second particles and the unreacted fluid passing out of the analysis area and the multiple fluids and/or chemicals include at least one or more of water, brine, oil, carbon dioxide and a reagent. Additionally or alternatively, the multiple inputs and the output provide for fluid flow through the lab-on-chip platform whereby the fluid can be reactive with the mineral layer.

In embodiments, the mineral layer includes one or more of carbonates and silicates. Additionally or alternatively, the mineral layer is formed to mimic a rock sample.

In embodiments, the obstructions include at least one of bottleneck forming channels arranged along a longitudinal axis of the analysis area for capturing the first particles and blocks forming a sieve spanning a width of the analysis area for capturing the first particles. Additionally or alternatively, the obstructions are configured to capture the first particles for analysis.

In embodiments, an apparatus for mineralization rate measurement includes a data acquisition system (DAS) and the lab-on-chip platform, the analysis area being exposed to the DAS via the cover and the DAS being configured to analyze a presence of the first particles captured in the analysis area for determining a mineralization rate. Additionally or alternatively, the apparatus provides for mineralization rate measurement of a type of a rock sample.

In embodiments, the DAS includes at least one of a microscope and a spectroscope. Additionally or alternatively, the DAS is capable of various types of data acquisition and analysis.

In embodiments, the microfluidic path includes the multiple inputs upstream from the mixing area by which multiple fluids and/or chemicals are flown into the microfluidic path for mixing in the mixing area and the output downstream from the analysis area which is receptive of the second particles and the unreacted fluid passing out of the analysis area and the multiple fluids and/or chemicals include at least one or more of water, brine, oil, carbon dioxide and a reagent. Additionally or alternatively, the multiple inputs and the output provide for fluid flow through the lab-on-chip platform whereby the fluid can be reactive with the mineral layer.

In embodiments, the mineral layer includes one or more of carbonates and silicates. Additionally or alternatively, the mineral layer is formed to mimic a rock sample.

In embodiments, the obstructions include at least one of bottleneck forming channels arranged along a longitudinal axis of the analysis area for capturing the first particles and blocks forming a sieve spanning a width of the analysis area for capturing the first particles. Additionally or alternatively, the obstructions are configured to capture the first particles for analysis.

According to an aspect of the invention, a method of mineralization rate measurement is provided. A non-limiting example of the method includes forming a lab-on-chip platform with a microfluidic path having multiple inputs and an output and an analysis area downstream from a mixing area, depositing a mineral layer in at least the mixing area, forming or disposing obstructions in the analysis area and disposing a cover on a substrate to partially enclose the microfluidic path. The method further includes flowing a fluid along the microfluidic path such that, in the mixing area, the fluid forms first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles, through chemical interactions with the mineral layer or remains unreacted, and, in the analysis area, the obstructions capture the first particles and allow the second particles and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area. In addition, the method includes analyzing a presence of the first particles captured in the analysis area to determine a mineralization rate. Additionally or alternatively, the method provides for quantification of key mineralization aspects, for instance, carbonate volume generated, mineralization rate, rock dissolution rate, crystal formation time, etc.

In embodiments, the analyzing includes at least one of microscopy and spectroscopy via the cover. Additionally or alternatively, the cover allows for executions of microscopy or spectroscopy via the cover.

In embodiments, the forming of the lab-on-chip platform includes etching the microfluidic path such that the microfluidic path includes the multiple inputs upstream from the mixing area by which the fluid is flown into the microfluidic path for mixing in the mixing area and the output downstream from the analysis area and receptive of the second particles and the unreacted fluid passing out of the analysis area and the fluid includes multiple fluids and/or chemicals including at least one or more of water, brine, oil, carbon dioxide and a reagent. Additionally or alternatively, the multiple inputs and the output provide for fluid flow through the lab-on-chip platform whereby the fluid can be reactive with the mineral layer.

In embodiments, the mineral layer includes one or more of carbonates and silicates. Additionally or alternatively, the mineral layer is formed to mimic a rock sample.

In embodiments, the depositing of the mineral layer includes at least one of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and laser pulsed deposition (LPD). Additionally or alternatively, the deposition of the mineral layer using CVD or LPD allows for variations in a topography of the mineral layer to better mimic characteristics of a rock sample.

In embodiments, the depositing of the mineral layer includes changing depositional parameters along the microfluidic path to provide varying surface topologies that mimic rock porosity. Additionally or alternatively, the changing of the depositional parameters to provide for the varying surface topologies that mimic rock porosity can provide for greater flexibility in a study of mineralization rates.

In embodiments, the disposing of the obstructions in the analysis area includes at least one of arranging bottleneck forming channels along a longitudinal axis of the analysis area such that the first particles are capturable in the bottleneck forming channels for the analyzing and disposing blocks forming a sieve spanning a width of the analysis area such that the first particles are capturable in the sieve for the analyzing. Additionally or alternatively, the obstructions are configured to capture the first particles for analysis.

According to an aspect of the invention, a lab-on-chip platform is provided. A non-limiting example of the lab-on-chip platform includes a substrate in which a microfluidic path is formed having multiple inputs and an output and an analysis area, a cover placed on the substrate to partially enclose the microfluidic path and a mineral layer disposed in the microfluidic path and including a central mineral layer sandwiched between non-mineral layers. The central mineral layer is exposed to and etched by fluid flowing along the microfluidic path such that a capacitance of the mineral layer changes over time. Additionally or alternatively, the lab-on-chip platform provides for a microfluidic chip that can be used to quantify key mineralization aspects, for instance, carbonate volume generated, mineralization rate, rock dissolution rate, crystal formation time, etc.

In embodiments, at least one of the central mineral layer includes one or more of carbonates and silicates and the non-mineral layers include metallic materials and the central mineral layer has at least first and second sections and includes one or more of first carbonates and silicates and one or more of second carbonates and silicates in the first and second sections, respectively, and the non-mineral layers include metallic materials. Additionally or alternatively, the mineral layer is formed to mimic a rock sample and/or a rock sample with variable characteristics.

In embodiments, an apparatus for mineralization rate measurement includes a data acquisition system (DAS) and the lab-on-chip platform, the DAS being configured to determine a change of the capacitance of the mineral layer over time for determining a mineralization rate. Additionally or alternatively, the apparatus provides for mineralization rate measurement of a type of a rock sample.

In embodiments, at least one of the central mineral layer includes one or more of carbonates and silicates and the non-mineral layers include metallic materials and the central mineral layer has at least first and second sections and includes one or more of first carbonates and silicates and one or more of second carbonates and silicates in the first and second sections, respectively, and the non-mineral layers include metallic materials. Additionally or alternatively, the mineral layer is formed to mimic a rock sample and/or a rock sample with variable characteristics

Turning now to an overview of technologies that are more specifically relevant to aspects of the invention, human activities annually generate about 50 billion tons of carbon dioxide and it has been proposed that storage of carbon dioxide in underground geological formations may be a promising route to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations to thereby limit or mitigate climate change.

Geological CO2 storage is considered the most stable form of CO2 storage and involves the injection of carbon laden solutions directly into the pore space of subsurface rock formations, such as saline aquifers and abandoned oil reservoirs. These techniques are being developed for implementation in different reservoirs at distinct pressures and temperatures and with differing chemical and physical compositions. Thus, it is apparent that key aspects for successful executions of geological sequestration of carbon dioxide include understanding pore structure and chemical properties of reservoirs as well as understanding how aspects of CO2 injection into rock reservoirs affect mineralization.

Presently, the study of fluid flow on rock formations typically involves core flooding tests, which can determine rock porosity and permeability. In this type of test, a cylinder rock sample is removed from a reservoir and placed in a holder with known dimensions. The outer surface of the rock sample is pressurized to simulate the pressure of the reservoir. A test fluid is then pumped through the rock sample and flow rates and pressure drop across the rock sample are measured. From this data, the resistance to flow of the rock sample is evaluated.

A drawback of core flooding tests is that they cannot be used to evaluate chemical interactions between the injection fluid and the rock surface. To study geological CO2 mineralization reactions, a method is needed where mineralization rates can be determined as a function of the mineral composition of the rock reservoir, the chemical composition of the injection fluids and the physical conditions of the reservoir (i.e., temperature and pressure). It is particularly difficult to acquire deep understand of the chemical reactions between the injection fluids and the minerals at rock reservoir in real time.

Turning now to an overview of the aspects of the invention, one or more embodiments of the invention address the above-described shortcomings of the prior art by providing a lab-on-chip platform that has channel surfaces covered by minerals which allow for the study of flow and carbon dioxide mineralization in porous media models on well-defined microscale geometries. With this combination of features, optical imaging and spectroscopy techniques can be used to monitor the flow of carbon dioxide laden fluids in constricted geometries during single-phase and multi-phase flow experiments on the microfluidic chip, to monitor fluid dynamics in real time and to execute particle tracking to extract physical properties of the fluid, such as its flow speed. This allows for validation of fluid flow models and provides insights into the percolation of fluid in real rock samples. In parallel, this also allows for the study of the reaction kinetics between the carbon laden solutions and the mineral surface within the porous channels of the microfluidic chip as well as the measurement of mineral precipitation and dissolution rates in real-time by employing optical microscopy and spectroscopy. The study of these reactions is necessary for revealing the mechanisms that govern dissolution and precipitation reactions which are key for modelling mineral trapping. In addition, this method can be applied for verification and measurement of volumes of accumulations at microscopic scales and for estimating mineralization rates that feed into the chemical reaction models to be applied in larger porous geometries. The outcome of such measurements can allow for the building and calibration of computational models that consider joint effects of infiltration, dissolution and mineralization of carbon dioxide at the pore scale.

The above-described aspects of the invention address the shortcomings of the prior art by providing for a lab-on-chip platform. The lab-on-chip platform includes a substrate. The substrate includes a microfluidic path. The microfluidic path has multiple inputs and an output and an analysis area downstream from a mixing area. The lab-on-chip platform further includes a cover disposed on the substrate to partially enclose the microfluidic path, a mineral layer deposited in at least the mixing area and obstructions. The mineral layer is configured to at least partially chemically react with fluid within the microfluidic path to form at least first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles. The obstructions are formed or disposed in the analysis area and configured to capture the first particles in the analysis area and to allow the second particles and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area. In addition, this apparatus for mineralization rate measurement includes a DAS which is configured to analyze the presence of the first particles captured in the analysis area for determining a mineralization rate. The analysis area of the lab-on-chip platform is exposed to the DAS via the cover.

Turning now to a more detailed description of aspects of the present invention, FIGS. 1A and 1B and FIG. 2 and FIGS. 3A and 3B and FIG. 4 depict perspective and cross section views of an apparatus for mineralization rate measurement including a lab-on-chip platform with bottlenecks in an analysis area (see FIGS. 1A and 1B and FIG. 2) or a sieve in an analysis area (see FIGS. 3A and 3B and FIG. 4) and a data acquisition system (DAS) in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present invention;

As shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B and FIG. 2, a lab-on-chip platform 101 includes a substrate 110 that can be formed of silicon or another suitable material in which a microfluidic path 120 is formed by etching or another suitable process. The microfluidic path 120 has a mixing area 121, an analysis area 122 defined downstream from the mixing area 121, one or more inputs 123 defined upstream from the mixing area 121 and by which multiple fluids and/or chemicals are flown into the microfluidic path 120 for mixing in the mixing area 121 and an output 124 defined downstream from the analysis area 122. The lab-on-chip platform 101 further includes a mineral layer 130 (see FIG. 1B) deposited in at least the mixing area 121 and obstructions 140 formed or disposed in the analysis area 122. Fluid flowing along the microfluidic path 120 from the one or more inputs 123, through the mixing area 121, through the analysis area 122 and to the output 124 forms first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles, through chemical interactions with the mineral layer 130 in at least the mixing area 121 or remains unreacted. The obstructions 140 are configured to capture the first particles in the analysis area 122 (see FIG. 2) and to allow the second particles that are sufficiently small and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area 122 to the output 124. The output 124 is thus receptive of the second particles and the unreacted fluid passing out of the analysis area 122.

In accordance with embodiments, the obstructions 140 can include bottleneck forming channels 141 that are arranged along a longitudinal axis A of the analysis area 122 for capturing the first particles. The multiple fluids and/or chemicals of the fluid can include at least one or more of water, brine, oil, carbon dioxide and/or a reagent and the mineral layer 130 can include but not limited to carbonates, such as calcium carbonate, and silicates, such as calcium silicates. During an operation of the lab-on-chip platform 101, as the fluid moves through the microfluidic path 120, the fluid chemically interacts with the mineral layer 130 at a certain mineralization rate to form the first and second particles or to otherwise remain unreacted. This mineralization rate can be dependent on various factors including, but not limited to, the pressure of the fluid, the flow rate of the fluid, the geometry and topography of the mineral layer 130, etc., all of which are known and controllable to mimic a type of a rock sample that is being studied. The amount of the first particles that are captured by the bottleneck forming channels 141 can be measured by microscopy or spectroscopy techniques and this result can be used to determine a mineralization rate of the type of the rock sample, according to the fluid applied in the microfluidic chip, operation condition of experiments (pressure, temperature) and chemical proprieties of the sample fluids (chemical composition and concentration).

As shown in FIG. 1A, the lab-on-chip platform 101 can be provided as a component of an apparatus 102 for mineralization rate measurement. The apparatus 102 can include a DAS 103, the lab-on-chip platform 101 and an optically transparent cover 104 (see FIG. 1B). The DAS 103 can include or be provided as a microscope for microscopy and/or as a spectroscope for spectroscopy. The transparent cover 104 is put on top of the substrate 110 to enclose the microfluidic path 120. The analysis area 122 is exposed to the DAS 103 via the transparent cover 104. The DAS 103 is configured to analyze (i.e., by microscopy, spectroscopy, or another suitable process) a presence of the first particles captured by the bottleneck forming channels 141 in the analysis area 122 for the determining of the mineralization rate of the type of the rock sample.

As shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B and FIG. 4, a lab-on-chip platform 301 includes a substrate 310 that can be formed of silicon or another suitable material in which a microfluidic path 320 is formed by etching or another suitable process. The microfluidic path 320 is enclosed by an optically transparent cover 304, has a mixing area 321, an analysis area 322 defined downstream from the mixing area 321, one or more inputs 323 defined upstream from the mixing area 321 and by which multiple fluids and/or chemicals are flown into the microfluidic path 320 for mixing in the mixing area 321 and an output 324 defined downstream from the analysis area 322. The lab-on-chip platform 301 further includes a mineral layer 330 (see FIG. 3B) deposited in at least the mixing area 321 and obstructions 340 formed or disposed in the analysis area 322. Fluid flowing along the microfluidic path 320 from the one or more inputs 323, through the mixing area 321, through the analysis area 322 and to the output 324 forms first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles, through chemical interactions with the mineral layer 330 in at least the mixing area 321 or remains unreacted. The obstructions 340 are configured to capture the first particles in the analysis area 322 (see FIG. 4) and to allow the second particles that are sufficiently small and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area 322 to the output 324. The output 324 is thus receptive of the second particles and the unreacted fluid passing out of the analysis area 322.

In accordance with embodiments, the obstructions 340 can include blocks forming a sieve 341 spanning a width W of the analysis area 322 for capturing the first particles. The multiple fluids and/or chemicals of the fluid can include at least one or more of water, brine, oil, carbon dioxide and/or a reagent and the mineral layer 330 can include, but not limited to, carbonates, such as calcium carbonate, and silicates, such as calcium silicates. During an operation of the lab-on-chip platform 301, as the fluid flows through the microfluidic path 320, the fluid chemically interacts with the mineral layer 330 at a certain mineralization rate to form the first and second particles or to otherwise remain unreacted. This mineralization rate can be dependent on various factors including, but not limited to, the pressure of the fluid, the flow rate of the fluid, the geometry and topography of the mineral layer 330, etc., all of which are known and controllable to mimic a type of a rock sample that is being studied. The amount of the first particles that are captured by sieve 341 can be measured and this measured amount can be used to determine a mineralization rate of the type of the rock sample.

As shown in FIG. 3A, the lab-on-chip platform 301 can be provided as a component of an apparatus 302 for mineralization rate measurement. The apparatus 302 can include a DAS 303, the lab-on-chip platform 301 and an optically transparent cover 304 (see FIG. 3B). The DAS 303 can include or be provided as a microscope for microscopy and/or as a spectroscope for spectroscopy. The transparent cover 304 is positioned on the substrate 310 to enclose the microfluidic path 320. The analysis area 322 is exposed to the DAS 303 via the transparent cover 304. The DAS 303 is configured to analyze (i.e., by microscopy, spectroscopy, or another suitable process) a presence of the first particles captured by the bottleneck forming channels 141 in the analysis area 322 for the determining of the mineralization rate of the type of the rock sample, according to the fluid applied in the microfluidic chip, operation condition of experiments (pressure, temperature) and chemical proprieties of the sample fluids (chemical composition and concentration).

With reference to FIG. 5, a method 500 of mineralization rate measurement is provided. As shown in FIG. 5, the method 500 includes forming a lab-on-chip platform with a microfluidic path having an analysis area downstream from a mixing area, one or more inputs upstream from the mixing area by which fluid (e.g., multiple fluids and/or chemicals including at least one or more of water, brine, oil, carbon dioxide and/or a reagent) can be flown into the microfluidic path for mixing in the mixing area and an output downstream from the analysis area as described above by etching or another suitable process (block 501). In addition, method 500 includes depositing a mineral layer in at least the mixing area by chemical vapor deposition (CVD), laser pulsed deposition (LPD) or another suitable depositional process (block 502). In some cases, the deposition of the mineral layer of block 502 can include changing depositional parameters along the microfluidic path to provide varying surface topologies that mimic rock porosity (block 5021).

The method 500 also includes forming or disposing obstructions in the analysis area (block 503). As described above, the forming or disposing of the obstructions in the analysis area of block 503 can include arranging bottleneck forming channels along a longitudinal axis of the analysis area such that the first particles are capturable in the bottleneck forming channels for the analyzing (block 5031) and/or disposing blocks forming a sieve spanning a width of the analysis area such that the first particles are capturable in the sieve for the analyzing (block 5032).

The method 500 further includes disposing a transparent cover on the substrate to enclose the microfluidic path (block 504) and flowing a fluid along the microfluidic path such that, in the mixing area, the fluid forms first particles and second particles, which are substantially smaller than the first particles, through chemical interactions with the mineral layer or remains unreacted, and, in the analysis area, the obstructions capture the first particles and allow the second particles and unreacted fluid to pass out of the analysis area (block 505). In addition, method 500 can include analyzing a presence of the first particles captured in the analysis area to determine a mineralization rate by at least one of microscopy and spectroscopy executed via the transparent cover (block 506).

With reference to FIGS. 6-9, a lab-on-chip platform 601 is provided and is generally similar to the lab-on-chip platforms 101 and 301 of FIGS. 1A and 3A. The lab-on-chip platform 601 includes a substrate 610 in which a microfluidic path 620 is formed as described above, a mineral layer 630 and an optically transparent cover (see FIGS. 1B and 3B). The mineral layer 630 is disposed in the microfluidic path 620 and includes a central mineral layer 621 that is sandwiched between non-mineral layers 622, 623. The central mineral layer 621 can be exposed to and etched by fluid flowing along the microfluidic path 620 owing to, for example, the difference in length between the non-mineral layer 622 and the central mineral layer 621 and the non-mineral layer 623. The etching of the central mineral layer 621 is illustrated in FIGS. 8A and 8B and leads to a change in the capacitance of the mineral layer 621 over time.

In accordance with one or more embodiments of the present invention, the central mineral layer 621 can include one or more carbonates and silicates and the non-mineral layers 622, 623 can include metallic materials (see FIG. 7). As an alternative, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present invention, the central mineral layer 621 can have at least first and second sections 6211, 6212 and can include one or more of first carbonates and silicates and one or more of second carbonates and silicates in the first and second sections 6211, 6212, respectively, and the non-mineral layers 622, 623 can include metallic materials.

In accordance with one or more embodiments of the present invention, the mineral layer 630 can include one or more of carbonates and silicates. As an alternative, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present invention, the mineral layer 630 can have at least first and second sections as shown in FIG. 9 and can include one or more of first carbonates and silicates and one or more of second carbonates and silicates in the first and second sections, respectively.

The lab-on-chip platform 601 can be provided as a component in an apparatus for mineralization rate measurement generally as described above with reference to FIGS. 1A and 3A. The apparatus would include a DAS, with the DAS being configured generally as described above to determine a change of the capacitance of the mineral layer 621 over time for determining a mineralization rate of a type of a rock sample being studied.

The term “conformal” (e.g., a conformal layer) means that the thickness of the layer is substantially the same on all surfaces, or that the thickness variation is less than 15% of the nominal thickness of the layer.