Output stabilization of mixed color temperature LED lighting systems

Methods and systems for controlling compound ramps in LED luminaires and lighting circuits are disclosed. In a compound ramp, the light output of one set of LED light engines increases while the light output of another set of LED light engines decreases. During such a ramp, the methods and systems may control the total light output to keep it relatively constant. In some embodiments, the methods and systems may also control the color of the emitted light maintain ideal color characteristics.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The invention relates to LED lighting, and particularly, to controlling the light output of LED lighting that uses LED light engines of different color temperatures or characteristics.

BACKGROUND

LED lighting, a form of solid-state lighting, has supplanted traditional incandescent and fluorescent lighting as the dominant type of lighting in both residential and commercial settings. However, LED lighting produces light differently than legacy light sources, and does not necessarily mimic the behaviors of legacy light sources.

Typically, an LED luminaire includes a number of LED light engines. An LED light engine usually includes one or several light-emitting diodes in a package that makes it easy to mount the light engine on a printed circuit board. For example, LED light engines are often surface-mounted on a rigid or flexible printed circuit board.

There are several different ways that LED light engines can be used to produce different colors of light. One of the most straightforward is by additive color mixing. In that case, red, green, and blue LEDs are used, usually in the same light engine. Red, green, and blue light can then be mixed by activating the individual LEDs at different intensities to produce a variety of different light colors, including a variety of different shades of “white” light.

If the objective of the luminaire is to produce “white” light for ambient or task lighting, optically-pumped LED light engines are frequently used. In an optically-pumped LED light engine, pump LEDs emit a particular wavelength or narrow spectrum of light, which is then absorbed by a phosphor and re-emitted in a desired spectrum. Most commonly, the pump LEDs are blue-light emitting.

Although most light used in ambient and task lighting is colloquially referred to as “white” light, this description is inadequate. “White” light may actually have many different colors, ranging from the “warm” orange-yellow hue of a traditional incandescent lamp to the “cool” bluish-white hue of sunlight or a fluorescent lamp.

There are many different ways of describing the color of light. Correlated color temperature (CCT), expressed in units of degrees Kelvin, is one of the primary metrics for evaluating and describing the color of white light. Lower CCTs (e.g., 1800-3000K) denote “warmer” white light, with yellow and red wavelengths more dominant in the light spectrum; higher CCTs (e.g., 5000-6000K) denote “cooler” white light, with blue wavelengths more dominant in the spectrum.

LED luminaires often include more than one type of LED light engine. For example, an LED luminaire may include separate sets of blue-pump LED light engines with different CCTs, usually one with a “warmer” CCT and one with a “cooler” CCT. Physically, these light engines usually differ only in the composition of the phosphor that absorbs and re-emits light, with one phosphor composition tailored to produce, e.g., 2700K light and the other tailored to produce, e.g., 5000K light. This allows the output of the luminaire to shift from warm to cool white light, or vice-versa, at the option of the user. In some cases, LED light engines with different CCTs may be used to mimic a specific behavior of legacy incandescent lamps: the tendency for the light to grow warmer (i.e., to drop in color temperature) as the lamp is dimmed. This particular type of CCT shifting is often referred to as “dim to warm.”

The process of shifting from using one set of LED light engines to another set of LED light engines is fraught with difficulties. Transitions can be sudden, and in many cases, the luminaire's light output drops undesirably as one set of LED light engines ramps its output down and another set of LED light engines ramps up.

BRIEF SUMMARY

Aspects of the invention relate to LED luminaires with multiple types of LED light engines, each type having different characteristics, and to methods for controlling the light output of such luminaires, particularly during transitions from one state to another. During a compound ramp, in which one set of LED light engines is decreasing in light output and another set of LED light engines is increasing in light output, methods according to embodiments of the invention are adapted to keep the overall light output of the luminaire substantially constant.

Methods according to other aspects of the invention may also function to maintain an ideal color of the light output during transitions such as compound ramps. Maintaining an ideal color of light during transitions may involve changing the color temperature of the light in ways that mimic a black body radiator.

Other aspects, features, and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description that follows.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1is a schematic diagram of an LED lighting circuit, generally indicated at10. The LED lighting circuit10takes two pairs of analog or digital voltage inputs12,14and uses a microcontroller16, or a similar component, to control two associated sets of LEDs18,20, each on its own separate circuit, in accordance with the voltage inputs12,14.

The LED lighting circuit10may be a circuit for a standalone LED luminaire, or it may represent one repeating block in a strip of LED linear lighting. U.S. Pat. No. 10,028,345, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety, discusses LED linear lighting in general, and the meaning of the term “repeating block.” Broadly, linear lighting is a particular class of LED solid-state lighting in which an elongate, narrow printed circuit board (PCB) is populated with a number of LED light engines, typically spaced from one another at a regular pitch or spacing. A strip of linear lighting is typically divided into a number of repeating blocks by cut points. A repeating block is the fundamental functional unit of the linear lighting; it will function when cut from the rest of the strip of linear lighting and connected to power. Relevant here, although the LED light engines may be physically in series with one another on a strip of linear lighting, they may have various electrical arrangements.

In the illustration ofFIG. 1, the sets of LED light engines18,20are isolated from one another they are physically and electrically separate. However, in some cases, the two sets of LED light engines18,20may share a common cathode or a common anode. Moreover, although this description may refer to two or more sets of LED light engines18,20as distinct entities, it is possible to create a single LED light engine that is capable of emitting light of two different color temperatures. This is usually done by selecting a large package, such as a5050SMD LED package, including separately-controlled sets of blue-pump LEDs in the package, and covering one half of the package with a first phosphor and the second half of the package with a second phosphor. Because the two sets of LED light engines18,20need not be physically separate from one another, references to two or more sets of LED light engines in this text should be construed to cover situations in which two (or more) sets of LED light engines are physically in a single set of LED packages.

While certain portions of this description may refer to linear lighting, the methods described here are applicable to any type or arrangement of LED lighting circuit. The LED light engines18,20need not be arranged in linear fashion. As another example, the LED lighting circuit10could be incorporated into the physical form of a classic Type A lightbulb.

The LED lighting circuit10may operate at either low voltage or high voltage, although the remainder of this description will assume that it operates at low voltage. Although the definitions of “low voltage” and “high voltage” vary depending on the authority one consults, for purposes of this description, high voltage should be considered to be any voltage over about 50V. Low voltage LED lighting typically operates at 12V or 24V direct current (DC), although some low voltage lighting operates at higher voltages, e.g., 36V or 48V. The actual number of LED light engines in any particular set18,20may vary considerably from embodiment to embodiment depending, at least in part, on the operating voltage.

The microcontroller16may be a microcontroller per se, or it may be a microprocessor, an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), or any other component capable of performing the functions ascribed to it in this description. Thus, the term “microcontroller” should be read broadly to encompass all computing elements capable of performing the desired functions.

The microcontroller16may be directly connected to and between the inputs12,14and the sets of LED light engines18,20. However, an LED lighting circuit typically requires some element to set the current level in the circuit, and a microcontroller16may not be capable of handling the current or voltage levels necessary to drive the LED light engines18,20directly. For at least those reasons, an LED driver IC17would typically be connected between the microcontroller16and the sets of LED light engines18,20. As one example, the LED driver IC17may be a TLC59116 constant-current LED driver (Texas Instruments, Dallas, Tex., United States). That particular LED driver IC17is a 16-channel driver IC, meaning that it can control up to 16 sets of LED light engines18,20. Similar driver ICs with fewer channels and less resolution may be used in other embodiments, depending on the number of sets of LED light engines18,20that are a part of the LED lighting circuit10and the level of adjustability in light output levels that is needed. That latter factor, adjustability, will be described in more detail below.

As was described briefly above, the lighting circuit10may accept only low-voltage DC power, or it may accept high-voltage AC power and have components that convert the high-voltage AC power to low-voltage DC power. In that case, the lighting circuit10would typically be divided into high-voltage and low-voltage sides, with the microcontroller16on the low-voltage side. Even on the low-voltage side, the lighting circuit10may have voltage conversion elements, e.g., buck converters, boost converters, etc. to supply specific voltages needed by various components. For example, the lighting circuit10may take a 24 VDC input and have converters that reduce the input 24 VDC to 3.3 VDC or 5 VDC to power the microcontroller16, the LED driver IC17, and other such components. On the other hand, if there are a particularly large number of LED light engines18,20in a single circuit, the lighting circuit10may need to boost the input voltage to 28V, 36V, 48V, etc.

While the microcontroller16is shown as a single element for ease in illustration, other elements, such as memory, may be present. Additionally, the microcontroller16may be implemented as a so-called “system on a chip” that includes a microcontroller or other such device along with memory, serial and other communication circuits, and other such components. While it will often be the case that there is one microcontroller16for each lighting circuit10, in some cases, for example, if there are a number of repeating blocks on a single strip of linear lighting, there may be one microcontroller16for several repeating blocks or lighting circuits10.

InFIG. 1, a photodiode22is shown as connected to the microcontroller16. That connection may be direct or indirect, e.g., the photodiode22may be connected through a filter, amplifier, or other such components. The photodiode22is an optional component whose purpose will be explained in greater detail below. In some cases, a photodiode array may be used instead of a single photodiode22.

The precise details of the lighting circuit10are not critical to the invention. However, regardless of the particular circuit topology, the microcontroller10and/or any LED driver IC would typically be capable of accepting instructions using a standard lighting control protocol, such as DMX or DALI, and modulating the light output using a standard modulation scheme, such as pulse-width modulation (PWM). In this embodiment, the microcontroller16is capable of interpreting standard lighting control protocol instructions and instructing the LED driver IC17, which applies a PWM signal to the LED light engines18,20themselves.

FIG. 2is a schematic flow diagram of a method, generally indicated at50, for stabilizing and keeping the light output of a lighting circuit10substantially constant despite a change in relative outputs of different sets of LED light engines18,20in the circuit10. Method50begins at task52and continues with task54.

While the microcontroller16exerts general control over the sets of LED light engines18,20and may cause them to perform many functions, method50focuses on detecting and acting in situations in which the relative outputs of different sets of LED light engines18,20change simultaneously or nearly simultaneously and it is desirable to control all of the sets of LED light engines18,20in concert during that change to achieve an overall result.

FIG. 3is an example of a “compound ramp,” one example of a situation in which it may be desirable to control different sets of LED light engines18,20in concert. When a user desires to switch the color temperature of the light emitted by a lighting circuit10, rather than instantaneously shutting one set of LED light engines18off while activating the other, a controller typically ramps down the light output of one set of LED light engines18gradually while gradually ramping up the light output of the other set of LED light engines20. This is shown schematically in the graph ofFIG. 3, which plots the luminous flux (i.e., light output) of two sets of LED light engines LS1, LS2during a typical ramp. As shown, a first set of LED light engines LS1is being ramped down while, at the same time, another set of LED light engines LS2is being ramped up.

The ramps shown inFIG. 3are linear, although they need not be—because of human perception and preferences, and for other reasons, a controller may execute non-linear ramps. Additionally, a ramping or transition operation need not result in one set of LED light engines18outputting nothing while the other set of LED light engines20outputs 100% of the light; instead, multiple sets of LED light engines18,20may emit light at the same time, resulting in a blended light output with a CCT that is between the CCTs of the two sets18,20. In any case, the term “compound ramp” means that a first operation is being performed on one set of LED light engines18,20to change its light output while at or about the same time, a second operation is being performed on a second set of LED light engines18,20to change its light output. The most common type of compound ramp may be an increase in the light output of one set of LED light engines18,20and a decrease in the light output of another set of LED light engines18,20, but this is not necessarily the only type of compound ramp. Any kind of transition that potentially involves changes in light output between two or more sets of LED light engines18,20falls within the ambit of method50and other methods according to embodiments of the invention.

As will be described below, one objective of method50is to maintain the overall light output of the LED lighting circuit10during a compound ramp that includes both an increase in the light output of one set of LED light engines18,20and the decrease in the light output of another set of LED light engines18,20. This constant output is shown inFIG. 3as ƒ(con).

In task54of method50, the microcontroller16determines if a compound ramp or other applicable transition has been instructed by examining the inputs12,14. It may take a short period of time after initiation of the compound ramp for it to be detected. In the simplest embodiments, the detection process may simply involve detecting a rise in one set of inputs12,14and a simultaneous, or near-simultaneous, fall in another set of inputs12,14. In some cases, the inputs12,14may be in the form of analog voltages that are supplied to the microcontroller16and converted by means of analog-to-digital converters (not shown inFIG. 1). Analog input voltages may be used, e.g., in the case of some 0-10V dimming systems.

In many cases, the inputs12,14will be digital. If the inputs12,14are digital, these rises, falls, and ramps would typically be implemented as changes, or instructions to change, the PWM duty cycle of one set of LED light engines18,20versus the other. A “rise” in light output corresponds to an increase in PWM duty cycle and a “fall” in light output corresponds to a decrease in PWM duty cycle. Here, the term “ramp” refers specifically to a gradual change, either a rise or a fall. As those of skill in the art will appreciate, PWM lighting control schemes do not actually change the magnitude of the light emitted by the sets LED light engines18,20. Instead, they switch the sets of LED light engines18,20on and off rapidly, typically in the kilohertz range, much faster than the human eye can perceive. The more the sets of LED light engines18,20are on (i.e., the greater the duty cycle), the brighter the emitted light is perceived to be.

There are other ways in which a ramp may be detected, depending on the manner in which the LED light engines18,20are controlled. For example, in many situations, lighting control may involve a number of “scenes,” i.e., lighting settings that are stored in memory for possible execution when commanded. Rather than providing direct control instructions for the sets of LED light engines18,20in the form of analog voltages or PWM duty cycles, an input12,14to the microcontroller16may dictate that a particular scene already stored by the microcontroller16is to be executed and leave the details (i.e., PWM duty cycles for each set of LED light engines18,20, etc.) to the local microcontroller16and LED driver IC17. The triggering of a new scene may be an indication that a compound ramp is to be executed.

Method50continues with task56, a decision task. In task56, if a compound ramp is detected (task56:YES), control of method50passes to task58. If a compound ramp is not detected (task56:NO), control of method50passes to task60.

In task58, the inputs12,14are transformed using a function that is intended to execute the compound ramp without diminishing the overall light output of the lighting circuit10. The output of the transformation function is passed to the sets of LED light engines18,20instead of the voltages of the original inputs12,14.

The function used in task58may be a pre-established function determined empirically. For example, a lighting circuit10could be connected to the specific controller of interest and placed in a test device such as an integrating sphere, using a modified version of the LM-79 photometric testing protocol. The compound ramp behavior could be triggered, and the integrating sphere and its associated meters could be programmed to sample the lighting circuit's luminous flux and other characteristics at several times during the compound ramp. A function that maintains the light output of the lighting circuit10at a constant or near-constant luminous flux value during the compound ramp could then be created using conventional techniques based on the empirical data.

Pre-establishing a suitable function for correcting the light output is helpful in that it reduces the amount of computation necessary during an actual compound ramp, when action may need to be taken quickly to maintain light output. The above discussion presupposes that the necessary transformation or adjustment to the typical compound ramp is worked out in advance. If necessary, feedback control during the compound ramp may be used to perform task58of method50. For example, if present, the photodiode22, or an array of photodiodes22, could be used for purposes of feedback control. (In some cases, photodiodes22sensitive to particular wavelengths of light may be used.) In that case, in task58, feedback from the photodiodes could be used to alter the light output of each set of LED light engines18,20to maintain the total light output of the lighting circuit10.

Any other suitable method of determining a proper transform function or other adjustments that should be made to a compound ramp to maintain light output may be used.

In task60of method50, it is assumed that the microcontroller16has directed some change to the light output of the lighting circuit10that is not a compound ramp. In that case, the voltages may be passed to the sets of LED light engines18,20without modification. However, in some cases, the inputs12,14may be filtered to smooth them, to prevent large spikes, or to make other such modifications, even without a transformation such as that described with respect to task58.

Method50terminates and returns at task62. Typically, a method such as method50would be performed continuously as long as the lighting circuit10is active. However, in some embodiments, it may be possible to disable methods like method50, so that the inputs12,14are passed to the sets of LED light engines18,20without modification regardless of the circumstances.

It should be understood that in method50and other methods according to embodiments of the invention, it is not always necessary to keep the light output exactly the same during a transition. Some level of luminous flux diminishment may occur and be acceptable. As shown inFIG. 3, the constant light output achieved during the ramp, ƒ(con) is less than the peak luminous output of either set of LED light engines LS1, LS2.

Moreover, while this description refers to the constancy of the luminaire's total luminous flux, in many cases, it is the constancy and maintenance of the luminaire's perceived brightness that is the more important. “Brightness” is a quality distinct from the luminous flux of the luminaire, and depends on human perception. Thus, the term “substantially constant,” as applied to luminous flux, contemplates that the luminous flux may fluctuate 5%, 10% or even somewhat more during a transition.

The premise of method50is that the microcontroller16for the series of LED light engines18,20intercepts and adapts or interprets instructions that it is given to keep the overall light output constant during a compound ramp or another such transition in which two or more sets of LED light engines18,20are active. However, in many cases, it may not be necessary to intercept and alter instructions. Rather, it may be possible to achieve the same results as in method50by simply planning any transition with the necessary instructions to maintain the overall light output during the transition. This could be done by performing any transition using a pre-established function or set of steps.

For example, if transitions are handled by transitioning from one pre-stored “scene” to another, all of the scenes may be analyzed in advance to determine which transitions will involve compound ramps. Given that analysis, the microcontroller16may modify any scenes in advance, or insert a new “transition” scene or scenes, to handle a compound ramp between scenes.

The above example assumes that two separate sets of LED light engines18,20are involved in a compound ramp. However, a compound ramp may involve more than two sets of LED light engines changing their light outputs at the same time. This may occur, for example, if warm white, neutral white, and cool white LED light engines are used simultaneously, or if there is another type of additive color mixing, for example, using red, green, and blue LEDs.

If more than two separate sets of LED light engines are involved in a compound ramp, the appropriate settings at each phase in a transition may be established empirically, e.g., by placing the luminaire or the sets of LED light engines in an integrating sphere and measuring the luminous flux at various points during a transition to determine the correct outputs for each set of LED light engines at each applicable point in the transition. Alternatively, a photodiode22or array of photodiodes22could be used for feedback control over a complex transition.

The above description focuses on keeping the light output, i.e., the total luminous flux and/or perceived brightness, constant during transitions. However, there is another consideration that may be taken into account in some embodiments: maintaining an ideal color of light during transitions.

FIG. 4is a CIE 1931 color diagram, a graphical representation of an international standard model of human color vision. While a full description of the CIE 1931 color diagram is beyond the scope of this document, certain features of the color model it represents are particularly relevant to embodiments of the present invention. In short, the CIE 1931 color diagram allows for precise specification of colors using an X-Y coordinate system.

As was described briefly above, “white” light sources are often described in terms of their color temperatures. This is because most natural (i.e., incandescent) light sources approximate a black body radiator—an object whose color is determined only by its temperature. On the CIE 1931 diagram, the colors that a black body radiator would take at various temperatures lie along the Planckian locus, also referred to as the black body locus, and generally indicated at100inFIG. 4. The Planckian locus100is a curve that traverses from deep red at relatively low temperature through orange, yellow-white, white, and blue-white. The function that defines the Planckian locus100is well known; its precise values can be calculated directly or approximated using any number of functions. For example, the Planckian locus is often approximated as a cubic spline whose segments depend on the color temperature.

FIG. 5is an illustration of the portion of the CIE 1931 color diagram immediately around the Planckian locus100. Above the Planckian locus100lie oranges, greens, and blues; below it lie primarily reds and pinks. The points on the Planckian locus100that correspond to various color temperatures are marked with isotherm lines102. The length of the isotherm lines102indicates the maximum distance out from the Planckian locus100to which the marked CCT is considered to be valid. Beyond the isotherm lines102, color coordinates are used instead of a CCT to describe a color. In the views ofFIGS. 4-5, the isotherm lines102are somewhat exaggerated for clarity in explanation.

LED light engines, like other man-made light sources, are usually made to emit light with a color that falls along the Planckian locus. In standard photometric and colorimetric testing, such as the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America's LM-79 test method, the color coordinates of an LED light source are measured, as is the distance of those color coordinates from the Planckian locus100. (The distance from the Planckian locus100is measured as Duv, using the (u, v) coordinate system of the CIE 1960 color space.)

Although significant effort is made to see that LED light engines emit a color of light that falls along the Planckian locus100in steady state, less attention is usually given to the kind of transitions described above. If an incandescent light source is dimmed, its temperature gradually decreases, and it traverses the Planckian locus100until it no longer emits light in the visible range. This causes most incandescent light to develop a warm orange or red hue as it shuts off.

LED light engines, by contrast, are usually set to make a linear transition from one color temperature to another. As an example of this, inFIG. 5, a first transition104between 5500K and 2500K is marked. As can be seen, this linear transition may cause colors that are below the Planckian locus100to be emitted during the transition, giving the emitted light a momentary pink or orange hue that would not be emitted by a traditional incandescent light source whose transition from on to off traverses the Planckian locus100. The Duv of such a transition, the distance of the color coordinates of the emitted light from the Planckian locus100, will depend on the nature of the transition. As another example, a second transition106between 5500K and 2000K may have a larger Duv for part of the transition than the first transition106, as can be seen inFIG. 5. As can also be appreciated fromFIG. 5, the greater the magnitude of a linear transition between color temperatures, the larger the Duv may be at certain points during the transition.

For this reason, it may be desirable to manage the color temperatures or colors of the emitted light during a transition from one color temperature to another. As an example,FIG. 6illustrates the same portion of the 1931 CIE color space asFIG. 5, with the Planckian locus100and a color temperature transition110according to one embodiment of the present invention. In contrast to the straight, linear transitions104,106illustrated inFIG. 5, the transition110ofFIG. 6, a transition from 6000K to 2000K, is segmented, moving from 6000K to 5000K, then 5000K to 4000K, 1000K at a time until it reaches 2000K. While the transitions between color temperatures in each segment are still linear, the transition110as a whole more closely approximates the Planckian locus100, with a smaller maximum Duv in each segment.

In various embodiments of the invention, color temperature transitions may be implemented as linear-segment transitions, like the transition110ofFIG. 6. Such transitions could also follow splined paths between one color temperature and the text. All of these sorts of transitions should be considered “nonlinear” transitions between one color temperature and another. It could also be said that color transitions in embodiments of the invention maintain a constant or near-constant Duv relative to the Planckian locus100during the transition.

Transitions between color temperatures in embodiments of the invention may allow some variation in the perceived color during the transition. For example, a color variation of 3 SDCM (i.e., 3 McAdam ellipses) may be permissible. That corresponds to about ±0.003 Duv.

The description above speaks of maintaining an “ideal” color of light through a transition. Such “ideal” transitions may or may not fall along the Planckian locus100. What is considered “ideal” may vary with the application for which a luminaire is to be used, as well as the observers. For example, research from a team at the National Institute of Standards and Technology using a small group of observers of varying ages seems to show that light with a Duv of between −0.02 and −0.01 (i.e. below the Planckian locus100) was “most acceptable” to the widest range of observers for the widest range of color temperatures (Ohno, Y. and Fein, R., “Vision Experiment on White Light Chromaticity for Lighting: Duv Levels Perceived Most Natural,” CIE/USA-CNC/CIE Biennial Joint Meeting, Davis, Calif., Nov. 7-8, 2013, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety).

In the description above, two sets of LED light engines18,20are described in a single luminaire. Depending on the nature of the transition, it may be possible to control the color of the emitted light as described above solely by mixing light from the two sets of LED light engines18,20. However, it may not always be possible to implement a transition that traverses the Planckian locus100using only two sets of LED light engines18,20. In some cases, additional LED light engines that emit other color temperatures may be included to facilitate ideal color temperature transitions. Alternatively, RGB LED light engines may be included to help with color correction during color temperature transitions by “doping” the emitted light with red, green, or blue as needed.

The above description covers both maintaining the light output during a transition and maintaining an ideal color during a transition. While systems and methods according to embodiments of the invention may manage both of these things simultaneously, in some cases, one may be more important than the other. For example, in a dim-to-warm application, it may be helpful to maintain ideal color during a transition from, say, 5000K to 2700K, but it may also be perfectly appropriate for the light output to fall off as the color temperature decreases, in order to simulate a cooling incandescent light source with its increasingly red-orange light and decreasing light output. In various embodiments of the invention, the light output may be managed alone, the color of the emitted light may be managed alone, or both may be managed together.

While the invention has been described with respect to certain embodiments, the description is intended to be exemplary, rather than limiting. Modifications and changes may be made within the scope of the invention, which is defined by the appended claims.