Rechargeable zinc-ion batteries having flexible shape memory

Systems and methods which provide flexible zinc ion (Zn-ion) battery configurations with shape memory are described. For example, embodiments of flexible shape memory yarn batteries (SMYBs) may be fabricated using shape memory material wire, filament, and/or fiber and flexible conductive material yarn as flexible substrate materials. In accordance with some embodiments, Nickel-Titanium-based alloy wire may be coated with a zinc material to provide a flexible anode electrode for a SMYB. Additionally or alternatively, flexible stainless steel (SS) yarn may be coated with a manganese dioxide (MnO2) material to provide a flexible cathode electrode for a SMYB of embodiments. An aqueous electrolyte may be combined with the flexible cathode and anode electrodes to provide a SMYB in accordance with the concepts herein. The aqueous electrolyte may, for example, comprise a polymer gel electrolyte (e.g., gelatin-borax polymer gel electrolyte).

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The present application is related to co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/805,779, filed Nov. 7, 2017, and entitled “RECHARGEABLE POLYACRYLAMIDE BASED POLYMER ELECTROLYTE ZINC ION BATTERIES” filed concurrently herewith, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates generally to energy-storage devices and, more particularly, to flexible zinc ion battery configurations with shape memory.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Renewable and clean energy in various forms, such as solar energy, wind energy, and electrochemical energy, is becoming increasingly important due to the pressure from both the environment and the human society. To this end, different types of energy storage and conversion devices, such as solar cells, fuel cells, thermoelectric generators, electrochemical supercapacitors, and rechargeable batteries, have been proposed and fabricated for facilitating energy utilization in a more sustainable and efficient way.

Compared with other types of renewable energy storage or conversion devices, electrochemical energy storage devices provide more reliable and stable energy output as well as ease of fabrication facilitating their large scale production. As a result, rechargeable batteries among all the electrochemical energy storage devices have been intensively investigated in the recent years. Accordingly, many different types of battery systems have been proposed, such as lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries and sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries which offer higher energy density as compared with supercapacitors. Among the various battery systems proposed, zinc-ion (Zn-ion) batteries, produced primarily from zinc (Zn) and manganese dioxide (MnO2), have received increased attention due to their safe nature resulting from the aqueous electrolyte and the stable Zn metal anode material utilized.

The demand for developing flexible and wearable electronics, however, is stimulating the desire for portable energy storage devices with high mechanical flexibility and high energy storage capabilities. Such flexible and high energy storage devices drive new requirements on the choice of materials for the development of suitable rechargeable batteries, such as for use in next-generation flexible and wearable electronics.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to systems and methods which provide flexible zinc ion (Zn-ion) battery configurations with shape memory. For example, smart yarn-based flexible and rechargeable Zn-ion batteries with shape memory function, which enables the batteries to restore the shape and energy storage capability against mechanical deformation (e.g., by temperature triggered shape memory effect), are provided according to embodiments of the invention. Such yarn-based flexible rechargeable Zn-ion batteries with shape memory are referred to herein as flexible shape memory yarn batteries (SMYBs).

Embodiments of a SMYB may be fabricated using shape memory material wire and flexible conductive material yarn as flexible substrate materials. For example, Nickel-Titanium-based alloy wire may be coated (e.g., using an electrodeposition process) with a zinc material (e.g., zinc, zinc alloy, zinc composites, etc.) to provide a flexible anode electrode for a SMYB of embodiments. Additionally or alternatively, flexible stainless steel (SS) yarn may, for example, be coated (e.g., using an electrodeposition process) with a manganese dioxide (MnO2) material (e.g., MnO2nanocrystallines)) to provide a flexible cathode electrode for a SMYB of embodiments. An aqueous electrolyte may be combined with the flexible cathode and anode electrodes to provide a SMYB in accordance with the concepts herein. The aqueous electrolyte may, for example, comprise a polymer gel electrolyte (e.g., gelatin-borax polymer gel electrolyte).

Zn-ion batteries provided in accordance with concepts herein exhibit high mechanical flexibility as well as excellent recoverability against external mechanical deformation for multiple times while maintaining their electrochemical performance. Moreover, embodiments of a SMYB are configured to restore their shape and energy storage capability against mechanical deformation.

Embodiments of a Zn-ion battery herein may be configured to provide enhanced cyclic life and/or stability. For example, a flexible cathode of embodiments of the invention may comprise a coating provided for improved stability of the cathode structure and/or improved energy storage capability of the Zn-ion battery. In accordance with some embodiments, polypyrrole (PPy) coating may be provided on a stainless steel yarn cathode electrode structure previously coated with MnO2nanocrystallines, whereby enhanced cyclic life may be provided due to the polypyrrole coating on the MnO2nanocrystallines.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Flexible rechargeable energy storage devices may provide a suitable source of energy in a number of emerging areas. For example, flexible and wearable renewable energy storage devices, such as supercapacitors and rechargeable batteries, may be desirable for use with respect to flexible and wearable electronics currently under development. However, such uses leave their energy storage devices susceptible to mechanical deformation, leading to inevitable damage and degradation of performance of the energy storage device. Accordingly, embodiments of the present invention provide a flexible zinc ion (Zn-ion) battery with shape memory, such as is well suited for use with respect to flexible and wearable electronics.

FIG. 1Ashows a flexible Zn-ion battery implementation according to embodiments of the present invention. In particular, flexible Zn-ion battery100of the embodiment illustrated inFIG. 1Acomprises flexible anode110, flexible cathode120, and electrolyte130provided in a cooperative relationship operative to function as a flexible rechargeable energy storage device. Due to the flexibility of both of the substrate materials, the Zn-ion battery of embodiments exhibits good flexibility under external force.

Flexible Zn-ion battery100shown inFIG. 1comprises flexible cathode120wound around flexible anode110to form a flexible rechargeable Zn-ion battery having a helical structure. Electrolyte130preferably encapsulates flexible anode110and flexible cathode120so as to serve both as an electrolyte for the flexible rechargeable Zn-ion battery and as a separator for the electrodes (flexible anode110and flexible cathode120) to avoid shorting between the electrodes as well as providing mechanical strength for the flexible device.

Electrolyte130of embodiments of flexible Zn-ion battery100comprises an aqueous electrolyte, such as a polymer gel electrolyte (e.g., gelatin-borax polymer gel electrolyte). Embodiments of electrolyte130may be gelatin based in light of gelatin (e.g., derived from the animal bones and skins, etc.) being an environmentally friendly biopolymer and the abundant side-chain groups (e.g., amino and carboxyl groups) endowing the biopolymer with compatibility to various inorganic ions. However, the poor water retention capability and relatively weak mechanical strength of gelatin hinders its application as a solid-state or gel polymer electrolyte for rechargeable batteries. Borax, however, may be used as a cross-linker for water soluble polymers, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) due to its potential of hydrolysis in aqueous solution, generating boric acid and tetrafunctional borate ions that can complex with the polymer through hydrogen bond. Accordingly, borax may be used according to embodiments to complex with gelatin to prepare gel polymer electrolyte for flexible Zn-ion battery100due to its improved ionic conductivity and better water retention capability. For example, a gel electrolyte as may be utilized as electrolyte130may be prepared by adding 4.0 g gelatin and 0.4 g borax into 40 mL distilled water at 80° C. to dissolve the gelatin under continuous magnetic agitation. Thereafter, 4×10−2mol ZnSO4and 4×10−3mol MnSO4may be added into the solution after all the gelatin has dissolved and stirring continued until a homogeneous solution is formed. The resulting gel electrolyte may be utilized as electrolyte130for the assembly of flexible Zn-ion battery100of embodiments herein.

It should be appreciated that flexible Zn-ion battery100of embodiments herein is configured for restoring shape and energy storage capability against mechanical deformation, such as by temperature triggered shape memory effect. For example, flexible Zn-ion battery100may comprise a flexible shape memory yarn battery (SMYB) (i.e., battery configuration comprising one or more spun thread type electrode structure and one or more shape memory structure) or other shape memory configuration. Accordingly, one or more of flexible anode110and flexible cathode120may comprise a material having shape memory.

Shape memory alloys, such as Nickel-Titanium-based alloys (often referred to as Nitinol), provide shape memory effect (SME) and pseudoelasticity (PE) as a result of the thermoplastic martensitic transformation. Accordingly, due to this SME property, the alloy can restore original shape and recover mechanical deformation with heat triggered martensitic phase transformation and eliminate the strain caused by external force in the alloys. Additionally, the alloy provides electrical conductivity as a metallic material and therefore could be potentially applied as current collector for rechargeable batteries. The PE attribute of such alloys render the material with exceptional elasticity compared with other metallic materials, promising for flexible substrate material for flexible energy storage devices. Accordingly, flexible anode110of embodiments of flexible Zn-ion battery100may be fabricated using shape memory alloy (e.g., Nitinol) wire as a flexible substrate material having shape memory. Embodiments may additionally or alternatively use polymer materials (e.g., thermoplastic polyurethane), such as may be provided as one or more filaments or fibers.

Electrodeposition techniques may be used to fabricate the electrode materials comprising flexible anode110and/or flexible cathode120. Electrodeposition techniques a preferred according to embodiments over alternative techniques, such as chemical synthesis techniques, because electrodeposition techniques generally offer improved controllability and structural uniformity compared with chemically synthesized electrode materials.FIGS. 1B and 1Cillustrate processes for producing implementations of flexible anode110and flexible cathode120as may be utilized in embodiments of flexible Zn-ion battery100.

Referring toFIG. 1B, wherein a process for producing implementations of flexible anode110is shown, shape memory substrate111(e.g., Nitinol wire) is coated with a zinc material (e.g., zinc, zinc alloy, zinc composites, etc.) to provide a flexible anode electrode having shape memory implementation of flexible anode110. For example, the material of shape memory substrate111may be provided in wire form wherein a length of wire suitable for producing a desired configuration of flexible Zn-ion battery100is cut. Shape memory substrate111ofFIG. 1Bis then used as an electrode for electrodeposition of a zinc material (e.g., zinc, zinc alloy, zinc composites, etc.) thereon in a three-electrode mode. As a specific example, Nitinol wire (e.g., Nitinol wire of 0.012, 0.016, 0.020 inch diameter, such as available from Shenzhen Suhang Technology Co., Ltd.) may be cut into an appropriate length and used as a working electrode for zinc electrodeposition in a three-electrode mode. In performing electrodeposition according to embodiments an electrolyte solution containing 0.2 mol L−1ZnSO4.7H2O and 0.5 mol L−1Na3C6H5O7.2H2O may be used to electrodeposit Zn onto the Nitinol wire at −1.4 V. In such an electrodeposition process, platinum (Pt) may be used as a counter electrode and silver (Ag) and/or silver chloride (AgCl) may be used as a reference electrode. The amount of zinc anode material deposited on shape memory substrate111is adjusted by controlling the deposition time in embodiments of the invention.

It can be observed from analysis of electron microscope characterization of an example of a flexible anode prepared in accordance with the above process that the Zn anode material was successfully deposited on the surface of the NT wire substrate, exhibiting a distinctive morphology compared with original smooth surface of pristine NT wire of 0.02 inch. The same morphologies could also be observed in other NT wires of different diameters. Due to the utilization of sodium citrate, the as-fabricated exemplary Zn anode material comprised vertically oriented nanoplatelets with a thickness of approximately tens to hundreds of nanometer and bonded tightly and compactly to the NT substrate. This favors the mechanical robustness of the Zn coated NT electrode, ensuring the structural integrity of the electrode material during mechanical deformation and subsequent recovery. Moreover, the as-fabricated Zn nanoplatelets of the example analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra could be well-indexed to PDF #87-0713 exhibited high crystallinity, displaying peaks of high intensity and narrow peak width with oxide scarcely existed. This kind of porous nanostructured Zn material facilitates the electrochemical performance of the Zn-ion battery as a result of the high active surface area, beneficial for the penetration of electrolyte and mass transport.

Referring toFIG. 1C, wherein a process for producing implementations of flexible cathode120is shown, yarn substrate121(e.g., stainless steel yarn, carbon yarn, soft metallic yarns, etc.) is coated with a manganese dioxide (MnO2) material (e.g., MnO2nanocrystallines, MnO2nanowires, MnO2nanorods, α-MnO2, β-MnO2, γ-MnO2, etc.) to provide a flexible cathode electrode implementation of flexible cathode120. For example, the material of yarn substrate121may be provided in a spool from which a length of yarn suitable for producing a desired configuration of flexible Zn-ion battery100is cut. Yarn substrate121ofFIG. 1Cis then used as an electrode for electrodeposition of a manganese dioxide material (e.g., MnO2nanocrystallines) therein in a three-electrode mode. As a specific example, stainless steel yarn (e.g. 316L stainless steel yarn having a diameter in the range of 180-250 μm, as may be purchased from Kezhengyuan Yarn Company) may be cut into an appropriate length and washed by 1M NaOH at 60° C. to remove surface oxide followed by rinse with distilled water, air dried and used as a working electrode for MnO2electrodeposition in a three-electrode mode. In performing electrodeposition according to embodiments, MnO2may be electrodeposited onto the stainless steel yarn substrate in an electrolyte containing 0.1 mol L−1 Mn(Ac)2and 0.1 mol L−1Na2SO4using a pulse electrodeposition mode (on-time 1 s at 1.5 V and off-time 10 s at 0.7 V, respectively). In such an electrodeposition process, Pt may be used as a counter electrode and Ag and/or AgCl may be used as a reference electrode. The amount of MnO2cathode material deposited on yarn substrate121is adjusted by controlling the deposition time in embodiments of the invention. After the electrodeposition of MnO2, resulting yarn-based MnO2electrode122may be rinse by distilled water for three times and dried prior to use.

It can be observed from analysis of electron microscope characterization of an example of a yarn-based MnO2electrode prepared in accordance with the above process that the as-prepared MnO2materials on the stainless steel yarn substrate exhibited nanocrystallines morphology, with crystal size about 20 nm. The evidence of the nanocrystalline MnO2could be also be found in analysis of XRD spectra, in which the XRD pattern of as-prepared MnO2exhibited weak intensities and broadening of primary peaks that could be indexed to α-MnO2(PDF #44-0141). The formation of the MnO2nanocrystallines was due to the reaction (Mn2++2H2O→MnO2+4H+2e−) using pulse electrodeposition method in a dilute Mn2+(0.1 mol L−1) electrolyte solution, which favors the nucleation while confining the growth of MnO2nuclei. Additionally, the formation of MnO2nanocrystallines exposes more surface area, which is favorable for the electrochemical reaction that happens during charge/discharge of the Zn-ion battery.

Embodiments of flexible Zn-ion battery100may be configured to provide enhanced cyclic life and/or stability, such as by providing a coating upon yarn-based MnO2electrode122for improved stability of the cathode structure and/or improved energy storage capability of the Zn-ion battery. For example, a thin layer of polypyrrole (PPy) may be used to wrap the electrodeposited MnO2, such as to avoid the aggregation of MnO2and/or provide mechanical and electrical support to the metal oxide with poor electrical conductivity.

As shown in the exemplary process ofFIG. 1C, a PPy coating may be electrodeposited onto yarn-based MnO2electrode122. The electrodeposition of PPy coating on the surface of yarn-based MnO2electrode122may be performed in a three-electrode configuration, such as using Ag/AgCl and Pt as reference and counter electrodes respectively, according to embodiments of the invention. In performing electrodeposition of PPy onto yarn-based MnO2electrode122according to embodiments, an electrolyte containing 60 mL aqueous solution of 0.1 mol L−1p-toluenesulfonic acid, 0.3 mol L−1, sodium p-toluenesulfonic and 300 μL pyrrole monomer may be used. The electrodeposition may be performed using potentiostatic method at 0.8 V for 10 s in an ice bath. The PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode material forming flexible cathode120of this exemplary embodiment may be rinsed by distilled water and dried prior to use.

It can be observed from analysis of electron microscope characterization of an example of a flexible cathode prepared in accordance with the above that the surface morphology of the pristine stainless steel yarn changed after the deposition of MnO2nanocrystallines. In addition to the surface of individual fibers of the stainless steel yarn being covered by a thin layer of MnO2nanocrystallines, the surface morphology of the MnO2coated yarn may be further changed wherein the surface of individual yarn fibers were wrapped by a layer of polymer after the PPy electrodeposition. The successful coating of PPy on the surface of the MnO2coated stainless steel yarn may be evidenced by analysis of the Raman spectra, wherein a strong band at approximately 1600 cm−1represents the symmetric stretching of the C═C aromatic ring of PPy, a 1380 cm−1peak represents the asymmetric C—N stretching mode of PPy, while a 1240 cm−1peak are attributed to the C—H in-plane deformation of PPy, respectively. The presence of double peaks at 940 and 990 cm−1are ascribed to the ring deformation related with bipolaron and polarons, respectively. After the electrodeposition of PPy upon an exemplary yarn-based MnO2electrode, the Raman peaks of MnO2at approximately 190, 570 and 640 cm−1were still found to be present, representing the M-O stretching mode of the basal plane of the [MnO6] sheet and the symmetric stretching mode of M-O and [MnO6] groups, associated with the major peaks of PPy at 1380 and 1600 cm−1 being preserved, indicating successful coating of PPy on the surface of MnO2coated stainless steel yarn.

The electrochemical performance of flexible cathode electrode materials, prepared in accordance with the foregoing, in 1 M ZnSO4and 0.1 M MnSO4aqueous electrolyte are shown inFIGS. 2A-2D. Comparison of a PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode material and PPy coated stainless steel yarn material reveals negligible contribution from the PPy material to the electrochemical performance of the system in a two-electrode configuration when using Zn coated NT material as an anode. For example,FIG. 2Ashows cyclic voltammetry (CV) scanning of a Zn coated NT anode and PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode battery system and a Zn coated NT anode and PPy coated stainless steel yarn electrode battery system at 0.5 mV s−1. As can be seen, the Zn coated NT anode and PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode battery exhibited two pairs of major redox peaks at around 1.62/1.37 V and 1.78/1.24 V, respectively, corresponding to the electrochemical reactions shown below:
6MnO2+3Zn+H2O+ZnSO4↔6MnOOH+ZnSO4[Zn(OH)2]3.xH2O
In comparison, the PPy coating in the Zn coated NT anode and PPy coated stainless steel yarn electrode battery not only did not hinder the electrochemical performance of the MnO2coated stainless steel electrode material, but also helped reduce the internal resistance of the electrode material so that better electrochemical performance is provided.

As shown by the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) spectra inFIG. 2B, the resistance of the PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode was much lower compared with yarn-based MnO2electrode material without PPy coating. This is indicated by a much decreased semicircular loop that represents the reduced charge transfer resistance.

The rate capability of the PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode material was evaluated by charge/discharge from 1 to 5 C. As shown inFIG. 2C, the electrode material exhibited a maximum discharge capacity of 143.2 mAh g−1at 1 C (average value about 131.5 mAh g−1) while maintained 115.9, 102.2, 93.6 and 86.8 mAh g−1at 2, 3, 4 and 5 C current densities in average, corresponding to more than 88.1%, 77.7%, 71.2% and 66% capacity retention, respectively. After cycling back using current density of 1 C, about 113.6 mAh g−1capacity was retained, corresponding to 86.4% retention compared with initial value, demonstrating good rate capabilities.

The cyclic stability of the exemplary Zn coated NT anode and PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode battery system was tested in aqueous electrolyte at 5 C current density. As shown inFIG. 2D, compared with a Zn coated NT anode and yarn-based MnO2electrode without PPy coating, which exhibited significant capacity loss of more than 35% compared with initial value after only 30 cycles of charge/discharge, the Zn coated NT anode and PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode battery system displayed excellent cyclic stability of 860 cycles with 74.2% of initial capacity retained. The performance could be attributed to the existence of the PPy-coating, which offers not only the electrical conductivity for the MnO2nanocrystallines that facilitated the fast charge transfer during charge/discharge but also provides with strong interfacial adhesion to avoid the mechanical detachment of MnO2from the substrate during cycling.

Flexible anode110, flexible cathode120, and electrolyte130are preferably combined according to embodiments of the invention to form flexible Zn-ion battery100. For example, flexible anode110comprising shape memory substrate111prepared as inFIG. 1B, flexible cathode120comprising yarn substrate121prepared as inFIG. 1C, and electrolyte130comprising a gel electrolyte prepared as described above may be combined to provide a flexible SMYB implementation of flexible Zn-ion battery100in accordance with the concepts herein. In combining the foregoing components to form flexible Zn-ion battery100, flexible anode110may be dipped or otherwise immersed into electrolyte130to encapsulate the material of flexible anode110in electrolyte130. Similarly, flexible cathode120may be dipped or otherwise immersed into electrolyte130to encapsulate the material of flexible cathode120in electrolyte130. After the electrolyte coatings have been allowed to solidify, flexible cathode120, encapsulated in electrolyte130, may be twined around flexible anode110, also encapsulated in electrolyte130, to form a helical structure. Electrolyte130may be coated on the resulting helical structure comprising flexible anode110and flexible cathode120to provide a flexible SMYB implementation after solidification.

An example flexible SMYB comprising a PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode cathode, Zn coated NT electrode anode, and gelatin-borax complex electrolyte was implemented in accordance with the foregoing and was found to deliver good electrochemical performance, as outlined below with reference toFIGS. 3A-3D.FIG. 3Ashows a CV scan at 0.5 mV s−1in gelatin-borax electrolyte illustrating the electrochemical activity of the battery system. It should be appreciated that, despite the redox peaks being relatively weak compared with in aqueous electrolyte, the major redox pair located at approximately 1.70/1.33 V is well-resolved, although a slight increase in over potential approximately 120 mV was observed compared with aqueous electrolyte, due to the limited ionic conductivity of the gel polymer electrolyte. However, the introduction of borax into the gelatin effectively improved the ionic conductivity of the gelatin-based electrolyte, compared with the electrolyte without the addition of borax, as shown inFIG. 3B. The improved ionic conductivity is likely due to the effect that the addition of borax increased the concentration of free ions, such as tetrafunctional borate ions and improved water retention capability. As a result, the internal resistance of the electrolyte could be further reduced and improved electrochemical performances could be expected. For example, the rate capabilities of flexible SMYB and the cyclic stability of the battery are shown inFIGS. 3C and 3D, respectively. As shown inFIG. 3C, the example flexible SMYB exhibited good rate performances when charged/discharged at current densities from 0.5 to 4 C, delivered an average specific capacity of 174.2 mAh g−1at 0.5 C and retained 136.4, 95.7, 73.1 and 60.0 mAh g−1at 1, 2, 3 and 4 C current densities, respectively. When cycling back using current density of 0.5 C, the battery still maintained 151.7 mAh g−1, corresponding to over 87% capacity retention compared with initial value. Furthermore, compared with the electrochemical performances in aqueous electrolyte, the gelatin-borax-based electrolyte delivered comparable electrochemical performances, demonstrating attractive properties as electrolyte material. When cycling at a current density of 2 C, the example flexible SMYB exhibited excellent stability over 1000 cycles of charge/discharge more than 60% of initial capacity retained. Additionally, the Columbic efficiency of the example flexible SMYB kept more than 99% over the 1000 cycles except for the initial several cycles, probably due to the activation of active material. In contrast, the performance of an example flexible SMYB assembled using gelatin-based electrolyte (i.e., without the addition of borax) degraded quickly when cycling at 2 C current density, exhibited cyclic stability of only 200 cycles with less than 31% capacity retention.

The shape memory property of above described example flexible SMYB comprising a PPy-coated yarn-based MnO2electrode cathode, Zn coated NT electrode anode, and gelatin-borax complex electrolyte was also evaluated, as shown inFIGS. 4A-4GandFIGS. 5A-5D. The example flexible SMYB was bended manually to nearly 90° and then immersed in 45° C. water, slightly higher than the phase transformation temperature of the Nitinol wire (approximately 35° C.) and the shape memory behavior was recorded accordingly. It can be seen that the example flexible SMYB recovered to its original shape within 6 seconds, exhibiting fast shape recovery characteristics, as shown inFIGS. 4A-4G. Due to the mechanical adhesion from the gelatin-borax electrolyte, the example flexible SMYB displayed good mechanical flexibility and could be bended to different angles, from 0° to 90°, respectively while still preserving the electrochemical performance, as shown inFIGS. 5A and 5B. The charge/discharge characteristic curves of the example flexible SMYB kept almost invariant when bended to 30° and 60° degrees, showing capacity retention about 94.0% and 92.5% when charge/discharge at 2 C, respectively. Further bending of the yarn battery to 90° could still maintain as much as 79% of its initial capacity, demonstrating excellent durability against mechanical deformation. The electrochemical durability of the example flexible SMYB was further tested by continuous bending-recovery and the energy storage capabilities were revealed by charge/discharge at 2 C current density. Every time, the example flexible SMYB was bended and then immersed in 45° C. water to wait for the shape recovery followed by subsequent charge/discharge test. As shown inFIGS. 5C and 5D, the example flexible SMYB exhibited good stability against 5 bending-recovery cycles, displaying nearly invariant charge/discharge curves and excellent capacity retention. Even at the 5thcycle of bending-recovery, the example flexible SMYB exhibited 96.8% retention of initial capacity. This demonstrates that flexible batteries of embodiments of the invention can not only recover the mechanical deformation caused by external force but also obtain the durability to recover most of the electrochemical performance, which was promising for highly durable and multifunctional energy storage devices.

As can be appreciated from the foregoing, the concepts described herein provide for the fabrication of smart yarn-based flexible and rechargeable Zn-ion batteries of embodiments herein having shape memory function. Accordingly, embodiments of flexible Zn-ion batteries are configured to restore the shape and energy storage capability against mechanical deformation by temperature triggered shape memory effect. Embodiments of flexible Zn-ion batteries with shape memory are particularly well suited for use with respect to flexible and wearable electronics.