Systems and methods for biological ion channel interfaces

Method for interfacing an integrated circuit with a biological ion channel, the integrated circuit being at least partially disposed within an electrolytic solution and including an amplifier and one or more electrodes on a surface thereof, includes forming one or more microwells proximate the one or more electrodes, applying a lipid membrane over the integrated circuit proximate the microwells, and placing a further electrode in the electrolytic solution proximate the lipid membrane on a side opposite the integrated circuit. A biological ion channel interface is also provided.

BACKGROUND

The disclosed subject matter relates to biological ion channel interfaces, including techniques for interfacing biological ion channels with integrated CMOS amplifiers.

Ion channel proteins can generally be found in the cellular membranes of living things. Certain functions of ion channels, including sensing, signaling and energetics, can have important applications, for example and without limitation, to drug discovery. Yet, certain characteristics of ion channels, including the stochastic behavior and delicate structure of ion channels, can present challenges, for example in understanding some of the biomolecular mechanisms and dynamics of channel gating, as well as in reliably utilizing isolated ion channels for biotechnology platforms, including nanopore DNA sequencing.

Ion channels can be analyzed using patch-clamp techniques. Furthermore, biophysical studies of some ion channels can utilize in vitro planar reconstituted lipid bilayers as model cell membranes. Reconstituted bilayers can be suitable at least because they have a chemical makeup that can be well-controlled, generally involve no live cells and can be measured outside physiological conditions, and have a planar geometry suitable for electrochemical measurements.

Electronic measurements of ion channels in both patch-clamp and planar bilayer experiments can be made with voltage-clamp amplifiers, which can measure the ionic current through a lipid membrane while applying an electrochemical potential through electrodes. Single-channel conductance can vary between types of ion channels, but generally have nanoscale dimensions producing currents on the order of picoamperes or less. These relatively weak signals can approach the noise floor of typical electronic amplifiers, and single-channel recordings can generally be constrained in both amplitude and temporal resolution by low signal-to-noise ratios.

Lipid bilayer recordings can have high-frequency noise, which can be a function of experimental capacitances. The equivalent input voltage noise of a voltage-clamp amplifier νn(V Hz−1/2) can produce noise currents through input capacitances (ΣC), with a root-mean squared amplitude that can be represented as:

IRMS=2⁢⁢π3⁢B32⁢vn⁢∑C(1)
where B can represent the measurement bandwidth. One capacitance in lipid bilayer experiments can be that of the lipid membrane itself (CM), and lipid bilayers, which can be a few nanometers thick, can have specific capacitance on the order of 0.5 μF/cm2. Circular planar bilayers diameters ranging from 1 μm-200 μm can thus have CMranging from 4 fF to 80 pF.

However, there remains an opportunity for improved biological ion channels with reduced parasitic capacitance in biological ion channel recordings and can provide multiple independent recordings on a single chip with improved signal bandwidths.

SUMMARY

Systems and methods for biological ion channel interfaces, including interfacing an integrated circuit with a biological ion channel, are disclosed herein.

According to one aspect of the disclosed subject matter, methods for interfacing an integrated circuit with a biological ion channel are provided. In one example where the integrated circuit is at least partially disposed within an electrolytic solution and includes an amplifier and one or more electrodes on a surface thereof, the method can include forming one or more microwells proximate the one or more electrodes, applying a lipid membrane over the integrated circuit proximate the microwells, and placing a further electrode in the electrolytic solution proximate the lipid membrane on a side opposite the integrated circuit.

In some embodiments, the lipid membrane can include a reconstituted lipid bilayer. The lipid bilayer can include one or more reconstituted lipids in oil. The one or more reconstituted lipids can include diphytanoyl phosphatidylcholine. The oil can include n-octane, n-decane or n-hexadecane. Additionally or alternatively, the lipid membrane can include a cellular membrane of a live cell. Applying the lipid membrane can include applying a pressure differential between the live cell and the one or more microwells. As such, the method can further include forming microchannels along the integrated circuit proximate microwells to control the pressure differential proximate the microwells.

In another example, an intermediate structure, which has one or more microwells and is adapted to be disposed in the electrolytic solution proximate the one or more electrodes, is provided. A lipid membrane can be disposed proximate the one or more, and a further electrode can be provided to be disposed in the electrolytic solution proximate the lipid bilayer on a side opposite the integrated circuit.

In some embodiments, the lipid membrane can include a reconstituted lipid bilayer. The lipid bilayer can include one or more reconstituted lipids in oil. The one or more reconstituted lipids can include diphytanoyl phosphatidylcholine. The oil can include n-octane, n-decane or n-hexadecane. Additionally or alternatively, the lipids can include one or more unilamellar lipid vesicles. Additionally or alternatively, the lipid membrane can include a cellular membrane of a live cell. One or more microchannel can be provided along the integrated circuit proximate the one or more microwells to control a pressure differential between the one or more microwells and the live cell. The one or more electrodes can include an Ag/AgCl electrode.

According to another aspect of the disclosed subject matter, methods for interfacing an integrated circuit with a biological ion channel are provided. An example method can include inserting at least a first end of an integrated circuit including the one or more electrodes into a first end of a pipette containing an electrolytic solution, coupling a cell to a second end of the pipette, and placing an electrical lead wire on a second end of the integrated circuit.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The disclosed subject matter provides systems and methods for a biological ion channel interface. Biological ion channel interfaces can be utilized to perform single-ion-channel recordings, for example and without limitation, of lipid membranes and/or whole cells. Biological ion channel interfaces according to the disclosed subject matter can be used, for example and without limitation, in ion channel studies to study the electrochemical behavior of membrane ion channels

The interfaces can further be used in biological nanopore platforms, for example as “nanopore” sensors, with which other molecules can be detected when occupying a channel and modulating its ionic conductance. Such sensors can be used, for example and without limitation, in DNA sequencing. Furthermore, the interfaces can be used, for example and without limitation, for drug discovery, evaluation and safety screening, in which tightly-integrated ion channel interface electronics can improve the throughput of ion channel drug screening platforms.

Another exemplary application of the interfaces is for use with implantable sensors. For example, covering an integrated circuit with reconstituted lipids improve biocompatibility of the circuit, for example for implantable applications or long-duration experiments. Furthermore, the interfaces can be used in chemical or environmental sensors. In this manner, the conductance of ion channels can be made to be sensitive to chemical or environmental conditions, for example as isolated channels or as the output of a signaling pathway in an intact cell. As such, sensors can provide improved flexibility and sensitivity for chemical and environmental sensing platforms.

FIG. 1Ais a cross-sectional diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment of a biological ion channel interface100according to the disclosed subject matter. A biological ion channel interface100includes an amplifier integrated circuit102. Exemplary integrated circuits102for use with the biological ion channel interface100of the disclosed subject matter are shown and described in International Patent Application No. PCT/US12/026292, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. As embodied herein, the integrated circuit102can be a multi-channel voltage-clamp current preamplifier. For purpose of illustration and not limitation, and as embodied herein, integrated circuit102can be produced in a commercial 130-nm CMOS process. Alternatively, integrated circuit102can be formed using other semiconductor processes, such as a bipolar transistor process. The integrated circuit102can have a plurality of channels, and each channel can have dimensions of less than a millimeter per side. As such, and as embodied herein, integrated circuit can have 8 channels, each channel approximately 0.4 mm×0.5 mm, with a total chip size of approximately 3 mm×3 mm. Furthermore, for purpose of illustration and not limitation, integrated circuit102can be configured as a resistive feedback voltage-clamp current preamplifier or a capacitative feedback voltage-clamp current preamplifier.

The integrated circuit102can be processed to form microelectrodes104, which can be, for example and without limitation, Ag/AgCl microelectrodes. The integrated circuit can be mounted on larger carrier wafers, for example using poly-methylmethacrylate (PMMA) as an adhesive, and photolithography can be performed to pattern photoresist (e.g., S1818, Shipley) over at least a portion of the of the integrated circuit102die, which can exclude the portion of the integrated circuit102including the amplifier input electrodes. Aluminum metallization from the amplifier input electrodes can be removed chemically (e.g., using Transene Aluminum Etchant Type A for 5 minutes in a 50° C. bath, followed by deionized water rinse). 5 nm Ti and 250 nm Ag can be deposited, for example using e-beam evaporation. A lift-off technique, for example using Remover PG (from Microchem), can be utilized to remove the photoresist with the metal remaining patterned on the microelectrodes104.

Microwells106, for example and embodied herein as SU-8 microwells, can be formed over or proximate to the microelectrodes104. A forming gas (e.g., H2+Ar) plasma can be applied to treat the area, and a negative photoresist110, for example and embodied herein as epoxy-based 5-μm-thick SU-8 2005 (from Microchem) can be spun on. The negative photoresist110can be patterned using UV photolithography to form wells, for example and embodied herein having a cross dimension of 20-μm to 30-μm, and can be aligned with and disposed proximate to the microelectrodes104.FIG. 1Bis a diagram illustrating an amplifier integrated circuit102processed with a thin-film silver microelectrode104and a SU-8 microwell106.

The integrated circuit102can be wirebonded, for example and as embodied herein to a 272-pin ball grid array (BGA) package. The wirebonds can be covered with doughnut epoxy encapsulation (e.g., GE-116 dam, H70E fill, Epoxy Technology), leaving an inner portion of the integrated circuit102exposed. A removable fluid chamber112, for example and as embodied herein having a volume of 1 mL, can be formed above the integrated circuit102, for example by attaching a section of a polypropylene centrifuge tube to the surface of the BGA package using an adhesive, such as KWIK-CAST silicone adhesive (from World Precision Instruments). The adhesive can also be applied over at least a portion of the rest of the surface of the integrated circuit102, for example about three-quarters of the surface, and thus exposing only one channel to the solution at a time.

The integrated circuit112can be mounted in a socket on a suitable circuit board, which can include power management circuits, analog biasing circuits, channel multiplexing logic and analog signal filters to facilitate operation of and interaction with the integrated circuit112. The circuit board can include a power source, including one or more of a battery power source and a connection to a wall power outlet. In some embodiments, the circuit board can include signal filters, such as a differential 4th-order Bessel 1 MHz antialiasing filter, analog-to-digital converters, digital isolators, an input/output interface, such as a module (e.g., XEM3010, from Opal Kelly) containing a high-speed USB 2.0 interface, and a field programmable gate array.

The circuit board can be connected to a general computer processor, for example using a suitable interface, and received data can be processed using suitable signal data processing software, such as MATLAB (from Mathworks). Raw signal traces can be digitized, for example at 4 MS/s, and stored without further processing. Analysis can be preceded by digitally filtering traces to desired signal bandwidths, for example using finite impulse response low-pass filters in MATLAB or Igor Pro (from Wavemetrics).

The fluid chamber112can be filled with an electrolytic solution, for example and without limitation, and as embodied herein, potassium chloride. The microelectrode104can be chlorinated, for example by applying a chlorine solution, such as sodium hypochlorite. Additionally or alternatively, the microelectrode104can be chlorinated by applying a current through the microelectrode104. A lipid membrane can be applied proximate the microwell106. For example and without limitation, the lipid membrane can be a lipid solution, for example and as embodied herein a 0.5 μL DPhPC solution (10 mg/mL diphytanoyl phosphatidylcholine in n-decane), and can be applied using an air bubble at the tip of micropipette. The lipids can form bilayers114spanning the surface of the microwell106, as illustrated inFIG. 1A. Alternatively, the lipid membrane can be a cellular membrane of a live cell, which can be applied proximate the microwell106, for example by applying a pressure gradient between the live cell and the microwell106, as discussed further herein.

The lipid membrane covers the microwell106to electrically isolate the microwell106. Multiple microwell106can be addressed in parallel, with independent trans Ag/AgCl microelectrodes104and one shared cis reservoir112. The small volume of the covered microwell106(for example and without limitation of about 0.1 pL to 100 pL, and embodied herein as about 1.6 picoliters), also referred to as a trans chamber, can extend of the life of the Ag/AgCl microelectrodes104. However, the trans chamber can be inaccessible for solution perfusion after the bilayer114is formed.

Ag/AgCl microelectrodes104can deplete over time, and the mass of available silver can determine the total charge (Q=IDC×t) that can be measured over the lifetime of the sensor. Lower DC currents can be utilized for ion channels as compared to solid-state nanopores, and thus a thin evaporated silver film layer can be utilized for the microelectrode104rather than a thicker electroplated layer. The microelectrode104, embodied herein having dimensions of 100 μm×100 μm×250 nm, can include approximately 21 ng of silver, which, when converted to AgCl, can corresponds to a charge transfer of 19 μC. As such, each microelectrode104can have a lifetime of about 2 days at 100 pA bias. The small volume of the trans chamber can help to resist dissolution of the AgCl. Although AgCl can have a solubility in water of KSP=1.8×10−10, 2 pL of water can become saturated with AgCl after dissolving 50 femtograms of AgCl. As such, each microelectrode can have a lifetime of at least several hours.

FIG. 1Cillustrates a representative equivalent circuit model for the expected measurement capacitances of the interface100overlaid onto the diagram ofFIG. 1A. A DPhPC bilayer with a nominal diameter of 20 μm can have a capacitance CM=1.4 pF. Other capacitances, such as between the 100 μm electrode and the Si substrate108(CE), and between the covered portion of the electrode104and the electrolytic solution (CP), can contribute a capacitance of about 120 fF. The capacitance of the amplifier102(CI) can be 1 pF, and the feedback capacitance (CF) can 0.15 pF. As such, the total capacitance can add up to an expected total of ΣC∞3 pF.

FIG. 2illustrates measured input-referred noise power spectral density (A2Hz−1) for a dry open-headstage condition (i.e., with no input) and with a DPhPC lipid bilayer114formed over a 20-μm-diameter microwell. Below 10 kHz, the noise can be determined by the amplifier102feedback network. At higher frequencies, the presence of the electrolyte in the microwell106and the bilayer114can increase the noise density as a function of ΣC=(CI+CF+CM+CE+CP). A fourth-order low-pass Bessel filter can be applied at various cutoff frequencies (fc), and thus the noise baseline in the presence of the bilayer114can correspond to 1 pARMSfor fc=10 kHz, 4.4 pARMSat 100 kHz, 11.8 pARMSat 250 kHz, and 61 pARMSat 1 MHz.

The low-frequency noise density of the amplifier integrated circuit102(˜10 fA Hz−1/2) can be comparable to the thermal noise of a 150 MΩ resistor, which can be suitable for recordings of phenomena at noise amplitudes below 1 pARMS, and can be more suitable using discrete GΩ transimpedance stages. As such, low-frequency noise reductions can be challenging, while, high-frequency noise can be naturally reduced. In this manner, miniaturization can decrease capacitive parasitics, and for many ion channels, which can pass tens of picoamperes or more, an integrated platform can provide finer temporal resolution.

The CMOS-anchored lipid bilayer membrane114can be tested by performing measurements of gramicidin, an antibiotic peptide which can increase the permeability of cell membranes. Gramicidin can produce transient dimer channels in lipid bilayers and form a junction between peptides in opposing halves of the membrane. Gramicidin ion channels can form and dissociate after some period of time, irrespective of voltage, yielding stepwise current changes in voltage-clamp recordings.

Gramicidin recordings were demonstrated using the interface100. Prior to forming a bilayer, up to 0.5 μL gramicidin solution (1 μg/mL in ethanol) was added to the electrolytic solution, and as such the gramicidin solution was present in both the cis and trans chambers. After applying the lipid bilayer114, random stepwise current fluctuations were observed.FIG. 3illustrates recordings of single gramicidin channels in the amplifier-attached lipid bilayers114. The trace was measured in 1M KCl at 100 mV bias, and digitally filtered to 1 kHz bandwidth. The inset shows a histogram illustrating the current levels in the presented trace.FIG. 3shows multiple simultaneously active channels producing discrete current levels separated by approximately 4 pA.

For an exemplary biotechnology applications of the interface100, alpha hemolysin (α-HL), a bacterial toxin that can form heptameric ion channels in cell membranes, was recorded. α-can be utilized as a nanopore sensor, with potential for high-speed DNA sequencing, among other applications. The channel of an α-HL pore can have a diameter of approximately 1.4 nm at its smallest constriction, and the presence of small molecules within a single channel can measurably modulate its ionic conductance.

FIG. 4Aillustrates measurements of a single alpha-hemolysin channel in the presence of polydisperse polyethylene glycol (PEG, average m.w. 1500). Each rectangular current blockade corresponded to a single PEG molecule occupying the channel. The trace is shown at B=100 kHz.FIG. 4Bshows an all-points histogram of the trace ofFIG. 4A, illustrating separation between open and blocked current levels.FIG. 4Cis an enlarged view of a representative PEG event, at 50 kHz and 250 kHz bandwidths.FIG. 4Dis an enlarged view of a the falling edge of a representative PEG event, contrasting the edge rates at 10 kHz, 50 kHz, and 250 kHz bandwidth.FIG. 4Eis a histogram illustrating the average residual current in 7,642 events with durations of at least 0.5 ms. Each peak in the histogram corresponds to a unique PEG polymer length.

As shown inFIGS. 4A-4D, at +50 mV bias, the steady-state current through the pore was measured to be 200 pA, and intermittent blockage events decreased this current to approximately 25% of its open value. Each of these blockages corresponded to a single PEG molecule temporarily occupying the pore. The residual current during each of these events was suitably stable, and at a signal bandwidth of 250 kHz, the event edges appeared suitably sharp.

A range of PEG polymer lengths were present in the solution, and each size molecule can modulate the α-HL conductance by a different degree. Producing a histogram of the average residual current level during each event can yield a histogram with discrete levels corresponding to the distinct PEG polymer lengths.FIG. 4Eshows a histogram of the average depths of 7,642 events recorded over 6 minutes. The histogram shows distinct peaks separated by approximately 2 pA and each having a standard deviation of about 0.5 pA. The appearance of discrete peaks illustrates the stability of the amplifier integrated circuit102, electrodes104, bilayer114, and α-HL channel over the length of this trace. Each point in the histogram can represent the average of all points in an event, and as such each point can have an expected error roughly corresponding to the integrated noise density from DC to ½τ, where can represent the duration of the events. By including all events longer than 0.5 ms, the peaks can have a standard deviation represented as

10⁢fAHz×12×0.5⁢⁢ms≈0.5⁢⁢pA.
As such, the deviation can be higher than typical deviations of discrete amplifiers, yet the interface100provides extended dynamic range and smaller physical size.

Another example of a reconstituted ion channel is alamethicin, which can present a relatively large conductance and thus can tolerate the noise levels which can accompany higher bandwidths. Alamethicin is a 20-amino-acid peptide that can assemble into small homomeric clusters in lipid bilayers. These peptide groups can form voltage-gated ion channels with discrete conductance levels that can correspond to integer numbers of alamethicin molecules. The conductance levels can have a quadratic dependence on the level number, and can appear as characteristic staircase current patterns in voltage-clamp recordings.

After forming lipid bilayers114proximate the amplifier integrated circuit102, 1 μL of 10 μg/mL alamethicin in ethanol was added to the cis chamber112.FIG. 5Aillustrates recordings of single alamethicin channel bursts in 4M KCl at 150 mV bias, digitally filtered to 50 kHz bandwidth. As shown inFIG. 5A, channel current bursts appeared at negative bias voltages.FIG. 5Bis an all-points histogram of the trace ofFIG. 5A, showing three distinct conductance levels.FIG. 5Cshows the discrete current levels identified in the histogram, illustrating a quadratic dependence on the level number.FIG. 5Dis an enlarged view of a representative channel burst, identified by arrow5D inFIG. 5A.

Alamethicin gating transitions can occur faster than can be resolved by certain patch-clamp amplifiers. The higher signal bandwidth of interface100can be suitable to examine these conductance transitions.FIG. 6Ais an enlarged view of the rising edge of the alamethicin channel burst shown inFIG. 5D, sampled at 4 MS/s and digitally filtered to 50 kHz and 1 MHz bandwidths, At 1 MHz,FIG. 6Ashows that transition between L1 and L3 includes two brief stays at L2, with the second one lasting only 3 μs.FIG. 6Bis an enlarged view of the falling edge of the channel burst ofFIG. 5D. As shown inFIG. 6B, the transitions can be considered sharp, even at 1 MHz. As such, these transitions can occur in less than 500 ns.

FIGS. 7A-7Deach illustrates an alternative embodiment of an interface formed with lipid bilayers according to the disclosed subject matter. As shown inFIGS. 7A-7B, interface200can include a separately fabricated bilayer support210having one or more nanoscale apertures206placed into an electrolytic solution212aligned with and proximate to integrated circuit202. The bilayer support can be a hydrophobic support (as shown inFIG. 7A) or a hydrophobic support (as shown inFIG. 7B). Ag/AgCl electrodes204can be formed on the integrated circuit202as described herein. Lipids in oil, such as n-octane, n-decane, n-hexadecane or any other suitable lipids, can be applied in a thin layer over the aperture204to faun a lipid bilayer214at the aperture204. Alternatively, the bilayer support210can be exposed to unilamellar lipid vesicles, which can fuse to the bilayer support210proximate the one or more apertures206to form the lipid bilayer214. A gasket208can be used separate multiple channels, for example as shown inFIG. 7B. An external electrode216can be placed in the electrolytic solution212on the opposite side of the bilayer support210.

FIG. 7Cillustrates an alternative embodiment of an interface300having a tethered bilayers configuration. Interface300can include solid-supported lipid bilayers suitable metal) electrodes304on the surface of the integrated circuit302. For example, the metal electrodes304can be initially covered by a self-assembled monolayer (SAM,314formed on metal (for example and without limitation, gold, platinum, or any other for example, 3-mercaptopropyl silane)310, followed by lipid vesicle fusion to form a lipid bilayer314over the monolayer310. Alternatively, the metal electrodes304can exposed to lipid vesicles containing chemical anchoring groups that adhere to the metal. An external electrode316can be placed in the electrolytic solution312on the opposite side of the lipid bilayer314.

FIG. 7Dillustrates an alternative embodiment of an interface400having multiple, lipid-sealed microwells. Interface400can include microwells406formed on the surface of an integrated circuit402, as described herein with respect to interface100, and microwells406can be separated by a gasket408. Metal electrodes404can be formed on integrated circuit402as described herein. Lipids in oil and/or unilamellar lipid vesicles can be applied to form the lipid bilayer414. An external electrode416can be placed in the electrolytic solution412on the opposite side of the lipid bilayer414.

FIG. 7Eillustrates an alternative embodiment of an interface500having a thru-chip configuration. Interface500can include one or more apertures506etched through integrated circuit502. Lipids can be applied proximate the one or more apertures506to form one or more lipid bilayers514between front and back sides of the integrated circuit502. A gasket508can be applied on one side of the integrated circuit to isolate multiple channels. An external electrode516can be placed in the electrolytic solution512on the opposite side of the integrated circuit502.

While recordings of membrane proteins in reconstituted lipid bilayers can be useful for biophysical studies, certain applications can benefit from in situ observations of ion channels in intact cells. Such observations can be useful, for example, for measuring complex proteins and signaling pathways which are not easily recreated in a simplified planar bilayer. Working with intact cells can also be more convenient, as it can eliminate procedures to first isolate the desired proteins from cells, create a lipid bilayer, and induce the channels to insert into the lipid bilayer.

FIGS. 8A-8Eeach illustrates an alternative embodiment of an interface formed with giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) according to the disclosed subject matter.FIG. 8Aillustrates an interface600having a separate planar patch aperture configuration. Interface600can include a separate “planar patch” substrate610, embodied herein as a glass chip, having a nanoscale aperture606etched therethrough, and disposed in an electrolytic solution612aligned with and proximate to the integrated circuit602. A pressure differential can be used to position and seal a cell614proximate the aperture. A gasket can be used between the substrate610and integrated circuit602to isolate multiple channels. Metal electrodes604can be formed on integrated circuit602as described herein. An external electrode616can be placed in the electrolytic solution612on the opposite side of the substrate610.

FIGS. 8B-8Cillustrate an interface700having a blind microwell configuration. Interface700can include small microwells706(for example and without limitation about 0.1 pL to 100 pL, and embodied herein as about 1.6 picoliters) fabricated on the surface of the integrated circuit702, and cells714can aligned with and disposed proximate the microwells706through one or more of surface adhesion proteins, pressure and microfluidics. A gasket708can be used between the microwells704to isolate multiple channels. Metal electrodes704can be formed on integrated circuit702as described herein. An external electrode716can be placed in the electrolytic solution712on the opposite side of the substrate710. Interface700can produce relatively dense arrays and can be suitable for looser “cell-attached” patch recordings. Additionally or alternatively, as shown inFIG. 8C, interface700can include one or more fluid or air microchannels718formed to access the microwells706on the surface of the integrated circuit702. The buried microchannels718can be used to maintain a pressure differential across a cell, which can be utilized for “gigaohm-seal” formation with a cell714. Buried microchannels718can also allow solution exchange on both sides of the cell714.

FIG. 8Dillustrates an exemplary interface800having a thru-chip configuration. Interface800can include an integrated circuit802having apertures etched directly through the integrated circuit802to form planar patch clamp apertures806. This arrangement can allow simple access to both fluid reservoirs, for maintaining a pressure differential or exchanging fluid. Cells814can be applied on either side of the integrated circuit802. A gasket808can be used to form microwells806and isolate multiple channels. Metal electrodes804can be formed on integrated circuit802as described herein. An external electrode816can be placed in the electrolytic solution812on the opposite side of the integrated circuit802from metal electrodes804.

FIG. 8Eillustrates an exemplary interface900having an integrated circuit902incorporated inside a pipette906, such as a glass patch pipette. The pipette906can contain an electrolytic solution908, and the integrated circuit902, including one or more metal electrodes904, can be at least partially disposed within the pipette906. A cell914can be coupled to an end of the pipette906opposite the integrated circuit902. A lead wire910can be coupled to the integrated circuit902, for example at a portion of the integrated circuit902external to the pipette906. Interface900can provide the flexibility and performance of a patch pipette, while reducing the size and parasitic capacitance of the associated headstage.

While the disclosed subject matter is described herein in terms of certain exemplary embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that various modifications and improvements can be made to the disclosed subject matter without departing from the scope thereof.

The foregoing merely illustrates the principles of the disclosed subject matter. Various modifications and alterations to the described embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of the teachings herein. It will be appreciated that those skilled in the art will be able to devise numerous modifications which, although not explicitly described herein, embody its principles and are thus within its spirit and scope.