Photovoltaic conversion of light

A photovoltaic power source includes a receptacle to receive a photofuel including a liquid, and one or more photovoltaic cells positioned within the receptacle to receive light emitted from the photofuel when the photofuel is in the receptacle. The photovoltaic power source also includes power circuitry coupled to the one or more photovoltaic cells to receive a photocurrent generated by the one or more photovoltaic cells when the one or more photovoltaic cells receive the light emitted from the photofuel. In response to the photocurrent, the power circuitry is coupled to output electricity.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This disclosure relates generally to photovoltaic devices.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

For vehicle transportation, the dominant technology is hydrocarbon combustion to drive heat engines (internal combustion engines for cars, jet engines for planes, etc.). Other nascent transportation storage technologies include closed-cell batteries, fuel cells (e.g., H2fuel cells), and longer-term possibilities for redox flow batteries for fast-refueling ground vehicles. These transportation technologies may suffer certain drawbacks that limit current or future applications: (a) fossil hydrocarbon combustion releases the greenhouse gas CO2, and biofuels (low net CO2) compete with food production, (b) gasoline cannot easily be “recharged” like a battery, (c) batteries are efficiently charged/discharged but are expensive, limited in energy density, and slow to recharge, (d) fuel cells are generally expensive, and (e) redox flow batteries are limited in energy density.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of a system and method for photochemical storage and photovoltaic conversion of light are described herein. In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize, however, that the techniques described herein can be practiced without one or more of the specific details, or with other methods, components, materials, etc. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring certain aspects.

Generally this disclosure relates to a new paradigm in large-scale energy storage. The instant disclosure proposes releasing stored chemical energy as light—referring to the one or more light-releasing compounds (and their carrier solvents, stabilizers, and other compounds in the mixture) as “photofuel”—and then efficiently converting this emitted light to electricity using photovoltaics. Several families of multi-molecule and single-molecule chemical reactions are promising photofuel candidates, (e.g., delayed fluorescence, chemiluminescent/bioluminescent reactions, etc.). These molecules may be placed in a “photovoltaic reactor” (e.g., any device to convert the emitted light to electricity) to convert emitted light into electricity.

The disclosure herein provides economical solutions for both sustainable, low-cost, high energy density transportation fuel (including aviation fuel), and a way to achieve on-demand, low-cost solar energy. For transportation, photofuel may be capable of high energy density (>400 Wh/kg—exceeding today's batteries), can be easily recharged (either electrochemically, thermochemically, or photochemically), may not release CO2on net, may be capable of high vehicle refueling rates (e.g., by pumping the charged photofuel into a tank), and may be inexpensive due to current bulk chemical synthesis capabilities.

For solar generation, this disclosure offers a compelling way to concentrate and store sunlight, enabling low-cost storage and extremely efficient conversion to electricity by photovoltaics—e.g., by choosing a PV material with a bandgap matched to the near-monochromatic, high-intensity emission of the photofuel. In short, this disclosure contemplates “charging” of photofuel by sunlight (or other light sources, electrochemical systems, etc.) in low cost pools, pumping of the photofuel to storage tanks, and luminescent discharge of photofuel in high-power-density “photovoltaic reactors” to power vehicles or to power the electrical grid.

Below is a description of the embodiments discussed above, as well as other embodiments, as they relate to the figures.

FIG. 1is an illustration of part of a system150for photofuel charging and use, in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. Depicted are photofuel charging pods151, storage tank153, photovoltaic power source100, a boat157, an aircraft159, and a vehicle161.

In the illustrated embodiments, charging pods151are configured to receive energy (e.g., from the sun154or a power source like a hydroelectric dam155) to charge the photofuel when the photofuel is within the charging pods. The energy provided to charge the photofuel allows the photofuel to later emit light (during discharge). In some embodiments (like the one depicted), the photofuel may have a chemical composition such that it can absorb the sun's rays, and convert the absorbed solar photons into chemical potential energy (e.g., excite an electron into a high-energy state, induce a photochemical reaction, transform an isomer, etc.). The photofuel may be designed to have a wide absorption spectrum (e.g., including visible and non-visible portions of the solar spectrum) but a relatively narrow emission spectrum (e.g., substantially monochromatic light). In the depicted embodiment, in order to absorb sunlight, at least part of the charging pods151are transparent to the portion of the solar spectrum that will induce a “charging” chemical reaction in the photofuel. Charging pods151may be positively or negatively pressurized, and may include an inert environment (e.g., N2, Ar, or the like) to prevent degradation of the photofuel due to chemical reaction with compounds in the air.

In some embodiments (like the one depicted), the chemical potential energy may be supplied through electricity or other forms of energy (e.g., heat). This may be from a power source like a hydroelectric dam (e.g., the dam depicted), in which case the photofuel may undergo the transformation to an increased potential energy state by virtue of applying an electric potential (e.g., via electrodes, or the like) to the photofuel or applying heat to the photofuel via a heater (e.g., an inductive heater, or the like). Photofuel “charge” mechanisms may include direct excitation of single molecule with light or photolysis, electrical/electrochemical excitation of single molecule, various chemical syntheses (e.g. electrochemical, thermochemical), or the like.

As shown, discharged photofuel may be returned to charging pods151for recharging, in embodiments where the charge-discharge chemical reactions in the photofuel are reversible.

After the photofuel is charged, the photofuel may be transferred to storage tank153where it may be stored for hours to months depending on the chemical composition of the fuel and the conditions within storage tank153. Storage tank153may be coupled (via pipes or the like) to the one or more charging pods151. It is appreciated that storage tank153may employ techniques to extend the working lifetime of the photofuel such as cooling the tank (e.g., with thermoelectric coolers, or the like), and include systems to maintain a relatively constant pH in tank153. The tank153may possess mirrored walls such that any prematurely-emitted light may be reabsorbed to recharge the photofuel without significant loss. The tank153may be opaque so the photofuel is not exposed to light, which may prevent degradation of the molecules. Conversely light may be permitted to enter storage tank153in order to keep the molecules in the photofuel in their energized state. Storage tank153may be positively or negatively pressurized and may include an inert environment (e.g., N2, Ar, or the like) to prevent degradation of the photofuel due to chemical reactions with molecules in the air. Storage tank153may also be devoid of materials that could act as a catalyst to the photofuel.

As shown, the photofuel may be output into photovoltaic power source100(contained within a receptacle, depicted elsewhere) which may be used as a general power source (e.g., for buildings on the power grid), but may be disposed within the hull/body/chassis of boat157, aircraft159, or vehicle161, and used to power an electric motor in boat157, aircraft159, or vehicle161. Thus, the vehicles depicted can use the photofuel as a power source to propel them. It is appreciated that the photofuel may be more attractive than other kinds of fuel because (1) conversion of light to electrical energy has become very efficient and inexpensive with advances in solar technology; (2) the fuel may be reusable (e.g., charged many times); (3) the fuel may be able to be stored for extended periods of time before use, thus there may be little to no loss associated with transferring the energy within the fuel over long distances (e.g., via pipes, or the like); and (4) as will be shown, the power source may have very few or no moving parts, which results in a long component lifetime.

FIGS. 2A and 2Billustrate embodiments of a photovoltaic power source200A and200B, in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. More specifically,FIG. 2Adepicts a cross section of a photovoltaic power source200A including a receptacle201(with one or more input ports and one or more output ports), one or more photovoltaic cells205, one or more catalysts203, power circuitry211(including power storage unit213, controller231, and power converter215), and electric motor219.

As illustrated, receptacle201is positioned to receive a photofuel including a liquid, and one or more photovoltaic cells205are positioned within receptacle201to receive light emitted from the photofuel, when the photofuel is in receptacle201. Power circuitry211is coupled (e.g., with one or more cables/wires) to one or more photovoltaic205cells to receive a photocurrent generated by one or more photovoltaic cells205when one or more photovoltaic cells205receive the light emitted from the photofuel. In response to the photocurrent, power circuitry205is coupled to filter the photocurrent and output a DC waveform (which may be used to power electric motor219or other electronic components).

In the depicted embodiment, the photofuel flows into receptacle201continuously through the one or more input ports, and exits receptacle201continuously via the one or more output ports. Thus, there is a continuous flow of photofuel through receptacle201. As shown, one or more channels are formed in receptacle201to receive the photofuel from the one or more input ports, and the one or more photovoltaic cells205line the walls of the channels to receive the light emitted from the photofuel. In the depicted embodiment, the channels are formed by substantially parallel (e.g., ±10° of rotation) plates, where some of the parallel plates are the one or more photovoltaic cells205themselves, and some of the plates are coated with, or include, a catalyst203. This is because in some embodiments, the photofuel may emit light in the presence of catalyst203. By having the photofuel snake through an extensive network of channels, the photofuel is exposed to a maximum surface area of photovoltaic cells205and catalyst203. Thus, all (or nearly all) of the light will be discharged from the photofuel and absorbed by the photovoltaic cells205. Similarly, in the depicted embodiment, since the reaction to produce the light from the photofuel may require, or be enhanced in the presence of, catalyst203, the extra surface area of catalyst203in the channels will increase exposure to the photofuel and result in additional light output from the photofuel. In some embodiments, catalyst203could include floating particles (e.g., colloidal, suspended and homogenized via brownian motion), which do not exit reactor volume by fine screen filtration or the like). Similarly, the reactor may be heated to increase reaction kinetics.

In the depicted embodiment, one or more photovoltaic cells205are electrically coupled to power circuitry. The power circuitry includes a power storage213unit and power converter215to output a DC waveform. The power storage unit213may include one or more capacitors, an ultra-capacitor, batteries or the like, to receive the unfiltered electrical output from one or more photovoltaic cells205. It is appreciated that the electrical output from one or more photovoltaic cells205may be variable due to rate of flow of photofuel through receptacle201, kinetic variations in the light production reaction (e.g., caused by temperature), or the like. Accordingly, storage unit213may be used as a power filter. The electrical charge contained in storage unit213may then be accessed by a power converter215, which may output smooth consistent power DC waveform (e.g., a flat 5, 10, 20, 50 V). Power converter125may include one or more switches (e.g., MOSFETs, GaN high-voltage switches, or the like) as well as diodes, inductors, and resistors to access power in power storage unit213. In some embodiments, power converter215may include a controller231to control the DC waveform output from power circuitry211. For example, controller231may determine when to turn on/off a power switch in the power converter.

The DC waveform may be output from the power circuitry211to an electric motor219. Electric motor219is disposed within, and electric motor219may be mechanically coupled to provide the mechanical energy to move one of an aircraft body, a boat hull, or a vehicle chassis (see e.g.,FIG. 1). In one embodiment, power circuitry211may be coupled to other devices (e.g., lighting, microelectronics, or the like). It is appreciated that the photovoltaic power sources depicted may include thermal management functionality such as radiator for photofuel waste heat discharge. For example, cooling channels with separate cooling fluid or cold air may be circulated and heat rejected through radiator to the environment. In some embodiments, the reactors may be coupled to “pre emission” chambers for thoroughly mixing photofuel and getting reaction primed, or even getting the reaction started. Additionally, in one or more embodiments, the reactors may include safety mechanisms to catch photofuel in event of rupture (e.g., secondary containment receptacle holding the reactor, a drip pan, or the like).

FIG. 2Bdepicts a cross section of another embodiment of photovoltaic power source200B including two receptacles201. In the depicted embodiment, there may or may not be a continuous flow through the two receptacles201. In the embodiment where the photofuel flow is not continuous, one receptacle201is used to harvest power while the other receptacle201is being drained or filled. Thus, the two receptacles201harvest power out of phase with each other—similar to how gas engine cylinders fire out of phase to provide relatively constant power production. This may be useful in instances where the photofuel emits light when triggered by incident photons (or other energy transition), which causes the light to be emitted suddenly and simultaneously. For example, the mechanism of light emission from the photofuel may be delayed florescence. Electrons in a high energy state in the fuel may exist in an energy band that does not permit a transition to the ground state unless the electrons are excited into another energy state (see e.g.,FIG. 4B). Here, a laser233(or other light source such as a diode) is provided to act like an “optical spark plug” in order to induce florescence of the photofuel. In this embodiment, controller231in power circuitry211includes logic that when executed by controller231causes the photovoltaic power source200B to perform operations such as causing one of lasers233to emit laser light out of phase from the other laser233. The laser light may cause molecules in the receptacle201to emit light (possibly through a cascade effect). Controller231may also inform photovoltaic power source200B when to fill/drain the receptacles201with photofuel (e.g., by controlling pumps and valves). In some embodiments, the photofuel reactor may have “starter subsystems” or “dark start subsystems” (e.g., a small gravity fed subsystem which produces enough energy to start up the larger photofuel reactor system in the event of a total dark start or absence of other energy source). It is appreciated that laser233may be substituted for thermal sparkplugs (e.g., resistive heaters, or the like for reactions that are activated by thermal energy) or pH spark plugs (e.g., a valve that lets in acid/base to initiate the reaction).

One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate thatFIGS. 2A and 2Bmerely show two examples of how to fabricate a photovoltaic power source, and that other device architectures in accordance with the teachings of the present disclosure are contemplated depending on the molecular design of the photofuel and other considerations.

FIGS. 3A-3Fillustrate channels that may be used to direct flow of the photofuel in the photovoltaic power sources ofFIGS. 2A and 2B, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure. It is appreciated that the architectures depicted may be combined in any suitable manner, in accordance with the teachings of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3Ashows cylindrical channels that are coated on the inside with photovoltaic cells305and/or catalysts. The tube geometry (e.g., interior diameter, length, etc.) may be tailored based on the time that the photofuel emits light once it is activated, the re-absorption of emitted light by the photofuel, the volume of the receptacle for a particular application, etc. In some examples, the length of the channel corresponds to the flow rate of the photofuel and the light emission lifetime (e.g., how long the photofuel emits light once activated). Thus, by the time the photofuel reaches the end of the channel, the photofuel has expended the vast majority (e.g., 80%-100%) of the photofuel's usable potential energy as light. In other instances, the diameter may be narrow when the photofuel has a high re-absorption (e.g., the photofuel reabsorbs a high number of the photons it produces). In this embodiment, the diameter may be configured so that 80%-100% of photons generated in the center of the channel reach the photovoltaic cells305without being reabsorbed by the photofuel.

FIG. 3Bshows similar channel architecture asFIG. 3A; however,FIG. 3Bshows that the photofluid flows through a smaller channel333, which is disposed within, and proximate to a center of, the photovoltaic cells305. Photovoltaic cells305line the walls of a larger channel. Thus in the depicted example, air or another medium (e.g., liquid or vacuum) may separate the smaller channel333from photovoltaic cells305. This architecture may be useful for capturing all of the photons emitted from the photofuel. For instance, if the photofuel has a high reabsorption rate, the channel that the photofuel travels through should be retentively narrow (e.g., channel333). Once the light is emitted, it travels through the transparent walls of channel333and a substantially nonabsorptive medium to photovoltaic cells305. Moreover, the emitted light may be totally internally reflected in the space between channel333and photovoltaic cells305, resulting in more light being absorbed by photovoltaic cells305. In some embodiments, bubbles may be injected into the photofuel if fuel has high absorbance; bubble's may have lower absorbance and allow for high flow rates in channels.

FIG. 3Cillustrates fuel flow between stacked planar photovoltaic cells305, with many possible variants. In one embodiment, photovoltaic cells305may be partially or fully immersed in the photofuel when the photofuel is in the reactor. Variants of the structure depicted include counterflow or tapered spacing (see e.g.,FIGS. 3E and 3F), cylindrical (or half cylindrical) flow channels carved into the surface of photovoltaic cells305, various antireflective coatings on the surface of photovoltaic cells305(e.g., surface textures, coatings with different indices of refraction than the photofuel, solve brewster angle, etc.), coating photovoltaic cells305with a dye to improve efficiency (e.g., excitation happens at photovoltaic surface, dye that acts as a catalyst, or a dye catalyst combination). In some embodiments, photovoltaic cells305may be optimized to eliminate shunt currents. Similarly, bifacial photovoltaic cells305, or one photovoltaic cell305per channel and a mirrored wall may be employed. Since semiconductors are regularly fabricated on flat surfaces, planar photovoltaic cells305may be used to reduce costs in some embodiments. Photovoltaic cells305may be offset from each other to create channels that snake through the interior of the reactor to increase the length of the path that the fluid needs to traverse (see e.g.,FIG. 2Awhere catalyst plates203and photovoltaic cells205are substantially parallel but every other plate is vertically offset from a wall of receptacle201to create a channel through receptacle201). This staggering may increase the amount of surface area of photovoltaic cells305that the photofuel is exposed to. Photovoltaic cells305may be coupled in series or parallel to optimize electrical output for a given system (e.g., some in series and with groups of series cells in parallel, to achieve desired redundancy and voltages/currents).

FIG. 3Dshows one example of planar photovoltaic cells305where the photofuel is flowed between two photovoltaic cells305(which may be bifacial to accommodate multiple channels). The depicted embodiment may also be useful with the pulsed discharge embodiment (see e.g.,FIG. 2B) where the reactor is filled with fuel and flow is stopped, the emission of all stored energy as light is triggered, discharged fuel is flowed out into a collection tank, and the cycle repeats.

FIG. 3Edepicts the one or more channels divided into a first sub channel and a second sub channel with a clear divider317disposed between the first sub channel and the second sub channel. As shown, photofuel flows in a first direction in the first sub channel, and photofuel flows in a second (opposite) direction in the second sub channel. The walls of the channel may be one or more photovoltaic cells305. Put another way, one geometry for photofuel flow in a photovoltaic reactor is counterflow. This arrangement may be attractive in cases where fuel flows continuously through the reactor, where the light emission begins at the entry point to the reactor, light emission continues/diminishes as fuel proceeds through reactor, and light emission effectively ceases at the outlet. Assuming nearly-exhausted fuel does not significantly non-radiatively absorb emitted light, this counterflow configuration could help ensure that one or more photovoltaic cells305see approximately uniform light intensity at all points in the reactor, since light shines through the clear divider317.

FIG. 3Fdepicts an embodiment where the one or more channels have a first end and a second end, and the first end is narrower than the second end. Put another way,FIG. 3Fshows unidirectional continuous flow through a widening channel. This arrangement may be attractive in cases where photofuel continuously flows through the reactor, where light emission intensity begins at the inlet, diminishes quickly, and effectively ceases at the outlet. The particular geometry of how the reaction channel widens over time can be determined by the emission lifetime and fuel flow rate, to allow for uniform light intensity on the photovoltaic cells (e.g. by allowing a larger volume of dimmer, nearly-exhausted fuel to dwell for longer as the fuel proceeds through the reactor).

FIGS. 4A-4Dillustrate chemicals and reaction mechanisms that may be used in the photofuel, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure. It is appreciated that there are many ways to activate light emission, depending on the type of photofuel used for example: catalytic or enzymatic release of energy, which may or may not be used with a catalyst agent fixed near the surface of the photovoltaic cells (such that the reaction only happens while in the receptacle); thermal or optical activation (e.g., a “spark plug” type of initiation, which causes a local region to discharge light and propagates the reaction either optically or thermally); electrochemiluminescent reaction; pH initiation, or other chemical reaction; phase change (e.g., photofuel may be stored as a solid or liquid, and subsequently discharged in gas or liquid state, and may be mixed with other materials, such as gases, solvents, dyes, etc.); other on/off switches (e.g., electric or magnetic field, pressure). It is appreciated that biology inspired emission pathways (e.g., firefly luciferen emitting light via ATP and oxygen) may also be viable ways to produce a photofuel. As stated, photofuel may include light emitting molecules as well as solvents (which may be transparent), catalysts, reaction inducing chemicals, etc. Several embodiments are discussed below as they relate to the figures.

FIG. 4Ashows one example of chemicals included in a photofuel. The reaction mechanism used to produce the light here is an optical isomer transformation (e.g., the transformation of optically-switched norbornadiene to quadricyclane) that could be built into a high quantum efficiency dye like 9, 10-diphenylanthracene (depicted). If a sufficiently high energy transformation is built into such a dye and efficiently release its energy via luminescence, the energy density of this type of reaction could match or exceed the chemistry of many battery technologies.

FIG. 4Bdepicts a delayed fluorescence reaction that is activated either thermally or with a metal catalyst. Depicted is a triquinolonobenzene molecule has a long lived a long-lived triplet state, which can be thermally excited for delayed fluorescence. Also depicted is an example band diagram for molecule (which may be similar to triquinolonobenzene in that it exhibits delayed fluorescence), that has an excited state (T1) and electrons in this state are forbidden from decaying directly to the ground state (G). Accordingly, in order for electrons in the excited state T1 to reach the ground state (G) and emit a photon, they must be excited to a different excited state (S1). Thus, the molecule could be charged (to get electrons into energy state T1), and then thermally or catalytically excited to get the electrons into energy state S1 where they will decay to the ground state and emit light.

FIG. 4Cshows a Cyalume reaction, where hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) oxidizes diphenyl oxalate to produce metastable 1,2-dioxetanedione, which then gives up its energy to excite a dye. The dye then relaxes by light emission.

FIG. 4Dshows a horseradish-peroxidase-(HRP)-catalyzed luminescence reaction for luminol. It is appreciated that this is just one catalyst-type reaction that may be used to produce the light from the photofuel.

FIG. 5illustrates an example absorption spectrum of photovoltaic cells501and an example emission spectrum of the photofuel503, in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure. As shown, the absorption spectrum of the one or more photovoltaic cells501overlaps the emission spectrum503of the photofuel. In the depicted embodiment, the photofuel may emit relatively monochromatic (e.g., ±5 nm from the emission peak) light. The solar cell may be fabricated to absorb all light that the photofuel emits. Since the photofuel may emit basically one wavelength of light, the photovoltaic cell may require less optimization than cells that capture sunlight since absorption of only one wavelength needs to be designed for. Thus, the photovoltaic cells in the reactor may be less expensive than high-efficiency tandem solar cells. For example, the photofuel may be designed to emit light at the absorption maxima or the absorption onset (e.g., to maximize internal voltage) of the photovoltaic cells. In some embodiments, the photofuel may have more than one emission peak; accordingly solar cell(s) with an absorption spectra that correspond to the emission peaks may be used.

FIG. 6is an illustration of method600for generating power, in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. The order in which some or all of process blocks601-609appear in method600should not be deemed limiting. Rather, one of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of the present disclosure will understand that some of method600may be executed in a variety of orders not illustrated, or even in parallel. Additionally, method600may include additional blocks or have fewer blocks than shown, in accordance with the teachings of the present disclosure.

Block601illustrates flowing a photofuel including a liquid into a receptacle. It is appreciated that the receptacle can take any shape including a box, substantially parallel pipes/tubes, or the like. The photofuel may be pumped into and out of the receptacle via input and output ports, and a pump (e.g., a modified water or fuel pump) may be used to supply the fuel to the receptacle as needed. The pump may be coupled to a controller to control flow into the receptacle.

As depicted inFIG. 1the photofuel may be charged with second light (e.g., sunlight) before flowing the photofuel into the receptacle. In other embodiments, the photofuel can be charged with other sources of energy such as electricity, heat, or the like.

Block603describes emitting light from the photofuel. The light emission process may be through any of the mechanisms identified inFIG. 4and associated discussion, as well as other mechanisms not specifically described herein, in accordance with the teachings of the present disclosure.

Block605shows absorbing the light from the photofuel with one or more photovoltaic cells disposed within the receptacle. As shown elsewhere, the one or more photovoltaic cells may be fully or partially immersed in the photofuel (e.g., the photofuel could run through tubes with the photovoltaic cells on the walls of the tubes or the photovoltaic cells could include parallel plates and the photofuel flows over the plates, etc.). Thus, the photofuel may be continuously flowed though one or more channels positioned in the receptacle, where the photovoltaic cells are positioned in the channels to receive the light from the photofuel.

Block607illustrates generating a photocurrent with the one or more photovoltaic cells, in response to the one or more photovoltaic cells absorbing the light. In one embodiment, the light from photofuel generates hole-electron pairs in the photovoltaic cells which results in a photocurrent. It is appreciated that the photovoltaic cells may be any system that generates a photocurrent (e.g., Si-based photovoltaic cells, organic photovoltaic cells, CdTe photovoltaic cells, perovskite photovoltaic cells, any of the III-V or II-VI group solar cells, or the like).

Block609shows outputting electricity with a power system coupled to the one or more photovoltaic cells to receive the photocurrent. This may include the generating a DC waveform generated with a power storage unit (e.g., capacitor or the like) and power converter included in the power system.

Block611illustrates powering an electric motor coupled to the power system, where in response to receiving the electricity, the electric motor outputs mechanical energy. The electric motor may be used to move one of a boat hull, a vehicle chassis (e.g., car, truck, or the like), or an aircraft body with the mechanical energy.