Fuel cell assemblies and methods of making the same

A fuel cell in accordance with a present invention includes a plurality of reactant channels.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONS

1. Field of the Inventions

The present inventions are related to fuel cells.

2. Description of the Related Art

Fuel cells, which convert reactants (i.e. fuel and oxidant) into electricity and reaction products, are advantageous because they are not hampered by lengthy recharging cycles, as are rechargeable batteries, and are relatively small, lightweight and produce virtually no environmental emissions. Nevertheless, the present inventors have determined that conventional fuel cells are susceptible to improvement. For example, the present inventors have determined that it would be desirable to improve the performance of fuel cells in which the reactants are combined prior to the electricity producing reaction. Such fuel cells are sometimes referred to as “single chamber fuel cells.”

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The following is a detailed description of the best presently known modes of carrying out the inventions. This description is not to be taken in a limiting sense, but is made merely for the purpose of illustrating the general principles of the inventions. It is noted that detailed discussions of fuel cell structures that are not pertinent to the present inventions have been omitted for the sake of simplicity. The present inventions are also applicable to a wide range of fuel cell technologies and fuel cell systems, including those presently being developed or yet to be developed. For example, although various exemplary fuel cell system are described below with reference to solid oxide fuel cells (“SOFCs”), other types of fuel cells, such as proton exchange membrane (“PEM”) fuel cells, are equally applicable to the present inventions.

As illustrated for example inFIGS. 1-4C, a fuel cell system100in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention includes one or more solid oxide fuel cell assemblies102. Each fuel cell assembly102includes one or more fuel cells104, with an anode106and a cathode108separated by an electrolyte110, and a substrate112. [Note FIG.4B.] Although the quantity of fuel cells104is not limited to any particular number, the exemplary assembly102includes three fuel cells, although one of the anodes106is shared between two fuel cells, as is one cathodes108. The lowermost anode106may be “above” the lowermost cathode108(as shown) or the relative orientation may be reversed. The anodes106are connected to one another and to an anode contact pad114, while the cathodes108are connected to one another and to a contact pad116. [Note FIG.3.] One or more fuel cell assemblies102are arranged in an assembly package118which includes the appropriate manifolds (not shown) in the exemplary embodiment. Assembly packages118which include multiple fuel cell assemblies102are also referred to as “stacks.”

The fuel cells104in the exemplary fuel cell assembly102illustrated inFIGS. 1-4Calso include one or more reactant channels120that extend through the fuel cell assemblies and through which reactants, such as a fuel/oxidant mixture, are directed. Referring more specifically toFIGS. 4A-4C, the fuel cell package118is configured to direct the fuel/oxidant mixture through the reactant channels120. The package118is also configured to receive the exhaust (e.g. byproducts and any unused reactants) from the reactions which occur within the reactant channels120and vent the exhaust away from the fuel cell assembly102. Each anode106, cathode108and electrolyte110includes one or more reactant apertures122that are aligned with one another and together form the reactant channels120. The substrate112includes similar reactant apertures122which are aligned with reactant apertures in the fuel cells104. Thus, when a substrate112is used in combination with one or more fuel cells104in accordance with the present inventions, the reactant apertures122in the substrate also form part of the reactant channels120.

The reactant channels120define inlet ends124which are coextensive with the top of the reactant apertures in the top anode106and outlet ends126which are coextensive with the bottom of the reactant apertures in the substrate112and through which the exhaust from the chemical reaction exits the assembly102. It should be noted that the “inlet” and “outlet” designations are dependent on the orientation of the fuel cell assembly relative to the direction of reactant flow. In those instances where the reactants enter the assembly102by way of the substrate112, channel end124would be the outlet and channel end126would be the inlet. Additionally, although the exemplary reactant channels120are generally perpendicular to the remainder of the fuel cell assembly102, the reactant channels may also be arranged at an angle other than 90 degrees to the remainder of the fuel cell assembly.

It should be noted that the reactant channels120are the primary vehicle through which the reactants pass through the fuel cells104in the reactant flow direction. Even in those instances where the materials which make up the anodes106, cathodes108and/or electrolytes110are somewhat porous, the reactant channels120are discrete structures that are not the merely the connections of various pores. The air/fuel mixture will pass through the react channels120, as opposed to simply diffusing through the top surface123of the fuel cell assembly102.

Fuel, such as H2or hydrocarbon fuels such as CH4, C2H6, C3H8, is supplied by a fuel supply128in the exemplary implementation, and oxidant, such as O2or ambient air, is supplied by an oxidant supply130in the exemplary system100illustrated in FIG.1. In those instances where ambient air is used, the oxidant supply may simply be a vent or a vent and fan arrangement. The fuel and oxidant are combined by the manifold arrangement in the package118and the fuel/oxidant mixture directed through the reactant channels120in the manner described above with reference toFIGS. 4A-4C. The oxidant within each channel120is electrochemically ionized at the cathodes108, thereby producing ions that diffuse through the conducting electrolytes110and react with the fuel at the anodes106to produce byproducts (CO2and water vapor in the exemplary embodiment). The byproducts and any unused reactants exit the reactant channels120through the outlet ends126and are vented out of the package118by way of the byproduct outlet132. A controller134may be provided to monitor and control the operations of the exemplary fuel cell system100. Alternatively, the operation of the fuel cell system may be controlled by the host (i.e. power consuming) device.

It should be noted here that the present fuel cell systems100include those in which the fuel supply128is replenishable (or replaceable) as well as those in which all of the fuel that will be consumed is initially present in the fuel supply. Additionally, the package118and fuel supply128may be located within a common housing if desired.

Referring more specifically toFIGS. 4B and 4C, at a minimum, the reaction will occur on the inner surfaces136of the reactant channels120, i.e. the inner surfaces of the reactant apertures122in the anode106, cathode108, and electrolyte110, and it is the inner surface of the channels that defines the baseline active surface area for the reaction. Nevertheless, the anode106, cathode108and/or electrolyte110may be formed from porous materials that allow the reactants within the channels120to diffuse into portions138of the anode, cathode and electrolyte. Such diffusion, which would be about 0.1-3.0 mm (typically 0.5-1.5 mm) in the exemplary configuration described below, increases the active surface area for the reaction and improves the over all efficiency of the fuel cells104. It should be noted that such diffusion is occurring in a direction transverse to the flow direction of the air/fuel mixture and, as noted above, the primary path in the flow direction for the air/fuel mixture is through the reactant channels120.

With respect to current collection, current collectors (not shown) that extend between the reactant apertures122to the contact pads114and116may be formed within each anode106and cathode108. Suitable current collector materials include stainless steel, silver (cathode only), gold and platinum. Alternatively, materials such as lanthanum strontium chromite with good electrical conductive properties may be added to the materials used to form the anodes106and cathodes108. The anode contact pads114of adjacent fuel cell assemblies102in the package118may be connected to one another in series, as may the cathode contact pads116. The actual connection scheme will, however, depend on the power requirements of the load.

Although the materials, dimensions, and configuration of the exemplary fuel cells104and substrate112will depend upon the type of fuel cell (e.g. SOFC, PEM, etc.) and intended application, and although the present inventions are not limited to any particular materials, dimensions, configuration or type, an exemplary fuel cell assembly102including SOFCs is described below. The fuel cells104are preferably a “thin” fuel cell (i.e. a fuel cell that is between about 5-750 μm thick). The anodes are preferably a porous, ceramic and metal composite (also referred to as “cermet”) film that is about 1-500 μm thick (typically 5-50 μm thick). Suitable ceramics include samaria-doped ceria (“SDC”), gandolinia-doped ceria (GDC) and yttria stabilized zirconia (“YSZ”) and suitable metals include nickel and copper. The exemplary cathodes108are preferably a porous ceramic that is about 1-500 μm thick (typically 5-50 μm thick). Suitable ceramic materials include samarium strontium cobaltite (“SSCO”), lanthanum strontium maganite, bismuth copper substituted vanadate. The electrolytes110are preferably a porous ceramic such as SDC, GDC, YSZ or lanthanum strontium gallium magnesium (“LSGM”) that is about 1-500 μm thick (typically 5-50 μm thick). The surface area of the anodes106, cathodes108and electrolytes110, when viewed in plan as illustrated inFIG. 3, will typically be between about 0.001 cm2to about 10,000 cm2(typically about 2.5-250 cm2) less the surface area of the reactant channel(s).

Turning to the exemplary substrate112, it is preferably formed from strong, inert material such as a ceramic material (e.g. alumina, stabilized zirconia, magnesia, forsterite and Macor®), a metallic material (e.g. stainless steel or Inconel®), a polymeric material (e.g. polysulfone or polycarbonate) or a combination thereof. Polymeric substrates are most applicable to fuel cells, such as PEM fuel cells, that operate at relatively low temperatures. Additionally, the substrate material that is selected for a particular fuel cell should have a coefficient of expansion that matches the anode, cathode, electrolyte, interconnects and packaging. The thickness of the substrate112will typically be about 100-1000 μm. The majority of the overall surface area of the substrate112will preferably be the region including the reactant apertures122and the area of the reactant apertures (viewed in plan) should be maximized in order to maximize the active surface area.

In those instances where the substrate112is a ceramic substrate, the reactant apertures122will preferably be formed in the substrate material prior to firing while the material is still in the green state because a relatively simple hole punch may be used. The punched green substrate material may then be fired to burn out the organic solvents and binders and sinter together the ceramic materials, thereby forming the substrate112. The size of the pre-fired punched reactant apertures122should also be slightly larger than the desired size because they will shrink (typically about 15%) during firing. The reactant apertures122may also be formed by punching ceramic material that has already been fired. Here, however, more sophisticated cutting methods (such as laser ablation) may be required. Additionally, in those instances where polymeric materials are employed, the substrate112may be molded with the reactant apertures122already in place.

Although the present inventions are not limited to any particular cross-sectional shape, the exemplary reactant apertures122in the anodes106, cathodes108, electrolytes110and substrate112are circular, are about 0.1 to 5.0 mm in diameter and are arranged in a two-dimensional pattern where they are spaced apart by about 0.1 mm to 2 mm (edge to edge) in the X-direction and Y-direction. Other cross-sectional shapes such as, for example, triangles, rectangles, squares and hexagons, may also be employed. [It should be noted here that given the order of magnitude differences in the sizes of the various aspects of the present fuel cell assemblies, the drawings in the present application are not drawn to scale.] Although the hole placement pattern is square, the pattern may be hexagonal, triangular or any other shape that provides the desired packing density. Additionally, although the overall shape of the fuel cells104and substrate112is square (note FIG.2), the present inventions are not limited to any particular shape. Circles, rectangles, hexagons, etc. are equally applicable shapes. The reactant apertures122will typically occupy about 50 to 90% of the surface area of the anodes106, cathodes108and electrolytes110.

Turning to manufacture, fuel cell assemblies and fuel cells in accordance with the present inventions may be manufactured by a variety of methods. Such methods include, but are not limited to, screen printing and other printing techniques, lithography, isostatic pressing, and deposition/etch processes. Additionally, as also described below, the reactant channels120may be formed by creating the reactant apertures122during the formation of the substrate112and each anode106, cathode108, and electrolyte110. Alternatively, the reactant channels120may be formed after the fuel cells104and/or substrates112have been otherwise completed.

One exemplary method of manufacturing the fuel cell assembly102, which involves the use of screen printing techniques, is illustrated inFIGS. 5A-5N. Preferably, each element of the fuel cells104(i.e. each anode, cathode and electrolyte) is deposited using a screen printing process. Referring first toFIGS. 5A and 5B, the substrate112is provided with the reactant apertures122already present. The material which forms the first electrode (here, the cathode108) in the fuel cell is deposited onto the substrate112with the reactant apertures122in place and aligned with the reactant apertures in the substrate. Next, as illustrated inFIGS. 5C and 5D, the material which forms the electrolyte110is deposited onto the cathode108with the reactant apertures122in place and aligned with the reactant apertures in the cathode. The end of the cathode108which will ultimately form the contact pad116(noteFIG. 3) is left exposed, while the opposite end is covered by the electrolyte110. Turning toFIGS. 5E and 5F, the first fuel cell104in the three-fuel cell exemplary implementation is completed by depositing the material which forms the second electrode (here, the anode106) onto the electrolyte110with the reactant apertures122in place and aligned with the reactant apertures in electrolyte. A portion of the anode material also covers a portion of the substrate112and this anode material will ultimately form the contact pad114(note FIG.3).

Next, as illustrated for example inFIGS. 5G and 5H, the material that forms the electrolyte110is deposited onto the anode106with the reactant apertures122in place and aligned with the reactant apertures in the anode. The end of the anode106which will ultimately form part of the contact pad114(noteFIG. 3) is left exposed, as is a small portion that will ultimately be connected to another anode, while the opposite end is covered by the electrolyte110. The material for another cathode108is then deposited onto the electrolyte110with the reactant apertures122in place and aligned with the reactant apertures in the electrolyte to form the second fuel cell104. [FIGS.5I and5J.] In addition to covering the majority of the electrolyte110, the just-formed cathode108will connect to the previously formed cathode. Turning toFIGS. 5K and 5L, the material for the next electrolyte110is deposited onto the cathode108with the reactant apertures122in place and aligned with the reactant apertures in the cathode108. The electrolyte110extends from one of the cathode108to an area beyond the other end of the cathode such that it combines with the previously formed electrolyte. The third fuel cell104, as well as the exemplary fuel cell assembly102, is completed by depositing the material that forms the anode106onto the electrolyte110, with the reactant apertures122in place. [FIGS.5M and5N.] The reactant apertures122in the anode106will be aligned with the reactant apertures in electrolyte110, thereby completing the reactant channels120, and a portion of the anode will connect with the previously formed anode.

With respect to firing, the partially completed structure may be heated to a temperature of about 200° C. to about 1400° C. each time the material for an anode106, cathode108or electrolyte110has been deposited. The exact temperature would depend on the type of materials involved. Alternatively, a single firing may be performed after all of the anodes106, cathodes108and electrolytes110have been deposited onto the substrate112.

The reactant channels120may also be created after the fuel cell materials have been deposited on the substrate without the reactant apertures122that together define the reactant channels120in place. The materials for the partially completed fuel cell elements, i.e. elements without the reactant apertures122, are identified with a “′.” As illustrated for example inFIGS. 6A and 6B, the anode materials106′, cathode materials108′, and electrolyte materials110′ may be deposited without the reactant apertures122in place onto a substrate112′, which also lacks reactant apertures. The manufacturing process here, which also results in the formation of contact pads114and116, is essentially the same as that described above with reference toFIGS. 5A-5Nbut for the fact that the reactant apertures122are not formed simultaneously with the screen printing of the materials for the anodes, cathodes and electrolytes. The result is partially completed fuel cell assembly102′ which consists of three partially formed fuel cells104′ on the substrate material112′. Typically, there would also be a firing at a temperature sufficient to burn off the binders in the deposited materials.

Next, as illustrated for example inFIGS. 6C and 6D, the fuel cell assembly102(i.e. the fuel cells104and the substrate112) is completed by forming the reactant channels120in the partially completed fuel cell assembly102′. This is accomplished by removing the portions of the anode materials106′, cathode materials108′, electrolyte materials110′ and substrate material112′ which correspond to the reactant apertures122. Suitable material removal techniques include chemical etching, ion milling, mechanical cutting processes such as sand blast drilling, laser ablation, liquid ablation (both with and without particles in the liquid), and punching. A final firing will typically occur after the reactant channels120have been formed.

It should be noted that the partially completed fuel cells104′ without the reactant apertures122may be formed on a substrate112that already includes the corresponding reactant apertures. Here, the fuel cell assembly102will be completed by forming reactant apertures122in the anode, cathode and electrolyte materials which are aligned with the corresponding reactant apertures that are already present in the substrate112. Conversely, the completed fuel cells104with the reactant apertures122in place may be formed on a partially completed substrate112′ that does not include the corresponding reactant apertures. Here, the fuel cell assembly102will be completed by forming reactant apertures122in the substrate material112′. Additionally, fuel cells in accordance with the present inventions which are used in combination with a system or package that does not necessitate the use of a substrate may be provided without a substrate.

Another exemplary fuel cell assembly, which also consists of three fuel cells204and a substrate212, is generally represented by reference numeral202inFIGS. 7A and 7B. The fuel cell assembly202illustrated inFIGS. 7A and 7Bis substantially similar to the fuel cell assembly102illustrated inFIGS. 2 and 3and similar elements are represented by similar reference numerals. More specifically, the fuel cells204consist of anodes206, cathodes208and electrolytes210and may be self-supporting or mounted on a substrate212or other suitable device after the fuel cells have been formed in the manner described below with reference toFIGS. 8A-8I. One or more reactant channels220, which are formed by respective pluralities of reactant apertures222in the anodes206, cathodes208, electrolytes210and substrate212, are also present. Detailed descriptions of many of the substantially identical aspects of the fuel cell assembly202have been omitted for the sake of brevity, and the prior descriptions of these aspects with respect to the fuel cell102are incorporated herein by reference. The fuel cell assembly202may also, for example, be incorporated into the fuel cell system100described above with reference toFIGS. 1-3. Here, however, the anode and cathode contact pads214and216are mounted on the side edges of the fuel cells204, as opposed to being carried by the substrate. The anode contact pads214will typically be connected to one another, as will the cathode contact pads216.

With respect to manufacturing, the exemplary fuel cells204may be substantially formed through the use of a hot isostatic pressing process. As illustrated for example inFIGS. 8A and 8B, the hot isostatic process involves the use of a die300including a plurality of side walls302, a bottom plate304with holes306, and a rod plate308with a plurality of rods310that extend into the interior region312. The bottom plate304is initially secured to the walls302and the rod plate308is secured to the bottom plate. The materials for each of the fuel cell elements, i.e. the anode material206′, the cathode material208′ and the electrolyte material210′, are deposited into the interior region312, and around the rods310, in the manner illustrated in FIG.8B. Preferably, the materials are deposited one element at a time and are in a crystalline or nano-crystalline powdered form, or are a crystalline or nano-crystalline powder suspended in a liquid, when deposited. Turing toFIGS. 8C and 8D, heat and pressure are applied to the materials206′-210′ in the interior region212. Pressure is applied by an insert314with apertures316that are sized, shaped, and positioned to receive the rods310to complete the formation of the anodes, cathodes and electrolytes. Alternatively, the heat and pressure may be applied after each layer of material is deposited into the die300.

Next, as illustrated for example inFIGS. 8E and 8F, the rod plate308is disengaged from the bottom plate304and an insert318with pins320is used to separate the rod plate away from the bottom plate. The pins320are sized, shaped, and positioned such that they will be coaxial to, but slightly smaller in diameter than, the rods310. The rod plate308is then removed, thereby opening the reactant channels220, and the bottom plate306is disengaged from the side walls302and the fuel cells204are removed. If necessary, an insert without pins (not shown) may be used to drive the fuel cells204from the die300. In another exemplary implementation (not shown), the rods310are formed from a sacrificial material and are simply removed by an etching or ashing process.

The partially completed assembly202′, which has been removed from the die300, is shown in FIG.8G. Turning to the contact pads, one exemplary procedure for forming the contact pads214and216is illustrated inFIGS. 8H and 8I. First as illustrated inFIG. 8H, portions of the side edges of the anodes206on one lateral edge of the partially completed assembly202′ are removed, while the side edges of the anodes208are etched on the other. Etching is a suitable removal method. Next, the anode contact pads214and cathode contact pads216are formed in the manner illustrated in FIG.8I. Suitable materials for the contact pads include gold and platinum.

Alternatively, current collectors may be embedded in the anodes and cathodes in the manner described above. Here, in addition to removing the respective portions of the anodes and cathodes illustrated inFIG. 8G, a small portion of the anode and cathodes on the contact side would also be removed to expose the current collectors. Contact pads that are connected to the exposed portions of the current collectors may then be formed if desired.

Another exemplary fuel cell assembly, which consists of three fuel cells404and a substrate412, is generally represented by reference numeral402inFIGS. 9A-9C. The fuel cell assembly402illustrated inFIGS. 9A-9Cis substantially similar to the fuel cell assembly102illustrated inFIGS. 2 and 3and similar elements are represented by similar reference numerals. More specifically, the fuel cells404consist of anodes406, cathodes408and electrolytes410and may be carried on a substrate412. One or more reactant channels420, which are formed by respective pluralities of reactant apertures422in the anodes406, cathodes408, electrolytes410and substrate412, are also present. Detailed descriptions of many of the substantially identical aspects of the fuel cell assembly402have been omitted for the sake of brevity, and the prior descriptions of these aspects with respect to the fuel cell102are incorporated herein by reference. The fuel cell assembly402may also, for example, be incorporated into the fuel cell system100described above with reference toFIGS. 1-3.

There are, however, a number of differences between the exemplary fuel cell assembly402illustrated inFIGS. 9A-9Cand the exemplary fuel cell assembly102illustrated inFIGS. 2 and 3. For example, the fuel cell assembly402has a wafer-like design that is substantially circular (viewed in plan) with the anode and cathode contact pads414and416positioned side by side. Additionally, in those instances where the fuel cells404are manufactured with a deposition process, such as the sputter deposition process described below with reference toFIGS. 10A-10I, the anodes406, cathodes408and electrolytes410will typically be thinner (e.g. about 0.5 μm to 1.0 μm).

One exemplary method of manufacturing the fuel cell assembly402, which involves the use of sputter deposition techniques, is illustrated inFIGS. 10A-10I. The materials for each fuel cell element may be etched to the desired shape after the material for each element has been deposited. Alternatively, in the exemplary process described below, a shadow mask is employed in order to eliminate the need to etch after the material for each fuel cell element is deposited. The reactant channels are created after all of the fuel cell materials have been deposited in the exemplary method. The materials which define the partially completed fuel cell elements, i.e. elements without the reactant apertures422that together form the reactant channels420, are identified with a “′.”

Referring first toFIG. 10A and 10I, substrate material412′ is provided without the reactant apertures422. The material which forms the first electrode in (here, the material408′ which forms the cathode408) the fuel cell as well as a portion of the contact pad416is sputter deposited onto the partially completed substrate412′, as shown inFIGS. 10B and 10I. Next, as illustrated inFIG. 10C, the material410′ which will form the electrolyte410is deposited onto the cathode material408′. The portion of the cathode material408′ which will ultimately form the contact pad416(FIG. 10I) is left exposed. Turning toFIG. 10D, the material which forms the second electrode (here, the material406′ which forms the anode406) is deposited onto the electrolyte material110′ and a portion of the substrate material412′. The portion of the anode material406′ on the substrate material412′ will ultimately form the contact pad414(FIG.10I). The result is the first partial completed fuel cell404′, which will be completed when the reactant channels420are formed.

Next, another layer of electrolyte material410′ is deposited over the anode material406′, as shown inFIG. 10E, with the portions of the anode and cathode material406′ and408′ which will ultimately form the contacts414and416left exposed. Cathode material408′, electrolyte material410′ and anode material406′ are then deposited (FIGS. 10F-10H) in the manner described above with respect toFIGS. 10B-10D, thereby forming a partially completed fuel cell assembly402′.

As illustrated for example inFIG. 10I, the fuel cell assembly402is completed by forming the reactant apertures422which together define the reactant channels420. This is accomplished by removing the portions of the anode materials406′, cathode materials408′, electrolyte materials410′ and substrate material412′ which correspond to the reactant apertures422. Suitable material removal techniques include chemical etching, mechanical cutting processes such as sand blast drilling, laser ablation, liquid ablation (both with and without particles in the liquid), and punching.

With respect to sintering, the partially completed structure may be heated to a temperature of about 200° C. to about 1000° C. each time the material for an anode406, cathode408or electrolyte410has been deposited. The exact temperature would depend on the type of materials involved. Alternatively, a single sintering may be performed after all of the materials for the anodes406, cathodes408and electrolytes410have been deposited onto the substrate412. In either case, it is preferable that the sintering temperature be kept below about 1000° C. until after the reactant channels420have been formed.

It should be noted that the partially completed fuel cells404′ without the reactant apertures422may be formed on a substrate412that already includes the corresponding reactant apertures. Here, the fuel cell assembly402will be completed by forming reactant apertures422in the anode materials406′, cathode materials408′ and electrolyte materials410′ which are aligned with the corresponding reactant apertures that are already present in the substrate412. Conversely, the completed fuel cells404with the reactant apertures422may be formed on a partially completed substrate412′ that does not include the corresponding reactant apertures. Here, the fuel cell assembly402will be completed by forming reactant apertures422in the substrate material412′.

Although the present inventions have been described in terms of the preferred embodiments above, numerous modifications and/or additions to the above-described preferred embodiments would be readily apparent to one skilled in the art. By way of example, but not limitation, fuel cells in accordance with the present inventions may by manufactured by a tape casting process in which the materials for the fuel cells are deposited onto a green ceramic tape. Such fuel cells will initially lack the reactant channels, which may be formed after the tape casting process is complete by, for example, a punching process. It is intended that the scope of the present inventions extend to all such modifications and/or additions.