Cascaded data encryption dependent on attributes of physical memory

Apparatus and method for providing data security through cascaded encryption. In accordance with various embodiments, input data are encrypted in relation to a first auxiliary data value to provide first level ciphertext. The first level ciphertext are encrypted using a second auxiliary data value associated with a selected physical location in a memory to produce second level ciphertext, which are thereafter stored to the selected physical location. In some embodiments, migration of the stored data to a new target location comprises partial decryption and re-encryption of the data using a third auxiliary data value associated with a new target physical location to produce third level ciphertext, and the storage of the third level ciphertext to the new target physical location.

SUMMARY

Various embodiments of the present invention are generally directed to enhancing data security in a memory through a cascaded encryption operation that uses auxiliary data selected in relation to one or more attributes of physical memory at which the encrypted data are stored.

In accordance with some embodiments, a method generally comprises encrypting input data in relation to a first auxiliary data value to provide first level ciphertext. The first level ciphertext are encrypted in relation to a second auxiliary data value associated with a selected physical location in a memory to provide second level ciphertext. The second level ciphertext are thereafter stored in the selected physical location in the memory.

These and other features and advantages which characterize the various embodiments of the present invention can be understood in view of the following detailed discussion and the accompanying drawings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure generally relates to data security. Data encryption can be employed to encrypt data stored to a memory of a data storage device in order to reduce the ability of an unauthorized party to access the stored data. Encryption generally involves the transformation of an input data sequence (plaintext) to an encrypted output data sequence (cyphertext) using a selected encryption algorithm (cipher). The cipher may utilize one or more pieces of auxiliary data (e.g. keys, initial values, tweak values) to effect the transformation. In this context, plaintext can include data that have been previously encrypted by an upstream encryption process.

Some types of memory devices are configured to write each new version of a particular set of data to a different location within a memory, such as in the case of flash memory arrays. Blocks of memory cells that store older versions of the data can be scheduled for erasure using a background garbage collection operation. If such erasures have not yet taken place at the time of a system attack, an attacker may be able to locate multiple versions of the same data, and use this information to help break a particular cipher and recover the stored data.

Even if prior versions of a set of data have been erased and overwritten with new data, a number of laboratory techniques can be used by an attacker to detect previously stored data signatures, which may leave the system open to the recovery of the stored data. Such techniques can also be used by an attacker to gain valuable information about the stored data, such as the number of recent data changes and the extent of these changes, the types of software applications that have been used to handle the data, the kind and organization of the file system, the presence of data compression, and so on.

One particular security concern is malleability: if an attacker is able to locate a current version and a previous version of a particular set of data, the attacker may be able to use similarities between these respective data sets to recover the data or uncover valuable related information. For example, swapping two versions of a data set in a storage medium may cause a restoration of an earlier version of the data, even if the attacker does not know which set is current.

Accordingly, various embodiments of the present invention are generally directed to an apparatus and method for securing data stored to a memory of a data storage device through the use of cascaded (multi-level) data encryption. At least one of the encryption levels uses secret auxiliary data, such as a secret key not generally available external to the storage device. The secret data incorporates information associated with one or more attributes of the physical location in the memory at which the data are stored. Such attributes may include the physical block address of the storage location, write/erase counts, timestamp information associated with the physical write to the storage location, and so on. Any number, type and combinations of suitable attributes can be used, so that this list is merely exemplary and is not limiting.

Migration of the data from a first location to a second location in the memory may involve a partial decryption of the data so that less than all of the encryption levels are removed, followed by the additional encryption of the data using auxiliary data selected in relation to an attribute associated with the second location. In some cases, a new secret key may be used that is associated with the second location. In this way, multiple versions of the same data sets concurrently resident in different locations in the memory will have been differently encrypted using different attribute data, and will therefore not be easily detectable by an attacker.

Without limitation and merely by way of illustration, in some embodiments the first level of encryption can be configured in such a way as to depend on a derived key associated with a range of logical block addresses (LBAs). Such encryption may also depend, e.g., may be initialized or tweaked by, individual LBA values associated with the data, as desired. In this way, the same data at different locations will be encrypted as different ciphertext blocks. While different keys for every individual LBA can be used, such may be unwieldy and indeed, unnecessary if a band approach is used. A tweak or initial value for the cipher can be used, including a publicly known value, as desired.

In virtualized storage devices (where the logical block address does not always correspond to a constant physical address) older versions of the data may linger in unmapped or unerased physical locations. If the beginnings of these data versions are the same, the beginnings of the corresponding ciphertext may also be the same, which may permit an attacker to identify two (or more) versions of the same data in the virtualized storage medium, and derive some side information about the activities of the user, the software, etc. This may enable the attacker to restore a previous version of the data by swapping the ciphertext blocks of the old and the new versions of the data.

To make the identification of partially changed data blocks more difficult for an attacker, various embodiments presented herein can employ a second level of encryption. This second level of encryption may use one or more keys stored in the storage device hardware, and these encryption algorithms may depend on auxiliary data that depend on attributes associated with physical memory where the data are to be stored. The key values can take any number of forms, and can be used to initialize or tweak the encryption, or in some other manner. These diversify the ciphertext stored in different locations in the memory.

Although not required, storing the second level key(s) in the device hardware so that it is available to the storage device can be useful in some cases in enabling the storage device to perform optimization, housekeeping and other memory management related tasks when the user and/or host system is not present to provide any keys or other information to unlock the data, or otherwise supply information for key derivation.

These and various other features will now be discussed in greater detail.FIG. 1shows a block diagram for a data storage device100in which various embodiments of the present invention can be practiced. The device100includes a top level controller102and a memory module104. The controller102may be programmable or hardware based and directs I/O operations with a host device (not shown). The controller102may be a separate component or may be incorporated directly into the memory module104.

FIG. 2shows the device100in accordance with some embodiments. For purposes ofFIG. 2, it is contemplated that the device100constitutes a flash memory device, such as a solid-state drive (SSD) or portable memory stick (thumb drive) that uses a flash memory array. The controller102uses an interface (I/F) circuit106with a buffer108to communicate with the host device. The buffer108may store programming and other information used by the controller during operation, and may further temporarily cache data during transfer between the host device and the memory104. A read/write/erase (R/W/E) circuit110controls data transfers with the memory104.

FIG. 3represents the R/W/E circuitry and the memory104in some embodiments. Data are stored as an arrangement of rows and columns of memory cells112, accessible by various row and column control lines. Control logic114receives and transfers data, addressing information and control/status values along multi-line bus paths116,118and120, respectively.

Column and row decoding circuitry122,124provide appropriate switching and other functions to access the cells112. A write circuit126represents circuitry elements that operate to carry out write operations to write data to the cells112, and a read circuit128operates to obtain readback data from the cells. Local buffering of transferred data and other values can be provided via one or more local buffers (data registers)130.

FIG. 4shows the memory104arranged as an array of erasure blocks132in accordance with some embodiments. Each erasure block132is formed from a number of rows and columns of flash memory cells112. Each erasure block constitutes the smallest increment of memory that can be erased at a time. An exemplary block size might be 128 rows (pages), with each page storing 8192 bytes (8 KB). Other sizes and configurations can be used.

A full page's worth of data may be written to each page during a data write operation. Data may be supplied by the host in the form of fixed sized sectors with an associated logical address (such as a logical block address, LBA). In response, the device100selects an associated physical address (such as a physical block address, PBA) in the array to store the data. The PBA may include erasure block, page and bit location information.

Multiple LBAs may be written to the same page, and a given LBA's worth of data may by physically stored so as to span multiple pages. Filler bits may be appended to a selected set of input data if a full page worth of data is not supplied for writing in a given write operation. Error correction codes (such as parity bits, etc.) may be incorporated at the page level to correct errors as a full page worth of data is retrieved. Lossless data compression may also be applied to reduce the data footprint.

A new physical address may be selected for a given set of data each time that data are written to the memory104.FIG. 4shows a selected LBA X that has been stored to the array104three different times in three different locations, as versions V1-V3. The different versions may be updated versions of the LBA user data resulting from an editing operation at the host level. Alternatively, the different versions may include identical copies of the same LBA user data resulting from a garbage collection or other memory management operation by the device100. While each of the versions V1-V3inFIG. 4is stored in a different erasure block132, the same erasure block could store multiple versions of the same LBA.

FIG. 5shows an exemplary format for a page134of memory from the erasure blocks132ofFIG. 4. It will be appreciated that any number of different formats for the memory can be used, soFIG. 5is merely illustrative of one such format. In some embodiments, the page134is arranged to have a user data portion136and a metadata portion138. The user data portion136is configured to store up to a selected amount of encoded host data. The metadata portion138stores metadata, which is control information associated with the user data portion136. A variety of metadata formats can be used, such as data stored in a logical address (LBA) field140, a status field142, and one or more count value fields144.

The LBA field140stores a logical address (e.g., a logical block address (LBA) value) associated with the data in the user data field136. The data status field142stores data associated with the status of said user data; for example, a flag may be set to indicate that a later version of the data is stored elsewhere in the array. The count value field144may provide a total accumulated count of write operations that have taken place upon the associated physical address. For clarity, write operations in this context may denote data writes and/or erasures.

While the metadata can be physically stored in each page134, it is common to store the metadata elsewhere, such as in specially designated metadata pages/fields at the end of each erasure block. Alternatively, the metadata may be stored in one or more specially designated metadata erasure blocks dedicated to this purpose, or somewhere else in a suitable location in the storage device or elsewhere. During operation, the metadata may be retrieved from non-volatile memory and placed in a local volatile cache for use by the controller102. A logical-physical address conversion table may be generated from the metadata and stored in local memory for access by the controller.

The erasure blocks132are allocated on an as-needed basis, with wear leveling techniques applied in an effort to distribute writes in a nominally even fashion across the array. Data are usually written sequentially to each page in turn starting with the first page in the erasure block, so newer data will generally be present in lower (later written) pages in the block and older data will be present in higher pages (earlier written) in the block.

A cascaded encryption scheme is utilized to protect the data stored in the various pages134of memory. The scheme can be applied to the encoded user data in portion136, the associated metadata in portion138, or both. Different encryption schemes can be applied to each type of data. The memory can further be divided into bands (subgroups) with different encryption schemes, including different security levels, applied to each band.

The cascaded encryption as exemplified herein employs various encryption and decryption blocks to carry out on-the-fly encryption and decryption of the data. These blocks may be realized in software, firmware or hardware. In some embodiments, the encryption/decryption operations are carried out by the controller102.

FIG. 6illustrates an exemplary encryption/decryption sequence in which user data supplied by the host device are double encrypted and stored to a selected page of memory134during a write operation. The data are thereafter double decrypted and returned to the host during a subsequent read operation.

A first encryption module (engine)150applies a first level of encryption to a set of input user data using a first cipher algorithm. Initial processing of the input data may have been applied by the controller, such as error encoding and compression, prior to encryption. The first encryption module150applies a first level cipher in accordance with a first type of auxiliary data, such as a first level key (Key 1) to generate first level encrypted data. The first level key may include a logical address (such as a logical block address, LBA) associated with the input data. Additionally or alternatively, the first key may be a public key that is generated, known and/or discoverable outside the storage device100. The first key may be supplied by the host at the time of the transfer of the input user data.

The first encrypted data are subjected to a second level of encryption by a second encryption module152. The second module152applies a second cipher that may be the same as, or different from, the first cipher. The second cipher uses a second piece of auxiliary data, such as a hidden second key (Key 2). The second key (or other auxiliary data) is internally generated by, and remains private to, the storage device100. The second encryption module152produces second level encrypted data, which are then stored to a selected page134in a selected erasure block132.

During a subsequent read operation to retrieve the originally stored user data back to the host, a first decryption module154uses the second key to remove the second level of decryption from the encoded data. The first decryption module154may be the same operational block as the second encryption module152, or may be a different module. This decryption operation reproduces the first encrypted data.

The first encrypted data are subjected to a second decryption operation by a second decryption module156, which uses the first key to reproduce the originally stored user data. As before, the second decryption module156may be the same block as the first encryption module150. The recovered data are thereafter returned to the host. While not specifically shown inFIG. 6, it will be appreciated other processing steps may be taken upon the recovered data, such as error detection and correction and data decompression, prior to the transfer of the recovered user data to the host.

The various encryption and decryption blocks ofFIG. 6can utilize any number of different ciphers, such as but not limited to counter (CTR) mode encryption, cipher block chaining (CBC) encryption, XTS mode (XOR-Encrypt-XOR based Tweaked CodeBook mode (TCB) with CipherText Stealing), and mixing layer encryption (e.g., EME2). Any suitable encryption cipher can be used, and different ciphers can be used in different locations and/or at different times. In at least some embodiments, the first auxiliary data (e.g. Key 1) is based on a logical address attribute associated with the input data, and the second auxiliary data (e.g., Key 2) is based on a physical address attribute associated with the data. While the first and second auxiliary data values used by the respective encryption modules are characterized inFIG. 6as keys, it will be appreciated that these can be used in other ways, such as initialization vectors, tweak values, and so on.

FIG. 7shows another cascaded encryption operation in accordance with various embodiments. InFIG. 7, data are initially stored in a first memory location, and then subsequently moved internally by the device100to a second memory location. This may be part of a garbage collection operation by the device, or some other memory management operation such as the updating of a larger user file that involves multiple LBAs in a read-update-write sequence.

Double encrypted data are stored to a first page of memory (denoted at158) as discussed above inFIG. 6using cascaded encryption blocks150,152. A data migration operation is subsequently carried out in which the data are moved to a second page of memory160. It is contemplated that the first and second pages158,160will be in different erasure blocks132, but such is not necessarily required.

To subsequently copy the data to the second page160, the first decryption module154fromFIG. 6is used to remove the second level of encryption from the stored data to provide the first encrypted data. A third encryption module162applies a different second level of encryption to the data using a third auxiliary data value, such as an encryption key (Key3). The resulting ciphertext data are stored to the second page160.

It will be noted that the module162may use the same cipher as the module156, or may use a different cipher. If the same cipher is used, module162may be the same module as module156, which in turn may be the same module as module150. Thus, the respective operations ofFIGS. 6 and 7can be carried out by two encryption/decryption engines, one for each level. In other embodiments, a single encryption/decryption engine carries out all the requisite encryption and decryption operations represented inFIGS. 6-7using different auxiliary data values and data flows. For example, the controller102inFIGS. 1-2can be programmed to perform these operations.

It can be seen fromFIG. 7that the memory stores two copies of the same plaintext, albeit in encrypted form, in two separate physical locations. Should an attacker gain access to the contents of the respective first and second pages158,160, the different encryption keys applied thereto will tend to prevent the attacker from easily determining that the same core user data are stored in each of these locations. Hiding the underlying commonality of the plaintext thus increases the security of the system.

FIG. 8shows an exemplary encryption module170that may be incorporated into the cascaded sequences ofFIGS. 6-7. In some embodiments, the encryption module170corresponds to the first encryption module150and carries out the first level of encryption using a cipher block chaining (CBC) encryption algorithm. The CBC cipher converts the input user data (plaintext, P) to first encrypted data (ciphertext, C) using one or more key values based on logical addressing associated with the input data.

InFIG. 8, the input data are temporarily stored in a buffer memory location172and arranged as N sequential blocks174, where N is a plural integer. Each of the N blocks comprises a multi-bit block of M-bits, such as 128 bits although other block sizes can be used. It is contemplated that each block will be the same size, although this is not necessarily required. Filler bits can be appended as required.

A seed value for the encryption is generated by a seed value generator176. The seed value is a multi-bit input value that serves as an initialization vector (IV) to initiate the CBC encryption process. In some embodiments, the seed value includes a logical address associated with the input data, such as the LBA value. The seed value may additionally or alternatively include other information supplied by the host or generated internally by the device100. It will be appreciated that this seed value constitutes at least a portion of the auxiliary data used during the encryption process.

A first selected block178(block 1) of the input data is logically combined with the seed value to form an M-bit result (PP). The logical combination of the selected block and the seed value can take any suitable form, such as through an exclusive-or (XOR) function180. The output of the XOR function180is supplied to a block cipher encryption module182which carries out an encryption operation using a second input value to provide an M-bit encrypted block184of ciphertext (C). It is contemplated that the encrypted block will have the same number of bits as the original plaintext block178, although such is not necessarily required.

Any suitable encryption operation can be carried out by the encryption module182. This can include a simple XOR operation with the second input value, or a more complex cipher algorithm.

The second input value used by the block182can take any number of forms. In some embodiments, the second input value also uses a logical address associated with the input data, such as the LBA, although other forms of input value can be used. It will be appreciated that the input value inFIG. 8is also an exemplary type of auxiliary data that can be used during the encryption operation.

The encrypted block184(enc block 1) serves as a seed for the encoding of a second plaintext block186(block 2) of the input data. The encrypted block 1 is logically combined using a suitable function such as an XOR with plaintext block2, and the result is encrypted to provide a second encrypted block (enc block 2)188. This process continues until all N blocks of input data have been encrypted, resulting in a set of single (first) encrypted data190.

FIG. 9shows another exemplary encryption module200that may be incorporated into the sequences ofFIGS. 6-7. In some embodiments, the encryption module200corresponds to the second encryption module152, and employs counter (CTR) mode encryption. The encryption of module200uses one or more input auxiliary values based on physical address information associated with the input data.

A counter value generator202generates an input count value. In some embodiments, this count value is generated from a combination of the physical address of the memory location to which the data are to be written, and a write count of writes and/or erasures that have taken place to said location. For example, the count value could be a 20 bit write count value added to a 44 bit physical address value, repeated twice, and concatenated to a final desired size (e.g., 128 bits). The 20 bit write count value may be derived from the associated metadata (portion138,FIG. 5). The 44 bit physical address value may identify the physical location in memory in terms of various addressing parameters such as die, stripe, erasure block, page (row number), starting bit location, etc.

Generating the counter value in this way helps ensure that each count value will be unique, and can be easily reconstructed during a subsequent decryption event. This exemplary scheme also allows data associated with the same LBA to be stored to different pages in the same erasure block. Other forms of counter values can be used, including counter values that do not include any physical address information at all (e.g., neither write counts nor physical block addresses, etc.).

The count value is subjected to a block cipher encryption operation by encryption block204. The cipher used by block204may be the same as, or different from, the cipher of block182inFIG. 8. The cipher of block204utilizes a second input value which, as desired, can incorporate physical address information associated with the target page (e.g., write count value, PBA, etc). For reference, the count value and the second input value are each considered exemplary forms of auxiliary data values for the module200. Encryption algorithms that use a single auxiliary data value can be used.

The output ciphertext from block204is combined using an XOR function206with the single encrypted data190output by the system170ofFIG. 8. The output of the XOR function206provides double (second) encrypted data208, which are then stored to an appropriate memory location as discussed above inFIGS. 6-7.

The physical address information associated with the second encryption level in the various encryption schemes disclosed herein can take any number of forms, such as a physical address (block, page, bit range, etc.), a time/date stamp associated with the write event, a write count, or some other internally generated value uniquely associated with the target location in the memory. In at least some embodiments, the second level of encryption can further use an internally generated global auxiliary data (such as a global key) that is applied on all second level encryptions to all locations in the array. Different global keys can be generated for different portions (bands) of the array. It is contemplated that such global keys (or other forms of global auxiliary data) will be generated internally and remain essentially undiscoverable by outside attack.

The exemplary cascaded encryption presented byFIGS. 6-9enhances data security including on the basis that the second encryption uses a hidden auxiliary data value, known only to the internal circuitry of the data storage device100, and which is not easily accessible by an attacker. Preferably, the hidden data value is independent from any other of the data encryption values used to encrypt the data.

The security requirements for the second level of encryption can be less stringent than those for the first layer, since no chosen or plaintext attacks appear to be feasible upon the double encrypted data. Thus, counter mode encryption as exemplified inFIG. 9may be a suitable choice for the second level of encryption, although other modes can readily be used.

Counter (CTR) mode is particularly suitable because it is simple, fast and parallelizable. CTR mode decryption can be carried out using the same encryption core. CTR mode is believed to be sufficiently secure when already encrypted data are protected to hide equality of data blocks. Some plaintext header information can be attached to the stored blocks as desired. The counter values will always be different, so there will be no leakage of the header information, even if only differing by one bit.

If an attacker flips a bit of the header part of the stored data, the corresponding decrypted header will have a flipped bit. In this way, known changes can be made to the header when the attacker correctly guesses the header position, which can be a non-negligible danger. However, it is believed that the header information, even if discovered, will not leak any useful information about the associated user data or encryption applied thereto.

In further embodiments, double tweaked wide encryption is another suitable encryption approach. This approach reduces the possibility of duplicate ciphertext blocks. Altering the ciphertext using double tweaked wide encryption generally results in the randomization of a large amount of decrypted plaintext.

In one approach, a double tweaked LION cipher can be used, which provides a good tradeoff between security and speed (core size). This approach uses two stream ciphers. The first stream cipher is tweaked by the LBA and uses a user input (band) key. The second stream cipher is tweaked by physical address information and is further keyed by a global hidden key. There can be a hash stage in between the two ciphers, which further tweaks the initialization of the second cipher.

In another approach, an Encryption-Mix-Encryption mode is used. A layer of XTS mode encryption can be implemented, tweaked by the encrypted LBA and by the positions of cipher blocks inside the logical blocks, using the user's band key. A mixing layer can be used to process the output blocks of the first layer. The mixing layer can be chosen from any number of suitable constructions known in the art.

A suitable function is the EME2 mix function, which reduces the security bound to 264sectors encrypted with the same key. A 256 bit mix version of the EME2 cipher could be used, which offers a security bound of 2128encryptions. A Pseudo-Hadamard transform could also be employed, as well as other alternatives which will readily occur to the skilled artisan in view of the present disclosure. A second layer of XTS mode can then be applied, tweaked by a write count and physical address information, and by the position of the cipher blocks therein.

FIG. 10provides a flowchart for a CASCADED ENCRYPTION routine220to summarize the foregoing discussion. Data to be stored to a memory are received at step222. These data may be user data supplied by a host, in which case the data may be supplied in conjunction with a write command that includes logical addressing, such as an associated LBA.

Double encryption is applied to the data at step224as discussed above. In some embodiments, the first level of encryption will use the LBA associated with the data as a first auxiliary data value. The second level of encryption will use the physical block address (PBA) associated with the selected target location for the data as a second auxiliary data value. The resulting double encrypted data are stored in the selected memory location at step226.

The data are subsequently retrieved from the selected location responsive to an operation by the device100. The data may be retrieved responsive to a host request to return the data previously stored in step226. Alternatively, the data may be retrieved for other reasons, such as to migrate the data to a new location in the memory.

During a host data retrieval operation, the flow passes to step228in which double decryption is applied to the data, and the recovered plaintext is returned to the host, step230. During a data migration operation, single level decryption is applied at step232, and a new second level of encryption is employed at step234. The newly encrypted data are thereafter written to the new target memory location.

Benefits associated with the cascaded encryption process ofFIG. 10in the context of a flash memory array can be understood with reference toFIG. 11, which illustrates a number of flash memory cells240. The memory cells are arranged in a NAND configuration and include localized doped regions242in a semiconductor substrate244. A gate structure246is provided between each adjacent pair of the doped regions242so that each cell takes a general nMOSFET configuration.

Each gate structure246includes a floating gate (FG)248, a control gate (CG)250and intervening isolation regions252,254. Data are stored by accumulating charge on the floating gate248. The presence of accumulated charge raises the threshold voltage required on the control gate250place the cell in a drain-source conductive state across channel CH. A separate erasure operation is required to remove accumulated charge from the floating gate.

The cells can be configured as multi-level cells (MLC) through the storage of multiple states. For example, four different levels of accumulated charge (from substantially no charge to a maximum level of charge) can be used to enable each MLC to store 2 bits of data (e.g., 11, 10, 01, 00). Due to the need to carry out a separate erasure operation to remove the storage state of previously programmed cells, it will readily apparent that the cascaded encryption operation discussed inFIG. 10will ensure that each version of the same plaintext (or modified versions thereof) stored in different locations will have been subjected to a different encryption mechanism.

Moreover, a variety of laboratory techniques are available to a motivated attacker and can be used to detect previously stored states of the flash memory cells240, even after multiple erasures and data overwrites have been applied. Accordingly, the cascaded encryption ofFIG. 10can further enhance data security by using different encryption mechanisms upon multiple copies of the same plaintext data that were stored in different locations in the array.

While the foregoing embodiments have been directed to flash memory cells, it will be appreciated that the cascaded encryption discussed above can be readily adapted for other types of memory.FIG. 12shows a disc memory260to which the cascaded encryption ofFIG. 10can be readily applied. The disc260stores data in the form of magnetization transitions along concentric tracks262defined on the disc recording surface. A moveable actuator264is used to align a data read/write transducer266with the respective tracks to read data from and write data to the tracks.

Double encryption as disclosed herein can be applied in a variety of ways to data written to the respective tracks. In some embodiments, the tracks are divided up into a number of concentric zones, with each zone having an associated band key that is incorporated in the first level of encryption to all the data stored in that zone. The second level of encryption can incorporate physical address information such as disc surface, band, track number, angular location, time/date stamp, write counts and so on, as before.

FIG. 13shows another memory configuration in which the cascaded encryption set forth herein can be readily implemented. The memory is formed from an array of spin-torque transfer random access memory (STRAM) cells270. Each memory cell comprises a magnetic tunneling junction272with a variable magnetization free layer274, a fixed magnetization reference layer276, and an intervening barrier layer278. The MTJ272is in series with a switching device280, characterized as an nMOSFET.

Data are stored by the MTJ272in relation to the orientation of the free layer274relative to the reference layer276. Generally, the MTJ272may exhibit a lower relative electrical resistance in a parallel state, and a higher electrical resistance in an antiparallel state. The programmed state of the cell270can be sensed in relation to a voltage drop across the cell responsive to a low magnitude read current.

FIG. 14sets forth another memory configuration in which the disclosed cascaded encryption can be used. The memory constitutes an array of resistive random access memory (RRAM) cells290. Each cell has a programmable resistive element292formed from opposing electrodes294,296and an intervening oxide layer298. A filament300can be selectively formed across the oxide layer (and subsequently removed) to alter the overall resistance of the memory cell290. As before, the element290can be placed in series with a switching device280to provide selective access to the individual cells.

It will be appreciated that the various embodiments of the present invention can provide benefits over the existing art. Cascaded encryption using a hidden key tied to the physical address of the memory can ensure that different copies/versions of selected plaintext will be subjected to different encryption mechanisms.

During the encryption and decryption process involved in migrating the data to a new location, the data remain partially encrypted (that is, the data are only partially decrypted) before being re-encrypted. This adds further security in that an attacker may not be able to determine the encryption mechanism by inducing migration (e.g., a copy function) of data to a new location, nor discover the underlying plaintext during said migration.

While a variety of types and styles of memories have been disclosed, such are merely exemplary as the various techniques set forth herein can be adapted to a wide variety of applications and environments. Similarly, while a variety of types and styles of ciphers and keys have been disclosed, such are merely exemplary as the various techniques set forth herein can be adapted or modified as desired, without limitation, depending on the requirements of a given application. Nothing disclosed in the foregoing illustrative embodiments is intended or contemplated as being necessary for implementation or limiting to the scope of the claimed subject matter.