Depth measurement using a phase grating

Binocular depth-perception systems use binary, phase-antisymmetric gratings to cast point-source responses onto an array of photosensitive pixels. The gratings and arrays can be manufactured to tight tolerances using well characterized and readily available integrated-circuit fabrication techniques, and can thus be made small, cost-effective, and efficient. The gratings produce point-source responses that are large relative to the pitch of the pixels, and that exhibit wide ranges of spatial frequencies and orientations. Such point-source responses make it easy to distinguish the point-source responses from fixed-pattern noise the results from spatial frequencies of structures that form the array.

BACKGROUND

The human perception of depth in a visual scene arises largely through the differences between the images observed by the left and right eyes. The term for this difference is “binocular disparity,” and (together with accommodation cues) it is responsible for much of our acuity in determining the range to objects within approximately ten meters of us.

Several artificial approaches for determining the range to an object also involve the disparity signal between two or more well-aligned cameras (or captures from a moving camera—see below) or light sources. In these, typically one or more focusing lenses estimate the location of marker points, which may be intrinsic features of the scene (in the case of passive binocular disparity measurement) or may be high-texture patterns (often in near infrared) projected onto the scene. Accurate angular measurements of the scene yield information about the depth to an object. In some cases, a single moving camera can use data from different latencies to establish depth from disparity.

Binocular disparity sensors are not yet ubiquitous, in part due to their limited accuracy and their manufacturing complexity, especially the alignment and calibration needed to make accurate disparity measurements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1depicts a binocular depth-perception system100in which a pair of optical elements—binary, phase-antisymmetric gratings105L/R in this example—are integrated with underlying and corresponding photodetector arrays110L/R. System100can be manufactured to tight tolerances using well characterized and readily available integrated-circuit (IC) fabrication techniques, and can thus be made small, cost-effective, and efficient relative to focusing systems of comparable performance. The planar alignment and controlled spacing intrinsic to IC fabrication makes calibration and repeatability trivial compared to aligning multiple optical systems each with their own lenses and sensor dies.

Grating105L/R are formed in an otherwise opaque layer115, and are separated from underlying arrays110L/R by a thickness T and from one another by an interpupil spacing S. System100can be made, for example, using photolithography techniques in which spacing S is controlled to within 200 nm. Thickness T and spacing S are constants that can be known with considerable precision, either due to manufacturing tolerances or by calibration. For illustrative purposes, an object125is shown separated from layer115by a depth D, which is the measurement of interest. Object125approximates a point source, and represents any object of interest in a scene.

Light from object125enters each grating105L/R to produce respective left and right interference patterns130L/R for capture by arrays110L/R. (Arrays110L/R can be parts of the same array.) Patterns130L/R include near-field spatial modulations that cover ranges of spatial frequencies and orientations sufficient to locate the direction of object125at a desired resolution. Arrays110L and110R can be synchronized so as to minimize motion artifacts, and the pixel array orientation can be at some angle (such as 22.5 degrees) relative to the orientation of the inter-pupil spacing Sin order to minimize effective measurement artifacts, as discussed in connection withFIG. 8.

The light from object125enters each grating at a different angle of incidence due to spacing S, and those angles shift patterns130L/R by respective shifts sL and sR with respect to left and right optical axes135L/R, which may serve as references. Depth D is easily calculated using the measured shifts sL and sR and constant spacing S and thickness T. To a first approximation, for an object125close to the optical axis of the system, depth D is the product of constants S and T divided by the sum of shifts sL and sR times the refractive index n of the medium separating layers115and120. In equation form:

D=STn⁡(sL+sR)(1)
Alternatively, the sum of shifts sL and sR can be replaced with the separation Δ between patterns130L/R less inter-pupillary spacing S, giving:

D=STn⁡(Δ-S)(2)
In this case, each of patterns135L/R effectively serves as a reference for the other. More accurate measures can be made using e.g. Snell's law to account for the angle dependence of refraction through the layers of device100.

FIG. 2is a plan view of arrays110L/R with respective diffraction patterns130L/R and arrays110L/R overlaid to show their relative displacement and the sum sL+sR. Arrays110L/R are identical in this embodiment, each with a pixel pitch P along the horizontal and vertical dimensions. (Pixels need not be square, in which case pitch P refers to the maximum pixel spacing.) Patterns130L/R are considerably larger than pitch P, having a maximum response dimension M at least six times the pitch (M>6P). Small shifts impact a large number of pixels, and thus enable sub-pixel measurement precision.

Each pixel in a CMOS image sensor includes a photodetector that generates and stores charge responsive to light. The photodetector occupies only a portion of the area of each pixel, with much of the remaining area devoted to detection circuitry that samples and amplifies the stored charge to produce pixel-specific illumination data. Each pixel or small group of pixels additionally includes isolation boundaries and segments of conductors that extend between the rows and columns of photodetectors to communicate control signals and the illumination to circuitry outside the array. Viewed as a whole, a CMOS image sensor thus appears as a two-dimensional mosaic of photosensitive areas bounded by less sensitive or insensitive regions. Small shifts between adjacent pixels can therefore introduce measured intensity changes that are due to variations in pixel sensitivity rather than incident angle. CMOS processes give very precise lateral dimensions, so attributes of pixel geometry are very well specified for a given device. Pixels are thus regularly spaced by a known pitch and the pixel sub-elements are of regular and known shapes and sizes. The regular variations in pixel sensitivity thus combine across the array to produce noise that is band-limited to a known set of spatial-frequencies. Relatively large point-source responses make it easier to distinguish the signal of interest—the patterns—from this spatial noise. Treatment of such spatial noise is detailed below in connection withFIG. 8.

FIG. 3depicts an imaging system100ofFIG. 1imaging a second, more-distant object300to illustrate how system100can simultaneously measure different depths. The treatment of object125is as detailed above in connection withFIG. 1. Object300, a point source such as an LED or reflected beam, produces left and right interference patterns330L/R with respective displacements sL2and sR2. These displacements can be used with Equation (1) and constants S and T to calculate depth D2from object300to the face of system100. The gratings and underlying arrays are shown separately inFIG. 3to emphasize that embodiments can employ physically separate sensors (e.g., to increase spacing S beyond what might be easily provided on a single substrate). For accurate range finding, the location of pattern330L should be compared to that of pattern330R and not pattern130R; the problem of ascribing features on the two arrays correctly is known as the correspondence problem to those skilled in the art. The correspondence problem here can be solved noting that patterns330L and330R may be distinguished from patterns130L and130R from a difference in color, intensity, or polarization; sources125and300may be active at different times, or330R and330L can be displaced from130L and R in a direction perpendicular to S. In some embodiments with a small spacing S relative to the minimum range to objects in the scene, large displacements even exactly parallel to S can be ruled out.

FIG. 4Ais a cut-away view of an imaging device400with a binary, phase-antisymmetric grating405overlying a photodetector array410, such as a CCD (charge-coupled device), CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) or (in the case of thermal IR detection) a microbolometer sensor. Photodetector array410includes photoelements411, and may additionally include a lenslet array that concentrates incident photons onto the most sensitive areas of array410to increase quantum efficiency. Grating405is formed by an interface between light-transmissive media of different refractive indices, a twenty-micron phase-shift layer412of UV-cured plastic and a twenty-micron layer413of thermoplastic with respective indices n1=1.41 and n2=1.61 in this example. Different combinations of indices can be used, and index n2can be less than index n1. A space414with refractive index ni separates layer413from array410. In this example, space414provides a separation t of about 145 microns and has a refractive index ni near one to match the refractive index ns of the medium through which light travels from objects in an imaged scene to device400. For example, index ns might be air, in which case index ni would be close to one and the medium separating array410from the grating might be e.g. a gas or a vacuum. For aquatic or in vivo applications index ni might be closer to that of the fluid environment. In other embodiments where a wide angle of view is desirable while maintaining a small array410, ni can be greater than ns and Snell's law corrections can be used to obtain an accurate measure of the incident angle of the arriving light, and hence the depth to the object of interest.

Grating405produces an interference pattern that is sampled by array410. Image information can then be extracted from the pattern. Device400is constructed to produce raw image data of high fidelity to support efficient algorithms for precisely locating image features on array410. Light from an imaged scene and in a wavelength band of interest strikes grating405from a direction that is normal to the plane420of grating405. Unless otherwise stated, the wavelength band of interest is the visible spectrum. Cameras developed for use in different applications can have different bands of interest.

Each of three boundaries of odd symmetry425is indicated using a vertical, dashed line. The higher features435of grating405induce phase retardations of half of one wavelength (it radians) relative to lower features430. Features on either side of each boundary exhibit odd symmetry. With this arrangement, paired features induce respective phase delays that differ by approximately half a wavelength over the wavelength band of interest. Due to greater dispersion in layer412than in layer413, the difference in the refractive indices of layer412and layer413is an increasing function of wavelength, facilitating a wider wavelength band of interest over which the phase delay is approximately π radians. These elements produce an interference pattern for capture by array410. The features of grating405offer considerable insensitivity to the wavelength of incident light in the band of interest, and also to the spacing between grating405and photodetector array410.

Device400includes an optional opaque layer417patterned to include an aperture that encompasses or defines the effective limits of grating405. In one embodiment the aperture is round and of a diameter of fifty-five microns. The aperture windows interference patterns, which tends to reduce edge effects that result from subsequent image-recovery algorithms. The aperture can also improve angle sensitivity and spurious light rejection, which can be advantageous for e.g. motion detection and measurement. Opaque layer417that forms the aperture can be applied directly to a layer forming grating405, and may be coplanar or nearly coplanar with grating405. Other embodiments omit the aperture, or may include an aperture spaced away from device400instead of or in addition to the aperture in layer417. The dimensions of device400can vary considerably. In one embodiment, layers412and413are each about twenty microns; layer417is about 2,000 Angstroms with a round, fifty-five-micron aperture; and array410is a 200×200 array with a pixel pitch of 1.67 microns. To form a binocular depth sensor, two such devices can be included on a small die to support inter-pupillary separations on the order of millimeters or centimeters.

This example assumes light incident device400is normal to the plane of phase grating405, in which case, by Huygens' principle, pairs of spherical wave re-radiators equidistant from a one of the boundaries of odd symmetry425cancel each other out due to the half-wavelength phase delay of the radiator on one side of the boundary425compared to the other. Thus, light of any wavelength in the band of interest destructively interferes to produce curtains of minimum intensity under boundaries425. Neither the depth nor the wavelength of light over a substantial spectrum significantly influences this destructive interference. Constructive interference similarly produces foci of maximum intensity. Both the low and high features430and435admit light, which provides relatively high quantum efficiency relative to embodiments that selectively block light.

Device400can be integrated with or otherwise coupled to an integrated circuit (IC)450that supports image acquisition and processing. All the components of device400can be integrated into the same device or package using microfabrication techniques well known to those of skill in the art, or different components and features can be located elsewhere. In this example, IC450includes a processor455, random-access memory (RAM)460, and read-only memory (ROM)465. ROM465can store parameters or lookup tables in support of image processing. Processor455captures digital image data from array410and uses that data with the stored PSF to compute e.g. depth measures as noted previously. Processor455uses RAM460to read and write data in support of image processing. Processor455may include SIMD instructions, butterflies accelerating the Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm in hardware, and other specialized processing elements which aid fast, power-efficient Fourier- or spatial-domain operations.

FIG. 4Bis a plan view of an imaging device400ofFIG. 4Ain accordance with an embodiment in which grating405includes spiral features430and435to produce two-dimensional diffraction patterns. Relatively narrow (wide) segment spacing works better for relatively high (low) frequencies of light, feature spacing increases along odd-symmetry boundaries (between elevated and recessed grating regions, represented by dark and light) with distance from the center. Curved boundaries of odd symmetry, defined between the elevated and recessed regions, extend radially from the center of the grating to the periphery, radiating out between the dark (elevated) and light (recessed) arms near the center. In some embodiments, the functional form of the curved boundaries approximates a logarithmic spiral. The area of grating405can be greater than that of the aperture in layer417to provide alignment tolerance in manufacturing.

Although device400can include or be used with a focusing element (e.g., a lens), device400does not require a focusing element to produce images. Rather than focusing, as would be done by a traditional camera, device400captures a diffraction pattern that bears little resemblance to an imaged scene, but that is nevertheless interpretable by a computer. Grating405creates a certain point-spread function (PSF), a multi-armed thin spiral in this example, on the sensor array for every point of light in the imaged scene. The location of the center of the PSF is uniquely determined by the incident angle of light from the point source. Since faraway scenes can be thought of as collections of point sources of varying intensity, the sensed signals resemble a convolution of the PSF with the faraway scene. A scene can be computationally reconstructed from its corresponding interference pattern if there is a 1:1 map of scenes to sensor readings. In the case where the sensed signals are well approximated by a convolution with a fixed PSF, the Fourier components of the scene that are recoverable are the same as the Fourier components of the PSF with sufficient power to be observable above the noise sources in the system.

FIG. 5is a flowchart500illustrating a method of measuring depth using e.g. system100ofFIG. 1. This example assumes a point source imaged by a pair of 200×200 pixel arrays. To begin, left and right images502L/R of the point source are captured (503). The left and right images may then be smoothly windowed so that their main contributions are predominantly from the point source of interest. Both images are then treated to a 2-D Fourier transform (505), and the resultant frequency-domain frames, S1and S2, are buffered (510) in e.g. a frame buffer (not shown).

Next, frames S1and S2and a noise-dependent regularization factor λ are used to calculate the Fourier transform of a normalized cross-correlation function (515). In this example, the product of S1and S2*, the complex conjugate of frequency domain frame S2, is divided by the product of the absolute values of frequency domain frames S1and S2plus regularization factor λ. The regularization factor is selected to minimize the impact of spurious image artifacts and to de-emphasize spatial frequencies where S1and S2have low power relative to the noise in the system. This quotient can then be multiplied by a mask517removing frequencies known to be corrupted by the capture of a nonideal pixel array, as discussed below in connection withFIG. 8. The resultant function is then subjected to an inverse 2-D Fourier transform (520) to yield a cross correlation normalized by the autocorrelation of the scene (525).

Like each frame, the normalized cross-correlation of525is represented as a 2-D array of pixels530. The brightest pixel or pixels can be identified as the peak correlation, corresponding to the scene shift between frames. Alternatively, a more accurate measure can take additional pixels into account. For example, a pixel representing a maximum intensity may be considered in concert with the neighboring eight pixels (540) to achieve sub-pixel spatial resolution. The process performs a 2-D quadratic fit (550) on the intensity values of the most-intense and neighboring eight pixels545. When binocular disparity is known to lie along a direction parallel to the displacement S, i-D quadratic fits along section of the cross-correlation can be used. Knowing in advance the orientation of S along which to search for a correlation can dictate which elements of the correlation need not be computed to yield lower-power embodiments. Whichever method is used, the fact that the point spread functions (diffraction patterns) are spread out over dozens of pixels means that the cross-correlation peak is based on data from dozens of observations, and is thus much more accurate than for a focused point-source image. The cross-correlation is then calculated to be the center of the resulting quadratic (555). The spacing between the two centers, separation Δ ofFIG. 1, is computed (560), and the result plugged into e.g. Equation (2) to compute depth D (565). Especially when ni ofFIG. 4Ais not equal to ns, further refinements taking into account the location of the center of each source can be used in conjunction with Snell's law to compute location and range more accurately. One way to accomplish this is to substitute image502R with the stored image of a point source normal to the grating when estimating the shift in image502L, and to substitute image502L with the same normal point source image when estimating the shift in image502R. Then, the incident angles at both sensors can be computed from Snell's law and the range can be estimated. In a similar manner, to measure just the azimuth and elevation (but not the range) of a light source with known point spread function, a single sensor's output can suffice.

The foregoing procedure is illustrative, and other methods can be used to extract useful information from captured diffraction patterns. In an alternative method of calculating the normalized cross-correlation of frames S1and S2, for example, the cross-correlation S1S2* can be normalized by dividing the cross-correlation by the square root of the product of the autocorrelations of S1and S2. A regularization factor can be used as noted previously. The cross-correlation can be calculated in the spatial domain. This may be more computationally efficient when the expected depth can be limited to a small range of possibilities.

Images502L/R are of interference patterns that may appear unintelligible to a human observer; however, because the gratings used to capture these images has sharp features in its point-spread function (PSF), images502L/R contain information that can be used to mathematically reconstruct images in which objects appear in familiar forms. The PSF of the gratings, possibly in combination with the underlying array, can be known from a prior calibration or high-fidelity simulation. This information can be stored for later reconstruction. Alternatively, the spatial- or Fourier-domain deconvolution kernel needed to undo the effects of convolving with the PSF may be stored. Sampled patterns can then be deconvolved using e.g. spatial or Fourier deconvolution. In the example ofFIG. 5, frames S1and S2can be deconvolved with the known PSF of the gratings and the depth-computation, beginning with cross-correlation function515, carried out based on the resulting images. Alternatively, depth computations can be based on both frames S1and S2and their corresponding reconstructed images. It may be, for example, that a collection of point sources appears more distinct in one representation relative to the other.

In still other embodiments, the interference pattern(s) can be used for depth computation and reconstructed images provided for human viewing. For example, an imaging system could employ interference patterns to detect and locate a point source (e.g., a muzzle flash) in three-dimensional space and reconstruct an image of the scene to designate the point source to a human observer. In such embodiments the processing used to reconstruct images from interference patterns, and concomitant power use, can be limited to instances in which an image may be of use to a human observer.

FIG. 6depicts a depth-perception system600in accordance with another embodiment. System600includes but one imaging grating605instead of the pair used in system100ofFIG. 1. An array610of photosensitive pixels captures diffraction patterns in the manner detailed previously measure an offset of an interference pattern650relative to an optical axis620. Grating605is formed in an opaque layer622that also includes an optical element—a Fresnel zone plate625—to columnate a beam transmitted from a light source630. Zone plate625is positioned directly over light source630so that a beam projects upward, normal to layer622. Including zone plate625improves manufacturing tolerance because lateral shifts of patterned layer622affect both the direction of the laser beam and optical axis620in a way that tends to cancel the impact of the shift on distance measurements. The beam reflects off remote objects, a near object635and a far object640in this example.

Reflected light from object635enters grating605to produce an interference pattern650for capture by array610. The axis of laser630serves as a reference location. The center of pattern650is spaced from this reference by a distance do that can be detected in the manner detailed in connection withFIG. 5and used to calculate depth Dn to object635. In particular, depth Dn can be computed using the following equation:

Dn=STn⁡(dn-S)(3)
where T is the separation between grating605and sensor array610, n is the index of refraction between grating605and sensor array610, and S is the spread between optical axis620and laser630. The depth Df to a more distant object640can similarly be computed using its corresponding interference pattern660.

The light source and related focusing element are integrated with grating605and array610in this embodiment, but can be located elsewhere. Further, a light source can be similarly integrated into system100ofFIG. 1. A color filter matched to the illumination can allow the imaging system to reject much of the scene background, and the sharp point source from the light source and optics can be readily distinguished from most diffuse light sources. In some embodiments the illumination is polarized and the sensor equipped with a cross polarized filter, eliminating specular reflections of the light source, which optically appear to come from a different depth than the reflecting object.

In still other embodiments multiple point sources can be imaged to produce a corresponding number of interference patterns from which to calculate depths. The point source or sources can be luminous, reflective, or retro-reflective markers, such as those used in motion capture, or can be reflected beams from a laser used in concert with the images sensors. A far-field diffractive element, such as a Dammann grating, can be used to split a laser beam into a collection of beams to produce corresponding fiducial patterns as collections of reflected points. The light source can be mechanically scanned or translated through the scene to give range estimates of different scene elements at different times.

FIG. 7depicts a system700that measure flexure—represented by an angle702—and torsion—represented by an angle703—in accordance with another embodiment. System700includes a pair of image sensors705L and705R interconnected via a member710that is subject to bending, torsion, or both. Absent any flexion of member710, images produced by sensors705L/R will have a fixed offset equal to the spacing between the sensors. Twisting or bending member710introduces changes in their respective images that can be compared in the manner noted previously. Relative movement of the images can be used to compute the degree to which member710is bent or twisted. A point source, generated remotely or using an integrated light source, can serve as a reference. System700can also serve as a self-calibrating range finder of the type in system100using a far bright light source such as the Sun as the reference. In environments where a uniquely bright light source is far compared to S, system700can monitor its own flexure and subsequently compute the range to point sources (either with or without the presence of the uniquely bright source) accounting for the recently measured flexure.

FIG. 8is a plot800of the mean representation of the log magnitude of the Fourier power of an image of a point source taken using an image sensor of the type detailed in connection withFIGS. 2 and 3. The DC level is represented at the top left of plot800, with the plot wrapping around. Five spots of relatively high intensity appear across the equator of plot800, and others occupy the top, wrapping around to the bottom. These bright spots represent fixed-pattern noise that results from small differences in the individual responsitivity of pixels in a sensor array that has a 2×4 pixel grouping structure. Different responsivity can be due to e.g. local post-amplification stages, color filter arrays, variations in the pixel size, material or interference with the local circuitry. Fixed-pattern noise can change with temperatures, exposure times, etc. The interference caused by non-ideal pixel arrays can be filtered digitally (as in the application of the mask517inFIG. 5), by orienting the pixel array at an angle relative to the separation S such that the orientation of the disparity signal will lie in a direction parallel to a line in Fourier space through the origin that avoids the interference caused by the non-ideal pixel array, or by a combination of these techniques.

Gratings of the type detailed herein produce patterns with a large spatial extent compared to a single pixel. The Fourier representation of the signals can therefore be filtered smoothly and with sufficient resolution to exclude known non-ideal spatial frequencies shown in plot800, a feat not possible with the small point spread functions common in focusing optical systems. A filter can thus be applied to the Fourier power plot to remove the artifacts of fixed-point noise without overly impacting the signal of interest. Interference between the diffraction pattern and the pixel array that occurs at the spatial frequency of the pixel array itself (e.g. the incomplete fill factor of an array generates an alignment-dependent DC term) gets aliased to DC, which does not contain any spatial information and so needs not be filtered when angular comparisons such as depth measurement are the goal of the sensing system.

FIG. 9depicts a depth-perception system900in accordance with an embodiment in which three gratings905are integrated with three light sources910. In general, from one to N gratings can be used with from zero to M light sources to calculate depth. Distributing gratings and/or light sources in two dimensions can improve depth resolution.

FIG. 10depicts a binocular depth-perception system1000in accordance with another embodiment. System1000is similar to system100ofFIG. 1, but includes a lens1005between the imaged object1010and gratings105L/R. Lens1005optically moves the image of object1010at depth D to a point1015at depth D′ closer to the gratings, which allows system1000to discriminate between depths farther from the sensors. Lens1005can be a focusing optic to enable system1000to measure a broad range of depths. Alternatively, systems can incorporate arrays of sensors with respective fixed-focus lenses of different focal lengths to collectively discriminate over broader ranges of depths.

FIG. 11depicts a pair of gratings1100in accordance with another embodiment. Rather than features of varied orientations, gratings1100include aperiodically spaced linear features1105extending perpendicular to the displacement S between the gratings. The higher features1105, shown in black, induce phase retardations of half of one wavelength (π radians) relative to lower features, shown in white. These perpendicular features contribute more binocular disparity information than features of varied orientations.

FIG. 12depicts an aperture1200that produces a point-spread function (PSF) with a considerable range of spatial-frequency components relative to a round or relatively round aperture. A pixel array1205shows an illuminated pattern1210, a point-source response produced by passing light through aperture1200. (Pattern1210is shown as a dark feature for ease of viewing, but would appear as a bright pattern against a dark background.) Pattern1210has a maximum dimension X greater than six times the pixel pitch P, and has features with dimensions less than a third the maximum dimension. A Fourier representation of pattern1210includes information widely distributed in the Fourier space, which provides advantages similar to those discussed in connection withFIG. 8. For example, a simple filter can be applied to the Fourier power plot of the imaged pattern1210to remove the artifacts of the non-ideal pixel array without overly impacting the signal of interest. This benefit is not limited to use in depth sensing, but is more broadly applicable to system in which the location of a point source is of interest.

Some applications of imaging system100and its variants include tracking landmark near infrared LEDs in virtual reality or augmented reality headsets, locating headlights of oncoming traffic (e.g. to avoid projecting high-beam headlights into oncoming drivers' eyes), and range-finding obstacle-avoidance and soft-landing systems for automated and/or unmanned aerial vehicles. In one example, one or more imaging systems100is placed on an automobile with automatically controlled headlights comprising a set of LEDs that can individually be switched or adjusted. A microcontroller monitors image information output by the imaging system using techniques such as those detailed in connection withFIG. 5to identify and locate headlights of oncoming traffic. That information is then used to dim, aim, or disable those LEDs whose output is aimed at the eyes of drivers in oncoming traffic. In another example, imaging system600ofFIG. 6is mounted on the bottom of an automated and/or unmanned aerial vehicle. The system projects a small dot onto the ground below and, through techniques outlined inFIG. 5, estimates the range to the ground, facilitating ground avoidance in some cases, and a soft landing in others where the target vertical velocity decreases as the vehicle approaches the ground.

While the subject matter has been described in connection with specific embodiments, other embodiments are also envisioned. For example; while each grating detailed previously may be used in connection with photoreceptors to collect incident light, gratings in accordance with these and other embodiments can be used more generally in imaging devices that project images using photoelements that admit light; the wavelength band of interest can be broader or narrower than the visible spectrum, may be wholly or partially outside the visible spectrum, and may be discontinuous; cameras and gratings detailed herein can be adapted for use in multi-aperture or programmable-aperture applications; and imaging devices that employ other types of gratings can benefit by application of methods disclosed herein. Imaging systems of the type detailed herein can also sense lateral motion or looming. Therefore, the spirit and scope of the appended claims should not be limited to the foregoing description. Only those claims specifically reciting “means for” or “step for” should be construed in the manner required under the sixth paragraph of 35 U.S.C. § 112.