Methods for operating a unipolar spin transistor and applications of same

A unipolar spin transistor includes a semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region. The first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region. A first voltage is provided between the first region and the second region to cause carriers to move across the first domain from the first region to the second region. A second voltage is generated between the second region and the third region to cause the carriers move across the second domain from the second region to the third region. The second voltage has an amplitude different from that of the first voltage. The first region and the third region have a first spin polarization, and the second region has a second spin polarization which may be different from the first spin polarization.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention generally relates to a transistor. More particularly, the present invention relates to a unipolar spin transistor through a mechanism based on inhomogeneous spin polarization.

2. Description of the Related Art

Most semiconductor devices are based on the p-n diode or the transistor. A large class of transistors are the so-called bipolar transistors consisting of back to back p-n diodes either in a p-n-p or n-p-n arrangement. By controlling the chemical potential of the middle region (called the base) the collector current (IC) can be varied, and ICdepends on the base voltage (VEB) exponentially.

The development of transistors and its later evolution into the integrated circuit or microchip revolutionized people's daily life and the world. Continuous efforts have been made to find new types of diodes and transistors.

Until recently the emerging field of magneto electronics has focused on magnetic metals for conducting components [1] (hereinafter “[n]” referring to the nth reference in the attached list of references at the end of the specification). Multilayer magnetoelectronic devices, such as giant magnetoresistive (“GMB”) [2,3] and magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) [4-6] devices, have revolutionized magnetic sensor technology and hold promise for reprogrammable logic and nonvolatile memory applications. The performance of these devices improves as the spin polarization of the constituent material approaches 100%, and thus there are continuing efforts to find 100% spin-polarized conducting materials.

Doped magnetic semiconductors are a promising direction towards such materials, for the bandwidth of the occupied carrier states is narrow. For example, for nondegenerate carriers and a spin splitting of 100 meV the spin polarization will be 98% at room temperature. To date high-temperature (TCurie>100K) ferromagnetic semiconductors such as Ga1-x.Mnx,As are effectively p-doped. Semi-magnetic n-doped semiconductors like BeMnZnSe, however, have already been shown to be almost, 100% polarized (in the case of BeMnZnSe in a 2T external field at 30K) [7]. Both resonant tunneling diodes (RTDs) [8] and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) [9] have been demonstrated which incorporate one layer of ferromagnetic semiconductor. It is inevitable that devices incorporating multiple layers of ferromagnetic semiconducting material will be constructed. Note that “ferromagnetic semiconducting material” or “ferromagnetic semiconductor” as used in this specification includes any magnetic and semi-magnetic semiconductors that is a semiconductor and has a spin polarization, which can be affected by or interact with a magnetic field.

Motivated by this possibility the inventors have investigated the transport properties of specific device geometries based on multilayers of spin-polarized unipolar doped semiconductors. Previous theoretical work in this area includes spin transport in homogeneous semiconductors [10, 11] and calculations of spin filtering effects in superlattices [12]. The inventors continued their effort to study the nonlinear transport properties, particularly the behavior of the charge current, of two and three-layer heterostructures, and in particular, developed a unipolar spin diode and transistor through a mechanism based on inhomogeneous spin polarization.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the present invention provides a unipolar spin diode. In one embodiment of the present invention, the unipolar spin diode includes a first semiconductor region having a conductivity type and a spin polarization, and a second semiconductor region having a conductivity type that is same to the conductivity type of the first semiconductor and a spin polarization that is different from the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region. The first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region are adjacent to each other so as to form a spin depletion layer therebetween, the spin depletion layer having a first side and an opposing second side. When a majority carrier in the first semiconductor region moves across the spin depletion layer from the first side of the spin depletion layer to the second side of the spin depletion layer, the majority carrier in the first semiconductor region becomes a minority carrier in the second semiconductor region. Moreover, when a majority carrier in the second semiconductor region moves across the spin depletion layer from the second side of the spin depletion layer moves to the first side of the spin depletion layer, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region becomes a minority carrier in the first semiconductor region.

In one embodiment of the present invention, each of the first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region comprises a p-type semiconductor layer, wherein the p-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region is ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is either up or down. Moreover, the p-type semiconductor layer of the second semiconductor region is ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is either up if the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is down, or down if the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is up.

The majority carrier in the first semiconductor region can be a positive hole having a spin up, and the minority carrier in the first semiconductor region can be a positive hole having a spin down. Correspondingly, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin down, and the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin up.

The majority carrier in the first semiconductor region can also be a positive hole having a spin down, and the minority carrier in the first semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin up. Correspondingly, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin up, and the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin down.

In other embodiment of the present invention, each of the first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region comprises a n-type semiconductor layer, wherein the n-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region is ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is either up or down. Moreover, the n-type semiconductor layer of the second semiconductor region is ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is either up if the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is down, or down if the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is up.

The majority carrier in the first semiconductor region can be an electron having a spin up, and the minority carrier in the first semiconductor region is an electron having a spin down. Correspondingly, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region is an electron having a spin down, and the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region is an electron having a spin up.

The majority carrier in the first semiconductor region can also be an electron having a spin down, and the minority carrier in the first semiconductor region is an electron having a spin up. Correspondingly, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region is an electron having a spin up, and the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region is an electron having a spin down.

The spin deletion layer may be characterized as one of a Neel wall and a Block wall, wherein the thickness of the spin deletion layer is at least partially determined by the ratio between the magnetic anisotropy energy and the magnetic stiffness of the first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region.

Furthermore, the diode has a substrate of either an insulating material or a semi-insulating material, wherein the substrate supports the first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a unipolar spin diode. In one embodiment of the present invention, the unipolar spin diode includes a first semiconductor region having a spin polarization characterized by a first orientation, and a second semiconductor region having a spin polarization characterized by a second orientation opposite to the first orientation of the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region. The first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region are adjacent to each other so as to form a domain wall therebetween, wherein the domain wall has a first side and an opposing second side.

When a majority carrier in the first semiconductor region moves across the domain wall to the second semiconductor region, the majority carrier in the first semiconductor region becomes a minority carrier in the second semiconductor region. Moreover, when a majority carrier in the second semiconductor region moves across the domain wall to the first semiconductor region, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region becomes a minority carrier in the first semiconductor region. Furthermore, majority carriers in the first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region have the same charge polarity.

In a further aspect, the present invention provides a unipolar spin transistor. In one embodiment of the present invention, the unipolar spin transistor includes a first semiconductor region having a conductivity type and a first spin polarization, a second semiconductor region having a conductivity type that is the same conductivity type of the first semiconductor region and a second spin polarization that is different from the first spin polarization of the first semiconductor region, and a third semiconductor region having a conductivity type that is the same conductivity type of the first semiconductor region and the first spin polarization. The first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region are adjacent to each other so as to form a first spin depletion layer therebetween, the first spin depletion layer having a first side facing the first semiconductor region and an opposing second side facing the second semiconductor region. Additionally, the second semiconductor region and the third semiconductor region are adjacent to each other so as to form a second spin depletion layer therebetween, the second spin depletion layer having a first side facing the second semiconductor region and an opposing second side facing the third semiconductor region.

When a majority carrier in the first semiconductor region moves across the first spin depletion layer from the first side of the first spin depletion layer to the second side of the first spin depletion layer, the majority carrier in the first semiconductor region becomes a minority carrier in the second semiconductor region, and when the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region moves across the second spin depletion layer from the first side of the second spin depletion layer to the second side of the second spin depletion layer, the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region becomes a majority carrier in the third semiconductor region.

Likewise, when a majority carrier in the third semiconductor region moves across the second spin depletion layer from the second side of the second spin depletion layer to the first side of the second spin depletion layer, the majority carrier in the third semiconductor region becomes a minority carrier in the second semiconductor region, and when the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region moves across the first spin depletion layer from the second side of the first spin depletion layer to the first side of the first spin depletion layer, the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region becomes a majority carrier in the first semiconductor region.

In one embodiment of the present invention, each of the first semiconductor region, the second semiconductor region and the third semiconductor region comprises a p-type semiconductor layer. The p-type semiconductor layer of the second semiconductor region is ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is either up or down. Moreover, the p-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region and the p-type semiconductor layer of the third semiconductor region are ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region and the spin polarization of the third semiconductor region are either up if the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is down, or down if the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is up.

In another embodiment of the present invention, each of the first semiconductor region, the second semiconductor region and the third semiconductor region comprises a n-type semiconductor layer. The n-type semiconductor layer of the second semiconductor region is ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is either up or down. Moreover, the n-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region and the n-type semiconductor layer of the third semiconductor region are ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region and the spin polarization of the third semiconductor region are either up if the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is down, or down if the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is up.

Each of the first spin deletion layer and the second spin deletion layer may be characterized as one of a Neel wall and a Block wall, wherein the thickness of each of the first spin deletion layer and the second spin deletion layer is at least partially determined by the ratio between the magnetic anisotropy energy and the magnetic stiffness of the first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region, and the second semiconductor region and the third semiconductor region, respectively.

The transistor further includes a substrate of either an insulating material or a semi-insulating material, wherein the substrate supports the first semiconductor region, the second semiconductor region and the third semiconductor region.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method of changing amplitude of electric signals. In one embodiment of the present invention, the method includes the steps of providing a semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region, providing a first voltage between the first region and the second region to cause carriers to move across the first domain from the first region to the second region, and generating a second voltage between the second region and the third region to cause the carriers move across the second domain from the second region to the third region and the second voltage has an amplitude different from that of the first voltage. The first region and the third region have a first spin polarization and the second region has a second spin polarization different from the first spin polarization. Moreover, the carriers in each of the first, second and third regions have same charge polarity.

The first spin polarization can be up and correspondingly, the second spin polarization is down. The first spin polarization can be down and correspondingly, the second spin polarization is up. The carriers can be electrons or holes.

In a further aspect, the present invention provides an apparatus of changing amplitude of electric signals. In one embodiment of the present invention, the apparatus includes a semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region. The apparatus further has means for providing a first voltage between the first region and the second region to cause carriers to move across the first domain from the first region to the second region, and means for generating a second voltage between the second region and the third region to cause the carriers move across the second domain from the second region to the third region and the second voltage has an amplitude different from that of the first voltage, wherein the first region and the third region has a first spin polarization and the second region has a second spin polarization different from the first spin polarization, and the carriers in each of the first, second and third regions has same charge polarity.

In another aspect, the present invention provides a memory cell having a unipolar spin transistor for nonvolatile memory applications for storing a data state corresponding to one of a first and a second logical data values. In one embodiment of the present invention, the memory cell includes a magnetic semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region. Moreover, the first region and the third region has a first spin polarization and the second region has a second spin polarization, each of the first spin polarization and the second spin polarization can be up or down.

The ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a high-resistance state when the second spin polarization of the second region is opposite to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions, and the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a low-resistance state when the second spin polarization of the second region is aligned to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions. The memory cell stores the first logical value when the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in the high-resistance state, and the memory cell stores the second logical value when the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in the low-resistance state. The memory is retained until a different state is stored in the cell.

The orientation of the second spin polarization can be altered by an external magnetic field to become one of aligned and opposite to the orientation of the first spin polarization. In one embodiment, the first region comprises an emitter of the unipolar spin transistor, the second region comprises a base of the unipolar spin transistor and the third region comprises a collector of the unipolar spin transistor. The magnetic semiconductor material can be chosen from a variety of magnetic materials such as GaMnAs, TiCoO2, BeMnZnSe and the like.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method of operating a unipolar spin transistor for nonvolatile memory applications for storing a data state corresponding to one of a first and a second logical data values, wherein the unipolar spin transistor includes a magnetic semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region, wherein the first region and the third region has a first spin polarization and the second region has a second spin polarization, each of the first spin polarization and the second spin polarization can be up or down, and wherein the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a high-resistance state when the second spin polarization of the second region is opposite to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions, and the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a low-resistance state when the second spin polarization of the second region is aligned to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the method includes the steps of altering the orientation of the second spin polarization to become one of aligned and opposite to the orientation of the first spin polarization, and storing the first logical data value when the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in the high-resistance state, and storing the second logical value when the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in the low-resistance state.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method of operating a unipolar spin transistor for detecting magnetic field, wherein the unipolar spin transistor includes a magnetic semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region, wherein the first region and the third region has a first spin polarization and the second region has a second spin polarization, each of the first spin polarization and the second spin polarization can be up or down, and wherein the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a high-resistance state when the second spin polarization of the second region is opposite to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions, and the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a low-resistance state when the second spin polarization of the second region is aligned to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the method includes the steps of subjecting the second region to a test area, measuring the status of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material, and determining the presence of an external magnetic field, wherein the presence of an external magnetic field causes the status of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material to alter from one of the high-resistance state and the low-resistance state to another.

In another aspect, the present invention provides an apparatus of operating a unipolar spin transistor for detecting magnetic field, wherein the unipolar spin transistor includes a magnetic semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region, wherein the first region and the third region has a first spin polarization and the second region has a second spin polarization, each of the first spin polarization and the second spin polarization can be up or down, and wherein the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a high-resistance state when the second spin polarization of the second region is opposite to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions, and the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a low-resistance state when the second spin polarization of the second region is aligned to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the apparatus has means for subjecting the second region to a test area, means for measuring the status of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material, and means for determining the presence of an external magnetic field, wherein the presence of an external magnetic field causes the status of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material to alter from one of the high-resistance state and the low-resistance state to another. The subjecting means can be a read head.

In a further aspect, the present invention provides a method of operating a unipolar spin transistor for detecting magnetic field, wherein the unipolar spin transistor includes a magnetic semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region, wherein the first region has a first spin polarization, the second region has a second spin polarization opposite to the first spin polarization, and the third region has a third spin polarization parallel to the first spin polarization, wherein a minority carrier in the second region is characterized by an energy band having a barrier height, and wherein the ferromagnetic semiconductor material has a resistance related to the barrier height. Each of the first region, the second region and the third region can comprise a p-type semiconductor layer or an n-type semiconductor layer.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the method includes the steps of subjecting the second region to a test area, measuring the resistance of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material, and determining the presence of an external magnetic field, wherein the presence of an external magnetic field causes the barrier height of the energy band of the minority carrier to change, and wherein the change of the barrier height of the energy band causes the resistance of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material to change from one value to another. Each of the first region, the second region and the third region can comprise a p-type semiconductor layer or an n-type semiconductor layer.

In another aspect, the present invention provides an apparatus of operating a unipolar spin transistor for detecting magnetic field, wherein the unipolar spin transistor includes a magnetic semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region, wherein the first region has a first spin polarization, the second region has a second spin polarization opposite to the first spin polarization, and the third region has a third spin polarization parallel to the first spin polarization, wherein a minority carrier in the second region is characterized by an energy band having a barrier height, and wherein the ferromagnetic semiconductor material has a resistance related to the barrier height.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the apparatus has means for subjecting the second region to a test area, means for measuring the resistance of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material, and means for determining the presence of an external magnetic field, wherein the presence of an external magnetic field causes the barrier height of the energy band of the minority carrier to change, and wherein the change of the barrier height of the energy band causes the resistance of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material to change from one value to another.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a method of operating a unipolar spin transistor in a reprogrammable logic process determined by a combination of input logic signals, wherein the unipolar spin transistor includes a magnetic semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region, wherein the first region and the third region has a first spin polarization and the second region has a second spin polarization, each of the first spin polarization and the second spin polarization can be up or down, wherein the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a first non-volatile state when the second spin polarization of the second region is opposite to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions, and the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a second non-volatile state when the second spin polarization of the second region is aligned to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions, and wherein each of the first and second non-volatile states represents a binary value.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the method includes the steps of subjecting the second region to a magnetic field to cause the state of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material to alter from one of the first and second non-volatile states to another, thereby generating a new binary value relating to a new input logic signal, and storing the new binary value relating to a new input logic signal so as to reprogram a logic process.

In a further aspect, the present invention provides an apparatus of operating a unipolar spin transistor in a reprogrammable logic process determined by a combination of input logic signals, wherein the unipolar spin transistor includes a magnetic semiconductor material having a first region, a second region, and a third region, wherein the first region is adjacent to the second region so as to form a first domain between the first region and the second region, and the second region is adjacent to the third region so as to form a second domain between the second region and the third region, wherein the first region and the third region has a first spin polarization and the second region has a second spin polarization, each of the first spin polarization and the second spin polarization can be up or down, wherein the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a first non-volatile state when the second spin polarization of the second region is opposite to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions, and the ferromagnetic semiconductor material is in a second non-volatile state when the second spin polarization of the second region is aligned to the first spin polarization of the first and third regions, and wherein each of the first and second non-volatile states represents a binary value.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the apparatus includes means for subjecting the second region to a magnetic field to cause the state of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material to alter from one of the first and second non-volatile states to another, thereby generating a new binary value relating to a new input logic signal, and means for storing the new binary value relating to a new input logic signal so as to reprogram a logic process.

These and other aspects will become apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiment taken in conjunction with the following drawings, although variations and modifications may be effected without departing from the spirit and scope of the novel concepts of the disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Overview of the Invention

Referring generally toFIGS. 1-6and in particular toFIGS. 1 and 2now, in one aspect, the present invention provides a unipolar spin diode100. In one aspect, the present invention provides a unipolar spin diode100. In one embodiment of the present invention, the unipolar spin diode100includes a first semiconductor region101having a conductivity type and a spin polarization111, and a second semiconductor region103having a conductivity type that is same to the conductivity type of the first semiconductor101and a spin polarization113that is different from the spin polarization111of the first semiconductor region101. The first semiconductor region101and the second semiconductor region103are adjacent to each other so as to form a spin depletion layer102or domain therebetween. The spin depletion layer102has a first side112and an opposing second side114. The spin depletion layer102can also be characterized as a domain wall between the first semiconductor region101and the second semiconductor region103. Unlike in an ordinary p-n diode, where majority carriers on the two sides of the domain wall or p-n junction have opposite charge polarities, majority carriers in the first semiconductor region101and the second semiconductor region103have the same charge polarity but different spin orientation, which is the reason we call the diode of the present invention as “unipolar spin diode.”0When a majority carrier in the first semiconductor region101moves across the spin depletion layer102from the first side112of the spin depletion layer102to the second side114of the spin depletion layer102, the majority carrier in the first semiconductor region101becomes a minority carrier in the second semiconductor region103. Moreover, when a majority carrier in the second semiconductor region103moves across the spin depletion layer102from the second side114of the spin depletion layer102moves to the first side112of the spin depletion layer102, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region103becomes a minority carrier in the first semiconductor region101.

Furthermore, the diode100has a substrate105that supports the first semiconductor region101and the second semiconductor region103. The substrate is made from either an insulating material or a semi-insulating material.

As shown inFIGS. 1 and 2, each of the first semiconductor region101and the second semiconductor region103comprises a n-type semiconductor layer, wherein the n-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region101is ferromagnetic. Because the first semiconductor region101is n-type semiconductor, electrons (negative charge) would carry the electric current in the first semiconductor region101. The spin polarization111of the first semiconductor region101can be either up or down. Note that the up and down of a spin represent two distinctive states of the spin, no necessarily indicating a direction of the spin in a real space.

Moreover, the n-type semiconductor layer of the second semiconductor region103is the same as the n-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region101. The spin polarization113of the second semiconductor region103, however, is opposite to the orientation of the spin polarization111of the first semiconductor region101. Thus, the spin polarization113of the second semiconductor region103is up if the spin polarization111of the first semiconductor region101is down, or down if the spin polarization111of the first semiconductor region101is up.

The majority carrier in the first semiconductor region101can be an electron having a spin up, and the minority carrier in the first semiconductor region101is an electron having a spin down. Correspondingly, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region103is an electron having a spin down, and the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region103is an electron having a spin up.

The majority carrier in the first semiconductor region101can also be an electron having a spin down, and the minority carrier in the first semiconductor region101is an electron having a spin up. Correspondingly, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region103is an electron having a spin up, and the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region103is an electron having a spin down.

In another embodiment of the present invention (not shown), each of the first semiconductor region and the second semiconductor region comprises a p-type semiconductor layer, wherein the p-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region is ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is either up or down. Moreover, the p-type semiconductor layer of the second semiconductor region is ferromagnetic, and the spin polarization of the second semiconductor region is either up if the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is down, or down if the spin polarization of the first semiconductor region is up.

The majority carrier in the first semiconductor region can be a positive hole having a spin up, and the minority carrier in the first semiconductor region can be a positive hole having a spin down. Correspondingly, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin down, and the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin up.

The majority carrier in the first semiconductor region can also be a positive hole having a spin down, and the minority carrier in the first semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin up. Correspondingly, the majority carrier in the second semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin up, and the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region is a positive hole having a spin down.

The spin deletion layer102may be characterized as a Neel wall or a Block wall. The thickness of the spin deletion layer102, defined by the first side112and the second side114, is at least partially determined by the ratio between the magnetic anisotropy energy and the magnetic stiffness of the first semiconductor region101and the second semiconductor region103, as discussed in more detail below.

In a further aspect, the present invention provides a unipolar spin transistor300. In one embodiment of the present invention as shown inFIGS. 3 and 4, the unipolar spin transistor300includes a first semiconductor region301having a conductivity type and a first spin polarization331. The unipolar spin transistor300also includes a second semiconductor region303having a conductivity type that is the same conductivity type of the first semiconductor region301, and a second spin polarization333that is different from the first spin polarization331of the first semiconductor region301, in other words, the orientation of the second spin polarization333is opposite to the orientation of the first spin polarization331. The unipolar spin transistor300also includes a third semiconductor region305having a conductivity type that is the same conductivity type of the first semiconductor region301and a third spin polarization335that has the same orientation as the first spin polarization331.

The first semiconductor region301and the second semiconductor region303are adjacent to each other so as to form a first spin depletion layer or domain wall302therebetween. The first spin depletion layer302has a first side310facing the first semiconductor region301and an opposing second side312facing the second semiconductor region303. Additionally, the second semiconductor region303and the third semiconductor region305are adjacent to each other so as to form a second spin depletion layer or domain wall304therebetween. The second spin depletion layer304has a first side314facing the second semiconductor region303and an opposing second side316facing the third semiconductor region305.

The unipolar spin transistor300is constructed so that when a majority carrier in the first semiconductor region301moves across the first spin depletion layer302from the first side310to the second side312of the first spin depletion layer302, the majority carrier in the first semiconductor region301becomes a minority carrier in the second semiconductor region303, and moreover, when the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region303moves across the second spin depletion layer304from the first side314to the second side316of the second spin depletion layer304, the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region303becomes a majority carrier in the third semiconductor region305.

Likewise, when a majority carrier in the third semiconductor region305moves across the second spin depletion layer304from the second side316to the first side314of the second spin depletion layer304, the majority carrier in the third semiconductor region305becomes a minority carrier in the second semiconductor region303, and when the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region303moves across the first spin depletion layer302from the second side312to the first side310of the first spin depletion layer302, the minority carrier in the second semiconductor region303becomes a majority carrier in the first semiconductor region301.

Thus, as constructed, the unipolar spin transistor300has characteristics in which majority carriers in the first, second, and third semiconductor regions301,303and305have the same charge polarity but alternating spin orientations.

In one embodiment of the present invention (not shown), each of the first semiconductor region301, the second semiconductor region303and the third semiconductor region305comprises a p-type semiconductor layer. The p-type semiconductor layer of the second semiconductor region303is ferromagnetic. The spin polarization of the second semiconductor region303can be either up or down. Moreover, the p-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region301and the p-type semiconductor layer of the third semiconductor region305are also ferromagnetic. The spin polarization331of the first semiconductor region301and the spin polarization335of the third semiconductor region305are up if the spin polarization333of the second semiconductor region303is down, or down if the spin polarization333of the second semiconductor region303is up, i.e., the spin orientations of the first, second and third semiconductor regions301,303and305are alternating.

In another embodiment of the present invention as shown inFIGS. 3 and 4, each of the first semiconductor region301, the second semiconductor region303and the third semiconductor region305comprises an n-type semiconductor layer. The n-type semiconductor layer of the second semiconductor region333is ferromagnetic. The spin polarization303of the second semiconductor region303can be either up or down. Moreover, the n-type semiconductor layer of the first semiconductor region301and the n-type semiconductor layer of the third semiconductor region305are ferromagnetic. The spin polarization331of the first semiconductor region301and the spin polarization333of the third semiconductor region303are up if the spin polarization333of the second semiconductor region303is down, or down if the spin polarization333of the second semiconductor region333is up.

In term of the art, the first semiconductor region301is the emitter, the second semiconductor region303is the base, and the third semiconductor305is the collector.

Each of the first spin deletion layer302and the second spin deletion layer304may be characterized as a Neel wall or a Block wall. The thickness of each of the first spin deletion layer302and the second spin deletion layer304is at least partially determined by the ratio between the magnetic anisotropy energy and the magnetic stiffness of the first semiconductor region301and the second semiconductor region303, and the second semiconductor region303and the third semiconductor region305, respectively.

The transistor300may further include a substrate307that supports the first semiconductor region301, the second semiconductor region303and the third semiconductor region305. The substrate307can be made from an insulating material or a semi-insulating material.

Still referring toFIGS. 3 and 4, transistor300can be utilized to change amplitude of electric signals. In one embodiment of the present invention, a first voltage VEBis provided between the first region301and the second region303to cause carriers (either electrons or holes) to move across the first domain302from the first region301to the second region303, i.e., from emitter to base. A second voltage VCBis generated between the second region303and the third region305, i.e., emitter and collector, to cause the carriers move across the second domain304from the second region303to the third region305. The second voltage VCBhas an amplitude different from that of the first voltage VEB.

Many applications can be found for unipolar spin transistor300. In one embodiment, the present invention can be utilized to provide a non-volatile memory. Currently, available non-volatile memory, which does not lose its information when the power is turned off, relies on floating gate transistors (EPROM), which are very slow in the write phase. Magnetic field pulses are, in comparison, very fast. Thus, unipolar transistors of the present invention can be utilized to provide a memory because the voltage-current relation of the device can be changed when the magnetization of domains is reoriented. Once changed and the external magnetic field is off, the magnetization direction is very stable (i.e. non-volatile). Thus, the present invention can provide a memory device that has the magnetic semiconducting material with the proper arrangement of magnetic domains and contacts to allow for the detection of the magnetic domain configuration (for example, parallel or antiparallel magnetization directions), and a process by which information is encoded in the memory device by switching the magnetization directions with a local external magnetic field.

More specifically, referring now toFIGS. 7 and 8, in another aspect, the present invention provides a memory cell700having a unipolar spin transistor for nonvolatile memory applications for storing a data state corresponding to one of a first and a second logical data values. In one embodiment of the present invention, the memory cell700includes a magnetic semiconductor material750having a first region701, a second region703, and a third region705. The first region701is adjacent to the second region703so as to form a first domain702between the first region701and the second region703, and the second region703is adjacent to the third region705so as to form a second domain704between the second region703and the third region705. Moreover, the first region701has a first spin polarization731, the second region has a second spin polarization733, and the third region705has a third spin polarization735. Each of the first spin polarization731, the second spin polarization733, and the third spin polarization735can be up or down.

The ferromagnetic semiconductor material750is in a high-resistance state when the second spin polarization739of the second region703is opposite to the first spin polarization331of the first region301and the third spin polarization335of the third region305, which are always identical or parallel to each other, as shown in FIG.7. Likewise, the ferromagnetic semiconductor material750is in a low-resistance state when the second spin polarization733of the second region703is aligned to the first spin polarization731(and the third spin polarization735) of the first and third regions, as shown in FIG.8. The memory cell700can store the first logical value such as “0” when the ferromagnetic semiconductor material750is in the high-resistance state, and store the second logical value such as “1” when the ferromagnetic semiconductor material750is in the low-resistance state. The memory is retained until a different state is stored in the cell. A memory can include a plurality of memory cells to store any data that can be described by a combination of “0” and “1”.

The orientation of the second spin polarization733can be altered by an external magnetic field to become one of aligned and opposite to the orientation of the first spin polarization731(and the third spin polarization735). In one embodiment, the first region comprises an emitter of the unipolar spin transistor, the second region comprises a base of the unipolar spin transistor and the third region comprises a collector of the unipolar spin transistor. The magnetic semiconductor material can be chosen from a variety of magnetic materials such as GaMnAs, TiCoO2, BeMnZnSe and the like. In other words, a memory cell700comprises a unipolar spin transistor provided by the present invention.

In another embodiment, the present invention can be utilized to provide a magnetic field sensor. The current materials used for magnetic field sensing (giant magnetoresistance, GMR or magnetic tunnel junction, MTJ) rely on linear changes of resistance depending on magnetic field orientation. In contrast, a unipolar transistor of the present invention has an exponential dependence of the charge current on the applied magnetic field as discussed in more detail below. A sensor can be implemented through allowing an external magnetic field to switch the base magnetization direction. In this case the resistance of both the high resistance and low resistance orientations are much larger than those of metallic magnetic systems. Thus the power requirements are lower. Applications of these magnetic field sensors include magnetic read heads or automobile ignition systems. Thus, the present invention provides a device that has a magnetic semiconducting material with the proper arrangement of magnetic domains and contacts to allow for the detection of external magnetic fields, and a process by which the desirable orientation of the magnetic domains are determined to make the desired device.

More specifically, referring now toFIG. 9, the present invention provides an apparatus of operating a unipolar spin transistor900for detecting magnetic field. The unipolar spin transistor900includes a ferromagnetic semiconductor material950having a first region901, a second region903, and a third region905, wherein the first region901is adjacent to the second region903so as to form a first domain902between the first region901and the second region903, and the second region903is adjacent to the third region905so as to form a second domain904between the second region903and the third region905. The first region901has a first spin polarization931, the second region903has a second spin polarization933, and the third region905has a third spin polarization935. Each of the first spin polarization931, the second spin polarization933, and the third spin polarization935can be up or down. The first spin polarization931and the spin polarization935are identical or parallel to each other. The ferromagnetic semiconductor material950is in a high-resistance state when the second spin polarization933of the second region903is opposite to the first spin polarization931of the first and third regions901,905, and the ferromagnetic semiconductor material950is in a low-resistance state when the second spin polarization933of the second region903is aligned to the first spin polarization931of the first and third regions901,905.

In operation, the spin transistor900can be associated with a read head (not shown) to form a magnetic field sensor. The second region903is subjected to a test area such as a magnetic media track960, where the presence of an external magnetic field can be determined. Because the presence of an external magnetic field (B) causes the status of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material950to alter from one of the high-resistance state and the low-resistance state to another, measuring the status of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material950will determine whether an external magnetic field is present.

Additionally, as discussed further below, one principal effect of an external magnetic field (B) on any section901,903or905of the spin transistor900is to shift the minority band edge612shown in FIG.6. In other words, the barrier height for minority carriers in the second region903is changeable with the presence of an external magnetic field (B). The change of the barrier height for minority carriers in the second region903in turn causes the resistance of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material950to change, which can then be measured for detecting the presence of an external magnetic field. Thus, in another embodiment (not shown), the present invention provides a magnetic field sensor that has a spin transistor900. The second region903is subjected to a test area such as a magnetic media track960, where the presence of an external magnetic field can be determined. Because the presence of an external magnetic field (B) causes the resistance of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material950to change from one value to another, measuring the resistance of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material950can determine whether an external magnetic field is present.

In yet another embodiment, the present invention can be utilized in reprogrammable logic process. As known to people skilled in the art, different logic functions are performed by different arrangements of transistors, but in ordinary chip it is not feasible to rewire bi-polar transistors to change the function of chip. For chips having unipolar transistors of the present invention, however the “wiring” of a chip can be changed in real time through an external magnetic field that switches the magnetization of regions of the ferromagnetic material. Thus, the present invention provides an apparatus that has the semiconducting material with different magnetic domains that can perform different logic operations depending on the orientation of magnetic domains. The present invention also provides a process by which the desired magnetic orientations are decided to generate the desired logical activity of the chip.

More specifically, referring now toFIG. 10, the present invention provides an apparatus of operating a unipolar spin transistor1000in a reprogrammable logic process that is determined by a combination of input logic signals. The unipolar spin transistor1000includes a ferromagnetic semiconductor material1050having a first region1001, a second region1003, and a third region1005. The first region1001is adjacent to the second region1003so as to form a first domain1002between the first region1001and the second region1003, and the second region1003is adjacent to the third region1005so as to form a second domain1004between the second region1003and the third region1005. The first region1001has a first spin polarization1031, the second region has a second spin polarization1033, and the third region1005has a third spin polarization1035. Each of the first spin polarization1031, the second spin polarization1033, and the third spin polarization1035can be up or down. However, the first spin polarization1031and the third spin polarization1035are identical or parallel to each other. The ferromagnetic semiconductor material1050is in a first non-volatile state when the second spin polarization1033of the second region1003is opposite to the first spin polarization1031of the first region1001(and the third region1005) as shown in FIG.10. The ferromagnetic semiconductor material1050is in a second non-volatile state when the second spin polarization1933of the second region1003is aligned to the first spin polarization1031of the first region1001(and the third region1005) as shown in FIG.11. Each of the first and second non-volatile states can represent a binary value such as a “0” or “1”.

In operation, a chip containing a spin transistor1000which is in one non-volatile state can be subjected to a magnetic field to cause the state of the ferromagnetic semiconductor material to alter from one of the first and second non-volatile states to, another, thereby generating a new binary value relating to a new input logic signal. The new binary value relating to a new input logic signal can be stored so as to reprogram a logic process. In the embodiment as shown inFIGS. 10 and 11, the state is changed from a transistor configuration as shown inFIG. 10to a “wire” configuration as shown inFIG. 11indicating a new logic process is implemented. More complicated process can be implemented through a plurality of unipolar spin transistors.

The invention may be further understood by reference to the following illustrative samples and corresponding discussions. Some theoretical aspects of the invention are given to help a reader to understand the invention. However, we do not intend to be bound by any theory of device operation and we note that the theory of device operation for both diode and transistor is independent of the microscopic nature of current (both spin and charge) transport in the diode and transistor.

Further Disclosure and Discussion of the Invention

Among other things, the present invention provides two fundamental devices. The first, as discussed above, is a spin diode such as spin diode100as shown inFIG. 1that has two layers with anti-parallel majority carrier spin polarization and is in many ways similar to the MTJ devices based on metals. The second is a three-layer configuration with alternating majority carrier spin polarization, which has been identified as a spin transistor300as shown in FIG.3. These two devices can function in a similar way to GMR or MTJ devices, in which the resistance of the device changes due to a change in the magnetization direction of one layer. As the parallel configuration (or “low-resistance state”) would be of higher resistance than that of the GMR or MTJ devices, these devices should use less power in nonvolatile memory applications.

Among many of the novel aspects of these devices, we will emphasize in this section the presence of charge current gain in the spin transistor and the sensitivity of this gain to magnetic field. Specifically, the I-V characteristics—unlike those of devices based on magnetic metals available in prior art—are inherently nonlinear. This provides new modes of operation of these devices in a variety of applications including reprogrammable logic, nonvolatile memory, and magnetic sensing.

In our presentation of the current-voltage characteristics of the spin transistor we will frequently allude to a fundamental analogy between unipolar ferromagnetic semiconductors and nonmagnetic bipolar materials. This analogy is best visualized in the relationship between a spin diode and the traditional p-n diode. Shown in FIG.5(a) are the band edges501,503of the conduction and valence band for a traditional p-n diode500in equilibrium, respectively. The quasifermi levels505are shown as dashed lines. To assist in exploring the analogy with the spin diode100, FIG.5(b) shows the energies of the elementary carriers in those bands: conduction electrons507and valence holes509. This unfamiliar diagram is obtained merely by noting that the energy of a hole in the valence band is the negative of the energy of the valence electron (relative to the chemical potential). We introduce FIG.5(b) in order to point out the similarities with the band edges for the spin diode100. Shown in FIG.5(c) are those band edges510,512, which are also the carrier energies. Just, as for the p-n diode, in the unipolar spin diode100the majority carriers on one side are the minority carriers on the other side.

A major difference, however, is that the two types of carriers in the p-n diode500have opposite charge, whereas in the spin diode100they have the same charge. One implication of this difference is that in the p-n diode500the interface502or domain between the layers is a charge depletion layer whereas in the spin diode100the interface102is a spin depletion layer. The difference in physics between the two cases will be explored more below. Another major difference resulting from the charges of the carriers is the way the carrier energies shift under bias.

In the p-n diode500under forward bias the barriers for both valence hole and conduction electron transport across the junction are reduced. As shown in FIGS.5(d,e) this fact leads to an increase in the conduction electron current521to the left and the valence hole current523to the right. Because the carriers have opposite charge, both increases result in an increased charge current525to the right. For the spin diode100only the barrier for spin up electrons moving to the left is reduced—the barrier for spin down electrons moving to the right is increased. The charge current535is thus directed to the right and the spin current537to the left. Under reverse bias the barriers for carrier transport are both increased in the p-n diode100(FIGS.5(g,h)), yielding rectification of the charge current. For the spin diode (FIG.5(i)), as before one barrier is reduced and the other increased. Thus the charge current is not rectified but the spin current is applying analogous assumptions to the Shockley assumptions for an ideal diode (the validity of these assumptions will be discussed below), we find the charge current density Jqand the spin current density Jsdepend on the voltage V according to:
Jq=2qJosinh(qV/kT),  (1)
Js=2hJosinh(qV/2kT),×sinh(qV/2kT),  (2)
where Jo=D nm/Lmq is the electron charge, V is the voltage, k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the temperature, h is the Planck's constant, D is the diffusion Constant, nmis tile minority carrier density, and Lmis the minority spin diffusion length. The resulting spin polarization of tile current is
P=(2qJs/hJq)=tanh(qV/2kT).  (3)

Thus the spin polarization approaches unity as V gets large, and approaches 0 for small V. The relative directions of the charge and spin Currents are shown onFIG. 5for the cases of forward and reverse bias.

Tunneling occurs in the spin diode, as it can in the p-n diode, but with somewhat different character. For voltages smaller than the spin splitting of minority and majority carriers tunneling is very weak. For voltages larger than this, tunneling is much more probable. This characteristic may help make a symmetric voltage regulator, with a maximum voltage determined by the spin splitting (which can be influenced by an external magnetic field).

For ease of use as components in integrated circuits, a magneto electronic device should allow for magnetic manipulation of the charge current gain—to achieve this we describe the spin transistor300, shown inFIGS. 3 and 6, in addition to the discussion above. Analyzing this structure in a similar way to a bipolar nonmagnetic transistor, the collector current density is
IC=−[qJo/sinh(W/L)][(exp(−qVEB/kT)−1)−(exp(−qVCB/kT)−1)cosh(W/L)]+−[qJo/L][exp(−qVCB/kT)−1],  (4)
and the emitter current is
IE=−[qJo/sinh(W/L)][exp(−qVEB/kT)−1)cosh(W/L)−(exp(−qVCB/kT)−1)]++[qJo][exp(−qVEB/kT)−1].  (5)

The base width is W, the voltage between emitter and base is VBE, and the voltage between collector and base is VCB. The base current is IB=IE−IC. When W/L is small, IB<<IC, which is the desired situation for transistor operation (current gain IC/IB>>1). For appropriate values of VEBand VCB(VEB<0 and VCB>0)
IC=−[qJo/sinh(W/L)][(exp(−qVEB/kT)−1)+cosh(W/L)]−[qJo][exp(−qVCB/kT)−1],  (6)
and the emitter current is
IE=−[qJo/sinh(W/L)][(exp(−qVEB/kT)−1)cosh(W/L)+1]−[qJo].  (7)

The “emitter efficiency” γ, defined as the ratio of the majority spin-direction charge current IE↓to the total emitter current IE[13], is [1=exp(−qVEB/kT)] and thus very close to one. However, in contrast to bipolar nonmagnetic transistors, the “collector multiplication factor” M, defined as the ratio between the full collector current ICand the majority spin-direction charge current IC↓[13], is given by
M=1+sinh(W/L)exp[q(VCB+VEB)/kT],(8)
which is close to 1 only if W/L is small.

Thus we have shown that it should be possible to program a logical circuit which behaves like a bipolar logical circuit, using a uniformly-doped unipolar magnetic material. The “p”—like regions correspond to regions with the magnetization pointing one way (z) and the “n”—like regions correspond to region with the magnetization pointing along direction (−z). Such logical circuits can include memory circuits, thus indicating that nonvolatile memory can be constructed as discussed above. The orientation of the magnetic domains can be straightforwardly performed in a lateral geometry using similar techniques as for magnetic metallic memories [1]. By incorporating both the logical elements and the connections between them in a single architecture, fabrication of such devices should be more straightforward than a hybrid magnetic metal and semiconductor electronic device architecture.

We now turn to magnetic sensing applications. For GMR and MTJ devices the sensing is performed by allowing the magnetization of one layer to rotate easily in the presence of an external field, and observing the resistance change. Of course the spin diode could perform this way as well. The spin transistor, however, can detect magnetic fields sensitively even when the magnetization direction of the semiconductor layers is unchanged.

The effect of an external magnetic field on any section of the spin transistor300is principally to shift the minority band edge. If the chemical potential is pinned by the external circuit the majority band edge does not move significantly. Thus the spin transistor300is a minority-spin device (in contrast to the “spin field-effect transistor” [14], which is a majority-spin device). The collector and emitter currents in the presence of magnetic fields BE, BB, and BCapplied to the emitter, the base, and the collector respectively are

Here g is the g-factor and μ is the magnetic moment of the electron. These currents depend exponentially on the magnetic fields applied to the base and the collector, but not on the emitter field BE. Materials such as BeMnZnSe have g-factors close to 1000 [7], thus yielding a change in current of roughly 0.01% per gauss at room temperature, however materials with still larger g-factors may yet be found (typical sensitivity of GMR, devices is 1% galiss). We also note that an electrically isolated magnetic field amplifier can be employed—namely a small magnetic element which is free to rotate in response to the external field, and can produce a larger field at the spin transistor base layer, or the base magnetization itself can be rotated.

We now revisit the Shockley assumptions for an ideal diode according to the present invention, noting that a diode100according to the present invention need not be perfect to operate. These are (1) the bulk of the voltage drop takes place across the depletion region, (2) the Boltzmann approximation for transport is valid, (3) the minority carrier densities are small compared to majority carrier densities, and (4) no generation currents exist in the depletion layer. Assumption (1) causes the greatest concern. The depletion region102in the spin diode100is very different than that of the p-n diode500. In the p-n diode500the thickness of the charge depletion region502is set by the doping levels in the two regions504,506and the band gap of the material. In the spin diode100the spin depletion region102is probably a Néel wall, and its thickness is set by the ratio between the magnetic anisotropy energy and the magnetic stiffness. The anisotropy energy can be adjusted through shape engineering. For optimal device performance of spin diodes and transistors, the domain wall should be very thin. In this limit, the spins of carriers passing through the domain wall will not process. When the domain wall is very thick, however, the electron spin will follow adiabatically the direction of the macroscopic magnetization and the device will believe like an ordinary metallic conductor, where the voltage drop is uniformly distributed along the device. In the general case, there is a finite probability that the electrons emerge from the spin depletion region with their spins flipped. We have analyzed this case and find that, due to the high resistivity of the no-spin-flip channel, the voltage drop still takes place mostly across the spin depletion region (assuming, of course, that spin coherence is maintained across the region), unless the probability of no spin flip is utterly negligible. The latter case can occur if majority spin orientation carriers from one side of the junction can directly tunnel into the majority spin orientation band of the opposite side, as opposed to being thermally excited above the exchange barrier into the minority spin orientation band. If loss of spin coherence become a serious problem, the domain wall can be replaced by a nonmagnetic region, as is currently done in MTJs. In the presence of the nonmagnetic region, the relevant length is the spin coherence length, which can be quite long.

The remaining three assumptions are of less concern. Assumption (2) commonly holds in semiconductor devices so long as the applied voltage is not too large. If the spin splitting in the magnetic regions is sufficiently large compared to the operation temperature then assumption (3) will hold. Assumption (4) relies on the spin coherence time greatly exceeding the transit time through the depletion region (for the spin diode) or the base (for the spin transistor). Measurements of long spin coherence times in semiconductors near room temperature [15,16] indicate this assumption is reasonable.

Other aspects of the invention may be found from the attached drawings and other related materials such as text in the drawings, which are an integral part of this disclosure. Moreover, other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein. Additionally, more background information can be found in the attached list of references. It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only.

While there has been shown preferred and alternate embodiments of the present invention, it is to be understood that certain changes can be made in the form and arrangement of the elements of the system and steps of the method as would be know to one skilled in the art without departing from the underlying scope of the invention as is particularly set forth in the Claims. Furthermore, the embodiments described above are only intended to illustrate the principles of the present invention and are not intended to limit the claims to the disclosed elements.

CITATIONS