Field assisted transformation of chemical and material compositions

Methods and devices for transforming less desirable chemical species into more desirable or useful chemical forms are disclosed. The specifications can be used to treat pollutants into more benign compositions and to produce useful chemicals from raw materials and wastes. The methods and devices disclosed utilize continuous or temporary pulse of electrical current induced by electromagnetic field and high surface area formulations. The invention can also be applied to improve the performance of existing catalysts and to prepare novel devices.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
 1. Field of the Invention
 The present invention relates, in general, to catalytic processing and
 devices for catalytic processing, and, more particularly, to a method and
 apparatus for enhanced catalytic processing using nanomaterial catalyst
 compositions in an electric field.
 2. Relevant Background
 Chemical and materials synthesis and transformation is one of the core
 industries of world economy. Numerous substances are synthesized using
 processes that require non-ambient temperatures and/or non-ambient
 pressures that require capital intensive equipment. Methods that can
 produce useful chemicals and materials at conditions closer to ambient
 conditions and use simple equipment are economically, ecologically, and
 environmentally more desirable.
 Chemical species such as volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), heavy metals in
 waste water and bioactive chemicals are pollutants of serious concern. A
 need exists for processes and devices that can convert these substances
 into more benign forms such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. Techniques
 currently in use include incineration, absorption/desorption, chemical
 wash and photocatalysis. Incineration is a high energy process and often
 leads to non-benign secondary emissions such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
 unburned hydrocarbons. Photocatalysis systems are expensive to install and
 require high maintenance to avoid degrading efficiencies and treatment
 reliability. Other techniques lead to secondary wastes and leave the
 ultimate fate of the pollutants unresolved. A technique is needed that can
 reliably treat chemical pollutants in a cost effective manner.
 Numerous industries use catalytic processing techniques either to produce
 useful materials and compositions or to reduce waste or pollutants.
 Examples of such industries include those based on electricity generation,
 turbines, internal combustion engines, environmental and ecological
 protection, polymer and plastics manufacturing, petrochemical synthesis,
 specialty chemicals manufacturing, fuel production, batteries, biomedical
 devices, and pharmaceutical production. These industries are in continuous
 need of new catalysts and catalytic processes that can impact the costs
 and performance of the products generated by these industries.
 Currently, processes and methods based on homogeneous and heterogeneous
 catalysis are integral and important to modern industrial, energy, and
 environmental chemistry. In petroleum and petrochemical industries,
 catalysis is used in numerous purification, refining, cracking, and/or
 reaction steps. In the purification of synthetic gaseous and liquid fuels
 from crude oil, coal, tar sand, and oil shale, catalysis is important.
 Approximately two thirds of leading the large tonnage chemicals are
 manufactured with the help of catalysis. Illustrative examples include
 acetic acid, acetaldehyde, acetone, acryolonitrile, adipic acid, ammonia,
 aniline, benzene, bisphenol A, butadiene, butanols, butanone, caprolactum,
 cumene, cyclohexane, cyclohexanone, cyclohexanol, phtalates,
 dodecylbenzene, ethanol, ethers, ethylbenzene, ethanol, methanol,
 ethylbenzene, ethylene dichloride, ethylene glycol, ethylene oxide, ethyl
 chloride, ethyl hexanol, formaldehyde, hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide,
 hydroxylamine, isoprene, isopropanol, maleic anhydride, methyl amines,
 methyl chloride, methylene chloride, nitric acid, perchloroethylene,
 phenol, phthalic anhydride, propylene glycol, propylene oxide, styrene,
 sulfur, sulfuric acid, acids, alkalis, terephthalic acid, toluene, vinyl
 acetate, vinyl chloride, and xylenes.
 Further, most of the production of organic intermediates used to make
 plastics, elastomers, fibers, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, resins,
 and pigments involve catalytic process steps. Food, drinks, clothing,
 metals, and materials manufacturing often utilizes catalysts. Removal of
 atmospheric pollutants from automobile exhausts and industrial waste gases
 requires catalytic converters. Liquid wastes and stream also are routinely
 treated with catalysts. These applications need techniques, methods, and
 devices that can help research, identify, develop, optimize, improve, and
 practice superior performing catalysts of existing formulations, of
 evolved formulations, and of novel formulations.
 Many new products are impractical to produce due to high manufacturing
 costs and/or low manufacturing yields of the materials that enable the
 production of such products. These limitations curtail the wide
 application of new materials. Novel catalysts can enable the production of
 products that are currently too expensive to manufacture or impossible to
 produce for wide ranges of applications that were, until now, cost
 prohibitive. A need exists for techniques to develop such novel catalysts.
 The above and other limitations are solved by a chemical transformation
 device and method for processing chemical compositions that provides
 efficient, robust operation yet is implemented with a simplicity of design
 that enables low cost implementation in a wide variety of applications.
 These and other limitations are also solved by a method for making a
 chemical transformation device using cost efficient processes and
 techniques.
 SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
 In one aspect, the invention includes a method of chemically transforming a
 substance through the simultaneous use of a catalyst and electrical
 current. This method comprises selecting an active material which
 interacts with an applied electromagnetic field to produce a current. A
 high surface area (preferably greater than 1 square centimeter per gram,
 more preferably 100 square centimeter per gram, and most preferably 1
 square meter per gram) form of the active material is prepared. The active
 material is formed into a single layer or multilayered structure that is
 preferably porous. The stream containing substance that needs to be
 transformed is exposed to the active material structure while charge flow
 is induced by the applied electromagnetic field. Where appropriate, the
 product stream is collected after such exposure.
 In a related aspect, the invention comprises a method of manufacturing a
 device comprising an active material preferably with high band gap
 (preferably greater than 0.5 eV, more preferably 1.5 eV, most preferably
 2.5 eV). The active material is preferably provided a high surface area
 form such as a nanostructured material or a nanocomposite or a high
 internal porosity material. A porous structure comprising at least one
 layer, such as a thin film layer, of the active material and electrodes
 positioned on the at least one layer to enable an electromagnetic field to
 be applied across the at least one layer. It is preferred that the
 resistance of the device between the electrodes be between 0.001 milliohm
 to 100 megaohm per unit ampere of current flowing through the device, more
 preferably between 0.01 milliohm to 10 megaohm per unit ampere of current
 flowing through the device, and most preferably 1 milliohm to 1 megaohm
 per unit ampere of current flowing through the device.
 In case the current flow measure is not known or difficult to measure, it
 is preferred that the corresponding power consumption levels for the
 device be used to practice this invention. To illustrate, in case of
 electromagnetic field is externally applied, then it is preferred that the
 power consumption due to device operation be between 0.001 milliwatt to
 100 megawatt. While miniature, thin film, and micromachined devices may
 utilize power less than these and applications may use power higher than
 these levels, and such applications are herewith included in the scope of
 this invention, in all cases, design and/or operation that leads to lower
 power requirement is favored to minimize the operating costs by the
 device. Higher resistances may be used when the chemical transformation
 step so requires. In case, alternating current is used, the overall
 impedance of the device must be kept low to reduce energy consumption and
 operating costs. Once again, the yield, the selectivity, the operating
 costs and the capital costs of the device must be considered in designing,
 selecting, and operating the device.
 In another aspect, the present invention provides methods to efficiently
 provide localized thermal or potential energy at the surface of a
 catalyst. Additionally, the present invention offers a method of reducing
 or preventing the need for external thermal energy input.
 In yet another aspect, the present invention provides methods for the
 preparation of a device for chemically transforming a species through the
 use of electromagnetic field. Additionally, the present invention
 describes products prepared using such devices for chemically transforming
 a species with electromagnetic field. In another aspect, the present
 invention describes applications of novel fluid and chemical composition
 transformation technique.
 METHOD OF OPERATION
 The device is operated by placing the active material in a direct current
 or alternating current electrical circuit that leads to flow of charge.
 The charge flow can be through flow of electrons, flow of ions, or flow of
 holes. In one embodiment, it is preferred that during operation, the
 circuit be switched on first such that charges begin to flow in the
 circuit. Next, feed material is exposed to the active material for
 duration desired and the products resulting from such exposure are
 collected. In another embodiment it is preferred that the feed material be
 in contact with the active material catalyst first, next the flow of
 charge is initiated by switching on the electrical circuit. In yet another
 embodiment, the circuit is switched on to induce flow of charge that
 initiates the desired reaction which is then followed by changing the
 electromagnetic field that best favors the performance of the catalyst,
 the yield, the selectivity, the operating costs and the capital costs of
 the device. In another embodiment, the circuit is operating in a time
 varying or pulsating or pre-programmed switching on and off of the
 electrical circuit to induce corresponding flow of charge through the
 active material.
 In one or more embodiments, the device may be cooled or heated using
 secondary sources, pressurized or evacuated using secondary sources,
 photonically and optically activated or isolated using secondary sources,
 laser activated or field influenced using secondary sources, gas, liquid,
 solid, ion, or energy influenced using secondary sources. The device may
 be heated or cooled to desired temperature through resistive or convective
 or radiative heating for illustration, pressurized or evacuated to desired
 pressure through piezo effects for illustration, photonically and
 optically activated to desired photonic influence through phosphorescence
 affects for illustration. The device may assist such functions by design
 through the use of the electrical current directly, i.e. the current
 affects the catalyst and also enables such desired state variables. The
 device may be free standing or fully supported or partially supported. The
 device may be operated in steady state, unsteady state, pulsed mode,
 continuous or batch mode, symmetric waveforms, asymmetric waveforms, in
 motion or in stationary state.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
 The present invention involves all phases of catalytic processing including
 devices for performing catalytic processing, methods of making devices for
 catalytic processing, and methods for operating devices to perform
 catalytic processing. The present invention is described in terms of
 several specific examples but it is readily appreciated that the present
 invention can be modified in a predictable manner to meet the needs of a
 particular application. Except as otherwise noted herein, the specific
 examples shown herein are not limitations on the basic teachings of the
 present invention but are instead merely illustrative examples that aid
 understanding.
 Specific examples in this specification involve application of nanomaterial
 catalysts in thin films that are self-supporting or supported by membranes
 or substrates. This technique in accordance with the present invention
 reduces the thermal mass of the catalytic system comprising the catalyst
 and its supporting structure. It has been found that catalytic behavior is
 significantly enhanced by procedures and structures that reduce the
 system's thermal mass while increasing surface area of the catalyst. The
 specification suggests reasons why the various examples behave in the
 manner observed, however, these explanations provided to improve
 understanding are not to be construed as limitations on the teachings of
 the present invention.
 In some of the examples given herein, the induced flow of charge results in
 localized phenomena such as localized increase and/or decrease in charge
 flow or localized electric field variations and/or localized heating
 within the nanomaterial film. The local areas in which these phenomena are
 concentrated are called "hot spots". Hotspots correspond to local areas of
 high catalytic activity. The localized phenomena result from random or
 intentionally created variations in the nanomaterial film, for example,
 that restrict or concentrate current flow, electric field, phonon
 interaction, thermal energy, or the like. It has been observed that in
 some applications hotspots, once created, can sustain catalytic activity
 in the absence of an externally applied electromagnetic field.
 The present invention is described using terms of defined below:
 "Catalysis," as the term used herein, is the acceleration of any physical
 or chemical or biological reaction by a small quantity of a
 substance--herein referred to as "catalyst"--the amount and nature of
 which remain essentially unchanged during the reaction. Alternatively, the
 term, includes applications where the catalyst can be regenerated or its
 nature essentially restored after the reaction by any suitable means such
 as but not limiting to heating, pressure, oxidation, reduction, and
 microbial action. For teachings contained herein, a raw material is
 considered catalyzed by a substance into a product if the substance is a
 catalyst for one or more intermediate steps of associated physical or
 chemical or biological reaction.
 "Chemical transformation," as the term used herein, is the rearrangement,
 change, addition, or removal of chemical bonds in any substance or
 substances such as but not limiting to compounds, chemicals, materials,
 fuels, pollutants, biomaterials, biochemicals, and biologically active
 species. The terms also includes bonds that some in the art prefer to not
 call as chemical bonds such as but not limiting to Van der Waals bonds and
 hydrogen bonds.
 "Nanomaterials," as the term is used herein, are substances having a domain
 size of less than 250 nm, preferably less than 100 nm, or alternatively,
 having a domain size sufficiently small that a selected material property
 is substantially different (e.g., different in kind or magnitude) from
 that of a micron-scale material of the same composition due to size
 confinement effects. For example, a property may differ by about 20% or
 more from the same property for an analogous micron-scale material. In
 case the domain size is difficult to measure or difficult to define such
 as in porous networks, this term used herein refers to substances that
 have interface area greater than 1 square centimeter per gram of the
 substance. The ratio of the maximum domain dimension to minimum domain
 dimension in the catalyst for this invention is greater than or equal to
 1. The term nanomaterials includes coated, partially coated, fully coated,
 island, uncoated, hollow, porous, and dense domains. Furthermore,
 nanomaterials may be produced by any method to practice this invention.
 "Domain size," as the term is used herein, is the minimum dimension of a
 particular material morphology. The domain size of a powder is the grain
 size. The domain size of a whisker or fiber is the diameter, and the
 domain size of a film or plate is the thickness.
 "Confinement size" of a material, as the term is used herein in reference
 to a fundamental or derived property of interest, is the mean domain size
 below which the property becomes a function of the domain size in the
 material.
 "Activity" of a catalyst, as the term used herein, is a measure of the rate
 of conversion of the starting material by the catalyst.
 "Selectivity" o f a catalyst, as the term used herein, is a measure of the
 relative rate of formation of each product from two or more competing
 reactions. Often, selectivity of a specific product is of interest, though
 multiple products may interest some applications.
 "Stability" of a catalyst, as the term used herein, is a measure of the
 catalyst's ability to retain useful life, activity and selectivity above
 predetermined levels in presence of factors that can cause chemical,
 thermal, or mechanical degradation or decomposition. Illustrative, but not
 limiting, factors include coking, poisoning, oxidation, reduction, thermal
 run away, expansion-contraction, flow, handling, and charging of catalyst.
 "Porous" as used herein means a structure with sufficient interstitial
 space to allow transport of reactant and product materials within the
 structure to expose the reactant materials to the constituent compositions
 making up the porous structure.
 FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of the present invention in its most basic
 form. Essentially, an active layer 101 is sandwiched between two
 electrodes 102. Active layer 101 comprises a material that either as
 applied or as later modified by postprocessing acts as a catalyst for to
 convert a particular feed composition into a desired product composition.
 The dimensions and geometry of active layer 101 are selected to provide
 both sufficient exposure to a feed composition (i.e., a composition that
 is to be catalyzed) and to allow an impeded current flow between
 electrodes 102 when an electromagnetic field is applied across electrodes
 102.
 Although specific examples of materials suitable for active layer 101 are
 set out below, active layer 101 more generally comprises a material that
 is an active catalyst for a desired reaction when activated by an applied
 electric field. The properties of active layer 101 are selected to allow
 active layer 101 to both support an electric field and conduct current. It
 is not necessary that active layer 101 be active as a catalyst at ambient
 conditions. However, in some embodiments, the active layer 101 may have
 catalytic activity in ambient or non-ambient conditions even when an
 electric field is not applied between electrodes 102.
 FIG. 2 illustrates a preferred alternative configuration in which
 electrodes 202 and active layers 201 are arranged in a multilayer or
 interdigitated structure. The structure shown in FIG. 2 provides greater
 interface area between electrodes 202 and active layers 201 as compared to
 the embodiment shown in FIG. 1. The structures shown in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2,
 as well as other structural variants that enable the electrode-active
 layer interaction described herein, are considered equivalent for purposes
 of the present invention unless specifically indicated otherwise.
 In case the resistive component between electrodes 202 is the mechanistic
 impedance limiting the performance of the device, the parallel multilayer
 structure shown in FIG. 2 can reduce the impedance of the chemical
 transformation device in accordance with the present invention. The
 individual active layers 101 or electrodes can be the same or different
 formulation. It is contemplated that one or more active layers 101 may be
 replaced by a material capable of a secondary but desired function. For
 example, one active layer 101 can be replaced with a resistive composition
 by design to provide heat to the device. In some embodiments it may be
 desirable to have one or more active layers replaced with EMI
 (electromagnetic interference) filter layers to shield or affect the
 active layer from inductively or capacitively coupling with the
 environment. In another embodiment, one of the layers can be air or an
 insulating layer in order to provide thermal isolation to the active
 layer. In yet another embodiment, sensing layers may be provided to sense
 the concentration of one or more species in the feed or processed or
 recycle stream. In yet another embodiment, electrochemical couple layers
 may be provided to internally generated electricity and energy needed to
 satisfactorily operate the device. In other embodiments, the electrode
 layers can function as anodes and cathodes. In some embodiments, the
 device may be a minor part of the multilaminate device and the device
 containing device can have primary function of reliably providing an
 electrical, thermal, magnetic, electromagnetic, optical, or structural
 function in an application. The active layer can also comprise
 multilaminates of different material formulations.
 A method for preparing a chemical composition transformation device in
 accordance with the present invention involves selecting an active
 material comprising a surface that physically, chemically, or biologically
 interacts with the substance that is desired to be transformed or with one
 of the intermediates of such substance. The active material is prepared in
 a high surface area form (i.e., a form that exhibits a surface area of
 preferably greater than 1 square centimeter per gram, more preferably 100
 square centimeter per gram, and most preferably 1 square meter per gram).
 It is believed that the present invention is enhanced by the interaction
 between the surface area of particles making up the active layer 101 and
 the applied electromagnetic field. Accordingly, a higher surface area form
 tends to increase desirable catalytic behavior for a given quantity of
 material.
 FIG. 3 illustrates basic steps in an exemplary process for manufacturing a
 catalytic device in accordance with the present invention. The active
 material, usually prepared as a powder or powder mixture in step 301 and
 then optionally blended with additional compositions to form, a slurry,
 ink or paste for screen printing in step 305. In step 305 the active
 material is directly or alternatively formed into a film, pellet, or
 multilayer structure comprising the active material. The film, pellet, or
 multilayer structure may be prepared as free standing or on a substrate.
 The active layer structure may be porous or the structure may be
 non-porous. It is preferred that the device be porous to reduce pressure
 drop and enhance contact of the active element with the chemical species
 of interest. Table 1 lists some catalysts and pore size ranges to
 illustrate but not limit the scope:
 TABLE 1
 Catalyst Types and Pore Sizes
 Average Pore Radius
 (1) Catalyst (.ANG.)
 Activated carbons 10-20
 Silica gels 15-100
 Silica-alumina cracking
 catalysts .about. 10-20% Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 15-150
 Silica-alumina (steam 155
 deactivated)
 Silica-magnesia microsphere:
 Nalco, 25% MgO 14.3
 Da-5 silica-magnesia 11.1
 Activated clays .about.100
 TCC clay pellets (MgO, CaO,
 Fe.sub.2 O.sub.3, SO.sub.4) = .about.10% 26.3
 Clays:
 Montmorrillonite (heated 25.2
 550.degree. C.) .about.314
 Vermiculite
 Activated alumina (Alorico) 45
 CoMo on alumina 20-40
 Kieselguhr (Celite 296) 11,000
 Fe-synthetic NH.sub.3 catalyst 200-1000
 Co-ThO.sub.2 -Kieselguhr&gt;
 100:18:100 (reduced) pellets 345
 Co-ThO.sub.2 -MgO (100:6:12)
 (reduced) granular 190
 Co-Kieselguhr 100:200
 (reduced) granular 2030
 Porous plate (Coors No.
 760), Pumice, Fused Copper 2150
 Catalyst, Ni Film, NI on
 Pumice
 In other embodiments, the structure may be smooth or wavy, flexible or
 rigid, homogeneous or heterogeneous, undoped or doped, flat or cylindrical
 or any other shape and form, nanostructured or non-nanostructured. In all
 cases, this invention prefers that the material compositions chosen be
 physically robust in presence of all species in its environment in
 particular and all environmental variables in general for a duration equal
 to or greater than the desired life for the device. In all cases, this
 invention requires that the material selected has a finite impedance in
 the presence of electromagnetic field.
 Once a suitable material composition has been selected for use in the
 chemical composition transformation device, in one embodiment, namely the
 formation of a chemical composition transformation device, a disc or body
 or single active layer laminated stack structure (as shown in FIG. 1) is
 formed, or in another embodiment a multilayer structure (as shown in FIG.
 2) is formed in step 305 from the selected active material.
 The active material layer formed in step 305 or structure or device form
 can be formed by any method or combination of methods, including but not
 limited to spin coating, dip coating, surface coating a porous structure,
 powder pressing, casting, screen printing, tape forming, precipitation,
 sol-gel forming, curtain deposition, physical sputtering, reactive
 sputtering, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, ion
 beam, e-beam deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, laser deposition, plasma
 deposition, electrophoretic deposition, magnetophoretic deposition,
 thermophoretic deposition, stamping, cold pressing, hot pressing,
 explosion, pressing with an additive and then removal of the additive by
 heat or solvents or supercritical fluids, physical or chemical routes,
 centrifugal casting, gel casting, investment casting, extrusion,
 electrochemical or electrolytic or electroless deposition, screen-stencil
 printing, stacking and laminating, brush painting, self-assembly, forming
 with biological processes, or a combination of one or more of the
 above-mentioned methods.
 The active material can be in film form or dispersed particle form or bulk
 form or wire form. The cross section area of the active material structure
 can be few microns square to thousands of meters square depending on the
 needs of the application. In a preferred embodiment, the active material
 can also be doped with available promoters and additives to further
 enhance the device's performance. In another preferred embodiment, the
 active material can also be mixed with inert elements and compositions and
 insulating formulations to further reduce capital or operating costs such
 as those from raw materials and pressure drop.
 In a preferred embodiment, the catalyst is applied in a form and structure
 that minimizes the thermal mass of the system. In this regard, the
 catalyst and any supporting substrate(s) are considered components of the
 system. A given system's effectiveness is related to the surface area of
 catalyst that participates in the reaction. Thin film or thick film
 catalyst layers provide large surface area compared to bulk or pellet
 forms using a smaller amount of catalyst.
 FIG. 1 generally illustrates a thick film or thin film implementation. FIG.
 5 shows a specific implementation in which a substrate 501 such as a
 ceramic or glass slide, for example, that supports patterned electrodes
 502 and active layer or layers 503. FIG. 6 shows an example in which the
 active layer 601 is self supporting, or supported by a thin membrane
 rather than a substrate 501. In each case, the system is implemented to
 provide substantial surface area exposure of the active layer 601 while
 providing a low thermal mass for the entire system.
 In contrast to bulk or pellet catalyst shapes, thin film catalyst layers
 reduce the mass of catalyst needed which can reduce the capital cost of
 catalyst. Furthermore, it is preferred that the phonon pathways be
 minimized to reduce heat loss. One method of accomplishing this is to coat
 any and all surfaces of a substrate (for example, both major surfaces of a
 flat substrate 501). These techniques reduce the electrical energy needed
 to keep the catalyst at a given temperature and given operating condition.
 Less thermal mass and smaller area for conductive or convective or
 radiative thermal transport can decrease the cost of electrical energy
 needed for given yield or selectivity.
 Another technique for reducing thermal mass is to minimize the mass of the
 supporting substrate(s). This can be done, for example, by forming a
 free-standing membrane from the catalyst material such as shown in FIG. 6.
 In other cases, reducing the substrate's thickness or heat capacity can
 help achieve this goal. In yet other cases, porous substrates or
 composites can help achieve these goals by providing greater surface area
 with which to coat with the catalyst. These techniques in accordance with
 the present invention are useful in applications in which it is desirable
 to reduce the amount of energy input per unit product produced, and
 correspondingly reduce the cost, complexity, and overhead associated with
 higher input energy systems.
 In another embodiment, the catalyst 701 is applied as a film with
 predefined areas or spots 702 that can provide localized heating. Electric
 current is used to locally heat by passing current between spots 702 and a
 conductive backplane 703 such that the predefined areas heat to a
 temperature that triggers the desired reaction, or to otherwise create
 local conditions in the region of the predefined areas that favor the
 start of the desired reaction. Once the reaction begins, the electric
 current is maintained, or reduced, or continuously or periodically shut
 off to reduce operating costs. The chemical transformation is allowed to
 continue with the assistance of or in the presence of the localized
 heating. Convective or forced gas flows, turbulent or laminar gas flow,
 insulation, pre-heating, external energy input may be applied to maintain
 the catalytic surface at conditions that favor the desired economics and
 product distribution.
 In another preferred embodiment, the active layer comprises functional
 materials such as those that provide thermal, sensing, pressure, charge,
 field, photons, structural, regeneration or other needed functions.
 Secondary treatments of the active material through sintering,
 pressurization, doping, chemical reactions, solid state reaction, self
 propagating combustion, reduction, oxidation, hydrogenation, and such
 treatments may enhance the performance of the active layer.
 Possible compositions of the active material include but are not limited to
 one or more of the following materials: dielectrics, ferrites, organics,
 inorganics, metals, semimetals, alloy, ceramic, conducting polymer,
 non-conducting polymer, ion conducting, non-metallic, ceramic-ceramic
 composite, ceramic-polymer composite, ceramic-metal composite,
 metal-polymer composite, polymer-polymer composite, metal-metal composite,
 processed materials including paper and fibers, and natural materials such
 as mica, percolated composites, powder composites, whisker composites, or
 a combination of one or more of these. Illustrative formulations include
 but are not limited to doped or undoped, stoichiometric or
 non-stoichiometric alloy or compound of s-, p-, d-, and f-group of
 periodic table. Illustrative compositions that can be utilized in this
 invention as is or on substrates include one-metal or multi-metal oxides,
 nitrides, carbides, borides, indium tin oxide, antimony tin oxide, rare
 earth oxides, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, molybdenum carbide,
 bismuth telluride, gallium nitride, silicon, germanium, iron oxide,
 titanium boride, titanium nitride, molybdenum nitride, vanadium nitride,
 zirconium nitride, zirconium boride, lanthanum boride, iron boride,
 zirconates, aluminates, tungstates, carbides, silicides, borates,
 hydrides, oxynitrides, oxycarbides, carbonitrides, halides, silicates,
 zeolites, self-assembled materials, cage structured materials, fullerene
 materials, nanotube materials, phosphides, nitrides, chalcogenides,
 dielectrics, ferrites, precious metals and alloys, non-precious metals and
 alloys, bimetal and polymetal systems, ceramics, halogen doped ceramics
 (such as, but not limiting to fluorine doped tin oxide), stoichiometric or
 non-stoichiometric compositions, stable and metastable compositions,
 dispersed systems, dendrimers, polymers, enzymes, organometallics,
 bioactive molecules, and mixtures thereof. Some specific, but not
 limiting, examples are listed in Table 2A, 2B, and 2C.
 TABLE 2A
 Illustrative Metals and Semimetals
 Ru Rh Pd Ag
 Os Ir Pt Au
 Re W Zn Hg
 Fe Co Ni Cu
 Pb Bi Sb Sn
 Te Se As Cd
 Mo Ti Zr Ce
 TABLE 2A
 Illustrative Metals and Semimetals
 Ru Rh Pd Ag
 Os Ir Pt Au
 Re W Zn Hg
 Fe Co Ni Cu
 Pb Bi Sb Sn
 Te Se As Cd
 Mo Ti Zr Ce
 TABLE 2C
 Illustrative Oxide Ceramics
 CaO, SrO, BaO WO.sub.3,UO.sub.3 NiO, Cu.sub.2 O, CuO HgO, PbO.sub.2,
 Bi.sub.2 O.sub.5
 Al.sub.2 O.sub.3, SiO.sub.2, P.sub.2 O.sub.5 Ta.sub.2 O.sub.5, HfO.sub.2
 FeO, CoO, Co.sub.3 O.sub.4, Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3, MnO, Fe.sub.3 O.sub.4
 BeO, B.sub.2 O.sub.3, MgO Nb.sub.2 O.sub.5, MoO.sub.3 CdO, SnO.sub.2,
 Sb.sub.2 O.sub.5, ZnO, GeO.sub.2, As.sub.2 O.sub.5
 Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 --SiO.sub.2 HfO.sub.2, Fe.sub.2 O.sub.3 ZrO.sub.2
 --SiO.sub.2 Sc.sub.2 O.sub.3, TiO.sub.2
 BeO--SiO.sub.2 ZrO.sub.2, V.sub.2 O.sub.5 Y.sub.3 O.sub.3 --SiO.sub.2
 La.sub.2 O.sub.3 --SiO.sub.2
 Ga.sub.2 O.sub.3 --SiO.sub.2 MgO-SiO.sub.2 SnO.sub.3 --SiO.sub.2
 Sb.sub.3 O.sub.3 --SiO.sub.2
 Additionally, the formed active layer 101 can be porous or non-porous, flat
 or tapered, uniform or non-uniform, planar or wavy, straight or curved,
 non-patterned or patterned, micron or sub-micron, micromachined or bulk
 machined, grain sized confined or not, homogeneous or heterogeneous,
 spherical or non-spherical, unimodal or polymodal, or a combination of one
 or more of these.
 In a preferred embodiment, the electrode structures formed in steps 307 and
 309 and illustrated in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 as 102 and 202, may comprise any
 composition with a lower impedance than the active material composition.
 The composition of the electrode layer can include, but is not limited to,
 organic materials, inorganic materials, metallic, alloy, ceramic, polymer,
 non-metallic, ceramic-ceramic composite, ceramic-polymer composite,
 ceramic-metal composite, metal-polymer composite, polymer-polymer
 composite, metal-metal composite, or a combination of one or more of
 these. Geometries may be porous or dense, flat or tapered, uniform or
 non-uniform, planar or wavy, straight or curved, non-patterned or
 patterned, micron or sub-micron, grain size confined or not, or a
 combination of one or more of these.
 In the exemplary implementation outlined in FIG. 3, electrodes 102 and 202
 are formed by available press/coat/mask/print techniques in step 309
 followed by formation of green electrode layer(s) using, for example,
 printing techniques. Alternative methods of forming the electrode layers
 102 and 202 include any method including but not limited to spin coating,
 dip coating, surface coating a porous structure, powder pressing, casting,
 screen printing, tape forming, curtain deposition, physical sputtering,
 reactive sputtering, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition,
 ion beam, e-beam deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, laser deposition,
 plasma deposition, electrophoretic deposition, magnetophoretic deposition,
 thermophoretic deposition, stamping, cold pressing, hot pressing, pressing
 with an additive and then removal of the additive by heat or solvents or
 supercritical fluids, physical or chemical routes, placing metal plates or
 films on certain parts of the active material, inserting wire, chemically
 transforming section in the active layer, centrifugal casting, gel
 casting, investment casting, extrusion, electrochemical deposition,
 screen-stencil printing, stacking and laminating, brush painting,
 self-assembly, forming with biological processes, or a combination of one
 or more of the above-mentioned methods.
 After preparation of the stack, the stack may for some applications be cut
 cross sectionally into thin slices in step 313 to expose the layers of the
 active layer and the electrode. In another embodiment, one or more of step
 307, step 309, and step 313 may be skipped. In such cases, it is necessary
 that the equipment containing the catalytic device provide external
 electrodes or equivalent means in some form to enable the flow of charge
 through the active material. Finally, given the catalytic properties of
 the active layer, some of the steps in FIG. 3 may be assisted or
 accomplished through the use of said catalytic properties.
 Each slice obtained from step 313 in FIG. 3 is a device that can be used in
 a circuit shown as FIG. 4 to transform one or more species in a gas,
 vapor, liquid, supercritical fluid, solid or a combination of these. In
 step 315 the stack is calcined or sintered to reach structural robustness,
 consistency, and performance in the active material and green electrode
 layers.
 In one embodiment, the device is terminated by forming an electrical
 coupling to electrodes 102, 202 in step 317 enabling application of an
 external electrical field. In a preferred embodiment, it is desirable that
 the active material and the electrode layers be isolated from external
 environmental damage such as that from thermal, mechanical, chemical,
 electrical, magnetic, or radiation effects, or a combination of one or
 more of these. This desired protection may be achieved in step 317 by
 providing a conformal covering (not shown) over the layers on the
 unexposed surfaces, such as an polymer conformal protective layer. In
 another preferred embodiment, the exposed surface may also be isolated
 from external thermal, mechanical, chemical, electrical, magnetic, or
 radiation damage by covering with a layer of ceramic or porous rigid
 material mesh. In yet another preferred embodiment, the exposed surface
 may be covered with a layer that enhances the selectivity of the feed
 species reaching the active surface. Such a layer can include, but is not
 limited to, polymers, metals, zeolites, self-assembled materials, or
 porous media, each of which has a higher permeability for the analyte of
 interest and a lower permeability for other species that are not of
 interest. In some preferred embodiments the exposed surface is covered
 with polymers such as but not limiting to polyethylene, polypropylene,
 teflon, polycarbonates, or polyaromatics. However, it is generally
 preferable that any covering on the exposed surface does not impede the
 interaction of the analyte or analytes to be transformed with the active
 layer by an amount greater than the species that are not of interest.
 Exceptions to this general rule may be made in certain cases, for example,
 when it is critical to protect the element from destructive effects of the
 environment. In another embodiment, steps 317 and 319 may be skipped.
 FIG. 4 shows an exemplary chemical transformation system or reactor 400 in
 using the chemical transformation processes and devices in accordance with
 the present invention. The reactor 400 shown in FIG. 4 is notable for its
 simplicity due to the fact that high pressures and high temperatures are
 not required because of the superior performance of transformation device
 401 in accordance with the present invention. The electrodes of device 401
 are coupled in a circuit with power supply 402 so as to supply an
 electromagnetic field between the opposing electrodes of device 401. The
 circuit shown in FIG. 4 is illustrative; it may be replaced with any
 suitable circuit that can provide a flow of charge, internally (such as
 but not limiting to ohmic or ion flow or hole flow based current) or
 externally (such as but not limiting to eddy current or induced current
 from applied electromagnetic field) or both, in a given application.
 Power supply 402 may supply direct current, alternating current, or any
 other form of electromagnetic waveform. The charge may be induced to flow
 in the device when the device is wired or through the use of wireless
 techniques.
 The device 401 may include a single device such as shown in FIG. 1 and FIG.
 2 or an array of elements such as shown in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2. The
 electrodes of the device(s) 401 may alternatively provide means to connect
 the device to induce interaction with an externally induced field such as
 but not limited to radio frequency or microwave frequency waves, or the
 equivalent.
 Reactor 400 includes an inlet port 403 for receiving a feed stream and an
 outlet 404 producing a reactant stream. In operation, feed gas or liquid
 passes in contact with device 401 while power supply 402 is active and is
 transformed before passing from outlet 404. Device 401 shown in FIG. 4 may
 be placed in reactor 400 in various ways to manufacture and practice
 useful equipment such as, but not limiting to, obstrusive or
 non-obstrusive manner, as randomly or periodically arranged packed bed,
 with or without baffles to prevent short circuiting of feed, in open or
 closed reactors, inside pipes or separately designed unit, with
 accessories such as mixers, in a system that favors laminar or plug or
 turbulent or no flow, sealed or unsealed, isolated or non-isolated, heated
 or cooled, pressurized or evacuated, isothermal or non-isothermal,
 adiabatic or non-adiabatic, metal or plastic reactor, straight flow or
 recycle reactor, co-axial or counter-axial flow, and reactor or array of
 reactors that is/are available.
 Table 3 lists example reactor technologies that may be used in accordance
 with the present invention. To illustrate the scope without limiting it,
 some examples from the art are listed in Table 3 and some in Kirk-Othmer
 Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Reactor Technology, John Wiley &
 Sons, Vol 20, pp 1007-1059 (1993) which is hereby incorporated by
 reference.
 TABLE 3
 Illustrative reactor designs
 Stirred Tank Tubular Tower
 Fluidized Bed Batch Continuous
 Packed Bed Film Recycle
 Plug Flow Semibatch Non-ideal
 Membrane Bioreactor Multistage
 Applications
 The method and techniques disclosed can be applied to prepare catalysts and
 devices in manufacturing of useful chemicals and drugs. The superior
 performance of the method and device proposed for chemical composition
 transformation may be used to produce intermediates or final products.
 Some illustrative, but not limiting reaction paths where this invention
 can be applied are listed in Table 4. Reactions that utilize one or more
 elementary reaction paths in Table 4 can also benefit from the teachings
 herein. The benefits of such applications of teachings are many. To
 illustrate but not limit, the near ambient condition operation can reduce
 the cost and ease the ability to control chemical synthesis; it can in
 some cases lesser levels of thermal shocks during start ups and shut downs
 can enhance the robustness of the catalysts. In general the invention can
 be applied to produce useful materials from less value added materials,
 readily available raw materials, or waste streams.
 TABLE 4
 A + s .rarw..fwdarw. As 2A + s .rarw..fwdarw. A.sub.2 s A + 2s
 .rarw..fwdarw. 2A.sub.1/2 s
 As .rarw..fwdarw. Rs A.sub.2 s + s .rarw..fwdarw. 2As 2A.sub.1/2 s
 .rarw..fwdarw. Rs + s
 Rs .rarw..fwdarw. R + s As .rarw..fwdarw. Rs Rs .rarw..fwdarw. R + s
 Rs .rarw..fwdarw. R + s
 A + s .rarw..fwdarw. As A + s .rarw..fwdarw. As A + s .rarw..fwdarw. As
 As + s .rarw..fwdarw. Rs + Ss As .rarw..fwdarw. Rs + S B + s .rarw..fwdarw.
 Bs
 Rs .rarw..fwdarw. R + s Rs .rarw..fwdarw. R + s As + Bs .rarw..fwdarw. Rs +
 s
 Ss .rarw..fwdarw. S + s Rs .rarw..fwdarw. R + s
 A + s .rarw..fwdarw. As A + 2s .rarw..fwdarw. 2A.sub.1/2 s B + s
 .rarw..fwdarw. Bs
 B + s .rarw..fwdarw. Bs B + s .rarw..fwdarw. Bs A + Bs .rarw..fwdarw. Rs +
 S
 As + Bs .rarw..fwdarw. Rs + Ss 2A.sub.1/2 s + Bs .rarw..fwdarw. Rs + Rs
 .rarw..fwdarw. R + s
 Rs .rarw..fwdarw. R + s Ss + s
 Ss .rarw..fwdarw. S + s Rs .rarw..fwdarw. R + s
 Ss .rarw..fwdarw. S + s
 One of the significant commercially important application of this invention
 is in providing candidates to and in improving the performance of
 catalysis science and technology. This is particularly desirable for
 existing precious-metal and non-precious metal based catalytic
 formulations, heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis, and for catalytic
 applications such as but not limiting to those and as known in the art and
 which are herewith included by reference. To illustrate the scope without
 limiting it, some examples where this invention can be applied are listed
 in Tables 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, 5E, 5F and some are listed in the art such as
 Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Catalysis, John Wiley &
 Sons, Vol. 5, pp. 320-460 (1993) and references contained therein.
 TABLE 5A
 ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS
 Catalyst Reaction
 metals (e.g., Ni, Pd, Pt, as C.dbd.C bond hydrogenation (e.g., olefin +
 H.sub.2
 powders or on supports) or d.sub.3 paraffin)
 metal oxides (e.g., Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3)
 metals (e.g., Cu, Ni, Pt) C.dbd.O bond hydrogenation (e.g., acetone +
 H.sub.2 d.sub.3 2-propanol)
 metal (e.g., Pd, Pt) Complete oxidation of hydrocarbons,
 oxidation of CO
 Fe, Ru (supported and promoted 3 H.sub.2 + N.sub.2 .fwdarw. 2 NH.sub.3
 with alkali metals)
 Ni CO + 3 H.sub.2 .fwdarw. CH.sub.4 + H.sub.2 O
 (methanation)
 CH.sub.4 + H.sub.2 O .fwdarw. 3 H.sub.2 + CO
 (steam reforming)
 Fe or Co (supported and CO + H.sub.2 .fwdarw. paraffins + olefins +
 H.sub.2 O + CO.sub.2
 promoted with alkali metals) (+ oxygen-containing organic compounds)
 (Fischer-Tropsch reaction)
 Cu (supported on ZnO, CO + 2 H.sub.2 .fwdarw. CH.sub.3 OH
 with other components, e.g.,
 Al.sub.2 O.sub.3)
 Re + Pt (supported on Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 and paraffin dehydrogenation,
 isomerization
 promoted with chloride) and
 dehydrocyclization (e.g., heptane .fwdarw.
 toluene + 4 H.sub.2) (naphtha reforming)
 solid acids (e.g., SiO.sub.2 --Al.sub.2 O.sub.3, paraffin cracking and
 isomerization;
 zeolites) aromatic alkylation; polymerization of
 olefins
 Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 alcohol .fwdarw. olefin + H.sub.2 O
 Pd supported on zeolite paraffin hydrocracking
 metal-oxide-supported complexes olefin polymerization (e.g., ethylene
 d.sub.3
 of Cr, Ti, or Zr polyethylene)
 metal-oxide-supported complexes olefin metathesis (e.g., 2 propylene
 d.sub.3
 of W or Re ethylene + butene)
 Catalyst Reaction
 V.sub.2 O.sub.5 or Pt 2 SO.sub.2 + O.sub.2 .fwdarw. 2 SO.sub.3
 V.sub.2 O.sub.5 (on metal-oxide support) naphthalene + 9/2 O.sub.2 .fwdarw.
 phthalic
 anhydride + 2 CO.sub.2 + 2 H.sub.2 O
 o-xylene + 3 O.sub.2 .fwdarw. phthalic
 anhydride + 3
 H.sub.2 O
 Ag (on inert support, promoted Ethylene + 1/2 O.sub.2 .fwdarw. ethylene
 oxide (with
 by alkali metals) CO.sub.2 + H.sub.2 O)
 bismuth molybdate, uranium propylene + 1/2 O.sub.2 d.sub.3 acrolein
 propylene +
 antimonate, other mixed metal 3/2 O.sub.3 + NH.sub.3 d.sub.3 acrylonitrile
 + 3 H.sub.2 O
 oxides
 mixed oxides of Fe and Mo CH.sub.3 OH + O.sub.2 d.sub.3 formaldehyde
 (with CO.sub.2 and
 H.sub.2 O)
 Fe3O4 or metal sulfides H.sub.2 O + CO d.sub.3 H.sub.2 + CO.sub.2
 (water gas shift
 reaction)
 Co--Mo/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 (S) and olefin hydrogenation, aromatic
 Ni--Mo/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 (S) and hydrogenation
 Ni--W/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 (S) hydrodesulfurization,
 hydrodenitrogenation
 TABLE 5B
 ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS
 Catalyst Industry process
 Hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methanol, and
 ammonia
 ZnO, activated C Feed pretreatment for reforming
 supported Ni, Reforming
 Cr-promoted Fe Shift reaction
 CuO--ZnO--Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 supported Ni Methanation
 promoted Fe Ammonia synthesis
 Cu--Cr--Zn oxide, Zn Methanol synthesis
 chromite
 Hydrogenation
 25% Ni in oil Edible and inedible oil
 activated Ni Various products
 Dehydrogenation
 chrome alumina Butadiene from butane
 promoted Fe oxide Styrene from ethylbenzene
 Oxidation, ammoxidation, oxychlorination
 supported Ag Ethylene oxidedrom ethylene
 Pt--Rh gauze Nitric acid from ammonia
 V.sub.2 O.sub.5 on silica Sulfuric acid from sulfur dioxide
 V.sub.2 O.sub.5 Maleic anhydride from benzene
 V.sub.2 O.sub.5 Phthalic anhydride from o-xylene and
 naphthalene
 copper chloride Ethylene dichloride
 Organic synthesis
 Pt and Pd on C and Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 petrochemicals and specialty chemicals
 anhydrous AlCl.sub.3 Ethylbenzene, detergent alkylate, etc.
 phosphoric acid Cumene, propylene trimer, etc.
 Polymerization
 Al alkyls and/or TiCl.sub.3 Ziegler - Natta processing
 Cr oxide on silica Polyethylene (by Phillips process)
 Peresters Polyethylene (low density)
 Percarbonates Poly (vinyl chloride)
 benzoyl peroxide Polystyrene
 Amines, organotin Polyurethanes
 compounds
 TABLE 5C
 ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS
 Oxychlorination Catalysts (Fixed bed/Fluid bed)
 Catalysts for Methyl Chloride, Methyl Amine, and
 Melamine processing
 Catalysts for isomerization of low carbon hydrocarbons
 such as C4 and C5/C6
 Guard bed catalyst
 HDS, HDN, hydrodemetallization and hydrogenation
 catalyst
 Metal and Alloy Catalysts such as but not limiting to
 NiMo and CoMo
 Sulfided catalyst
 Catalysts for Ethylene Oxide (EO), one of the major
 building blocks of the chemical industry, used in the
 manufacture of Mono Ethylene Glycol (MEG), Ethoxylates,
 Ethanolamines and many other derivatives. MEG itself is
 a feedstock for the production of antifreeze,
 polyester, fibers and PET bottles.
 Catalysts for CO.sub.2 Lasers and other equipment so that
 they can be operated without replenishing the operating
 gases
 Sponge Metal catalysts (also known as raney catalysts)
 TABLE 5D
 ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS
 Catalysts for FCC Pretreatment
 Catalysts for hydrotreatment of heavy VGO or VGO/Resid
 blends with a high metals content, high CCR and high
 final boiling point.
 Catalysts for Hydrocracking Pretreatment, Mild
 Cracking, and Hydrocracking
 Hydroprocessing catalysts and Fluid Cat Cracking (FCC)
 Catalyst
 Pretreat catalysts in general, such as but not limiting
 to hydrodemetallization, Conradson carbon removal,
 hydrodenitrogenation and hydrodesulfurization.
 Amorphous and zeolite based Hydrocracking catalysts.
 Catalysts for Resid hydrotreatment
 Catalysts to derive maximum product value from LPG
 olefins such as propylene, iso-butylene and iso-
 amylenes.
 Catalysts to maximize octane barrels by improving
 octane without sacrificing gasoline yield.
 Catalysts to maximize production of transportation
 fuels such as gasoline and diesel from any feedstock.
 Catalysts for maximum mid-distillate production, such
 as diesel and jet fuels.
 Catalysts to extend the frontiers of resid cracking,
 balancing bottoms conversion, low delta coke and metals
 tolerance.
 Catalysts for maximum octanes (RON and MON) and light
 olefins production
 Catalysts to provide maximum octane barrels for
 applications where excellent octanes at maximum
 gasoline yield is required
 TABLE 5E
 ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS
 Catalysts for selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
 technology. Illustrative, but not exhaustive
 applications include Gas Turbines, Chemical Plants
 (e.g. Nitric Acid, Caprolactam, etc.), Waste
 Incinerators, Refinery Heaters, Ethylene Crackers, and
 Gas Motors.
 Zeolites and related applications of zeolites
 (Adsorption, Separation, Catalysts, and Ion Exchange)
 Emission-control coatings and systems that remove
 harmful pollutants, improve fuel economy and enhance
 product performance in a wide range of applications,
 including: trucks and buses, motorcycles, lawn and
 garden tools, forklifts, mining equipment, aircraft,
 power generation, and industrial process facilities.
 Surface coatings for design, manufacture and
 reconditioning of critical components in aerospace,
 chemical and petrochemical industries.
 Catalysts used in preparing, processing, and treating
 semiconductor industry gases, liquids, and emissions
 Catalysts are capable of destroying ozone (the main
 component of smog) already in the air.
 Catalysts to lower ozone, NOx, and SOx levels
 Catalysts for Combustion
 Catalysts to improve air quality
 TABLE 5F
 ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS OF CLAIMED INVENTION
 Catalysts that facilitate the manufacture of
 petrochemicals, fine chemicals, fats, oils and
 pharmaceuticals and aid in petroleum refining.
 Catalysts that purify fuel, lubrication oils,
 vegetable oils and fats.
 Catalysts for water filtration technologies.
 Food and Beverage Industry Catalysts.
 Paper, Pulp, and Glass Industry Catalysts
 Catalysts for producing Inorganic chemicals
 Antimicrobial Catalysts
 Catalysts to in-situ produce chemicals used in
 households
 Enzyme and Microbial Catalysts
 Catalysts used in biomedical business. Important
 products include but do not limit to powerful narcotic-
 based pain killers such as sufentanil, fentanyl base
 and hydromorphone.
 Catalysts used in forensic equipment and sensors
 Catalysts used in analytical instruments
 The teachings of the present invention can be used to research and develop,
 to rapidly screen novel catalysts by techniques such as combinatorial
 methods, and to optimize catalysts through the use of arrays in electrical
 and microelectronic circuits.
 The application of electrical current in particular, and electromagnetic
 field in general, can enable the ability to extend the life of catalysts,
 or improve their activity, yields, light off temperatures, turn over
 rates, stability, and selectivity with or without simultaneous changes in
 the operating conditions such as temperature, pressure, and flow profile.
 The catalyst so operated with electromagnetic field is anticipated to
 enable reactor temperatures and pressures or conditions that are more
 desirable to customers and integrated to the operating conditions of a
 specific manufacturing scheme. Furthermore, this invention of applying
 electromagnetic effects on the catalyst can enable reaction schemes that
 are switched on or off at will by switching on or off of the
 electromagnetic field respectively. Such flexibilities can be highly
 valuable in controlling and enhancing of safety of reactions that may be
 explosive or that may yield dangerous and hazardous byproducts. The
 invention can also be applied to produce multiple useful products from
 same reactor through the variation on-demand of the applied
 electromagnetic field or feed or other operating conditions required to
 meet the needs of a particular application.
 The benefits of this invention can be practiced in lowering the light-off
 temperatures in combustion exhaust systems. As one illustration of many
 applications, it is known in the art that emission control catalysts such
 as the three-way catalysts placed in automobile exhausts operate
 efficiently at temperatures greater than about 350.degree. C. These
 non-ambient temperatures require a heat source and often the exhaust heat
 from the vehicle's engine is the principal source of the needed heat.
 During initial start up phase of the engine, it takes about a minute to
 heat the catalyst to such temperatures. Consequently, the vehicle emission
 controls are least effective during the start. Methods to rapidly heat the
 catalyst to such temperatures or lower temperature catalysts are desired.
 Methods have been proposed to preheat the catalysts by various techniques,
 however, such techniques require high power to operate, add weight, and
 are not robust. The teachings contained herein can be used to prepare
 catalytic units or modify existing catalytic units to operate at lower
 temperatures (less than 350.degree. C., preferably less than 200.degree.
 C.) and quicker light-offs. These teachings apply to combustion in general
 and to emission control systems used in other mobile and stationary units.
 The teachings may also be practiced by coating the engine cylinder's
 inside, operating the said coating with electrical current during part of
 or the complete combustion cycles. Such an approach can help modify the
 reaction paths inside the cylinder and thereby prevent or reduce
 pollution-at-source.
 The benefits of the teachings contained herein can be applied to the
 control of difficult-to-treat species such as NOx, SOx, CFCs, HFCs, and
 ozone. One method is to prevent these species from forming through the use
 of novel catalytic devices with electrical current in particular, and
 electromagnetic field in general. Alternatively, using such catalytic
 devices with electrical current, streams containing these species may be
 treated with or without secondary reactants such as CO, hydrocarbons,
 oxygen, ammonia, urea, or any other available raw material, or
 combinations thereof.
 The invention is particularly useful for applications that currently
 require high temperatures or heavy equipment due to inherently high
 pressures during reaction or excessive volumes, as the teachings of the
 presently claimed invention can offer a more economically desirable
 alternative. Illustrations of such applications, without limiting the
 scope of this invention, include pollutant treatment or synthesis of fuel
 and useful chemicals in space vehicles, submarines, fuel cells, miniature
 systems in weight sensitive units such as automobiles, airplanes,
 ships,ocean platforms, remote sites and habitats. This can help reduce the
 weight of the unit, reduce capital costs, reduce inventory costs, and
 reduce operating costs. Any applications that desire such benefits in
 general can utilize the teachings of this invention.
 The invention can offer an alternative for catalyzing reactions on feeds
 that contain poisoning species, i.e., species that can cause reversible or
 irreversible poisoning of available catalysts (for example, but not
 limiting to, illustrations in Table 6A and 6B).
 TABLE 6A
 Process or Product Catalytic Material Catalyst Poisons
 Ammonia FeO/Fe.sub.2 O.sub.3 promoted by Moisture, CO, CO.sub.2,
 Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 and K.sub.2 O O.sub.2, compounds of
 S, P, and As
 Aniline Ni powder, Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 Groups VA and
 Raney-Ni or -Cu, Cu- VIA elements
 chromite
 Butadiene Ca.sub.8 Ni (PO.sub.4).sub.6 Halides, O.sub.2, S, P, Si
 Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3 on Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 Bi-molybdate
 Fe.sub.2 O.sub.3 + Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3 + K.sub.2 O
 Ethanol H.sub.3 PO.sub.4 on Kieselguhr NH.sub.3, O.sub.2, S,
 organic
 base
 Ethylene oxide Ag-oxide on refractory Compounds of S
 oxide
 Formaldehyde Ag on Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 Ag needles Cl.sub.2, S compounds
 FeO.sub.3 + MoO.sub.3
 Methanol ZnO + Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3 S compounds, Fe,
 CuO Ni S compounds
 Nitric acid Pt on Rh Compounds of As
 and Cl.sub.2
 Polyethylene Al-alkyl-Ti Moisture, alcohols,
 tetrachloride O.sub.2, So.sub.2, COS,
 Precipitate CO.sub.2, CO
 Styrene (a) Fe.sub.2 O.sub.3 + K.sub.2 O + Halides, S
 Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3 compounds, O, P, Si
 (b) Fe.sub.2 O.sub.3 + K.sub.2 CO.sub.3 +
 Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3 +
 V.sub.2 O.sub.5
 Sulfuric Acid V.sub.2 O.sub.5 + K.sub.2 O on Kieselguhr Halides, As,
 Te
 Cracking, alkylation, Synthetic Organometallic
 and isomerization of aluminosilicate; AICI.sub.3 compounds,
 petroleum fraction H.sub.3 PO.sub.4 organic bases
 Desulfurization, (NiO + MoO.sub.3) (CcO + H.sub.2 S, CO, CO.sub.2,
 denitrogenation, and MoO.sub.3) or (NiO + WO.sub.3) on heavy hydrocarbon
 deoxygenation alumina deposits,
 compounds of Na,
 As, Pb
 TABLE 6B
 Active Poisons and
 Reaction catalyst inhibitors Mode of action
 NH.sub.3 Fe S, Se, Te, P, As poison: strong
 synthesis compounds, chemisorption or
 halogens compound formation
 O.sub.2, H.sub.2 O, NO weak poison: oxidation
 CO.sub.2 of Fe surface:
 CO reduction possible, but
 unsaturated causes sintering
 hydrocarbons inhibitor: reaction with
 alkaline promoters
 poison and inhibitor:
 strong chemisorption,
 on reduction slowly
 converted to methane:
 accelerates sintering
 inhibitor: strong
 chemisorption, slow
 reduction
 Hydrogenati Ni, Pt, S, Se, Te, P, As poison: strong
 on Pd, Cu compounds, chemisorption
 halogens poison: alloy
 Hg and Pb compounds formation poison:
 O.sub.2 surface oxide film
 CO Ni forms volatile
 carbonyls
 Catalytic alumino- amines, H.sub.2 O inhibitor: blockage of
 cracking silicate coking active centers
 poison: blockage of
 active centers
 poison: alloying, gauze
 NH.sub.3 Pt--Rh P, As, Sb, becomes brittle
 oxidation compounds; Pb, zn, causes NH.sub.3
 Cd, Bi decomposition
 rust poison: reacts with
 alkaline oxides Rh.sub.2 O.sub.3
 SO.sub.2 V.sub.2 O.sub.5- As compounds inhibitor d.sub.3
 oxidation K.sub.2 S.sub.2O.sub.7 poison: compound
 formation
 To illustrate this feature of the present invention, it is well known in
 the art that precious metal catalysts are useful in numerous reactions.
 However, these and other catalysts tend to get poisoned when the feed
 stream contains sulfur or sulfur containing species. Extensive and often
 expensive pre-treatment of the feed streams is often required to ensure
 that the catalyst is not poisoned. The present invention describes
 materials and devices that can catalyze reactions with non-precious metal
 based formulations that are not known to be poisoned by sulfur. Thus,
 through appropriate variations in catalyst composition and electromagnetic
 field, chemical reactions may be realized even if poisoning species are
 present. This reduces or eliminate the need for expensive and complex
 pre-treatment of feed streams.
 This method is not limited to precious metal poisoning and can be applied
 to finding catalyst alternatives for presently used catalysts that are
 based on other materials (supported, unsupported, precipitated,
 impregnated, skeletal, zeolites, fused, molten, enzyme, metal
 coordination, ion exchange, bifunctional, basic, acidic, sulfide, salt,
 oxide, metal, alloys, and intermetallic catalysts). The method is also not
 limited to sulfur poisoning and the teachings can be used when poisoning
 or loss in stability is caused by species other than sulfur. The method
 can also be applied to cases where solutions need to be found for
 catalysts or systems that undergo coking, thermal run away, and chemical
 effects.
 The invention also offers a method of developing and practicing
 non-precious alternatives to expensive precious metal-based catalysts.
 This can reduce catalyst costs. Such uses of invention are desirable in
 automobile exhaust catalysts, emissions treatment catalysts, naphtha
 catalysts, petroleum cracking catalysts, and applications that utilize
 precious metals. Notwithstanding such use and uses discussed earlier,
 these teachings are not meant to limit to the teachings of presently
 claimed invention to non-precious metals and materials based thereof.
 Precious metals and materials based thereof may be used in the practice of
 this invention's teachings.
 The benefits of the teachings contained in this invention can be utilized
 in research and development and manufacture of inorganic, organic, and
 pharmaceutical substances from various precursors, such as but not
 limiting to illustrations in Table 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, 7E, 7F, and 7G.
 TABLE 7A
 Illustrative Inorganic Reactants and Product
 Candidate for Catalysis
 Ammonia Magnetite Calcium carbide
 Ammonium nitrate Oxides Calcium carbonate
 Ammonium carbonate Nitric acid Calcium chloride
 Ammonium Phosphoric acid Calcium cyanamide
 perchlorate
 Ammonium sulfite Nitrogen oxides Calcium hydroxide
 Carbon Metals and Alloys Sulfur
 Carbon dioxide Pyrite Thiourea
 Carbon disulfide Sulfur Oxides Titanium dioxide
 Carbon monoxide Carbonates Urea
 Radicals Sodium nitrate Zinc sulfide
 Lead Sulfide Sodium sulfite Sulfur dioxide
 Ozone Alkalis Hydrogen Sulfide
 TABLE 7B
 Illustrative Inorganic Reactions Candidate for
 Application of this Invention
 Reaction Current Catalyst
 Para-H.sub.2 conversion hydrated Fe oxides
 Production of H.sub.2 and CO Ni/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 steam reforming of methane
 H.sub.2 O + CH.sub.4 .fwdarw. 3 H.sub.2 + CO
 watergas shift reaction Fe--Cr oxides
 CO + H.sub.2 O .fwdarw. H.sub.2 + CO.sub.2 Cu--Zn oxides
 Methanation Ni
 CO + 3 H.sub.2 .fwdarw. CH.sub.4 + H.sub.2 O
 Oxidation of NH.sub.3 to NO Pt--Rh wire gauze
 NH.sub.3 + 1.25 O.sub.2 .fwdarw. NO + 1.5
 H.sub.2 O
 Synthesis of ammonia Fe.sub.3 O.sub.4 promoted
 N.sub.2 + 3 H.sub.2 .fwdarw. 2 NH.sub.3 With K, Ca, Mg, Al
 Oxidation of SO.sub.2 to SO.sub.3 V.sub.2 O.sub.5
 Claus process A1.sub.2 O.sub.3
 recovery of S from SO.sub.2 +
 H.sub.2 S
 2 H.sub.2 S + SO.sub.2 .fwdarw. 3 S + 2 H.sub.2 O
 Decomposition of NH.sub.3 Ni/ceramic
 2 NH.sub.3 .fwdarw. N.sub.2 + 3 H.sub.2
 TABLE 7C
 Organic Reactants and Product Candidate for Catalysis
 Acetal- Cyclohexane Isobutene Peracetic acid
 dehyde
 Acetone Metallorganics Isocyanates, Styrene
 alcohols
 Acetylene Cyclohexene Isoprene Propylene
 Acrylonitrile Cyclopentene Methane Adipic Acid
 Anide Ethane Methanol Aliphatics
 Aliphatic Ethanol Methyl methacrylate Tetrachlorobenzene
 glycols
 Aniline Ethyl acetate Nitroacetanilide Tetranitromethane
 Acetic Acid Ethyl nitrate Nitroalkanes triphenylsilane
 Alkanes Ethyl nitrite Nitrobenzene Urea
 Benzal- Ethylene Aromatics Alkenes
 dehyde
 Benzene Ethylene 2,4- Vinyl chloride
 Dinitroacetanilide
 Ethyl nitrate Butadiene n-Pentane Alkynes
 Ethyl nitrite m- Phenol, m-cresol Dendrimers
 Chloroaniline
 Propylene Propane Propionic Acid Ethylene Oxide
 Aldehydes Alcohols Ketones Acids
 Anhydrides Amines Isomers Oxides
 Sulfur Phospho- Salts Alkaloids
 Organics Organics
 Styrene Nitro Organics Fullerenes Bio-derived
 Cumene CECs HFCs Monomers
 Cycloalkanes Cycloalkenes Cycloalkynes Cage Compounds
 TABLE 7C
 Organic Reactants and Product Candidate for Catalysis
 Acetal- Cyclohexane Isobutene Peracetic acid
 dehyde
 Acetone Metallorganics Isocyanates, Styrene
 alcohols
 Acetylene Cyclohexene Isoprene Propylene
 Acrylonitrile Cyclopentene Methane Adipic Acid
 Anide Ethane Methanol Aliphatics
 Aliphatic Ethanol Methyl methacrylate Tetrachlorobenzene
 glycols
 Aniline Ethyl acetate Nitroacetanilide Tetranitromethane
 Acetic Acid Ethyl nitrate Nitroalkanes triphenylsilane
 Alkanes Ethyl nitrite Nitrobenzene Urea
 Benzal- Ethylene Aromatics Alkenes
 dehyde
 Benzene Ethylene 2,4- Vinyl chloride
 Dinitroacetanilide
 Ethyl nitrate Butadiene n-Pentane Alkynes
 Ethyl nitrite m- Phenol, m-cresol Dendrimers
 Chloroaniline
 Propylene Propane Propionic Acid Ethylene Oxide
 Aldehydes Alcohols Ketones Acids
 Anhydrides Amines Isomers Oxides
 Sulfur Phospho- Salts Alkaloids
 Organics Organics
 Styrene Nitro Organics Fullerenes Bio-derived
 Cumene CECs HFCs Monomers
 Cycloalkanes Cycloalkenes Cycloalkynes Cage Compounds
 TABLE 7E
 Illustrative Organic Reactions Candidate for
 Application of the present Invention
 Reaction Current Catalyst
 Dehydrogenation
 butenes .fwdarw. butadiene Ca(Sr)Ni phosphate
 ethylbenzene .fwdarw. styrene Fe.sub.2 O.sub.3 --Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3
 (K.sub.2 O)
 Butane .fwdarw. butadiene Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3 /Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 Hexane .fwdarw. benzene Pt/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 Cyclohexane .fwdarw. benzene Pt/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 Cyclohexanol .fwdarw. cyclohexanone ZnO (alkali)
 Oxidative dehydrogenation
 butenes .fwdarw. butadiene Bi molybdate
 alcohols .fwdarw. aldehydes, ketones ZnO, Cu chromite,
 Raney Ni
 Liquid-phase oxidation
 ethylene .fwdarw. acetaldehyde PdCl.sub.2 --CuCl.sub.2
 propene .fwdarw. acetone PdCl.sub.2 --CuCl.sub.2
 butene .fwdarw. 2-butanone PdCl.sub.2 --CuCl.sub.2
 ethylene + acetic acid .fwdarw. vinyl PdCl.sub.2 --CuCl.sub.2
 acetate
 propene + acetic acid .fwdarw. allyl PdCl.sub.2 --CuCl.sub.2
 acetate
 cyclohexane .fwdarw. cyclohexanol + Co acetate
 cyclohexanone
 butane .fwdarw. acetic acid Co acetate
 acetaldehyde .fwdarw. acetic anhydride Co acetate
 cylohexanol + cyclohexanone .fwdarw. V salt (+ HNO.sub.3 as
 adipic acid oxidant)
 toluene .fwdarw. benzoic acid Co acetate
 benzoic acid .fwdarw. phenol Cu
 p-xylene .fwdarw. terephthalic acid Co acetate
 m-xylene .fwdarw. isophthalic acid Co acetate
 Vapor-phase oxidation
 ethylene .fwdarw. ethylene oxide Ag/support
 alcohols .fwdarw. aldehydes or Fe.sub.2 O.sub.3 --MoO.sub.3 or Ag
 ketones
 propene, isobutene .fwdarw. Cu.sub.2 O, Bi molybdate
 unsaturated aldehydes
 o-xylene, naphthalene .fwdarw. V.sub.2 O.sub.5 /TiO.sub.2, V.sub.2
 O.sub.5 --
 phthalic anhydride K.sub.2 S.sub.2 O.sub.7 /SiO.sub.2
 butane or butene .fwdarw. maleic V.sub.2 O.sub.5 --P.sub.2 O.sub.5
 /support
 anhydride
 benzene .fwdarw. maleic anhydride V.sub.2 O.sub.5 --MoO.sub.3, (P.sub.2
 O.sub.5)/
 support
 TABLE 7F
 Illustrative Organic Reactions Candidate for
 Application of this Invention
 Reaction Current Catalyst
 Ammoxidation
 propene + NH.sub.3 .fwdarw. acrylonitrile Bi molybdate, U-sb
 oxides
 isobutene + NH.sub.3 .fwdarw. methacrylonitrile multicomponent oxide
 toluene + NH.sub.3 .fwdarw. benzonitrile V.sub.2 O.sub.5 --MoO.sub.3
 /Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 m-xylene + NH.sub.3 .fwdarw. isophthalonitrile V.sub.2 O.sub.5
 --MoO.sub.3 /Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 o-xylene + NH.sub.3 .fwdarw. phthalonitrile V.sub.2 O.sub.5 --Sb.sub.2
 O.sub.5
 3- or 4-picoline + NH.sub.3 .fwdarw. 3- or 4- V.sub.2 O.sub.5
 --MoO.sub.3 /Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 cyanopyridine
 methane + NH.sub.3 .fwdarw. hydrogen cynanide Pt--Rh wire gauze
 Oxychlorination
 ethylene + 2 HCl + 0.5 O.sub.2 .fwdarw. vinyl CuCl.sub.2 /Al.sub.2
 O.sub.3
 chloride + H.sub.2 O
 Hydration
 Ethylene .fwdarw. ethanol H.sub.3 PO.sub.4 /SiO.sub.2
 propene .fwdarw. 2-propanol H.sub.3 PO.sub.4 /SiO.sub.2
 dehydration
 x-phenylethanol .fwdarw. styrene NaPO.sub.3 /SiO.sub.2, Al.sub.2
 O.sub.3
 higher alcohols .fwdarw. olefins Zeolite
 acids + ammonia .fwdarw. nitriles H.sub.3 PO.sub.4 /SiO.sub.2
 butylene glycol .fwdarw. butyrolactone Zeolite
 alcohols + ammonia .fwdarw. amines SiO.sub.2 /Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 Miscellaneous reactions
 benzene + ethylene .fwdarw. ethylbenzene BF.sub.3 /Al.sub.2 O.sub.3,
 AlCl.sub.3
 benzene + propene .fwdarw. cumene H.sub.3 PO.sub.4 /SiO.sub.2
 isocyanuric acid .fwdarw. melamine Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 cumene hydroperoxide .fwdarw. phenol + H.sub.2 SO4
 acetone
 TABLE 7G
 Illustrative Reactions Candidate for
 Application of this Invention
 Reaction Current Catalyst
 Methanol synthesis ZnO--Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3
 CO + 2H.sub.2 .fwdarw. CH.sub.3 OH Cu--ZnO--Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 Cu--ZnO--Cr.sub.2 O.sub.3
 Methanation
 CO + 3 H.sub.2 .fwdarw. CH.sub.4 + H.sub.2 O Ni/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 CO + H.sub.2 d.sub.3 .fwdarw. higher alcohols + H.sub.2 O CuCoM.sub.0.8
 K.sub.0.1 oxide, M = Cr, Mn, Fe,
 or V
 Fischer - Tropsch synthesis
 CO + H.sub.2 d.sub.3 .fwdarw. hydrocarbons + H.sub.2 O Fe oxide (promoted)
 Hydroformylation (Oxo reaction) HCo(CO).sub.4
 olefin + CO + H.sub.2 d.sub.3 .fwdarw. aldehyde HRh(CO)(PPh.sub.3).sub.3
 Miscellaneous
 CH.sub.3 I + CO d.sub.3 .fwdarw. CH.sub.3 COI [Rh(CO).sub.2 I.sub.2 ]
 CH.sub.2 O + H.sub.2 + CO d.sub.3 .fwdarw. HOCH.sub.2 CHO HRh(CO).sub.2
 (PPh.sub.3).sub.3
 CH.sub.2 O + CO + H.sub.2 O d.sub.3 .fwdarw. HOCH.sub.2 COOH Nafion-H resin
 Addition RhCI.sub.3
 ethylene + butadiene .fwdarw. 1,4-
 hexadiene + 2,4-hexadiene
 Cyclization
 2 butadiene + cis,cis-1,5m Ni(acrylonitrile).sub.2 + PPh.sub.3
 cyclooctadiene Ni(acrylonitrile).sub.2
 3 butadiene .fwdarw. 2,5,9-
 cyclododecatriene
 Olefin metathesis (dismutation) Mo or W/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 or W/SiO.sub.2
 2 propene .fwdarw. ethylene + butene
 cyclohexene + ethylene .fwdarw. 1,7-
 octadiene
 Oligomerization AI(C.sub.2 H.sub.5).sub.3
 2 ethylene .fwdarw. butene
 ethylene .fwdarw. .crclbar.-olefins
 Polymerization
 ethylene .fwdarw. polyethylene TiCI.sub.4 +AI(C.sub.2 H.sub.5).sub.3
 propene .fwdarw. polypropylene CrO.sub.3 /SiO.sub.2
 (isotactic) MoO.sub.3 /Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 butadiene .fwdarw. polybutadiene TiCI.sub.3 + Al(C.sub.2 H.sub.5).sub.3
 1,4-trans- Al(i-C.sub.4 H.sub.9).sub.3 +
 VOCI.sub.3
 1,4-cis- Al(i-C.sub.4 H.sub.9).sub.2 CI +
 CoCl.sub.2
 1,2-isotactic Al(i-C.sub.4 H.sub.9).sub.3 +
 Cr(PhCN).sub.6
 1,2-syndiotactic Al(i-C.sub.4 H.sub.9).sub.3 + MoO.sub.2
 (O-i-C.sub.4 H.sub.9).sub.2
 Petrochemistry
 Catalytic cracking Zeolite, alumina-silica
 Catalytic reforming Pt/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 or bimetallic
 catal./Al.sub.2 O.sub.3
 Alkylation H.sub.2 SO.sub.4 or HF
 Isomerization Pt/alumina
 Hydrocracking Ni/SiO.sub.2 --Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 or
 Ni-W/SiO.sub.2 --
 Hydrofining or hydrotreating Al.sub.2 O.sub.3 or Pd/zeolite
 Co--Mo/Al.sub.2 O.sub.3, Ni--W/Al.sub.2
 O.sub.3
 These benefits of the present invention can also be utilized in the
 manufacture of fuels, propellants, chemicals, biochemicals, petrochemicals
 and polymer. Furthermore, the use of electromagnetic energy and active
 materials in high surface area form can provide benefits in microbe-based,
 cell-based, tissue-based, and artificial implant-based devices and
 reaction paths. Finally, the benefits of this invention can be applied to
 gaseous, liquid, solid, superfluid, plasma or mixed phase reactions. These
 devices can be enabling to the production of improved and novel products.
 To illustrate, the catalyst with optimization techniques available in the
 art can enable devices to produce hydrogen from low cost chemicals, which
 in turn can be used to prepare hydrogen based engines, alternative fuel
 vehicles, hybrid vehicles, captive power generation and other
 applications.
 To illustrate, the teachings contained herein, preferably combined with
 optimization techniques available in the art, can enable affordable
 devices to produce hydrogen from low-cost chemicals (such as but not
 limiting to methanol, agriculturally derived ethanol, gasoline, natural
 gas, gasohol), which in turn can be used to prepare hydrogen based
 engines, alternative fuel vehicles, hybrid vehicles, captive power
 generation and other applications. The teachings can assist in reducing
 the costs of implementing novel engine-based vehicles and power generation
 equipment since the distribution infrastructure of said low-cost chemicals
 to homes, buildings, and roads already exists.
 The novel chemical composition transformation method and devices as
 described can be utilized to degrade undesirable species from a feed into
 more preferred form. Illustration include degradation of species such as
 toluene, methylethyl ketone, ethylene oxide, methylene chloride,
 formaldehyde, ammonia, methanol, formic acid, volatile organic vapors,
 odors, toxic agents, biomedical compounds into intermediates or final
 products such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. In another application,
 organics in liquid streams may be treated using these devices.
 Alternatively, novel chemical composition transformation devices as
 described can be utilized to remove and recover precious and strategic
 metals from liquid waste streams; or to remove hazardous metal ions from
 waste streams (waste water). The device can also be used to purify fluid
 streams by removing low concentrations of contaminants such as in
 preparing extremely pure water or extremely pure gases needed in
 semiconductor device manufacturing.
 The invention can be applied to automatically and on-demand clean
 contaminants and stained surfaces such as windows in skyscrapers and
 hotels, and window shields of automobiles and aircraft. Stains are often
 organic in nature or comprises of substances that change the refractive
 index of a surface. A thin nanostructured coating of transparent ceramic
 or film (such as but not limiting to indium tin oxide, doped glasses,
 metals, and ceramics) can be deposited with electrodes printed connecting
 said film. The film can be part of an electrical circuit that is triggered
 on-demand to catalyze the substance in any stain on surface of interest.
 The invention may also be integrated in air conditioners, heating, and
 ventilation systems to clean air, or at-source and conveyors of emissions
 such as carpets, combustion chambers, and ducts. The teachings can also be
 utilized to build low-cost odor control systems inside microwaves,
 refrigerators, and portable or plug-in type odor removal devices at homes
 and offices. Odors are organic chemicals and preferred method of treating
 odors is to transform the chemicals responsible for odor into carbon oxide
 and moisture. The teachings contained herein can be applied to produced
 catalytic units that transform the chemicals responsible for odors into
 more desired products. Similarly, the teachings can yield devices to
 address the problems inside printers and photocopiers and other such
 office and industrial equipment that emit gases such as ozone and volatile
 chemicals.
 The invention can enable the use of multifunctional equipment. An
 illustration of this, without limiting the scope, would be to coat the
 surface of a pipe with conducting formulation and then conduct the
 reaction while the raw material has been transported from source to some
 desired destination. The pipe in this case performs more than one
 function--it helps transport the feed and it also enables the reaction to
 occur during such transport.
 The invention can be applied in membrane reactors, ion exchange units,
 catalytic distillation, catalytic separation, analytical instruments, and
 other applications that combine the benefits of catalysts with chemical
 unit operations known in the art.
 This invention can also be utilized to develop and produce products that
 are based on catalytic or high surface area-based properties of materials
 used in the product. An illustrative, but not limiting, product of this
 type would be one that sense, react, trigger, or adapt to changes in
 environment in general, and in the chemical composition of a fluid in
 particular such as the teachings in commonly assigned U.S. patent
 application Ser. No. 09/074,534 filed May 7, 1998, pending, and which is
 incorporated herewith. The invention can be generically applied to develop
 and produce products that sense, react, trigger, or adapt to changes in
 the environment such as changes in the thermal state, mechanical state,
 magnetic state, electromagnetic state, ionic state, optical state,
 photonic state, chromatic state, electronic state, biological state, or
 nuclear state, or a combination of two or more of these. In all cases,
 when the teachings contained herein are applied to a device in conjunction
 with electrical field, the benefit obtained is the modification of surface
 state of the active material and/or the modification in the property of
 the active material and/or the modification in the environment, as the
 said surface interacts with the environment.
 As a non-limiting example, if the active layers are prepared from thermally
 sensitive material compositions, rapid response thermal sensors can be
 produced. In another example, if piezoelectric compositions are used in
 the active layer in a multilaminate stack, vibration and acceleration
 sensors can be produced. In yet another example, magnetic compositions can
 yield rapid response magnetic sensors and magnetoresistive sensors. If the
 active layer instead is prepared from compositions that interact with
 photons, novel chromatic, luminescent, photodetectors and photoelectric
 devices may be produced. With compositions interacting with nuclear
 radiation, sensors for detecting nuclear radiation may be produced. In
 another example, with biologically active layers, biomedical sensors may
 be produced. With insulating interlayers, these device may be thermally
 isolated or made safe and reliable. The active layers can be mixed, as
 discussed before, to provide multifunctional devices and products. The
 sensing layers may be cut or left intact for specific applications. The
 sensing layer may be just one layer or a multitude of as many layers as
 cost-effectively desirable for the application. The electrode may also be
 one layer or a multitude of as many layers as cost-effective and necessary
 for the application. These sensors have performance characteristics
 desired in chemical, metallurgical, environmental, geological, petroleum,
 glass, ceramic, materials, semiconductor, telecommunications, electronics,
 electrical, automobile, aerospace and biomedical applications. Such
 sensors can be combined with metrology techniques and transducers to
 produce smart products and products that adapt and learn from their
 environments.
 EXAMPLE 1
 Indium Tin Oxide as Active Material
 A slurry of high surface area indium tin oxide and aluminum oxide in
 iso-propanol is prepared and about 10 micro-litter of the slurry is
 deposited on an alumina substrate (6 mm.times.6 mm.times.2.5 mm) with gold
 electrodes formed on the substrate in a pattern similar to that shown in
 FIG. 2. The sample is dried at room temperature. This procedure yields 2
 mg of catalyst film covering a portion of the substrate surface. The thin
 film is reduced in a flow through quartz tube reduction system in 5%
 H.sub.2 in Nitrogen at 300.degree. C. After 30 minutes its resistance
 drops to 400 ohms, with a visible change of color to green-blue. The
 reduced or activated thin film is transferred to the reactor and is
 exposed to 100 ml/min of Methanol/Air under a small electric field. The
 results of this experiment are tabulated in the following table.
 TABLE 8
 Voltage Current Temp H.sub.2 Conversion
 (volts) (amps) (C.) % % MeOH
 8.2 0.052 108 0.45% 30%
 8.4 0.06 121 0.61% 30%
 8.75 0.075 140 0.62% 31%
 This example suggests that field assisted catalysis can produce hydrogen
 from methanol and air at average substrate temperatures below 150.degree.
 C. Alternatively, this example suggests that hydrogen can be produced from
 alcohols such as methanol with power consumption levels of less than 2
 KWhr per 100 l of hydrogen produced.
 EXAMPLE 2
 Effect of Smaller Substrate
 The slurry of Example 1 is printed on a 4 mm.times.4 mm substrate instead,
 everything else remaining same. By reducing the substrate size, the
 system's thermal mass (i.e. thermal mass of the substrate added to the
 thermal mass of the catalyst) is less than that of Example 1. The results
 of this experiment are tabulated in the following table.
 TABLE 9
 Voltage Current Temp H.sub.2 Conversion
 (volts) (amps) (C.) % % MeOH
 6.8 0.02 120 1.0 30
 The thermal mass of the system in example 2 is less than that of example 1.
 This example suggests that reducing substrate size reduced the input power
 required to achieve efficient conversion. Hence, reducing thermal mass can
 enhance the performance of field assisted catalysis during the production
 of hydrogen from methanol and air. Specifically, this example suggests
 that hydrogen can be produced from alcohols such as methanol with power
 consumption levels of less than 0.5 KWhr per 100 l of hydrogen produced.
 EXAMPLE 3
 Effect of Higher Resistance
 This example differs from Example 1 in that the slurry is printed in
 thinner form and larger area to yield higher resistance, everything else
 remaining same. As a result, the catalyst film covers a larger portion of
 the substrate surface than in Example 1. The results of this experiment
 are tabulated in the following table.
 TABLE 10
 Voltage Current Temp H.sub.2 Conversion
 (volts) (amps) (C.) % % MeOH
 6.9 0.029 108 0.95 30
 This example suggests that further optimization of parameters including,
 but not limited to, catalyst film and substrate porosity, surface area,
 uniformity, dopant(s) concentration, shape/architecture, mechanical
 properties such as stress, strain, and thermal conductivity, number of
 layers, electrode pattern, electrode composition, film composition,
 substrate composition, substrate thermal mass, and substrate thickness
 offer opportunities to improve field assisted catalysis technology.
 Reducing thermal mass can enhance the performance of field assisted
 catalysis during the production of hydrogen from methanol and air.
 Specifically, this example suggests that hydrogen can be produced from
 alcohols such as methanol with power consumption levels of less than 0.5
 KWhr per 100 l of hydrogen produced.
 EXAMPLE 4
 Effect of Alternating Current
 The film of example 2 is used again. The field is provided using 60 Hz
 alternating current instead of direct current, yielding results summarized
 in Table 11.
 TABLE 11
 Voltage Current Temp H.sub.2 Conversion
 (volts) (amps) (C.) % % MeOH
 82 0.0012 112 0.73 26.5
 This example suggests that time varying fields such as alternating and
 pulsating fields can be used in field catalysis technology. Specifically,
 this example suggests that hydrogen can be produced from alcohols such as
 methanol with alternating current passing through the catalyst.
 EXAMPLE 5
 Initiating Reaction with Current Flow, and Zero Steady State Current
 A slurry of high surface area indium tin oxide and 25% by weight aluminum
 oxide in iso-propanol is prepared and about 10 micro-litter of the slurry
 is deposited on an alumina substrate (4 mm.times.4 mm.times.2.5 mm) with
 gold electrodes. The sample is dried at room temperature. This procedure
 yields about 1.5 mg of catalyst on the surface. The thin film is reduced
 in a flow through quartz tube reduction system in 5% H.sub.2 in Nitrogen
 at 300 C. After 30 minutes its resistance drops to about 2800 ohms, with a
 visible change of color to green-blue. The reduced or activated thin film
 is transferred to the reactor and is exposed to 100 ml/min of dry air
 saturated with methanol. 8.5 volts of direct current was passed through
 the film for 15 minutes which yielded 0.035 amps of current. The warming
 of the film reduced the film's resistance. The catalyst film was observed
 to produce 1.2% by volume hydrogen at about 110.degree. C. Two hot spots
 were witnessed on the film as evidenced by appearance of orange-red spots
 in the film. After the appearance of the hotspots, and the electric field
 was switched off while the hotspots remained apparent In this example, the
 reaction stabilized with adiabatic operation and the film continued to
 produce 0.9% by volume hydrogen for over 2 hours, with no evidence that
 the reaction would stop so long as the methanol supply was continued.
 A small (e.g., 0.05 Ampere) and temporary burst of current to the film over
 a five second period further changed its performance. The resistance of
 film increased to about 5,500 ohms and the average substrate temperature
 dropped to about 50.degree. C., while hydrogen production increased to
 about 1.75% by volume. This state was observed to be steady for over five
 hours. Specifically, this mode of operation demonstrated the ability to
 produce hydrogen from methanol at about 0.9% by volume concentrations,
 with average substrate temperatures less than 40.degree. C. for over three
 hours.
 This example suggests that electromagnetic fields can be used to activate
 catalysis. It is believed that current bursts for a time period greater
 than about one second will enable continued activity of the film for
 extended times or indefinitely after the electric field is removed,
 thereby conserving input power. Subsequent current bursts create new
 hotspots and increase the net catalytic activity of the catalyst film.
 Recurrent current bursts such as periodic current bursts are expected to
 maintain the activity of the film in a productive state for an indefinite
 period of time. Specifically, this example suggests that hydrogen can be
 produced from alcohols such as methanol by electric field activation.
 Furthermore, this example illustrates a method of producing greater than
 0.5% by volume hydrogen from alcohols and air at temperatures less than
 100.degree. C., preferably less than 50.degree. C.
 EXAMPLE 6
 Thin Transparent Film as a Catalyst
 This example suggests that the role of the current is fundamentally and
 surprisingly different than merely providing heat to the catalysts.
 Furthermore, we show that chemicals that are more complex than the feed
 can be synthesized by the technology in accordance with the present
 invention and that the present invention is not limited to reactions that
 produce simpler species (e.g., hydrogen) from more complex feed materials.
 This example involves a 5 mm.times.5 mm glass slide coated with 90:10 by
 weight % indium tin oxide, a transparent thin film. The indium tin oxide
 coating was cleaned to remove any dust or chemicals and it was ensured
 that the slide was optically clear. The slide was heated with an external
 electric heater placed next to the slide. At a heater voltage of 22.3
 volts and current of 0.14 amps, the slide temperature was observed to be
 203.degree. C. No hydrogen production was observed. Furthermore, no
 methanol conversion was detected over a period of 30 minutes with the
 external heating.
 Next the indium tin oxide surface was placed in a direct current circuit.
 It was observed that with 24.1 volts, the film conducts electric current
 of 0.12 amps. The slide temperature was observed to be 120.degree. C. No
 hot spots were detected on the transparent slide. No hydrogen was
 detected. However, 26% of feed methanol converted to a waxy material. The
 waxy material suggests an end product having a chain length greater than
 the feed material. This result suggests that fine chemicals can be
 produced by this technology. This example illustrates the wide
 applicability of this technology to produce chemicals with chain lengths
 longer than the feed material.
 EXAMPLE 8
 Thick Transparent Film as Catalyst
 In this example, polymeric metal organic oxoalkoxide was used as tin doped
 indium oxide precursor (Alfa Aesar, Product Code 42229). 50 mg of the
 precursor was coated on a glass substrate to yield a thick film. The
 precursor was heated to 400.degree. C. to crystallize the oxide film. This
 yielded a transparent film. The film was reduced in 5% hydrogen for 30
 minutes to yield a bluish translucent film. The reduced and activated
 catalyst was transferred to the reactor and is exposed to 100 ml/min of
 dry air saturated with methanol under a small electric field. With 16
 volts and 0.12 amps of direct current, the film temperature was observed
 to be 142.degree. C. Methanol conversion was observed to be 27% and 1% by
 volume of hydrogen was observed using a calibrated gas chromatograph. This
 example illustrates that catalysts can be produced by a wide range of
 methods to practice field assisted technology.
 These examples illustrate the utility of catalyst films in the practice of
 field assisted transformation of chemical and material compositions.
 Catalyst films supported by substrates and membranes as well as
 self-support catalyst films exhibit improved efficiency in converting
 chemical compositions from a feed product to an end product. It is
 contemplated that a wide variety of electrode patterns, substrate
 compositions, membrane compositions, and catalyst materials will benefit
 from the utility of these features of the present invention.
 Although the invention has been described and illustrated with a certain
 degree of particularity, it is understood that the present disclosure has
 been made only by way of example, and that numerous changes in the
 combination and arrangement of parts can be resorted to by those skilled
 in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention,
 as hereinafter claimed. Other embodiments of the invention will be
 apparent to those skilled in the art from a consideration of the
 specification or practice of the invention disclosed herein. It is
 intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary
 only, with the true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by
 the following claims.