Methods for simultaneous quantification of anions using ion chromatography and suppressed ion conductivity

Methods and systems for the detection and quantification of multiplicity of ionic analytes comprising CrO42−, AsO43−, SeO42−, and ClO4−, and optionally F−, Cl−, NO2−, NO3−, SO42−, using ion chromatography and suppressed ion conductivity. The method comprises loading a sample loop with a sample; injecting the sample from the sample loop into a column with an eluent, wherein the column comprises a guard column and an analytical column; separating, with the column, the injected sample at an effective separation temperature the injected sample in the presence of an organic modifier into a multiplicity of detectable ionic analytes; suppressing, with a suppressor, background signal; and detecting, with a detector, the multiplicity of ionic analytes.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The disclosed technology is generally directed to ion chromatography. More particularly the technology is directed to simultaneous quantification of chromate, arsenate, selenate, perchlorate, and other inorganic anions.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Chromium (VI) is a toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic water pollutant. The World Health Organization set a maximum allowable limit of 50 μg L1for Cr (VI) in groundwater and drinking water (World Health Organization, 2003). In the United States, the drinking water maximum contaminant level (MCL) set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is 100 μg L−1total Cr (US EPA, 2010). At the state level, the MCL can be even lower (e.g., 50 μg L−1as total Cr in California) (California Water boards, 2018). The standard ion chromatography (IC) method for quantification of chromate (CrO42−), the most common Cr (VI) anion, in water samples is EPA Method 218.7 (Zaffiro et al., 2011). Method 218.7 involves the separation of CrO42−using a high-capacity anion exchange separator column, a post-column derivatization with Cr (VI)-specific reagent 1,5-diphenylcarbazide, and a UV-Vis detection of the colored complex at 530 nm. The Cr (VI)-specific reagent diphenylcarbazide and UV-Vis detection allow sensitive quantification of Cr (VI) at low μg L−1concentrations by avoiding interference from other anions like sulfate (SO42−). However, method 218.7 and methods using similar principles are Cr (VI)-specific and do not quantify other analytes present in a given sample.

Cr (VI) often co-occurs with one or more common inorganic anions, such as Cl−, SO42−, and NO3−, in drinking water, industrial wastewater, surface waters, groundwater, acid mine drainage, soils, and sediments. In groundwater, acid mine drainage and other process waters, Cr (VI) is often a co-contaminant with other regulated anions such as arsenate (AsO43−) and selenate (SeO42−) (As (V) and Se (VI) anions, respectively) and/or perchlorate (ClO4−). ClO4−and Cr (VI) are frequently co-detected in drinking water systems across the world. Most laboratories use IC with conductivity detection to simultaneously quantify Cl−, SO42−and NO3−using EPA Method 9056A (US EPA, 2007). Separate IC methods with conductivity detection have been reported for quantification of ClO4−(EPA Method 314.0), As (V), and (Se (VI)). Thus, analysis of surface water, groundwater, acid mine drainage, and other environmental aqueous samples containing Cr (VI) and co-occurring anions requires multiple IC analytical methods with different anion exchange columns and eluent composition. This requirement not only increases the sample volume demand but also the time and overall cost of analysis.

A limited numbers of studies achieved separation and detection of Cr (VI), As (V) and Se (VI) in the presence of common inorganic anions using anion exchange columns and conductivity detection (Bruzzoniti et al., 1999; Kończyk et al., 2018). However, linearity, precision, and accuracy of the co-detected analytes were not evaluated in these studies, limiting the methods' applicability to environmental samples commonly analyzed in academic or other research-focused laboratories.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed herein is an isocratic ion chromatography (IC) analytical method with suppressed conductivity detection for simultaneous quantification of chromium (VI) and other relevant ions. The method comprises loading a sample loop with an aqueous sample, injecting the sample from the sample loop into a column with an eluent, wherein the column comprises a guard column and an analytical column, separating, with the column, the injected sample at an effective separation temperature in the presence of an organic modifier into a multiplicity of detectable ionic analytes comprising Cr (VI), Se (VI), As (V), and ClO4−, suppressing, with a suppressor, background signal, and detecting, with a detector, the multiplicity of ionic analytes comprising

Another aspect of the invention comprises a system for simultaneous quantification of anions. The system comprises an eluent, an organic modifier, an injector, a column, the column comprising a guard column and an analytical column, a suppressor, and a detector, wherein the system is configured for detection of a multiplicity of ionic analytes comprising Cr (VI), Se (VI), As (V), and ClO4−.

In some embodiments, the method and system are configured for simultaneous detection of CrO42−, F−, Cl, NO2−, NO3−, SO42−, AsO43−, SeO42−, and ClO4−.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed herein is an isocratic ion chromatography (IC) analytical method with suppressed conductivity detection for simultaneous quantification of chromium (VI), a toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic water pollutant, and other environmentally-relevant anions: F−, Cl−, NO2−, NO3−, SO42−, Se (VI), As (V), and ClO4−. The method was validated by determining the linearity and accuracy (precision and trueness) for all the anion analytes. The method was used to evaluate recovery of Cr (VI) in tap water, surface water, groundwater and industrial wastewater samples and to analyze Cr (VI), SO42−, NO3−, and Cl−in laboratory samples.

The present technology allows for Cr (VI), As (V), Se (VI) and ClO4−-to be measured in a low μg L−1concentration range without pre-treatment of the sample or post column derivatization. The ability to measure ionic analytes may be characterized by one or more of the following relationships. Resolution of two peaks (R), defined as the ratio of the difference in retention times between two peaks and the average baseline width of two peaks, may be determined using Equation 1:

R=TR⁢2-TR⁢1(wb⁢1+wb⁢2)/2(Equation⁢⁢1)
where TR1and TR2are the retention times of adjacent peaks (analyte 1 elutes before analyte 2) and wb1and wb2are the widths of the peaks at baseline. The limit of detection (LOD), defined as the smallest concentration of analyte in a sample that can be readily distinguished from zero, may be determined using Equation 2:

The limit of quantification (LOQ), defined as the smallest concentration of analyte in a sample that can be quantitatively determined with suitable precision and accuracy, may be determined using Equation 3:

In Equations 2 and 3, Sais the standard deviation of the response estimated by the standard error of y-intercepts of the regression lines and b is the slope of the calibration curve (Shrivastava and Gupta, 2011). Accuracy, defined as the closeness between a measured value and either a true or accepted value, was evaluated by determining the precision and trueness of each analyte (Munch et al., 2005). The precision and trueness may be determined by calculating the relative standard deviation (RSD) and the recovery using Equations 4 and 5, respectively:

The standard IC method for quantification of Cr (VI) in water samples is EPA Method 218.7, which requires post column derivatization with 1,5-diphenylcarbazide and UV-Vis spectroscopy detection. Method 218.7 is Cr (VI)-specific; thus, it does not allow detection of co-occurring natural and anthropogenic anions in environmental media.

In contrast to the EPA methodology, an isocratic IC method with suppressed conductivity detection is disclosed. As demonstrated in the Examples that follow, the method utilizing a Metrohm Metrosep A Supp 7 column, and sodium carbonate/acetonitrile as a mobile phase for simultaneous quantification of Cr (VI) as chromate ion, ClO4−, As (V) as arsenate ion, Se (VI) as selenate ion. Each of these analytes may be detected in a low μg L−1concentration range. The method also advantageously allows for simultaneous quantification of common anions F−, Cl−, NO2−, NO3−, and SO42−with Cr (VI), ClO4−, As (V), and Se (VI) in a low μg L−1concentration range. “Simultaneous” means that the presence or concentration of two or more analytes may be qualitatively or quantitatively determined with a single analytical method using the same column and eluent in a single run.

The determination coefficient for every analyte was >0.99 and the method showed good accuracy (precision and trueness) in quantification of each analyte. For Cr (VI), the LOD and the LOQ were 0.2 μg L−1and 0.6 μg L−1, respectively, which are three orders of magnitude lower than the EPA drinking water maximum contaminant level of 100 μg L−1Cr. Cr (VI) recovery in environmental aqueous samples ranged from 97.2% to 102.8%. The method was successfully applied to track Cr (VI) concentrations in laboratory samples, such as batch microcosms experiments with soil, surface water, and an anaerobic medium. The disclosed technology will prove useful to environmental practitioners, academic and research organizations, and industries for monitoring low concentrations of (multiple) relevant and common anions in environmental media, helping to decrease the sample requirement, time, and cost for analysis.

Ion chromatography is a method for separating ions based upon their interactions with a stationary phase, such as a resin, and the eluent (mobile phase). Ions will move through columns packed with a stationary phase at different speeds depending on their affinity for the stationary phase, and they will separate from each other based upon differences in ion charge and size. As the eluent passes through the column, ions with a weaker affinity for the resin will move through the column faster and be eluted first, while ions with a stronger affinity for the column will move through the column more slowly.

Upon exiting the column, the ions are measured by an electrical conductivity detector. This detector produces a chromatogram which plots conductivity vs. time. Each ion produces a peak on this graph, the area of which is dependent on the relative ion concentration in the injected solution. These measurements can then be used to determine concentrations of analytes in an unknown sample. To combat possible interference caused by the ions in the mobile phase, a suppressor may be used to remove the unwanted electrolyte prior to the conductivity measurement. As the solution passes through the suppressor, ions in the eluent are replaced with a nonionic species. Alternatively, if the eluent is sufficiently dilute or has a low conductivity, the use of a suppressor is not necessary.

Ion chromatography or devices for preforming such may comprise a sample loop, injector, column, including guard column and analytical column, suppressor, conductivity detector, data acquisition, storage, or processing device.

“Eluent” means the medium that transports the sample through the system and contributes to the selectivity of the separation. The eluent may comprise a solution of one or more salts in water that may act as a buffer, providing a stable pH. The ion strength, pH, temperature, flow rate, and buffer salt may individually, or collectively, influence the selectivity of the separation. The eluent may also comprise an organic modifier. The present technology utilizes an isocratic methodology. “Isocratic” means that the eluent has a constant concentration of buffer and/or organic modifier throughout the chromatographic process.

In some embodiments, the eluent comprises a carbonate. A carbonate eluent is an aqueous solution of carbonate and hydrogen carbonate salts. Such an eluent has the advantage that the total ionic strength as well as the proportions of monovalent (HCO3−) and divalent (CO32−) ions can be varied and carbonic acid (H2CO3) may be formed as the eluent passes through the suppressor. In particular embodiments, the carbonate is provided as sodium carbonate. In some embodiments, the eluent comprises between 10.0 and 12.0 or 10.5 and 11.5 mM Na2CO3. In the Examples that follow, 10.8 mM Na2CO3is used. In some embodiments, the eluent has a pH between 11.0 and 13.0 or 11.5 and 12.5. In the Examples, a pH of 11.9 was used.

In some embodiments, the eluent comprises an organic modifier. An “organic modifier” means an organic substance that may change in hydrophobic interactions between the analyte and the stationary phase; influence on ion solvation; and/or change in the Coulombic interactions between the analyte and the stationary phase. Suitably, the organic modifier may be included with eluent. In other embodiments, the organic modifier may be present in the column independent of the eluent. Exemplary organic modifiers include, but are not limited to, acetonitrile, acetone, and methanol. In some embodiments, the eluent comprises between 30% and 40% or 33% and 37% (v v−1). In the examples 35% (v v−1) of acetonitrile is used.

“Injector” means a device for the introduction of a sample volume into the column. In the load position, a sample loop can be filled with the sample solution and, optionally, the eluent may be bypassed to the column. When the injector is turned to the inject position, the eluent can pass through the sample loop and transfer the sample to the column. By varying the sample loop volume, the amount of sample introduced may be varied.

“Column” is a device for separating sample ions. The column may be packed with a stationary phase material comprising charged functional groups, or ion exchange groups, that allow for the sample ions to be separated. The column may be characterized by its capacity, selectivity, and efficiency. Capacity is determined by the column's ability to attract ions and the eluent strength required to elute these through the column. Selectivity is the column's ability to separate different analyst and is affected by the chemical and physical qualities of the column that results in interaction with the ions to be separated and the choice of eluent. Efficiency is the columns ability to produce well resolved or high and narrow chromatographic peaks. In some embodiments, the column is a polymer- or silica-based column where the stationary material comprises stationary material composed of a polymer or silica material, respectively.

The column may comprise a guard column and an analytical column. “Guard column” means a portion of the column that can scavenge debris or multivalent ions that would otherwise be accumulated within an analytical column. “Analytical column” means a portion of the column that effectively separates the analyte ions into resolvable chromatographic peaks. In some embodiments, the stationary phase of the analytical column comprises a polyvinyl alcohol with quaternary ammonium groups. The guard column may comprise the same stationary phase material as the analytical column but other stationary phase materials may also be used.

“Effective separation temperature” means a temperature where the ionic analytes are resolvable. Suitably, the effective separation temperature may be between 25.0-55.0° C., including any temperature or temperature range there between.

“Suppressor” means a device for lowering a background signal and increasing the useful signal. Because the eluent contains a relatively high amount of salt, the eluent contributes to background conductivity or signal. To differentiate between the background conductivity and signal from the analyte, the suppressor reduces the amount of dissolved ions in the eluent. The suppressor may provide a suppressor solution. The suppressor solution may comprise an acid, such as H2SO4.

“Detector” means a device for detecting, identifying, or quantifying the analyte ions. Suitably the detector is a conductivity detector. A conductivity detector detects the conductivity of the eluate that passes through a cell comprising a multiplicity (e.g.,2or4) of electrodes between which an electrical potential is applied. When the sample ions pass through the cell, the conductivity is increased. This increase in current is proportional to the increase in conductivity, which is a function of the ion concentration.

“Data acquisition, storage, or processing device” means device for acquiring, storing, or processing signal output from the detector. Suitably the data acquisition, storage, or processing device is a computer or other suitable device.

An isocratic IC method is disclosed with suppressed conductivity detection for simultaneous quantification of Cr (VI), F−, Cl−, NO2−, NO3−, SO42−, Se (VI), As (V), and ClO4−. Most analytes showed good separation (defined as R>1.5). A typical chromatogram of the analytes (50 μg L−1each in DI water) is shown inFIG.1. All the analytes showed good separation and were eluted within 20 min of sample injection (FIG.1). Table 1 shows the resolution of peaks, linear regression equation, determination coefficient, LOD, and LOQ for the analytes. The determination coefficient of every analyte was >0.99 and the LOD was in the range of 0.1-7.5 μg L1(Table 1). These data demonstrate the capability of the method to quantify trace concentrations of the analytes. For Cr (VI), the LOD and LOQ were 0.2 μg L−1and 0.6 μg L−1, respectively, which are three orders of magnitude lower than EPA's current MCL of 100 μg L−1Cr.

A comparison of published IC methods for measurement of Cr (VI) in aqueous samples is shown in Table 2. One of the advantages of the disclosed method over previously published IC methods for Cr (VI) quantification is that ClO4−can also be quantified. The method was validated by demonstrating linearity, precision and accuracy for simultaneous quantification of all the anion analytes, which was not reported previously by other IC methods (Bruzzoniti et al., 1999; Kończyk et al., 2018). The LOD and LOQ for Cr (VI) was lowest among IC methods with suppressed conductivity detection. Low LOD and LOQ for Cr (VI) was achieved by using a 1000 μL injection loop, which is employed in the EPA Method for trace analysis of ClO4−in drinking water (Hautman et al., 1999). Methods that use UV-Vis spectroscopy, chemiluminescence and thermal lens spectroscopy detection systems can achieve lower LOD for Cr (VI) but cannot quantify other anions.

SO42−is among the most abundant anions in many environmental media. High SO42−concentrations can interfere with quantification of other analytes when conductivity detection is employed. In such cases, the sample needs to be diluted, making it challenging for trace analysis of the analytes using a conductivity detector. Alternatively, pre-treatment of the sample matrix to remove SO42−can be employed using pre-treatment cartridges, but these can severely affect the recovery of other analytes like Cr (VI). The effect of SO42−concentration up to 500 mg L−1on recovery of co-analytes was evaluated. SO42−concentration had no effect on recovery of F−, Cl−, NO2−and NO3−as these analytes eluted before SO42−in the disclosed method (FIG.1). A recovery of 80% or greater is an acceptable criterion for quantification of chemical analytes. Se (VI) and As (V) recovery was <80% when SO42−concentration was ≥10 mg L−1(data not shown). However, Cr (VI) and ClO4−recovery was ≥85% in the presence of up to 500 mg L−1SO42−(FIG.2). These data demonstrate that the method can be used to quantify low concentrations of Cr (VI) and ClO4−in matrices with a high concentration of SO42−without requiring pre-treatment or dilution of the sample.

The analytical accuracy (precision and trueness) was evaluated for quantification of the anions at three concentration levels (2 μg L−1, 10 μg L−1and 100 μg L−1) using the disclosed IC method. In reagent water or DI water, the US EPA's acceptance criterion for RSD is ≤10%. The acceptance criterion for recovery is 80-120% for mid-level check standards. The acceptance criterion for recovery is 50-150% at concentrations close to the LOD of the analyte (low-level check standard). Table 3 documents the recovery of all anion analytes. At 100 μg L−1, all analytes were quantified with RSD<2.3% and the recovery was in the range of 96.2-107.9%, showing precision and trueness (accuracy) for quantification (Table 3). At 10 μg L−1, the RSD and recovery for F−and Cl−were affected (RSD values >10% and recovery of 47.5-90.6% (Table 3)). These results are expected as 10 μg L−1is within a factor of three from the LOD of F−and Cl−. All other analytes were quantified with RSD<7.4% and recovery of 92.6-105.3% using 10 μg L−1standard (Table 3). At 2 μg L−1concentration, all analytes except NO3−were quantified with RSD<6% and recovery in the range of 95.8-106.4% (Table 3). Overall, the method accomplished accuracy in quantification of NO2−, Se (VI), As (V), ClO4−and Cr (VI) at concentrations as low as 2 μg L−1. At 100 μg L−1, the RSD and recovery for all the analytes are well within the acceptance criteria. These data demonstrate accuracy for quantification of all the analytes.

To test the applicability of the disclosed IC method on environmental aqueous samples, the recovery of Cr (VI) was evaluated in contaminated surface water, groundwater, tap water, and wastewater samples (Table 4). The surface water sample was the only one with a detectable Cr (VI) concentration. The US EPA's acceptance criteria for recovery of analytes in environmental samples is 80-120%. As seen in Table 4, the Cr (VI) recovery ranged from 97.2±0.2% to 102.8±0.6%. The recovery of the other analytes was within the acceptable recovery criterion in most environmental samples (Table 4). These data support the applicability of this method for simultaneous quantification of the analytes in environmental aqueous samples.

The trueness of Cr (VI) concentration was evaluated in the surface water sample measured with the disclosed IC method by comparing it with the measured value using the EPA method 7196A (diphenylcarbazide based colorimetry method). The concentration of Cr (VI) in the surface water was 20.6±0.2 mg L−1using the diphenylcarbazide method (EPA Method 7196A). Assuming this was the true Cr (VI) concentration, the recovery of Cr (VI) concentration using the IC method was 100.2±3.4% (data not shown), demonstrating trueness for Cr (VI) quantification in the surface water sample. For Cr (VI) quantification using the IC method, the surface water was diluted 1000 times with reagent water to fit the Cr (VI) concentration within the calibration range.

The IC analytical method was applied to simultaneously track concentrations of anions in typical batch microcosms used commonly used in laboratory settings. The microcosms in this study were focused on abiotic and microbiological Cr (VI) reduction.FIG.3shows the time course concentrations of Cr (VI) (naturally-present and spiked) and SO42−, NO3−and Cl−(naturally-present anions in the soil matrix). The concentration of Cr (VI) decreased from 90 mg L−1to below detection limit in eight hours, likely from abiotic reduction by reducing agents in the soil such as sulfide and iron bearing minerals and/or microbial reduction to Cr (III). The concentrations of SO42−and Cl−did not change significantly during the incubation time in the soil microcosms (FIG.3).FIG.4tracks concentrations of Cr (VI) in culture-only microcosms focused on microbial reduction of Cr (VI) using a mixed culture. Cr (VI) concentration was reduced from −15 mg L−1to <1 mg L−1in ˜18 days. Data fromFIGS.3and4highlight the applicability of the IC method in laboratory experiments using both complex environmental matrices containing multiple analytes and defined laboratory medium focused only on Cr (VI).

Due to the capability of quantifying several anions simultaneously, the IC method developed in this study is useful to environmental practitioners, academic and research organizations, and other industries that routinely measure Cr (VI) and co-occurring anions. An ion chromatograph equipped with a suppressed conductivity detector is a common instrumentation that many laboratories possess for quantification of common inorganic anions (e.g., Cl−, NO3−, SO42−) by EPA Method 9056A. Thus, the method developed can be adapted by laboratories that use the most common IC instrument. The Examples show that Cr (VI), As (V), Se (VI) and ClO4−in the low μg L−1concentration range can be measured without pre-treatment of the sample or post column derivatization. The IC method from this work was shown to be reliable, precise, accurate, and suitable for monitoring important anions in environmental aqueous media, industrial wastewaters and laboratory experiments.

Miscellaneous

Unless otherwise specified or indicated by context, the terms “a”, “an”, and “the” mean “one or more.” For example, “a molecule” should be interpreted to mean “one or more molecules.”

Examples

Instrumentation

All analyses were performed using a Metrohm AG 930 compact IC flex system (Herisau, Switzerland). The IC was equipped with a chemical suppressor (Metrohm Suppressor Module (MSM)) and a conductivity detector. An 800 dosino regeneration system was used to deliver the chemical suppressor solution to the MSM. The Metrohm CO2Suppressor (MCS) removed the carbonate (as CO2) produced during the chemical suppression reaction in the MSM. The anions were separated using a Metrosep A Supp 7 analytical column (250 mm×4 mm, Metrohm) and a Metrosep A Supp 5 Guard column (5 mm×4 mm, Metrohm). A Metrohm AG 919 IC autosampler plus was used for sample injection. The volume of the sample injection loop was 1000 μL. The data acquisition and processing were performed with the MagIC Net 3.2 Metrodata software.

Chemicals and Reagents

The eluent and the MSM suppressor solutions were prepared using deionized and purified water using a PURELAB® Ultra (ELGA LabWater, United Kingdom) with a specific resistance ≥18.2 M′Ω-cm. The eluent (mobile phase) contained 10.8 mM Na2CO3(3% (v v−1) of Metrohm's A Supp 7 eluent 100× concentrate) and 35% (v v−1) gradient grade acetonitrile (Sigma-Aldrich) in deionized water. The pH of the eluent was 11.9±0.02. The MSM suppressor solution contained 500 mM H2SO4in deionized water.

Analytical Methods

The IC method used a constant eluent flow rate of 0.8 mL min−1and a constant column/oven temperature of 55° C. The MSM stepping interval was 10 mins and the conductivity detector was set at 2.3% per ° C. At these conditions, the back pressure was 12±0.4 MPa. The pump start-up time was at 45 to 60 min during the equilibration of the instrument. Calibrations for the anion analytes were established by injecting quadruplicates of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 μg L−1standard mixture. The calibration range for NO3−, Se (VI), As (V), ClO4−, and Cr (VI) was 1-200 μg L−1. For Cl−, NO2−and SO42−, the calibration range was 5-200 μg L−1. F−was calibrated in the range of 10-200 μg L−1.

EPA Method 7196A was used to quantify Cr (VI) in a contaminated surface water sample and compare the concentrations obtained by the IC method. Cr (VI) concentration was determined colorimetrically at 540 nm using the diphenylcarbazide method (US EPA, 1992). Briefly, 0.1 mL of sample or standard was added to a 10 mL test tube followed by addition of 1 mL each of 10% H2SO4and 10% H3PO4. Then, 0.1 mL diphenylcarbazide solution (5 g L−1DPC in acetone) was added to a test tube. The mixture was then vortexed and incubated at room temperature for 5 min. Absorbance of the magenta color was analyzed using a Varian Cary 50 UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Agilent, Santa Clare, CA) at 540 nm. The spectrophotometer was calibrated using the standard Cr (VI) solution. The calibration range for the colorimetry method was 0.5-75 mg L1Cr (VI) and the detection limit was 0.25 mg L−1.

Environmental Samples

Tap water from the city of Tempe and reverse osmosis (RO) grade water (US Water Systems™, Indianapolis, IN) were collected at the Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ. Tap water from the City of Mesa was collected from a domicile in Mesa, AZ. Three groundwater samples were obtained for testing. One groundwater sample was from the Phoenix Goodyear Airport-North Superfund site, Arizona, USA. The other samples were collected from two confidential sites in the Southwestern United States. Cr (VI) contaminated surface water was collected from Tamilnadu Chromates and Chemicals Ltd. (TCCL), an abandoned chromate manufacturing facility in Ranipet, Tamil Nadu, India. The wastewater samples used in this study were received from a power station in the Eastern United States and from the Northwest Water Reclamation Plant, Mesa, AZ, USA.

Laboratory Microcosm Experiments

The developed IC method was applied to monitor anions in soil and culture-only batch microcosms. Soil laboratory microcosms focused on abiotic and microbiological Cr (VI) reduction were established in 160 mL glass serum bottles with 25 g of Cr (VI)-contaminated soil and 100 mL anaerobic mineral medium as described elsewhere. The soil was collected from 0-0.25 m depth at the TCCL site, India, and was homogenized in the anaerobic glove chamber (Coy Laboratory Products Inc., Grass Lake, MI) under 3.5% H2and 96.5% N2atmosphere. 2 g L−1yeast extract and 10 mM lactate were added to the microcosms as electron donor and carbon sources for microorganisms. The initial Cr (VI) concentration in the soil microcosms was ˜ 90 mg L−1.

Culture-only microcosms focused on microbiological Cr (VI) reduction were established in 160 mL serum bottles containing 100 mL anaerobic mineral medium as used in soil microcosms. The inoculum (4% v v−1inoculum) was a mixed culture grown on Cr (VI) and lactate. The culture-only microcosms were amended with 1 g L−1yeast extract and 3 mM lactate. The initial concentration of Cr (VI) was 15 mg L−1. All (soil and culture-only) microcosms were established in triplicates, were incubated in the dark at 30° C., and were shaken on a platform shaker at 125 RPM. Liquid samples from the microcosms were sampled at various time points during incubation. The liquid samples were filtered using 0.2 μm syringe filters (mdi Membrane Technologies Inc., Harrisburg, PA) and analyzed for anions using the disclosed IC method.

Tables

REFERENCES