Low density drain HEMTs

Methods and devices for fabricating AlGaN/GaN normally-off high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs). A fluorine-based (electronegative ions-based) plasma treatment or low-energy ion implantation is used to modify the drain-side surface field distribution without the use of a field plate electrode. The off-state breakdown voltage can be improved and current collapse can be completely suppressed in LDD-HEMTs with no significant degradation in gains and cutoff frequencies.

BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY

The present application relates to a method for breakdown voltage enhancement and current collapse suppression in normally-off high electron mobility transistors (“HEMTs”), and in particular, to fabrication of aluminum-gallium nitride/gallium nitride (“AlGaN/GaN”) HEMTs using electrode-less drain-side surface field engineering, resulting in a “Low Density Drain” HEMT.

Excessive electric field can create problems in semiconductor devices. (One type of problem is hot carriers, where sufficiently energetic electrons or holes become able to travel through dielectrics; another type of problem is avalanching, where conduction becomes uncontrolled.) Even in devices designed to operate at minimal logic voltages, it is important to ensure that the voltage does not change too sharply at the drain boundary; and in devices which are intended to switch higher voltages, it becomes increasingly necessary to minimize the peak electric field.

Drain engineering has been one of the longest-running sub-areas of integrated device development, going back to the original LDD proposal of 1974. See Blanchard, “High Voltage Simultaneous Diffusion Silicon-Gate CMOS,” 9 IEEE J.S.S.C. 103 (1974). Many techniques have been used to control peak electric field in high-voltage devices, often including various configurations of field plates and non-current-carrying diffusions.

This long-standing development challenge has particular relevance to the relatively new area of enhancement-mode (“E-mode”) III-N HEMTs. Normally-off AlGaN/GaN HEMTs are desirable for microwave power amplifier and power electronics applications because they offer simplified circuit configurations and favorable operating conditions for device safety. However, the normally-off AlGaN/GaN HEMTs usually exhibit lower maximum drain current compared to their normally-on counterparts, especially when the threshold voltage is increased to about +1 V to assure the completer turn-off of the 2DEG channel at zero gate bias and provide additional operating safety. To compensate the reduction in maximum current and achieve the same power handling capability, the breakdown voltage (VBK) needs to be further improved, but preferably not at the cost of increased gate-to-drain distance (which inevitably increases the device size). The use of a field-plate, connected to the gate or source electrodes, can effectively enhance VBKby modifying the surface field distribution. The gate-terminated field plate, however, can introduce additional gate capacitances (CGSand CGD), which reduce the devices' gain and cutoff frequencies. A source-terminated field plate has been used for achieving enhanced VBKand mitigating the gain reduction, but this required a thick dielectric layer between the gate and field plate.

A problem in GaN devices has been the current collapse phenomenon: when the source-drain voltage reaches a level at which impact ionization can occur, the maximum current carried by the device can actually decrease. It has been suggested that this undesirable effect is due to a trapping phenomenon in which mid-gap states are populated by hot electrons.

Low Density Drain HEMTs

The present application discloses new approaches to the control of an electric field in a field effect transistor. Methods and devices are disclosed for fabrication of an HEMT modifying the surface field distribution between the gate and drain of a normally-off HEMT. Part or all of the region between gate and drain can be transformed into a region with low density of 2DEG using a CF4plasma treatment, forming a Low-Density Drain (“LDD”) HEMT. The off-state breakdown voltage can be improved and current collapse can be completely suppressed in LDD-HEMTs with no significant degradation in gains and cutoff frequencies.

The disclosed innovations, in various embodiments, provide one or more of at least the following advantages:Allows for modification of the surface field distribution in normally-off HEMTs without the use of a field plate electrode.Asymmetric modification to drain side only is easily achieved.No change in topology is required: the additional fixed charge introduced into the wide-bandgap barrier layer does not affect physical topology.Provides for enhanced breakdown voltage and suppressed current collapse without degradation in gains or cutoff frequencies.Does not add any additional process steps to those already required for enhancement+depletion III-N fabrication.Surface state trapping and de-trapping is reduced or prevented.Current collapse is reduced or prevented.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The numerous innovative teachings of the present application will be described with particular reference to the presently preferred embodiment (by way of example, and not of limitation).

The present application presents a simple way to modify the surface field distribution between the gate and drain without using a field plate electrode. The field modification is achieved by turning part or all of the region between gate and drain into a region with low density of 2DEG, effectively forming Low-Density Drain (“LDD”). With the same device dimensions, the off-state breakdown voltage VBKimproves from 60 V in an HEMT without LDD to over 90 V in a device with LDD. No degradation in ftand slight improvement of power gain and fmaxwere observed in the LDD-HEMT. In addition, current collapse can be completely suppressed in the LDD-HEMTs.

EXAMPLE

An AlGaN/GaN LDD-HEMT was fabricated according to the process shown inFIGS. 47A through 47F. The epitaxial structure and device fabrication flow of the LDD-HEMTs on sapphire substrate are similar to the process used forFIG. 3, except one additional step shown inFIG. 47D, that defines the LDD region at the end of the device process. After the windows of low-density drain region are defined, a CF4plasma treatment under an RF source power of 150 W is applied for 45 seconds. The sample was then annealed at 400° C. for 10 minutes.FIG. 47Eshows the cross-section of a finished LDD-HEMT. The gate length (LG) at 1 μm and the gate-source spacing (LGS) at 1 μm. The gate-drain spacing (LGD) was chosen to be either 1 μm or 3 μm. The length of the low-density drain region (LLDD) is 0.5 μm and 1 μm for devices with 1 μm LGD, and 0.5 μm, 1 μm, 1.5 μm, 2 μm and 3 μm for devices with 3 μm LGD. A schematic sketch of 2DEG density distribution in different regions of an LDD-HEMT is shown inFIG. 47F. For comparison testing, conventional HEMT devices with LLDD=0 were also fabricated on the same wafer.

Fluorine ions incorporated in the AlGaN layer of the LDD region provide negative fixed charge which can modulate the surface electric-field and the 2DEG density, enabling the redistribution of the E-field and reduction of the peak field. The function of the LDD region is similar to a metal field plate in terms of improving the breakdown voltage, but without introducing any additional capacitances. Secondly, the fluorine ions incorporated in the AlGaN layer can effectively raise the energy band, effectively hindering the trapping and de-trapping process. Recent DLTS and photo-conductivity experiments have revealed that the incorporation of fluorine ions in the AlGaN layer is predominantly substitutional, with the fluorine atoms filling nitrogen vacancies in the AlGaN layer.

The incorporation of fluorine ions in the AlGaN layer is believed to be substitutional and the fluorine atoms can fill out the nitrogen vacancies in the AlGaN layer. Thus, the current collapse associated with the surface states and traps can also be suppressed by implementing the low-density drain.

FIG. 48shows the breakdown voltage enhancement in an LDD-HEMT. By converting half of the gate-to-drain region into a low-density region, a 50% increase is realized in VBK. As shown inFIG. 48, the device with LGD=1 μm and LLDD=0.5 μm exhibits a breakdown voltage similar to that achieved in a bulkier device with LGD=3 μm and LLDD=0 μm (without the LDD). The dependence of VBKon LLDDis shown inFIG. 49. For devices with the same LGD=3 μm and different LLDD(0 or 3 μm), the same Vth=0.75V, IMAX=300 mA/mm and GM=150 mS/mm are obtained. As shown inFIGS. 50,51, and52, the LDD-HEMT shows no degradations in current gain and ft, slight improvement in power gain (MSG/MAG) and fmax—a result of increased output resistance (RDS). The only penalty imposed on the LDD-HEMT is the increased on-resistance that results in a knee voltage increase of 2 V at most as shown inFIGS. 53 and 54, which is much smaller than the enhancement in VBK(<30 V).FIG. 55shows that the reverse gate-drain leakage current at a bias of 20 V can be reduced from 25 μA/mm to 15 μA/mm in an LDD-HEMT, compared to a conventional device.FIG. 56shows the DC and pulsed I-V characteristics and shows the passivation effect of fluorine ions with different LLDD. With LLDDincreasing, the current collapse is reduced, reaching a complete suppression when the gate-to-drain region is fully treated by the fluorine ions (LLDD=3 μm). The comparison of large signal measurement is shown inFIGS. 57 and 58. Due to the current collapse, the maximum power of the conventional HEMT saturates at around 0.69 W/mm. The LDD-HEMT, with suppressed current collapse, exhibits a maximum power of 1.58 W/mm.

The LDD-HEMT structures and process described above can be integrated into an enhancement+depletion process which used patterned fluorine treatment of a wide-bandgap layer, as will now be described.

FIGS. 3A through 3Fillustrate the process of fabricating an enhancement-mode III-nitride HFET according to a first embodiment of the present innovations.FIG. 3Aillustrates a preferred epitaxial structure of the present innovations, where the reference numerals110,120,130and140denote substrate (e.g. sapphire, silicon or SiC), nucleation layer (low temperature grown GaN nucleation layer, AlGaN or AlN), high temperature-grown GaN buffer layer, and AlxGa1−xN barrier layer including the modulation doped carrier supply layer. The manufacturing method of enhancement mode III-nitride HFET of one embodiment is described below. The mesa isolation is formed using Cl2/He plasma dry etching followed by the source/drain ohmic contact formation160with Ti, Al, Ni and Au annealed at 850° C. For 45 seconds as shown inFIG. 3B. Next, photoresist170is patterned with the gate windows exposed. Then, the fluorine ions are incorporated into AlxGa1−xN barrier layer by, for examples, either fluorine plasma treatment or fluorine ions implantation as shown inFIG. 3C. The gate electrode180is formed on the barrier layer140by depositing and lift-off Ni and Au as shown inFIG. 3D. Thereafter, post-gate RTA is conducted at 400-450° C. for 10 minutes. A passivation layer190is grown on the top of the wafer as shown inFIG. 3E. Finally, the contact pads are opened by removing portions of the passivation layer on the contact pads as shown inFIG. 3F.

EXAMPLE

An AlGaN/GaN HEMT structure was grown on a (0001) sapphire substrate in an Aixtron AIX 2000 HT metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) system. The HEMT structure consists of a low-temperature GaN nucleation layer, a 2.5-m-thick unintentionally doped GaN buffer layer and an AlGaN barrier layer with nominal 30% Al composition. The barrier layer consists of a 3-nm undoped spacer, a 15-nm carrier supplier layer dopes at 2.5×1018cm−3, and a 2-nm undoped cap layer. Room temperature Hall measurements of the structure yield an electron sheet density of 1.3×1013cm−2and an electron mobility of 1000 cm2/Vs. The device mesa was formed using Cl2/He plasma dry etching in an STS ICP-RIE system followed by the source/drain ohmic contact formation with Ti/Al/Ni/Au annealed at 850° C. for 45 seconds. The ohmic contact resistance was typically measured to be 0.8 ohm-mm.

After gate windows with 1 nm length were opened by contact photolithography, the sample was treated by CF4plasma in an RIE system at an RF plasma power of 150 W for 150 seconds. Pressure of the treatment is typically 50 mTorr. The typical depth distribution profile of the fluorine ions thus incorporated via the treatment is Gaussian, and the typical depth when the fluorine concentration drops from the peak by one order of magnitude is 20 nm. Note that ion implantation is another method for incorporating the fluorine ions, and it is estimated that an energy of about 10 KeV would be required.

Ni/Au electron-beam evaporation and liftoff were carried out subsequently to form the gate electrodes. The plasma treated gate region and the gate electrode were self-aligned. Post-gate RTA was conducted at 400° C. for 10 minutes. This RTA temperature was chosen because RTA at temperatures high then 500° C. can degrade both the gate Schottky contact and the source/drain ohmic contacts. The devices have a source-gate spacing of Lsg=1 μm and a gate-drain spacing of Lgd=2 μm. D-mode HEMTs were also fabricated on the same sample without plasma treatment to the gate regions.

FIG. 2shows the transfer characteristics of both DE-mode and E-mode (before and after post-gate annealing) AlGaN/GaN HEMTs. Defining Vthas the gate bias intercept of the linear extrapolation of drain current at the point of peak transconductance (gm), the Vthof the E-mode device was determined to be 0.9 V, while the Vthof the D-mode device is −4.0 V. More than 4 V of Vthshift was achieved by the plasma treatment. At Vgs=0, the transconductance reaches zero, indicating a true E-mode operation. The drain current is well pinched-off and shows a leakage of 28 μA/mm at Vds=6 V, the smallest value reported up to date for E-mode AlGaN/GaN HEMTs. The peak gmis 151 mS/mm for the D-mode HEMT and 148 mS/mm for the E-mode HEMT, respectively. The maximum drain current (Imax) reaches 313 mA/mm at the gate bias (Vgs) of 3 V for the E-mode HEMT. Comparison of the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of E-mode device before and after RTA suggests that RTA at 400° C. for 10 minutes plays an important role in recovering the damages induced during the plasma treatment and achieving high current density and transconductance.FIG. 4Ashows the output curves of the E-mode device before and after the RTA process. No change in threshold voltage was observed after the RTA. At a Vgsof 2.5 V, the saturation drain current (247 mA/mm) of E-mode device after RTA of 400° C. is 85% higher than that (133 mA/mm) before RTA, and the knee voltage of the E-mode device with RTA is 2.2 V, where the drain current is 95% saturation drain current. The off-state drain breakdown voltage at Vgs=0V is larger than 80 V, showing no degradation compared to that observed in the D-mode HEMTs.FIG. 4Bshows Ig/Vgscurves of these three devices. Lower gate leakage currents were achieved for E-mode HEMT, especially after RTA.

In order to investigate the mechanisms of the Vthshift by CF4plasma treatment, secondary ion mass spectrum (SIMS) measurements were carried out on accompanying samples to monitor the atomic composition changes of the CF4plasma treated AlGaN/GaN materials. In addition of Al, Ga, and N, significant amount of fluorine atoms were detected in the plasma treated sample.FIG. 5shows the fluorine atom concentration profile of the sample treated at a CF4plasma power of 150 W for 2.5 minutes. The concentration of fluorine atoms is the highest near the AlGaN surface and drops by one order of magnitude in the channel. It can be deduced that the fluorine ions produced by the CF4plasma were incorporated into the sample surface, similar to the effects of plasma immersion ion implantation (“PIII”), a technique developed to realize ultra-shallow junctions in advanced silicon technology. Because of the strong electro-negativity of the fluorine ions, the incorporated fluorine ions can provide immobile negative charges in the AlGaN barrier and effectively deplete the electrons in the channel. With enough fluorine ions incorporated in the AlGaN barrier, the D-mode HEMT can be converted to an E-mode HEMT. The CF4plasma treatment can result in a threshold voltage shift as large as 4.9 V. After RTA at 400° C. for 10 minutes, the peak fluorine atom concentration near the AlGaN surface is unchanged while that around the AlGaN/GaN interface experiences more significant reduction. It should be noted, however, SIMS measurement results from different runs do not offer accurate quantitative comparison because of the lack of reference criterion. Nevertheless, the minute change in Vthbefore and after RTA indicates that the total number of fluorine ions incorporated into the AlGaN barrier is near constant before and after RTA, while the plasma damages are significantly recovered by the RTA. The lower gate reverse leakage currents of an E-mode HEMT can be attributed to an upward band bending of the AlGaN layer as a result of fluorine ion incorporation. After the RTA process, the defects at the interface of metal and AlGaN induced by CF4were recovered, leading to further suppression of gate leakage current. From the atomic force microscopy (“AFM”) measurement conducted on a patterned sample, it was observed that the plasma treatment only results in a 0.8 nm reduction in the overall AlGaN barrier layer (20 nm thick).

On-wafer small-signal RF characteristics of D-mode and E-mode AlGaN/GaN HEMTs were measured from 0.1 to 39.1 GHz. The current gain and maximum stable gain/maximum available gain (MSG/MAG) of both types of devices with 1 μm-long gate were derived from measured S-parameters as a function of frequency, as shown inFIG. 5. At Vds=12 and Vgs=1.9 V, a current gain cutoff frequency (fT) of 10.1 GHz and a power gain cutoff frequency (fMAX) of 34.3 GHz were obtained for the E-mode AlGaN/GaN HEMT, a little lower than that of its D-mode counterpart, whose and were measured at the drain bias of 12 V and gate bias of −3 V to be 13.1 and 37.1 GHz, respectively.

One advantage of the present innovations is that the E-mode HFET with fluorine ions incorporated in barrier layer can stand a larger gate bias (>3V) corresponding to a larger input voltage swing.

Also, thermal reliability testing has shown that the fluorine ion incorporation in the AlGaN barrier is stable up to 700° C. However, the Schottky contact, made of nickel, is only stable up to 500° C. Therefore, the application temperature range is up to 500° C. unless another Schottky contact technique is used. Tungsten gate is one possible candidate.

InFIG. 7, the effect of different post-gate RTA's on the fluorine atoms' distributions in AlGaN/GaN heterostructures, as measured by SIMS, is shown. The untreated device is used as a reference.

It was found that the fluorine ions, which were incorporated into the AlGaN barrier layer by CF4plasma treatment, could effectively shift the threshold voltage positively. The fluorine ions' incorporation in the AlGaN layer was confirmed by secondary-ion-mass-spectrum (SIMS) measurements, as shown inFIG. 7. During CF4plasma treatment, fluorine ions are implanted into AlGaN/GaN heterostructure in a self-built electrical field stimulated by the RF power.

It is also concluded from the results shown inFIG. 7that the implanted fluorine ions have a good thermal stability in the AlGaN layer up to 700° C. Deep-level transient spectroscopy (“DLTS”) has been conducted on the HEMT samples treated by CF4plasma. The fluorine ions incorporated in the AlGaN barrier appear to introduce a deep-level state that is at least 1.8 eV below the conduction-band minimum. As a result, the fluorine ions are believed to introduce a negatively charged acceptor-like deep level in the AlGaN.

Note that in SIMS plots such asFIG. 7, it is difficult to make accurate calculation of concentration from SIMS measurement because the beam size is not known. However, based on the bandstructure and threshold voltage calculation, the peak value of the F concentration can be as high as about 1×20 cm−3.

InFIG. 7A, the effect of different plasma power levels without RTA on The fluorine atoms' distributions in AlGaN/GaN heterostructures, as measured by SIMS, is shown.

Note that the 200 W and 400 W lines show a “bump” at the interface between the AlGaN/GaN interface. During an incorporation process, the fluorine ions can fill up surface or interface states (or “traps”), producing “anomalous stopping”. Therefore, this indicates there are more traps at the interface. Further, the 600 W and 800 W lines do not show the bump most likely because of the greater penetration depth and overall concentration.

The untreated device is used as a reference. InFIG. 7B, the effect of different post-gate treatment temperatures at a fixed power of 600 W for RTA on the fluorine atoms' distributions in AlGaN/GaN heterostructures, as measured by SIMS, is shown. The untreated device is used as a reference. Note that the distributions in the AlGaN for 700° C. and below show a normal effect of root Dt, but the distribution in the AlGaN layer seems to reflect a very different diffusivity (or perhaps some other activation energy effect). Thus, the data indicates that fluorine ions are more stable in AlGaN than in GaN. Further, the binding energy can be higher, and the fluorine-related energy states are deeper below the conduction band in AlGaN than in GaN.

Sensitivity to plasma treatment parameters was also investigated. Devices were fabricated with different Vthvalues by applying different CF4plasma power and treatment times. Five different combinations were used: 100 W for 60 seconds, 150 W for 20 seconds, 150 W for 60 seconds, 150 W for 150 seconds, and 200 W for 60 seconds. For comparison, an HEMT without CF4treatment was also fabricated on the same sample and in the same processing run. All the devices were unpassivated in order to avoid any confusion caused by the passivation layer, which may change the stress in the AlGaN layer and alter the piezoelectric polarization. All the HEMT devices have a gate length of 1 μm a source-gate spacing of Lsg=1 μm and a gate-drain spacing of Lgd=2 μm. DC current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the fabricated devices were measured using an HP4156A parameter analyzer. Transfer characteristics and transconductance (gm) characteristics are shown inFIGS. 8A and 8B, respectively. Taking the conventional HEMT (i.e., without CF4plasma treatment) as the baseline devices, the threshold voltage of all the other CF4plasma-treated HEMTs are shifted to the positive direction. Defining Vthas the gate-bias intercept of the linear extrapolation of the drain-current at the point of peak transconductance (gm), the Vthof all the devices were extracted and listed inFIG. 9. For the conventional HEMT, Vthis −4 V. For the HEMT treated by CF4plasma at 150 W for 150 seconds, the Vthis 0.9 V, which corresponds to the E-mode HEMT. A maximum Vthshift of 4.9 V was achieved. In order to further reveal the effects of CF4plasma treatment, the dependencies of Vthon both CF4plasma treatment time and RF power are plotted inFIG. 10. As the plasma power is increased and as longer treatment time are utilized, larger shifts in Vthare effected. With the increase in the plasma treatment time, more fluorine ions were implanted into AlGaN layer. The increased fluorine ion concentration leads to a reduced electron density in the channel, and causes the positive shift of Vth. When the plasma power increases, fluorine ions obtain a higher energy and fluorine ion flux increases due to the enhanced ionization rate of CF4. With higher energy, fluorine ions can reach at a deeper depth closer to the channel. The closer the fluorine ions are to the channel, the more effective they at depleting 2DEG, and a larger shift in Vthis achieved. The increased fluorine ions flux has the same effect on Vthas the increase of the plasma treatment time by raising the fluorine atoms concentration in AlGaN layer. It should be noted that the nearly linear Vthversus time and Vthversus power relationships imply the possibilities of a precise control of Vthof AlGaN/GaN HEMTs. Although the Vthis shifted by CF4plasma treatment, the gmis not degraded. As shown inFIG. 8B, all the devices' maximum gmare in the range of 149-166 mS/mm, except for that treated at 150 W for 60 seconds, which has a higher peak gmof 186 mS/mm. It is suspected that this singularity point was caused by the non-uniformity in epitaxial growth. Confirmed by an AFM measurement conducted on a CF4-treated patterned sample (with part of the sample treated and other parts protected from the plasma treatment), the CF4plasma treatment only results in an AlGaN-thickness reduction of less than 1 nm, as shown inFIG. 11. Thus, the almost constant transconductance indicates that the 2DEG mobility in the channel is maintained in the device fabrication according to the present innovations. A key step in maintaining the transconductance is the post-gate annealing process.

Recovery of Plasma-Induced Damages by Post-Gate Annealing

As previously discussed, the plasma normally induces damages and creates defects in semiconductor materials, and consequently degrades carriers' mobility. RTA is an effective method to repair these damages and recover the mobility. In the CF4plasma-treated AlGaN/GaN HEMTs, drain-current and transconductance degradation occurs just after the plasma treatment. InFIGS. 12A and 12B, the drain-current and transconductance measured on an untreated device and a treated device (200 W, 60 seconds) before and after RTA (400° C. for 10 minutes) are plotted.FIG. 13compares the output characteristics of the treated device before and after RTA. The drain-current was 76% and the transconductance was 51% higher after the RTA in the treated device. The RTA process can recover majority of the mobility degradation in the plasma-treated device, while showing an insignificant effect on the conventional untreated device. Therefore, the recovery of Idand gmin the CF4plasma-treated device is the result of the effective recovery of the 2DEG mobility at this RTA condition. Compared to a higher annealing temperature of 700° C., which is needed to recover damages induced by chlorine-based ICP-RIE in the case of recessed gate, this lower RTA temperature implies that the CF4plasma treatment creates lower damages than the chlorine-based ICP-RIE. It also enables the RTA process to be carried out after the gate deposition, fulfilling the goal of a self-aligned process. If the previous definition of Vthis used, the Vthof the CF4plasma-treated device seems to be shifted from 0.03 to −0.29 V after the RTA. When the start point of gm, as shown inFIG. 12B, or the start point of Idat the logarithm scale, as shown in the inset ofFIG. 12A, is used as the criteria to evaluate Vth, the Vthof the CF4plasma-treated device is not changed after the RTA. The good thermal stability of Vthis consistent with the previously mentioned good thermal stability of fluorine atoms in AlGaN layer.

Suppression of Schottky Gate-Leakage Current

AlGaN/GaN HEMTs always show much higher reverse gate leakage current than the values theoretically predicted by the thermionic-emission (“TE”) model. The higher gate currents degrade the device's noise performance and raise the standby power consumption. In particular, forward gate currents limit the gate input voltage swing, hence the maximum drain-current. Other approaches have been attempted to suppress gate currents of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs. These efforts include using the gate metal with higher work function, using copper, modifying the HEMTs structure (such as adding a GaN cap), or diversion to metal-insulator-semiconductor heterostructure field-effect transistors (MISHFETs). In the CF4plasma-treated AlGaN/GaN HEMTs of the present innovations, suppressions of gate currents in both reverse and forward bias regions can be achieved. Gate-current suppressions show dependencies on CF4plasma-treatment conditions.

FIGS. 14A and 14Bshows gate currents of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs with different CF4plasma treatments.FIG. 14Bis the enlarged plot of the forward gate bias region. In reverse bias region, compared to the conventional HEMT without CF4plasma treatment, the gate-leakage currents of all the CF4plasma-treated AlGaN/GaN HEMTs decreased. At Vg=−20 V, the gate-leakage current drops by more than four orders of magnitude from 1.2×10−2A/mm for conventional HEMT to 7×10−7A/mm for the AlGaN/GaN HEMT plasma treated at 200 W, 60 seconds. In the forward region, the gate currents of all the CF4plasma-treated AlGaN/GaN HEMTs also decrease. As a result, the turn-on voltages of the gate Schottky diode are extended, and the gate input voltage swings are increased. Using 1 mA/mm as the criterion, the turn-on voltage of the gate Schottky diode increases from 1 V for conventional HEMT to 1.75 V for the CF4plasma-treated AlGaN/GaN HEMT at 200 W for 60 seconds.

The suppression of the gate-leakage current in the CF4plasma-treated AlGaN/GaN HEMT can be explained as follows. During CF4plasma treatment, fluorine ions are incorporated into the AlGaN layer. These ions with a strong electronegativity act as immobile negative charges that cause the upward conduction-band bending in the AlGaN barrier layer due to the electrostatic induction effect. Thus, an additional barrier height ΦF, as shown inFIG. 23is formed, and the effective metal-semiconductor barrier height is increased from ΦBto ΦB+ΦF. This enhanced barrier height can effectively suppress the gate Schottky diode current in both reverse and forward bias regions. With higher plasma power and longer treatment time, the fluorine ion concentration in the AlGaN layer increases, and the effective barrier height is raised further, leading to a more significant gate-current suppression. InFIG. 9the effective barrier heights and ideality factors that were extracted from the forward region of the measured gate currents by using the TE model are detailed. The effective barrier height of conventional HEMT is 0.4 eV, while the effective barrier height increases to 0.9 eV for the CF4plasma-treated HEMT at 200 W for 60 seconds. The effective barrier heights of the CF4plasma-treated HEMT also show a trend of increase with the plasma power and treatment time, except for the HEMT treated as 150 W for 20 seconds, which has a relatively higher effective barrier height. This exception is thought to be due to the process variations. The fact that the extracted effective barrier height is much lower than the theoretically predicted values and very large ideality factors (>2.4) indicates that the gate currents of fabricated AlGaN/GaN HEMTs are not dominated by the TE mechanism but other mechanisms, such as vertical tunneling, surface barrier thinning, and trap-assisted tunneling. Thus, the barrier heights and ideality factors, which are extracted by using the TE model, are not accurate. Nevertheless, they provide sufficient qualitative information for explaining the mechanism of the gate-current suppression in CF4plasma-treated AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.

Dynamic I-V characterizations were conducted by using an Accent DIVA D265 system to investigate the effects of CF4plasma treatment on drain-current dispersion. The pulse width is 0.2 μs and the pulse separation is 1 ms. The quiescent point is at VGSslightly (˜0.5 V) below the pinch-off and VDS=15 V. Compared to static I-V characteristics, the maximum drain-current of conventional D-mode HEMT dropped by 63% while that of E-mode HEMT with CF4plasma treatment at 150 W for 150 seconds dropped by 6%.

The alleviation of drain-current drops for E-mode HEMT is likely due to a raised gate bias of the quiescent point (VGS=0 V for E-mode HEMT, VGS=−4.5 V for D-mode HEMT).

RF Small-Signal Characteristics

On-wafer small-signal RF characterization of the fabricated AlGaN/GaN HEMTs were carried out at the frequency range of 0.1-39.1 GHz using Cascade microwave probes and an Agilent 8722ES network analyzer. Open-pad de-embeddings with the S-parameters of dummy pads were carried out to eliminate a parasitic capacitance of the probing pads. The current gain and maximum stable gain/maximum available gain (MSG/MAG) of all devices with 1-μm long gate were derived from the de-embedded S-parameters as a function of frequency. The current cutoff frequency (ft) and maximum oscillation frequency (fmax) were extracted from current gains and MSG/MAGs at unit gain. It has been observed that the intrinsic ftand fmaxare generally 10-15% higher than the extrinsic ones without the de-embeddings process. The dependencies of ftand fmaxon the gate bias are shown inFIG. 15for the E-mode HEMT. Both ftand fmaxare relatively constant at both low and high gate bias, indicating a good linearity.FIG. 16lists ftand fmaxof all samples. For the conventional HEMT, ftand fmaxare 13.1 and 37.1 GHz, while for the CF4plasma-treated HEMTs, ftand fmaxare approximately 10 and 34 GHz, slightly lower than that of the conventional HEMT, except for the HEMT treated at 150 W for 60 seconds. This higher ftand fmaxin the 150 W/60 second device are consistent with the higher gmpresented before, and are attributed to a material non-uniformity and process variation. The slightly lower ftand fmaxin the CF4plasma-treated HEMTs indicate that the post-gate RTA at 400° C. can effectively recover the 2DEG mobility degraded by the plasma treatment, but the recovery is less than 100%. It suggests that the optimization of the RTA temperature and time is needed to further improve the 2DEG mobility, while not degrading the gate Schottky contact.

In another embodiment, E-mode Si3N4/AlGaN/GaN MISHFET were constructed with a two-step Si3N4process which features a thin layer of Si3N4(15 nm) under the gate and a thick layer of Si3N4(about 125 nm) in the access region. Fluorine-based plasma treatment was used to convert the device from D-mode to E-mode. The E-mode MISHFETs with 1-μm long gate footprint exhibited a threshold voltage of 2 V, a forward turn-on gate bias of 6.8 V (compared to about a 3 V realized in E-mode AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) and a maximum current density of 420 mA/mm.

The AlGaN/GaN HFET structure used in this example was grown on (0001) sapphire substrates in an Aixtron AIX 2000 HT MOCVD system. The HFET structure consists of a 50-nm thick low temperature GaN nucleation layer, a 2.5-μm thick not-intentionally doped GaN buffer layer, and an AlGaN barrier layer with nominal 30% Al composition. The barrier layer is composed of a 3-nm undoped spacer, a 16-nm carrier supplier layer doped at 2×1018cm−3, and a 2-nm undoped cap layer. The capacitance-voltage (“C-V”) measurement by mercury probe yields an initial threshold voltage of −4 V for this sample. The process flow is illustrated inFIGS. 17A through 17F. The device mesa is formed using Cl2/He plasma dry etching in an STS ICP-RIE system followed by the source/drain ohmic contact formation with Ti/Al/Ni/Au (20 nm/150 nm/50 nm/80 nm) annealed at 850° C. for 30 seconds, as shown inFIG. 17A. Then, the first Si3N4layer (about 125 nm) is deposited on the sample by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) as inFIG. 17B. After gate windows with 1-μm length are opened by photolithography, the sample was put in an RIE system under CF4plasma treatment, which removed the Si3N4and incorporated fluorine ions in the AlGaN. The RF power of the plasma was 150 W, as shown inFIG. 17C. The gas flow was controlled to be 150 sccm, and the total etching and treatment time is 190 seconds. After removing the photoresist, the second Si3N4film (about 15 nm) was deposited by PECVD to form the insulating layer between gate metal and AlGaN as inFIG. 17D. Subsequently, the Si3N4layer was patterned and etched to open windows in the source and drain ohmic contact regions, as shown inFIG. 17E. Next, the 2-μm long gate electrodes were defined by photolithography followed by e-beam evaporation of Ni/Au (˜50 nm/300 nm) and liftoff as inFIG. 17F. To ensure that the gate electrode covers the entire plasma-treated region, the metal gate length (2 μm) was chosen to be larger than the treated gate area (1 μm), leading to a T-gate configuration. The gate overhang in the source/drain access regions is insulated from the AlGaN layer by the thick Si3N4layer, keeping the gate capacitances at low level. Finally, the whole sample was annealed at 400° C. for 10 minutes to repair the plasma-induced damage in the AlGaN barrier and channel. Measured from the foot of gate, the gate-source and gate-drain spacings are both 1.5 μm. The E-mode MISHFETs are designed with gate width of 10 μm for dc testing and 100 μm for RF characterizations.

The constructed device was then characterized. The DC output characteristics of the E-mode MISHFETs are plotted inFIG. 18. The devices exhibit a peak current density of about 420 mA/mm, an ON-resistance of about 5.67 Ω·MM and a knee voltage of about 3.3 V at VGS7 V.FIG. 19Ashows the transfer characteristics of the same device with 1×10-μm gate dimension. It can be seen that the Vthis about 2 V, indicating a 6-V shift of Vth(compared to a conventional D-mode HFET) achieved by the insertion of the Si3N4insulator and plasma treatment. The peak transconductance gm is about 125 mS/mm.FIG. 19Bshows the gate leakage current at both the negative bias and forward bias. The forward bias turn-on voltage for the gate is about 6.8 V, providing a much larger gate bias swing compared to the E-mode HFETs. Pulse measurements were taken on the E-mode MISHFETs with 1×100-μm gate dimensions with a pulse length of 0.2 μs and a pulse separation of 1 ms. The quiescent bias point is chosen at VGS=0 V (below Vth) and VDS=20 V.FIG. 20shows that the pulsed peak current is higher than the static one, indicating no current collapse in the device. The static maximum current density of the large device with a 100-μm gate width is about 330 mA/mm, smaller than device with 10-μm gate width (about 420 mA/mm). The lower peak current density in the larger device is due to the self-heating effect that lowers the current density. Since little self-heating occurs during pulse measurements, the maximum current for the 100-μm wide device can reach the same level as the 10-μm wide device. On wafer small-signal RF characteristics were performed from 0.1 to 39.1 GHz on the 100-μm wide E-mode MISHFETs at VDS=10 V. As shown inFIG. 21, the maximum current gain cutoff frequency (fT) and power gain cutoff frequency (fmax) are 13.3 and 23.3 GHz, respectively. When the gate bias is 7 V, the small-signal RF performance does not significantly degrade, with an fTof 13.1 GHz and an fmaxof 20.7 GHz, indicating that the Si3N4insulator offers an excellent insulation between gate metal and semiconductor.

Models

A theoretical characterization model was developed for some of the present innovations. For a conventional AlGaN/GaN HEMT with silicon modulation doped layer, as shown inFIG. 7, the polarization charges need to be taken into account in the calculation of HEMTs threshold voltage. Modified from a generally used formula by taking into account the effects of charge polarization, surface and buffer traps, the threshold voltage of the AlGaN/GaN HEMT can be expressed as:

Vth=ϕB/e-d⁢⁢σ/ɛ-Δ⁢⁢EC/e+E10/e-eɛ⁢∫0d⁢⁢ⅆx⁢∫0x⁢NSi⁡(x)⁢⁢ⅆx-e⁢ⅆNst/ɛ-eNb/Cb.(1)
Where the parameters are defined as follows:φBis the metal-semiconductor Schottky barrier height.σ is the overall net (both spontaneous and piezoelectric) polarization charge at the barrier—AlGaN/GaN interface.d is the AlGaN barrier-layer thickness.Nsi(x) is the silicon-doping concentration.ΔEcis the conduction-band offset at the AlGaN/GaN heterostructure.Ef0is the difference between the intrinsic Fermi level and the conduction band edge of the GaN channel.∈ is the dielectric constant of AlGaN.Nstis the effective net-charged buffer traps per unit area.Nbis the effective net-charged buffer traps per unit area.Cbis the effective buffer-to-channel capacitance per unit area.
The last two terms in equation (1) describe the effects of the surface traps and buffer traps, respectively. The AlGaN surface is at x=0, and the direction pointing to the channel is the positive direction for the integration. To represent the devices described above, immobile negative charges are introduced into the AlGaN barrier layer under the gate. Because of electrostatic induction, these immobile negative charges can deplete 2DEG in the channel, raise the energy band, and hence modulate Vth. Including the effect of the negative charges confined in the AlGaN barrier, the modified threshold voltage from equation (1) is given by:

By applying Poisson's equation and Fermi-Dirac statistics, a simulation was made of the conduction-band profiles and the electron distributions of AlGaN/GaN HEMT structures with and without fluorine ions incorporated in AlGaN layer. Both structures have the same epitaxial structure, shown inFIG. 7. For the fluorine ions incorporated HEMT structure, the negatively charged fluorine ions' profile was extracted from SIMS measurement results of the fluorine atoms' distribution of an AlGaN/GaN HEMT structure that was treated by CF4plasma at 150 W for 150 s and converted to an E-mode HEMT. The simulated conduction band diagrams at zero gate bias were plotted inFIGS. 22 and 23For the simulated conduction band of E-mode HEMT, as shown inFIG. 22the fluorine concentration is approximated by using a linear distribution that the peak fluorine concentration is 3×1019cm−3at the AlGaN surface, and the fluorine concentration is assumed to be negligible at the AlGaN/GaN interface. A total fluorine ion sheet concentration of about 3×1013cm−2is sufficient to not only compensate the silicon doping (about 3.7×1013cm−2) in the AlGaN barrier but also to compensate for the piezoelectric and spontaneous polarization-induced charges (about 1×1013cm−2). Two significant features can be observed. First, compared to the untreated AlGaN/GaN HEMT structure, the plasma-treated structure has its 2DEG channel's conduction-band minimum above Fermi level, indicating a completely depleted channel and E-mode HEMT. As shown in the electron profiles inFIG. 24, there are no electrons in the channel under the zero gate bias in the plasma-treated structure, indicating an E-mode HEMT operation. Second, the immobile negatively charged fluorine ions cause an upward bending of the conduction band, especially in AlGaN barrier, yielding an additional barrier height ΦF, as shown inFIG. 23Such an enhanced barrier can significantly suppress the gate Schottky diode current of AlGaN/GaN HEMT in both the reverse and forward bias regions.

The epitaxial structure for the monolithically-integrated E/D-mode HFET consists of: (a) a semiconductor substrate (sapphire, SiC, silicon, AlN or GaN, etc.); (b) a buffer layer grown on the substrate; (c) a channel layer; (d) a barrier layer including an undoped spacer layer, a modulation doped carrier supply layer and an undoped cap layer. The fabrication process includes: (f) active region isolation; (g) ohmic contacts formation on source and drain terminals; (h) photolithography of the gate regions for the E-mode HFETs; (i) fluoride-based plasma treatment to the exposed barrier layer of the e-mode HFETs; (j) gate metal deposition of the E-mode HFETs; (k) photolithography of the gate regions for the D-mode HFETs; (l) gate metal deposition of the D-mode HFETs; ml) surface passivation of the D-mode and e-mode HFETs; (n) gate annealing at elevated temperatures. A schematic process flow for this monolithic integration is depicted inFIG. 25.

The active device isolation in the above-described monolithic integration process used the mesa etching, which features the active region removal by etching techniques in the areas without the HFETs. Such an approach imposes limits to the integration density, photolithography resolution. For high frequency circuits, the edges of the mesas also introduce additional discontinuities for wave propagation, which in turn, complicate the circuit design and analysis. Since the fluoride-based plasma treatment is able to deplete the electrons in the channel (providing electrical turn-off of the channel), it can be used for device isolation. With increased plasma power and treatment time, the regions where active devices are not desired can be completely turned off electrically, providing electrical isolation between devices. Such an approach does not involve any material removal, therefore, enables a flat wafer surface for planar process.

EXAMPLE

FIGS. 26A through 26Fillustrate the process of monolithically integrating the E/D-mode HFETs for integrated circuits according to one embodiment of the present invention.FIG. 26Aillustrates a preferred epitaxial structure of this invention, where the reference numerals110,120,130and140denote substrate, low temperature grown GaN nucleation layer, high temperature grown GaN buffer layer, and AlxGa1−xN barrier layer including the modulation doped carrier supply layer. The manufacturing method of monolithic integration of E/D-mode HFETs for integrated circuits is described below. For both D-mode and E-mode HFETs, the mesa isolations are simultaneously formed using Cl2/He plasma dry etching followed by the source/drain ohmic contact formation160with Ti, Al, Ni and Au annealed at 850° C. for 45 seconds as shown inFIG. 26B. The gates as well as gate-source interconnections of D-mode HFETs are patterned by photoresist170as shown inFIG. 26C, followed by depositing and lift-off Ni and Au178. Thereafter, the E-mode HFETs' gates, pads and second interconnections are patterned with photoresist175as shown inFIG. 26D. Then the fluoride ions are incorporated into AlxGa1−xN barrier layer beneath E-mode HFETs' gates by, for examples, either fluoride plasma treatment or fluoride ions implantation as shown inFIG. 26D. The gate electrode180is formed on the barrier layer140by depositing and lift-off Ni and Au. Thereafter, post-gate rapid thermal annealing (RTA) is conducted at 400-450° C. for 10 minutes. A passivation layer190is grown on the top of the wafer as shown inFIG. 26E. Then the contact pads and via holes are opened by removing portions of the passivation layer on them as shown inFIG. 26F. Finally, a third interconnection is formed.

An E/D HFETs inverter and a 17-stage direct-coupled ring oscillator were created on a 20 nm Al0.25Ga0.75N barrier layer on 2 μm GaN buffer layer with typical CF4plasma treatment condition of 150 W for 150 seconds and typical post-gate RTA condition of 450° C. for 10 minutes for E-mode HFETs. The inverter has a NMI, of 0.21 V and a NMHof 0.51 V at a supply voltage of 1.5 V. When supply voltage of 3.5 V is applied, the 17-stage ring oscillator shows a maximum oscillation frequency of 225 MHz corresponding to a minimum propagation delay of 130 ps.

EXAMPLE

This embodiment describes a method for planar monolithic integration of E-mode and D-mode AlGaN/GaN HFETs. As described in the first embodiment, the isolation among active devices can be obtained by creating active device mesa through etching, which creates non-flat wafer surfaces. In integrated circuit fabrications, planar process are always desirable. Following the same principle of channel depletion by the negatively charged fluorine ions in the AlGaN, depletion of the desired inactive (isolated) areas by fluoride-based plasma treatment can be effected. The plasma power and treatment time can both be increased to enhance the carrier depletion. The process flow is illustrated inFIG. 27, where: (a) source/drain ohmic contacts formation; (b) D-mode HFET gate definition by photolithography; (c) D-mode HFET gate metallization and part of the interconnects formation; (d) E-mode HFET gate definition by photolithography followed by plasma treatment; (e) E-mode HFET gate metallization and part of the interconnects formation; (f) isolation region definition by photolithography followed by the second fluoride-based plasma treatment; (g) final chip followed by passivation.

EXAMPLE

The AlGaN/GaN HEMT structure in this example was grown on a (0001) sapphire substrates in an Aixtron AIX 2000 HT MOCVD system. The HEMT structure consists of a low-temperature GaN nucleation layer, a 2.5-μm thick unintentionally doped GaN buffer layer, and an AlGaN barrier layer with a nominal 30% Al composition. The barrier layer is composed of a 3-nm undoped spacer, a 21-nm carrier supplier layer doped at 2×1018 cm−3, and a 2-nm undoped cap layer. Room-temperature hall measurements of the structure yield an electron sheet density of 1.3×1013 cm−2and an electron mobility of 950 cm2/Vs.

The integration process flow is illustrated inFIG. 28. First, the source/drain ohmic contacts of the E/D-mode devices were formed simultaneously by a deposition of e-beam evaporated Ti/Al/Ni/Au (20 nm/150 nm/80 nm) and rapid thermal annealing at 850° C. for 30 seconds, as shown inFIG. 28(a). Second, the active regions for both E/D-mode devices were patterned by a photolithography, which followed by the CF4plasma treatment in a reactive ion etching system. The plasma power was 300 W, and the treatment time was 100 seconds. The gas flow was controlled to be 150 sccm, and the plasma bias was set to be 0 V. The isolation regions are the locations where a large amount of fluorine ions are incorporated in the AlGaN and GaN layer near the surface, and then deplete the two-dimensional electron gas in the channel, as shown inFIG. 28(b). The D-mode HEMTs' gate electrodes were then patterned by the contact photolithography, which is followed by the e-beam evaporation of Ni/Au (50 nm/300 nm) and liftoff as shown inFIG. 28(c). next, E-mode HEMTs' gate electrodes and interconnections were defied. Prior to the e-beam evaporation of Ni/Au, the gate regions of the E-mode HEMTs were treated by the CF4plasma (which has a negligible etching to AlGaN) at 170 W for 150 seconds, as shown inFIG. 28(d). This plasma treatment performed the function of converting the treated devices from the D-mode to E-mode HEMT. A 200-nm-thick silicon nitride passivation layer was deposited by PECVD, and the probing pads were opened. Then, the sample was annealed at 400° C. for 10 minutes to repair the plasma-induced damage in the AlGaN barrier and channel of the E-mode HEMTs as inFIG. 28(e). As a comparison, the D-mode devices were fabricated on another piece of the sample from the same substrate by the standard process, in which inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etching was used to define the mesa as the active region. For the direct-coupled FET logic inverter shown inFIG. 1A, the E-mode HEMT driver is designed with a gate length, gate-source spacing, gate-drain spacing, and gate width of 1.5, 1.5, 1.5, and 50 μm, respectively; the D-mode HEMT load is designed with a gate length, gate-source spacing, gate-drain spacing, and gate width of 4, 3, 3, and 8 μm, yielding a ration β=(WE/LE)/(WD/LD) of 16.7. Discrete E-mode and D-mode HEMTs with 1.5×100 μm gate dimension are fabricated for characterizations.

Device and Circuit Characteristics

For the E/D-mode HEMTs fabricated by the planar process, the output characteristics are plotted inFIG. 29. The peak current density for D-mode and E-mode HEMTs are about 730 and 190 mA/mm.FIG. 30shows the DC transfer characteristics comparison between the planar and the standard process. It can be seen that the drain leakage current for the planar process is about 0.3 mA/mm, reaching the same level as the devices fabricated by the standard mesa etching. The D-mode HEMTs by the planar process have the comparable drain-current and transconductance characteristics as shown inFIG. 30(b), as the ones by the standard process. Also, the leakage current between two pads (400×100 μm2) was measured with a spacing of 150 μm. At the DC bias of 10 V, the leakage current by the planar process is about 38 μA, at the same level of the standard mesa etching sample (about 30 μA). compared with the standard mesa process, the fluoride-based plasma treatment can achieve the same level of the active device isolation, enabling a complete planar-integration process. The E-mode HEMTs exhibit a smaller transconductance (“gm”) compared to the D-mode devices, which is due to the incomplete of the plasma-induced damage. The fact that the sample has been through a thermal annealing at 400° C. also indicates that a good thermal stability is expected at a temperature at least up to 400° C. It should be noted that an ion-implantation technique has also been developed for inter-device isolation accomplished by a multiple energy N+ implantation to produce significant lattice damage throughout the thickness of the GaN buffer layer. Compared to the ion-implantation technique, the CF4plasma-treatment technique has the advantages of low cost and low damage.

The E/D-mode HEMTs DCFL inverter fabricated by the planar-integration process was characterized.FIG. 31shows the measured static voltage transfer curve of the inverter at a supply voltage VDD=3.3 V. High-and low-output logic levels (VOHand VOL) are 3.3 and 0.45 V, respectively, with the output swing (VOH−VOL) of 2.85 V. The DC voltage gain in the linear region is 2.9. By defining the values of VILand VIHat the unit gain points, the low and high noise margins are 0.34 and 1.47 V. The inverter DC current is also shown inFIG. 31. The leakage current with the E-mode device pinch-off is about 3 μA, which is consistent with the discrete device results.

EXAMPLE

FIG. 32shows AlGaN/GaN epitaxial heterostructures during the fabrication of an HEMTs according to the present innovations. They include the following: 2.5 μm GaN buffer layer and channel, 2 nm undoped Al0.25Ga0.75N spacer, 15 nm Al0.25Ga0.75N carrier supply layer with Si doping at 1×1018 cm−3, and a 3 nm undoped Al0.25Ga0.75N cap layer. The structures were grown on sapphire substrate in an Aixtron 2000 HT MOCVD system. The process flow is shown inFIGS. 33(a) through33(f).

The mesa and source/drain ohmic contacts were formed simultaneously for both E-mode and D-mode HEMTs, as shown inFIGS. 33(a) and (b). The D-mode HEMTs' gate electrodes were then formed by photolithography, metal deposition, and liftoff as shown inFIGS. 33(c) and (d). After defining the patterns of E-mode HEMTs' gates and interconnections, samples were treated by CF4plasma at a source power of 150 W for 150 seconds in an STS RIE system as shown inFIG. 33(e), followed by gate metallization and lift-off for the E-mode HEMTs. Inspected by atomic force microscope (“AFM”) measurements, the AlGaN barrier thickness was reduced by 0.8 nm after the plasma treatment. Next, a post-gate thermal annealing was conducted at 450° C. for 10 minutes as shown inFIG. 33(f). The CF4plasma treatment converts the treated GaN HEMT from D-mode to E-mode. The magnitude of threshold voltage shift depends on the treatment conditions, e.g., plasma power and treatment time, as described previously. The post-gate annealing is employed to recover the plasma-induced damages in AlGaN barrier and channel. In principle, the higher is the annealing temperature, the more efficient is the damage repair. However, in practice, the post-gate annealing temperature should not exceed the highest temperature (˜500° C., in our case) that the gate Schottky contact can endure, as mentioned earlier. It was found that the D-mode HEMTs' characteristics remain the same after the annealing, whereas the E-mode HEMTs' drain current density increases significantly. The post-gate annealing was found to have no effect on the threshold voltage shift introduced by the plasma treatment.

For the E/D inverter and the ring oscillator, the most important physical design parameter is the drive/load ratio, β=(Wg/Lg)E-mode/(Wg/Lg)D-mode. Several E/D inverters and ring oscillators with β varying from 6.7 to 50 were designed and fabricated on the same sample. The geometric parameters of each design are listed inFIG. 34. Discrete E-mode and D-mode GaN HEMTs with 1×100 μm gate dimension were simultaneously fabricated on the same sample for dc and RF testing.

Characteristics of E/D-Mode HEMTs

DC current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the discrete devices were measured using an HP4156A parameter analyzer. The transfer characteristics of the E/D-mode HEMTs are plotted inFIG. 35(a). On-wafer small-signal RF characterization of the discrete devices were carried out in the frequency range of 0.1-39.1 GHz using Cascade microwave probes and an Agilent 8722ES network analyzer. The measured parameters of E/D-mode HEMTs are listed inFIG. 36. The threshold voltage and peak transconductance (gm,max) are 0.75 V and 132 mS/mm for the E-mode HEMT and −2.6 V and 142 mS/mm for the D-mode HEMT. The relatively low peak current density of 480 mA/mm for D-mode HEMT is due to relatively low Al composition of 25% and relatively low doping density of 1×1018 cm−3in AlGaN barrier layer. Different from the AlGaN/GaN HEMTs used for RF/microwave power amplifiers, the digital ICs are less demanding on the current density. As shown inFIG. 35(b), a low knee voltage of 2.5 V is obtained for E-mode HEMTs. At a gate bias of 2.5 V, an on-resistance of 7.1 Ω·mm was achieved for the E-mode HEMT, which is the same as that for the D-mode HEMT at the same saturation current level. One observation is that the gate current in both the reverse- and forward-bias conditions is significantly reduced in the E-mode HEMT as shown inFIG. 37(a) compared to the D-mode HEMT. The mechanism of this gate current suppression is the modulation of the potential in the AlGaN barrier by the negatively charged fluorine ions that are introduced by the plasma treatment. The conduction-edge band diagrams simulated for the D- and E-mode HEMTs by solving Poisson's equation and Fermi-Dirac statistics. For the simulated conduction band of E-mode HEMTs, the profile of fluorine distribution is approximated by a linear function that features a maximum fluorine ion concentration of 3×1019 cm−3at the AlGaN surface and reaches zero (negligible) at the AlGaN/GaN interface. A total fluorine ion sheet concentration of about 3×1013 cm−2is sufficient to compensate not only the Si+ donors' concentration of about 3.7×1012 cm−2but also the piezoelectric and spontaneous polarization-induced charges (about 1×1013 cm−2). It should be noted that the Schottky barrier height at the gate/AlGaN junction is assumed to remain the same in this example. As seen from the simulated conduction bands shown inFIGS. 37(b) and (c), the potential of the AlGaN barrier can be significantly enhanced by the incorporation of the fluorine ions, resulting in an enhanced Schottky barrier and the subsequent gate current suppression. The gate current suppression in the forward bias is particularly beneficial to digital IC applications. The suppressed gate current allows the E-mode devices' gate bias to be increased up to 2.5 V. Such an increase results in a larger gate voltage swing, larger dynamic range for the input, and higher fan-out. The increased input voltage swing permits higher supply voltage that is an important factor in achieving higher operation speed and higher noise margins for digital ICs. Without the increased gate input swing, a larger supply voltage will lead to an output voltage (at logic “high”) that exceeds the turn-on voltage of following stage's input gate. The wider dynamic range for the input enables direct logic level matching between the input and the output, eliminating the need for level adjustment between adjacent stages.

It should be noted that silicon nitride passivation, which is an important technique generally used for the stable operation of the GaN-based HEMTs, can also affect the threshold voltage to a lesser degree. The deposition of silicon nitride passivation layer on the active region, in general, can alter the stress in the AlGaN and GaN layers. Subsequently, the piezoelectric polarization charge density and the threshold voltage of the device can be slightly modified. In general, the widely used silicon nitride layer deposited by high-frequency PECVD introduces additional tensile stress in the AlGaN layer, resulting in a negative shift of the threshold voltage in the range of a few tenths of a volt. In practice, this effect should be taken into consideration in the process design. The plasma treatment dose can be increased accordingly to compensate the negative shift in threshold voltage by the SiN passivation layer. The stress of the Sin passivation layer can also be reduced by modifying the process parameters of the PECVD deposition so that the negative shift in the threshold voltage is minimized.

EXAMPLE

The circuit schematic of an E/D HEMT inverter is shown inFIG. 1A, where the D-mode HEMT is used as load with its gate tied to its source and the E-mode HEMT is used as a driver.FIG. 1Bshows a fabricated photomicrograph of an inverter according to the present innovations. The fabricated inverters were characterized using an HP4156A parameter analyzer.FIG. 38shows the static voltage transfer characteristics (the solid curve) for a typical E/D HEMT inverter. The rise in the output voltage at the large input voltages (>2.1 V) is a result of the gate Schottky diode's turn-on. The dashed curve is the same transfer curve with the axis interchanged and represents the input-output characteristics of the next inverter stage. The parameter definitions follow those given for GaAs- and InP-based HEMTs. The static output levels (VOHand VOL) are given by the two intersections of the curves in stable equilibrium points, and the difference between the two levels is defined as the output logic voltage swing. The inverter threshold voltage (VTH) is defined as Vin, where Vinis equal to Vout. The static noise margins are measured using the method of largest width for both logic-low noise margin (NML) and logic-high noise margin (NMH). the measured static voltage transfer curves of E/D inverters with β varied from 6.7 to 50 at a supply voltage VDD=1.5 V are plotted inFIG. 39. High output logic level (VOH) is maintained at 1.5 V, indicating that the E-mode HEMTs are well switched off, whereas low output logic level (VOL) is improved from 0.34 to 0.09 V as a result of β increasing from 6.7 to 50. As a result, the output logic swing defined as VOH−VOLincreases from 1.16 to 1.41 V. As β is increased from 6.7 to 50, VTHdecreases from 0.88 to 0.61 V, the DC voltage gain (G) in the linear region increases from 2 to 4.1.FIG. 40lists the measured values of static noise margins, as well as VOH, VOl, output logic swing, VTH, and G. Both MNLand NMHare improved as β increases.

The static voltage transfer curves of the inverter with β=10 were measured at different supply voltages and are plotted inFIG. 41. The circuit performance parameters are listed inFIG. 42. When supply voltage increases, all the parameters of E/D inverter increase accordingly. This means that the increase of supply voltage improves the static performance of the E/D inverter. As well known, for HEMT and MESFET E/D inverters, the input voltage is always limited by the turn-on voltage of the gate Schottky diode. At a large input voltage, gate conduction causes an increased voltage drop across the parasitic source resistance of the E-mode device that is used as a driver, raising the voltage of the logic low level. The rise in the output voltage can be observed in the static transfer curves as the supply voltage and the required input voltage increase, as shown inFIG. 41. The gate current, when increased by the large input voltage, can significantly degrade the inverter's capability of driving multiple stages, reducing the fan-out. Usually, the turn-on voltage of the gate Schottky diode is around 1 V for a normal AlGaN/GaN HEMT. For a gate-recessed E-mode GaN HEMT, the thinned AlGaN barrier further decreases the turn-on voltage due to an enhanced tunneling current. As a result, for the inverter based on a gate-recessed E-mode GaN HEMT, the output voltage rises when the input voltage is beyond 0.8 V. As disclosed earlier, the E-mode GaN HEMT fabricated by CF4plasma treatment possesses a suppressed gate current because of the enhanced Schottky barrier in the AlGaN layer, which is induced by the electronegative fluorine ions. Such a gate current suppression enables a larger input voltage swing for the E/D inverter. As can be seen inFIG. 41, the rise in output voltage does not occur until the input voltage is beyond 2 V, indicating about 1 V extension of input voltage swing.FIG. 43shows the dependences of the load current and input current on the input voltage. The lower input current (gate current of the E-mode HEMT) implies a larger amount of fan-out. At “ON” state, the input current exceeds 10% load current when the input voltage is larger than 2 V.

EXAMPLE

FIG. 1Bshows a schematic circuit diagram of a DCFL ring oscillator, which is formed with an odd-numbered E/D inverter chain. Seventeen-stage ring oscillators were fabricated with inverters' β=6.7, 10, and 25. For each ring oscillator, 36 transistors were used including an output buffer.FIG. 1Dshows a photomicrograph of a fabricated ring oscillator according to the present innovations. The ring oscillators were characterized on-wafer using an Agilent E4404B spectrum analyzer and an HP 54522A oscilloscope. The DC power consumption was also measured during the ring oscillators' operation.FIGS. 44 and 45show the frequency- and time-domain characteristics of the 17-stage ring oscillator with β=10 biased at VDD=3.5 V. The fundamental oscillation frequency is 225 MHz. According to the formula of propagation delay per stage τpd=(2nf)−1, where the number of stages n is 17, and τpdwas calculated to be 130 ps/stage. The dependences of τpdand power-delay product on VDDwere plotted inFIG. 46. With the increase of supply voltage, the propagation delay was reduced, whereas power-delay product increases. Compared to τpd(234 ps/stage) measured at 1 V, τpdmeasured at 3.5 V is reduced by 45%. The fact that the ring oscillator can operate at such a high VDDattributes to the larger input voltage swing realized by the CF4plasma treatment technique used in the integration process. A minimum power-delay product of 0.113 pJ/stage was found at a VDDof 1 V.FIG. 46also shows τpdand power-delay product characteristics of ring oscillators with β=6.7 and 25. For the ring oscillator with β=6.7 the larger τpdand power-delay product is due to the larger input capacitance determined by the larger gate length (1.5 μm) of the E-mode HEMT. For the ring oscillator with β=25, the larger τpdis due to the lower charging current determined by the larger gate length (4 μm) of the D-mode HEMT, whereas the power-delay product is at the same level as the one with β=10. When this integration technology is implemented in the sub-micrometer regime, the gate delay time is expected to be further reduced.

Recently, the discrete E-mode HEMTs and the DCFL ring oscillators have been tested at elevated temperature up to 375 C. No significant shift has been observed in the threshold voltage of the E-mode HEMTs, and the ring oscillator exhibits an oscillation frequency of 70 MHz at 375 C.

According to a disclosed class of innovative embodiments, there is provided: a field-effect transistor, comprising: a source contact and a drain contact; a channel, in a vertically inhomogeneous semiconductor material overlain by a gate, which electrically separates said source contact from said drain contact; said vertically inhomogeneous material having a higher aluminum fraction and a wider bandgap near a surface; and a region of trapped charge, within said semiconductor material, which lies between said gate and said channel, and which also extends laterally toward said drain.

According to a disclosed class of innovative embodiments, there is provided: a method for fabricating semiconductor active devices, comprising the actions of: i) introducing dopants into a first semiconductor material, where exposed by a patterned layer, to populate at least one deep level thereof and thereby introduce trapped charge; and ii) forming heterostructure transistors, which include channel regions in a narrower-bandgap semiconductor which is immediately under a respective portion of said first semiconductor; wherein ones of said transistors also include said trapped charge over portions of said first semiconductor material which connect said channel region to a respective drain region.

Modifications and Variations

As will be recognized by those skilled in the art, the innovative concepts described in the present application can be modified and varied over a tremendous range of applications, and accordingly the scope of patented subject matter is not limited by any of the specific exemplary teachings given.

While the above example describes a lateral device, it is also contemplated that the various disclosed inventions can be used in merged devices including a lateral transistor element.

It is also contemplated that the disclosed inventions can be applied to some classes of vertical devices with appropriate changes.

In the embodiments shown above, two levels of fixed-charge are provided between gate and drain. However, in alternatives, additional intermediate steps can be used if desired, or a continuous increment can be used.

For high-voltage applications, it is also possible to include a fixed-charge component on the source side too, using the same techniques as described above for use on the drain side. This will slightly degrade on-resistance, but can be advantageous where the maximum voltage withstand is required in a HEMT.

The methods and structures described above provide a new tool in electric field control. These concepts are not only applicable to HEMT or MISHFET devices, but also to III-N MESFET (Metal-semiconductor FET) and MOSFET devices. (MESFET devices do not use a gate insulator, but instead provide a Schottky barrier between gate and channel.)

For another example, minor variations in the semiconductor composition, e.g. use of a phosphonitride instead of a pure nitride, or use of an AlxGa1−xN over AlyGa1−yN heterostructure for the basic HEMT structure, are contemplated as alternatives.

For another example, in the various device structures shown, a variety of materials can optionally be used for gate electrodes (taking into account any resulting differences in work function).

Similarly, various changes or substitutions can be made in the epitaxial layer doping.

Similarly, as noted above, various materials can optionally be used for the substrate.

Various disclosed embodiments provide field-effect transistors with a new kind of drain engineering, i.e. a new approach to electric field control on the drain side. However, it is also contemplated that the disclosed transistor embodiments can be part of a merged device structure, e.g. with a lateral transistor used to control injection into another device structure.

In another class of alternative embodiments, it is also contemplated that the proposed field-shaping fixed charge can be used for electric field shaping in a high-voltage diode, especially on the anode side.

It is also contemplated that the present invention can be combined with conventional drain-field modification techniques, using e.g. differential diffusion, field plates, and/or sidewall spacers.

It is also contemplated that the disclosed inventions can be adapted to barrier control in a Schottky diode.

It is also contemplated that the disclosed inventions can be adapted to field control in a high-voltage diode.

Additional general background, which helps to show variations and implementations, may be found in the following publications, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference:Y. Cai et al., 26 IEEE electron Device letters 435-437, July 2005;W. Saito et al., 53 IEEE Transactions of Electron Devices 356-362, February 2006;Y. Ando et al., 24 IEEE Electron Device Letters 289-291, 2003;Y. F. Wu et al., IEDM 2004, pp. 1078-1079;Y. Ando et al., IEDM 2005, pp. 576-579.