Resistive sensor for position detection of manifold failures

An elongate resistive sensor useful as an element of a pneumatic manifold failure detecting and locating system. A sensing loop is based on a coaxial cable having a core of known resistance per unit length. A eutectic salt impregnated insulant separates the core and sheath but has a temperature breakdown characteristic which provides the sensing function. Upon a pneumatic manifold failure, the sensing cable is heated, the eutectic salt insulator breaks down, a core-to-sheath short occurs, and currents in the sensing cable are substantially altered as a result. The cable is connected as a loop, and differential currents into the ends of the loop are detected and processed to determine the position of the short. Terminating resistors are associated with connectors which connect multiple cable sections into a single loop, and the terminating impedance is further sensed to determine an open circuit condition at any connector.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION 
This invention relates to heat sensors for aircraft, and more particularly, 
to a sensor for a manifold of an aircraft engine to assist in locating the 
position of leaks of engine bleed air in manifolds and ducting. 
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
This invention is related to commonly owned application in the names of 
Glenn Frazier, John Goldsberry and John Krier III and entitled SYSTEM AND 
METHOD FOR LOCATING MANIFOLD FAILURES, filed concurrently herewith. The 
related application discloses a system which utilizes a sensor according 
to the present invention, the system being capable of signaling the 
occurrence and determining the location of pneumatic manifold leaks. The 
system is described generally in this application, and in greater detail 
in the co-pending application. To the extent additional detail on the 
structure of the system is needed for an understanding of the present 
invention, the disclosure of said co-pending application is hereby 
incorporated by reference. 
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 
The jet turbine engine which powers modern aircraft is a device which 
relies for its operation on creating and utilizing high pressure gas 
streams. A compressor section, at the inlet of the engine, compresses 
external air, creating hot high pressure air. Most of that hot high 
pressure air is mixed with fuel in a combustor and burned, thus creating 
energy for propelling the aircraft. Some of the high pressure air can also 
be bled off for other purposes, such as cabin pressurization and 
anti-icing of leading edges. To meet these requirements, the modern jet 
turbine engine will typically be found to have an array of ductwork or 
manifolds which conduct the high pressure air to the locations where it is 
required. 
The temperature of the gas can reach 1000.degree. F. or more, and manifold 
or duct failures are not uncommon. A failure in the manifold or duct can 
also damage other nearby sheet metal or components. The engine itself is 
usually encased in a shroud, and sometimes located in a relatively complex 
compartment in the tail of the aircraft or in a pylon mount. Thus, it is 
not an easy matter to visually inspect the engine and its ductwork for 
evidence of gas leakage. Systems have therefore been devised for 
monitoring the areas around or near the gas turbine engine to sense and 
enunciate the occurrence of any leaks. It is also an aid to the flight 
crew to have some information on the location of the leak. For example, if 
the tail engine has developed a leak in the manifold, it is useful to know 
whether it is in the left or right side manifold, and action can be taken 
by the flight crew to continue to utilize the engine while avoiding 
pumping of hot air through the failed manifold section. It is also a 
benefit to the ground maintenance crew to be able to interrogate a 
monitoring system to determine with greater precision the location of any 
leaks, so that repairs and inspections can be made in an expeditious 
manner. To simply know that a leak has occurred, without more, might cause 
the ground crew to completely inspect extensive areas on and around the 
engine. With an automatic monitoring system, however, if the system were 
capable of reliably identifying the approximate position of all sensed 
leaks, maintenance personnel would then only need to inspect and repair 
those portions of the ducting which were known to have failed. 
Systems have been proposed in the past for performing remote monitoring. 
Long cable-like sensors are associated with the manifold, and monitored by 
an automatic system in an effort to accomplish these goals. One type of 
elongate cable sensor is of the thermistor variety where a coaxial 
metallic cable of substantially zero resistance has a thermistor-type 
insulant separating a central conductor from an outer jacket. When the 
cable is heated over a reasonable portion thereof, the thermistor-type 
insulant material changes characteristics indicating the fact of a 
failure. The location of the failure is not quite so readily indicatable, 
however. A further limitation with this type of device is the fact that a 
rather large segment of the cable must be heated in order for the 
thermistor-type insulant material to perform its function, making it 
difficult to identify or pinpoint small localized leaks. 
It has also been proposed to use a coaxial cable, which is like the 
thermistor cable in that both the jacket and shield have essentially zero 
resistance, but the separator material has a capacitance which changes 
after it is heated to a predetermined temperature. A capacitance bridge 
can monitor this type of cable and attempt to determine the position of 
localized heated portions of the cable. However, such an approach suffers 
from the difficulties of operating a capacitive bridge, including the 
interference effects which can arise from electromagnetic interference 
generated by other equipment in the aircraft. Another potential problem is 
electromagnetic interference generated by the system itself in operating 
the capacitance bridge at frequencies adequate to perform the necessary 
sensing. 
Thus, while systems have been proposed which are theoretically capable of 
performing the monitoring function for locating localized leaks in 
aircraft pneumatic manifolds, those systems and their associated sensing 
cables have not been entirely satisfactory. 
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION 
In view of the foregoing, it is an aim of the present invention to provide 
a sensor for a leak detection system for a pneumatic manifold in an 
aircraft which operates on simple resistance bridge principles. 
In accomplishing that aim, it is an object of the present invention to 
provide a sensor cable for locating leaks in a pneumatic manifold which 
utilizes a eutectic salt impregnated insulant and coaxial conductors, one 
of which has a known and measurable resistance per unit length. It is a 
feature of such a sensing cable that it can be configured in a loop driven 
from its respective ends in such a way that the voltage or current drawn 
by the cable can be used not only to indicate the fact of a leak, but also 
to locate the leak with reliability and precision. 
It is a further feature that the cable is configured in a loop with both 
ends of the loop connected to the controller, and in which the length of 
the loop can be varied to suit a particular application, with the sensing 
system able to automatically calibrate or compensate for various loop 
lengths. 
It is a detailed object of the invention to provide such a system utilizing 
a resistive sensing element so as to minimize the effects of 
electromagnetic interference. 
It is a further feature of the invention to provide a sensor which is 
useful with a differential current sensing technique for determining the 
exact location along the cable of the portion of the cable which has 
sensed a leak. In that respect, it is a feature of the invention that 
leaks can be located with an accuracy of approximately 3 or 4 inches in a 
sensor which may be on the order of 20 or more feet in length. 
It is a feature of the invention that the resistive sensing cable has a 
known and measurable resistance per unit length, that the sensor is driven 
from both ends so that the differential current sensed at the ends of the 
cable can be used to determine with reasonable precision the location of 
any leaks sensed by the sensing cable. 
It is a further feature of the invention that resistive sensing techniques 
are used which make the system more immune to electromagnetic interference 
than, for example, capacitive bridges. 
It is a further feature of the invention that the sensing cable can be made 
up of a number of units connected end to end by reliable connector means, 
with resistances associated with the connector means, the system being 
adapted to sense the current change produced by the resistances as a 
result of a disconnected cable section, thereby to signal a break in the 
cable. 
Other objects and advantages will become apparent from the following 
detailed description when taken in conjunction with the drawings, in which 
:

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 
While the invention will be described in connection with certain preferred 
embodiments, there is no intent to limit it to those embodiments. On the 
contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications and 
equivalents included within the spirit and scope of the invention as 
defined by the appended claims. 
Turning now to the drawings, FIG. i shows, in greatly simplified and 
schematic form, a pneumatic manifold failure detecting system using a 
resistive sensor exemplifying the present invention. The system includes a 
central controller 20 having an analog section 21, a digital section 22, 
and a control section 23. The analog section 21 has connected thereto a 
plurality of sensor loops, one of such loops being generally shown at 25. 
In a practical implementation, it is preferred to provide capacity for 
approximately 14 sensor loops in a single controller. Connectors 26, 27 
provide for connection of the respective ends of the loop to controller 
20. A shielded cable 28 connects the controller to the area to be 
monitored. The cable 28 is intended to be of negligible resistance, such 
that the analog circuitry 21 within the controller 20 can operate in a 
differential current mode to sense resistance changes in the resistive 
temperature sensor which is used to monitor the engine manifold. 
In the exemplary system, a bulkhead 30 separates the control components 
from an engine generally indicated at 31. The engine is shown as having a 
pair of manifolds 32, 33, which are intended to generically encompass the 
manifolds or ducting described above, which route the hot air from the 
engine 31 to associated points of utilization. The engine and manifold are 
not illustrated in any detail; the drawing is simply intended to 
demonstrate that the manifold occupies a substantial area, requiring a 
temperature monitoring sensor of substantial length in order to monitor 
the manifold for leaks which might occur anywhere along its rather 
substantial length. To that end, an elongate sensor cable 35 is provided 
having a pair of ends 36, 37 connected to the interconnecting wiring 28 
and thence to the controller 20. The sensor loop 35 may be on the order of 
12 feet for a rather compact installation, on the order of 22 feet in 
length for pylon mounted engines, and sometimes as long as 60 feet or 
more. The cable 35 is very long with respect to its diameter, its diameter 
typically being on the order of 1.8 millimeters. 
The sensing cable 35, as will be described in greater detail below, has an 
outer metallic sheath 40 surrounding an inner conductor 41, with a 
eutectic salt impregnated insulant maintaining separation between the 
central conductor 41 and the sheath 40. In accordance with the invention, 
one of the metallic elements of the cable, preferably the core, has a 
defined and measurable resistance per unit length, such that the sensing 
of current flow into the cable can be utilized to determine the position 
in the cable at which a temperature fault has been sensed. 
The eutectic salt impregnated insulant which fills the sheath 40 and 
maintains separation between the core 41 and the shield 40 is of the type 
which has a transition point or melts at a predetermined temperature. Upon 
melting, the melted eutectic salt functions like an electrical short to 
provide a localized core-to-sheath connection at the point of overheat. 
The core-to-sheath connection through the melted eutectic salt is often 
referred to as a short, for convenience. It will be appreciated, based on 
the development below, that the "short" can have resistance, and the term 
is used in that broader sense herein. The area of the cable which is 
overheated and can cause a eutectic salt short can be as small as one 
centimeter, and the controller 20 is adapted to sense the point along the 
cable 35 at which the short has occurred. 
It will be seen that the loop 35 is associated with the manifold sections 
32, 33, and can be affixed thereto such as by clips. Thus, if a manifold 
failure occurs at a given point, the cable 35 at that point will be 
locally heated, and the internal eutectic salt will melt to provide a 
localized short at that point. The controller 20 thereupon senses not only 
the fact of the short, but will utilize differential current sensing 
techniques to locate the position of the short, and provide an indication 
thereof. 
For ease of manufacturing, assembly, and maintenance, the cable 35 is not 
provided as a continuous length custom fit device, but is made up of 
individual sections 35a, 35b, etc. Coaxial connectors 43 interconnect the 
sections 35a, 35b. Thus, the overall loop 35 has electrical continuity 
through the core and electrical continuity through the sheath, and the 
resistance of the core will depend on the total length of the loop. For 
example, in the preferred system, the resistance of the core material is 
selected to be approximately 15 Ohms per meter, and thus the overall 
resistance of the loop might be on the order of 50 to 100 Ohms. 
As will be described in greater detail below, the analog section 21 of the 
controller 20 couples a signal to the sensing cable 35 and senses the 
differential current drawn by the cable. Whenever an overheat condition 
occurs due to a manifold failure, the eutectic salt at that portion of the 
cable will break down and cause a localized core to sheath short. The very 
high core-to-core sheath resistance which had existed theretofore then 
becomes less than 100 Ohms. Differential current sensing elements within 
the analog circuitry 21 measure the differential current drawn by the 
respective ends of the cable (to the short) and thereby determine the 
lengths of the cable to the short. The analog circuitry includes a 
multiplexer for scanning the sensor loops and outputting a sequence of 
signals relating to measurements from the respective loops. The digital 
circuitry 22 includes an analog-to-digital converter responsive to the 
signals coupled through the analog multiplexer, produces digital signals 
related to the differential current measurements, and assists in the 
determination of the location of a manifold failure, as will become more 
apparent. Upon determining the event of a failure and locating its 
position, the control circuitry 23 thereupon causes the information to be 
written into non-volatile memory recording the fact that a failure has 
occurred and the location of the failure. 
As noted above, in the preferred embodiment of the invention, controller 20 
controls multiple loops, and it is preferred that the loops be sensed in 
sequence utilizing analog multiplexing techniques which share a single 
analog-to-digital converter. The digital control circuitry 23 causes the 
scanning of each loop in turn and records any failures. Built-in-test 
circuitry within the digital controller also monitors the loops to assure 
their continuity, performs tests to determine overall loop resistance, and 
the like, all as will be described in greater detail below. 
Turning now to FIG. 2, a brief description will be given of the general 
operation of the analog sensing system. FIG. 2 shows a pair of sensor 
loops 35, 35', with electrical circuitry shown only for the loop 35. 
Illustrated in the controller 20 are primarily the analog components 21 
thereof. Before commencing a description of the sensing operation of the 
circuit, it will be recalled that the central conductor 41 of the cable 35 
is separated from the sheath 40 by a eutectic salt insulator 42, and the 
insulator has a relatively high resistance at normal temperatures. It is 
configured to break down at a predetermined temperature, such as 
400.degree. F. At that temperature, the eutectic salt insulator 42 
switches from a relatively high impedance to a relatively low impedance, 
causing a localized core 41 to sheath 4 short at the point at which the 
cable 35 had been overheated. It is the function of the analog portion 21 
of the circuitry 20 to monitor the resistance of the sensor cable 35 to 
detect the change in resistance, and to utilize the differential current 
sensing capability of the circuitry 21 to locate the point on the cable 35 
where the localized short has occurred. It will be kept in mind, of 
course, that the core 41 has a given resistance per unit length, such that 
the resistance measured from its respective ends will be an indication of 
the location in the cable where the localized short has occurred. 
For driving the cable with a predetermined signal, the controller 20 
includes a transformer 50 having a primary 51 driven from an external AC 
power source and a secondary 52 connected to the respective sensing cables 
35, 35'. In the illustrated embodiment, one end of the secondary 52 is 
connected to an internal circuit common or ground, and the sheaths of all 
the cables 35, 35' are also connected to internal ground. The cores 41 are 
connected to the non-common end of the secondary winding 52. Focusing 
particularly on cable 35, it will be seen that the secondary 52 is 
connected to both ends of the core via sensing resistors 54, 55. When 
there is no localized short in the sensor loop 35, the resistance from 
core to sheath is relatively high (determined primarily by the terminating 
resistors to be described below), and there is very little current flow 
from the secondary 52 through the respective sensing resistors 54, 55. 
Differential amplifiers 56, 57 are connected across the respective sensing 
resistors 54, 55, and the outputs of those amplifiers are connected to an 
analog multiplexer 58. The multiplexer 58 in turn is controlled by the 
digital circuitry (not illustrated in FIG. 2) to sense the voltage drops 
across the respective sensing resistors 54, 55, and provide analog signals 
through the multiplexer 58 to an analog-to-digital converter. The ADC 
produces signals relating to the magnitudes of the voltages across the 
sensing resistors, and thereby provide an indication of differential 
current flow in the respective ends of the loop. In the absence of any 
manifold fault, the currents in the respective sensing resistors will be 
rather low and will be substantially equal. 
Upon the occurrence of a manifold failure, a portion of the cable 35, such 
as indicted by the arrow 59, will be heated and cause a core to sheath 
localized short in the cable at that point. That localized short will 
cause an increase in current flow from the secondary 52 through the core 
41 to the sheath and back to the secondary. Unless the short is at the 
mid-point of the sensor loop 35, the current flow through the respective 
sensing resistors 54, 55 will be unequal, because of the differing lengths 
of resistive core 4 encountered by the respective current paths. The 
amplifiers 56, 57 will continue to produce signals relating to the current 
flow through the sensing resistors 54, 55, and that differential current 
flow will be sensed by the digital circuitry of the controller 20. 
Utilizing relationships to be developed below, the controller 20 will 
determine the location of the point 59 along the sensor loop 35 at which 
the failure has occurred. 
Attention will first be directed to the sensing cable itself. FIG. 3 shows 
a sensing cable illustrated generally at 35 including an elongate length 
60 of coaxial cable terminated by connectors 61, 62. Connector 62 is 
considered to be the female connector, and connector 61 the male 
connector. A subsequent cable has a male connector 61' positioned to be 
mated with the connector 62 of the cable 60. A sleeve interconnect element 
64 serves to provide electrical continuity between the cores of connected 
cable sections. A pair of assembled connectors are shown in greater detail 
in FIG. 4. Each of the cable sections has a core conductor 70, which in 
the preferred embodiment has a predetermined resistivity (or in other 
words, a predetermined resistance per unit length). Preferably, the core 
70 is of a nickel alloy of a low temperature coefficient of resistance, 
and has a resistance of approximately 15 Ohms per meter. The central 
conductor 70 is surrounded by a coaxial shield 72, preferably of nickel, 
but having a substantially zero resistance, in other words, a resistance 
which is negligible with respect to the resistance of the central core 70. 
By zero resistance, it is intended to describe a material of ordinary 
conductivity (not a superconductor), and to distinguish from the resistive 
material having a measurable resistivity, such as 15 Ohms per meter. An 
insulator material 74 separates the core and cladding 70, 72 and typically 
provides a relatively high resistance between those elements. The 
insulator material 74 is preferably a eutectic salt which is specially 
configured to melt at the temperature at which the cable is to function. 
It is preferred to use an aluminum oxide insulant impregnated with a 
eutectic salt for the material 74. The nature of the eutectic salt is 
adjusted, according to known principles, to meet the temperature sensing 
requirements of the cable. It is presently desired to produce insulator 
materials 74 of two characteristics, one capable of responding at about 
400.degree. F., and another capable of responding at about 225.degree. F. 
It will also be desirable to provide sensors with other response 
temperatures, for example, a sensor responsive at about 180.degree. F. is 
contemplated. It is well within the skill of the art of those supplying 
such cable systems to configure the eutectic salt mixture in the aluminum 
oxide insulant to provide a breakdown temperature at a desired level. 
Using known manufacturing techniques, the eutectic salt mixture 74 is 
compacted to a high degree so that the core 70 and shield 72 are 
maintained separated, even in the presence of relatively tight bends in 
the cable or in an environment which is exposed to vibration, such as 
would be encountered in an aircraft application. To better understand the 
dimensions involved, the overall outer diameter of the sheath 72 is about 
1.8 millimeters, and its length around 7 meters. It is desired to make the 
cables as thin as possible so that it can be easily routed around the 
engine compartment and manifold, to provide for temperature response and 
yet provide minimum weight penalty to the aircraft. Typically, the 
eutectic salt insulator 74 is hygroscopic, and thus, after the material is 
highly compacted, the cable is sealed by a hermetic ceramic seal which 
prevents moisture ingress. It will be see in FIG. 4 that the sheath 72 of 
the cable section at the left of the drawing is welded at 80 to a central 
metallic bushing 82. The metallic bushing 82, in turn, has a housing 
member 83 welded thereto and the housing member 83 holds a ceramic sealing 
insert 84. The central conductor 70 penetrates the ceramic seal 84, is 
surrounded by a metallic header 85 and welded thereto at the free end 85a. 
The header 85 fits snugly within the ceramic seal 84. Finally, an outer 
sleeve member 86 is welded to the bushing 82 at the end thereof, to 
provide protection for the header 85 and also to complete the seal, so 
that the insulant material 74 is protected from the ingress of moisture 
through the now-sealed header. FIG. 4 also shows the interconnecting 
member 64 having spring-loaded contacts 90 which engage the periphery of 
the header 85. They similarly engage the periphery of a header in the next 
sequential connector, similarly sealed. The difference between the two 
connectors, however, is that the connector illustrated fully in FIG. 4 
shows the male connection with an outer ring 92 having a threaded insert 
93 welded therein. The other or female connector has no outer ring 92 or 
threaded member 93, but instead simply has a hexagonal bushing 95 (see 
FIG. 3) threaded to engage the housing 93, to force the interconnecting 
sleeve into contact with the header portion 85' installed in a similar 
fashion in that connector. The details of that installation will not be 
further illustrated, as they will now be understood by those skilled in 
this art. 
In summary, the sensor cable is constructed with a hermetically sealed 
sheath, preferably nickel, but can also use other heat-resistant materials 
such as the nickel-based alloy Inconel. In order to reduce weight while 
maintaining reliability, a sheath diameter of about 1.8 millimeters is 
preferred. A center conductor is produced from a material of known 
resistivity, such as Tophet A, a resistive element which is primarily 
nickel. This material has a very low temperature coefficient of resistance 
and a high tensile strength. The center conductor is formed to provide a 
resistance of about 15 Ohms per meter. 
The sensor connectors are also made of nickel, and provide a hermetic 
ceramic seal. The ceramic-to-nickel seal is specifically designed to 
withstand the high temperatures in which the sensor is required to 
survive. Since the sheath and connector are made from substantially the 
same materials, the sensors will not have the corrosive or linear 
expansion problems which can occur with dissimilar materials. 
It is also noted that the eutectic salt sensor has a distinct advantage 
over averaging type sensors, such as thermistor sensors. A thermistor 
sensor requires heating over a substantial area thereof in order to 
indicate a manifold leak. The present sensor, however, can detect a 
relatively small leak which heats only a 1 centimeter length of the 
sensor. An averaging sensor, such as a thermistor sensor, will not produce 
a sufficient resistance change when it is heated in such a small area. 
Accordingly, the sensor according to the present invention can detect 
relatively small manifold leaks because it has a dramatic change in 
resistance at any one point, interposing a localized electrical short at 
the point of overheat, without requiring a relatively large area to be 
heated in order to accomplish that result. The resistive center conductor 
allows the controller then to accurately and reliably locate the fault at 
any point along the sensor loop, and in all environmental conditions. 
In accordance with one feature of the invention, means are provided for 
determining if one of the intercable connectors has been disengaged, and 
of determining which connector is open. To that end, each of the connector 
sections has a terminating resistance 97 associated therewith (see FIGS. 4 
and 5). The terminating resistance 97 is preferably in the form of a 
washer-shaped ring (see FIG. 5) formed of a resistive material and laser 
trimmed in a U-shape to have a predetermined resistance. The resistance is 
selected to be relatively high as compared to the resistance of the core, 
preferably at least one order of magnitude greater. We currently prefer to 
use resistances 97 of about 34k Ohms. The terminating resistance is brazed 
at 98 to both the core and the shield, preferably around the entire inner 
and outer periphery of the resistor. Thus, the resistance 98 provides a 
high resistance core-to-shield connection at each connector. When a number 
of sections of cable, such as 5 or 6, are connected together, the 
paralleled terminating resistors will provide an overall core-to-shield 
resistance (in the absence of a heat-caused failure) which measured in 
parallel is at least an order of magnitude greater than the resistance of 
the core. The controller will sense the current flow resulting from that 
known impedance to determine the continuity of the sensor loop. If one of 
the connectors vibrates free, the core-to-shield impedance will change by 
virtue of the fact that some of the resistors 97 will be in one portion of 
the loop and others in the other portion. As will be described below, it 
will then be possible to utilize the differential current sensing into the 
now-opened loop to determine exactly which of the connectors has opened. 
The resistive sensing capabilities of the present invention thus not only 
provide the benefits set out at the outset, but in addition, when 
utilizing the connector terminating resistors as just described, provide 
yet another means for assuring reliability of the system or detecting 
system failures automatically and at the earliest possible time. 
As a feature of the system, the resistive sensor, which may be of any 
length within practical limits, is utilized in a self-calibrating mode to 
determine the total loop resistance for the actual length of the sensor 
loop. In the past, self-calibration has not been a substantial problem, 
because the resistance of the conductors of the sensing loop was 
essentially zero, and therefore the total resistance of the loop was not 
pertinent. However, in accordance with the present invention, the loop 
resistance is the variable which is used to determine position of any 
failure, and thus total loop resistance is important. It was noted above 
that the loop can be configured with a number of sections of sensor cable 
connected together, and in carrying out the invention, the controller of 
the present invention performs a test on each loop to determine the total 
loop resistance. That total loop resistance is then used in the process 
for determining, based on differential current signals, where in the loop 
a manifold failure has occurred. 
The manner in which the system determines the location of a fault will now 
be described. FIG. 6 illustrates the sensing loop for one channel having 
amplifier outputs to the common multiplexer. It will be understood that 
the circuitry of FIG. 6 is repeated for each channel, and that a single 
multiplexer receives all of the outputs. A sensing loop is shown at 300 
and includes a sensor having a shield 301 and an inner resistive core 302. 
The resistive core 302 is illustrated as a distributed resistance, and it 
will be appreciated that heating of the cable 300 anywhere along its 
length will cause a breakdown of the eutectic salt insulator and a 
localized core-to-shield short such as that indicated by the dashed line 
305. It is seen that except for the illustrated short 305 there are no 
connections within the sensor 300 between the core and shield, and that 
the eutectic salt maintains the core separated from the shield. 
For purposes of sensing breaks between sections of the cable, it was noted 
above that connector resistors (sometimes called terminating resistors 
herein) are utilized, and those resistors are shown in FIG. 6 as resistors 
306, 307 connected at section ends between the core and shield. If the 
sensor 300 were made up of additional sections, resistors would also be 
connected from core to shield at each of the sections. The resistors 306, 
307 are on the order of 34K, and with the resistance of the cable being on 
the order of 15 Ohms per meter, it will be appreciated that the core 
resistance is insignificant with respect to the terminating resistances. 
It will also be understood that the terminating resistances can be 
considered to be in parallel when the cable is connected and continuous. 
Thus, if 5 sections of cable are utilized, for example, there would be 10 
resistors 306, 307 in parallel between core and shield, and if each were 
of 34K, the total impedance presented by a cable (with no internal short) 
would be on the order of 3.4K Ohms. 
The remainder of the circuitry shown in FIG. 6 is that associated with the 
analog channel, such as that illustrated at 21 in FIG. 1. The total 
resistance of the sensor is shown as R.sub.S, and it is seen that a 
voltage is applied to the sensor by means of a transformer 310 having a 
primary 311 supplied by 115 volt, 400 Hz. cycle, and a secondary 312 
having one input 313 connected to ground, and a second input 314 for 
driving the respective sensors. The sensor cable is driven from each end 
through current sensing resistors 320, 321. The resistors 320, 321 are 
precision resistors and it is the current through those resistors which is 
monitored to determine differential current flow into the loop. Load 
resistances (R.sub.L) 322, 323 are also shown, and represent the 
resistance of the wiring connecting the sensing system to the loop. That 
resistance can be determined and input to the system, and will remain 
unchanged. A shunt resistance 325 having a magnitudinal R.sub.P is shown 
as shunting the sensor; resistance 325 represents the parallel impedance 
looking into the measuring circuitry. A transistor 330 is provided for use 
in the self-calibration mode, and that will be described later. Coupled 
across the sensing resistors 320, 321 are differential amplifiers 340, 
341, respectively. Those amplifiers have appropriate weighting resistors 
and drive respective buffer amplifiers 342, 343 to produce single-ended 
outputs relating to the magnitude of the current through the sensing 
resistors 320, 321 which are coupled to the multiplexer by means of lines 
344, 345. 
It will be seen that the same voltage is applied to both ends of the 
sensing loop 300 by virtue of the fact that the secondary 312 of the 
transformer is connected from the shield through the respective sensing 
resistors 320, 321 to the respective ends of the sensing loop. Thus, when 
there is no short in the eutectic insulator (and ignoring the shunt 
terminating resistors 306, 307 for the moment), equal currents will be 
drawn through the sensing resistors 320, 321. The current will be at a 
relatively low level (on the order of a milliamp), and the system will be 
in balance. When a short such as 305 is in place, however, current will 
flow in the right-hand portion of the loop through the resistor 321 
through the right-hand portion of the sensor resistor and to the shield 
through the shunt 305. A relatively small resistance, comprising perhaps 
only 1/5 of the total resistance R.sub.F, will be interposed across the 
right portion of the loop, and the currents through resistor 321 will be 
relatively high. In the left-hand portion of the loop, the current through 
resistor 320, will be at a somewhat lower level, but again higher than it 
had been when the system was in balance. The currents through resistors 
320 and 321, identified as I.sub.2 and I.sub.1 on the drawing will be 
measured as an indicator of the position of the short 305. 
The manner in which that is accomplished will now be derived. The 
equivalent circuit for the sensor input circuitry shown in FIG. 6 is 
illustrated in FIG. 7 which shows the currents I.sub.1 and I.sub.2 through 
the resistors 320 and 321. The resistance of the sensor loop itself is 
shown in the rectangle indicated at 300. It includes the parallel shunt 
impedance 325, and the load resistance of the wiring 322, 323. FIG. 7 
assumes that a localized short 305 has occurred, and a resistance X 
identified by the reference numeral 350 is intended to indicate the 
portion of the resistance of the sensor to the point of short through 
which the current I.sub.2 flows. Similarly, the resistance 351 is 
indicated to have a value of R.sub.S --X, and that is intended to indicate 
the resistance in the right-hand portion of the loop of FIG. 6, i.e., the 
resistance which will be seen by the current I.sub.1 flowing through the 
sensing resistor 321. A resistance 355 identified as R.sub.P is intended 
to show the impedance of the eutectic salt which forms the short. The 
driving voltage is indicated at 356 and represents the voltage output by 
the secondary of the transformer 310. 
The circuit diagram of FIG. 7 can be simplified to the circuit diagram of 
FIG. 8 by a delta-to-wye conversion where: 
##EQU1## 
Having made that conversion, the system of FIG. 8 can then be analyzed to 
determine relationships for determining the position of a localized short. 
FIG. 8 also shows the source voltage 356, the currents I.sub.1 and I.sub.2 
through the respective sensing resistors 321, 320. The resistances R.sub.1 
and R.sub.2, which have been developed in the expressions (1) and (2), are 
shown in the drawing and identified by reference numerals 360, 361. The 
resistance R.sub.3 developed in expression (3) is identified by reference 
numeral 363. Finally, the impedance of the short itself R.sub.B is shown 
at 355. 
The point on the sensor X where the breakdown has occurred can be found 
from the following derivation: 
EQU V.sub.S =I.sub.1 R+I.sub.1 R.sub.1 +(I.sub.1 +I.sub.2) (R.sub.3 
+R.sub.B)(4) 
EQU V.sub.S =I.sub.2 R+I.sub.2 R.sub.2 +(I.sub.1 +I.sub.2) (R.sub.3 
+R.sub.B)(5) 
EQU I.sub.1 R+I.sub.1 R.sub.1 =I.sub.2 R+I.sub.2 R.sub.2 (6) 
##EQU2## 
It will thus be seen that the equation for the point X is not dependent 
upon the excitation voltage V.sub.S or on the resistance of the insulation 
at the point of breakdown R.sub.B. Because of this, fluctuations in the 
aircraft supply voltage, or voltage changes due to loads on the 
transformer, have no effect on determining the location of an overheat 
condition. Similarly, the actual impedance imposed by the shunt itself has 
no effect on the position determination. 
The expression (9) does not take account of the terminating impedance 
interposed between core and sheath at each connector. Even though the 
terminating impedances are at least an order of magnitude greater than the 
core resistance, it is desirable to make an adjustment in the expression 
(9) to make it more exact with respect to the condition with terminating 
impedances in place. It has been found that the value for R, that is the 
value of the sensing resistor, can be adjusted slightly, based on 
empirical tests either with actual systems or simulated systems of the 
desired length and with the prescribed number of sections in place. The 
tests are performed to determine a value for R to be used in expression 
(9) which will give more accurate result and account for the terminating 
resistors. For example, typically a value R which is used in the circuit 
is 100 Ohms, and we have found that using an adjusted value for R in 
equation (9) empirically determined, of 104.86 Ohms in one case, and 
110.22 Ohms in another case take account of the presence of the 
terminating resistors. 
It will be seen from expression (9) that the position determination is 
based only on the respective currents (which have been measured), and on 
known impedances. The total impedance for the loop R is tested 
periodically, and is stored for use in the expression (9). The parallel 
impedance R.sub.P is known and is input for later use. Similarly, a value 
of R.sub.L can be input at the outset and need not be changed. Thus, it is 
only necessary to measure the currents I and I: (or voltages relating to 
those currents) and utilize those in expression (9) in the system 
microprocessor, and a result will be produced which is the actual position 
of the localized short. Utilizing practical components, the short can be 
located within about 3 inches in a short loop (12 feet or so) and within 
about 4 inches in a longer loop (or 22 feet or so). Better accuracy can be 
derived with greater precision in the A to D converter and in other 
components. It is currently believed that the precision of 3 inches or 4 
inches is adequate for most purposes. 
Referring again to FIG. 6, the transistor 330 will be seen to have a test 
signal coupled on a line 331 to the base thereof, so that during a test 
condition the transistor 330 is switched on to connect the point 332, (the 
upper portion of the sensing resistor 320) to circuit ground. Thus, the 
secondary 312 of the driving transformer 310 is connected across the core, 
since ground is connected to the left-hand end and the transformer 
terminal 314 to the right-hand end. The resistor 320 is bypassed, and all 
current through the loop flows through sensing resistor 321. It will thus 
be seen that the current I.sub.1 through sensing resistor 321 during this 
test condition can be measured to determine a value for R.sub.S, the total 
resistance of the loop. The actual manner in which that will be determined 
is demonstrated in the following expressions: 
##EQU3## 
The sensor resistance (which includes in the expression (18) the 
resistance of the wiring which connects the sensor to the system) is thus 
a function of current I.sub.1 (the current through the sensing resistor 
321) and of the current I.sub.2 (which in turn is a measure of the drop 
across the turned-on test transistor 330 and its associated diode 335). 
Thus, the system is able to turn on the transistor 330 by means of an 
appropriate signal on line 331, to measure I.sub.1 and I.sub.2 (or the 
voltages which produce those currents), and utilizing the known impedances 
R.sub.P and R.sub.L to determine the actual resistance of the sensor loop. 
That resistance can be updated periodically and utilized in the expression 
(9) for determination of the actual point of a short caused by an 
overheat. 
As in the case of the position determination, the expression (18) does not 
take account of the presence of the terminating resistors, and the value 
utilized for R can be adjusted based on empirical tests or computations to 
take the terminating resistors into account. Thus, using sensing resistors 
of 100 Ohms in the circuit, we have modified expression (18) to use a 
value for R of 102 Ohms in one case, and 107 Ohms in another case, and 
those values have rendered the core determination more accurate in the 
presence of terminating resistors. 
Turning to the terminating resistors themselves, it was noted above that 
they are used for sensing breaks in the cable. The manner in which that is 
accomplished is better illustrated in connection with FIG. 9. FIG. 9 shows 
an elongate sensor cable configured in a loop, with a plurality of core 
resistances 302, 302', 302" connected in series by way of connectors 43. 
The male and female ends of the connectors are denoted by the M and F 
designators in the drawing. The sensor is connected in a loop, with the 
core connector being driven by the secondary 312 of the driving 
transformer through sensing resistors 320, 321. The nomenclature V.sub.m 
indicates the voltage measured at the junction of the sensing resistor 320 
and the male end of the sensing table, and the designator V.sub.F 
indicates the voltage measured at the junction between the sensing 
resistor 321 and the female end of the sensing cable. The designator V 
indicates the voltage at the secondary 312. The box designated 330 
indicates the switch which shunts the male end of the core to the grounded 
end of the secondary in order to impose the signal of the secondary 312 
across the total core resistance. The shunt or terminating resistors 306, 
307 are shown associated with each connector, resistors 306 and 307 being 
shown at the respective end of core resistance 302, shunt resistances 
306', 307' being shown associated with core resistance 302', etc. 
The amplifiers 340, 341 are shown sensing the voltage drop across sensing 
resistors 320, 321, and it is those amplifiers or their equivalent which 
are used to determine any breaks in the cable by sensing the resistance of 
shunt resistors 306, 307. The determination is made in the terms of the 
number of shunt resistances seen from the male, or from the female end of 
the cable loop, and thus it will be seen that the procedure is capable of 
locating two breaks in the cable. It will also be appreciated that the 
procedure is capable of locating not only open connectors 43, but actual 
breaks in the cable itself. 
The number of shunt resistors seen from the female and under conditions of 
a cable break is the determined from the following expression: 
##EQU4## 
Where N.sub.F is the number of shunt resisted measured by the circuit 
starting at the female end of the cable, R.sub.SH is the value of each 
shunt resistor, and the other variables are as previously described. The 
computation is, of course, rounded-off to the nearest whole number to 
determine the number of terminating resistors encountered to the break. 
Similarly, the number of terminating resistors to a cable break when 
measured from the male end of the cable is determined by the following 
expression: 
##EQU5## 
The number is again rounded-off to the nearest whole number, and yields 
the number of shunt resistors encountered between the male end of the 
cable and a break in the cable. 
It will thus be apparent that a test can be performed to determine the 
resistance of the core, i.e., by turning on transistor 330 and measuring 
the resistance of the core by expression (18). If that test indicates that 
there is a break in the core, the transistor 330 can be turned off and 
measurements taken from the female and male end, and expressions 19 and 20 
utilized to determine the number of shunt resistors from each end to the 
break. That computation may determine that there is only one break in the 
cable, and the maintenance crew will know exactly where it is. If there is 
two breaks in the cable, the position of both will be located. 
Other conditions can be monitored by means of sensing the currents through 
the sensing resistors 320, 321. For example, if either or both of the 
currents through those resistors is zero, it will be determined that there 
is a circuit failure. A lower level for total current I.sub.1 +I.sub.2 can 
be established, and that will establish an upper level for the total 
resistance of the loop. If that total resistance is exceeded, the system 
will determine that the sensor loop is open. 
In addition, the system functionality can be determined by energizing the 
test transistor periodically and determining the sensor resistance. If the 
sensor resistance is determined to be between certain limits, such as 
greater than 3 Ohms and less than 100 Ohms, it can be determined that the 
sensor is in place and the system is functional. Finally, in any case 
where I.sub.1 is found to be greater than or equal to I:, with the test 
transistor on, that will be found to be a circuit failure, since that is 
not a possible condition. 
It will now be appreciated that what has been provided is an improved 
resistive sensor used as the sensing component in a pneumatic manifold 
fault detection system. The system operates on resistive principles and 
thus is substantially EMI resistant, at least more so than those which 
utilize capacitive bridges, for example. The system is capable of locating 
very localized faults in that only a very small section of the cable need 
be heated in order to cause a breakdown of the eutectic insulator, and 
provide differential current signals in the resistive sensor measured and 
in the sensing manipulated as described herein to produce an indication of 
the position of the fault.