Department of Health and Human Servces 
OFFICE OF 
INSPECTOR GENERAL 
YOUTH AND ALCOHOL: 
DRINKING AND CRIME 
VI. 
Rich.,d P. Ku"cww 
INSPECTOR GENERA 
J(( 
'0 
O'''cr  APRi 199  OFFCE OF INSPECfOR GENERA 
The mission of the Offce of Inspector General (OIG), as mandated by Public Law 95-452, as 
amended, is to protect the integrity of the Department of Health and Human Servces' (HHS) 
programs as well as the health and welfare of beneficiaries served by those programs. Ths 
statutory mission is carried out through a nationwide network of audits, investigations, and 
inspections conducted by three OIG operating components: the Offce of Audit Servce, the 
Offce of Investigations, and the Offce of Evaluation and Inspections. The OIG also informs the 
Secretary of HHS of program, and management problems, and recommends courses to correct 
them. 
OFFCE OF AUDIT SERVICE 
The OIG's Offce of Audit Servce (OAS) provides all auditing servces for HHS, either by 
conducting audits with its own audit resource or by overseeing audit work done by others. 
Audits examine the performance of HHS programs and/or its grantees and contractors in carrng
out their respective responsibilties and are intended to provide independent assessments of HHS 
programs and operations in order to reduce waste, abuse, and mismanagement and to promote 
economy and effciency throughout the Department. 
OFFCE OF INTIGATIONS 
The OIG's Offce of Investigations (01) conducts criminal, civil, and administrative investigations 
of allegations of wrongdoing in HHS programs or to HHS beneficiaries and of unjust enrichment 
by providers. The investigative efforts of 01 lead to criminal convictions, administrative sanctions 
or civil money penalties. The 01 also oversees State Medicaid fraud control units which 
investigate and prosecute fraud and patient abuse in the Medicaid program. 
AN 
OFFCE OF EVALUATION  INSPECTONS 
The OIG's Offce of Evaluation and Inspections (OEI) conducts short-term management and 
program evaluations (called inspections) that focus on issues of concern to the Department, the 
Congress, and the public. The findings and recommendations contained in these inspection 
reports generate rapid, accurate, and up-to-date information on the effciency, vulnerabilty, and 
effectiveness of departmental programs. 
This report was prepared under the direction of Kaye D. Kidwell, Regional Inspector General 
and Paul A Gottlober, Deputy Regional Inspector General, Offce of Evaluation and Inspections 
Region IX. Participating in this project were: 
Brad Rolln, Project Leader

Donald Loeb

Brian Pattison

Maruta Zitans, Headquarters
 Servces 
Department of Health and Human 
OFFICE OF 
INSPECTOR GENERAL 
YOUTH AND ALCOHOL: 
DRINKING AND CRIME 
VI' 
Richard P. Kusserow 
INSPECTOR GENERA 
'0 
"0'""" OEI-0-
92- , "

EXECUTIVE 
SUMMAR Y

PUROSE 
The purpose of this study was to determine how many youth were under the influence 
of alcohol when they committed crimes. 
BACKGROUN 
In response to public health concerns and the adverse consequences of alcohol abuse 
the Surgeon General requested that the Offce of Inspector General (OIG) provide 
information on the number or percentage of youth who were under the influence of 
alcohol when they committed a crime. This concern mirrors one of the Department of 
Health and Human Servces (HHS) Secretary s goals which is to reduce the prevalence 
of alcohol problems among children and youth. Ths study is one in a series
conducted by the OIG related to youth and alcohol. A related report 
Youth and 
Alcohol: Dangerous and Deadly Consequences" (OEI-09-92-00261), describes 
alcohol's role in youth problems such as rape , risky sexual behavior, suicide, and 
drowning. 
We conducted intervews with 51 Federal, State, and local agencies to determine 
whether they collect data about minors' sobriety at the time of crime or arrest. In 
addition, we conducted an extensive literature search and 13 intervews with 
researchers to determine whether they had been able to measure alcohol's role in 
youth crime. 

FIINGS 
di 
Data collctin obstacle are  to overcome 
No agencies maintain data on a regular basis. Depending on the circumstances
, a 
youth who commits a crime may be involved with one or many different agencies. In 
addition, States have varyng procedures and agencies to handle youth offenders. 
Although several agencies mentioned that they had statistics, their data proved to be 
inaccessible or inherently biased. In addition, we were unable to collect our own 
statistics. All data collection methods presented barriers that prohibited us from 
obtaining useful, reliable data. In addition, national youth surveys do not address this 
issue. 
Ii 
Departnt of 
Justie researchers have  informtin and data

Department of Justice (DOJ) researchers at times have attempted to determine the 
extent to which youth alcohol use is associated with crimnal activity. The DOJ  studies, which are limited to serious juvenile offenders, found a strong association 
between alcohol use and criminal activity. 
li 
cr 
Othe researche have  akohol and  statitiall 
Other studies and articles show alcohol's involvement in crimes of aggression, including
murder and rape. 
Fute technlo ma enble 
data collctin and analysi 
Technological advances such as a computerized national crime reporting system may 
aid researchers in studying the link between underage drinking and crie.  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
EXCU SUMY 
INODUCTON. . 
. . . . . . . . . . . . 1

FIINGS

Data collection obstacles are diffcult to overcome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Department of Justice researchers have limited information and data. . . . . . . . . . . 4

Other researchers have linked alcohol and crime statistically. . . . . . . . . . 
. . . . . . . . 7

Future technology may enable data collection and analysis  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

APPENDIX A: Lit of Contact 
APPENDIX B: Alcohol and Youth Crie Bibliography  , "
INTRODUCTION
PUROSE 
The purpose of this study was to determine how many youth were under the infuence 
of alcohol when they committed crimes. 
BACKGROUN 
In response to public health concerns and the adverse consequences of alcohol abuse 
the Surgeon General requested that the Offce of Inspector General (OIG) provide 
information on the number or percentage of youth who were under the infuence of 
alcohol when they committed a crime. This concern mirrors one of the Department of 
Health and Human Servces (HHS) Secretary s goals which is to reduce the prevalence 
of alcohol problems among children and youth. This study is one in a series 
conducted by the OIG related to youth and alcohol. A related report  Youth and 
Alcohol: Dangerous and Deadly Consequences" (OEI-09-92-00261), describes 
alcohol's role in youth problems such as rape , risky sexual behavior, suicide, and 
drownng. 
We conducted intervews with 51 Federal, State, and local agencies to determine 
whether they collect data about minors' sobriety at the time of crime or arrest. In 
addition, we conducted an extensive literature search and 13 intervews with 
researchers to determine whether they had been able to measure alcohol's role in 
youth crime. 
Appendix A contains a list of the agencies and researchers we contacted. Appendix B 
contains a bibliography of youth and crime research and articles.  FINDINGS
DATA COLLCTON OBSTACL AR DIFCUT TO OVERCOME 
Data Collctin Prblems 
Numerous Federal, State, and local agencies administer juvenile justice. Depending 
on the circumstances, an arrested youth may be involved with one or many different 
State and local agencies. State agencies may include the State alcoholic beverage 
control agency, social servce agencies, Attorney General' s offce, courts, corrections 
department, State police, youth authority, and health servces department. Local 
agencies may include the city police, county sheriff, social servce agencies, health 
department, youth guidance center, juvenile courts, probation department, and public
school system. Although rare, the Federal government also may become involved in 
the adjudication of certain juvenile offenses. 
Juvenile justice agencies have varyng procedures to handle youth offenders. Most
agencies do not maintain statistics related to arrested minors' use of alcohol.
Although offcials from several agencies mentioned that they had some data, their data
proved to be inaccessible or inherently biased. Although some officials stated that we
might be able to compile and review individual case files, not all communities allow
researchers access to case files. In addition, files would reveal alcohol's involvement
only if police or attorneys specifically included it. One official acknowledged that not
all arresting offcers follow the procedure for reporting alcohol use. Therefore

statistics probably would be biased. In summary, our attempt to collect statistics was
unsuccessful.
Metholoal Prble 
We examined the feasibilty of collecting data ourselves. We could intervew youth 
who have been arrested or analyze police arrest records to determine the percentage 
of minors who were under the influence of alcohol when they committed a crime. 
Both methods presented barriers that would prohibit us from obtaining useful, reliable 
data. 
Intervewg youth who have ben arested

Intervewig youth offenders about whether they were under the infuence of 
alcohol when they committed a crime is one method to establish the link 
between alcohol use and crime. Researchers who have used this method have 
noted, however, that most offenders are never caught. In addition, researchers 
have not been able to determine whether arrested youth represent an accurate 
cross-section of youth criminal offenders.  The focus on arrested youth poses other methodological problems. Establishing 
the universe of youth offenders who have been caught is almost impossible. 
These youth experience many diferent outcomes. They may be: 
released without charges

cited and released 
granted probation

given alternative treatment, such as community servce or admission to

an alcohol education or treatment program 
committed to local juvenile detention facilities 
placed under the jurisdiction of State youth authorities

required to serve time in State-operated youth facilties, or
tried in adult courts and placed in adult correctional institutions.
State and local authorities do not automate their records sufficiently for 
researchers to select samples of all arrested youth. Youth who have been 
released, cited, or given alternative treatment may be impossible to track. The 
only youth available for intervews are those who are being detained or 
incarcerated. Surveying these youth may yield highly biased data, according to
some critics. Youth who are in detention tend to be the most serious 
offenders, with a history of social and/or psychological problems. Researchers 
stress that it is not uncommon for youth with these problems to abuse alcohol. 
In addition, one researcher expressed serious doubts about seriously troubled 
minors' willngness to disclose alcohol or drug use after being incarcerated. 
Analg 
police arest recrds 
Analyzng arrest records is another method to determine the youth alcohol and 
crime rate. This requires, however, that police make an arrest at the scene of 
the crime. One researcher estimates a minute percentage of all criminals are 
caught at the scene of the crime. Some may be arrested after a lengthy 
investigation, but authorities are unable to determine whether the offender had 
used alcohol before committing the crime. 
In addition, most police departments we surveyed do not require arresting 
offcers to note the sobriety of an arrested minor or to even ask if a suspect has 
been drinking. Researchers and authorities explained that enforcement 
agencies focus on the crime, not the related circumstances such as alcohol use. 
An arresting officer may notice only very obvious alcohol use. 
An arresting officer may be the only person who can ascertain whether a youth 
offender has been drinking. The human body breaks down and eliminates 
alcohol faster than many other drugs. A drug test administered several hours 
after an arrest is not an accurate measure of a youth's condition at the time of 
the crime.
 Although we found several police departments that record offenders' sobriety, 
their records are not automated suffciently for analytical purposes. Authorities 
use the sobriety record to adjudicate individual cases, not for research 
purposes. In addition, juvenile courts often seal juvenile records, rendering 
them inaccessible to researchers. 
Limtins 
Natina Yout Surey 
Annual youth surveys, such as the Center for Disease Control's Youth Risk Behavior 
studies or the National Institute on Drug Abuse s National Household Survey on Drug 
Abuse, do not include questions about alcohol's role in criminal activity. If they did 
they might be hindered by a lack of reliable self-reporting. A minor might be hesitant 
to admit or not even know that he had committed a crime. 
LID 
DEPARTM  REEACHRS 
OF JUSTICE  HAVE 
INORMTION AN DATA 
The Department of Justice s (DOJ) Bureau of Justice Statistics and Offce of Juvenie 
Justice Prevention have attempted to determine the extent to which youth alcohol use 
is associated with criminal activity. The  DOl's  most recent and comprehensive study 
related to this subject is its "Survey of Youth in Custody, 1987. 
According to the survey report, 31.9 percent of youth under 18 in long-term, State-
operated juvenile institutions in 1987 were under the influence of alcohol at the time 
of the offense. In addition, 55.4 percent admitted that they drank one or more times 
per week in the year before their incarceration. Youth in these facilities represent 
only a small percentage of all handled by the juvenile justice system, however. They 
1 The DOJ 
are generally the most serious offenders, with a history of criminal activity.
analyzed alcohol use rates for different crimes. The table on page 5 ilustrates the 
results. 
S. Department of Justice, Offce of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics 
Survey of Youth in Custody, 1987  Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report. September 
1988, p. 6.  JU 
PERCENT OF OFFNDEFR AUNCERI A GE 18 IN WNG-TERM STATE
COMM CUNT 
OPERTED  WHO 
OFFSE UNER TH INUECE OF ALHOL 
(1987)" 
Number Under 
Total  the Influence 
Number  of Alcohol 
(Weighted)  Percentage 
During the  Crime 
18,

814  31.9% 
Al  Ofens 
Ofens 
Violent  081  2,94  324% 
Murder  326  27.3 
Rape  431  132  30. 
Other Sexual Assault  634  110  17.4 
Robbery  372  887  37.4 
Assault  926  986  33. 
Other Violent Offenses  392  23. 
Propert Offens  8,1
 2,696  328% 
Burglary  303  463  34. 
Larcenyffeft  303  410  31.5 
Motor Vehicle Theft  402  437  31.2 
Aron  319  20. 
Other Property Offenses  894  320  35. 
Drg Offens  24. 
Possession  521  122  23.4 
Traffcking  108  23. 
Other Drug Offenses  68. 
(Including alcohol-related offenses) 
Public-Orer Offens  1,296  'l7  20. 
Juvenie Statu Offens  130  34. 
. Includes those who were under the influence of alcohol only or alcohol and other 
drugs. 
.. This column represents our estimate because the DOJ supplied only the total 
weighted number and the percentage under the infuence of alcohol at the time of 
the crime. The DOJ states that because of missing data, some percentages may be 
slightly off. 
... Totals are slightly higher than the sum of the subcategories because of missing data.  , "

According to another DOJ ll-city survey, from 4 to 32 percent of male juvenile 
arrestees admitted using alcohol in the 72 hours prior to their arrest.  Drug 
The  DOl's 
Use Forecasting (DUF) program intervews minors about their alcohol use. This is 
not useful for determining the extent to which alcohol use influences crime, however. 
The DUF intervewers do not ask minors specifically if they were under the influence 
crie? 
of alcohol at the time of the 
MA JU' SEL-REORTED ALHOL 
CR 
COMMG A 
USE BEFORE  RAGES 
FROM 4 TO 32 PERCENT 
Percent Who Used 
Alcohol in the 
72 Hour before 
City  Commttg a Crie
Birmingham 
Cleveland 
Indianapolis 
Kansas City 
Los Angeles

Portland 
St. Louis 
San Antonio

San Diego 
San Jose 
Washington, Do 
. Source: DOJ, Offce of Justice Programs, National 
Institute of Justice  Drugs & Crime: 1990 Annual 
Report  Drug Use Forecasting. August 1991. 
The DUF program relies on intervews only to gather information about alcohol use. 
Although DUF intervewers obtain urine samples from most minors .who are arrested 
they do not analyze for alcohol. The DUF admits that in certain cities-osuch as 
Washington D.C. where only 4 percent of minors intervewed admitted using alcohol in 
the previous 72 hours--minors clearly underreported their alcohol use. Two local 
enforcement offcials were highly critical of the DUF program because it neglects to 
collect adequate information about youth alcohol use. "Including alcohol in the DUF 
2 U.
S. Department of Justice, Offce of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice 
Drugs & Crime: 199 Annual Report  Drul! Use Forecastinl!. August 1991, p. 16.  , ", "  ), 
network' s drug scan would not be difficult at all," one official stated. The other added 
We have found that the urine testing that we do detects substantially more than any 
, even the confidential ones. Adding alcohol is no big deal as 
of the self-report studies
far as cost goes. Urine samples cost 21 cents. 
A 1974 survey of youth under 21 in State adult correctional facilities found that 
approximately 36.4 to 38.6 percent reported drinking at the time of the offense. 
Although this study is dated, it sheds light on the alcohol problems of miors who 
commit the most serious crimes. Minors incarcerated for crimes against persons 
(murder, assault, rape, robbery) were slightly more likely to be under the influence of 
alcohol than those who committed crimes against property (arson, grand theft 
3 Youth in adult correction 
burglary). facilities represent a very small proportion of all 
juvenile offenders.

OTHR REEACHRS HAVE LIND ALOHOL AN 
STATISTICAI Y 
Other studies and articles report that: 
Almost 50 percent of German juvenile offenders surveyed in 1971 were 
intoxicated when they committed criminal offenses. For crimes of aggression- 
such as murder, robbery, rape, and assault--the rates were "
rather higher. 
More than 52 percent of college students who admitted committing crimes were 
under the infuence of alcohol when the incident occurred. 
According to a school administrator who investigated the problem, 100 percent
of sexual assault cases at the University of Colorado involve alcoho1. 
One researcher had reviewed other researchers' attempts to link alcohol use and 
crie. He noted that researchers' have found that anywhere from 6 to 72 percent of 
3 James J. Collns 
Alcohol Careers and Criminal Careers " in Collns, (Ed.  Drinkinl! and 
Crime: Persoectives on the Relationshios Between Alcohol Consumotion and Criminal 
Behavior. 1981, p. 191. Data were first reported in a survey of State correctional inmates 
conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the former Law Enforcement Asistance 
Administration, 1974. 
4 Joachim Gerchow 
Alcohol Use and Juvenile Delinquency,  Child Health, v. 2, 1983 
129. 
5 National Familes in Action 
(NFI), "College Students Report Strong Link Between 
Substance Abuse and Campus Crime  Drul! Abuse Update, no. 34, September 199
, p. 13. 
NF "
Alcohol Use Linked with Sexual Assault, Gang Rape on College Campuses 
Drul! Abuse Uodate. no. 28, March 1989
, p. 17.  miors were under the influence of alcohol at the time of the crime.7 This wide 
range further ilustrates the barrers that researchers encounter when examining this 
issue. 
FU 
ANATLEYCHSOILSOY  MAY ENABLE DATA COLLCTON
Technological advances may aid researchers attempting to link underage dring and 
crime. A new, computerized national crime reporting system and a passive alcohol 
sensor may provide data on alcohol's role in youth crime in the future. 
The FBI has collected, analyzed, and published national crime data since 1930. The 
FBI's  Uniorm Crime Reports contains data relating to the number and tyes of
crimes committed every year. To improve the quality, accuracy, and usefulness of this 
information, the FBI has initiated a program to automate and standardize the way 
communities report crime statistics. The National Incident-
Based Reporting System 
(NIBRS) requires that State and local agencies enter certain crime information into a 
computer database. 
The FBI requires that each database contain a field to indicate whether authorities 
suspect that an offender consumed alcohol or drugs prior to the incident. In its 
implementation guidelines to State and local agencies, however, the FBI states that the 
field may be left empty if the reporting police offcer does not note any alcohol or 
drug use. In order for the system to provide reliable national data, arresting offcers 
must note alcohol use. 
Another barrier is the cost to States and local communities. Implementing the NIBRS 
requires costly computer equipment and technical expertise. Because of current 
budget diffculties, only a handful of communities participate in the program. 
Another technological advance is a new alcohol sensor that may allow police offcers 
to determine immediately whether criminal suspects have consumed alcohol. 
Authorities in some communities have begun implementing a new "passive" alcohol 
sensor. The device monitors the alcohol content of air near a suspect's mouth without 
requiring any special effort on the suspect 
s part. Although the sensors primarily are 
used to detect drunk drivers, they could be used quickly and legally to determine the 
sobriety of a criminal suspect. Authorities could record this information in the arrest 
report or in an automated computer database. 
7 Gerchow 
, p. 129.
 APPENDIX A

LIT OF CONTACI 
FEERA 
AGENCIE 
Department of Health and Human Servces: 
Public Health Servce: 
Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration: 
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism 
National Institute on Drug Abuse 
Offce for Substance Abuse Prevention

Department of Justice: 
Drug Enforcement Agency

Federal Bureau of Investigation 
Office of Justice Programs: 
Bureau of Justice Statistics 
National Institute of Justice 
Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 
ENORCENT/JUNI 
STATE  JUSTICE AGENCI 
Alabama Criminal Justice Information Center 
California Attorney General' s Offce 
California Youth Authority 
California Department of Justice, Bureau of Criminal Statistics
Illinois Criinal Justice Information Authority
Massachusetts Department of Probation
New Mexico Youth Authority
Oklahoma Department of Human Servces
Oregon Law Enforcement Data System

Pennsylvania State Police 
Vermont Administrator for the Courts 
Washigton Department of Social and Health Servces, Offce of 
Juvenile Rehabilitation 
STATE ALHOUC BEVEGE CONTOL AGENCIE 
Indiana Alcoholic Beverage Commission
Oklahoma Alcohol and Beverage Laws and Enforcement Commission
Oregon Liquor Control Commission
Washington Liquor Control Board
West Virginia Alcoholic Beverage Control JU 
CIT/COUN 
JUSTCE AGENCIE 
Boise, il Juvenile Probation Department

Boston, MA Juvenile Court System

Charlotte, NC Juvenile Courts

Dallas, TX Juvenile Court System

Denver, CO Juvenile Intake Division
Detroit, MI Juvenile System

Little Rock, AR Juvenile Courts, Prosecution Offce

Los Angeles, CA Juvenile Court System

Louisville, KY Juvenile and Family Courts

Memphis, TN and Shelby County Juvenile Court

Miami, FL Juvenile Intake

Milwaukee, WI Probation Department

San Francisco, CA Probation Department

Springfeld, IL Juvenile Division, Department of Corrections

St. Louis, MO Juvenile Court Intake Department

Tulsa, OK Juvenile Courts

Wichita, KS Juvenile Court Administration
LOAL ENFORCEMENT AGENCI 
Charles County, MD Office of the Sheriff

Columbus, NE Police Department

Honolulu, HI Police Department

Los Angeles, CA Police Department

Plymouth, NH Police Department

Portland, OR Police Department

San Francisco, CA Department of Public Health 
South Paris, ME Sheriff Department 
REEACHS/ACADEMCLGHOUSES 
Drugs & Crime Clearinghouse

Ernie Chavez, Colorado State University
Delbert Elliott, University of Colorado

Jeff Fagan, Rutgers University
Jim Inciardi, University of Delaware

Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research

(University of Michigan) 
National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information 
National Council on Crie and Delinquency 
National Criminal Justice Reference Servce 
Prevention Research Center (University of California, Berkeley)
Rutgers University Criinal Justice/NCCD Collection

Eric Wish, University of Maryland
  , pp. 
,,  "",  "  , "  , " ),  ),  ), 
APPENDIX B
CR 
ALHOL AN YOUT  BffUOGRAHY 
Brent, David A, Perper, Joshua A, and Allman, Christopher  Alcohol, Firearms, and 
Suicide Among Youth: Temporal Trends in Alegheny County, Pennsylvania 
1960 to 1983  Journal of the American Medical Association, June 26, 1987 
3369-3372 
Collns, James J.  Alcohol Careers and Criminal Careers " in Collis, (Ed.  Drinking
and Crime: Perspectives on the Relationships Between Alcohol Consumption 
and Criminal Behavior, 1981, pp. 152-206. 
The Relationship of Problem Drinking to Individual Offending 
Sequences " in Blumstein, Cohen, Roth, and Visher (Eds.  Crimal Careers 
and Career Criminals, v. 2, 1986, pp. 89-120. 
Fagan, Jeffrey, "Intoxication and Aggression " in Tonry and Wilson (Eds.  Drugs and 
Crime. v. 13, 1990, pp. 241-320. 
Gerchow, Joachim  Alcohol Use and Juvenile Delinquency,  Child Health, V. 2 
pp. 127-135. 
Haggerty, Kevi Po, Wells, Elizabeth A, Jenson, Jeffey M., Catalano, Richard F., and 
Hawkins, J. David  Delinquents and Drug Use: A Model Program for 
Community Reintegration  Adolescence. Summer 1989, pp. 439-456. 
Harrison, Carlos  Kids on Crack: 880 Crimes Each in a Year  Miami Herald, 
August 3, 1989, p. 1. 
llinois Criminal Justice Information Authority,  Trends and Issues 89: Criminal and 
Juvenile Justice in llinois. 1989. 
llinois Deparment of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse, Addictions Research 
Institute  Youth Survey: 1990--0ur Youth Is Our Future, Apri 1991. 
Inciardi, James A and McBride, Duane C.  Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime 
developed for U.S. Department of Health and Human Servces, Public Health 
Servce, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Adminstration, National 
Institute on Drug Abuse
, 1991. 
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, "For Patrol Officers, Alcohol Sensors are 
Helpful Screening Tool  Status Report, November 30, 1991, p. 9.  , ," 
 " ,,  ""   , "  , "  , ' , "  , "

Jacobs, James B.  Drinking and Crime  National Institute of Justice Crime File 
Study Guide 
Jenson, Randy, "Severity of Delinquent Offense and Alcohol Involvement Among 
Residents from a Rural Midwestern Juvenile Correctional Facilty,  Juvenile 
and Familv Court Journal, November 1982, pp. 63-66. 
Loeber, Rolf, van Kammen, Welmoet, Huizinga, David, and Krohn, Marvn D.  The 
Crime-Substance Use Nexus in Young People  Projects of the Program of 
" in 
Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquencv (Compilation of articles 
stemming from the Denver and Pittsburgh Youth Surveys and the Rochester 
Youth Development Study), September 1991, chapter 5. 
Males, Mike  Commentaries: Youth Behavior: Subcultural Effect or Mirror of Adult 
Behavior  Journal of School Health, December 1990, pp. 505-508. 
Martin, Susan E.  Alcohol-Related Interpersonal Violence: Current Knowledge and 
Research Directions  Journal of the American Medical 
" to be published in 
Association, 1992. 
Nadelman, Ethan A.  Drugs: The Case for Legalization  Washington Post, 
, 1989. . 
October 8
National Families in Action  Alcohol Use Linked with Sexual Assault, Gang Rape on 
College Campuses,  Drug Abuse Update  March 1989, p. 17. 
College Students Report Strong Lin Between Substance Abuse and 
Campus Crime  Drug Abuse Update, September 1990. 
Newcomb, Michael D. and McGee, Linda  Adolescent Alcohol Use and Other 
Delinquent Behaviors: A One- Year Longitudinal Analysis Controlling for 
Sensation Seekig,  Criminal Justice and Behavior, September 1989 
pp. 345-369. 
Rivers, James E.  Drug Use and Criminal Activity Among Miami Youth Involved in 
the Crack-Cocaine Business, July 1989 
Temple, Mark and Ladouceur, Patricia  The Alcohol-Crime Relationship as an 
Age-Specific Phenomenon: A Longitudinal Study,  Contemporary Drug 
Problems, Spring 1988, pp. 89-115. 
U.s. Department of Health and Human Servces, Public Health Servce, Alcohol, Drug 
Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse 
and Alcoholism Seventh Special Report to the U.S. ConbIess on Alcohol and 
Health From the Secretary of Health and Human Servces, January 1990.  , "  , " ,,,,    """"
   
Public Health Servce, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health 
Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse  Research Monograph Series 
#103--Drugs and Violence: Causes. Correlates. and Consequences, 1990. 
Public Health Servce, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health 
Administration, Offce for Substance Abuse Prevention  OSAP Mobilzes to 
Combat a National Crisis  The Fact Is.... Spring 1991. 
, Public Health Servce  Homeless and Runaway Youth: Public Health 
Issues and the Need for Action. 1991. 
U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation  Uniform Crime 
Reporting--National Incident-Based Reporting System, v. 1- , July 1, 1988. 
, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics  Correctional 
Populations in the United States. 1987, December 1989. 
Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics  Drugs and Jail 
Inmates, 1989  Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, 
August 1991. 
, Offce of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics 
Fact Sheet: 
Drug Data Summary, Drugs & Crime Data. November 1991. 
Offce of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics  Profile of State 
Prison Inmates, 1986  Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report 
January 1988.

Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics  Sourcebook of 
Criminal Justice Statistics--1990. 1991. 
, Offce of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics 
Survey of 
Youth in Custody, 1987  Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report 
September 1988. 
Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics  Violent Crie 
in the United States, 1991. 
, Offce of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice 
Drugs & Crime: 1990 Anual Report  Drug Use Forecasting, 
August 1991. 
Offce of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 
Prevention  Improving Juvenile Justice at the Local Level  OJJDP Juvenile 
Justice Bulletin, Reprinted from 
 NIl Reports March/April 1990. ,,,   """   , "  , "

Offce of Justice Programs, Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 
Prevention  Growth in Minority Detentions Attributed to Drug Law Violators 
OJJDP Update on Statistics. Reprinted from March 1990. 
Offce of Justice Programs, Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 
Prevention  Juvenile Courts Vary Greatly in How They Handle Drug and 
Alcohol Cases  OJJDP Update on Statistics.  NIl Reports 
Reprinted from 
July/August 1989.

, Offce of Justice Programs, Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 
Prevention  Public Juvenile Facilities: Children in Custody,  OJJDP Update on 
Statistics, January 1991. 
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