Compliance with the provisions in this LCD may be monitored and addressed
through post payment data analysis and subsequent medical review audits.

**History/Background and/or General Information**  
  
 **Percutaneous Vertebroplasty**  
  
Percutaneous vertebroplasty (PVP) is a therapeutic, interventional
neurosurgical and radiological procedure that consists of the percutaneous
injection of a biomaterial, methyl methacrylate, into a lesion of a thoracic
or lumbar vertebral body. The procedure is utilized for pain relief and bone
strengthening of weakened vertebral bodies.  
  
The procedure is performed under fluoroscopic guidance, although some prefer
the use of computed tomography (CT) with fluoroscopy for needle positioning
and injection assessment. An intraosseous venogram is sometimes performed
before cement injection to determine whether the needle is positioned within a
direct venous anastomosis to the central or epidural veins, to minimize
extravasation into venous structures. Conscious sedation with additional local
anesthesia (1% lidocaine) is generally utilized; however, patients who
experience difficulties with ventilation or are unable to tolerate prone
position during the procedure may require general anesthesia or deep sedation
with airway and ventilation support. The methyl methacrylate is injected into
the vertebral body until resistance is met or until cement reaches the
posterior wall.  
  
**Percutaneous Vertebral Augmentation**  
  
Percutaneous vertebral augmentation (PVA) is a minimally invasive procedure
for the treatment of compression fractures of the vertebral body. The
procedure includes the creation of a cavity which results in fracture
reduction along with an attempt to restore vertebral body height and
alignment. Using imaging guidance x-rays, incisions are made and a probe is
placed into the vertebral space in the location of the fracture. The collapsed
vertebral body is drilled and a device which displaces, removes, or compacts
the compressed area of the vertebrae is used to create a cavity prior to
injection of the bone filler (polymethylmethacrylate) (PMMA).  
  
**Covered Indications**  
  
Percutaneous vertebroplasty and percutaneous vertebral augmentation (PVA or
Kyphoplasty) procedures will be considered medically reasonable and necessary
for the following indications:

  1. Painful, debilitating, osteoporotic vertebral collapse/compression fractures, defined as those that have not responded to non-surgical medical management (e.g. narcotic and/or non- narcotic medication, physical therapy modalities) with and without methods of immobility (e.g. rest, bracing). 
    * Both **PVP** and **PVA** will be considered reasonable and necessary when **ALL** of the following criteria are met:
      * Acute (<6 wks) or subacute (6-12 wks)18,28,42 osteoporotic VCF (T1- L5), based on symptom onset, and documented by advanced imaging demonstrating bone marrow edema on MRI or bone-scan/SPECT/CT uptake 1-3,8,26,43 **and**
      * The beneficiary is symptomatic and is hospitalized with severe pain (Numeric Rating Scale [NRS] or Visual Analog Scale [VAS] pain score  8)4-7 **or** is non-hospitalized with moderate to severe pain (NRS or VAS 5) despite optimal non-surgical management (NSM)8 with one of the following: 
        * Worsening Pain or
        * Stable to improved pain (but NRS or VAS 5) **when 2 or more of the following are present:**
          * Progression of vertebral body height loss
          * > 25% vertebral body height reduction
          * Kyphotic deformity
          * Severe impact of VCF on daily functioning (Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire [RDQ] >17)

**Continuum of care**

All patients presenting with vertebral compression fractures (VCF) should be
referred for evaluation of bone mineral density and osteoporosis education for
subsequent treatment as indicated and instructed to take part in an
osteoporosis prevention/treatment program.8

  2. Malignant Vertebral Fractures  
Osteolytic vertebral metastasis or myeloma with severe back pain related to a
destruction of the vertebral body, not involving the major part of the
cortical bone.

  
**Limitations**

  1. Exclusion criteria 2,5,8-10,28,31

    * Absolute contraindication 
      * Current back pain is not primarily due to the identified acute or subacute VCF(s).
      * Osteomyelitis, discitis or active systemic infection
      * Pregnancy
      * Active surgical site infection
    * Relative contraindication 
      * Greater than three vertebral fractures per procedure
      * Allergy to bone cement or opacification agents
      * Uncorrected coagulopathy
      * Spinal instability
      * Myelopathy from the fracture
      * Neurologic deficit
      * Neural impingement
      * Fracture retropulsion/canal compromise

**  
****Notice:** Services performed for any given diagnosis must meet all of the
indications and limitations stated in this LCD, the general requirements for
medical necessity as stated in CMS payment policy manuals, any and all
existing CMS national coverage determinations, and all Medicare payment rules.

Percutaneous Vertebroplasty (PVP) offers many benefits in the treatment of
osteoporotic and malignant compression fractures. The aim of treating these
fractures is to restore mobility, reduce pain and minimize the incidence of
new fractures.1,3,4 However, the benefits of PVP do not come without risk of
complications as documented in the literature. Due to the risk of
complications, guidelines have been established by several specialty panels.
These specialty panel guidelines include relative and absolute
contraindications to surgical management of compression fractures.2,8,9,31
Additionally, the 2017 Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiologic Society of
Europe (CIRSE) guideline2 indicates complication rates for osteoporotic PVP is
between 2.2 - 3.9% and at <11.5% for malignant fractures. These complications
include cement leakage, infection, fractures, risk of collapse of adjacent
vertebral bodies, allergic reaction, and bleeding from the puncture site. The
CIRSE guidelines2 suggest complications can be minimized by not injecting
cement in its liquid phase, limiting the number of treated levels to not more
than five, correct positioning of the needle tip, and taking extra precaution
when treating highly vascular lesions.

**Osteoporotic Compression Fractures**

Osteoporosis (and low bone mass) affects 50 percent of people over 50 years of
age, or over 50 million people in the United States. Its primary impact,
fractures (also called fragility or low-trauma fractures), occurs secondary to
normal activity (e.g., bending, coughing, lifting, fall from a standing
height), and eventually occurs in 50% of women and 20% of men. Vertebral
compression fractures (VCFs) constitute one-quarter of osteoporotic
fractures,6 often at the midthoracic (T7-T8) and thoracolumbar junction
(T12-L1). They may cause significant acute and chronic pain, leading to
complications of impaired mobility comparable to a hip fracture (pneumonia,
loss of bone and muscle mass, incidental falls, deep venous thrombosis,
depression, and isolation).8 Medicare claims data shows an 85% 10 year
mortality following a VCF diagnosis.10 Under-diagnosis and under-treatment may
exacerbate morbidity and mortality.8 Vertebral augmentation provides a
significant mortality benefit over nonsurgical management with a low number
needed to treat (NNT).43  
  
Treatment options for symptomatic osteoporotic VCF range from non-surgical
management (NSM) (anti-osteoporosis therapy, analgesics, limited activity/bed
rest, back brace, physical therapy) to PVA, PVP and Percutaneous kyphoplasty
(PKP). A PVP involves the percutaneous injection of bone cement under image
guidance into the VCF. A PKP adds balloon tamponade within the fractured
vertebral body to create a low pressure cavity prior to cement injection. Both
treatments aim to immobilize the fracture, reduce pain, and improve alignment.  
  
Successful small European series introduced PVP into the United States in
1993; by 2007 encouraging preliminary observational data led to medical
society endorsement and clinical acceptance in painful osteoporotic VCFs
refractory to medical management. Subsequent early open-label randomized
controlled trials (RCTs), including the Vertebroplasty for Painful Chronic
Osteoporotic Vertebral Fractures (VERTOS) trial,11 the Fracture Reduction
Evaluation (FREE) trial,12,13 VERTOS II,14 and others, found a benefit of
vertebral augmentation over non-surgical management.  
  
VERTOS II was a multicenter RCT that compared PVP and NSM of acute (< 6 weeks)
osteoporotic VCF in patients with moderate to severe pain (5).14 Among 202
patients, the primary endpoint of pain relief at one month and one year was
greater after PVP (-5.2/-5.7) than after NSM (-2.7/-3.7) (p < 0.001).
Secondary outcomes, including RDQ and Quality of Life Questionnaire of the
European Foundation for Osteoporosis (QUALEFFO), were similarly improved. The
main limitation in the VERTOS II trial was the lack of blinding. Subsequent
analysis of the medical cohort showed that 60% achieved sufficient (VAS  3)
pain relief, most within 3 months.15 The authors acknowledged that despite the
VERTOS II results, "clinicians still do not know how to best treat their
patients," but conclude that, pending further RCTs, PVP may be justified in
patients with insufficient pain relief after 3 months of conservative
treatment.15  
  
The lack of blinding made the early open-label RCTs vulnerable to placebo
effect. However, in 2009, two high profile, methodologically controversial
(e.g., non-rigorous patient selection) double-blinded, RCTs found no benefit
of PVP over a "sham" procedure (pedicle periosteal bupivacaine
injection).16,17 Ever since, there has been a lack of consensus on the
appropriate management of osteoporotic VCF, particularly the role of PVA.6,8
Medicare claims data shows that among over 2 million VCF patients, PVA was
performed in 20% in 2005, peaked at 24% in 2007- 2008, and declined to 14% in
2014, a 42% decrease.10 Lower PVA utilization was associated with a 4%
increase in propensity-adjusted mortality risk (p < 0.001). Subsequent major
RCTs, described below, have attempted to address the perceived shortcomings of
these two negative studies (primarily more stringent selection criteria and
choice of control).  
  
The Vertebroplasty for Acute Painful Osteoporotic Fractures (VAPOUR) double-
blinded RCT was designed to compare acute fracture (< 6 weeks) PVP with a sham
procedure (subcutaneous, not periosteal, infiltration) for patients with
severe pain (NRS 7).5 Among 120 randomized patients, the primary endpoint
(NRS score < 4 by 14 days) was achieved in 44% and 21% of PVP and sham
patients, respectively (p = 0.011), and durable to 6 months. Mean height loss
at 6 months was 36% greater in the control group (63% vs. 27%). Hospital
inpatients constituted 57% of study patients; among this group, median length
of stay was reduced by 5.5 days in the PVP group. In addition to a focus on
the acute, severely painful VCF, this study also concentrated on delivering
greater cement volumes than prior studies. The authors conclude that PVP is
superior to true placebo control of severe pain in VCFs of less than 6 weeks.  
  
VERTOS IV used the same inclusion criteria as VERTOS II, but was a double-
blinded comparison of PVP with a sham procedure (pedicle periosteal
infiltration).7 Among the 180 randomized patients, although the reduction in
VAS score was clinically (> 1.5 points) and statistically significant up to 12
months in both groups (5.00 at 12 months in the PVP group vs. 4.75 in the sham
group), reductions in VAS scores did not differ between groups (p = 0.48). The
authors conclude, "the results suggest that periosteal infiltration alone in
the early phase provides enough pain relief with no need for additional
cementation." They recommend the "pragmatic approach" of first use of
"periosteal infiltration during natural healing" and "cementation only in a
selected subgroup of patients with insufficient pain relief after this early
phase." They also highlight a subgroup that may warrant earlier PVP per the
VAPOUR trial (hospital in-patients with more comorbidity and severe pain).  
  
The 2018 multicenter, prospective, uncontrolled, EVOLVE study of 354 Medicare-
age patients with acute or subacute ( 4 mo.) painful (NRS 7) VCF (all but 8
osteoporotic), found statistical improvement in NRS, Oswestry Disability Index
(ODI), Short Form-36 Questionnaire Physical Component Summary (SF-36v2 PCS),
and EuroQol-5-Domain (EQ-SD) out to 12 months.18 The authors conclude that
"kyphoplasty is a safe, effective, and durable procedure for treating patients
with painful VCF due to osteoporosis."  
  
Hirsch et al43 is a claims-based analysis of national registries and insurance
datasets that indicates a significant mortality benefit for patients with
vertebral compression fractures who receive vertebral augmentation. Both
vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty modalities conferred a prominent mortality
benefit over nonsurgical management in the analysis of the U.S. Medicare
registry, with a low number needed to treat. The calculations based on this
data base resulted in a low number needed to treat to save 1 life at 1 year
and at 5 years. This analysis of >2,000,000 patients with vertebral
compression fracture (VCF) revealed that only 15 patients need to be treated
to save 1 life at 1 year. This large dataset analysis suggests that vertebral
augmentation provides a significant mortality benefit over nonsurgical
management with a low number needed to treat (NNT).  
  
**Malignant Compression Fractures**  
  
Rastogi et al19 is a peer reviewed article outlining the use of vertebral
augmentation for compression fractures caused by malignant disease.
Vertebroplasty or kyphoplasty is used as the principal palliative treatment
for painful compression fractures caused by malignant disease. Vertebral
augmentation provides rapid onset of pain relief and significant improvement
in function, quality of life, and vertebral stability.  
  
Mansoorinasab et al20 is a peer reviewed article updating new methods to
determine the influence and the long-term consequences of percutaneous
vertebroplasty (PVP) in the treatment of painful vertebral fractures (VFs) in
metastatic patients of multifarious cancer of various sites on the spine. In
patients with vertebral metastasis, PVP is considered a successful method for
providing fast pain control, preventing most spinal cord compression, and
vertebral collapse. The results of the peer review state that PVP is safe,
feasible, reliable, effective, and useful procedure, a minimally invasive
treatment, and a significant tool for reduction of pain.  
  
Health Quality Ontario performed a systematic literature search for studies on
vertebral augmentation of cancer-related vertebral compression fractures.21
The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of percutaneous
image-guided vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty for palliation of cancer-related
vertebral compression fractures. The data was compiled into categories of pain
intensity, analgesic use, pain-related disability and physical performance,
and health-related quality of life and patient satisfaction. In all of the
clinical studies researched, patients that had either vertebroplasty or
kyphoplasty, had high pain intensity levels (Visual Analogue Scale [VAS] 
7.0) pre-procedure which were reduced post-procedurally to mild to low pain
intensity levels (VAS < 4.0). Patients that were in the vertebroplasty group,
reported change in analgesics, either discontinuation or a dose reduction.
Patients from the kyphoplasty group infrequently reported analgesic use after
the procedure. Both groups of patients showed improvement with pain-related
disability and physical performance. The number of patients that required
orthopedic braces or wheelchairs was significantly reduced after the
procedures, as well as the number of patients that were bedridden or immobile.
The health-related quality of life for both groups of patients was improved
and remained improved at 1-year follow up. Both vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty
rapidly reduced pain intensity levels in cancer patients with spinal fractures
that were refractory to conservative care, usually bed rest and opioids. Both
of these procedures were associated with a low-risk safety profile.  
  
Kircelli et al22 is a 12 month retrospective clinical study of 72 patients
(mean age of 78.938.77 years) with malignant vertebral compression fractures
who underwent balloon kyphoplasty to investigate clinical results. Vertebral
compression fractures due to bone metastases have limited treatment options
which include bone-strengthening with cement and supportive care. Patients
with metastatic vertebral compression fractures have reported reduced pain and
improved functionability and quality of life post percutaneous kyphoplasty. In
this study, the mean follow-up period was 18.913.71 months and mean bone
mineral density (BMD) values were 3.190.46. The kyphosis angle (KA),
vertebral height ratio (VHR), visual analog scale (VAS), and Oswerty
disability Index (ODI) were compared pre and post balloon kyphoplasty. The KA
decreased from 13.456.73 to 8.551.55, the VHR increased from 55.7512.82% to
74.2710.54, the VAS decreased from 8.110.83 to 2.551.16, and the ODI
decreased from 65.517.32 to 25.184.37 at the 12th postoperative month,
respectively (p<0.001). Post-procedural pain decreased significantly with a
mean cement volume of 4.61.3ml. The authors conclude that percutaneous
kyphoplasty is an effective method for reducing pain and disability in
patients with vertebral compression fractures due to metastases thereby
improving patient quality of life.  
  
Kyriakou et al23 is a review statement from the International Myeloma Working
Group (IMWG) on the use of cement augmentation with percutaneous
vertebroplasty and percutaneous kyphoplasty for the treatment of vertebral
compression fractures in multiple myeloma (MM). A majority of MM patients
develop spinal osteolysis which can result in painful vertebral compression
fractures impacting quality of life and overall well-being. Pain associated
with vertebral compression fractures can be disabling causing progressive
deformities and resulting in significant chronic pain. Treatment of malignant
vertebral compression fractures with balloon kyphoplasty (BKP) and
percutaneous vertebroplasty (PV) is directed towards rapid pain reduction,
keeping the patient ambulatory with a normal level of function in a relatively
short period of time. The IMWG concludes the use of cement augmentation is an
effective way to stabilize the spinal column and indicates balloon kyphoplasty
(BKP) and percutaneous vertebroplasty (PV) allows the majority of patients the
ability to return to a near normal level of function in a relatively short
period of time by significantly reducing back pain and decreasing the use of
pain relief. Further, the consensus statement from the IMWG states "multiple
myeloma patients with significant pain at a fracture site should be offered a
balloon kyphoplasty or percutaneous vertebroplasty procedure and the procedure
should be performed within 4-8 weeks unless there are medical
contraindications."

**Multi-Jurisdictional Contractor Advisory Committee (CAC) Meeting**

After review of highly graded evidence-based literature from the years 2004
-2018, the opinions amongst the CAC Advisory Committee (CAC) members and the
Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) varied on many of the proposed questions
regarding the strength of evidence for the treatment of osteoporotic vertebral
compression fractures with vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty. Multiple pieces of
literature were discussed to determine if osteoporotic vertebral compression
fractures receiving intervention treatment during the acute or subacute
timeframes were supported. Also discussed were if current literature and
quality of evidence addressed an acute, subacute or chronic fracture time
frame, and if highly graded evidence existed for supporting conservative, non-
interventional treatment. Topics within the discussion reviewed strength of
evidence regarding pain relief, overall opioid usage, quality of life,
mobility as well as mortality risk. CAC members and SMEs discussed the need
for further research trials to strengthen existing data as others felt the
benefits of these procedures have been proven in evidence-based literature
from trials that have already been performed.

After consideration of the literature, the level of compression fractures has
been amended to include T1-L5. The timing of advanced imaging requirement
within 30 days has been removed. The absolute contraindication of performing
greater than 3 vertebral fractures in a single session has been amended to
that of a relative contraindication. Based on Subject Matter Expert (SME)
recommendation and review of the Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiologic
Society of Europe (CIRSE) Guidelines,2 Hirsch et al. 2018, the National
Guideline Clearinghouse (NGC) ACR Appropriateness Criteria,9 and Chandra et
al. 2014, the level of vertebral compression fractures has been revised to
include levels (T1-L5) and will be based on symptom onset and documented by
advanced imaging without a set timeframe. According to the CIRSE Guidelines2
and to minimize complications associated with PVP, it is not advisable to
treat more than five levels of fractures within a single session. This
recommendation is due to the positive correlation between the number of
fractures treated and drop in oxygen saturation. Since the guidelines suggest
five levels is safe, the absolute contraindication of greater than three
vertebral fractures has been moved to the relative contraindications and is
clarified to reflect per procedure. In addition, the special society
guidelines list active surgical site infection as an absolute
contraindication. Consistent with these guidelines, active surgical site
infection has been added as an absolute contraindication.

**Osteoporotic Compression Fractures  
**  
Whether or not to use PVA for osteoporotic VCF has been very controversial
since publication of the two negative 2009 RCTs. At the time, some national
organizations withdrew (Australia Medical Services Advisory Committee)6 or
severely curbed (American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons)24 endorsement.
Others continued recommending PVA in select patients. The National Institute
for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends PVA in patients "who have
severe ongoing pain after a recent, unhealed vertebral fracture despite
optimal pain management and in whom the pain has been confirmed to be at the
level of the fracture by physical examination and imaging."4 In a 2014
consensus statement, the Society of Interventional Radiology (SIR), American
Association of Neurological Surgeons (AANS), Congress of Neurological Surgeons
(CNS), American College of Radiology (ACR), American Society of Neuroradiology
(ASNR), American Society of Spin Radiology (ASSR), Canadian Interventional
Radiology Association (CIRA), and the Society of NeuroInterventional Surgery
(SNIS) considered PVA a proven medically appropriate therapy for treatment of
painful VCFs refractory to brief (24 hrs.) non-operative medical therapy.1 The
2017 Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiologic Society of Europe (CIRSE)
guideline notes that while the evidence for PVP has been conflicting, based on
recent data "it seems clear that PVP offers significant pain reduction in
patients with acute VCFs after short (<3 wks.) failed medical therapy."2

A 2018 Cochrane review of 21 trials of PVA for osteoporotic VCF "does not
support a role for vertebroplasty for treating acute or subacute osteoporotic
vertebral fractures in routine practice,"25 though its methodology has been
criticized.26 A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by the American
Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) Task Force concluded:
"Vertebroplasty does not work to relieve pain from the fracture, and
kyphoplasty should generally only be done in the context of a placebo-
controlled clinical trial."30 Based on the uncertainty of benefit, citing both
the recent Cochrane analysis and the VERTOS IV results, UpToDate recommends
reserving PVA "for patients with incapacitating pain from acute and subacute
VCFs who are unable to taper parenteral opioids or transition to oral opioids
within seven days of admission or have intolerable side effects from opioid
therapy."28  
  
The benefit of PVA is supported by the significantly higher 5-year mortality
risk for VCF in Medicare patients after a decline in utilization.10 In a
recent systematic review of evidence-based guidelines for the management of
osteoporotic VCF, three of four guidelines recommended PVA.29 In 2018, a
multispecialty expert panel (orthopedic and neurosurgeons, interventional
[neuro] radiologists and pain specialists), endorsed vertebral augmentation
for select patients, in a clinical care pathway (developed using the RAND/UCLA
Appropriateness Method), based on seven variables (pain duration and
evolution, acute fracture by advanced imaging, kyphotic deformity, degree and
progression of vertebral height loss, and impact on daily functioning).8
Whether subgroups of patients might benefit more from vertebroplasty or
kyphoplasty, requires further study.6  
  
A review of the 14 published RCTs that examined the role of VA in osteoporotic
VCF concluded: "While the RCT data are conflicting, there are patients with
acute fractures causing significant pain and disability who can derive benefit
with respect to improvement in pain outcomes, reduction in narcotic usage and
reduced length of hospital stay."45 In a meta-analysis of 16 studies with
mortality as an outcome, eight reported mortality benefit in VA, seven
reported no benefit, and one reported mixed results.46 The analysis found that
VA provided a 22% mortality benefit over NSM at 10 years. However, the authors
note the potential for "a strong selection bias in the selection of healthier
patients for VA that was not captured by the analysis." They conclude that VA
"remains a controversial treatment" and "should be offered in carefully
selected patients."  
  
In summary, the premise of weight-bearing fracture immobilization, to limit
pain and deformity, has prima facie validity on first principles. Superimposed
is the recent trend toward immediate, focused, surgical immobilization, and
away from prolonged, general immobilization (e.g., casting, bracing, bedrest)
and prolonged systemic pain management (e.g., opioid analgesics), particularly
in the elderly. The preponderance of evidence (studies, national and society
guidelines, systematic reviews, multispecialty panel clinical care pathway,
and Medicare claims data) favors consideration of early PVA in select patients
(moderate to severe and disabling pain due to acute osteoporotic and malignant
VCF confirmed by physical examination and advanced imaging findings).  
  
**Malignant Compression Fractures**  
  
Percutaneous vertebroplasty (PV) and balloon kyphoplasty (BKP) procedures have
played a major role in the effective treatment of painful malignant
compression fractures refractory to conservative care. Vertebroplasty
procedures have been shown to provide rapid pain control and improved overall
quality of life. After careful review of the literature, vertebral
augmentation for malignant compression fractures is a reasonable and necessary
procedure providing rapid pain control with a decrease in the need for
analgesics, improvement in pain related disability and physical performance,
and improved vertebral stability. The literature reviewed supports the
clinical utility and clinical validity, and is relevant to the Medicare
population. Therefore, coverage of PV and BKP will be added for the treatment
of painful malignant compression fractures refractory to conservative care.