Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Bronchophony
Bronchophony, also known as bronchiloquy, is the abnormal transmission of sounds from the lungs or bronchii. It is a general sign, detected by auscultation. The patient is requested to repeat a word several times (the numbers "ninety-nine" or "sixty-six" are traditional) while the physician auscultes symmetrical areas of each lung. Normally, the sound of the patient's voice becomes less distinct as the auscultation moves peripherally; bronchophony is the phenomenon of the patient's voice remaining loud at the periphery of the lungs or sounding louder than usual over a disctinct area of consolidation (such as pneumonia).  This is a valuable tool in physical diagnosis used by medical personnel when auscultating the chest.
Often, the patient does not have to speak for the physician to hear signs of bronchophony.  Rather, the normal breath sounds are increased in loudness over the affected area of the lungs (referred to by doctors as "increased breath sounds.")
Bronchophony may be caused by a solidification of lung tissue around the bronchii, which may indicate lung cancer, or by fluid in the alveoli, which may indicate pneumonia. However, it may also have benign causes, such as wide bronchii. As such, it usually an indication for further investigation rather than the main basis of a diagnosis.
Other tools used in auscultation include listening for egophony, whispered pectoriloquy, rales, rhonchi or wheezing.  Also, percussion is often used to determine diseases of the chest.

# Sources
- Adam's Physical Diagnosis, by John W. Burnside, M.D.
- Medspan
- Mercksource
- TheFreeDictionary.com
de:Bronchophonie
Buccal index
The buccal index is a term used in different fields and is defined accordingly:
- In ultrasound diagnostics: The buccal index >20 mm was first introduced by E. E. Kortshagina as a marker for diabetic fetopathy. The buccal index <10 mm was first used as a marker for intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) by M. S. Walid.
- In dentistry: The cross-mounting buccal index was developed by N. Chaimattayompol for the definitive implant abutment selection, framework design and fabrication.
Diazomethane

# Overview
Diazomethane is the chemical compound CH2N2.  In the pure form at room temperature, it is a yellow gas, but it is almost universally used as a solution in diethyl ether.  It is one of the more common diazo compounds. It is also toxic and potentially explosive.

# Preparation
CH2N2 is usually prepared as a solution in diethyl ether and used for converting carboxylic acids into their methyl esters or into their homologues (see Arndt-Eistert synthesis). In the Buchner-Curtius-Schlotterbeck reaction (1885) diazomethane reacts with an aldehyde to form ketones.  Diazomethane is also frequently used as a carbene equivalent.  Diazomethane is prepared in the laboratory at mmol scale from precursors such as Diazald or N-methyl-N-nitroso-p-toluenesulfonamide and MNNG or 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine.  Diazald in a solution of diglyme and diethyl ether reacts with a warm aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide and the generated CH2N2 is collected by distillation. Diazomethane is liberated from a solution of MNNG in diethyl ether by addition of aqueous potassium hydroxide at low temperatures. 
Diazomethane precursors
CH2N2 reacts with basic solutions of2H2O to give the deuterated derivative C2H2N2.

# Assay
The concentration of CH2N2 can be determined in either of two convenient ways.  It can be treated with an  excess of benzoic acid in cold Et2O. Unreacted benzoic acid is then assayed using titration with standard NaOH.  Alternatively, the concentration of CH2N2 in Et2O can be determined spectrophotometrically at 410 nm where its extinction coefficient, , is 7.2.

# Other diazomethane compounds
Many substituted derivatives of diazomethane have been prepared:
- The very stable (CF3)2CN2 (b.p. 1213 C),
- Ph2CN2 (m.p. 2930 C).
- (CH3)3SiCHN2, which is commercially available as a solution and is as effective as CH2N2 for methylation.
- PhC(H)N2, a red liquid b.p.< 25 C at 0.1 mm Hg.

# Safety
Diazomethane is toxic by inhalation or by contact with the skin or eyes (TLV 0.2ppm). Symptoms include chest discomfort, headache, weakness and, in severe cases, collapse.  CH2N2 may explode when in contact with ground-glass joints or when heated to about 100.0 C.  Consequently specialized, scratch-free glassware and a blast shield should be employed for its use.
Bulk modulus
The bulk modulus (K) of a substance measures the substance's resistance to uniform compression. It is defined as the pressure increase needed to effect a given relative decrease in volume.
As an example, suppose an iron cannon ball with bulk modulus 160 GPa (gigapascal) is to be reduced in volume by 0.5%. This requires a pressure increase of 0.005160 GPa = 0.8 GPa. If the cannon ball is subjected to a pressure increase of only 100 MPa, it will decrease in volume by a factor of 100 MPa/160 GPa = 0.000625, or 0.0625%.
The bulk modulus K can be formally defined by the equation:
where p is pressure, V is volume, and p/V denotes the partial derivative of pressure with respect to volume. The inverse of the bulk modulus gives a substance's compressibility.
Other moduli describe the material's response (strain) to other kinds of stress: the shear modulus describes the response to shear, and Young's modulus describes the response to linear strain.  For a fluid, only the bulk modulus is meaningful.  For an anisotropic solid such as wood or paper, these three moduli do not contain enough information to describe its behaviour, and one must use the full generalized Hooke's law.
Strictly speaking, the bulk modulus is a thermodynamic quantity, and it is necessary to specify how the temperature varies in order to specify a bulk modulus: constant-temperature (K_T), constant-enthalpy (adiabatic K_S), and other variations are possible.  In practice, such distinctions are usually only relevant for gases.
For a gas, the adiabatic bulk modulus K_S is approximately given by
K_S=\kappa\, p
where
In a fluid, the bulk modulus K and the density  determine the speed of sound c (pressure waves), according to the formula
Solids can also sustain transverse waves, for these one additional elastic modulus, for example the shear modulus, is needed to determine wave speeds.

# Anisotropy
For crystalline solids with a symmetry lower than cubic the bulk modulus is not the same in all directions and needs to be described with a tensor with more than one independent value. It is possible to study the tensor elements using powder diffraction under applied pressure.
Bungarotoxin
Bungarotoxin (more accurately -bungarotoxin) is one of the components of the venom of the elapid snake Taiwanese banded krait (Bungarus multicinctus).  It binds irreversibly to the acetylcholine receptor found at the neuromuscular junction, causing paralysis, respiratory failure and death in the victim.
-bungarotoxin is also a selective antagonist of the 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in the brain, and as such has applications in neuroscience research.
In addition to the -type bungarotoxin, a -bungarotoxin is fairly common in some snake venom.  The target of this neurotoxin is at the pre-synaptic terminal, where it prevents release of acetylcholine by binding to proteins, most commonly actin.

# History
Bungarotoxin was discovered by Chuan-Chiung Chang and Chen-Yuan Lee of the National Taiwan University in 1963.
Butriptyline

# Overview
Butriptyline (Evadene, Evadyne, Evasidol, Centrolese) is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) which has been used in Europe since 1974. It is the isobutyl side chain homologue of amitriptyline and produces similar effects to it, but with less marked side effects like sedation and interactions with adrenergic drugs.
In vitro, butriptyline is a strong antihistamine and anticholinergic, moderate 5-HT2 and 1-adrenergic receptor antagonist, and weak serotonin reuptake inhibitor, with negligible affinity for the norepinephrine and dopamine transporters. These actions appear to confer a profile similar to that of iprindole and trimipramine with serotonin-blocking effects as the predominant mediator of mood-lifting efficacy.
However, in clinical trials, using similar doses, butriptyline was found to be even more effective than amitriptyline as an antidepressant, despite the fact that amitriptyline is much, much stronger as both a 5-HT2 antagonist and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. As a result, it may be that butriptyline, in vivo, functions as a prodrug to a metabolite with more appreciable pharmacodynamics.
Butz-Choquin
Butz-Choquin is a French pipe maker. It was founded in 1858 by tobacconist Jean-baptiste Choquin and Gustave Butz.

# History
The company was established and in Metz; it remained there until 1951, when it was purchased by the Berrod-Regad company. It was then relocated to Saint-Claude, Jura. The company began to export pipes in 1960, receiving the Oscar of Export and the Gold Cup of the French Good Taste. The company was acquired by Fabien Guichon in 2002.

# Pipes
Butz-Choquin's first pipe, the Choquin pipe, was a curved pipe with a flat-bottomed hearth, albatross bone, and silver rings. The company currently produces over 70 different series of pipes. Butz-Choquin pipes have only been readily available in the United States of America since 1999.
C3a receptor
The C3a receptor also known as complement component 3a receptor 1 (C3AR1) is a G protein-coupled receptor protein involved in the complement system.
The receptor binds to complement component C3a, although there is limited evidence that this receptor also binds C4a in lesser mammals this has yet to be proven true in humans. C3a receptor modulates immunity, arthritis, diet-induced obesity and cancers

# Agonists and antagonists
Potent and selective agonists and antagonists for C3aR have been discovered.
CORONA Trial

# Objective
To study the effects of rosuvastatin 10 mg daily in patients with congestive heart failure.

# Methods
Controlled Rosuvastatin Multinational Trial in Heart Failure (CORONA) was a double-blinded, randomized, placebo controlled trial wherein 5011 patients with congestive heart failure NYHA Class II, III or IV ischemic, systolic heart failure were enrolled and randomly assigned to treatment with either 10 mg rosuvastatin daily or placebo. The primary outcome was death from cardiovascular causes, non-fatal MI or non-fatal stroke.

# Results
Compared to placebo, rosuvastatin reduced serum LDL levels and raised HDL and triglyceride levels. However, there was no significant reduction in mortality rates from cardiovascular causes, coronary events and all-cause mortality.
Cathepsin L2
Cathepsin L2, also known as cathepsin V and encoded by the CTSL2 gene, is a human gene.
The protein encoded by this gene, a member of the peptidase C1 family, is a lysosomal cysteine proteinase that may play an important role in corneal physiology. This gene is expressed in colorectal and breast carcinomas but not in normal colon, mammary gland, or peritumoral tissues, suggesting a possible role for this gene in tumor processes.

# Clinical significance
Cathepsin L2 may play a role in the pathogenesis of keratoconus.
Cabot's ring
Cabot's ring or Cabot-Schleip ring is a reddish, ringlike structure in the red blood cells in the peripheral blood.
Cabot's rings may be the form of partial loops, loops, or figure eights.
Cabot's ring may seen in:
- Hemolytic anemia
- Lead poisoning
- Pernicious anemia
- Thalassemia
- Megaloblastic anemia
- Severe anemia

# Etymology
It is named after Richard Clarke Cabot and Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Schleip.
Calabar bean
The Calabar bean is the seed of a leguminous plant, Physostigma venenosum, a native of tropical Africa. It derives its scientific name from a curious beak-like appendage at the end of the stigma, in the centre of the flower; this appendage, though solid, was supposed to be hollow (hence the name from Template:Polytonic, a bladder, and stigma). The plant has a climbing habit like the scarlet runner, and attains a height of about 50 ft., with a stem an inch or two in thickness. The seed pods, which contain two or three seeds or beans, are 6 or 7 inches in length; and the beans are about the size of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, with a deep chocolate-brown color.

# Historical and Medical Uses
They constitute the E-ser-e or ordeal beans of the people of Old Calabar, being administered to persons accused of witchcraft or other crimes. In cases where the poisonous material did its deadly work, it was held at once to indicate and rightly to punish guilt; but when it was rejected by the stomach of the accused, innocence was held to be satisfactorily established. A form of dueling with the seeds is also known among the natives, in which the two opponents divide a bean, each eating one half; that quantity has been known to kill both adversaries. Although thus highly poisonous, the bean has nothing in external aspect, taste or smell to distinguish it from any harmless leguminous seed, and very disastrous effects have resulted from its being incautiously left in the way of children. The beans were first introduced into England in the year 1840; but the plant was not accurately described till 1861, and its physiological effects were investigated in 1863 by Sir Thomas R. Fraser. The bean usually contains a little more than 1% of alkaloids. Of these two have been identified, one called calabarine with atropine-like effects, and the other, now a highly important drug, known as physostigmine, used in the treatment of glaucoma and delayed gastric emptying.
Physostigma venenosum is used as a medicine in homeopathy.

# Toxicology
The main antidote to Calabar bean poisoning is atropine, which may often succeed; and the other measures are those usually employed to stimulate the circulation and respiration. Unfortunately, the antagonism between physostigmine and atropine is not perfect, and Sir Thomas Fraser has shown that in such cases there comes a time when, if the action of the two drugs be summated, death results sooner than from either alone. Thus atropine will save life after three and a half times the fatal dose of physostigmine has been taken, but will hasten the end if four or more times the fatal dose has been ingested.
Calciseptine
Calciseptine (CaS) is a natural neurotoxin isolated from the black mamba Dendroaspis p. polylepis venom. This toxin consists of 60 amino acids with four disulfide bonds. Calciseptine specifically blocks L-Type calcium channels, but not other voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels such as N-type and T-type channels.

# Sequence
Its amino acid sequence is: RICYI HKASL PRATK TCVEN TCYKM FIRTQ REYIS REGCG CPTAM WPYQT ECCKG DRCNK

# Isolation
Calciseptine is purified from the venom of black mamba Dendroaspis p. polyepsis via three isolation steps: (1) gel filtration, (2) ion exchange on TSK SP 5PW, and (3) reverse-phase chromatograghy on RP18. It represents 2.8% of the total venom components. 

# Target
Calciseptine blocks L-type Ca2+ channels.
As a result, it blocks spontaneous contractions of rat portal vein, contractions of the rat thoracic aorta, uterus and cardiac preparations.
Camptothecin

# Overview
Camptothecin is a plant secondary metabolite used as an anti-cancer drug that damages DNA, leading to the destruction of the cell.
It comes from Camptotheca acuminata, a deciduous tree found in southern China. Stem woods of Nothopodytes foetida (previously known as Mappia foetida) found in the western ghats of India are an even better source of camptothecin.(2) A close analogue, 9-methoxycamptothecin, is also present in the same source.

# Mechanism of action
Camptothecin affects the activity of the enzyme topoisomerase I, whose normal action is to cleave, unwind, and religate DNA. 
When camptothecin binds to topoisomerase I, it will be able to cleave but not to religate DNA. Thereby, camptothecin causes single strand breaks in DNA.

# Related medications
Since Camptothecin manifested a severe life threatening adverse reaction in the form of cystitis (Inflammation of the urinary bladder and ureters) concerted efforts over years by many research institutions, academic as well as industrial, resulted in chemically related analogues with less toxicity and enhanced therapeutic potency.Topotecan (trade name Hycamtin) and irinotecan {trade name Camptosar, also known as CPT-11) are camptothecin derivatives marketed as anti-cancer drugs by GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer, respectively. 
Topotecan is indicated for small cell lung cancer after failure of first-line chemotherapy and metastatic carcinoma of the ovary following failure of initial or subsequent chemotherapy. Irinotecan is indicated for colorectal cancers and is usually taken with other drugs in chemotherapy.
Canary grass

# Overview
Canary Grass is a plant, Phalaris canariensis, belonging to the family Poaceae.  Originally a native of the Mediterranean region, it is now grown commercially in several parts of the world for birdseed, hence the name.  This large, coarse grass has erect, hairless stems, usually from 2 to 6 feet (0.6- 1.8 metres) tall.  The ligule is prominent and membranous, 14 inch (0.6 cm) long and rounded at the apex. The gradually tapering leaf blades are 31210 inches (8.925.4 cm) long, 1434 inch (0.61.9 cm) wide, flat, and often harsh on both surfaces.  The compact panicles are erect or sometimes slightly spreading and range from 316 inches (7.640.6 cm) long with branches 12112 inches (1.23.8 cm) long. Single flowers occur in dense clusters in May to mid-June or August.  Inflorescences are green or slightly purple at first, then become tan.
The seeds are shiny brown. The seed is used as bird food and is generally mixed with rapeseed and other seeds that cheapen it.  It should be kept in a dry place and away from vermin.  Industrially, a flour made from seed is employed in the manufacture of fine cotton goods and silk stuffs.
Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) is a perennial forage crop and a wild grass.  Although heads of both crops are panicles, annual canary grass (Phalaris canariensis) heads resemble club wheat.
In the Canary Islands, Italy and North Africa, it is used as food.
In certain parts of Mexico, such as Valle de Bravo, it is prepared and sold by street food vendors as a much appreciated form of atole.
Canine tooth

# Overview
In mammalian oral anatomy, the canine teeth, also called cuspids, dogteeth, fangs, or (in the case of those of the upper jaw) eye teeth, are relatively long, pointed teeth.  However, they can appear more flattened, causing them to resemble incisors and leading them to be called incisiform. They evolved and are used primarily for firmly holding food in order to tear it apart, and occasionally as weapons. They are often the largest teeth in a mammal's mouth. Most species that develop them normally have four per individual, two in the upper jaw and two in the lower, separated within each jaw by its incisors; humans and dogs are examples.  In most animals, canines are the anterior-most teeth in the maxillary bone.  It is a common fallacy to describe canine teeth as being the hallmark of a carnivorous diet - the teeth associated with carnivory are the carnassial teeth.
The four canines in humans are the two maxillary canines and the two mandibular canines.

# Details
There are four Canine Teeth: two in the upper (maxillary) and two in the lower (mandibular) arch. A canine is placed laterally to each lateral incisor. They are larger and stronger than the incisors, and their roots sink deeply into the bones, and cause well-marked prominences upon the surface.
The crown is large and conical, very convex on its labial surface, a little hollowed and uneven on its lingual surface, and tapering to a blunted point or cusp, which projects beyond the level of the other teeth. The root is single, but longer and thicker than that of the incisors, conical in form, compressed laterally, and marked by a slight groove on each side.
The upper canine teeth (popularly called eye teeth) are larger and longer than the lower, and usually present a distinct basal ridge. The name "eyeteeth" derives from a superstition that the roots of the canines are involved with the eyes in such a way that loss of the eyeteeth can cause blindness. The expression of giving one's eyeteeth for something refers to this superstition and to the importance of these teeth in the dentition.
The lower canine teeth (popularly called stomach teeth) are placed nearer the middle line than the upper, so that their summits correspond to the intervals between the upper canines and the lateral incisors.

# Additional images
- Mouth (oral cavity)
- Left maxilla. Outer surface.
- Base of skull. Inferior surface.
Capromorelin
Capromorelin is an investigational medication developed by the Pfizer drug company.  It functions as a growth hormone secretagogue and ghrelin mimetic which causes the body to secrete human growth hormone in a way usually seen at puberty and in young adulthood. Initial studies have shown the drug to directly raise insulin growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels.
The drug is being considered for its therapeutic value in aging adults because elderly people have much lower levels of growth hormone -- and less lean muscle mass, which can result in weakness and frailty.
Patients who got the drug gained an average of 3 pounds (1.4 kg) in lean muscle mass after six months, and also were better able to walk a straight line -- a test of balance, strength and coordination. Some of the improvements were evident a year later.
Capromorelin, however, has not been approved by the FDA, and is not expected to be so any time soon. This is because the FDA does not consider aging a disease, and so requires extraordinary evidence of benefit and non-toxicity to approve a drug for use as an anti-aging agent.

# Researchers
- Pfizer
- Merck
- University of Washington/VA Puget Sound Health Care System: Dr. George Merriam
- University of Poland: Dr. Agnieszka Baranowska-Bik
Fusion beats
Synonyms and keywords:  Capture beats; fusion complexes; fusion QRS complexes

# Overview
A fusion beat occurs when electrical impulses from different sources act upon the same region of the heart at the same time.  If it acts upon the ventricular chambers, it is called a ventricular fusion beat, wheres colliding currents in the atrial chambers produce atrial fusion beats.

# Pathophysiology
Ventricular fusion beats can occur when the heart's natural rhythm and the impulse from a pacemaker coincide to activate the same part of a ventricle at the same time, causing visible variation in configuration and height of the QRS complex of an electrocardiogram reading of the heart's activity. This contrasts with the pseudofusion beat wherein the pacemaker impulse does not affect the complex of the natural beat of the heart. Pseudofusion beats are normal. Rare or isolated fusion beats caused by pacemakers are normal as well, but if they occur too frequently may reduce cardiac output and so can require adjustment of the pacemaker.
In some cases of VT with AV dissociation the SA node may transiently "capture" the ventricles, producing a capture beat, which has a normal QRS duration, or a fusion beat, in which the sinus and ventricular beats coincide to produce a hybrid complex. 

# Electrocardiogram
In  the example below, "late"  (end-diastolic) PVCs are illustrated with  varying degrees of fusion with normal conduction.  For  a fusion beat to occur the sinus P wave must  successfully make its way to the ventricles to  start the activation sequence, but  before ventricular activation is  completed by the late PCV. The  resulting QRS complex resembles both the  normal QRS, as well as the PVC and hence the term fusion QRS or fusion beat.    The fusion beats are marked by an F in the illustration below: