Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Star anise
Star anise, star aniseed or Chinese star anise, (Chinese: , pinyin: bajiao, lit. "eight-horn") is a spice that closely resembles anise in flavor, obtained from the star-shaped pericarp of Illicium verum, a small native evergreen tree of southwest China. The star shaped fruits are harvested just before ripening. It is widely used in Chinese cuisine, in Indian cuisine where it is a major component of garam masala, and in Indonesian cuisine. It is widely grown for commercial use in China, India, and most other countries in Asia.  Star anise is an ingredient of the traditional five-spice powder of Chinese cooking.  It is also one of the ingredients used to make the broth for the Vietnamese noodle soup called pho.
It is used as a spice in preparation of Biryani in Andhra Pradesh, a south Indian State.
Star anise contains anethole, the same ingredient which gives the unrelated anise its flavor.  Recently, star anise has come into use in the West as a less expensive substitute for anise in baking as well as in liquor production, most distinctively in the production of the liquor Galliano.  It is also used in the production of Sambuca and pastis.
Star anise has been used in a tea as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and the seeds are sometimes chewed after meals to aid digestion.
Shikimic acid, a primary feedstock used to create the anti-flu drug Tamiflu, is produced by most autotrophic organisms, but star anise is the industrial source.  Tamiflu is regarded as the most promising drug to mitigate the severity of bird flu (H5N1); however, reports indicate that some forms of the virus have already adapted to Tamiflu.
In 2005, there was a temporary shortage of star anise due to its use in making Tamiflu. Late in that year, a way was found of making shikimic acid artificially. A drug company named Roche now derives some of the raw material it needs from fermenting e-coli bacteria. There is no longer any shortage of star anise and it is readily available and is relatively cheap.
Star anise is grown in four provinces in China and harvested between March and May.  The shikimic acid is extracted from the seeds in a ten-stage manufacturing process which takes a year.  Reports say 90% of the harvest is already used by the Swiss pharmaceutical manufacturer Roche in making Tamiflu, but other reports say there is an abundance of the spice in the main regions - Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Yunnan.
Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum), a similar tree, is not edible because it is highly toxic; instead, it has been burned as incense in Japan.  Cases of illness, including "serious neurological effects, such as seizures", reported after using star anise tea may be a result of using this species.  Japanese star anise contains anisatin, which causes severe inflammation of the kidneys, urinary tract and digestive organs.
Stop codon
In the genetic code, a stop codon (or termination codon) is a nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA that signals a termination of translation. Proteins are unique sequences of amino acids, and most codons in messenger RNA correspond to the addition of an amino acid to a growing protein chain  stop codons signal the termination of this process, releasing the amino acid chain. In the standard genetic code, there are three stop codons: UAG ("amber"), UAA ("ochre"), and UGA ("opal" or "umber"); several variations to this most common set are known.
Nonsense mutations are changes in DNA sequence which introduce a premature stop codon, causing any resulting protein to be abnormally shortened. This often causing a loss of function in the protein as critical parts of the amino acid chain are no longer created. Because of this terminology, stop codons have also been referred to as nonsense codons.

# Amber, ochre, and opal nomenclature
Stop codons were historically given different names as they each corresponded to a distinct class of mutants that all behaved in a similar manner. These mutants were first isolated within bacteriophages (T4 and lambda), viruses that infect the bacteria Escherichia coli. Mutations in viral genes weakened their infectious ability, sometimes creating viruses that were only able to infect and grow within certain varieties of E coli.
Amber mutations were the first set of nonsense mutations be discovered, isolated by graduate student Harris Bernstein in experiments designed to resolve a debate between Richard Epstein and Charles Steinberg. Bernstein (whose last name means "amber" in German) had been offered the reward of having any discovered mutants named after himself.
Amber mutations are characterized by their ability to infect certain strains of bacteria, known as amber suppressors. These bacteria carry their own mutation which allow a recovery of function in the mutant viruses. For example, a mutation in the tRNA which recognizes the amber stop codon allows translation to "read through" the codon and produce full length protein, thereby recovering the normal form of the protein and "suppressing" the amber mutation. Thus, amber mutants are an entire class of virus mutants which can grow in bacteria that contain amber suppressor mutations.
The ochre mutation was the second stop codon mutation to be discovered. Given a color name to match the name of amber mutants, ochre mutant viruses had a similar property in that they recovered infectious ability within certain suppressor strains of bacteria. The set of ochre suppressors was distinct from amber suppressors, so ochre mutants were inferred to correspond to a different nucleotide triplet. Through a series of mutation experiments comparing these mutants with each other and other known amino acid codons, Sydney Brenner concluded that the amber and ochre mutations corresponded to the nucleotide triplets "UAG" and "UAA".
The third and last stop codon in the standard genetic code was discovered soon after, corresponding to the nucleotide triplet "UGA". Nonsense mutations that created this premature stop codon were later called opal mutations or umber mutations.
Suggestion
Suggestion is the name given to the psychological process by which one person may guide the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of another. For nineteenth century writers on psychology such as William James the words "suggest" and "suggestion" were used in senses very close to those which they have in common speech; one idea was said to suggest another when it brought that other idea to mind. Early scientific studies of hypnosis by scientists such as Clark Leonard Hull led to the extension of the meaning of these words in a special and technical sense (Hull, 1933).
Modern scientific study of hypnosis, which has followed the pattern of Hull's work, separates two essential factors: "trance" and suggestion (Heap, 1996). The state of mind induced by "trance" is said to come about via the process of a hypnotic induction; essentially instructions and suggestions that an individual will enter a hypnotic state. Once a subject has entered hypnosis, suggestions are given which can produce the effects sought by the hypnotist. Commonly used suggestions on measures of "suggestibility" or "susceptibility" (or, for those with a different theoretical orientation, "hypnotic talent") include suggestions that one's arm is getting lighter and floating up in the air, or the suggestion that a fly is buzzing around your head. The "classic" response to an accepted suggestion that one's arm is beginning to float in the air is that the subject perceives the intended effect as happening involuntarily (Weitzenhoffer, 1980).
Suggestions, however, can also have an effect in the absence of a hypnosis. These so-called "waking suggestions" are given in precisely the same way as "hypnotic suggestions" (i.e., suggestions given within hypnosis) and can produce strong changes in perceptual experience. Experiments on suggestion, in the absence of hypnosis, were conducted by early researchers such as Hull (1933). More recently, researchers such as Nicholas Spanos and Irving Kirsch have conducted experiments investigating such non-hypnotic-suggestibility and found a strong correlation between people's responses to suggestion both in- and outside hypnosis (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001).
In addition to the kinds of suggestion typically delivered by researchers interested in hypnosis there are other forms of suggestibility, though not all are considered interrelated. These include: primary and secondary suggestibility (older terms for non-hypnotic and hypnotic suggestibility respectively), hypnotic suggestibility (i.e., the response to suggestion measured within hypnosis), and interrogative suggestibility (yielding to interrogative questions, and shifting responses when interrogative pressure is applied: see Gudjonsson suggestibility scale.
Sulfa drug

# Overview
The term sulfa drug refers to the class of medications called sulfonamides.  This class includes several antibiotics, including sulfamethoxazole, sulfasalazine, and sulfacetamide, among others.
It is important to make a distinction between sulfa drugs and other sulfur-containing drugs and additives, such as sulfates and sulfites, which are chemically unrelated to the sulfonamide group, and do not cause the same hypersensitivity reactions seen in the sulfonamides.

# Functions
These antibiotics are used to treat pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, urinary tract infections, shigellosis, and certain protozoan infections.
The sulfonamide chemical moiety is also present in other medications that are not antimicrobials, including thiazide diuretics (including hydrochorothiazide, metolazone, and indapamide, among others), sulfonylureas (including glipizide, glyburide, among others), and acetazolamide.
Sulfasalazine, in addition to its use as an antibiotic, is also utilized in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.

# Adverse reactions
Approximately 3% of the general population have adverse reactions when treated with sulfonamide antimicrobials.  Of note is the observation that patients with HIV have a much higher prevalence, at about 60%.  People who have a hypersensitivity reaction to one member of the sulfonamide class are likely to have a similar reaction to others.
Hypersensitivity reactions are less common in non-antibiotic sulfonamides, and, though controversial, the available evidence suggests those with hypersensitivity to sulfonamide antibiotics do not have an increased risk of hypersensitivity reaction to the non-antibiotic agents.
Two regions of the sulfonamide antibiotic chemical structure are implicated in the hypersensitivity reactions associated with the class.
- The first is the N1 heterocyclic ring, which causes a type I hypersensitivity reaction.
- The second is the N4 amino nitrogen that, in a stereospecific process, forms reactive metabolites that cause either direct cytotoxicity or immunologic response.
The non-antibiotic sulfonamides lack both of these structures.
The most common manifestation of a hypersensitivity reaction to sulfa drugs are rash and hives.  However, there are several life-threatening manifestations of hypersensitivity to sulfa drugs, including Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, agranulocytosis, hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and fulminant hepatic necrosis, among others.
Sulodexide

# Overview
Sulodexide is a highly purified mixture of glycosaminoglycans composed of low molecular weight heparin (80%) and dermatan sulfate (20%).

# Pharmacology
The low molecular weight of both sulodexide fractions allows for extensive oral absorption compared to unfractionated heparin.  The pharmacological effects of sulodexide differ substantially from other glycosaminoglycans and are mainly characterized by a prolonged half-life and reduced effect on global coagulation and bleeding parameters.  Due to the presence of both glycosaminoglycan fractions, sulodexide potentiates the antiprotease activities of both antithrombin III and heparin cofactor II simultaneously.

# Uses
Clinically, sulodexide is used for the prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic diseases however recent research has also demonstrated the beneficial effects of sulodexide in animal models of reperfusion injury and the treatment of diabetic nephropathy.
In combination with Melatonin, Sulodexide have been shown to be a viable treatment option for patients suffering from central or sensorineural tinnitus.
Super Atom
Super atom is another term used for describing a BoseEinstein condensate, whereby a group of atoms are super-cooled to only several billionths (0.000000001) of a Kelvin above Absolute Zero.  The end result is an atom "blob" or super atom, so called because many of the individual super-cooled atoms merge together into one collective unit and begin to behave less like particles and more like waves.
The maximum number of super-cooled atoms that may possibly merge together into one stable super atom is a topic of current research interest.

# Notes
-  Jump up to: 1.0 1.1 BEC - What is it and where did the idea come from?
-  BEC: Temperature and Absolute Zero
-  Jump up to: 3.0 3.1 NOVA | Absolute Zero | Ultracold Atoms | PBS
-  For example, see  .
Superhelix
A superhelix is a molecular structure in which a helix is itself coiled into a helix. This is significant to both proteins and genetic material, such as overwound circular DNA.
The earliest significant reference in molecular biology is from 1971, by F.B. Fuller:
About the writhing number, mathematician W.F. Pohl says:
Contrary to intuition a topological property, the linking number, arises from the geometric properties twist and writhe according to the following relationship:
where Lk is the linking number, W is the writhe and T is the twist of the coil.
The linking number refers to the number of times that one strand wraps around the other. In DNA this property does not change and can only be modified by specialized enzymes called topoisomerases.
Supination

# Overview
Supination is  the rotation of either the forearm or foot.  Supination in the forearm occurs when the palm faces anteriorly, or faces up (when the arms are unbent and at the sides).  Supination in the foot occurs when a person appears "bow-legged" with their weight supported primarily on the anterior of their feet.
The hand is supine (facing anteriorly) in the anatomical position. This action is performed by the Biceps brachii and the Supinator muscle.
Supination is the opposite of pronation.

# History
Originally, supination of the forearm was attributed as a function of the brachioradialis muscle. However, the original idea of the biceps acting as a supinator was something hypothesised by Leonardo da Vinci, in a series of annotated drawings made between 1505 and 1510 (referred to as his Milanese period); in which the principle of the biceps as a supinator, as well as its role as a flexor to the elbow was devised. However, this function remained undiscovered by the medical community as Da Vinci was not regarded as a teacher of anatomy, nor were his results publicly released.
It was not until 1713, that this movement was re-discovered by William Cheselden, and subsequently recorded for the medical community, being rewritten several times by different authors wishing to present information to different audiences. Nevertheless, the most notable recent expansion upon Cheselden's recordings was achieved by Guillaume Duchenne in 1867 in a journal named Physiology of Motion, something which to this day is one of the major references on supination action of the biceps brachii.
Sweat test

# Overview
The Sweat test measures the concentration of chloride and sodium that is excreted in sweat. It is used to diagnose cystic fibrosis (CF).

# Method
Sweating is induced by pilocarpine iontophoresis.  At the test site, an electrode is placed over gauze containing pilocarpine and electrolyte solution that will not interfere with the sodium and chloride measurement.  A second electrode (without pilocarpine) will be placed at another site and a mild electrical current will draw the pilocarpine into the skin where it stimulates the sweat glands.
The test site is carefully cleaned and dried, then a piece of preweighed filter paper is placed over the test site and covered with paraffin to prevent evaporation.  Specialized collection devices may also be used.  Sweat is collected for 30 minutes.  The filter paper is retrieved and weighed to determine the weight of sweat collected. Several laboratory methods are then used to determine the sodium and chloride concentrations.

# Results

## Reference ranges
If the concentration of chloride is >60 mEq/L, the test is positive; 40-60 mEq/L is borderline; <40 mEq/L is negative.  The reference range for sodium is <70-90 mEq/L.  The minimum sample weight varies with the collection method.

## Interpretation
Two reliable positive results on two separate days is diagnostic for CF.  Because of the existence of milder variants, borderline or even near-borderline negative results may be used to diagnose CF.  Clinical presentation, family history and patient age must be considered to interpret the results.  Highly discordant sodium and chloride values may indicate technical errors.

## Sources of Error
Technical errors, insufficient sample, evaporation, contamination, dehydration, mineralocorticoid hormone therapy, and skin rash on the tested area may produce incorrect results.
False positive test results may be caused by malnutrition, adrenal insufficiency, glycogen storage diseases, hypothyroidism, hypoparathyroidism, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, G6PD deficiency or ectodermal dysplasia (source: )
Swiss-Prot

# Overview
Swiss-Prot is a manually curated biological database of protein sequences. Swiss-Prot was created in 1986 by Amos Bairoch during his PhD and developed by the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics and the European Bioinformatics Institute. Swiss-Prot strives to provide reliable protein sequences associated with a high level of annotation (such as the description of the function of a protein, its domains structure, post-translational modifications, variants, etc.), a minimal level of redundancy and high level of integration with other databases.
In 2002, the UniProt consortium was created: it is a collaboration between the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, the European Bioinfomatics Institute and the Protein Information Resource (PIR), funded by the National Institutes of Health. Swiss-Prot and its automatically curated supplement TrEMBL, have joined with the Protein Information Resource protein database to produce the UniProt Knowledgebase, the world's most comprehensive catalogue of information on proteins. As of 3 April 2007, UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot release 52.2 contains 263,525 entries. As of 3 April 2007, the UniProtKB/TrEMBL release 35.2 contains 4,232,122 entries.
The UniProt consortium produced 3 database components, each optimised for different uses. The UniProt Knowledgebase (UniProtKB (Swiss-Prot + TrEMBL)), the UniProt Non-redundant Reference (UniRef) databases, which combine closely related sequences into a single record to speed similarity searches and the UniProt Archive (UniParc), which is a comprehensive repository of protein sequences, reflecting the history of all protein sequences.
Syntaxin 3
Syntaxin 3, also known as STX3, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the STX3 gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the syntaxin family of cellular receptors for transport vesicles which participate in exocytosis in neutrophils. STX3 has an important role in the growth of neurites and serves as a direct target for omega-6 arachidonic acid.
Mutations in Syntaxin 3 cause                 Microvillus inclusion disease            .

# Interactions
Syntaxin 3 has been shown to interact with SNAP-25, SNAP23 and SNAP29.
Tenascin X
A member of the tenascin family, tenascin X (TN-X) also known as hexabrachion-like protein is a glycoprotein that is expressed in connective tissues including skin, joints and muscles. In humans, tenascin X is encoded by the TNXB gene.

# Gene
This gene localizes to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class III region on chromosome 6. The structure of this gene is unusual in that it overlaps the CREBL1 and CYP21A2 genes at its 5' and 3' ends, respectively.

# Function
This gene encodes a member of the tenascin family of extracellular matrix glycoproteins. The tenascins have anti-adhesive effects, as opposed to fibronectin which is adhesive. This protein is thought to function in matrix maturation during wound healing.

# Clinical significance
Deficiency causes one of the types of EhlersDanlos syndrome where collagen density is reduced and elastic fibers are fragmentated.
Tablespoon
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A tablespoon is a type of spoon used for serving.

# Measure of volume
It is also a measure of volume used in cooking.  It has various values around the world. It is abbreviated in English as T., tbs. or Tbsp., and in German and Dutch as EL (from Essloffel and Eetlepel).
Canada, Japan, New Zealand, the UK and the United States define:
in line with the definition used in many other countries. In Australia, one tablespoon = 20 mL.
When used for solids (such as granulated sugar), it should be measured to the flattened level of the spoon (versus a 'heaping spoonful or heaped tablespoon, which is as much as can be held in the spoon).

## Relationship to teaspoon
In most jurisdictions, one tablespoon equals three teaspoons.  In Australia, however, one tablespoon is four teaspoons.
In Asia a tablespoon is equivalent to 2 teaspoons

## Older definitions
The traditional U.S. interpretation of the tablespoon as a unit of volume was:
This was considered slightly inconvenient in the context of nutrition labeling, where metric units are used even in the United States.  However, this consideration does not lessen the factual relationship of a tablespoon to half of a fluid ounce, and tablespoons can be utilized to measure ingredients when other measuring devices are unavailable.  For instance, 8 tablespoons is equivalent to 12 
a cup.
The traditional British tablespoon could vary from 1/2 to 5/8 Imperial fl. oz. (14.2 mL to 17.8 mL).