Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Achiote
Achiote (Bixa orellana) is a shrub or small tree from the tropical region of the American continent. The name derives from the Nahuatl word for the shrub, achiotl.  It is also known as Aploppas, and its original Tupi name urucu. It is cultivated there and in Southeast Asia, where it was introduced by the Spanish in the 17th century. It is best known as the source of the natural pigment annatto, produced from the fruit. The plant bears pink flowers and bright red spiny fruits which contain red seeds. The fruits dry and harden to brown capsules.
The inedible fruit is harvested for its seeds, which contain annatto, also called bixin. It can be extracted by stirring the seeds in water. It is used to color food products, such as cheeses, fish, and salad oil. It is a main ingredient in the Mexican spice mixture recado rojo, or "achiote paste". The seeds are ground and used as a nearly flavorless but colorful additive in Latin American, Jamaican and Filipino cuisine. Annatto is growing in popularity as a natural alternative to synthetic food coloring compounds.

# Ethnomedical uses
- The achiote has long been used by American Indians to make body paint, especially for the lips, which is the origin of the plant's nickname, lipstick tree.
- Parts of the plant can be used to make medicinal remedies for such conditions as  sunstroke, tonsilitis, burns, leprosy, pleurisy, apnoea, rectal discomfort, and headaches.
- The sap from fruits is also used to treat type II diabetes, and fungal infections.
- fruiting branch showing seed pod
fruiting branch showing seed pod
- File:Bixa orellana.jpg
- Half of a seed pod showing seeds inside
Half of a seed pod showing seeds inside
Activin

# Overview
Activin is a peptide that enhances FSH synthesis and secretion and participates in the regulation of the menstrual cycle. It does the opposite as inhibin. Many other functions have been found to be exerted by activin, including their roles in cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, metabolism, homeostasis, immune response, wound repair, and endocrine function
Like inhibin (and  AMH) activin belongs to TGF- superfamily.

# Structure
Activin contains two beta subunit that are identical to the two beta subunits (A or B) of inhibin, allowing for the formation of three forms of activin: A, AB, and B.
They are linked by a single covalent disulfide bond.

# Function
Activin is produced in the gonads, pituitary gland, placenta and other organs:
- In the ovarian follicle, activin increases FSH binding and FSH induced aromatization. It participates in androgen synthesis enhancing LH action in the ovary and testis. In the male, activin enhances spermatogenesis.
- Activin is strongly expressed in wounded skin, and overexpression of activin in epidermis of transgenic mice improves wound healing and enhances scar formation.  Its action in wound repair and skin morphogenesis is through stimulation of keratinocytes and stromal cells in a dose-dependent manner.
- Activin also regulates the morphogenesis of branching organs such as the prostate, lung, and especially kidney.  Activin A increased the expression level of type I collagen suggesting that activtin A acts as a potent activator of fibroblasts.

# Mechanism
As with other members of the superfamily, activins interact with two types of cell surface transmembrane receptors (Types I and II) which have intrinsic serine/threonine kinase activities in their cytoplasmic domains.
Activin binds to the Type II receptor and initiates a cascade reaction that leads to the recruitment, phosphorylation, and activation of Type I activin receptor.  This then interacts with and then phosphorylates Smad2 and Smad3, two of the cytoplasmic Smad proteins.
Smad3 then translocates to the nucleus and interacts with Smad4 through multimerization, resulting in their modulation as transcription factor complexes responsible for the expression of a large variety of genes.
Acyclic
Acyclic can refer to:
- in chemistry, a compound which is not cyclic, e.g. alkanes and acyclic aliphatic compounds
- in mathematics:
a directed acyclic graph
a chain complex in which all reduced homology groups are zero
- a directed acyclic graph
- a chain complex in which all reduced homology groups are zero
Adenoid

# Overview
Adenoids (or pharyngeal tonsils, or nasopharyngeal tonsils) are a mass of lymphoid tissue situated at the very back of the nose, in the roof of the nasopharynx, where the nose blends into the mouth.
Normally, in children, they make a soft mound in the roof and posterior wall of the nasopharynx, just above and behind the uvula.

# Function
Adenoids are part of the immune system. Like all lymphoid tissue, they trap infectious agents like viruses and bacteria, and they produce antibodies.
Since the adenoids are located at the back of the nasal airway, they provide defense against inhaled substances.
This function decreases with age as the adenoids shrink. Because adenoids do ordinarily shrink by late childhood, the problems caused by enlarged adenoids rarely occur in adults.

# Pathology
Enlarged adenoids, or adenoid hypertrophy, can become nearly the size of a ping pong ball and completely block airflow through the nasal passages.
Even if enlarged adenoids are not substantial enough to physically block the back of the nose, they can obstruct airflow enough so that breathing through the nose requires an uncomfortable amount of work, and inhalation occurs instead through an open mouth.
Adenoids can also obstruct the nasal airway enough to affect the voice without actually stopping nasal airflow altogether.

# Removal of the adenoids
Surgical removal of the adenoids is a procedure called adenoidectomy.
Carried out through the mouth under a general anaesthetic (or less commonly a  topical), adenoidectomy involves the adenoids being curetted, cauterised, lasered, or otherwise ablated.

# Histology
Adenoids, unlike other types of tonsils, have pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
They also differ from the other tonsil types by lacking crypts.
The adenoids are often removed along with the tonsils.  This can cause a very sore throat for about a week and rather unpleasant breath.  Most people's adenoids are not even in use after a person's third year, but if they cause problems they must be taken out or they may otherwise shrink.
Adhesin
Adherence is often an essential step in bacterial pathogenesis or infection, required for colonizing a new host. To effectively adhere to host surfaces, many bacteria produce multiple adherence factors called adhesins. For example, nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae expresses the adhesins Hia, Hap, Oap and a hemagglutinating pili.
Adhesins are attractive vaccine candidates because they are often essential to infection and are surface-located, making them readily accessible to antibodies.
The effectiveness of anti-adhesin antibodies is illustrated by studies with FimH, the adhesin of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). In animal models, passive immunization with anti FimH-antibodies and vaccination with the protein significantly reduced colonization by UPEC. Moreover, the Bordetella pertussis adhesins FHA and pertactin are components of 3 of the 4 acellular pertussis vaccines currently licensed for use in the U.S.
Old age

# Overview
Old age consists of ages nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings, and thus the end of the human life cycle. Euphemisms and terms for older people include seniors  chiefly an American usage  or elderly. Some believe there to be prejudice against older people in Western cultures, which is one form of ageism.
Older people have limited regenerative abilities and are more prone to disease, syndromes, and sickness than other adults. For the biology of ageing, see Senescence. The medical study of the aging process is gerontology, and the study of diseases that afflict the elderly is geriatrics.

# Definition
The boundary between middle age and old age cannot be defined exactly because it does not have the same meaning in all societies. In many parts of the world, people are considered old because of certain changes in their activities or social roles. Examples: people may be considered old when they become grandparents, or when they begin to do less or different work  retirement. In the United States and Europe, people are often considered old if they have lived a certain number of years.
Many Americans think of 65 as the beginning of old age because United States workers become eligible at this time to retire with full Social Security benefits at age 65. People in the 65-and-over age group are often called senior citizens. In 2003, the age at which an American citizen becomes eligible for full Social Security benefits began to increase gradually until it reaches 67 in 2027.
There are many stereotypes about elderly people, such as; the use of walking sticks, frequent doctor visits, and sleeping a lot. These can be seen however to be untrue and very judgmental, most old people are very capable of easy mobility and caring for themselves, however there are some illnesses that can be seen to come with old age.

# Demographic changes
Worldwide, the number of people 65 or older is increasing faster than ever before. Most of this increase is occurring in developed countries. In the United States the percentage of people 65 or older increased from 4 percent in 1900 to about 13 percent in the late 1990s. In 1900, only about 3 million of the nation's citizens had reached 65. By 1998, the number of senior citizens had increased to about 34 million. Population experts estimate that more than 50 million Americans  about 17 percent of the population  will be 65 or older in 2020. The number of old people is growing around the world chiefly because more children reach adulthood.

# Life expectancy
In most parts of the world, women live, on average, longer than men. In the United States in the late 1990s, life expectancy at birth was 80 years for women and 77 years for men. American women who were age 65 in the late 1990s could expect to live about 19 additional years. Men who were 65 could expect to live about 16 additional years.
Aerosol
Aerosol technically refers to airborne liquid droplets or solid  particles (also called dust or particulate matter (PM)). In casual language, aerosol refers to an aerosol spray can or the output of such a can.
The term aerosol, derives from the fact that matter "floating" in air is a suspension (a mixture in which solid or liquid or combined solid-liquid particles are suspended in a fluid). To differentiate suspensions from true solutions, the term sol evolvedoriginally meant to cover dispersions of tiny (sub-microscopic) particles in a liquid. With studies of dispersions in air, the term aerosol evolved and now embraces both liquid droplets, solid particles, and combinations of these. An aerosol may come from sources as various as a volcano or an aerosol can.

# Workplace exposure
Concentrated aerosols from substances such as silica, asbestos, and diesel particulate matter are sometimes found in the workplace and have been shown to result in a number of diseases including silicosis and black lung.
Respirators can protect workers from harmful aerosol exposure.  The  certifies respirators through the National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory to ensure that they protect workers and the public from harmful airborne contaminants.

# Effect on climate
Anthropogenic aerosols, particularly sulfate aerosols from fossil fuel combustion, exert a cooling influence on the climate. The cooling effect of aerosols, however, does not seem to directly counteract the warming induced by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor and is accounted for in climate models, despite some claims that "global dimming" by aerosols may counteract global warming.
Ageusia
Synonyms and keywords: loss of taste

# Overview
Ageusia (pronounced ay-GOO-see-uh) is the loss of taste functions of the tongue, particularly the inability to detect sweetness, sourness, bitterness, saltiness, and umami (the taste of monosodium glutamate). It is sometimes confused for anosmia - a loss of the sense of smell. Because the tongue can only indicate texture and differentiate between sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami most of what is perceived as the sense of taste is actually derived from smell. True aguesia is relatively rare compared to the milder forms of taste loss: hypogeusia and dysgeusia. Hypogeusia represents a partial loss of taste whereas dysgeusia denotes a distortion or alteration of taste.

# Causes

## Neurological Damage
Tissue damage to the nerves that support the tongue can cause ageusia, especially damage to the lingual nerve and the glossopharyngeal nerve. The lingual nerve passes taste for the front two-thirds of the tongue and the glossopharyngeal nerve passes taste for the back third of the tongue. Neurological disorders such as Bell's Palsy, Familial Dysautonomia, and Multiple Sclerosis will cause similar problems to nerve damage, as will certain infectious conditions like primary amoeboid meningoencephalopathy. The lingual nerve (who is a branch of the trigeminal V3 nerve, but carries taste sensation back to the chorda tympani nerve to the geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve) can also be damaged during otologic surgery giving place to a feeling of metal taste.

## Problems with the Endocrine System
Vitamin deficiency, namely vitamins B3 and Zinc, could lead to problems with the Endocrine system, which may in turn lead to taste loss or alteration. Disorders of the Endocrine System such as Cushing's Syndrome, Hypothyroidism and Diabetes Mellitus could lead to similar problems. Ageusia can also be caused by medicinal side-effects from Antirheumatic Drugs such as Penicillamine, Antiproliferative drugs such as Cisplatin, ACE Inhibitors, and other drugs including Azelastine, Clarithromycin and Zopiclone.

## Other Causes
Local damage and inflammation that interferes with the taste buds or local nervous system such as that stemming from radiation therapy, glossitis, tobacco abuse, and denture use will also cause ageusia. Other known causes of ageusia include loss of taste sensitivity from aging (resulting in a difficulty detecting salty or bitter taste), Anxiety Disorder, Cancer, Renal Failure and Hepatic failure.

# Diagnosis
In order to discover the extent of the ageusia, a scientist attempts to discern the minimum level of a chemical that a patient can detect by taste. Patients may also be asked to compare various concentrations of chemicals in order that the doctor may ascertain what level of intensity that the patient can differentiate. Various methods are used, including the "sip, spit, and rinse" test as well as direct application of chemicals to the tongue.
Pentose

# Overview
A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms.
They either have an aldehyde functional group in position 1 (aldopentoses),  or a ketone  functional group in position 2 (ketopentoses).
The aldopentoses have three chiral centres ("asymmetric carbon atoms") and so 8 different stereoisomers are possible.
The 4 D-aldopentoses are:
A mnemonic suggested that can be used to remember the four D-aldopentoses is "ribs are extra lean."
The ketopentoses have 2 chiral centres and therefore 4 possible stereoisomers  ribulose (L- and D-form) and xylulose (L- and D-form).
The D-isomers of both are known to occur naturally as is the L-isomer of xylulose:
The aldehyde and ketone functional groups in these carbohydrates react with neighbouring hydroxyl functional groups to form intramolecular hemiacetals or hemiketals, respectively. The resulting ring structure is related to furan, and is termed a furanose. The ring spontaneously opens and closes, allowing rotation to occur about the bond between the carbonyl group and the neighbouring carbon atom  yielding two distinct configurations ( and ). This process is termed mutarotation.
Ribose is a constituent of RNA, and the related deoxyribose of DNA.
Algarot
Algarot, is a white emetic powder formerly used in alchemy that consists of a compound of trichloride and trioxide of antimony. It was used as an emetic because it purges violently both upwards and downwards.

# Alternative names
Algarot is also known as mercurius vit ("mercury of life"), emetic powder, powder of algaroth, algarel, antimonious oxychloride, or antimony hypochlorite.

# Synthesis
Historically, algarot was prepared of butter of antimony (antimony trichloride), which was no more than the regulus of that mineral, dissolved in acids, and separated again by means of several lotions with lukewarm water, which absorbed those acids. By collecting all the lotions and evaporating two third parts, what remained was a very acid liquor, called "Spirit of Philosophical Vitriol".
At present, algarot is synthesised by exposing antimony trichloride to water, like so:
Alitame
Alitame is an artificial sweetener developed by Pfizer in the early 1980s and currently marketed in some countries under the brand name Aclame.  Like aspartame, alitame is an aspartic acid-containing dipeptide.  Most dipeptides are not sweet, but the unexpected discovery of aspartame in 1965 led to a search for similar compounds that shared its sweetness.  Alitame is one such second-generation dipeptide sweetener.  Neotame, developed by the owners of the NutraSweet brand, is another.
Alitame has several distinct advantages over aspartame. It is about 2000 times sweeter than sucrose, about 10 times sweeter than aspartame, and has no aftertaste.  Its half-life under hot or acidic conditions is about twice as long as aspartame's, although some other artificial sweeteners, including saccharin and acesulfame potassium, are more stable yet.  Unlike aspartame, alitame does not contain phenylalanine, and can therefore be used by people with phenylketonuria.
Alitame has approved for use in Mexico, Australia, New Zealand and China. Danisco Cultor America Inc.'s Food and Drug Administration petition to permit alitame's use in the United States is currently in abeyance.
Allicin
Allicin is a powerful antibacterial and anti-fungal compound obtained from garlic.  Allicin is also the chemical constituent primarily responsible for the hot, burning flavor of fresh garlic.
Allicin is not present in garlic in its natural state. When garlic is chopped or otherwise damaged, the enzyme alliinase acts on the chemical alliin converting it into allicin. Alliin is an amino acid that does not build proteins.
Allicin is not a very stable compound. It degrades slowly upon standing and is rapidly destroyed by cooking. Allicin can be used for some medicinal purposes: it helps fighting arteriosclerosis, it has the ability to dissolve fats and it can also be used as an antioxidant to some extent.
Prodine
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# Overview
Prodine (Prisilidine, Nisentil) is an opioid analgesic that is an analogue of pethidine (meperidine).
There are two isomers of prodine, Alphaprodine and Betaprodine. Betaprodine is some 5x more potent than alphaprodine, but is metabolised more rapidly, and only alphaprodine was developed for medicinal use. It has similar activity to pethidine, but with a faster onset of action and shorter duration.
Alphaprodine was sold under several brand names, mainly Nisentil and Prisilidine. It was mainly used for pain relief in childbirth and dentistry, as well as for minor surgical procedures.
Prodine has similar effects to other opioids, and produces analgesia, sedation and euphoria. Side effects can include itching, nausea and potentially serious respiratory depression which can be life-threatening. Respiratory depression can be a problem with alphaprodine even at normal therapeutic doses.
Alpidem
Alpidem (Ananxyl) is an anxiolytic drug from the imidazopyridine family, related to the more well known sleeping medication zolpidem. Unlike zolpidem however, alpidem does not produce sedative effects at normal doses, and is instead used specifically for the treatment of anxiety.
Alpidem is a fairly recently introduced drug, and is not widely used. Alpidem acts selectively on the omega 1 (BZ1) receptor subtype, a benzodiazepine receptor. However the chemical structure of alpidem is not related to that of the benzodiazepines, and alpidem is thus sometimes referred to as a nonbenzodiazepine.

# Indications
Alpidem is generally prescribed to patients with moderate to severe anxiety. Most of these patients have exhibited either sensitivity or resistance to benzodiazepine therapy, and therefore switched to a non-benzodiazepine medication due to the reduced incidence of side effects relative to benzodiazepine drugs. Alpidem produces little or no sedative or hypnotic action at normal doses but may produce sedation when used at a high dose, and only has anticonvulsant actions at much higher doses than those used clinically for the treatment of anxiety.

# Dangers
Alpidem was withdrawn from the market in most of the world following reports of severe liver damage caused by Ananxyl, although other brands of alpidem may still be on sale in some countries.
Amidine
Amidines are a class of oxoacid derivatives.
The oxoacid from which an amidine is derived must be of the form RnE(=O)OH, where R is a substituent.  The OH group is replaced by an NH2 group and the =O group is replaced by =NR, giving amidines the general structure RnE(=NR)NR2.
When the parent oxoacid is a carboxylic acid, the resulting amidine is a carboxamidine, and has the following general structure:
Carboxamidines are frequently referred to simply as amidines, as they are the most commonly-encountered type of amidine in organic chemistry.  The simplest amidine is acetamidine, CH3C(=NH)NH2.
Examples of amidines include DBU and diminazene.
Amitraz
Amitraz is an antiparasitic drug.  Product names include Aazdieno, Acarac, Amitraze, Avartin, Baam, Edrizan, Maitac, Mitac, Mitaban, Triatox, Triatix, Vapcozin Taktic, Triazid, Topline, Tudy, Ectodex, Garial, Danicut, Ovidrex, Acadrex, Bumetran, and Ovasyn.
Amitraz is a triazapentadiene compound, a member of the amidine class. It is an insecticide and acaricide used to control red spider mites, leaf miners, scale insects, and aphids. On cotton it is used to control bollworms, white fly, and leaf worms. On animals it is used to control ticks, mites, lice and other animal pests. The EPA classifies Amitraz as Class III - slightly toxic.
It cannot be used on horses, because it can cause irreversible gut stasis.