Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Arthrofibrosis
Arthrofibrosis is a complication of knee injury or surgery where an excessive scar tissue response leads to painful restriction of knee motion, with scar tissue forming within the joint and soft tissue spaces and persisting despite routine rehabilitation exercises and stretches. The term may involve flexion loss, extension loss or both.
The consequent pain may lead to the cascade of quadriceps weakness, patellar tendon adaptive shortening and scarring in the tissues around the patella - with an end stage of permanent patella infera - where the patella is pulled down into an abnormal position where it becomes vulnerable to joint surface damage. In severe cases of arthrofibrosis the disorder becomes progressive and the whole capsule may become thickened and tight with almost no movement possible in the joint.
Despite this potentially disastrous cascade of events, patients with developing arthrofibrosis and early patella infera may avoid the necessity for surgical intervention by participating in a closely supervised therapy programme. The key is early recognition and referral to a unit experienced in dealing with arthrofibrosis.

# Published references
Millett PJ, Williams RJ, and Wickiewicz TL. Joint debridement and soft tissue release as a salvage procedure for the severely arthrofibrotic knee. Am J Sports Med 27:552-561;1999.
Noyes FR, Berrios-Torres S, Barber-Westin SD, and Heckmann TP. Prevention of permanent arthrofibrosis after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction alone or combined with associated procedures: a prospective study in 443 knees. Knee Surg, Sports Traumatol, Arthros 8:196-206;2000.

# Links
Frank Noyes - Arthrofibrosis Part 1 (course in several parts) ]
Arum maculatum
Arum maculatum is a member the plant family Araceae. It is a common plant in north temperate Europe and is also known as lords-and-ladies and cuckoopint. The plants grow in shady hedges and woods.
The purple spotted leaves appear in the spring (April-May) followed by the flowers borne on a poker shaped inflorescence called a spadix. The purple spadix is partially enclosed in a pale green spathe or leaf-like hood. The flowers are hidden from sight, clustered at the base of the spadix with a ring of female flowers at the bottom and a ring of male flowers above them. Above the male flowers is a ring of hairs forming an insect trap. Insects are trapped beneath the ring of hairs and are dusted with pollen by the male flowers before escaping and carrying the pollen to the spadices of other  plants, where they pollinate the female flowers. The spadix may also (see the picture) be yellow, but purple is the more common.
In autumn the lower ring of (female) flowers forms a cluster of bright red berries which remain after the spathe and other leaves have withered away. The berries are extremely poisonous.
The root-tube may be very big and is used to store starch. In mature specimens the tuber may be as much as 400 mm below ground level.
All parts of the plant can produce allergic reactions in many people and the plant should be handled with care. Many small rodents appear to find the spadix particularly attractive and it is common to find examples of the plant with much of the spadix eaten away. The spadix produces heat and probably scent as the flowers mature and it may be this that attracts the rodents.
Arum maculatum is also known as the cuckoo pint in the British Isles and is named thus in Nicholas Culpepers' famous 16th Century herbal. This is a name it shares with Arum italicum (Italian Lords-and-Ladies) - the other native British Arum.
The root of the cuckoo pint roasted well is edible and this ground root was once traded under the name of Portland sago. It was used like salop or salep (a working class drink popular before the introduction of tea or coffee). It was also used as a substitute for arrowroot.
Arvid Afzelius
Swedish dermatologist, 1857-1923.
As a student at the Karolinska institutet, Afzelius studied under the prominent dermatologist Moritz Kaposi (1837-1902) in Vienna. Kaposi has now become a household name because "his" sarcoma is a common lesion in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.
In a 1909 meeting of the Swedish Society of Dermatology, Arvid Afzelius presented research about an expanding, ring like lesion he had observed. Afzelius published his work 12 years later and speculated that the rash came from the bite of an Ixodes tick. This rash is the early stage of Borreliosis, now known as Erythema migrans, an early indication of Lyme disease.
Borrelia afzelii, one of the borrelia species that is an agent of Lyme disease, is named in his honor.

# Related Bibliography
- Verhandlungen der dermatologischen Gesellschaft zu Stockholm. Archiv fur Dermatologie und Syphilis, Berlin, 1910, 101: 104.
- Erythema chronicum migrans. Acta dermato-venereologica, Stockholm, 1921, 2: 120125.
Assistance dog
An assistance dog is a dog trained to help a person with a disability in daily life. Many are trained by a specific organization, while others are trained by their handler (sometimes with the help of a professional trainer). They are not to be confused with therapy dogs.

# Classification
There are three general "types" in which an assistance dog may be further classified. Most assistance dogs will be trained for only one of these, though "combination" dogs do exist.
- Guide dogs assist the blind and the visually impaired.
- Hearing dogs, or signal dogs, help the deaf and hard of hearing.
- Service dog is a term covering dogs not specifically for visual or hearing impairment, such as mobility assistance dogs, seizure response dogs, and psychiatric service dogs. In the United States, the term "service dog" may be used synonymously with "assistance dog," and is occasionally used for other types of working dogs as well.

# Accessibility
In many areas of the world, assistance dogs are not required to have any sort of "certification" or proof of their training; however, most programs voluntarily certify their dogs, and many wear a harness or cape to identify them. In the United States, where animals are banned from certain locations, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 protects the rights of disabled individuals to be accompanied by their assistance dogs or other service animals in places the public is invited. Many state laws also offer similar protection and/or further guidelines. The United Kingdom has a similar arrangement.
Astasia-abasia

# OVERVIEW
Astasia-abasia refers to the inability to either stand or walk in a normal manner.  Patients exhibit an unusual and dramatic gait disturbance, lurching wildly in various directions and falling only when a nearby physician, family member, or soft object will catch them.
Astasia refers to the inability to maintain station (stand upright) unassisted.
Abasia refers to lack of motor coordination in walking. The term literally means that the base of gait (the lateral distance between the two feet) is inconstant or unmeasurable.  When seen in conversion disorder, the gait is bizarre and is not suggestive of a specific organic lesion: often the patient sways wildly and nearly falls, recovering at the last moment.
However, an acquired total inability to stand and walk can be seen in true neurological diseases, including stroke, Parkinson disease, damage to the cerebellum, and many others.
Xerotic eczema

# Overview
Xerotic eczema (also known as asteatotic eczema, eczema craquels, craquelatum, pruritus himalis, or winter itch) is a form of eczema that is characterized by changes that occur when skin becomes abnormally dry, itchy, and cracked. Lower legs tend to be especially affected, although it can appear in the underarm area as well.
Xerotic eczema is common in elderly people, though it is not uncommon for people in their 20's. It can appear in red, bumpy, pimple-like irritations. Shaving can cause it to become inflamed.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Xerotic eczema Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Xerotic eczema Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Xerotic eczema Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Xerotic eczema Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Xerotic eczema Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.

# Treatment
The way to treat xerotic eczema is to avoid scratching the affected area and to apply anti-itch or moisturizing lotion frequently.
Astrochemistry
Astrochemistry is the study of the chemical elements found in outer space, generally on larger scales than the Solar System, particularly in molecular gas clouds, and the study of their formation, interaction and destruction. As such, it represents an overlap of the disciplines of astronomy and chemistry. On the Solar System scale, the study of chemical elements is usually called cosmochemistry.
Astrochemistry involves the use of telescopes to measure various aspects of bodies in space, such as their temperature and composition. Findings from the use of spectroscopy in chemistry laboratories can be employed in determining the types of molecules in astronomical bodies (e.g. a star or an interstellar cloud). The various characteristics of molecules reveal themselves in their spectra, yielding a unique spectral representation corresponding for a molecule. However, there are limitations on measurements due to electromagnetic interference and, more problematic, the chemical properties of some molecules.  For example, the most common molecule (H2, hydrogen gas), does not have a dipole moment, so it is not detected by radio telescopes. Much easier to detect with radio waves, due to its strong electric dipole moment, is CO (carbon monoxide). Over a hundred molecules (including radicals and ions) have been reported so far, including a wide variety of organic compounds, such as alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and ketones.  There have been claims regarding interstellar glycine, the simplest amino acid, but with considerable accompanying controversy. Research is progressing on the way interstellar and circumstellar molecules form and interact, and this research could have a profound impact on our understanding of the origin of life on earth.
The sparseness of interstellar and interplanetary space results in some unusual chemistry, since symmetry-forbidden reactions cannot occur except on the longest of timescales.  For this reason, molecules and molecular ions which are unstable on Earth can be highly abundant in space, for example the H3+ ion.
Astrochemistry overlaps with astrophysics and nuclear physics in characterizing the nuclear reactions which occur in stars, the consequences for stellar evolution, as well as stellar 'generations'. Indeed, the nuclear reactions in stars produce every naturally-occurring chemical element. As the stellar 'generations' advance, the mass of the newly-formed elements increases. A first-generation star uses elemental hydrogen (H) as a fuel source and produces helium (He). Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and it is the basic building block for all other elements as its nucleus has only one proton. Gravitational pull toward the center of a star creates massive amounts of heat and pressure, which cause nuclear fusion.  Through this process of merging nuclear mass, heavier elements are formed. Lithium, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are examples of elements that form in stellar fusion. After many stellar generations, very heavy elements are formed (e.g. iron and lead).
Endarterectomy
Endarterectomy is a surgical procedure to remove the atheromatous plaque material, or blockage, in the lining of an artery constricted by the buildup of fatty deposits. It is carried out by separating the plaque from the arterial wall.
It was first performed on a superficial femoral artery in 1946 by the Portuguese surgeon Joao Cid dos Santos. In 1951, E. J. Wylie, a North-American, performed it on the abdominal aorta. The first successful reconstruction of the carotid artery was performed by Carrea, Molins, and Murphy in Argentina, later in the same year.
The procedure is widely used on the carotid artery of the neck as a way to reduce the risk of stroke, particularly when the carotid artery is narrowed by more than 70%. A carotid endarterectomy may itself cause a stroke at the time of operation, which is why it is not performed prophylactically in asymptomatic patients.
Endarterectomy is also used as a supplement to a vein bypass graft to open up distal segments.
Some forms of pulmonary hypertension may be amenable to endarterectomy of the pulmonary artery. This is a highly specialized procedure.
The term atherectomy is used to describe reconstruction through a catheter.

# Types
- Carotid endarterectomy (CEA)
- Pulmonary endarterectomy
- Aortic endarterectomy
- Femoral endarterectomy
Atomic percent
Atomic percent  or at.% is a measure of concentration of dopant, used in chemistry, physics of solid state lasers and spectroscopy.
The meaning of this term strongly depends on the context, host material and dopant. In particular, atomic percent may refer to:
(A) Molar fraction 
which is ratio  ~\rm~ \frac{number~oaf~atoms~of~dopant}{number~of~ atoms~ of~ solution}
(B) The molar (or atomic) percentage 
refers to the ratio~\rm \frac{number~ of~ atoms~ of~ dopant}{number~of~ atoms~ of~ solution,~ which~ can~ be~ substituted~ with~ the~ dopant}~.
For example, according to the definition (B), 100% doped  \rm Yb: Y_3\!~Al_5\!~O_{12} is just
 \rm Yb_3\!~Al_5\!~O_{12}, not pure Yb, as it would be in the case of definition (A).
Definition (B) is widely used in laser physics, and the ambiguity of the term
"atomic percent" may cause confusions.
Atomic percent is also used in applications involving atomic isotopes, such as nuclear engineering.  In this context, the atomic percent refers to the ratio of the number of atoms of a particular isotope to the total number of atoms in the sample.
Autoclave tape
Autoclave tape is an adhesive tape used in autoclaving to indicate whether the correct temperature has been reached for the elimination of all living organisms (typically 121 degrees Celsius).
Small strips of the tape are applied to the items before they are placed into the autoclave. The tape is similar to masking tape but slightly more adhesive, to allow it to adhere under the hot, moist conditions of the autoclave. The tape typically has diagonal markings containing an ink which changes colour (usually beige to black) upon heating. One such ink contains 30.1% lead thiosulfate, 0.6% magnesium carbonate, 20.1% neocryl B8141, 30.1% ethanol, 22.7% ethyl acetate and 49% ink solids.

# Footnotes and references
-  This temperature will usually need to be maintained for 15 minutes.
-  US patent 4898762, "Easy tear sterilization indicator tape", published 1990-02-06, issued 1988-08-26
Autocovariance

# Overview
In statistics, given a stochastic process X(t), the autocovariance is simply the covariance of the signal against a time-shifted version of itself.  If each state of the series has a mean, E = t, then the autocovariance is given by
where E is the expectation operator.

# Stationarity
If X(t) is wide sense stationary then the following conditions are true:
and
where
is the lag time, or the amount of time by which the signal has been shifted.
As a result, the autocovariance becomes
where RXX represents the autocorrelation.

# Normalization
When normalised by dividing by the variance 2 then the autocovariance becomes the autocorrelation coefficient .  That is
Note, however, that some disciplines use the terms autocovariance and autocorrelation interchangeably.
The autocovariance can be thought of as a measure of how similar a signal is to a time-shifted version of itself with an autocovariance of 2 indicating perfect correlation at that lag.  The normalisation with the variance will put this into the range .
Autoregulation

# Overview
Autoregulation is a specific form of homeostasis used to describe the tendency of the body to keep blood flow constant when blood pressure varies..
While most systems of the body show some degree of autoregulation, it is most clearly observed in the kidney, the heart, and the brain. Perfusion of these organs (especially the latter two) is essential for life, and through autoregulation the body can divert blood (and thus, oxygen) where it is most needed.
One key component of autoregulation is the absence of central control. The "auto" in autoregulation refers of the abiliity of the organ to maintain a stable flow without the involvement of the autonomic nervous system.

# Renal autoregulation
In the kidneys, autoregulation is primarily concerned with maintaining renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate.
There are two main techniques by which renal autoregulation is maintained:
- Myogenic mechanism: as blood flow increases, the afferent arterioles are stretched, they contract, and subsequently reduce blood flow
- Tubuloglomerular feedback: the macula densa "senses" the blood pressure and causes vasoconstriction

# Cardiovascular autoregulation
In the heart, the behavior of autoregulation is similar to that in the kidney, but there is no macula densa involved in the circuit. In the case of heart tissue that is in a state of high metabolic activity, autoregulation occurs due to increased metabolic bi-products such as lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and decreased oxygen and causes coronary vessel dilation. The autoregulation of coronary vessels is mediated by the equilibrium of ATP, ADP, AMP, and Adenosine in the myocardial cell. When there is a high amount of oxygen, the equilibrium is shifted towards ATP. When there is a lack of oxygen, it is shifted toward Adenosine. Adenosine causes vasodilation and therefore increases the supply of oxygen.

# Cerebral autoregulation
More so than most other organs, the brain is very sensitive to overperfusion, and cerebral autoregulation plays an important role in maintaining an appropriate blood pressure to that region. More detail is available at Cerebral perfusion pressure.
Avenanthramide
Avenanthramides are a type of oat phytoalexins that exist predominantly in the groats of oat seeds.
Among a group of at least 25 avenanthramides that differ in the substituents on the cinnamic acid and anthranilic acid rings, three are predominant in oat grain: Bc (also called avenanthramide C), Bf (also called avenanthramide B) and Bp (also called avenanthramide A).
In vitro experiments indicate that they have significant antioxidant activities, with Bc > Bf > Bp. In human and animal tests, this antioxidant capacity provides health benefits ranging from reduced rate of LDL oxidation to protecting against cancers and heart disease.

# Notes
-   Emmons, C. L. & Peterson, D. M. (1999) Antioxidant activity and phenolic contents of oat groats and hulls. Cereal Chem. 76:902-906.
-  2. Collins, F. W. (1989) Oat phenolics: avenanthramides, novel substituted N-cinnamoylanthranilate alkaloids from oat groats and hulls. J. Agric. Food Chem. 37:60-66.
-  Peterson D.M.1; Hahn M.J.; Emmons C.L.(2002)  Oat Avenanthramides Exhibit Antioxidant Activities In Vitro. Food Chem. 79:4:473-478
-  Chen, C.Y & Blumberg , J. B. (2004) Vitamin C to Enhance Hamster and Human LDL Resistance to Oxidation J. Nutr. 134:1459-1466
-  Bailey, G.S. & Williams, D.E.(1993) Potential Mechanisms for Food-Related Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens. Food Technol. 47:105-118
Avogadro's law
Avogadro's law (Avogadro's Hypothesis, or Avogadro's Principle) is a gas law named after Amedeo Avogadro, who in 1811 hypothesized that:
Thus, the number of molecules in a specific volume of gas is independent of the size or mass of the gas molecules when related to an ideal gas approximate.  It is very important to note that we apply an ideal gas or perfect gas definition (a hypothetical gas consisting of identical particles of zero volume, with no intermolecular forces, but the ability to interchange momentum with identical gas molecules) to a real gas such as hydrogen or nitrogen so we can statistically approximate the real gas behavior.
As an example, equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen would contain the same number of molecules, as long as they are at the same temperature and pressure and observe ideal or perfect gas behavior.  Whilst this is not the real world case, it is statistically very close.
The minor aspect of the law can be stated mathematically as:
where:
However, this above equation is just a trivial one, which is valid for all homogeneous substances, including homogeneous liquids and solids. This relation is easy to deduce; its validity was assumed before Avogadro's work.
The most important consequence of Avogadro's law is the following: The ideal gas constant has the same value for all gases. This means that the constant
where:
has the same value for all gases, independent of the size or mass of the gas molecules. This statement is nontrivial, and it embodies Avogadro's ingenious insight into the nature of ideal gases. It took decades to prove Avogadro's law based on the kinetic theory of gases.
One mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.4 liters (dm3) at STP, and occupies 24.45 litres at SATP (Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure = 25 degrees C and 1 atm/101.3kPa). This volume is often referred to as the molar volume of an ideal gas. Real gases may deviate from this value.
The number of molecules in one mole is called Avogadro's number: approximately 6.0221023 particles per mole.
Avogadro's law, together with the combined gas law, forms the ideal gas law.
az:Avoqadro qanunu
de:Avogadrosches Gesetz
et:Avogadro seadus
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hr:Avogadrov zakon
id:Hukum Avogadro
it:Legge di Avogadro
hu:Avogadro-torveny
ms:Hukum Avogadro
nl:Wet van Avogadro
no:Avogadros lov
nn:Avogadro si lov
sk:Avogadrov zakon
sr: 
fi:Avogadron laki
sv:Avogadros lag
uk: