Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Schizencephaly

# Overview
Schizencephaly is a type of cephalic disorder.

# Presentation
Schizencephaly is a rare developmental disorder characterized by abnormal slits, or clefts, in the cerebral hemispheres. Schizencephaly can be distinguished from porencephaly by the fact that in schizencephaly the cyst is lined by heterotopic grey matter while a porencephalic cyst is lined by white matter.  Individuals with clefts in both hemispheres, or bilateral clefts, are often developmentally delayed and have delayed speech and language skills and corticospinal dysfunction. Individuals with smaller, unilateral clefts (clefts in one hemisphere) may be weak on one side of the body and may have average or near-average intelligence. Patients with schizencephaly may also have varying degrees of microcephaly, mental retardation, hemiparesis (weakness or paralysis affecting one side of the body), or quadriparesis (weakness or paralysis affecting all four extremities), and may have reduced muscle tone (hypotonia). Most patients have seizures and some may have hydrocephalus.

# Causes
In schizencephaly, the neurons border the edge of the cleft, implying a very early disruption in development. There was once thought to be a genetic association with the EMX2 gene, although this theory has recently been  disproved. Causes of this type may include environmental exposures during pregnancy such as medication taken by the mother, sickness during pregnancy, exposure to toxins, or a vascular insult. Often there are associated heterotopias (isolated islands of neurons) which indicate a failure of migration of the neurons to their final position in the brain.

# Treatment
Treatment for individuals with schizencephaly generally consists of physical therapy, treatment for seizures, and, in cases that are complicated by hydrocephalus, a shunt.

# Prognosis
The prognosis for individuals with schizencephaly varies depending on the size of the clefts and the degree of neurological deficit.
School refusal

# Background
School refusal is a term originally used in Great Britain to describe refusal to attend school, due to emotional distress. School refusal differs from truancy in that children with school refusal feel anxiety or fear towards school, whereas truant children generally have no feelings of fear towards school, often feeling angry or bored with it instead. The term was coined as a more general alternative to school phobia, which can be used to describe school refusal caused by separation anxiety.
Approximately 1 to 5% of school-aged children have school refusal, though it is most common in children aged five, six, ten and eleven. The rate is similar within both genders, and there are no known socioeconomic differences.
Children and adolescents with school refusal sometimes suffer from other problems such as mood disorders, social phobia or clinical depression. The longer a child stays out of school the harder it is for them to go back, so some believe it is best to try to get the child back into school as quickly as possible. However, it may be hard to accomplish as when forced they are prone to temper tantrums, crying spells, psychosomatic or panic symptoms and threats of self-harm. These problems quickly fade if the child is allowed to stay home.
Whereas some cases of school refusal can be resolved by gradual re-introduction to the school environment, some others may need to be treated with some form of psychodynamic or cognitive-behaviour therapy. Some families have sought alternative education for school refusers which has also proved to be effective. In extreme cases, some form of medication is sometimes prescribed but none of these methods have stood out prominently as solutions to the problem.
A medical condition often mistaken for school refusal is delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS). DSPS is a circadian rhythm sleep disorder, common in adolescents, which causes difficulty falling asleep at night and waking in the morning.
Scleral buckle
A scleral buckle is one of several ophthalmologic procedures that can be used to repair a retinal detachment. Retinal detachments are usually caused by retinal tears, and a scleral buckle can be used to close the retinal break.
Scleral buckles come in many shapes and sizes. An encircling band is a thin silicone band sewn around the circumference of the sclera of the eye. Buckles are often placed under a band to create a dimple on the eye wall.
The scleral buckle is secured around the eyeball under the conjunctiva. This moves the wall of the eye closer to the detached retina. It also may move the retina closer to the vitreous. This alteration in the relationships of the tissues seems to allow the fluid which has formed under the retina to be pumped out, and the retina to re-attach. No-one really understands the physics or physiology of this process.
Retinal detachment surgery usually also involves the use of cryotherapy or laser photocoagulation. The laser or cryotherapy forms a permanent adhesion around the retinal break and prevent further accumulation of fluid and re-detachment.
Scleral buckles are done using local or general anesthesia and are often done as outpatient procedures. In some cases, the buckles can be removed after the retina heals.
A recent study found that the encircling band used in the repair of retinal detachments may elongate the eye and considerably increase myopia
Scleromyositis
Synonyms and keywords: PM/Scl overlap syndrome
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# Overview
Scleromyositis or the PM/Scl overlap syndrome is an autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the body. Patients with scleromyositis have symptoms of both systemic scleroderma and either polymyositis or dermatomyositis, and is therefore considered an overlap syndrome. Although it is a rare disease, it is one of the more common overlap syndromes seen in scleroderma patients, together with MCTD and synthetase syndrome. Autoantibodies often found in these patients are the anti-PM/Scl (anti-exosome) antibodies.
The symptoms that are seen most often are typical symptoms of the individual autoimmune diseases and include Raynaud's phenomenon, arthritis, myositis and scleroderma. Treatment of these patients is therefore strongly dependant on the exact symptoms with which a patient reports to a physician and is similar to treatment for the individual autoimmune disease, often involving either immunosuppressive or immunomodulating drugs.
Scream therapy
Scream Therapy is a form of psychotherapy that uses screaming as a therapeutic tool.  In many cases the term is mistakenly used in reference to Primal Therapy.
There was never any such thing as "Primal Scream Therapy", as some refer to Primal Therapy which was developed by Dr. Arthur Janov and first brought to the awareness of the public in his book entitled The Primal Scream (1970).  In many subsequent books, Janov has distanced Primal Therapy from "scream" therapies. Some twenty years after The Primal Scream, he wrote:
Primal Therapy is not just making people scream. It was the title of a book. It was never 'Primal Scream Therapy'. Those who read the book knew that the scream is what some people do when they hurt. Others simply sob or cry. It was the hurt we were after, not mechanical exercises such as pounding walls and yelling 'mama'."
A Scream away from Happiness, by Daniel Casriel, M.D (1972), introduced a scream therapy which was quite different from Primal Therapy.  Casriel was aware of Janov's work and pointed out the differences, the main ones being the heavy emphasis in Casriel's therapy on screaming and the use of a group setting rather than the mixture of individual and group therapy used by Janov.

# Notes
-  Janov, A., The New Primal Scream, page 386
Sequestosome 1
Sequestosome-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SQSTM1 gene.  Also known as the ubiquitin-binding protein p62, it is an autophagosome cargo protein that targets other proteins that bind to it for selective autophagy.  By interacting with GATA4 and targeting it for degradation, it can inhibit GATA-4 associated senescence and senescence-associated secretory phenotype.

# Model organisms
Model organisms have been used in the study of SQSTM1 function. A conditional knockout mouse line, called Sqstm1tm1a(KOMP)Wtsi was generated as part of the International Knockout Mouse Consortium program  a high-throughput mutagenesis project to generate and distribute animal models of disease to interested scientists.
Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Twenty two tests were carried out on homozygous mutant mice and one significant abnormality was observed: females had abnormal complete blood count parameters, including an increased red blood cell distribution width and increased mean platelet volume.

# Interactions
Sequestosome 1 has been shown to interact with:
- MAP1LC3A,
- PRKCI,
- RAD23A,
- RIPK1,
- TRAF6
- TrkA,  and
- TrkB.
- Nrf2
Serum sickness
For the WikiPatient page on this topic click here
Synonyms and keywords: serum reaction

# Overview
Serum sickness is a reaction to an antiserum derived from an animal source. It is a type of hypersensitivity, specifically immune complex (type 3) hypersensitivity. Serum sickness typically develops up to ten days after exposure to the antiserum, and symptoms are similar to an allergic reaction. However, it is different from anaphylaxis, since the symptoms are not instantaneous (onset is typically 2-4 weeks after exposure).

# Pathophysiology
Serum sickness can be developed as a result of exposure to antibodies derived from animals. These serums are generally administered in order to prevent infection. When the antiserum is given, the human immune system can mistake the proteins present for harmful antigens. The body produces antibodies, which combine with these proteins to form immune complexes. These complexes can cause more reactions, and cause the symptoms detailed below. Serum sickness can also be caused by several drugs, notably penicillin based medicines and Lincomycin Hydrochloride.

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
Symptoms can take as long as fourteen days after exposure to appear, and may include:
- Rashes
- Joint pain (arthralgia)
- Fever
- Lymph node swelling (lymphadenopathy)
- Shock
- Decreased blood pressure (hypotension)
- Enlarged spleen (splenomegaly)

# Treatment
Symptoms will generally disappear on their own, although corticosteroids may be prescribed in the most severe forms. Antihistamine may also be used.
Sesquiterpenes
Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and have the molecular formula C15H24.  Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be acyclic or contain rings, including many unique combinations.  Biochemical modifications such as oxidation or rearrangement produce the related sesquiterpenoids.

# Acyclic
Biosynthetically, when geranyl pyrophosphate reacts with isopentenyl pyrophosphate, the result is the 15-carbon farnesyl pyrophosphate which is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes such as farnesene. Oxidation can then provide sesquiterpenoids such as farnesol. Sesquiterpenes are found naturally in plants as defensive agents.

# Monocyclic
With the increased chain length and additional double bond, the number of possible ways that cyclization can occur is also increased and there exist a wide variety of cyclic sesquiterpenes.   In addition to common six-membered ring systems such as is found in zingiberene, a consitituent of the oil from ginger, cyclization of one end of the chain to the other end can lead to macrocyclic rings such as humulene.

# Bicyclic
In addition to common six-membered rings such as in the cadinenes, one classic bicyclic sesquiterpene is caryophyllene, from the oil of cloves, which has a nine-membered ring and cyclobutane ring. Additional unsaturation provides aromatic bicyclic sesquiterpenoids such as vetivazulene and guaiazulene.

# Tricylic
With the addition of a third ring, the possible structures become increasingly varied. Examples include longifolene, copaene and the alcohol patchoulol.
Shag (tobacco)
Shag or rolling tobacco is fine-cut tobacco used to make self made cigarettes by hand rolling the tobacco into rolling paper or injecting it into filter tubes. Various types of cut are used; most shag blends use a simple mixture of cutting styles, consisting mostly of loose cut but also crumble cake, ribbon cut and flake may be used. Some shag blends even use more exotic cuts, reminiscent of pipe tobacco.
A cigarette made with shag tobacco may be called a rolley, a roll-up, or, more commonly, a hand-rolled. The flat bags in which shag is typically packaged are often called tobacco pouches.

# Different shag styles
There are several shag blends or tobacco styles using different tobaccos, curing techniques and cutting types. Sometimes additives like sugar, glycerol and fruit flavors are added, creating blends that are akin to the shisha smoked in the Middle East.
American shag is typically a mixture of flue cured domestic and/or imported tobacco and air cured Burley.
Virginia or Light blends are mainly made up of several flue cured Virginia Tobaccos.
Smooth adds Georgia tobaccos to a Light blend.
Halfzware is a combination of Light and Zware shag. A typical Dutch style blend.
Turkish is a blend that mainly consists of Turkish (Native American) Tobaccos ()  like Yenidje, Samsun, Bafra etc.
Zware shag is a Dutch style "power blend" consisting mainly of fire cured Kentucky, Latakia and air cured Paraguay.

# Brands of shag
- Amber Leaf
- American Spirit
- Bali Shag
- Belgam
- Brandaris
- Camel
- Champion
- Craven
- Cutters Choice
- Drum
- Ducal shag
- Golden Virginia
- Gruno
- Holiday
- Jakobs
- Javaanse Jongens
- Judo shag
- Look Out
- Longbeach
- Marlboro
- Old Holborn
- Peter Stuyvesant
- Rolling
- Samson
- Van Nelle
- Taribi shag
- Unic shag
- White Ox
- Winfield
Shock overview

# Overview
Shock is a clinical syndrome characterized by inadequate oxygenation and perfusion to supply the body's metabolic needs. There is simply a loss of sufficient blood pressure to generate an adequate pressure gradient to maintain tissue perfusion. This leads to a loss of oxygen supply and the deterioration of energy dependent processes at cellular level and lactic acidosis.
Shock is a serious, life-threatening medical condition where insufficient blood flow reaches the body tissues. As the blood carries oxygen and nutrients around the body, reduced flow hinders the delivery of these components to the tissues, and can stop the tissues from functioning properly. The process of blood entering the tissues is called perfusion, so when perfusion is not occurring properly this is called a hypoperfusional state. The body has homeostatic mechanisms to compensate for hypoperfusion, but when these are overwhelmed, several physiological and metabolic derangements result.
Shock should not be confused with the emotional state of shock, as the two are not related.  Medical shock is a life-threatening medical emergency and one of the most common causes of death for critically-ill people. Shock can have a variety of effects, all with similar outcomes, but all relate to a problem with the body's circulatory system. For example, shock may lead to hypoxia (a lack of oxygen in the body tissues) or cardiac arrest (the heart stopping).
Sigma receptor
The sigma receptors 1 and 2 are receptors which bind to  ligands such as 4-PPBP, SA 4503, and siramesine.

# Classification
Sigma receptors were once thought to be a type of opioid receptor, because the d stereoisomers of the benzomorphan class of opioid drugs had no effects at , , and  receptors, but reduced coughing.
However, pharmacological testing indicated that the sigma receptors were activated by drugs completely unrelated to the opioids, and their function was unrelated to the function of the opioid receptors. For example, phencyclidine (PCP), and the antipsychotic haloperidol  may interact with these receptors. Neither phencyclidine nor haloperidol have any appreciable chemical similarity to the opioids.
When the 1 receptor was isolated and cloned, it was found to have no structural similarity to the opioid receptors. At this point, they were designated as a separate class of receptors.

# Functions
The functions of these receptors are poorly understood and any endogenous ligands have yet to be identified. Activation of sigma receptors by an agonist ligand may induce hallucinogenic effects and also may be responsible for the paradoxical convulsions sometimes seen in opiate overdose. Drugs known to be sigma agonists in addition to their major mechanisms of action include cocaine, heroin, PCP, fluvoxamine, methamphetamine and dextromethorphan, however the exact role of sigma receptors is difficult to establish as many sigma agonists also bind to other targets such as the -opioid receptor and the NMDA receptor. In animal experiments, sigma antagonists such as rimcazole were able to block convulsions from cocaine overdose. Sigma antagonists are also under investigation for use as antipsychotic medications.

# Physiologic effects
Physiologic effects (what happens to the human body) when the sigma receptor is activated include dysphoria (feelings of unease), hypertonia (increased muscle tension), tachycardia (increase in heart rate), tachypnea (increase in rate of breathing), and mydriasis (increase in the size of the pupils, similar to what occurs in conditions of low light).
Recently novel receptor agonists have been able to produce antidepressant effects in mice.
Signature 1932
Signature 1932 is a brand of hand-made premium cigar owned by Padilla Cigar Company of Hialeah, Florida.

# History and Background
The brand was created by Jose "Pepin" Garcia and is manufactured at the El Rey de los Habanos factory in the Little Havana section of Miami, Florida, with one size (La Perla) made at Tabacalera Cubana S. A., Pepin's factory in Esteli, Nicaragua.
The late Heberto Padilla, noted Cuban poet, was born in the year 1932 and his son Ernesto Padilla, the owner of Padilla Cigars, named this cigar brand as a tribute to his father.
The brand was released in stages. The first three vitolas of this brand (the Robusto, Churchill and Torpedo) were released in October of 2006. The cigars came in a special 45 count cedar box which contained 15 of each size, and only 500 of these boxes were made. The box was to remain on the shelf as a permanent display and were intended to be refilled with subsequent shipments.
The next phase was begun in January of 2007, when the first of the next three sizes (the Toro) was released. The Lancero and the second release of the previously released sizes followed in February, all in Cuban-style boxes of 25. The third size (with the frontmark La Perla) was delayed until late March/early April. This release represents the regular production of this brand.

## Honors/Awards/Ratings
- The Churchill was given a rating of 90 in the December, 2006, issue of Cigar Aficionado magazine.
- The Churchill was named by Cigar Aficionado magazine as the 14th best cigar of 2006.
- The Churchill was named Cigar of the Week for the week of 20 Jan 2007.
- The Robusto was given an 88 rating in the February, 2007, issue of Cigar Aficionado.
- The La Perla received a 90 rating in the May 08, 2007, issue of Cigar Insider (p. 3).

# Description
The brand consists of six vitolas in all. The wrapper is a Nicaraguan Corojo and the filler & binder is Nicaraguan Criollo, and come in Cuban-style boxes of 25.
The La Perla is unusual, for not only is it the smallest of the line, but it comes unbanded in cabinets of 50, production is limited and it is the only vitola in the line to be made in Nicaragua (at TACUBA).
The cigar band is a work of art and description cannot do it justice. The band has an overall maroon background, with elaborate gold borders and scrollwork.  The left wing has the words "Little Havana (brk) Miami" in gold; the right wing terminates in an elaborate monogram "P" and has also the words "Cuban Crafted" with the lot number below it, both in gold. The center has the elaborate Padilla monogram at the apex, below that is "Padilla", below that is "Signature (in script)" and below that is "1932."  At the bottom of the center is the Cuban coat of arms.

# Models/Vitolas
Silvano Arieti

# Overview
Silvano Arieti (born in Pisa, Italy on June 28, 1914 and died in New York on August 7, 1981) was a psychiatrist regarded in his time as one of the worlds foremost authorities on schizophrenia.  He received his M.D. from the University of Pisa but left Italy soon after because of Mussolini's increasingly fascist racial policies.  He found refuge in the United States.
Arieti was professor of psychiatry at New York Medical School.  He was also training analyst in the Division of Psychoanalysis at the William Alanson White Institute, and editor of the six-volume American handbook of Psychiatry.  His Interpretation of Schizophrenia won the National Book Award in 1975.
Arieti undertook psychotherapy of schizophrenic patients, an unusual approach that few of his colleagues chose to pursue.  His views in Interpretation of Schizophrenia, presently called the trauma model of mental disorders in the profession, represent the counter-hypothesis to the mainstream medical model of mental disorders.
Situs ambiguus
Situs ambiguous or situs ambiguus (the latter spelling is more correct etymologically, but the former spelling is very common), also known as heterotaxy, is a rare congenital defect in which the major visceral organs are distributed abnormally within the chest and abdomen.
The normal position of the organs is known as situs solitus; situs inversus is a condition in which the usual positions of the organs are reversed from left to right as a mirror image of the normal condition. If these are the two extreme positions on a continuum of asymmetric thoracic and abdominal organ formation, situs ambiguous covers everything in between.
Classically, it comprises:
- Cardiac looping malformations  commonly Fallots tetralogy, transposition of the great vessels, pulmonary valve stenosis, and ventricular and atrial septal defects.
- Deranged abdominal organ asymmetry - the stomach and spleen are particularly prone to isolated reversal, and the stomach, liver, and a single adrenal gland are occasionally found in the midline.
- Organ malformations - chiefly asplenia-polysplenia, and more rarely a failure of the head of the pancreas to form, and horseshoe adrenals and kidneys.
- Rotation errors, causing volvulus and/or faulty peritoneal attachments.
More rarely, vascular abnormalities are found, including interrupted inferior vena cava, bilateral superior or inferior venae cavae, intrahepatic interruption of the inferior vena cava with connection to the azygos or hemiazygos veins, and aberrant portal veins.

# Causes
Although its etiology is poorly understood, it has been found to be linked to maternal diabetes mellitus, , family history of malformations, and parental cocaine use, suggesting both genetic and environmental factors play a role.