Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Personal fable
The personal fable is term coined by David Elkind (1967) that is used in psychology to describe a form of egocentrism normally exhibited during early adolescence, and it is characterized by an over-differentiating of one's experiences and feelings from others to the point of assuming those experiences are unique from those of others.  A person might believe that he is the only on who can experience whatever feelings of joy, horror, misery, or confusion he might encounter.

# Examples
Examples of personal fable can be seen in the following typified assertions made by adolescents:
- "Nobody understands me."
- "My parents just don't know what I'm going through-- what do they know about what it's like being a teenager?"
- "You just don't know how it feels."
- "I just got dumped by the girl I love, and nobody could ever experience the crushing sadness I'm going through."

# Imaginary audience
Evolving from the same egocentrism and ideas of playing the central part in one's personal fable, adolescents may become preoccupied with what others in their peer groups think of them.   Because adolescents become so involved with others' opinions, they believe that an imaginary audience is scrutinizing them wherever they are.  No matter where they go in public, they think that their outward behaviors and appearances will always be watched like an actor on stage, and that all eyes will be fixated on them-- such that every facial blemish or misstep will be noticed.  So, where a teenage girl might spend hours putting on makeup to hide acne only to give up and assume everyone will think she is ugly, a teenage boy might also give up when he thinks his mouthwash is not working and that everyone will notice his horrible breath.
Peter Szatmari
Peter Szatmari (born 1950) is a Canadian researcher of Autism and Asperger syndrome.
Szatmari is a Professor and Vice-Chair, Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, at McMaster University. He is also the Director of the research training program in the department, and a member of the Offord Centre for Child Studies. Dr. Szatmari is Editor of the journal, Evidence-Based Mental Health, and serves on the editorial boards of several other journals.
Szatmari is known for his writings on Aspergers genetics, infant studies, and PET and MRI studies. He is also known for his diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome.
Szatmari helped to set up the Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) team at Chedoke Child and Family Centre, a regional diagnostic and treatment program for children with a PDD diagnosis, in Hamilton, Ontario.
Szatmari is currently part of the Autism Genome Project.

# Diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome
Dr. Szatmari's diagnostic criteria was published in 1989 and covers five main areas: Solitary (i.e. lack of friends), impaired social interaction (i.e. difficulty relating to others), impaired nonverbal communication (i.e. not understanding body language), odd speech patterns (i.e. different use of words), and that it does not meet the criteria for Autistic disorder as defined in the DSM-III-R.
Szatmari suggests that AS was promoted as a diagnosis to spark more research into the syndrome: "It was introduced into the official classification systems in 1994 and has grown in popularity as a diagnosis, even though its validity has not been clearly established. It is interesting to note that it was introduced not so much as an indication of its status as a 'true' disorder, but more to stimulate research ... its validity is very much in question."

# Notes
-  CAIRN:  Canadian Autism Intervention Research Network. Peter Szatmari.  Retrieved on 11 July 2006.
-  Szatmari, Peter. Studies in autism/PDD. Retrieved on 11 July 2006.
-  Jump up to: 3.0 3.1 Szatmari, P., Brenner, R. and Nagy, J. (1989) Asperger's syndrome: A review of clinical features.  Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 34, pp. 554-560.
-  McMaster University faculty: Peter Szatmari.
-  Genome Canada boosts autism genetics research
-  Stoddart, K. P. (Editor) (2005).   "Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives". London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-268-4. p. 239.
Petr Skrabanek
Petr Skrabanek (MD) (October 27, 1940-1994) was a leading doctor and professor of medicine. Author of several books and numerous articles, he was considered a leading scientist. At the time of his death The Times explained, "From his base at Trinity College, Dublin a stream of scientific papers and articles exposed the claims of public health doctors, epidemiologists, dietary evangelists and others that many diseases were preventable. This was not a popular message and he evoked strong antipathy in certain circles which was more than offset by the respect of his many admirers around the world."

# Life
Born October 27, 1940 in Nachod, Czech Republic, he studied chemistry entering Charles University in Prague in 1957. FOllowing his studies he was a researcher at the Institute for Toxicology and Forensic Medicine in Prague graduating in 1962. He was became the Head of the Toxicology Department in the Institute for Forensic Medicine, Purkyne University in Brno.
In 1963 he studied medicine at Purkyne University and in 1967 was selected to spend a month in Galway Regional Hospital where he meet his future wife Vera in July 1968. Soon after, he was admitted to the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland to finish his medical studies qualifying for practice in 1970. For the next four years he worked in neurology in Dublin hospitals. He left this post in 1975 to join the Endocrine Oncology Research team in the Mater Hospital as a Senior Research Fellow and became involved in research into the neurotransmitter Substance.
In 1984, he joined the Department of Community Health in Trinity College with a grant from the Wellcome Foundation. From this position he "immediately began to establish his position as an original, cogent, and fearless critic, particularly in relation to preventive medicine." With the rise of his celebrity, he was "rapidly promoted from lecturer to senior lecturer and finally to associate professor." Before he died became a Fellow of Trinity College and a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in Ireland.

# Work
The Irish Medical Times wrote, "His several hundred publications demonstrated his breadth of scholarship and ability to communicate .with learned and popular publications in a number of languages... As a teacher Professor Skrabanek is irreplaceable." On his work the British Medical Journal stated "With the spirit of European iconoclasm he kept the medical evangelists in their hot boxes... He was a good scientist, as his work on substance P testifies, but this was not to be his metier. Rather he chose to take the broader intellectual view of a profession in disarray, a profession in need of careful watching."

# Books
- Follies and Fallacies in Medicine, Prometheus Books, 1990. Co-author: James McCormick
- False Premises, False Promises, Tarragon Press, ISBN 1-870781-11-2
- The Death of Humane Medicine Social Affairs Unit (September 1994) ISBN 0-907631-59-2
- Who Needs Who?: Three Views Social Affairs Unit (1995) ISBN 0-907631-49-5
Phonomyography
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Phonomyography (PMG) is a technique to measure the force of muscle contraction by recording the low frequency sounds created during muscular activity.
Although less precise than the more traditional Mechanomyography, it is considerably easier to set up.
Phthisis bulbi
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Phthisis bulbi is a shrunken, non-functional eye that results from severe ocular disease, inflammation, or injury .
Physical abuse

# Overview
Physical abuse is abuse involving contact intended to cause pain, injury, or other physical suffering or harm.

# Basic forms
- striking
- punching
- pushing, pulling
- slapping
- Whipping
- striking with an object
- Locking in out of a room or place/False imprisonment
- pinching
- kicking
- having someone fall
- kneeing
- strangling
- drowning
- sleep deprivation
- exposure to cold, freezing
- exposure to heat or radiation, burning
- exposure to electric shock
- placing in "stress positions" (tied or otherwise forced)
- cutting or otherwise exposing somebody to something sharp
- exposure to a dangerous animal
- throwing or shooting a projectile
- exposure to a toxic substance
- infecting with a disease
- withholding food or medication
- spanking is subject to controversy as to whether it qualifies as physical abuse.
- assault
- bodily harm
- humiliation
- torture
- Blinding a person/causing vision impairments e.g. throwing acid into eyes/face, having eyes gouged out.
- negligence
Plantago major
Plantago major is a species of Plantago, family Plantaginaceae. The plant is native to most of Europe and northern and central Asia. It is widely naturalised elsewhere in the world, where it is a common weed. The standard native English name is Greater Plantain, though it is also called Common Plantain in some areas where it is introduced, particularly North America.
It is a herbaceous perennial plant with a rosette of leaves 15-30 cm diameter. Each leaf is oval, 5-20 cm long and 4-9 cm broad, rarely up to 30 cm long and 17 cm broad, with an acute apex and a smooth margin; there are five to nine conspicuous veins. The flowers are small, greenish-brown with purple stamens, produced in a dense spike 5-15 cm long on top of a stem 13-15 cm tall (rarely to 70 cm tall).
There are three subspecies:
- Plantago major subsp. major.
- Plantago major subsp. intermedia (DC.) Arcang.
- Plantago major subsp. winteri (Wirtg.) W.Ludw.

# Ecology
It grows better than most other plants in compacted soils, and is abundant beside paths, roadsides, and other areas with frequent soil compaction. It is also common in grasslands and as a weed in crops. It is wind-pollinated, and propagates primarily by seeds, which are held on the long, narrow spikes which rise well above the foliage.

# Cultivation and uses
The seeds are a common contaminant in cereal grain and other crop seeds, and as a result the species now has a world-wide distribution as a naturalised (and often invasive) weed. It is believed to be one of the first plants to reach North America after European colonisation.
The leaves are edible and used in herbal medicine, but can be somewhat tough. The taste is that of very bitter salad greens with a lingering aftertaste like spinach. Young leaves are recommended as they are more tender. The leaves when dried make a good tea. The sinews from the broadleaf plantain are very pliable and tough when fresh and/or wettened, and can be used to make small cords or braiding. When dry the sinews harden but also become more brittle.
Historical uses as a wound healer and snakebite remedy have been found to have scientific merit.  Plantago major contains the cell proliferant allantoin, and is used as a replacement for hepatotoxic Comfrey in herbal preparations (commercial product Solaray Comfree). It also contains acubin.
Some cultivars are used in gardens, including 'Rubrifolia' with purple leaves, and 'Variegata' with variegated leaves.
Other common names include Broadleaf Plantain, Broad-leaved Plantain, Cart Track Plant, Dooryard Plantain, Greater Plantago, Healing Blade, Hen Plant, Lambs Foot, Roadweed, Roundleaf Plantain, Waybread, Wayside Plantain, White Man's Foot
Plantago media
Plantago media, known as the hoary plantain, is a species of genus Plantago native to central Europe and introduced to parts of the north-east United States. Its generic name is derived from the Latin for sole; like other members of Plantago, it should not be confused with the plantain, a starchy banana.

# Description
Plantago media grows in damp grassy meadows up to an altitude of 2000 m. A slender stalk of between 5 to 50 cm develops from a basal rosette of finely-haired leaves. Delicate pink-white flowers are borne between May and September. P. media is hermaphrodite and is pollinated by wind or insects, particularly bees.
The plant is edible and has long maintained a reputation for medicinal effects as an astringent for treating wounds; in antiquity it was employed against toothache and eye infections. Archeological finds testify to its use during the Roman era in Britain. The seeds are a laxative.
Plethysmograph

# Overview
A plethysmograph is an instrument for measuring changes in volume within an organ or whole body (usually resulting from fluctuations in the amount of blood or air it contains).

# Use for lungs
It is most commonly used to measure the functional residual capacity (FRC) of the lungs - that is, the volume in the lungs when the muscles of respiration are relaxed - as well as the total lung capacity. A typical value for the FRC is 3 liters. In a traditional plethysmograph, the test subject is placed inside a sealed chamber the size of a small telephone booth with a single mouthpiece. At the end of normal expiration, the mouthpiece is closed. The patient is then asked to make an inspiratory effort. As the patient tries to inhale (a maneuver which looks and feels like panting), the glottis is closed and the lungs expand, decreasing pressure within the lungs and increasing lung volume. This, in turn, increases the pressure within the box since it is a closed system and the volume of the body compartment has increased.
Boyle's Law is used to calculate the unknown volume within the lungs. First, the change in volume of the chest is computed.  The initial pressure and volume of the box are set equal to the known pressure after expansion times the unknown new volume. Once the new volume is found, the new volume minus the original volume is the change in volume in the box and also the change in volume in the chest. With this information, Boyle's Law is used again to determine the original volume of gas: the initial volume (unknown) times the initial pressure is equal to the final volume times the final pressure.
The difference in full versus empty lungs can be used to assess diseases and airway passage restrictions. An obstructive disease will show increased FRC because some airways do not empty normally, while a restrictive disease will show decreased FRC. Body plethysmography is particularly appropriate for patients who have air spaces which do not communicate with the bronchial tree; in such patients gas dilution would give an incorrectly low reading.
Newer lung plethysmograph devices have an option which does not require enclosure in a chamber.

# Use for limbs
Some plethysmograph devices are attached to arms, legs or other extremities and used to determine circulatory capacity. Impedance plethysmography is a non-invasive method used to detect venous thrombosis in these areas of the body.

# Use for genitals
Another common but more controversial type of plethysmograph is the penile plethysmograph. This device is used to measure changes in blood flow in the penis. Although some researchers use this device to assess sexual arousal and sexual orientation, the data are usually not admissible in court cases in the United States.
An approximate female equivalent to penile plethysmography is vaginal photoplethysmography.
Plica Syndrome
Synonyms and keywords: Plica knee; synovial plica syndrome

# Overview
Plica Syndrome (also known as Plica Knee, or Synovial Plica Syndrome) occurs when the plica (an extension of the protective synovial capsule of the knee) becomes irritated or inflamed. This inflammation is typically caused by the plica being caught on the femur, or pinched between the femur and the patella. The most common location of plica tissue is along the medial (inside) side of the knee. The plica can tether the patella to the femur, be located between the femur and patella, or be located along the femoral condyle. If the plicae tethers the patella to the femoral condyle, the symptoms may cause it to be mistaken for Patello-femoral Syndrome. Because of this similarity in symptoms, Plica Syndrome is frequently misdiagnosed as Patello-femoral Syndrome. Diagnosis is often complicated by the thin structures of plicae, fenestrated septum or unfenestrated septum all being too fine to resolve well even in MRI.
The plica themselves are remnants of the fetal stage of development where the knee is divided into three compartments. The plica normally diminish in size during the second trimester of fetal development, as the three compartments develop into the synovial capsule. In adults, they normally exist as sleeves of tissue called synovial folds. The plica are usually harmless and unobtrusive; Plica Syndrome only occurs when the synovial capsule becomes irritated, which thickens the plica themselves (making them prone to irritation/inflammation, or being caught on the femur).
Treatment for Plica Syndrome should focus on decreasing the inflammation of the synovial capsule. First, the care provider may prescribe a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication. Therapeutic exercise and modalities may also be used to treat the plica. Iontophoresis and phonophoresis have been utilized successfully against inflammation of the plica and the synovial capsule. Rehabilitative exercises should begin when inflammation and pain have decreased.
Pneumocephalus
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Pneumocephalus is the presence of air or gas within the cranial cavity. It is usually associated with disruption of the skull: after head and facial trauma, tumors of the skull base, after neurosurgery or otorhinolaryngology, and rarely spontaneously. Pneumocephalus "can" occure in scuba diving, but very rare.
Pocket Dialing
Pocket dialing, or pocket-calling, happens when a person's mobile phone accidentally dials someone, often unbeknownst to the person whose phone is making the call. The phone is usually located in the dialer's pocket or purse, hence the name "pocket dialing". The recipient of the call usually hears a loud and random noise if the phone is answered, and if not answered, can receive a long and potentially incriminating message.
Pocket dialing is a large problem for emergency operators (9-1-1 for example) for whom as much as 50% of emergency calls are accidental calls. On many older phones in the United States, pushing and holding down the number '9' key will cause the phone to automatically dial 911. In many regions, the operators must spend time and resources to determine whether the call is real or accidental. The phone calls often sound similar to the sorts of struggles people have while being involved in an actual emergency.
Locking the phone's key pad is the easiest way to avoid pocket dialing. Also, not programming 911 into the contacts or speed dial on a mobile can prevent pocket dialing of 911.
Polenske value
The Polenske value (also known as the Polenske number) is a value determined when examining fat. The Polenske value is an indicator of how much volatile fatty acid can be extracted from fat through saponification. It is equal to the number of mililiters of 0.1 normal hydroxide solution necessary for the neutralization of the water-insoluble volatile fatty acids distilled and filtered from 5 grams of a given saponified fat. (The hydroxide solution used in such a titration is typically made from sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or barium hydroxide.)
The value is named for the chemist who developed it, Eduard Polenske. 
The Reichert value and Kirschner value are related numbers based on similar tests.
Polymicrogyria
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Polymicrogyria is a developmental malformation of the human brain characterized by an excessive number of small convolutions (gyri) on the surface of the brain. Either the whole surface or parts of the surface can be affected.

# Clinical presentation
The diagnosis of PMG is merely descriptive and is not a disease in itself, nor does it describe the underlying etiology or cause of the brain malformation.
Polymicrogyria may in fact be just one piece of a syndrome of developmental abnormalities, because children born with it suffer from a wide spectrum of other problems, including global developmental disabilities, mild to severe mental retardation, and motor disfunctions including speech and swallowing problems, respiratory problems, and seizures. In fact, each child is unique in their presentation of the disorder. As a result, it is difficult to make a predictable prognosis for children with the diagnosis of PMG.

# Diagnosis
With increased use of imaging techniques such as MRI or CT, polymicrogyria is becoming more widely diagnosed. However, polymicrogyria is often misdiagnosed as pachygyria or lissencephaly, even by experienced radiologists, since the differences between these conditions can be difficult to see on an MRI or CT scan.

# Pathology
Polymicrogyria is a disorder of neuronal migration resulting in structurally abnormal cerebral hemispheres. The Latin roots of the name describe its salient feature: many  small  gyri (convolutions in the surface of the brain). It is also characterized by shallow sulci, a slightly thicker cortex, neuronal heterotopia and enlarged ventricles. When many of these small folds are packed tightly together, PMG may resemble pachygyria (a few "thick folds" - a mild form of lissencephaly).

# Etiology
Causes are genetic, viral, or due to nutritional deficits during gestation.
Reinke's edema
Synonyms and keywords: Polypoid degeneration

# Overview
Reinke's edema, also known as polypoid degeneration, is the swelling of the vocal folds due to fluid collection (edema).

# Historical Perspective
It is named for Friedrich Reinke.

# Causes
Common causes of Reinke's Edema include smoking, gastroesophageal reflux, hormonal changes such as hypothyroidism and chronic voice abuse.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination
Reinke's edema causes the vocal folds to bilaterally swell giving them an uneven, sac-like appearance. Individuals with Reinke's Edema typically have low-pitched, husky voices.

## Laboratory Findings
Histopathology: biopsy of the vocal cord may be used to help in the diagnosis of some cases. Histology shows edema in the stroma.

# Treatment
The first course of treatment is to remove the source of the irritant (e.g. smoking cessation, vocal rest, etc.). This can be effective if done soon after development of the edema. Surgery is also an option and can result in some restoration of the voice but is ineffective in complete restoration of the voice to its original state.

# Related Chapters
- List of voice disorders