Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Osteochondritis

# Overview
Osteochondritis dissecans (sometimes spelled dessecans, and abbreviated "OCD") is a painful condition within a joint of the body in humans or animals, in which fragments of cartilage or bone have become loose within a joint, leading to pain and inflammation. These fragments are sometimes referred to as "joint mice" due to a squeaking sound sometimes resulting from the joint.  Specifically, OCD is a type of osteochondrosis in which a lesion has formed within the cartilage layer itself, giving rise to secondary inflammation. It has a complex etiology, and can be caused by genetic, hormonal, environmental and nutritional factors.
OCD can often be treated surgically.

# General
OCD occurs when a loose piece of bone or cartilage separates from the end of the bone, often because of a loss of blood supply and insufficient amounts of calcium.  The loose piece may stay in place or slide around making the joint stiff and unstable.  OCD in humans most commonly affects the knees or ankles, but can also affect other joints such as the elbow.  If a serious injury occurs in this area, the bone around it will supply it with as much calcium as possible to try and fix the loose piece of bone.  This often results in a calcium build up around the loose piece.  This build up is surgically removed most of the time.
The term "dessicans" refers to the "creation of a flap of cartilage that further dissects away from its underlying subchondral attachments (dissecans)" 
OCD has been associated both to too little, and too much, calcium in the body.
OCD is a relatively rare disorder. It commonly occurs in boys and young men from 10-20 years of age while they are still growing.  As girls become more active in sports, it is becoming more common among them as well.  
Prevalence In knee, 3060 cases per 100,000 population

# Causes

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Acan mutation
- Aseptic necrosis of bone
- Avascular necrosis
- Blount disease
- Calcium deficiency
- Freiberg disease
- Humerus juvenile osteochondritis
- Ischemia
- Iselin disease
- Juvenile osteochondrosis of head of femur
- Juvenile osteochondrosis of spine
- Kienbock disease
- Kohler first disease
- Osgood-schlatter disease
- Physical trauma
- Repetitive strain injury
- Sever disease
- Sinding larsen-johannson disease

# Diagnosis
To determine whether your pains are osteochondritis dissecans, an MRI or X-Ray can be performed to show whether the loose piece of bone is still in place. In specific cases if caught early enough, a harmless dye will be injected into your blood stream to show where the calcium will most likely continue to build up.  Doing this makes the removal process much easier..
Midbrain tectum

# Overview
The tectum (Latin: roof) is a region of the brain, specifically the dorsal part of the mesencephalon (midbrain).
It is derived in embryonic development from the alar plate of the neural tube.  In adult humans it is present only in the mesencephalon as the inferior and the superior colliculi.
- The superior colliculus is involved in preliminary visual processing and control of eye movements.  In non-mammalian vertebrates it serves as the main visual area of the brain, functionally analogous to the visual areas of the cerebral cortex in mammals.
- The inferior colliculus is involved in auditory processing.  It receives input from various brain stem nuclei and projects to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, which relays auditory information to the primary auditory cortex.
Both colliculi also have descending projections to the paramedian pontine reticular formation and spinal cord, and thus can be involved in responses to stimuli faster than cortical processing would allow. Collectively the colliculi are referred to as the corpora quadrigemina.
The term "tectal plate" (or "quadrigeminal plate") is used to describe the junction of the gray and white matter in the embryo. (Template:Dorlands, Template:BrainInfo)
Mineral spirits
Mineral Spirits also called Stoddard solvent , is a petroleum distilate commonly used as a paint thinner and mild solvent.  In Europe, it is referred to as white spirit. In industry, mineral spirits is used for cleaning and degreasing machine tools and parts. According to Wesco, a supplier of solvents and cleaning equipment, mineral spirits "are especially effective in removing oils, greases, carbon, and other material from metal."  Mineral spirits may also be used in conjunction with cutting oil as a thread cutting and reaming lubricant.
Artists use mineral spirits as an alternative to turpentine, one that is both less flammable and less toxic. Because of interactions with pigments, artists require a higher grade of mineral spirits than many industrial users, including the complete absence of residual sulphur. Odorless Mineral Spirits are mineral spirits that have been further refined to remove the more toxic aromatic compounds, and are recommended for applications such as oil painting, where humans have close contact with the solvent.
A typical composition for mineral spirits is the following: aliphatic solvent hexane having a maximum aromatic hydrocarbon content of 0.1% by volume, a kauri-butanol value of 29, an initial boiling point of 149 F (65 C), a dry point of approximately 156 F (69 C), and a specific mass of 0.7 g/cc. In the European Community, the composition of mineral spirits comes from Article 11(2) of Directive 2002/96/EC (WEEE).

# Reference
Minkowski Prize
The Minkowski Prize is given by the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD), in recognition to research which has been carried out by a person normally residing in Europe, as manifested by publications which contribute to the advancement of knowledge concerning diabetes mellitus. The Prize honors the name of Oskar Minkowski (1858-1931), a Polish physician and physiologist who was the discoverer of the role of pancreas in the control of glucose metabolism. It is awarded annually since 1966 and the winner is invited to pronounce a Minkowski Lecture during the EASD Annual Conference.
Since 1966 the award is sponsored by Sanofi-Aventis, a pharmaceutical lab. The prize consists of a certificate and 20,000 euros plus travel expenses. The candidate must be less than 45 years of age on the first of January of the year of award. Self-nomination is also possible.

# Winners
With the city where the prize was awarded (Annual Conference), name and country.
- 1966 Aarhus - P. J. Randle (United Kingdom)
- 1967 Stockholm - E. R. Froesch (Switzerland)
- 1968 Louvain - L. A. Carlson (Sweden)
- 1969 Montpellier - B. Hellman (Switzerland)
- 1970 Warsaw - B. Jeanrenaud (Switzerland)
- 1971 Southampton - C. N. Hales (United Kingdom)
- 1972 Madrid - W. J. Malaisse (Belgium)
- 1973 Brussels  Lelio Orci (Switzerland)
- 1974 Jerusalem - E. Cerasi (Sweden)
- 1975 Munich - P. Freychet (France)
- 1976 Helsinki - K. D. Hepp (Germany)
- 1977 Geneva - J. Wahren (Sweden)
- 1978 Zagreb  Jorn Nerup (Denmark)
- 1979 Vienna - S. J. H. Ashcroft (United Kingdom)
- 1980 Athens - I.-B. Taljedal (Sweden)
- 1981 Amsterdam - Pierre De Meyts (Belgium)
- 1982 Budapest - G. F. Bottazzo (United Kingdom)
- 1983 Oslo - S. L. Howell (United Kingdom)
- 1984 London - A. Lernmark (Denmark)
- 1985 Madrid - E. Van Obberghen (France)
- 1986 Rome  Daniel Pipeleers (Belgium)
- 1987 Leipzig - J.-L. Carpentier (Switzerland)
- 1988 Paris - J. C. Hutton (United Kingdom)
- 1989 Lisbon - H. U. Haring (Germany)
- 1990 Copenhagen  Philippe Halban (Switzerland)
- 1991 Dublin - C. Boitard (France)
- 1992 Prague - E. Van Schaftingen (Belgium)
- 1993 Istanbul - Hannele Yki-Jarvinen (Finland)
- 1994 Dusseldorf - Thomas Mandrup Poulsen (Denmark)
- 1995 Stockholm - J. Todd (United Kingdom)
- 1996 Vienna - P. Rorsman (Denmark)
- 1997 Helsinki - P. Froguel (France)
- 1998 Barcelona - Johan H. Auwerx (France)
- 1999 Brussels - R. Scharfmann (France)
- 2000 Jerusalem  Helena Edlund (Sweden)
- 2001 Glasgow  Julee R. Zierath (Sweden)
- 2002 Budapest - B. O. Roep (Belgium)
- 2003 Paris - Michael Stumvoll (Germany)
- 2004 Munich  Guy A. Rutter (United Kingdom)
- 2005 Athens  Peter Rossing (Denmark)
Miosis overview

# Overview
Miosis is a medical term for constriction of the pupil. It is the opposite of mydriasis. It is seen in a variety of medical conditions, and can also be caused by certain drugs and chemicals.  Eye drops used to intentionally cause miosis are known as "miotics". Extreme miosis is commonly called "pinpoint pupils", a situation that can be caused by use of opiates.

# Diagnosis

## CT
Chest CT if Horner's syndrome is found and to rule out apical lung mass

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
Chest CT if Horner's syndrome is found and to rule out apical lung mass

## Primary Prevention
Remove problem causing medications
Molecular sieve

# Overview
A molecular sieve is a material containing tiny pores of a precise and uniform size that is used as an adsorbent for gases and liquids.
Molecules small enough to pass through the pores are adsorbed while larger molecules are not.  It is different from a common filter in that it operates on a molecular level.  For instance, a water molecule may be small enough to pass through while larger molecules are not.  Because of this, they often function as a desiccant. A molecular sieve can adsorb water up to 22% of its own weight.
Often they consist of aluminosilicate minerals, clays, porous glasses, microporous charcoals, zeolites, active carbons, or synthetic compounds that have open structures through which small molecules, such as nitrogen and water can diffuse.
Molecular sieves are often utilized in the petroleum industry, especially for the purification of gas streams and in the chemistry laboratory for separating compounds and drying reaction starting materials. The mercury content of natural gas is extremely harmful to the aluminum piping and other parts of the liquefaction apparatus - silica gel is used in this case.
Methods for regeneration of molecular sieves include pressure change (as in oxygen concentrators), heating and purging with a carrier gas (as when used in ethanol dehydration), or heating under high vacuum.

# Adsorption capabilities
- 3A (pore size 3 A): Adsorbs NH3, H2O, (not C2H6), good for drying polar liquids. 
- 4A (pore size 4 A): Adsorbs H2O, CO2, SO2, H2S, C2H4, C2H6, C3H6, EtOH. Will not adsorb C3H8 and higher hydrocarbons. Good for drying nonpolar liquids and gases.
- 5A (pore size 5 A): Adsorbs normal (linear) hydrocarbons to n-C4H10, alcohols to C4H9OH, mercaptans to C4H9SH. Will not adsorb isocompounds or rings greater than C4.
- 10X (pore size 8 A): Adsorbs branched hydrocarbons and aromatics. Useful for drying gases.
- 13X (pore size 10 A): Adsorbs di-n-butylamine (not tri-n-butylamine). Useful for drying HMPA.
Mood stabilizer

# Overview
A mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by rapid and unstable mood shifts. The most common is bipolar disorder, where mood stabilizers suppress swings between mania and depression, and these drugs are also used in borderline personality disorder. Most mood stabilizers are anticonvulsants, with the important exception of lithium, which is the oldest and best known mood stabilizing drug.

# Mood stabilizers include
- Lithium carbonate - Lithium is the 'classic' mood stabilizer. The first Food and Drug Administration-approved mood stabilizer, and still popular in treatment. Therapeutic drug monitoring required. Monitor blood lithium levels (therapeutic range: 0.6 or 0.8-1.2 mEq/L) and look for signs and symptoms of toxicity (such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, ataxia). See also lithium orotate, another lithium salt.
- Valproic acid (Depakene), divalproex sodium (Depakote), and sodium valproate (Depacon)  Available in extended release form.  Can be very irritating to the stomach, especially when taken as valproic acid. Liver function and CBC should be monitored.  Therapeutic drug monitoring is required.
- Lamotrigine (Lamictal)  Particularly effective for bipolar depression.  Monitor for signs and symptoms of Stevens-Johnson syndrome, very rare but can be fatal.
- Carbamazepine (Tegretol)  CBC should be monitored; can lower white blood cell count. Therapeutic drug monitoring is required.  Not FDA-approved for bipolar disorder, but widely used for many years.
- Gabapentin (Neurontin)  Not FDA approved for bipolar disorder. Recent scientific studies suggest it is not an effective treatment, however many psychiatrists continue to use it.
- Oxcarbazepine (Trileptal)  Not FDA approved for bipolar disorder.
- Topiramate (Topamax)  Not FDA approved for bipolar disorder.
Sometimes mood stabilizers are used in combination, such as lithium with one of the anticonvulsants.
Many atypical antipsychotics also have mood stabilizing effects and are thus commonly prescribed even when psychotic symptoms are absent.  It is also conjectured that Omega-3 fatty acids may have a mood stabilizing effect. However, more research is needed to verify this (a multi-year study of this is now being carried out as of 2001).
Most mood stabilizers are effective at treating mania and mood cycling and shifting, but are not very effective at treating depression (with lamotrigine and lithium carbonate being exceptions).  Often, an antidepressant is prescribed in addition to the mood stabilizer during depressive phases.  However this brings some risks, as antidepressants can induce mania, psychosis, and other disturbing problems in bipolar patients, particularly when taken alone, but sometimes even when used with a mood stabilizer.
Mouth breathing
Mouth breathing refers to the state of inhaling and exhaling through the mouth.
A healthy individual normally breathes through the nose while resting or doing light exercise, and breathes simultaneously through both the nose and mouth during vigorous aerobic exercise, in order to supply sufficient oxygen.  Excessive mouth breathing is problematic because air is not filtered and warmed as much as when inhaled through the nose, as it bypasses the nasal canal and paranasal sinuses, and dries out the mouth.  Mouth breathing is often associated with congestion, obstruction, or other abnormalities of the upper respiratory tract. Mouth breathing is a diagnostic sign of adenoiditis especially with persistent rhinorrhea. Comorbidities include asthma, obesity, snoring, halitosis, and obstructive sleep apnea.

# Social perception
Mouth breathing in public is sometimes considered to be less socially acceptable or attractive than nose breathing, as mouth breathers can appear to have a somewhat "slack jawed" look, and mouth breathing can cause or exacerbate bad breath.  Consequently, the term "mouth breather" may be used in a pejorative sense for someone lacking in hygiene or intelligence.

# Buteyko asthma treatment
Mouth breathing may have a role in exacerbating asthma. One of the principle aims of the Buteyko method for the treatment of asthma is to encourage nasal breathing, to the point of actually using paper tape to keep the lips closed.
Mucous membrane
The mucous membranes (or mucosae; singular: mucosa) are linings of mostly endodermal origin, covered in epithelium, which are involved in absorption and secretion. They line various body cavities that are exposed to the external environment and internal organs.  It is at several places continuous with skin: at the nostrils, the lips, the ears, the genital area, and the anus.   The sticky, thick fluid secreted by the mucous membranes and gland is termed mucus. The term mucous membrane refers to where they are found in the body and not every mucous membrane secretes mucus.
Body cavities featuring mucous membrane include most of the respiratory system. The glans penis (head of the penis) and glans clitoridis and the inside of the prepuce (foreskin) and clitoral hood are mucous membranes, not skin.

# Components
- Epithelium
- Lamina propria
- Smooth muscle/Muscularis mucosa/ (GI tract)

# Types of mucosa (incomplete)
- Buccal mucosa
- Gastric mucosa
- Intestinal mucosa
- Olfactory mucosa
- Oral mucosa
- bronchial mucosa
- Uterine mucosa
- Endometrium is the mucosa of the uterus

# Additional images
- Wall of the ureter.
- Section of mucous membrane of human stomach, near the cardiac orifice.
- General structure of the gut wall showing the Mucosa.
Mucuna pruriens
Mucuna pruriens (syn. Dolichos pruriens) is a tropical legume known by a multitude of common names, including velvet bean, cowitch, cowhage, kapikachu, nescafe, sea bean, kratzbohnen, konch, yerepe (Yoruba) and atmagupta. The plant is an annual, climbing shrub with long vines that can reach over 15 m.
It bears white, lavender, or purple flowers and pods that are covered in loose orange hairs which cause a severe itch if they come in contact with skin. The beans are shiny black or brown. It is found in tropical Africa, India and the Caribbean.
Mucuna pruriens seed powder contains high concentrations of levodopa, a direct precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine and has long been used in traditional Ayurvedic Indian medicine for diseases including parkinsonism. In large amounts (30 g dose) it and has been shown to be equally effective in the treatment of parkinsons disease as pure levodopa/carbidopa medications but no data on long-term efficacy and tolerability is available.
The hairs lining the pods contain serotonin and are very dangerous as they can cause severe irritations. In Africa these hairs are used to murder people by sprinkling them on to the food of the unsuspeting victim, who would then die from internal bleeding as the sharp hairs slice into the stomach and the intestinal lining.
In history, Mucuna has been used as an aphrodisiac. It is still used to increase libido in both men and women due to its dopamine inducing properties. Dopamine has a profound influence on sexual function.
In addition to levodopa, Mucuna allegedly also contains 5-HTP, nicotine, N,N-DMT, bufotenine, and 5-MeO-DMT.  As such, it would have psychedelic effects, and has purportedly been used in ayahuasca preparations.

# See Also
- Psychedelic plants
Murmur patterns

# Early Systolic Murmur
- Begins with S1 and ends before or about the middle of systole.

# Mid Systolic Murmur
- Begins after S1 and ends before S2.

# Late Systolic Murmur
- Begins at about the middle of systole and ends at the time of S2.

# Holosystolic (Pansystolic) Murmur
- Begins with S1 and ends with, or continues somewhat beyond, S2.

# Early Diastolic Murmur
- Begins with S2.

# Mid Diastolic Murmur
- Begins after S2.

# Late Diastolic Murmur
- Occurs immediately prior to S1.

# Continuous Murmur
- Has both systolic and diastolic components.

# Crescendo
- The loudness of the murmur increases progressively. The systolic component of a patent ductus arteriosus murmur is of this type.

# Decrescendo
- The loudness of the murmur decreases progressively. The murmurs of aortic and pulmonic regurgitation are examples of this type.

# Crescendo Decrescendo
- The loudness of the murmur increases and then decreases. This configuration is typical for systolic ejection murmurs.

# Plateau
- The loudness of the murmur remains relatively constant. Holosystolic murmurs are representative of this type.
Strain (injury)
A strain is an injury to a muscle in which the muscle fibers tear as a result of overstretching. Strains are also colloquially known as pulled muscles. The equivalent injury to a ligament is a sprain.
Typical symptoms of a strain include localized pain, stiffness, inflammation, and bruising around the strained muscle.

# Causes
Strains can happen to anyone and are certainly not restricted to athletes.  In fact people can commonly get strains from simple, everyday tasks. Nevertheless, people who play sports are more at risk of developing a strain.
Whiplash is a specific type of strain AND sprain injury to the neck and upper back. One can suffer with whiplash symptoms for many years after a serious car accident.

# Treatment
The first modality for a muscle strain in the acute phase is R.I.C.E.
- Rest: Stop all activities which cause pain to avoid the strain becoming more serious.
- Ice: Helps reduce swelling. Never ice for more than 10-15 minutes at a time. Use a layer of fabric or paper in between the ice and the injury to avoid burning the skin.
- Compression: Wrap the strained area to reduce swelling.
- Elevation: Keep the strained area as close to the level of the heart as is conveniently possible to keep blood from pooling in the injured area.
The Ice and Compression (Cold compression therapy) will stop the pain and swelling while the injury starts to heal itself.  Controlling the inflammation is critical to the healing process and the icing further restricts fluid leaking into the injured area as well as controlling pain.
Cold compression therapy wraps are a useful way to combine Icing and Compression to stop swelling and pain.
Myopia overview

# Overview
Myopia (from Greek:  myopia "near-sightedness"), also called near-or short-sightedness, is a refractive defect of the eye in which collimated light produces image focus in front of the retina when accommodation is relaxed.
Those with myopia see nearby objects clearly but distant objects appear blurred. With myopia, the eyeball is too long, or the cornea is too steep, so images are focused in the vitreous inside the eye rather than on the retina at the back of the eye.  The opposite defect of myopia is hyperopia or "farsightedness" or "long-sightedness"  this is where the cornea is too flat or the eye is too short.
Mainstream ophthalmologists and optometrists most commonly correct myopia through the use of corrective lenses, such as glasses or contact lenses. It may also be corrected by refractive surgery, such as LASIK. The corrective lenses have a negative optical power (i.e. are concave) which compensates for the excessive positive diopters of the myopic eye. In some cases, pinhole glasses are used by patients with low-level myopia. These work by reducing the blur circle formed on the retina.

# Pathohysiology
There are currently two basic mechanisms believed to cause myopia: form deprivation (also known as pattern deprivation) and optical defocus.Form deprivation occurs when the image quality on the retina is reduced; optical defocus occurs when light focus in front of or behind the retina. Numerous experiments with animals have shown that myopia can be artificially generated by inducing either of these conditions. In animal models wearing negative spectacle lenses, axial myopia has been shown to occur as the eye elongates to compensate for optical defocus. The exact mechanism of this image-controlled elongation of the eye is still unknown. It has been suggested that accommodative lag leads to blur (i.e. optical defocus) which in turn stimulates axial elongation and myopia.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination
A diagnosis of myopia is typically confirmed during an eye examination by an ophthalmologist or an optometrist. Frequently an autorefractor orretinoscopeis used to give an initial objective assessment of the refractive status of each eye, then a phoropter is used to subjectively refine the patient'seyeglass prescription.

# Treatment

## Surgery
Eyeglasses, contact lenses, and refractive surgery are the primary options to treat the visual symptoms of those with myopia. Orthokeratology is the practice of using special rigid contact lenses to flatten the cornea to reduce myopia.Many people with myopia are able to read comfortably without eyeglasses. Myopes considering refractive surgery are advised that this may be a disadvantage after the age of 40 when the eyes become presbyopic and lose their ability to accommodate or change focus.