Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Loa loa filaria

# Overview
Loa loa is the filarial nematode (roundworm) species that causes Loa loa filariasis.  Its geographic distribution includes Africa and India.  
L. loa is one of three parasitic filarial nematodes that cause subcutaneous filariasis in humans.  The two other filarial nematodes are Mansonella streptocerca and Onchocerca volvulus (causes river blindness).
Maturing larvae and adults of the eye worm occupy the subcutaneous layer of the skin ; the fat layer; of humans, causing disease. The young larvae develop in horseflies of the genus Chrysops (deer flies, yellow flies), including the species C. dimidiata and C. silacea, which infect humans by biting them.

# Pathophysiology

## Morphology
Loa loa worms have a simple body including a head, body, and tail.   Males range from 20mm to 34mm long and 350m to 430m wide.  Females range from 20mm to 70mm long and are about 425m wide.

## Life Cycle
The vector for Loa loa filariasis are flies from two species of the genus Chrysops, C. silacea and C. dimidiata. During a blood meal, an infected fly (genus Chrysops, day-biting flies) introduces third-stage filarial larvae onto the skin of the human host, where they penetrate into the bite wound (1). The larvae develop into adults that commonly reside in subcutaneous tissue (2). The female worms measure 40 to 70 mm in length and 0.5 mm in diameter, while the males measure 30 to 34 mm in length and 0.35 to 0.43 mm in diameter. Adults produce microfilariae measuring 250 to 300 m by 6 to 8 m, which are sheathed and have diurnal periodicity. Microfilariae have been recovered from spinal fluids, urine, and sputum. During the day they are found in peripheral blood, but during the noncirculation phase, they are found in the lungs (3). The fly ingests microfilariae during a blood meal (4) . After ingestion, the microfilariae lose their sheaths and migrate from the fly's midgut through the hemocoel to the thoracic muscles of the arthropod(5). There the microfilariae develop into first-stage larvae (6) and subsequently into third-stage infective larvae (7). The third-stage infective larvae migrate to the fly's proboscis (8) and can infect another human when the fly takes a blood meal (1).
Local gigantism
Local gigantism or localised gigantism is a condition in which a certain part of the body acquires larger than normal size due to excessive growth of the anatomical structures or abnormal accumulation of substances. It is more common in fingers and toes, where it is termed macrodactyly. However, sometimes an entire limb may be enlarged.

# Causes
Local gigantism may be caused by a heterogeneous group of both congenital and acquired conditions.

## Congenital
Congenital causes include:
- Klippel Trenaunay Weber syndrome
- Maffuci syndrome
- macrodystrophia lipomatosa
- neurofibromatosis,
- lipoatrophic diabetes.
- Proteus syndrome, which affected the Elephant Man

## Acquired
There are a number of acquired causes of local gigantism. A body part can attain bigger size from causes as common as the following:
- inflammation, due to trauma or infection
- tumors like osteoid osteoma, melorheostosis, and lipofibromatous hamartoma
- Arteriovenous malformations occurring on a limb, before the closure of epiphyses in long bones
- Elephantiasis, which is quite common in south-east asia due to prevalence of filariasis.
- Still's disease
- amyloidosis
- acromegaly

## Treatment
As the causes of local gigantism are varied, treatment depends on the particular condition.  Treatment may range from antibiotics and other medical therapy, to surgery in order to correct the anatomical anomaly.
Low-grade fever
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Synonyms and keywords: Low grade fever

# Overview
Low-grade fever is a continuous or fluctuating low fever, typically defined as never exceeding 38.5 degrees Celsius (about 101 degrees Fahrenheit). It is a non-specific finding, but occurs in many diseases, ranging from infectious (viral diseases or infective endocarditis) to autoimmune to malignant causes.
A persistent low grade fever can be a sign of many illnesses.
Lower body lift

# Overview
A lower body lift is a medical procedure, a specialized type of "tummy tuck".  It an extension of the high lateral tension tummy tuck concept developed by the late Dr. Ted Lockwood. Lockwood basically re-invented the tummy tuck by re-defining the nature of suspension of the deeper tissues of the abdomen and flank. The lower body lift extends the tummy tuck incision completely around the lower torso. This allows re-suspension of the lateral and anterior thighs along with the traditional tummy tuck improvements.
The operation is extensive and is known for wound healing complications. Some surgeons have arbitrarily divided the operation into smaller portions to help limit these complications. Furthermore, the concept has been expanded upon to include additional lifts such as those of the inner thigh (medial thigh lift). The traditional lower body lift targeted the upper thighs as well as the buttocks and abdomen. For the large volume weight loss patient, this operation is ideal to remove the redundant skin that frequently "hangs" around the lower torso.
These operations typically require 5-8 hours operating time when done "all at once". The procedure requires time off from work. Close post-operative supervision is advised.
Luche reduction
Luche reduction is the selective organic reduction of ketones to alcohols with lanthanoid chlorides such as cerium(III) chloride and sodium borohydride as enones or in presence of aldehydes  
An enone forms an allyl alcohol in a 1,2-addition. Competing conjugate 1,4-addition is suppressed. The solvent is an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol.
The selectivity can be explained in terms of HSAB theory: carbonyl groups require hard nucleophiles for 1,2-addition. The hardness of the borohydride is increased by replacing hydride groups with alkoxide groups, a reaction catalyzed by the cerium salt. Another purpose for cerium is to increase the electrophilicity of the carbonyl group.
In one application a ketone is selectively reduced in presence of an aldehyde.
Lumbar arteries
The lumbar arteries  are in series with the intercostals.
They are usually four in number on either side, and arise from the back of the aorta, opposite the bodies of the upper four lumbar vertebr.
A fifth pair, small in size, is occasionally present: they arise from the middle sacral artery.
They run lateralward and backward on the bodies of the lumbar vertebr, behind the sympathetic trunk, to the intervals between the adjacent transverse processes, and are then continued into the abdominal wall.
The arteries of the right side pass behind the inferior vena cava, and the upper two on each side run behind the corresponding crus of the diaphragm.
The arteries of both sides pass beneath the tendinous arches which give origin to the Psoas major, and are then continued behind this muscle and the lumbar plexus.
They now cross the Quadratus lumborum, the upper three arteries running behind, the last usually in front of the muscle.
At the lateral border of the Quadratus lumborum they pierce the posterior aponeurosis of the Transversus abdominis and are carried forward between this muscle and the Obliquus internus.
They anastomose with the lower intercostal, the subcostal, the iliolumbar, the deep iliac circumflex, and the inferior epigastric arteries.

# Additional images
- The relations of the viscera and large vessels of the abdomen.
Lymph capillary
Lymph capillaries or lymphatic capillaries are tiny  thin-walled blood vessels that are closed at one end and are located in the spaces between cells throughout the body, except in the central nervous system, and in non-vascular tissues. The main purpose of these vessels is to drain excess tissue fluids from around the cell ready to be filtered and returned to the venous circulation. This tissue fluid upon entering the lumen (elongated cavity of any fluid) is known as the lymph.
Lymphatic capillaries are slightly larger in diameter than blood capillaries and have a unique structure that permits interstitial fluid to flow into them but not out. The ends of endothelial cells that make up the wall of a lymphatic capillary overlap. When pressure is greater in the interstitial fluid than in lymph, the cells separate slightly, like the opening of a one-way swinging door, and interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic capillary. When pressure is greater inside the lymphatic capillary, the cells adhere more closely, and lymph cannot escape back into interstitial fluid.  Attached to the lymphatic capillaries are anchoring filaments, which contain elastic fibers. They extend out from the lymphatic capillary, attaching lymphatic endothelial cells to surrounding tissues. Lymph capillaries have a greater oncotic pressure, which is due to the greater concentration of plasma proteins in the lymph.
The lymphatic capillary becomes the afferent lymphatic vessel and carries the lymph into a lymph node.
When excess interstitial fluid accumulates and causes tissue swelling, the anchoring filaments are pulled, making the openings between cells even larger so that more fluid can flow into the lymphatic capillary.
Lymphadenectomy

# Overview
Lymphadenectomy consists on the surgical removal of one or more groups of lymph nodes. It is almost always performed as part of the surgical management of cancer.
This is usually done because many types of cancer have a marked tendency to produce lymph node metastasis early on in their natural history. This is particularly true of melanoma, head and neck cancer, differentiated thyroid cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, gastric cancer and colorectal cancer. Famed British surgeon Sir Berkeley Moynihan once remarked that "the surgery of cancer is not the surgery of organs; it is the surgery of the lymphatic system".
The better known examples of lymphadenectomy are axillary lymph node dissection for breast cancer; radical neck dissection for head and neck cancer and thyroid cancer; D2 lymphadenectomy for gastric cancer; and total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer.
More recently, the concept of sentinel lymph node mapping has been popularized by Dr. Donald Morton and others. Cancer with various primary sites, breast, melanoma, colorectal, etc, often metastasize early to the first drainage lymphatic basin. This process is predictable anatomically according to the primary site in the organ and the lymphatic channels.  The first nodes (sentinel nodes) can be identified by particulate markers such as lymphazurin, methylene blue, india ink and radio-labelled colloid protein particles injected near the tumor site.  The draining sentinel node can then be found by the surgeon and excised for verification by the pathologist if tumor cells are present, and often these tumor cells are few and only easily recognized by careful examination or by using techniques such as special stains, i.e. immunohistochemical.  When the sentinel node is free of tumor cells, this is highly predictive of freedom from metastasis in the entire lymphatic basin, thus leading to futility of a full node dissection.
The practice of sentinel lymph node mapping has changed the surgical approach in many cancer systems, sparing a formal lymph node dissection for patients with sentinel lymph node negative for tumor and directing a full node dissection for patients with sentinel lymph node positive for tumor metastases.  For example in stage II breast carcinoma, using the sentinel lymph node technique, 65% of patients could be spared from a formal node dissection.
Lysogenic cycle
Lysogeny, or the lysogenic cycle, is one of two methods of viral reproduction (the lytic cycle is the other).  Lysogeny is characterized by the fusion of the nucleic acid of a bacteriophage with that of a host bacterium. The newly integrated genetic material, called a prophage can be transmitted to daughter cells at each subsequent cell division, and a later event (such as UV radiation) can release it, causing proliferation of new phages via the lytic cycle.

# Mixed cycles
Following are some types of viruses that replicate by the lysogenic cycle, but also partly by the lytic cycle.

## Bacteriophages
Some DNA phages, called temperate phages, only lyse a small fraction of bacterial cells; in the remaining majority of the bacteria, the phage DNA becomes integrated into the bacterial chromosome and replicates along with it. In this lysogenic state, the information contained in the viral nucleic acid is not expressed.  The model organism for studying lysogeny is the lambda phage.  Roughly 50-60 nucleotides are taken out of the lysogenic pathway and used.

## Herpes simplex virus
The Herpes simplex virus first enters the lytic cycle after infecting a human, then the lysogenic cycle before travelling to the nervous system where it resides in the nerve fibers as an episomal element. After a long period of time (months to years) in a latent stage, the herpes virus is often reactivated to the lytic stage, during which it may cause disease symptoms similar to those experienced during the initial infection.

# Lysogenic conversion
In some interactions between lysogenic phages and bacteria, lysogenic conversion may occur. It is when a temperate phage induces a change in the phenotype of the bacteria infected that is not part of a usual phage cycle. Changes can often involve the external membrane of the cell by making it impervious to other phages or even by increasing the pathogenic capability of the bacteria for a host.
Examples:
- Corynebacterium diphtheriae produces the toxin of diphtheria only when it is infected by the phage . In this case, the gene that codes for the toxin is carried by the phage, not the bacteria.
- Vibrio cholerae is a non-toxic strain that can become toxic, producing cholera toxin, when it is infected with the phage CTX.
- Clostridium botulinum causes botulism.
- Streptococcus pyogenes causes scarlet fever.
- Shiga toxin
- Tetanus
Extra genes present in prophage genomes which do not have a phage function but (may) act as fitness factors for the lysogen are termed "morons".
M. S. Valiathan
Marthanda Varma Sankaran Valiathan (more commonly known as M. V. S. Valiathan or M. S. Valiathan), is an Indian cardiac surgeon and a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. Dr. Valiathan received his initial medical education in India, and specialized training in cardiac surgery in UK and USA. His medical interests have spanned the fields of pediatric cardiac surgery, tropical heart muscle disease and development of cardiovascular devices. He is former Director of the Sri Chitra Tirunal Institute of Medical Sciences, Thiruvananthapuram and former Vice Chancellor of Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE). He was invited to deliver the Hunterian Lecture at the Royal College of Surgeons of England in London.
Dr. Valiathan has authored a book, Legacy of Caraka, which is a retelling of the samhita (Sanskrit: collection) composed by Caraka, the founder of Ayurveda.
Dr. Valiathan is a Fellow of Indian National Academy of Engineering and a recipient of Indian National Science Academy's Shree Dhanwantari Prize in 1991. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian honour, in 2005.

# Bibliography
- Valiathan, M. S. (2003). The Legacy of Caraka. Orient Longman. ISBN 8125025057..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
MASP1 (protein)
Mannan-binding lectin serine protease 1 also known as mannose-associated serine protease 1 (MASP-1) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MASP1 gene.
MASP-1 is involved in the lectin pathway of the complement system and is responsible for cleaving C4 and C2 into fragments to form a C3-convertase.

# Function
MASP-1 is a serine protease that functions as a component of the lectin pathway of complement activation. The complement pathway plays an essential role in the innate and adaptive immune response. MASP-1 is synthesized as a zymogen and is activated when it complexes with the pathogen recognition molecules of lectin pathway, the mannose-binding lectin and the ficolins. This protein is not directly involved in complement activation but may play a role as an amplifier of complement activation by cleaving complement C2 or by activating another complement serine protease, MASP-2. MASP-1 is also able to cleave fibrinogen and factor XIII and may be involved in coagulation. A splice variant of this gene which lacks the serine protease domain functions as an inhibitor of the complement pathway.
MASP2 (protein)
Mannan-binding lectin serine protease 2 also known as mannose-binding protein-associated serine protease 2 (MASP-2) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MASP2 gene.

# Function
The Ra-reactive factor (RARF) is a complement-dependent bactericidal factor that binds to the Ra and R2 polysaccharides expressed by certain enterobacteria. Alternate splicing of this gene results in two transcript variants encoding two RARF components that are involved in the mannan-binding lectin pathway of complement activation. The longer isoform is cleaved into two chains which form a heterodimer linked by a disulfide bond. The encoded proteins are members of the trypsin family of peptidases.
MASP-2 is involved in the complement system. MASP-2 is very similar to the C1s molecule, of the classical complement pathway, and they are thought to have a common evolutionary ancestor. When the carbohydrate-recognising heads of MBL bind to specifically arranged mannose residues on the surface of a pathogen, MASP-2 is activated to cleave complement components C4 and C2 into C4a, C4b, C2a, and C2b.
Macroangiopathy
In macroangiopathy, fat and blood clots build up in the large blood vessels, stick to the vessel walls, and block the flow of blood.
The decrease of blood flow through stenosis or clot formation impair the flow of oxygen to cells and biological tissues (called ischemia) and lead to their death (necrosis and gangrene, which in turn may require amputation). Thus, tissues which are very sensitive to oxygen levels, such as the retina, develop microangiopathy and may cause blindness (so-called proliferative diabetic retinopathy). Damage to nerve cells may cause peripheral neuropathy, and to kidney cells, diabetic nephropathy (Kimmelstiel-Wilson syndrome).
Macroangiopathy, on the other hand, may cause other complications, such as ischemic heart disease, stroke and peripheral vascular disease which contributes to the diabetic foot ulcers and the risk of amputation.
(Angiopathy is the generic term for a disease of the blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries). The best known and most prevalent angiopathy is the diabetic angiopathy, a complication that may occur in chronic diabetes.
There are two types of angiopathy: macroangiopathy and microangiopathy.
Mammary Souffle
Synonyms and keywords:Accidental heart murmur

# Overview
Mammary souffle is a benign heart condition that is related to pregnancy

# Historical Perspective
- Mammary souffle was first introduced by Gibson, G. A. classic paper about continous heart murmur on 1900.

# Classification
- A form of continuous benign murmur related to pregnancy.

# Pathophysiology
- It is an innocent murmur.
- Continuous murmur with maximal intensity during systole.
- Best audible in intercostal spaces II-IV of sternal border.

# Causes
- The exact mechanism of this condition is not determined.
- It is very common among pregnant women, every 3 will develop such condition out of 10.

# Differentiating Mammary souffle from other Diseases
- Mammary souffle must be differentiated from other conditions with continuous heart murmur.
- For differential tale check patent ductus arteriosus differential table.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
- The incidence of mammary souffle among pregnant women is about 15000 out of 100000 .
- There is no published difference between race or age of cases.

# Risk Factors
- Mammary souffle is a benign physiologic condition .
- There is no known risk factor for this condition.

# Screening
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for Mammary souffle .

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
- Murmur can start from 3rd trimester and may continue until two weeks post partum.
- This situation is usually self-limited and does not need any follow up.

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Study of Choice
The diagnosis of Mammary souffle is made when all other causes for continuous heart murmur are ruled out.

## History and Symptoms
The majority of patients with Mammary souffle are asymptomatic.

## Physical Examination
- Mammary souffle usually appears with a continuous murmur which subsides after one or two weeks post partum.
- Any positive cardiac related physical exam findings must be evaluated.

## Laboratory Findings
There are no diagnostic laboratory findings associated with Mammary souffle.

## Electrocardiogram
There are no ECG findings associated with Mammary souffle.

## X-ray
There are no x-ray findings associated with Mammary souffle.

## Echocardiography or Ultrasound
There are no echocardiography/ultrasound  findings associated with Mammary souffle.

## CT scan
There are no CT scan findings associated with Mammary souffle.

## MRI
There are no MRI findings associated with Mammary souffle.

## Other Imaging Findings
There are no other imaging findings associated with Mammary souffle.

## Other Diagnostic Studies
There are no other diagnostic studies associated with Mammary souffle.
Mammary souffle

# Overview
The Mammary Souffle is a murmur heard during late pregnancy and the early postpartum period in lactating women.

# Pathophysiology
It is thought to be arterial in origin and can be bilateral.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Cardiac
It can be a continuous murmur.  The murmur is louder, peaks in systole, vanishes in the upright position, and is abolished by local compression.
Marvin Dunnette
Marvin D. Dunnette is an American psychology professor and one of the key figures in the history of industrial and organizational psychology.
He graduated from the University of Minnesota with a degree in Chemical Engineering in 1948. He developed and validated the Minnesota Engineering Analogies Test as his doctoral dissertation requirement. Shortly after obtaining his Ph.D. in 1954, he joined 3M Company as Manager of Employee Relations Research.
He left 3M in 1960 to become Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Minnesota. Perhaps his best known book is the Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology published in 1976.
In 1994 he was one of 52 signatories on "Mainstream Science on Intelligence," an editorial written by Linda Gottfredson and published in the Wall Street Journal, which defended the findings on race and intelligence in The Bell Curve.