Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Onychogryposis
Synonyms and keywords: Onychogryphosis; claw-like nails; ram's-horn nail

# Overview
Onychogryposis is a thickening and increase in curvature of the nail. An affected nail may have many grooves and ridges, is usually brownish in color, and grows more quickly on one side than on the other.

# Pathophysiology

## Associated Conditions
- Anemia
- Chronic chemical damage
- Lichen ruber
- Thyroid Disease

# Causes

## Common Causes
It is usually the result of injury to the matrix, sometimes coupled with a long term fungal infection, which causes the nail to grow more thickly. It may be partially hereditary and is caused by neglect. It is most commonly seen in the great toe but may be seen in other toes as well as the fingernails. Unusual thickness is also associated with circulation problems.

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Fungal infection
- Genetics
- Haim-Munk syndrome
- Injury
- Jadassohn-Lewandowsky syndrome
- Neglect

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
The thick curved nail is difficult to cut, and often remains untrimmed, exacerbating the problem.  Long, untreated nails due to onychogryphosis are an often a hidden cause of disability among the elderly.
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Climbing fiber

# Overview
Climbing fibers are the name given to a series of neuronal projections from the inferior olivary nucleus located in the medulla.
These axons pass through the pons and enter the cerebellum where they form synapses with the deep cerebellar nuclei and Purkinje cells. Each climbing fiber will form synapses with 1-10 Purkinje cells.
Early in development, Purkinje cells are innervated by multiple climbing fibers, but as the cerebellum matures, these inputs gradually become eliminated resulting in a single climbing fiber input per Purkinje cell.
These fibers provide very powerful, excitatory input to the cerebellum which results in the generation of complex spikes in Purkinje cells.
Climbing fiber activation is thought to serve as a motor error signal sent to the cerebellum, and is an important signal for motor timing.
These Climbing fibres carry information to various sources such as the spinal cord, vestibular system, red nucleus, superior colliculus, reticular formation and sensory and motor cortices.
Clitoral crura

# Overview
The clitoral crura are an internal portion of the clitoris. A single one is called a clitoral crus. They are shaped like an inverted "V" with the vertex of the "V" connecting to the clitoral body.
They are near the vestibular bulbs, also known as the clitoral bulbs.
They are to the left and right of the urethra, urethral sponge, and vagina and extend back toward the pubic bone.
The clitoral crura contain muscles called the ischiocavernosi.
"Crus" basically translates as "leg", thus "crura" as "legs".
Clitoral glans

# Overview
The clitoral glans (glans clitoridis) is an external portion of the clitoris.
It is covered by the clitoral hood, which is also external and attached to the labia minora. It is attached to the frenulum clitoridis, which is also attached to the labia minora.
The clitoral glans is attached to the clitoral body, which is internal.

# Additional images
- Outer anatomy of clitoris.
- Stages in the development of the external sexual organs in the male and female.
Cogan syndrome
Synonyms and keywords: Oculovestibuloauditory syndrome

# Overview
Cogan syndrome is a rare disorder characterized by recurrent  inflammation of the front of the eye (the cornea) and often fever, fatigue, and weight loss, episodes of dizziness, and hearing loss. It can lead to deafness or blindness if untreated. The classic form of the disease was first described by D.G. Cogan in 1945.

# Historical Perspective
In 1945 D.G. Cogan first described the "nonsyphilitic interstitial keratitis and vestibuloauditory symptoms" that would later bear his name (Cogan, 1945). In 1963, the atypical form of Cogan syndrome was first described (Bennett, 1963)

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Cogan Syndrome from other Diseases
ABBREVIATIONS
VZV= Varicella zoster virus, MRI= Magnetic resonance imaging, ESR= Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, EEG= Electroencephalogram, CSF= Cerebrospinal fluid, GPe= Globus pallidus externa, ICHD=  International Classification of Headache Disorders

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria

## Symptoms

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy

## Surgery

## Prevention

# Related disorders
- McCabe disease
Collapsed vein
Collapsed veins are a common result of chronic use of intravenous injections. They are particularly common where injecting conditions are less than ideal, such as in the context of drug abuse.
Veins may become temporarily blocked if the internal lining of the vein swells in response to repeated injury or irritation. This may be caused by the needle, the substance injected, or both. Once the swelling subsides the circulation will often become re-established.
Permanent vein collapse occurs as a consequence of:
- Long-term injecting
- Repeated injections, especially with blunt needles
- Poor technique
- Injection of substances which irritate the veins.
Smaller veins may collapse as a consequence of too much suction being used when pulling back against the plunger of the syringe to check that the needle is in the vein. This will pull the sides of the vein together and, especially if they are inflamed, they may stick together causing the vein to block. Removing the needle too quickly after injecting can have a similar effect.
Colloid milium
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# Overview
Colloid miliumis a skin condition characterized by a translucent, flesh-colored, or slightly yellow 1- to 5-mm papule.:31

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Colloid milium. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Colloid milium. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Colloid milium. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.</SMAL
- Colloid milium. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.

# Treatment
There is no entirely successful treatment for colloid milium. Attempted treatments with varying results include:
- Cryotherapy
- Er:YAG laser
- Dermabrasion
- Diathermy
- Systemic ascorbic acid
- Exfoliating agents
Columnar phase
The columnar phase is a class of liquid-crystalline phases in which molecules assemble into cylindrical structures to act as mesogens. Originally, these kinds of liquid crystals were called discotic liquid crystals because the columnar structures are composed of flat-shaped discotic molecules stacked one-dimensionally. Since recent findings provide a number of columnar liquid crystals consisting of non-discoid mesogens, it is more common now to classify this state of matter and compounds with these properties as columnar liquid crystals.

# Classes of Columnar Phases
Columnar liquid crystals are grouped by their structural order and the ways of packing of the columns. Nematic columnar liquid crystals have no long-range order and are less organized than other columnar liquid crystals. Other columnar phases with long-range order are classified by their two-dimensional lattices: hexagonal, tetragonal, rectangular, and oblique phases.
The discotic nematic phase includes nematic liquid crystals composed of flat-shaped discotic molecules without long-range order. In this phase, molecules do not form specific columnar assemblies but only float with their short axes in parallel to the director (a unit vector which defines the liquid-crystalline alignment and order).

# Current Topics of Interest
The first discotic liquid crystal was found in 1977 by the Indian researcher Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar. This molecule has one central benzene ring surrounded by six alkyl chains. Since then, a large number of discoid mesogenic compounds have been discovered in which triphenylene, porphyrin, phthalocyanine, coronene, and other aromatic molecules are involved. The typical columnar liquid-crystalline molecules have a pi-electron-rich aromatic core attached by flexible alkyl chains. This structure is attracting particular attention for potential molecular electronics in which aromatic parts transport electrons or holes and alkyl chains act as insulating parts. The advantages of liquid-crystalline conductors are their anisotropy, processibility, and self-healing characteristics for structural defects.
-  S. Chandrasekhar, B. K. Sadashiva and K. A. Suresh,"Liquid crystals of disc-like molecules", Pramana, 1977, 9 471.
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Commissurotomy
A commissurotomy is a surgical incision of a commissure in the body, as one made in the heart to relieve constriction of the mitral valve or one made in the brain to treat certain psychiatric disorders.
Patients with scleroderma, a disease that thickens and hardens the skin, sometimes require oral commissurotomy to open the corners of the mouth, the commissures, to allow dental treatment.  This procedure often leaves characteristic scars.
In neurosurgery, a commissurotomy may be performed to sever the corpus callosum; doing so has been used in cases of severe epilepsy to prevent the two hemispheres of the brain communicating.
Concha bullosa

# Overview
Concha Bullosa is an abnormal pneumatization of the middle turbinate which may interfere with normal ventilation of sinus ostia and can result in recurrent sinusitis.
As explained by doctors, "Concha bullosa refers to an enlargement or ballooning of the nasal turbinate (which is a normal structure in the nose). Concha bullosa is a normal anatomic variant, but occasionally, a concha bullosa can be very large and contribute to sinus obstruction. In these cases, the concha bullosa can be readily reduced by surgery."
Concha refers to the turbinate in this case, the middle turbinate. Bullosa refers to a bubble-like structure. A middle turbinate which has an air cell in it is a concha bullosa. When these are large, they can cause nasal obstruction or facial pressure or blockage of the sinus outflow tracts. They are easily reduced with endoscopic sinus surgery.
Left concha bullosa

# Types of Concha Bullosa
Concha bullosa (CB) is the pneumatization of the concha and is one of the most common variations of the sinonasal anatomy. A 14%-53.6% frequency of concha bullosa was reported by various studies (1). Pneumatization of the concha, regardless of the amount and the location, was defined as concha bullosa (2). Bolger et al. have classified pneumatization of the concha based on the location as lamellar concha bullosa (LCB), bulbous concha bullosa (BCB) and extensive concha bullosa (ECB) (3)

# Conclusion
Concha bullosa is a common anatomic variant. There is a strong association between the presence of a concha bullosa and contralateral deviation of the nasal septum. Nasal septal deviation away from the dominant concha, with preserved adjacent air channels, suggests that the deviation is not a direct result of mass effect from the concha. No increased incidence of paranasal sinus disease exists in patients with concha bullosa.
Granulocytosis
Synonyms and keywords: Neutrophilia, congenital neutrophilia

# Overview
Granulocytosis is defined as the presence of an increased number of granulocytes, a category of white blood cells present in the peripheral blood. Often, the word refers to an increased neutrophil granulocyte count, as neutrophils are the main granulocytes. An increase in eosinophil granulocyte is known as eosinophilia. In cardiovascular disease, increased white blood cell counts have been shown to indicate a worse prognosis.

# Common Causes
Granulocytosis can be a feature of a number of diseases:
- Infection, especially bacterial
- Malignancy, most notably leukemia (it is the main feature of chronic myelogenous leukemia, CML)
- Autoimmune disease

# Causes by Organ System

# Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Acute intermittent porphyria
- Acute myeloid leukemia
- Acute pancreatitis
- Acute promyelocytic leukemia
- Adult-onset Still's disease
- Aminophylline
- Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia
- Chronic myeloid leukaemia
- Congenital syphilis
- Dinoprostone
- Extrinsic allergic alveolitis
- Filgrastim
- Gallbladder empyema
- Granulocyte colony stimulating factor
- Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor
- Hantavirus
- Hereditary neutrophilia
- Hyperimmunoglobulinemia D and periodic fever syndrome
- Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 1
- Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 2
- Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type 3
- Leukemoid reaction
- Lithium
- Lymphangitis
- Mast cell leukemia
- Polycythaemia rubra vera
- Recurrent hereditary polyserositis
- Severe acute respiratory syndrome
- Splenectomy
- Sulprostone
- Thrombin human
- Urate crystal arthropathy
- Wegener granulomatosis

# Left Shift
A "left shift" refers to the presence of increased proportions of younger, less well differentiated neutrophils and neutrophil-precursor cells in the blood.  This generally reflects early or premature release of myeloid cells from the bone marrow, the site where neutrophils are generated.  A severe neutrophilia with left shift is referred to as a leukemoid reaction. The leukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP) score, which refers to the amount of alkaline phosphatase per neutrophil, will increase. In a severe infection, toxic granulation changes happen to the neutrophils.
This can resemble Pelger-Huet anomaly.

# Related Chapters
- Leukocytosis
- Eosinophilia
- Monocytosis
- Lymphocytosis
- Agranulocytosis
- Complete blood count
Corneal reflex
Corneal reflex, also known as the blink reflex, is an automated involuntary blinking of the eyelids elicited by stimulation (such as touching or a foreign body) of the eyeball's cornea. Stimulation should elicit both a direct and consensual response. The evolutionary purpose of this reflex is to protect the eyes from foreign bodies.
The reflex is mediated by:
- the nasociliary branch of the ophthalmic branch (V1) of the 5th Cranial nerve (Trigeminal nerve) sensing the stimulus on the cornea,
- and the 7th Cranial nerve (Facial nerve) initiating the motor response.
Use of contact lenses may diminish or abolish this reflex.
The examination of the corneal reflex is a part of some neurological tests in particular the coma exam.
Coronary sinus

# Overview
The coronary sinus is a collection of veins joined together to form a large vessel that collects blood from the myocardium of the heart. It is present in humans and other animals.

# Location
It is located between the left atrium and ventricle on the posterior surface of the heart.
It runs transversely in the groove between the left atrium and ventricle on the posterior surface of the heart.
The coronary sinus orifice (opening) is just superior to the septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve.  The coronary sinus orifice is also known as the ostium of the coronary sinus.

# Drainage
It receives blood mainly from the small, middle, great and oblique cardiac veins. It also receives blood from the left marginal vein and the left posterior ventricular vein. The anterior cardiac veins drain directly into the right atrium. (Some small veins drain into any of the four chambers of the heart.)
It drains into the right atrium on the posterior, inferior surface, medial to the inferior vena cava opening.

# Additional images
- Diagram showing completion of development of the parietal veins.
- Template:SUNYAnatomyFigs - "Posterior view of the heart."
- Template:LoyolaMedEd

# Pathophysiology
The coronary sinus can be the site of drainage of an atrial septal defect (see coronary sinus atrial septal defect).
Corylus maxima
The Filbert (Corylus maxima) is a species of hazel native to southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia, from the Balkans to TurkeyOrdu.
It is a deciduous shrub 610 m tall, with stems up to 20 cm thick. The leaves are rounded, 512 cm long by 410 cm broad, with a coarsely double-serrated margin. The flowers are wind-pollinated catkins produced in late winter; the male (pollen) catkins are pale yellow, 510 cm long, while the female catkins are bright red and only 13 mm long. The fruit is a nut produced in clusters of 15 together; each nut is 1.52.5 cm long, fully enclosed in a 35 cm long, tubular involucre (husk).
The Filbert is similar to the related Common Hazel (C. avellana), differing in having the nut more fully enclosed by the tubular involucre. This feature is shared by the Beaked Hazel (C. cornuta) of North America, and the Asian Beaked Hazel (C. sieboldiana) of eastern Asia.

# Uses
The Filbert nut is edible, and is very similar to the Common Hazel nut. Filberts are sometimes grown in orchards for the nuts, but much less often than the Common Hazel.
The purple-leaved cultivar Corylus maxima 'Purpurea' is a popular ornamental shrub in gardens,

# Language
In Oregon, "filbert" is used of commercial hazelnuts in general. Use in this manner has faded partly due to the efforts of Oregon's hazelnut growers to brand their product to better appeal to global markets and avoid confusion.
The etymology for 'filbert' is Norman French, probably named after Saint Philibert, whose feast day (20 August; old style) came when the nuts were mature.
Cosmochemistry
Cosmochemistry is concerned with the origin and development of the elements and their isotopes, primarily within the Solar System. The term was coined by Harold Urey. Closely related fields are astrochemistry, a branch of astronomy concerned with measuring chemical elements in other parts of our Galaxy and in other galaxies; astrophysics, which includes the study of physical processes in stars, supernovas, and our own solar system that may result in chemical and isotopic changes; and planetary science, of which cosmochemistry is in large part a subdiscipline.
Cosmochemistry frequently involves direct measurement of physical samples in laboratories on the Earth.  Samples are most often meteorites and micrometeorites, which include material that originated on the Moon, Mars, many different asteroids, and quite possibly comets, as well as with samples returned from the Moon by manned and robotic missions.  Other materials available for direct study by cosmochemists are tiny particles from Comet Wild 2 returned to Earth in 2006 by NASA's Stardust mission, and samples of solar wind, captured by the Genesis mission and returned to Earth in 2004.  The most exotic available samples are tiny presolar grains that are embedded in some primitive chondritic meteorites, which originated elsewhere in the galaxy prior to the formation of the solar system. Similar interstellar dust particles may also have been collected by the Stardust mission, although this has not yet been confirmed.
NASA has funded a research program in Cosmochemistry since the 1970s
Craig Calonica
Craig Calonica is a mountain climber and skier from the United States.

# History
Craig Calonica used to race with the US Ski Team in the mid-1970s, but retired from international speed skiing in 1987. He then began climbing big walls in Yosemite National Park.
While living in nearby Lake Tahoe (in Californias high Sierras) he became a mountain adventure racer.
Calonica was a member of the 1981 expedition to circumambulate Everest, his was the first team that trekked, skiied, and mountaineered round the peak in both Tibet and Nepal.
In 1997 he was set to webcast an attempt to ski down Everests North Face while a Canadian documentary filmmaker, Peter Chrzanowski, recorded it. The attempt failed and the webcast never broadcast.
On October 21, 1998, after skiing on the Chinese side of Everest, the California adventurer told Reuters reporters that he was convinced he had spotted the legendary yeti twice, I saw something that was not human, that was not a gorilla, not a deer, not a goat and not a bear,"  he told them. .
Cranial nerves
Cranial nerves are nerves that emerge directly from the brain in contrast to spinal nerves which emerge from segments of the spinal cord.  Although thirteen cranial nerves in humans fit this description, twelve are conventionally recognized. The nerves from the third onward arise from the brain stem. 
Except for the tenth and the eleventh nerve, they primarily serve the motor and sensory systems of the head and neck region. However, unlike peripheral nerves which are separated to achieve segmental innervation, cranial nerves are divided to serve one or a few specific functions in wider anatomical territories.

# Names of Nerves
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves are traditionally abbreviated by the corresponding Roman numerals. They are numbered according to where their nuclei lie in the brain stem, e.g. Cranial Nerve III (the Oculomotor nerve) leaves the brainstem at a higher position than Cranial nerve XII, whose origin is located more caudally (lower) than the other cranial nerves.

# Cranial nerves in non-human vertebrates
Human cranial nerves are evolutionarily homologous to those found in many other vertebrates.  
Cranial nerves XI and XII evolved in the common ancestor to amniotes (non-amphibian tetrapods) thus totalling twelve pairs.  These characters are synapomorphies for their respective clades.  In some primitive cartilagenous fishes, such as the dogfish (Squalos acanthos), there is a terminal nerve numbered zero (as it exits the brain before the first cranial nerve).

# Mnemonic devices
As the list is important to keep in mind during the examination of the nervous system, there are many mnemonic devices in circulation to help remember the names and order of the cranial nerves. Because the mind recalls rhymes well, the best mnemonics often use rhyming schemes. The best known example is, "On Old Olympus' Towering Top A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops," where And represents auditory vestibular and Some represents spinal accessory.
Another to help remember the types of information these nerves carry (sensory, motor, or both) is thus:
- Some Say Money Matters, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More.