Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Turners hypoplasia

# Overview
Turner's hypoplasia is an abnormality found in teeth.  Its appearance is variable, though usually is manifested as a portion of missing or diminished enamel on permanent teeth.  Unlike other abnormalities which affect a vast number of teeth, Turner's hypoplasia usually affects only one tooth in the mouth and, it is referred to as a Turner's tooth.

# Outcome
If Turner's hypoplasia is found on a canine or a premolar, the most likely cause is an infection that was present when the primary (baby) tooth was still in the mouth.  Most likely, the primary tooth was heavily decayed and an area of inflamed tissues around the root of the tooth (called a periapical inflammation), affecting the development of the permanent tooth.  The tooth most likely affected by this cause is the canine tooth.  The appearance of the abnormality will depend on the severity and longevity of the infection.
If Turner's hypoplasia is found in the front (anterior) area of the mouth, the most likely cause is a traumatic injury to a primary tooth.  The traumatized tooth, which is usually a maxillary central incisor, is pushed into the developing tooth underneath it and consequently affects the formation of enamel.  Because of the location of the permanent tooth's developing tooth bud in relation to the primary tooth, the most likely affected area on the permanent tooth is the facial surface (the side closer to the lips or cheek).  White or yellow discoloration may accompany Turner's hypoplasia.  Enamel hypoplasia may also be present.
Turner's hypoplasia usually affects the tooth enamel if the trauma occurs prior to the third year of life.  Injuries occurring after this time are less likely to cause enamel defects since the enamel is already calcified.
The same type of injury is also associated with the dilaceration of a tooth.
Upper motor neuron

# Overview
Upper motor neurons are any neurons that originate in motor region of the cerebral cortex and/or the brain stem and carry motor information down to the final common pathway, that is, any motor neurons that are not directly responsible for stimulating the target muscle. The main effector neurons for voluntary movement lie within layer V of the primary motor cortex and are called Betz cells. The cell bodies of these neurons are some of the largest in the brain, approaching nearly 100m in diameter.
These neurons connect the brain to the appropriate level in the spinal cord, from which point nerve signals continue to the muscles by means of the lower motor neurons. The neurotransmitter glutamate transmits the nerve impulses from upper to lower motor neurons where it is detected by glutamatergic receptors.

# Pathways
Upper motor neurons travel in several pathways through the CNS:

# Lesions
Upper motor neurone lesions are indicated by spasticity, exaggerated reflexes, loss of voluntary motor control and the Babinski sign.
Ultrasonic hearing
Ultrasonic hearing is a recognised auditory effect which allows humans to perceive sounds of a much higher frequency than would ordinarily be audible using the physical inner ear, usually by stimulation of the base of the cochlea through bone induction. Human hearing is recognised as having an upper bound around 17-20 kHz, depending on the person, but ultrasonic sinusoids as high as 120 kHz have been reported as successfully perceived.
Two competing theories are proposed to explain this effect. The first asserts that ultrasonic sounds excite the inner hair cells of the cochlea basal turn, which are responsive to high frequency sounds. The second proposed that ultrasonic signals resonate the brain and are modulated down to frequencies that the cochlea can then detect.
By modulating speech signals onto an ultrasonic carrier, intelligible speech has also been perceived with a high degree of clarity, especially in areas of high ambient noise. Deatherage states that what humans experience as ultrasonic perception may have been a necessary precursor in the evolution of echolocation in marine mammals.
Unicornuate uterus
- Failure of one mullerian duct to elongate while the other develops normally
- Accounts for approximately 20% of mullerian duct anomalies.
- The embryologic predominance of the unicornuate uterus to be on the right has not been explained.
- Spontaneous abortion rates are reported to range from 41% to 62%.
- Reported premature birth rates range from 10% to 20%
- Fetal survival rates, from 38% to 57% (pooled data, 40%).
- Renal abnormalities are more commonly associated with unicornuate uterus than with other mullerian duct anomalies
Reported in 40% of these patients.
Anomaly is always ipsilateral to the rudimentary horn.
Renal agenesis is the most commonly reported abnormality, occurring in 67% of cases.
- Reported in 40% of these patients.
- Anomaly is always ipsilateral to the rudimentary horn.
- Renal agenesis is the most commonly reported abnormality, occurring in 67% of cases.

# Diagnosis

## HSG
- Endometrial cavity assumes a fusiform shape, tapering at the apex and draining into a solitary fallopian tube.
- Uterus is generally shifted off of midline.

## MRI
- Unicornuate uterus appears curved and elongated, with the external uterine contour assuming a banana shape.
- Uterine volume is reduced, and the configuration of the uterus is asymmetric.
- Normal myometrial zonal anatomy is maintained.

# Images
Patient #1

# See Also
- Mullerian duct anomalies classification system
- Arcuate uterus
- Bicornuate uterus
- Septate uterus
- Uterus didelphys
Unwanted pregnancy

# Overview
Unintended pregnancies are pregnancies that were unwanted at the time of conception, these are sometimes divided into unwanted pregnancies and those that are mistimed. Worldwide, 38% of pregnancies were unintended in 1999 (some 80 million unintended pregnancies in 1999).  Unintended pregnancies are the primary cause of induced abortion, resulting in about 42 million induced abortions.  Unintended pregnancy is linked to numerous maternal and child health problems.
The use of modern contraceptive methods has greatly reduced the incidence of unintended pregnancy, particularly in more developed countries.  However the United States has an unusually high rate of unintended pregnancy, especially among the poor.

# Causes
- Not using contraception.
- Using contraception inconsistently or incorrectly.
- Contraceptive failure (the method was used correctly, but did not work.)  Contraceptive failure accounts for a relatively small fraction of unintended pregnancies when modern highly effective contraceptives are used.
Reasons contraceptives might not have been used or been used incorrectly include:
- Coercion.  Rape or involuntary sex which sometimes happens in the context of domestic violence. Unintended pregnancies are more likely to be associated with abuse than intended pregnancies.  This may also include birth control sabotage - manipulation of someone's use of birth control to undermine efforts to prevent pregnancy.
- Lack of knowledge about sex and reproduction.  Including erroneous beliefs.
- Lack of knowledge or experience with the contraceptive, or lack of motivation to use it correctly.
- Lack of planning or ambivalence about whether to have a child.
- Religious or other cultural beliefs that discourage or even prohibit contraceptive use, or contribute to ignorance about them or how to use them correctly.
Uniparental disomy
Uniparental disomy (UPD) occurs when a person receives two copies of a chromosome, or part of a chromosome, from one parent and no copies from the other parent. UPD can occur as a random event during the formation of egg or sperm cells or may happen in early fetal development. It can also occur during trisomic rescue. When the child receives the (two) homologous chromosomes (inherited from both grandparents) from one parent, this is called an heterodisomic UPD. When the child receives, two (identical) replica copies of a single homolog of a chromosome, this is called an isodisomic UPD. Heterodisomy (Heterozygous) indicates a meiosis I error, whereas isodisomy (homozygous) indicates either a meiosis II error or postzygotic duplication.
Most occurrences of UPD result in no phenotypical anomalies. However, if the UPD causing event happens during meiosis I, the genotype may include identical copies of the uniparental chromosome (isodisomy), leading to the manifestation of rare recessive disorders. UPD should be suspected in an individual manifesting a recessive disorder, where only one parent is a carrier.
Uniparental inheritance of imprinted genes can also result in phenotypical anomalies.  Few imprinted genes have been identified, however uniparental inheritance of an imprinted gene can result in the loss of gene function which can lead to delayed development, mental retardation, or other medical problems.  The most well-known conditions include Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome. Both of these disorders can be caused by UPD or other errors in imprinting involving genes on the long arm of chromosome 15. Other conditions, such as Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, are associated with abnormalities of imprinted genes on the short arm of chromosome 11. Chromosome 14 is also known to cause particular symptoms such as skeletal abnormalities, mental retardation and joint contractures among others.
Occasionally, all chromosomes will be inherited from one parent, due to either a sperm fertilizing an empty egg and duplicating itself, or a diploid egg that is not fertilized. The effect is similar to triploidy, with either a molar pregnancy with no embryo if only paternal genes are present, or an embryo with no placenta if only maternal genes are present. Neither condition ever results in a liveborn infant.
The first clinical case of UPD was reported in 1991 and involved a girl with cystic fibrosis and unusually short stature who carried two copies of maternal chromosome 7. Since 1991, out of the 47 possible disomies, 29 have been identified among individuals ascertained for medical reasons. This includes Chromosome 2, 5-11, 13-16, 21 and 22.
Urethral stricture
For patient information page click here

# Overview
A urethral stricture is internal damage to the urethra caused by injury, such as straddle or pelvic fracture trauma, or disease such as Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans.

# Presentation
During the early stages of the condition, the subject may experience a diminished urinary flow rate,  pain during urination, and/or the inability to fully empty the bladder. It is not uncommon for the bladder's capacity to significantly increase due to this inability to completely void.
Urethral strictures may cause problems with urination, including in certain cases the complete inability to urinate, which is a medical emergency.

# Causes
Urethral strictures are generally caused by trauma such as straddle injury (bicycle bar, sports injury, fence straddle).  These strictures are located in a portion of the urethra proximal to the penis that is under the scrotum, called the bulbar urethra.
When there is a fracture of the pelvis, this bone fracture can in some cases be associated with a complete transection of the urethra just below the prostate. The body's attempt to repair the damage caused by the injury creates a buildup of scar tissue in the uretha resulting in a significant narrowing or even closure of the passage.
Other causes of strictures include a skin disease called Balanitis Xerotica Obliterans, an inflammatory disorder that affects the penile skin and can lead to severe progressive stricture disease.  The urethral stricture is often just at the tip of the pnie initially.  However, this disease, especially when there is a delay in diagnosis, can progress to cause a stricture of the entire anterior urethra, called a pan-urethral stricture.
Other causes of urethral strictures include urethral instrumentation with cystoscopes (telescopes advanced through the urethra to visualize the bladder).  Incomplete development of the urethra at birth is called hypospadias, and urethral strictures can develop as a complication of surgery to reconstruct the urethra.  Although infections and STDs are possible causes of urethral strictures, infections are generally not the cause of urethral strictures.  In addition, urethral strictures are rarely, if ever, congenital.
Uterine transplant
A uterine transplant is the transplantation of a uterus in order to replace one which has undergone necrosis. Though the procedure has significant potential, it has been performed only a few times.

# History
In 1896 Knauer published the first study of ovarian transplantation and Grigorve that lead to the investigation of uterine auto-transplantation in 1918.  Erslan, Hamernik and Hardy, in 1964 and 1966, were the first to perform an animal auto-transplantation of the uterus and subsequently deliver a pregnancy for that uterus (Erslan et al. 1966). With the availability of IVF in 1978, investigation of uterine transplantation was deferred (Confino et al. 1986). In 2000, a human uterine transplant was performed in Saudi Arabia by Dr. Wafa Fagee. Post-operatively, the patient had two spontaneous menstrual cycles, followed by amenorrhea; exploratory laparotomy confirmed uterine necrosis. The procedure has raised some moral and ethical concerns.

# Research
Much of the animal research that has been investigated in the past have explored the feasibility of uterine auto transplantation and have neglected the role of uterine allo-transplantation as well as the influence of immunosuppressive therapy on fertility. Infertility and surrogacy, which also has been considered another alternative for infertility, have been subjected to legal, moral, ethical and religious restrains. This has then led for us as physicians to investigate cautiously the indications for human uterine transplants. The prime candidates for human uterine transplants are:
- those with a congenital absence the uterus (e.g. Mayer Rokitansky Kuster Hauser Syndrome),
- those who have lost their uterus secondary to an obstetrical complication (e.g. post-partum hemorrhage), and
- those who have lost their uterus for benign causes (e.g. pelvic inflammatory disease, fibroid uterus, pelvic tuberculosis) or early invasive cervical or ovarian malignancies at an early age.

# Ethical and religious issues
Due to the uterus' debatable status as a non-vital organ, debate over the ethicality of uterine transplants persists. Some groups consider the uterus a vital organ due to its ability to sustain the life of the fetus, and concerns exist that the successful transplantation of a uterus might give rise to birth defects should the recipient ever attempt to bear children. 
There is also religious debate surrounding the morality of uterine transplants, with a myriad of views which vary based on religion and personal preference.

# Successful transplants
In Saudi Arabia in 2000, a uterine transplant was performed on a patient whose own uterus had hemorrhaged after childbirth. The transplanted uterus functioned for 99 days, however it ultimately needed to be removed after its failure due to blood clotting. Within the medical community there is some debate as to whether or not the transplant can truly be considered successful, however due to the operation's duration, general consensus favors success.
Validation therapy

# Overview
Validation therapy was developed by Naomi Feil for older people with cognitive impairments and dementia. Feil's own approach classifies individuals with cognitive impairment as having one of four stages in a continuum of dementia. These stages are:
- Mal orientation
- Time Confusion
- Repetitive Motion
- Vegetative state.
The basic principle of the therapy is the concept of validation or the reciprocated communication of respect which communicates that the other's opinions are acknowledged, respected, heard, and (regardless whether or not the listener actually agrees with the content), they are being treated with genuine respect as a legitimate expression of their feelings, rather than marginalized or dismissed.
Validation therapy uses different specific techniques, and it has  attracted criticism from researchers who dispute the evidence for some of the beliefs and values of validation therapy, and the appropriateness of the techniques; as there are not enough quality evidences proving the efficacy of such method for people with dementia.
Van Gieson's stain
Van Gieson's Stain is  a mixture of Picric Acid and Acid Fuchsin. It is the simplest method of differential staining of Collagen and other Connective Tissue.
Formula
- 100 mL of Saturated Aqueous solution of Picric Acid added to 5 mL of 1% Aqueous solution of Acid Fuchsin.
The solution weakens after long standing and may be strengthened by adding few drops of fresh Acid Fuchsin.

# Staining Connective Tissue with Van Gieson's
Recommended Fixative
- Mercuric Chloride fixative, although Formol-Saline also gives good results.
Procedure
- 1) Tissue sections to Ethyl Alcohol
- 2) Stain with Weigert's Iron Hematoxylin for 15 minutes
- 3) Wash in running water for 15 minutes
- 4) Rinse with distilled water
- 5) Place in Van Gieson's stain for 5 minutes
- 6) Rinse in distilled water
- 7) Rinse rapidly in 70% Ethyl Alcohol
- 8) Dehydrate rapidly in Absolute Alcohol, clear and mount in Neutral Balsam. Acid medium, if used for mounting will make stains fade rapidly.
Results
- Nuclei - stains brownish black to black
- Collagen (Fibrous Connective Tissue) - stains pink or deep red
- Muscle, Cytoplasm, RBC and Fibrin - stains yellow
Note:
- 1) If the duration of staining is strictly followed, there is no need to differentiate in 1% Acid Alcohol. The tissue sections are instead, differentiated by Picric Acid in the Van Gieson's Stain.
- 2) Differentiation of Collagen and smooth muscles may be accomplished in steps 6 and 7. Van Gieson's Stain consists of Acid Fuchsin, which is readily soluble in alcohol, and Picric acid, which is readily soluble in water. Washing appropriately with solvent will accentuate one and remove the other.
- 3) Nuclei stained with Alum Hematoxylin is readily decolorized by Picric Acid; Iron Hematoxylin may also be used.
- 4) Young fibrils do not take the deep red stain imparted to mature collagen. RBC tends to fade after sometime.

# Reference
- Jocelyn H. Bruce-Gregorios, M.D.: Histopathologic Techniques, JMC Press Inc., Quezon City, Philippines, 1974. ISBN: 971-11-0853-4
Vanishing mediator
A vanishing mediator is a concept that exists to mediate between two opposing ideas, as a transition occurs between them. At the point where one idea has been replaced by the other, and the concept is no longer required, the mediator vanishes.  In terms of Hegelian dialectics, the conflict between thesis and antithesis is resolved by a synthesis of the two ideas, although the synthesis represents the final solution, whereupon the mediator vanishes.
In terms of Psychoanalytic theory, when someone is caught in a dilemma they experience Hysteria.  The conceptual deadlock, exists until the resulting Hysteric breakdown precipitates some kind of resolution, therefore the Hysteria is a vanishing mediator in this case.
In terms of Political history, it refers to social movements, which operate in a particular way to influence politics, until they either are forgotten or change their purpose.
It is a concept that was originally described by Fredric Jameson:-  In The Ideologies of Theory, a two volume compilation of his essays, Jameson first defines the instance of textual unconscious outlined by Jacques Lacan, before the general idea of a vanishing mediator.
Since, this concept has been adopted by Zizek in "For They Know Not What They Do: Enjoyment as a Political factor", where he uses it in a political sense, similar to Marx's Analysis of Revolution.
Virology (journal)
Virology is a peer-reviewed academic journal that covers basic research into viruses affecting animals, plants, bacteria and fungi, including their molecular biology, structure, assembly, pathogenesis, immunity and interactions with the host cell. Molecular aspects of control and prevention are also covered, as well as viral vectors and gene therapy.
Established in 1955, Virology is now published fortnightly by the Academic Press imprint of Elsevier. As of 2007, its Editor-in-Chief is R.A. Lamb.
Online full-text access for subscribers is available via ScienceDirect. There is currently no free full-text access, although abstracts are available online for non-subscribers.
Its 2006 impact factor was 3.525.

# Reference
-  Elsevier: Virology

# External link
- Elsevier: Virology
Vitex agnus-castus
Vitex agnus-castus  commonly called just Vitex, but also called Chaste Tree, Chasteberry, or Monk's Pepper  is a native of the Mediterranean region. Refer to Vitex for other species in the genus.

# Cultivation and Uses
Vitex agnus-castus is widely cultivated in warm temperate and subtropical regions for its aromatic foliage and flowers. It grows to a height of 1-5 metres. It requires full sun or partial shade along with well-drained soil.
It is called monk's pepper because it was originally used as anti-libido medicine by monk to aid their attempts to remain celibate.
It is sometimes used for the treatment of PMS.  It is believed to be an anaphrodisiac, hence the name "chaste tree", and is used as a medicinal plant by many herbalists. The parts used include the leaves, flowers, and berries. The berries are considered a tonic herb for both the male and female reproductive systems. The leaves have the same effect, but to a somewhat lesser degree.  It is used in some supplements for male bodybuilders as a secondary component, as some studies suggested that it may decrease the prolactin levels , which, in turn, increases LH (luteinizing hormone)and testosterone levels . It has been assumed to not have the same effect on the female hormonal balance, but recent studies contradict this.
Vitex Agnus-Castus is a herb used by natural health practitioners for treating female menstrual hormone imbalances, both minor and major ones - such as Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS).  Women with menstrual cycle irregularities often do not produce enough progesterone during the second phase of their menstrual cycle (luteal phase). This means that estrogen, the dominant female hormone in the first phase, continues to dominate in the second phase leading to menstrual cycle abnormalities.
Vitex works on the pituitary gland, which is responsible for signaling the body to make the appropriate amounts of each hormone.  This helps regulate menstrual cycles and relieve unpleasant mentrual symptoms, including headaches.  Although vitex may take six to twelve weeks of use to before its results are noticeable, it gets to the root of menstrual cycle regulation problems.  It is also used in the treatment of menopausal symptoms.
The leaves and tender stem growth of the upper 10 cm (4 inches), along with the flowers and ripening seeds, may be harvested for medicinal purposes. The berries are harvested by gently rubbing the berries loose from the stem. The leaves, flowers, and/or berries may be consumed as a decotion, traditional tincture, cider vinegar tincture, syrup, elixir, or simply eaten straight off the plant as a medicinal food.