Guidance
 Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid
Blocking Agent in Radiation
Emergencies
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Food and Drug Administration
Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER)
December 2001
Procedural Guidance
 Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid
Blocking Agent in Radiation
Emergencies
Additional copies are available from:
Office of Training and Communications
Division of Communications Management
Drug Information Branch, HFD-210
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD  20857
(Tel) 301-827-4573
(Internet)  http://www.fda.gov/cder/guidance/index.htm
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Food and Drug Administration
Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER)
 December 2001
Procedural TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.  INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................1
II.  BACKGROUND...................................................................................................................1
III. DATA SOURCES..................................................................................................................2
A. Reliance on Data from Chernobyl.........................................................................................2
B. Thyroid Cancers in the Aftermath of Chernobyl..................................................................4
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..............................................................5
A. Use of KI in Radiation Emergencies:  Rationale, Effectiveness, Safety..................................5
B. KI Use in Radiation Emergencies:  Treatment Recommendations........................................6
V. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PROPHYLAXIS AGAINST THYROID
RADIOIODINE EXPOSURE......................................................................................................8
VI. SUMMARY............................................................................................................................8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................................9
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................10 Guidance
 Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking
Agent in Radiation Emergencies
This guidance represents the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA's) current thinking on this topic.  It
does not create or confer any rights for or on any person and does not operate to bind FDA or the public.
An alternative approach may be used if such approach satisfies the requirements of the applicable statutes
and regulations.
I.  INTRODUCTION
The objective of this document is to provide guidance to other Federal agencies, including the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and to
state and local governments regarding the safe and effective use of potassium iodide (KI) as an
adjunct to other public health protective measures in the event that radioactive iodine is released
into the environment.  The adoption and implementation of these recommendations are at the
discretion of the state and local governments responsible for developing regional emergency-
response plans related to radiation emergencies.
This guidance updates the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 1982 recommendations for the
use of KI to reduce the risk of thyroid cancer in radiation emergencies involving the release of
radioactive iodine.  The recommendations in this guidance address KI dosage and the projected
radiation exposure at which the drug should be used.
These recommendations were prepared by the Potassium Iodide Working Group, comprising
scientists from the FDAs Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) and Center for
Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH) in collaboration with experts in the field from the
National Institutes of Health (NIH).  Although they differ in two respects (as discussed in
Section IV.B), these revised recommendations are in general accordance with those of the World
Health Organization (WHO), as expressed in its Guidelines for Iodine Prophylaxis Following
Nuclear Accidents: Update 1999 (WHO 1999).
II.  BACKGROUND
Under 44 CFR 351, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has established roles
and responsibilities for Federal agencies in assisting state and local governments in their
radiological emergency planning and preparedness activities.  The Federal agencies, including
the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), are to carry out these roles and
responsibilities as members of the Federal Radiological Preparedness Coordinating Committee
1 (FRPCC).  Under 44 CFR 351.23(f), HHS is directed to provide guidance to state and local
governments on the use of radioprotective substances and the prophylactic use of drugs (e.g., KI)
to reduce the radiation dose to specific organs.  This guidance includes information about dosage
and projected radiation exposures at which such drugs should be used.
The FDA has provided guidance previously on the use of KI as a thyroid blocking agent.  In the
Federal Register of December 15, 1978, FDA announced its conclusion that KI is a safe and
effective means by which to block uptake of radioiodines by the thyroid gland in a radiation
emergency under certain specified conditions of use.  In the Federal Register of June 29, 1982,
FDA announced final recommendations on the administration of KI to the general public in a
radiation emergency.  Those recommendations were formulated after reviewing studies relating
radiation dose to thyroid disease risk that relied on estimates of external thyroid irradiation after
the nuclear detonations at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and analogous studies among children who
received therapeutic radiation to the head and neck.  Those recommendations concluded that at a
projected dose to the thyroid gland of 25 cGy or greater from ingested or inhaled radioiodines,
the risks of short-term use of small quantities of KI were outweighed by the benefits of
suppressing radioiodine-induced thyroid cancer.1   The amount of KI recommended at that time
was 130 mg per day for adults and children above 1 year of age and 65 mg per day for children
below 1 year of age.  The guidance that follows revises our 1982 recommendations on the use of
KI for thyroid cancer prophylaxis based on a comprehensive review of the data relating
radioioidine exposure to thyroid cancer risk accumulated in the aftermath of the 1986 Chernobyl
reactor accident.
III. DATA SOURCES
A. Reliance on Data from Chernobyl
In epidemiological studies investigating the relationship between thyroidal radioiodine exposure
and risk of thyroid cancer, the estimation of thyroid radiation doses is a critical and complex
aspect of the analyses.  Estimates of exposure, both for individuals and across populations, have
been reached in different studies by the variable combination of (1) direct thyroid measurements
in a segment of the exposed population; (2) measurements of 131I (iodine isotope) concentrations
in the milk consumed by different groups (e.g., communities) and of the quantity of milk
consumed; (3) inference from ground deposition of long-lived radioisotopes released
coincidentally and presumably in fixed ratios with radioiodines; and (4) reconstruction of the
nature and extent of the actual radiation release.
All estimates of individual and population exposure contain some degree of uncertainty.  The
uncertainty is least for estimates of individual exposure based on direct thyroid measurements.
                                                
1 For the radiation emitted by 131 I (electrons and photons), the radiation-weighting factor is equal to one, so that the
absorbed dose to the thyroid gland expressed in centigrays (cGy) is numerically equal to the thyroid equivalent dose
expressed in rem (1 cGy = 1 rem).
2 Uncertainty increases with reliance on milk consumption estimates; is still greater with estimates
derived from ground deposition of long-lived radioisotopes, and is highest for estimates that rely
heavily on release reconstruction.
Direct measurements of thyroid radioactivity are unavailable from the Hanford, Nevada Test
Site, and Marshall Islands exposures.  Indeed, the estimates of thyroid radiation doses related to
these releases rely heavily on release reconstructions and, in the former two cases, on recall of
the extent of milk consumption 40 to 50 years after the fact.  In the Marshall Islands cohort,
urinary radioiodine excretion data were obtained and used in calculating exposure estimates.
Because of the great uncertainty in the dose estimates from the Hanford and Nevada Test Site
exposures and due to the small numbers of thyroid cancers occurring in the populations
potentially exposed, the epidemiological studies of the excess thyroid cancer risk related to these
radioiodine releases are, at best, inconclusive.  As explained below, the dosimetric data derived
in the studies of individual and population exposures following the Chernobyl accident, although
not perfect, are unquestionably superior to data from previous releases.  In addition, the results of
the earlier studies are inadequate to refute cogent case control study evidence from Chernobyl of
a cause-effect relationship between thyroid radioiodine deposition and thyroid cancer risk.2
The Chernobyl reactor accident of April 1986 provides the best-documented example of a
massive radionuclide release in which large numbers of people across a broad geographical area
were exposed acutely to radioiodines released into the atmosphere.  Therefore, the
recommendations contained in this guidance are derived from our review of the Chernobyl data
as they pertain to the large number of thyroid cancers that occurred.  These are the most
comprehensive and reliable data available describing the relationship between thyroid radiation
dose and risk for thyroid cancer following an environmental release of 131I.  In contrast, the
exposures resulting from radiation releases at the Hanford Site in Washington State in the mid-
1940s and in association with the nuclear detonations at the Nevada Test Site in the 1950s were
extended over years, rather than days to weeks, contributing to the difficulty in estimating
radioactive dose in those potentially exposed (Davis et al., 1999; Gilbert et al., 1998).  The
exposure of Marshall Islanders to fallout from the nuclear detonation on Bikini in 1954 involved
relatively few people, and although the high rate of subsequent thyroid nodules and cancers in
the exposed population was likely caused in large part by radioiodines, the Marshall Islands data
provide little insight into the dose-response relationship between radioactive iodine exposure and
thyroid cancer risk (Robbins and Adams 1989).
Beginning within a week after the Chernobyl accident, direct measurements of thyroid exposure
were made in hundreds of thousands of individuals, across three republics of the former Soviet
Union (Robbins and Schneider 2000, Gavrilin et al., 1999, Likhtarev et al., 1993, Zvonova and
Balonov 1993).  These thyroid measurements were used to derive, in a direct manner, the thyroid
doses received by the individuals from whom the measurements were taken.  The thyroid
measurements were also used as a guide to estimate the thyroid doses received by other people,
taking into account differences in age, milk consumption rates, and ground deposition densities,
among other things.  The thyroid doses derived from thyroid measurements have a large degree
                                                
2 We have included in this guidance an extensive bibliography of the sources used in developing these revised
recommendations.
3 of uncertainty, especially in Belarus, where most of the measurements were made by
inexperienced people with detectors that were not ideally suited to the task at hand (Gavrilin et
al., 1999 and UNSCEAR 2000).  However, as indicated above, the uncertainties attached to
thyroid dose estimates derived from thyroid measurements are, as a rule, lower than those
obtained without recourse to those measurements.
It is also notable that the thyroid radiation exposures after Chernobyl were virtually all internal,
from radioiodines.  Despite some degree of uncertainty in the doses received, it is reasonable to
conclude that the contribution of external radiation was negligible for most individuals.  This
distinguishes the Chernobyl exposures from those of the Marshall Islanders.  Thus, the increase
in thyroid cancer seen after Chernobyl is attributable to ingested or inhaled radioiodines.  A
comparable burden of excess thyroid cancers could conceivably accrue should U.S. populations
be similarly exposed in the event of a nuclear accident.  This potential hazard highlights the
value of averting such risk by using KI as an adjunct to evacuation, sheltering, and control of
contaminated foodstuffs.
B. Thyroid Cancers in the Aftermath of Chernobyl
The Chernobyl reactor accident resulted in massive releases of 131I and other radioiodines.
Beginning approximately 4 years after the accident, a sharp increase in the incidence of thyroid
cancer among children and adolescents in Belarus and Ukraine (areas covered by the radioactive
plume) was observed.  In some regions, for the first 4 years of this striking increase, observed
cases of thyroid cancer among children aged 0 through 4 years at the time of the accident
exceeded expected number of cases by 30- to 60-fold.  During the ensuing years, in the most
heavily affected areas, incidence is as much as 100-fold compared to pre-Chernobyl rates
(Robbins and Schneider 2000; Gavrilin et al., 1999; Likhtarev et al., 1993; Zvonova and Balonov
1993).  The majority of cases occurred in children who apparently received less than 30 cGy to
the thyroid (Astakhova et al., 1998).  A few cases occurred in children exposed to estimated
doses of < 1 cGy; however, the uncertainty of these estimates confounded by medical radiation
exposures leaves doubt as to the causal role of these doses of radioiodine (Souchkevitch and
Tsyb 1996).
The evidence, though indirect, that the increased incidence of thyroid cancer observed among
persons exposed during childhood in the most heavily contaminated regions in Belarus, Ukraine,
and the Russian Federation is related to exposure to iodine isotopes is, nevertheless, very strong
(IARC 2001).  We have concluded that the best dose-response information from Chernobyl
shows a marked increase in risk of thyroid cancer in children with exposures of 5 cGy or greater
(Astakhova et. al., 1998; Ivanov et al., 1999; Kazakov et al., 1992).  Among children born more
than nine months after the accident in areas traversed by the radioactive plume, the incidence of
thyroid cancer has not exceeded preaccident rates, consistent with the short half-life of 131I.
The use of KI in Poland after the Chernobyl accident provides us with useful information
regarding its safety and tolerability in the general population.  Approximately 10.5 million
children under age 16 and 7 million adults received at least one dose of KI.  Of note, among
newborns receiving single doses of 15 mg KI, 0.37 percent (12 of 3214) showed transient
increases in TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) and decreases in FT4 (free thyroxine).  The side
4 effects among adults and children were generally mild and not clinically significant.  Side effects
included gastrointestinal distress, which was reported more frequently in children (up to 2
percent, felt to be due to bad taste of SSKI solution) and rash (~1 percent in children and adults).
Two allergic reactions were observed in adults with known iodine sensitivity (Nauman and
Wolff 1993).
Thus, the studies following the Chernobyl accident support the etiologic role of relatively small
doses of radioiodine in the dramatic increase in thyroid cancer among exposed children.
Furthermore, it appears that the increased risk occurs with a relatively short latency.  Finally, the
Polish experience supports the use of KI as a safe and effective means by which to protect
against thyroid cancer caused by internal thyroid irradiation from inhalation of contaminated air
or ingestion of contaminated food and drink when exposure cannot be prevented by evacuation,
sheltering, or food and milk control.
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Use of KI in Radiation Emergencies:  Rationale, Effectiveness, Safety
For the reasons discussed above, the Chernobyl data provide the most reliable information
available to date on the relationship between internal thyroid radioactive dose and cancer risk.
They suggest that the risk of thyroid cancer is inversely related to age, and that, especially in
young children, it may accrue at very low levels of radioiodine exposure.  We have relied on the
Chernobyl data to formulate our specific recommendations below.
The effectiveness of KI as a specific blocker of thyroid radioiodine uptake is well established
(Ilin LA, et al., 1972) as are the doses necessary for blocking uptake.  As such, it is reasonable
to conclude that KI will likewise be effective in reducing the risk of thyroid cancer in individuals
or populations at risk for inhalation or ingestion of radioiodines.
Short-term administration of KI at thyroid blocking doses is safe and, in general, more so in
children than adults.  The risks of stable iodine administration include sialadenitis (an
inflammation of the salivary gland, of which no cases were reported in Poland among users after
the Chernobyl accident), gastrointestinal disturbances, allergic reactions and minor rashes.  In
addition, persons with known iodine sensitivity should avoid KI, as should individuals with
dermatitis herpetiformis and hypocomplementemic vasculitis, extremely rare conditions
associated with an increased risk of iodine hypersensitivity.
Thyroidal side effects of stable iodine include iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis, which is more
common in older people and in iodine deficient areas but usually requires repeated doses of
stable iodine.  In addition, iodide goiter and hypothyroidism are potential side effects more
common in iodine sufficient areas, but they require chronic high doses of stable iodine (Rubery
1990).  In light of the preceding, individuals with multinodular goiter, Graves disease, and
autoimmune thyroiditis should be treated with caution, especially if dosing extends beyond a few
days.  The vast majority of such individuals will be adults.
5 The transient hypothyroidism observed in 0.37 percent (12 of 3214) of neonates treated with KI
in Poland after Chernobyl has been without reported sequelae to date.  There is no question that
the benefits of KI treatment to reduce the risk of thyroid cancer outweigh the risks of such
treatment in neonates.  Nevertheless, in light of the potential consequences of even transient
hypothyroidism for intellectual development, we recommend that neonates (within the first
month of life) treated with KI be monitored for this effect by measurement of TSH (and FT4, if
indicated) and that thyroid hormone therapy be instituted in cases in which hypothyroidism
develops (Bongers-Schokking 2000; Fisher 2000; Calaciura 1995).
B. KI Use in Radiation Emergencies:  Treatment Recommendations
After careful review of the data from Chernobyl relating estimated thyroid radiation dose and
cancer risk in exposed children, FDA is revising its recommendation for administration of KI
based on age, predicted thyroid exposure, and pregnancy and lactation status (see Table).
Threshold Thyroid Radioactive Exposures and
Recommended Doses of KI for Different Risk Groups
Predicted KI dose (mg) # of 130 mg # of 65
Thyroid tablets mg tablets
exposure(cGy)
Adults over 40 yrs >500
Adults over 18 through 40 yrs >10
130 1 2
Pregnant or lactating women
Adoles. over 12 through 18 yrs* > 5
Children over 3 through 12 yrs 65 1/2 1
Over 1 month through 3 years 32 1/4 1/2
Birth through 1 month 16 1/8 1/4
*Adolescents approaching adult size (> 70 kg) should receive the full adult dose (130 mg).
The protective effect of KI lasts approximately 24 hours.  For optimal prophylaxis, KI should
therefore be dosed daily, until a risk of significant exposure to radioiodines by either inhalation
or ingestion no longer exists.  Individuals intolerant of KI at protective doses, and neonates,
pregnant and lactating women (in whom repeat administration of KI raises particular safety
issues, see below) should be given priority with regard to other protective measures (i.e.,
sheltering, evacuation, and control of the food supply).
Note that adults over 40 need take KI only in the case of a projected large internal radiation dose
to the thyroid (>500 cGy) to prevent hypothyroidism.
These recommendations are meant to provide states and local authorities as well as other
agencies with the best current guidance on safe and effective use of KI to reduce thyroidal
radioiodine exposure and thus the risk of thyroid cancer.  FDA recognizes that, in the event of an
emergency, some or all of the specific dosing recommendations may be very difficult to carry
6 out given their complexity and the logistics of implementation of a program of KI distribution.
The recommendations should therefore be interpreted with flexibility as necessary to allow
optimally effective and safe dosing given the exigencies of any particular emergency situation.
In this context, we offer the following critical general guidance:  across populations at risk for
radioiodine exposure, the overall benefits of KI far exceed the risks of overdosing, especially
in children, though we continue to emphasize particular attention to dose in infants.
These FDA recommendations differ from those put forward in the World Health Organization
(WHO) 1999 guidelines for iodine prophylaxis in two ways.  WHO recommends a 130-mg dose
of KI for adults and adolescents (over 12 years).  For the sake of logistical simplicity in the
dispensing and administration of KI to children, FDA recommends a 65-mg dose as standard for
all school-age children while allowing for the adult dose (130 mg, 2 X 65 mg tablets) in
adolescents approaching adult size.  The other difference lies in the threshold for predicted
exposure of those up to 18 years of age and of pregnant or lactating women that should trigger
KI prophylaxis.  WHO recommends a threshold of 1 cGy for these two groups.  As stated earlier,
FDA has concluded from the Chernobyl data that the most reliable evidence supports a
significant increase in the risk of childhood thyroid cancer at exposures of 5 cGy or greater.
The downward KI dose adjustment by age group, based on body size considerations, adheres to
the principle of minimum effective dose.  The recommended standard dose of KI for all school-
age children is the same (65 mg).  However, adolescents approaching adult size (i.e., >70 kg)
should receive the full adult dose (130 mg) for maximal block of thyroid radioiodine uptake.
Neonates ideally should receive the lowest dose (16 mg) of KI.  Repeat dosing of KI should be
avoided in the neonate to minimize the risk of hypothyroidism during that critical phase of brain
development (Bongers-Schokking 2000; Calaciura et al., 1995).  KI from tablets (either whole or
fractions) or as fresh saturated KI solution may be diluted in milk, formula, or water and the
appropriate volume administered to babies.  As stated above, we recommend that neonates
(within the first month of life) treated with KI be monitored for the potential development of
hypothyroidism by measurement of TSH (and FT4, if indicated) and that thyroid hormone
therapy be instituted in cases in which hypothyroidism develops (Bongers-Schokking 2000;
Fisher 2000; Calaciura et al., 1995).
Pregnant women should be given KI for their own protection and for that of the fetus, as iodine
(whether stable or radioactive) readily crosses the placenta.  However, because of the risk of
blocking fetal thyroid function with excess stable iodine, repeat dosing with KI of pregnant
women should be avoided.  Lactating females should be administered KI for their own
protection, as for other young adults, and potentially to reduce the radioiodine content of the
breast milk, but not as a means to deliver KI to infants, who should get their KI directly.  As for
direct administration of KI, stable iodine as a component of breast milk may also pose a risk of
hypothyroidism in nursing neonates.  Therefore, repeat dosing with KI should be avoided in the
lactating mother, except during continuing severe contamination.  If repeat dosing of the mother
is necessary, the nursing neonate should be monitored as recommended above.
7 V. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PROPHYLAXIS AGAINST THYROID
RADIOIODINE EXPOSURE
Certain principles should guide emergency planning and implementation of KI prophylaxis in the
event of a radiation emergency.  After the Chernobyl accident, across the affected populations,
thyroid radiation exposures occurred largely due to consumption of contaminated fresh cows
milk (this contamination was the result of milk cows grazing on fields affected by radioactive
fallout) and to a much lesser extent by consumption of contaminated vegetables.  In this or
similar accidents, for those residing in the immediate area of the accident or otherwise directly
exposed to the radioactive plume, inhalation of radioiodines may be a significant contributor to
individual and population exposures.  As a practical matter, it may not be possible to assess the
risk of thyroid exposure from inhaled radioiodines at the time of the emergency.  The risk
depends on factors such as the magnitude and rate of the radioiodine release, wind direction and
other atmospheric conditions, and thus may affect people both near to and far from the accident
site.
For optimal protection against inhaled radioiodines, KI should be administered before or
immediately coincident with passage of the radioactive cloud, though KI may still have a
substantial protective effect even if taken 3 or 4 hours after exposure.  Furthermore, if the release
of radioiodines into the atmosphere is protracted, then, of course, even delayed administration
may reap benefits by reducing, if incompletely, the total radiation dose to the thyroid.
Prevention of thyroid uptake of ingested radioiodines, once the plume has passed and radiation
protection measures (including KI) are in place, is best accomplished by food control measures
and not by repeated administration of KI.  Because of radioactive decay, grain products and
canned milk or vegetables from sources affected by radioactive fallout, if stored for weeks to
months after production, pose no radiation risk.  Thus, late KI prophylaxis at the time of
consumption is not required.
As time is of the essence in optimal prophylaxis with KI, timely administration to the public is a
critical consideration in planning the emergency response to a radiation accident and requires a
ready supply of KI.  State and local governments choosing to incorporate KI into their
emergency response plans may consider the option of predistribution of KI to those individuals
who do not have a medical condition precluding its use.
VI. SUMMARY
FDA maintains that KI is a safe and effective means by which to prevent radioiodine uptake by
the thyroid gland, under certain specified conditions of use, and thereby obviate the risk of
thyroid cancer in the event of a radiation emergency.  Based upon review of the literature, we
have proposed lower radioactive exposure thresholds for KI prophylaxis as well as lower doses
of KI for neonates, infants, and children than we recommended in 1982.  As in our 1982 notice
in the Federal Register, FDA continues to recommend that radiation emergency response plans
include provisions, in the event of a radiation emergency, for informing the public about the
magnitude of the radiation hazard, about the manner of use of KI and its potential benefits and
8 risks, and for medical contact, reporting, and assistance systems.  FDA also emphasizes that
emergency response plans and any systems for ensuring availability of KI to the public should
recognize the critical importance of KI administration in advance of exposure to radioiodine.  As
in the past, FDA continues to work in an ongoing fashion with manufacturers of KI to ensure that
high-quality, safe, and effective KI products are available for purchase by consumers as well as
by state and local governments wishing to establish stores for emergency distribution.
KI provides protection only for the thyroid from radioiodines.  It has no impact on the uptake by
the body of other radioactive materials and provides no protection against external irradiation of
any kind.  FDA emphasizes that the use of KI should be as an adjunct to evacuation (itself not
always feasible), sheltering, and control of foodstuffs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The KI Taskforce would like to extend special thanks to our members from the NIH:  Jacob
Robbins, M.D., and Jan Wolff, Ph.D., M.D., of the National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive, and
Kidney Diseases and Andre Bouville, Ph.D., of the National Cancer Institute.  In addition, we
would like to thank Dr. David V. Becker of the Department of Radiology, Weill Medical College
(WMC) of Cornell University and The New York Presbyterian Hospital-WMC Cornell Campus,
for his valuable comments on the draft
.
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