Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Human physiology

# Overview
Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experimentation has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically tied and are therefore often studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.

# Integration, Communication, and Homeostasis
The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication which occurs in a variety of ways, both electrically as well as chemically.
In terms of the human body, the endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals which integrate function. Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment, or one of similar condition as described by Walter Bradford Cannon. In Cannons Postulate, the body's ability to regulate pH, temperature, fluid volume, pressure, and osmolarity are recognized through highly evolved feedback systems, which act to finely tune many different chemical and electrical responses.
- The concentration of ions in relations to one another (e.g. Na+, K+, H+) determine the body's pH, which is closely regulated by the respiratory and urinary systems.
- Temperature in the body is determined by both the external environment of the organism as well as the amount of heat produced by anabolic reactions within the body regulated by respiratory and cardiovascular systems
- Fluid volume and pressure, and osmolarity are regulated by the urinary, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems.
Physiology is the study of these systems' integrated functions and the processes by which they maintain the milieu interieur, or internal environment.

# Systems
Traditionally, the academic discipline of physiology views the body as a collection of interacting systems, each with its own combination of functions and purposes.
The traditional divisions by system are somewhat arbitrary. Many body parts participate in more than one system, and systems might be organized by function, by embryological origin, or other categorizations. In particular, is the "neuroendocrine system", the complex interactions of the neurological and endocrinological systems which together regulate physiology. Furthermore, many aspects of physiology are not as easily included in the traditional organ system categories.
The study of how physiology is altered in disease is pathophysiology.
Humerus fracture

# Overview

# For the detailed discussion regarding each type of humerus fractures please click on the name of fracture you need to study about.

# Related Chapters

## Proximal humerus fracture

## Humeral shaft fracture

## Distal humerus fracture

# Overview
A humerus fracture can be classified by the location of the humerus involved: the upper end, the shaft, or the lower end.
At the upper end, the surgical neck of the humerus and anatomical neck of humerus can both be involved, though fractures of the surgical neck are more common. The axillary nerve can be damaged in fractures of this type.

## Proximal Humeral Fracture
- Humeral neck fracture Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Humeral neck fracture Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Humeral neck fracture Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Humeral neck fracture Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
Hyperestrogenism

# Overview
Hyperestrogenism, or estrogen excess, is a medical condition characterized by an excessive amount of estrogenic activity in the body.

# Causes
Hyperestrogenism can be caused by ovarian tumors, genetic conditions such as aromatase excess syndrome (also known as familial hyperestrogenism), or overconsumption of exogenous sources of estrogen, including medications used in hormone replacement therapy and hormonal contraception.

# Signs and symptoms
Signs of hyperestrogenism may include heightened levels of one or more of the estrogen sex hormones (usually estradiol and/or estrone), lowered levels of follicle-stimulating hormone and/or luteinizing hormone (due to suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis by estrogen), and lowered levels of androgens such as testosterone (generally only relevant to males). Symptoms of the condition in women may consist of menstrual irregularities, amenorrhea, abnormal vaginal bleeding, and enlargement of the uterus and breasts. It may also present as isosexual precocity in children and as hypogonadism, gynecomastia, feminization, impotence, and loss of libido in males. If left untreated, hyperestrogenism may increase the risk of estrogen-sensitive cancers such as breast cancer later in life.

# Treatments
Treatment may consist of surgery in the case of tumors, lower doses of estrogen in the case of exogenously-mediated estrogen excess, and estrogen-suppressing medications like gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues and progestogens. In addition, androgens may be supplemented in the case of males.
Hypermagnesaemia

# Overview
Hypermagnesaemia occurs in patients with acute or chronic renal failure given antacids or laxatives containing magnesium. It can be induced by enemas containing magnesium .

# Symptoms
Symptoms and signs include neurological and cardiovascular depression, weakness, respiratory paralysis and cardiac conduction defects.

# Treatment
Treatment requires the cessation of any magnesium therapy. Calcium, insulin and dextrose may be given to counteract the plasma magnesium levels. Dialysis may be required in patients with severe renal failure.
Hypnodermatology
Hypnodermatology is an informal label for the use of hypnosis in treating the skin conditions that fall between conventional medical dermatology and the mental health disciplines.
The use of hypnosis to provide relief for some skin conditions is based on observations that the severity of the disease may correlate with emotional issues.
Hypnosis can be a very valuable therapeutic intervention for hypnotizable subjects with psoriasis and other skin troubles bought about by everyday stressors like a domineering boss, or financial problems, but there are often deeper needs at work. If someone is seething inside for reasons that they do not wish to bring to mind or cannot confront or rant and rave about, their skin will attempt to reflect the problem.  Psychotherapy, which can also utilize hypnosis, can be a very useful tool to address these deeper problems.
The effectiveness of hypnosis has also been documented for warts, eczema, hives, genital and oral herpes, acne, skin allergies, pain and burning sensations, and compulsive skin picking and hair pulling.
A practitioner with training in one of the mental health disciplines, as well as hypnosis and its application to skin disorders is suggested.
See also Psychodermatology
References
- American Academy of Family Physicians
- National Psoriasis Foundation
- Psoriasis Cure Now nonprofit advocacy group
- Australian Psoriasis support group, non profit.
- UK Psoriasis Help Forum - Online support forum for psoriasis sufferers by psoriasis sufferers - non-commercial
- SkinCell: International Forum for Skin Disorders, not-for-profit
- .  The Skin Deep website offers resources on hypnodermatology and other research-based psychodermatology techniques.
Hystero-epilepsy
Hystero-epilepsy is an alleged disease "discovered" by 19th-century French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot. It is considered a famous example of iatrogenic artifact, or a disease created by doctors.
The disease was considered a combination of hysteria and epilepsy. Charcot housed his "hystero-epilepsy" patients in the same ward as patients with epilepsy, because both were considered "episodic" diseases. Symptoms included "convulsions, contortions, fainting, and transient impairment of consciousness."
Joseph Babinski convinced Charcot that he was inducing the symptoms in his patients because of his treatment regimen.
ILLUSTRATE Trial

# Official Title
Phase 3, Multi-Center, Double-Blind, Randomized, Parallel Group, Coronary Artery Intravascular Ultrasound Evaluation of the Anti-Atherosclerotic Efficacy, Safety, and Tolerability of Fixed Combination CP-529,414/Atorvastatin, Administered Orally, Once Daily (QD) for 24 Months, Compared With Atorvastatin Alone, in Subjects With Angiographically Documented Coronary Heart Disease

# Objective
- The Torcetrapib project was terminated on December 2, 2006 due to safety findings.
- To look at ultrasound images taken in the blood vessels of the heart and to look at various lipids in the blood of people with known coronary heart disease

# Sponsor
Pfizer

# Timeline
The previous information was derived from ClinicalTrials.gov on 09/20/2013 using the identification number NCT00134173.

# Study Description
The previous information was derived from ClinicalTrials.gov on 09/20/2013 using the identification number NCT00134173.

# Eligibility Criteria

## Inclusion Criteria
- Angiographic evidence of coronary atherosclerosis

## Exclusion Criteria
- Women who are pregnant or lactating, or planning to become pregnant.
- Subjects with a clinically indicated need for statin (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor) therapy other than atorvastatin or other concomitant therapy with known :lipid altering effects on LDL-C and HDL-C including fibrates and nicotinic acid.
- Subjects taking any drugs known to be associated with an increased risk of myositis in combination with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors.
- Subjects with any other medical condition or laboratory abnormality which could affect subject safety, preclude evaluation of response, or render unlikely :that the subject would complete the study.

# Outcomes

## Primary Outcomes
Change coronary artery atheroma volume as measured by intravascular ultrasound.

## Secondary Outcomes
Changes in levels of lipids and other biomarkers.

# Publications

## Results

## Conclusion
Immunoglobulin G

# Overview
Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a multimeric immunoglobulin, built of two heavy chains \gamma and two light chains. Each complex has two antigen binding sites. This is the most abundant immunoglobulin and is approximately equally distributed in blood and in tissue liquids, constituting 75% of serum immunoglobulins in humans.
In birds, IgG is often called IgY, and is found in serum and yolk.

# Functions
This is the only isotype that can pass through the human placenta, thereby providing protection to the fetus in its first weeks of life before its own immune system has developed.
It can bind to many kinds of pathogens, for example viruses, bacteria, and fungi, and protects the body against them by complement activation (classic pathway), opsonization for phagocytosis and neutralisation of their toxins.
IgG can cause food allergy, and in such causes delayed-onset food allergy, in contrast to food allergy by IgE, whose effects appear rapidly.

# Subclasses
Note: IgG affinity to Fc receptors on phagocytic cells is specific to individual species from which the antibody comes as well as the class.

# Related chapters
- Antibody
- IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE

# Resources
- A booklet with everything you wanted to know about IgG subclasses
Ileocolic artery
The Ileocolic Artery is the lowest branch arising from the concavity of the superior mesenteric artery.
It passes downward and to the right behind the peritoneum toward the right iliac fossa, where it divides into a superior and an inferior branch; the inferior anastomoses with the end of the superior mesenteric artery, the superior with the right colic artery.

# Branches
The inferior branch of the ileocolic runs toward the upper border of the ileocolic junction and supplies the following branches:
- colic, which pass upward on the ascending colon
- iliocecal (some sources acknowledge this division  while others do not)
anterior and posterior cecal, which are distributed to the front and back of the cecum
ileal, which run upward and to the left on the lower part of the ileum, and anastomose with the termination of the superior mesenteric
an appendicular artery
- anterior and posterior cecal, which are distributed to the front and back of the cecum
- ileal, which run upward and to the left on the lower part of the ileum, and anastomose with the termination of the superior mesenteric
- an appendicular artery

# Additional images
- Superior ileocecal fossa.
Imipramine oxide

# Overview
Imipraminoxide (Imiprex, Elepsin), or imipramine N-oxide, is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) that was introduced in Europe in the 1960s for the treatment of depression.
Imipraminoxide is both an analogue and a metabolite of imipramine, and has similar effects. However, in clinical trials, imipraminoxide was found to have a faster onset of action, slightly higher efficacy, and fewer and less marked side effects, including diminished orthostatic hypotension and anticholinergic effects like dry mouth, sweating, dizziness, and fatigue.
Imipraminoxide's pharmacology has not been well elucidated, but based on its very close relationship with imipramine, it likely acts as a serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and serotonin, adrenenaline, histamine, and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, though with weaker antiadrenergic and anticholinergic actions.
Immune tolerance
Immune or immunological tolerance is the process by which the immune system does not attack an antigen.  It occurs in three forms: central tolerance, peripheral tolerance and acquired tolerance.

# Central tolerance
Central tolerance is immunological tolerance developed during T and B cell differentiation.

# Peripheral tolerance
Peripheral tolerance is immunological tolerance developed after T and B cells mature and enter the periphery.

# Acquired tolerance
Acquired or induced tolerance refers to the immune system's adaption to external antigens characterized by a specific non-reactivity of the lymphoid tissues to a given antigen that in other circumstances would likely induce cell-mediated or humoral immunity.  One of the most important natural kinds of acquired tolerance occurs during pregnancy, where the fetus and the placenta must be tolerated by the maternal immune system. One model for the induction of tolerance during the very early stages of pregnancy is the eutherian fetoembryonic defense system (eu-FEDS) hypothesis.   However, another model suggests that the induction of tolerance primarily requires the participation of  regulatory T cells.
In adults, tolerance may be induced by repeated administration of very large doses of antigen, or of small doses that are below the threshold required for stimulation of an immune response. Tolerance is most readily induced by soluble antigens administered either intravenously or sublingually.  Immunosuppression also facilitates the induction of tolerance.
In clinical practice, acquired immunity is important in organ transplantation, when the body must be forced to accept an organ from another individual. The failure of the body to accept an organ is known as transplant rejection. To prevent rejection, a variety of medicines are used to produce induced tolerance.
One of the most important forms of acquired tolerance is oral tolerance.   Oral tolerance, the specific suppression of cellular and/or humoral immune reactivity to an antigen by prior administration of the antigen by the oral route, probably evolved to prevent hypersensitivity reactions to food proteins and bacterial antigens present in the mucosal flora.  It is of immense immunological importance, since it is a continuous natural immunologic event driven by exogenous antigen. Due to their privileged access to the internal milieu, antigens that continuously contact the mucosa represent a frontier between foreign and self components. Oral tolerance evolved to treat external agents that gain access to the body via a natural route as internal components without danger signals, which then become part of self.  Failure of oral tolerance is attributed to the development and pathogenesis of several immunologically based diseases, including Inflammatory Bowel Disease (Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis).
Immunostimulator

# Overview
Immunostimulators are substances (drugs and nutrients) that stimulate the immune system by inducing activation or increasing activity of any of its components. One notable example include granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, commercially available under Leukine name. Some immunostimulating properties were also attributed to Echinacea plant.

# Classification
There are two main categories of immunostimulators:
- Specific immunostimulators are those which provide antigenic specificity in immune response, such as vaccines or any antigen.
- Non-specific immunostimulators are those which act irrespective of antigenic specificity to augment immune response of other antigen or stimulate components of the immune system without antigenic specificity, such as adjuvants and non-specific immunostimulators.
Organic acidemia
Organic acidemia, also called organic aciduria, is a term used to classify a group of metabolic disorders which disrupt normal amino acid metabolism, particularly branched-chain amino acids, causing a buildup of acids which are usually not present.
The four main types of organic acidemia are: methylmalonic acidemia, propionic acidemia, isovaleric acidemia, and maple syrup urine disease.

# Terminology
Organic acids refer to the amino acids and certain odd-chained fatty acids which are affected by these disorders.
The branched-chain amino acids include isoleucine, leucine and valine.

# Diagnosis and Symptoms
Organic acidemias are usually always diagnosed in infancy, characterized by urinary excretion of abnormal amounts or types of organic acids. The diagnosis is usually made by detecting an abnormal pattern of organic acids in a urine sample by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. In some conditions, the urine is always abnormal, in others the characteristic substances are only present intermittently. Many of the organic acidemias are detectable by newborn screening with tandem mass spectrometry.
These disorders vary in their prognosis, from manageable to fatal, and usually affect more than one organ system, especially the central nervous system.
Neurological damage and developmental delay are common factors in diagnosis, with associated symptoms ranging from poor feeding to slow growth, lethargy, vomiting, 
dehydration, malnutrition, hypoglycemia, hypotonia, metabolic acidosis, ketoacidosis, hyperammonemia, and if left untreated, death.

# Cause
Most of the organic acidemias result from defective autosomal genes for various enzymes important to amino acid metabolism. Neurological and physiological harm is caused by this impaired ability to synthesize a key enzyme required to break down a specific amino acid, or group of amino acids, resulting in acidemia and toxicity to specific organs systems. Most are inherited as autosomal recessive diseases.

# Treatment
Treatment or management of organic acidemias vary. There are no effective treatments for all of the conditions, though treatment for some may include a limited protein/high carbohydrate diet, intravenous fluids, amino acid substitution, vitamin supplementation, carnitine, induced anabolism, and in some cases, tube-feeding.
Indirect agonist
In pharmacology, an indirect agonist or indirect-acting agonist is a substance that enhances the release or action of an endogenous neurotransmitter but has no specific agonist activity at the neurotransmitter receptor itself. Indirect agonists work through varying mechanisms to achieve their effects, including transporter blockade, induction of transmitter release, and inhibition of transmitter breakdown.

# Mechanisms of indirect agonism

## Transporter blockade
Cocaine is a monoamine transporter blocker and, thus, an indirect agonist of dopamine receptors. Cocaine binds the dopamine transporter (DAT), blocking the protein's ability to uptake dopamine from the synaptic cleft and terminating dopamine signaling. Blockage of DAT increases the extracellular concentration of dopamine, therefore increasing the amount of dopamine receptor binding and signaling.

## Evoking transmitter release
Fenfluramine is an indirect agonist of serotonin receptors. Fenfluramine binds to the serotonin transporter, blocking serotonin reuptake. However, fenfluramine also acts to induce non-exocytotic serotonin release; in a mechanism similar to that of methamphetamine in dopamine neurons, fenfluramine binds to VMAT2, disrupting the compartmentalization of serotonin into vesicles and increasing the concentration of cytoplasmic serotonin available for drug-induced release.

## Inhibition of clearance
Dipyridamole inhibits reuptake of adenosine, resulting in greater extracellular concentrations of adenosine. Dipyridamole also inhibits the enzyme adenosine deaminase, the enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of adenosine.
Inocybe tricolor
Inocybe tricolor is a rare member of the genus Inocybe which is widely distributed in temperate forests.

# Description
Inocybe tricolor is a small mycorrhizal mushroom with a convex to umbonate cap which is fibrillose to squamulose.  It is usually less than 4cm across and has incurved margin until it is very mature.  The cap color varies from brick red to chocolate brown and is lighter towards the margin.  The gills are adnate and very numerous, pale cream brown to yellowish tan.  The spores are smooth and ellipsoid to oval, measuring 7.5 x 4.5 micrometres and ochre to tan brown.  The stem is 2.5-6 cm long, 4 to 6 mm thick, and is equal width for the whole length, sometimes with some swelling at the base.  It is round, solid, and flexible, with yellow, orange, and brick red colors especially near the base.

# Distribution and habitat
Inocybe tricolor is a rare mushroom found under Norway Spruce in central Europe.

# Edibility
Hallucinogenic.  Contains psilocybin.
Integrin, beta 5
Integrin beta-5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ITGB5 gene.

# Interactions
Integrin, beta 5 has been shown to interact with PTK2, Annexin A5 and PAK4.

# Clinical significance

## Research
Elevated levels of ITGB5 have been found in patients suffering from autosomal dominant osteopetrosis type II, a rare disease of bones.
Integrin alpha 2
Integrin alpha-2 or CD49b (cluster of differentiation 49b) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the CD49b gene.
The CD49b protein is an integrin alpha subunit. It makes up half of the 21 integrin duplex. Integrins are heterodimeric integral membrane glycoproteins composed of a distinct alpha chain and a common beta chain. They are found on a wide variety of cell types including, T cells (the NKT cells), NK cells, fibroblasts and platelets. Integrins are involved in cell adhesion and also participate in cell-surface mediated signalling.
Expression of CD49b in conjunction with LAG-3 has been used to identify type 1 regulatory (Tr1) cells.
DX5 is a monoclonal antibody which binds to CD49b.

# Interactions
CD49b has been shown to interact with MMP1.