Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Fahr's syndrome

# Overview
Idiopathic Basal Ganglia Calcification, also known as Fahr disease or Fahrs Syndrome is a rare, genetically dominant, inherited neurological disorder characterized by abnormal deposits of calcium in areas of the brain that control movement, including the basal ganglia and the cerebral cortex. It is a rare degenerative neurological disorder characterized by calcifications and cell loss within the basal ganglia. The disease was first noted by German neurologist Karl Theodor Fahr in 1930. 

# Symptoms
Symptoms of the disorder may include deterioration of motor function, pychosis dementia, seizures, headache, dysarthria (poorly articulated speech), spasticity (stiffness of the limbs) and spastic paralysis, eye impairments, and athetosis (involuntary, writhing movements). Although Fahrs disease appears most commonly with motor deficits, about 40% of the patients with Fahrs disease are seen with primarily cognitive and other psychiatric findings.
Fahrs Syndrome can also include symptoms characteristic of Parkinson disease such as tremors, muscle rigidity, a mask-like facial appearance, shuffling gait, and a pill-rolling motion of the fingers.  These symptoms generally occur later in the development of the disease.
More common symptoms include dystonia (disordered muscle tone) and chorea (involuntary, rapid, jerky movements). Age of onset is typically in the 40s or 50s, although it can occur at any time in childhood or adolescence.

# Prognosis
There is no cure for Fahrs Syndrome, nor is there a standard course of treatment. Treatment addresses symptoms on an individual basis. Case reports have suggested that haloperidol or lithium carbonate may help with psychotic symptoms.
The prognosis for any individual with Fahrs Syndrome is variable and hard to predict. There is no reliable correlation between age, extent of calcium deposits in the brain, and neurological deficit. Since the appearance of calcification is age-dependent, a CT scan could be negative in a gene carrier who is younger than the age of 55.
Progressive neurological deterioration generally results in disability and death.

# Related research
The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) supports and conducts research on neurogenetic disorders such as Fahrs Syndrome. The goals of this research are to locate and understand the actions of the genes involved in this disorder. Finding these genes could lead to effective ways to treat and prevent Fahrs Syndrome.

# Source
This article is based on a Q&A website prepared by NINDS , part of the National Institutes of Health located in Bethesda, Maryland.
All NINDS-prepared information is in the public domain and may be freely copied.
NINDS health-related material is provided for information purposes only and does not necessarily represent endorsement by or an official position of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke or any other Federal agency. Advice on the treatment or care of an individual patient should be obtained through consultation with a physician who has examined that patient or is familiar with that patient's medical history.
Beecham's Pills
Beecham's Pills were a laxative first marketed around 1842 in St Helens, Merseyside.  They were invented by Thomas Beecham (18201907), grandfather of Thomas Beecham (1879-1961).
The pills themselves were a combination of aloe, ginger, and soap, with some other more minor ingredients.  They were initially advertised like other patent medicine as a cure-all, but they actually did have a positive effect on the digestive process.  This effectiveness made them stand out from other remedies for sale in the mid-nineteenth century.
The popularity of the pills produced a wide range of testimonials that were used in advertising.  The poet William Topaz McGonagall wrote a poem advertising the pills, giving his recommendation in verse.  Two slogans used in Beecham's advertising were "Worth a guinea a box," and "Beecham's pills make all the difference."
The pills, and their marketing, were the basis for Beecham's Patent Pills, which became Beecham Estates and Pills in 1924, eight years after the death of Sir Joseph Beecham, the son of Thomas Beecham.  The pills continued to be made by a succession of Beecham Pills Limited, Beecham Pharmaceuticals Limited, Beecham Health Care, and SmithKline Beecham.  The manufacture of the pills was discontinued in 1998.

# Popular culture
In Cockney rhyming slang, Beecham's Pill (or Beecham's), could be used to stand in for a bill or a still photograph.
Behavior change
Behavior change refers to any transformation or modification of human behavior.  Such changes can occur intentionally, through behavior modification, without intention, or change rapidly in situations of mental illness.

# Unintentional and rapid behavior change
Rapid changes in behavior patterns may be a sign of mental illness requiring emergency psychiatric intervention.  Symptoms of such changes may include panic attacks, extreme agitation, violence, or other destructive outbursts.

# Behavior modification
Behavior modification is a technique of altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behavior and/or the extinction of maladaptive behavior through positive and negative punishment.
Behr's syndrome
Behr's syndrome (a.k.a. Behr's disease) is a hereditary disorder named after Carl Behr, who first described it in 1909. It has an autosomal recessive inheritance, although heterozygotes may still manifest much attenuated symptoms.
Behr's syndrome results in a spectrum of optic and neurological complications for both sexes. The disorder begins from early childhood with disturbance to vision, and loss or reduction in body control and co-ordination.
It includes a partial and increasing loss of vision and/or blind spot in previously normal sight; eyesight degeneration is particularly prevalent in males. Symptoms can include rapid involuntary eye movements (nystagmus), ataxia, progressive damage to nerves, nerve inflammation and unusual foot reflexes when the sole is stimulated (positive Babinski sign).
The syndrome is recessive and is not linked to sex chromosomes.
Bellis perennis
Bellis perennis is a common European species of Daisy, often considered the archetypal species of that name, though many other related plants share the name; to distinguish it from other daisies, it is sometimes qualified as Common Daisy, Lawn Daisy or occasionally English daisy. It is native to western, central and northern Europe. The species is widely naturalized in North America, where it is considered an invasive weed.
It is a herbaceous plant with short creeping rhizomes and small rounded or spoon-shaped evergreen leaves 25 cm long. The flowerheads are 23 cm in diameter, with white ray florets (often tipped red) and yellow disc florets; they are produced on leafless stems 210 cm (rarely 15 cm) tall.  The lawn daisy is a dicot.

# Name
It is thought that the name "daisy" is a corruption of "day's eye", because the whole head closes at night and opens in the morning. Chaucer called it "eye of the day".
Daisy is also a common girl's name.

# Uses
It is not affected by mowing and is therefore often considered a weed on lawns, though many also value the appearance of the flowers. Several cultivars and hybrids have been selected with much larger flowerheads up to 56 cm diameter and with light pink to purple-red ray florets.
Bellis perennis is also a widely used homeopathic remedy. Herbalists use it to treat kidney problems, rheumatism, arthritis, bronchitis and diarrhoea. It also has astringent properties.
Berdon syndrome
Berdon's Syndrome is a disorder of the newborn, most prevalent in females, characterised by constipation and urinary retention, microcolon, giant bladder (megacystis), intestinal hypoperistalis, hydronephrosis, and dilated small bowel. The pathological findings consist of an abundance of ganglion cells in both dilated and narrow areas of the intestine. It is a familial disturbance of unknown aetiology. Authors disagree whether inheritance is autosomal dominant or recessive.
Berdon et al. in 1976 first described the condition in five female infants, two of whom were sisters. All had marked dilatation of the bladder and some had hydronephrosis and the external appearance of prune belly. The infants also had microcolon and dilated small intestines
Walter E. Berdon is Director Emeritus of Pediatric Radiology at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center, Babies Hospital in New York City. He is a gold medal honoree of both the Society for Pediatric Radiologyand the American Roentgen Ray Society. Dr. Berdon has published hundred of papers in pediatric radiology during his career and continues to enthusiastically practice pediatric radiology and the application of imaging to new clinical developments in pediatrics.
See also Walter E. Berdon Awards 
The Berdon Award recognizes the best Clinical and Science papers submitted to the journal of Pediatric Radiology in the year preceding the meeting of The Society for Pediatric Radiology. This award was established to honor Walter Berdon who served as the North American Editor of Pediatric Radiology for 30 years and who stepped down as editor on June 30, 2003.
Bergmann's Rule
In zoology, Bergmann's rule is an ecogeographic rule that correlates latitude with body mass in animals.  Broadly it asserts that within a species the body mass increases with latitude and colder climate, or that within closely related species that differ only in relation to size that one would expect the larger species to be found at the higher latitude.  The rule is named after a nineteenth-century German biologist, Christian Bergmann, who first formulated the rule in 1847. The rule is often applied only to mammals and birds (endotherms), but some researchers have also found evidence for the rule in studies of ectothermic species. Bergmann's rule is controversial amongst researchers and its validity has often been called into question, and there is division amongst scientists about whether the rule should be interpreted to within species variation or among species variation. Although several mechanisms have been suggested to explain the rule there is no clear explanation for why the pattern exists.

# Explanations for Bergmann's Rule
The earliest explanation, given by Bergmann when originally formulating the rule, is that larger animals have a lower surface area to volume ratio than smaller animals, so they radiate less body heat per unit of mass, and stay warmer in cold climates. On the other hand, warmer climates impose the opposite problem: body heat generated by metabolism needs to be dissipated quickly rather than stored within.  Thus, the higher surface area-to-weight ratio of smaller animals in hot and dry climates facilitates heat loss through the skin and helps cooling of the body.
However, some notable exceptions of species with large mass and small surface-to-volume ratios that reside in warm climates exist, such as the African elephant. In this case, similar thermoregulatory optimizations may be operating, such as mass homeothermy to resist a significant rise in core body temperature in warm climates.  Anecdotally, elephants are more frequently found in the shelter of shade when they are accompanied by calves, which have a significantly higher surface-to-volume ratio, and are much more prone to changes in temperature from radiant sources in the environment. (For similar arguments with references, see ).
For humans, the rule is true to a certain extent, but differing cultural practices including local diet, migration and gene flow between populations must obviously account for much of this. For example, northern Asians are on average larger than their Southeast Asian counterparts. The Inuit of Alaska and northern Canada are known for their compact bodies (relatively short arms and legs compared to height of the torso) as adaptation to severe cold (which is Allen's Rule). Moreover, pygmies are found only in tropical rain forests. There are, however, counterexamples. Furthermore, the ability of humans to cope in colder climates can be mostly attributed to appropriate clothing and dwellings, whereas animals cope mainly with genetic adaptations.
Bert Vogelstein

# Overview
Bert Vogelstein (born 1949) is a noted cancer researcher at The Johns Hopkins University. His first degree was in mathematics graduating summa cum laude in 1970 from the University of Pennsylvania. His interest was more in medicine and he received his M.D. from The Johns Hopkins University four years later. He was subsequently a resident in pediatrics at The Johns Hopkins Hospital. He has received the Gairdner Foundation International Award, Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University in 1998, Prince of Asturias Award for Technical and Scientific Research, and other awards for his research. His recent work has often concerned oncogenes.
Bert lives in Baltimore, Maryland with his wife Ilene, and has three children - R. Jacob, Joshua and Ahava.  He grew up in Pikesville, Maryland, a northwestern suburb of Baltimore.  He attended Pikesville High School.

# Quotes
- "I couldn't tell them anything about their daughter's disease. I couldn't tell them what had caused it or why. I could offer some encouraging words about therapies that may potentially help, but what they really wanted to know was why."
- "Anyone who likes to play with toys has got to like science, they are the world's best toys."
Beryllium oxide

# Overview
Beryllium oxide (BeO) is a white crystalline oxide. It is obtained from beryllium or beryllium compounds by ignition in the air. The sintered beryllium oxide (beryllia), which is very stable, has ceramic characteristics. It is similar to aluminium oxide (Al2O3), is highly fire resistant (melting point: 2570C), and has polymorphism. Beryllium oxide was previously called glucina.
Beryllium oxide formed at high temperatures (>800C) is inert but may be easily dissolved in hot aqueous ammonium bifluoride (NH4HF2) or a hot solution of concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4).

# Applications
This complex is used for rocket engines, catalysts, semiconductors, moderators of atomic reactors, and neutron reflectors.
Beryllium oxide is used in many high-performance semiconductor parts for applications such as radio equipment because it has good thermal conductivity while also being a good electrical insulator. Some power semiconductor devices have used beryllium oxide ceramic to insulate the silicon chip from the metal mounting base of the package in order to achieve a lower value thermal resistance than for a similar construction made with aluminium oxide. It is also used as a structural ceramic for high-performance vacuum tubes, magnetrons, and gas lasers.

# Safety
BeO is carcinogenic if the powder is ingested or inhaled and may cause chronic beryllium disease.
Beta-defensin 2
Beta-defensin 2 (BD-2) also known as skin-antimicrobial peptide 1 (SAP1) is a peptide that in humans is encoded by the DEFB4 (defensin, beta 4) gene.
Human beta-defensin-2 (hBD-2) is a cysteine-rich cationic low molecular weight antimicrobial peptide recently discovered in lesional skin.

# Structure
hBD-2 is a protein whose primary structure is made by 64 aminoacids. At concentrations 2.4 mM, hBD-2 is monomeric. The structure is amphiphilic with a nonuniform surface distribution of positive charge and contains several key structural elements, including a triple-stranded, antiparallel beta sheet with strands 2 and 3 in a beta hairpin conformation. 
The determination of other structural elements depends on the technique used. When X-ray crystallography is used an alpha helix can be observed at the N-terminal end of the protein (PDB codes: 1fd3,1fd4, and 6cs9). When using NMR this alpha-helix does not appear (PDB code: 1e4q), however this structure was determined using a truncated version of hBD-2 which was missing the initial 4 amino acids, and may be the reason for the discrepancy.

# Function
Defensins form a family of microbicidal and cytotoxic peptides made by neutrophils. Members of the defensin family are highly similar in protein sequence. Beta-defensin 2 is an antibiotic peptide which is locally regulated by inflammation.
Human beta-defensin 2 is produced by a number of epithelial cells and exhibits potent antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacteria and Candida, but not Gram-positive S. aureus.  It has been speculated that beta-defensin 2 may contribute to the infrequency of Gram-negative infections on skin and lung tissue.
hBD-2 represents the first human defensin that is produced following stimulation of epithelial cells by contact with microorganisms such as P. aeruginosa or cytokines such as TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta. The HBD-2 gene and protein are locally expressed in keratinocytes associated with inflammatory skin lesions. It is intriguing to speculate that HBD-2 is a dynamic component of the local epithelial defense system of the skin and respiratory tract having a role to protect surfaces from infection, and providing a possible reason why skin and lung infections with Gram-negative bacteria are rather rare.
Although this protein doesnt have any antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria, there is a study showing that there is a synergy between hBD-2 and other proteins. One example of this synergistic effect is with epiP, a protein segregated by some strains of S. epidermidis. hBD2, holding hands with epiP, is capable of killing S. aureus, a Gram-positive bacteria responsible of human diseases.
Carrier protein

# Overview
Carrier proteins are proteins that transport a specific substance or group of substances across intracellular compartments or in extracellular fluids (e.g. in the blood) or else across the cell membrane. Some of the carriers are water-soluble proteins that may or may not interact with biological membranes, such as some transporters of small hydrophobic molecules, whereas others are integral transmembrane proteins.
Carrier proteins of the cell membrane transport substances down their concentration gradient out of or into the cell by facilitated diffusion and active transport.
Each carrier protein is designed to recognize only one substance or one group of very similar substances. The molecule or ion to be transported (the substrate) must first bind at a binding site at the carrier molecule, with a certain binding affinity. Following binding, and while the binding site is facing, say, outwards, the carrier will capture or occlude (take in and retain) the substrate within its molecular structure and cause an internal translocation, so that it now faces the other side of the membrane. The substrate is finally released at that site, according to its binding affinity there. All steps are reversible.
For example:
- Diffusion of sugars, amino acids,nucleoside.
- Uptake of glucose.
Bingel reaction
The Bingel reaction in fullerene chemistry is a fullerene cyclopropanation reaction to a methanofullerene first  discovered by C. Bingel in 1993 with the bromo derivative of diethyl malonate in the presence of a base such as sodium hydride or DBU . The preferred double bonds for this reaction on the fullerene surface are the shorter bonds at the junctions of two hexagons (6-6 bonds) and the driving force is relief of steric strain.
The reaction is of importance in the field of chemistry because it allows the introduction of useful extensions to the fullerene sphere. These extensions alter their properties for instance solubility and electrochemical behavior and therefore widen the range of potential technical applications.

# Reaction mechanism
The reaction mechanism for this reaction is as follows: a base abstracts the acidic malonate proton generating a carbanion or enolate which reacts with the electron deficient fullerene double bond in a nucleophilic addition. This in turn generates a carbanion which displaces bromine in a nucleophilic aliphatic substitution in an intramolecular ring cyclopropane ring closure.

# Scope
The Bingel reaction is a popular method in fullerene chemistry. The malonate (functionalized with the halide atom) is often obtained in situ in a mixture of base  and tetrachloromethane or iodine . The reaction is also known to take place with the ester groups replaced by alkyne groups in dialkynylmethanofullerenes.
An alternative to the Bingel reaction is a fullerene diazomethane reaction. N-(Diphenylmethylene)glycinate Esters  in a Bingel reaction take a different conjugate course and react to a fullerene dihydropyrrole.
Bioactive glass

# Overview
Bioactive glasses are a group of surface reactive glass-ceramics and include the original bioactive glass, Bioglass. The biocompatibility of these glasses has led them to be investigated extensively for use as implant materials in the human body to repair and replace diseased or damaged bone.

# History
Larry Hench and colleagues at the University of Florida first developed these materials in the late 1960s and have been further developed by his research team at the Imperial College London and other researchers worldwide.

# Compositions
There have been many variations on the original composition which was Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved and termed bioglass.  This composition is known as 45S5. Other compositions are in the list below.
- 45S5: 46.1 mol% SiO2, 26.9 mol% CaO, 24.4 mol% Na2O and 2.5 mol% P2O5. Bioglass
- 58S: 60 mol% SiO2, 36 mol% CaO and 4 mol% P2O5.
- S70C30: 70 mol% SiO2, 30 mol% CaO.

# Structure
Solid state NMR spectroscopy has been very useful in elucidating the structure of amorphous solids. Bioactive glasses have been studied by 29Si and 31P solid state MAS NMR spectroscopy. The chemical shift from MAS NMR is indicative of the type of chemical species present in the glass. The 29Si MAS NMR spectrscopy showed that Bioglass 45S5 was a Q2 type-structure with a small amount of Q3; i.e., silicate chains with a few crosslinks. The 31P MAS NMR indicated a Q0 species; i.e., PO44- with predominately sodium cations. (Lockyer et al. 1995)

# Medical Applications
Bioactive glasses have many applications but these are primarily in the areas of bone repair and bone regeneration via tissue engineering.
- Synthetic bone graft materials for general orthopaedic, craniofacial (bones of the skull and face), maxillofacial and periodontal (the bone structure that supports teeth) repair. These are available to surgeons in a particulate form.
- Cochlear implants.
- Bone tissue engineering scaffolds. These are being investigated in many forms, in particular as porous (contains pores into which cells can grow and fluids can travel) 3-dimensional scaffolds.
References
Lockyer, M. W. G., Holland, D. & Dupree, R., NMR investigation of the structure
-f some bioactive and related glasses. J. Non-Crys. Sol., 1995, 188, 207-219.