Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Acacia catechu
Acacia catechu is a deciduous, thorny tree which grows up to 15m in height.
Common names for it include Catechu, Cachou and Black Cutch.  It is found in Asia, China, India and the Indian Ocean area.

# Uses

## Food
The tree's seeds are a good source of protein.

## Fodder
Branches of the tree are quite often cut for goat fodder and are sometimes fed to cattle.

## Wood
The tree is often planted for use as firewood and its wood is highly valued for furniture and tools.  The wood has a density of about 0.88 g/cm3.

## Other uses
Its heartwood extract is used in dyeing, leather tanning, as a preservative for fishing nets, for medicine and as a viscosity regulator for oil drilling.

# Cultivation
The tree can be propagated by planting its seeds, which are soaked in hot water first.  After about six months in a nursery, the seedlings can be planted in the field. 

# Botanical varieties
- Acacia catechu var. sundra (L.f.) Willd.
Acacia chundra
Acacia chundra is a perennial, deciduous tree found in Asia, India and in the Indian Ocean area.  It grows 12m to 15m in height.
Common names for it include Karangali, Kodalimurunkai, Lal Khair, Lal Khair, Rat Kihiriya and Red Cutch.
Its uses include chemical products, medicine and wood.

# Uses
The wood is used for certain applications in shipbuilding.  The tree is used for timber, for cutch (catechutannic acid) from its wood and for tannin.  It is also used as food for bees.
Kheersal is found as a white substance in the tree's wood.  It has medicinal uses including the treatment of painful throat and cough.  Katha is employed in astringent products and is used to promote digestion.  It is also used to sooth infection and severe irritations of the skin.
Cutch is sought after commercially as a dye and to preserve fabrics from weather, mildew and marine exposure.

# Conservation
A. chundra is "moderately threatened" and in India it is now necessary to get a permit before cutting this tree down.
Acacia senegal
Acacia senegal is a small deciduous acacia tree known by the common names Rudraksha, Gum Acacia, Gum Arabic Tree, or Gum Senegal Tree. It is native to semi-desert regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as Oman, Pakistan, and northwestern India. It grows to a height of 5-12m, with a trunk up to 30cm in diameter.

# Uses

## Forage
New foliage is very useful as forage.
Cabo Verde terra querida.

## Food
Dried seeds are used as food by humans.

## Gum arabic
It produces gum arabic, which is used as a food additive, in crafts, and as a cosmetic. The gum is drained from cuts in the bark, and an individual tree will yield 200 to 300 grams. Seventy percent of the world's gum arabic is produced in Sudan.

## Medicinal uses
The gum is used for soothing mucous membranes of the intestine and to treat inflammed skin.  It is also reportedly used as for its astringent properties, to treat bleeding, bronchitis, diarrhea, gonorrhea, leprosy, typhoid fever and upper respiratory tract infections.

## Rope
Roots near the surface of the ground are quite useful in making all kinds of very strong ropes and cords.  The tree bark is also used to make rope

## Wood
Handles for tools, parts for weaving looms.

# Botanical variations
- Acacia senegal var. leiorhachis Brenan
- Acacia senegal var. rostrata Brenan
- Acacia senegal var. senegal
Bundle of Kent
Synonyms and keywords: Accessory atrioventricular muscle bundle, Kent Bundle, Kent pathway

# Overview
Bundle of Kent is an accessory conducting pathway between the atria and the ventricle of the heart.

# Historical Perspective
Paladina and Kent were the first to describe the myocardial fibers connecting the atrial and ventricular myocardium in normal hearts.  In 1932, Holzmann and Scherf suggested that ventricular pre-excitation was possible through these muscular connections.  Later, Wood and his colleagues and subsequently Ohnell described the first anatomical pathways for these accessory atrioventricular connections.

# Pathophysiology
Bundle of Kent is an abnormal pathway present in a small percentage of the general population that results in a condition known as Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome (WPW).  The anatomic substrate is a band of myocytes that bridges the fibrous junction between the atrium and the ventricle.

# Conditions Involving Bundle of Kent
Problems arise when this pathway creates an electrical circuit that bypasses the AV node.  The AV node has rate-slowing electrical regulatory properties, whereas the pathway via the bundle of Kent does not.  When an aberrant electrical impulse travels through the Kent bundle, tachyarrhythmia ensues.

# Treatment
In order to treat persons with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, destruction of the bundle of Kent is accomplished by radiofrequency catheter ablation.  This procedure is performed almost exclusively by cardiac electrophysiologists.
Acid catalysis
In acid catalysis and base catalysis a chemical reaction is catalyzed by an acid or a base. The acid is often the proton and the base is often a hydroxyl ion. Typical reactions catalysed by proton transfer are esterfications and aldol reactions. In these reactions the conjugate acid of the carbonyl group is a better electrophile than the neutral carbonyl group itself. Catalysis by either acid or base can occur in two different ways: specific catalysis and general catalysis.

# Use in synthesis
Acid catalysis is mainly used for organic chemical reactions.  There are many possible chemical compounds that can act as sources for the protons to be transferred in an acid catalysis system.  A compound such as sulphuric acid (H2SO4) can be used.  Usually this is done to create a more likely leaving group, such as converting an OH group to a H2O+ group.
With carbonyl compounds such as esters, synthesis and hydrolysis go through a tetrahedral transition state, where the central carbon has an oxygen, an alcohol group, and the original alkyl group. Strong acids protonate the carbonyl, which makes the oxygen positively charged, so that it can easily receive the double bond electrons when the alcohol attacks the carbonyl carbon. This enables ester synthesis and hydrolysis. The reaction is an equilibrium between the ester and its cleavage to carboxylic acid and alcohol. On the contrary, strong bases deprotonate the attacking alcohol or amine, which also promotes the reaction. However, bases also deprotonate the acid, which is irreversible. Therefore, in a strongly basic, aqueous environment, esters only hydrolyze.

# Kinetics

## Specific catalysis
In specific acid catalysis taking place in solvent S , the reaction rate is proportional to the concentration of the protonated solvent molecules SH+. The acid catalyst itself (AH) only contributes to the rate acceleration by shifting the chemical equilibrium between solvent S and AH in favor of the SH+ species.
S + AH  SH+ + A-
For example in an aqueous buffer solution the reaction rate for reactants R depends on the pH of the system but not on the concentrations of different acids.
\ rate= -\frac{d}{dt}  = k
This type of chemical kinetics is observed when reactant R1 in a fast equilibrium with its conjugate base R1H+ which proceeds to react slowly with R2 to the reaction product for example in the acid catalysed aldol reaction.

## General catalysis
In general acid catalysis all species capable of donating protons contribute to reaction rate acceleration. The strongest acids are most effective. Reactions in which proton transfer is rate-determining exhibit general acid catalysis, for example diazonium coupling reactions.
\ rate= -\frac{d}{dt}  = k_1 + k_2 + k_3 + ... 
When keeping the pH at a constant level but changing the buffer concentration a change in rate signals a general acid catalysis. A constant rate is evidence for a specific acid catalyst.
Alveolar gland
In contrast to tubular glands, in the second main variety of gland, the secretory portion is enlarged and the lumen variously increased in size. These are termed alveolar glands (or saccular glands, or acinar glands, or acinous glands).
Some sources draw a clear distinction between acinar and alveolar glands, based upon the shape of the lumen.
A further complication in the case of the alveolar glands may occur in the form of still smaller saccular diverticuli growing out from the main sacculi. These are termed alveoli.
The term "tubulo-alveolar" (or "tubulo-acinar", or "compound tubulo-acinar", or "compound tubulo-alveolar") is used to describe that start out as branched tubular, and branch further to terminate in alveoli. This type of gland is found in the salivary glands and esophagus.
The term "racemose gland" is used to describe a "compound alveolar gland" or "compound acinar gland".

# Additional images
- Alveoli of lacrimal gland.
- Human submaxillary gland. At the right is a group of mucous alveoli, at the left a group of serous alveoli.
- Section of portion of mamma.
Acne cosmetica
Acne cosmetica is a term referring to acne caused by or made worse by cosmetics.  The mechanism was presumably a chemically induced plugging of the pilosebaceous orifice.  This was a significant problem for dermatologists in the 1970s and 1980s, but with the improved formulations produced by cosmetic chemists over the past thirty years, this is now a relatively rare diagnosis in daily practice.
The terms "non-comedogenic" and "non-acne(i)genic" appeared on moisturizers and other cosmetic compounds as re-formulations were introduced, sometimes associated with claims that the products were oil-free or water-based.  Although early work produced lists of comedogenic chemicals in various strengths and vehicles, it became apparent that the actual comedogenicity of a product could not be predicted from its contents; rather the finished product itself needed to be use-tested.
The production of a low-grade folliculitis by some components of cosmetic products has led to misdiagnosis on occasion.
People may not attribute their reactions to their cosmetics at first, but may notice worsening symptoms after using certain face makeup, sunblock or lip products.
Acoustic shock

# Overview
Acoustic shock is the symptoms a person may experience after hearing an unexpected, loud sound via a telephone. The loud sound, called an Acoustic Incident, can be caused by feedback oscillation, fax tones, or signalling tones.
Telemarketers and call centre employees are thought to be most at risk.

# Reported symptoms
During the exposure, most people will experience discomfort and pain. After the exposure, some people might report shock, nausea and anxiety or depression. Headache, fatigue, hypersensitivity to loud noise and tinnitus may continue for days, weeks or indefinitely.  It has not been established how such unrelated symptoms might be caused by an acoustic exposure, or whether such symptoms are even a direct result of exposure.

# Prevention
There are many methods of attempting to reduce the risk of AS. Several devices attempt to remove potentially harmful sound signals by digital signal processing. None has yet been shown to be fully effective. Devices which solely limit noise levels to about 85dB have been shown in field trials to be ineffective (data from these trials has not been released into the public domain). Limiting background noise and office stress may also reduce the chance of an Acoustic Shock. Proper use of the headset and preventing mobile phones from being used in call centers reduces the chance of feedback. 

# Legal Action
84 BT employees suffering from depression, headaches and other health problems, are demanding compensation for injury sustained from acoustic shock at work. BT has already paid 90,000 to one worker that suffered from tinnitus.
Acral necrosis

# Overview
Acral necrosis is the black discoloration of the skin of the extremities due to decreased blood supply to the afftected areas. Acral necrosis is a common symptom of bubonic plague.

# Historical Perspective
The striking black discoloration of skin and tissue of the extremities is commonly thought to have given rise to the name Black Death, associated both with the disease and the pandemic which occurred in the 14th century. The term in fact came from the figural sense of "black", that is glum, lugubrious or dreadful.

# Pathophysiology
Clotting and bleeding beneath the skin causes an area of hemorrhage, the presence of red blood cells lying outside of capillaries, into the skin and subcutaneous tissue. In isolation, this is called an ecchymosis or bruise and may be the result of injury or illness. However, acral necrosis occurs when blood supply is disrupted for prolonged periods, blackening and damaging the affected area and surrounding tissue.

## Gross Pathology
Image courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission  PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology
- Hand: Gangrene: Gross excellent demonstration of gangrenous necrosis of fingers
- Hand: Gangrene: Gross excellent demonstration of gangrenous necrosis of fingers
- Hand: Gangrene: Gross excellent demonstration of gangrenous necrosis of fingers
- Necrosis of distal finger in a patient with panniculitis and fascitis, streptococcus A septicemia in a patient with Scleroderma who was on high dose steroids

# Causes

## Common Causes
- Bubonic plague
- Peripheral vascular  disease
- Pneumonic plague
- Raynaud's disease

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Untreated cases can lead to death.

# Treatment
With appropriate medical treatment, areas with acral necrosis may be successfully restored to function.
Actin, alpha 1
Actin, alpha skeletal muscle is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACTA1 gene.
Actin alpha 1 which is expressed in skeletal muscle is one of six different actin isoforms which have been identified. Actins are highly conserved proteins that are involved in cell motility, structure and integrity. Alpha actins are a major constituent of the contractile apparatus.

# Skeletal actin gene expression
Skeletal alpha actin expression is induced by stimuli and conditions known to cause muscle formation. Such conditions result in fusion of committed cells (satellite cells) into myotubes, to form muscle fibers. Skeletal actin itself, when expressed, causes expression of several other "myogenic genes", which are essential to muscle formation. One key transcription factor that activates skeletal actin gene expression is Serum Response Factor ("SRF"), a protein that binds to specific sites on the promoter DNA of the actin gene. SRF may bring a number of other proteins to the promoter of skeletal actin, such as androgen receptor, and thereby contribute to induction of skeletal actin gene expression by androgenic (often termed "anabolic") steroids.

# Interactions
Actin, alpha 1 has been shown to interact with TMSB4X, MIB2 and PRKCE.
Actinobacteria
The Actinobacteria or Actinomycetes are a group of Gram-positive bacteria with high G+C ratio. They include some of the most common soil life, playing an important role in decomposition of organic materials, such as cellulose and chitin and thereby play a vital part in organic matter turnover and carbon cycle. Thus replenishing the supply of nutrients in the soil and is an important part of humus formation.
Actinobacteria are well known as secondary metabolite producers and hence of high pharmacological and commercial interest. In 1940 Selman Waksman discovered that the soil bacteria he was studying made actinomycin, a discovery which granted him a Nobel Prize. Since then hundreds of naturally occurring antibiotics have been discovered in these terrestrial microorganisms, especially from the genus Streptomyces.
Other Actinobacteria inhabit plants and animals, including a few pathogens, such as Mycobacterium, Corynebacterium, Nocardia, Rhodococcus and a few species of Streptomyces.
Genomes of 44 different strains of Actinobacteria from different genera are either already sequenced or underway right now.
Some Actinobacteria form branching filaments, which somewhat resemble the mycelia of the unrelated fungi, among which they were originally classified under the older name Actinomycetes. Most members are aerobic, but a few, such as Actinomyces israelii, can grow under anaerobic conditions. Unlike the Firmicutes, the other main group of Gram-positive bacteria, they have DNA with a high GC-content and some Actinomycetes species produce external spores.
Representative genera include:
- Actinomyces
- Arthrobacter
- Corynebacterium
- Frankia
- Micrococcus
- Micromonospora
- Mycobacterium
- Nocardia
- Propionibacterium
- Streptomyces
Acute toxicity
Acute toxicity describes the adverse effects of a substance which result either from a single exposure or from multiple exposures in a short space of time (usually less than 24 hours). To be described as acute toxicity, the adverse effects should occur within 14 days of the administration of the substance.
Acute toxicity is distinguished from chronic toxicity, which describes the adverse health effects from repeated exposures, often at lower levels, to a substance over a longer time period (months or years).
It is obviously unethical to test for acute (or chronic) toxicity in humans. However, some information can be gained from investigating accidental human exposures (e.g. factory accidents). Otherwise, most acute toxicity data comes from animal testing or, more recently, in vitro testing methods and inference from data on similar substances.

# Measures of acute toxicity

## Regulatory values
Limits for short-term exposure, such as STELs or CVs, are only defined if there a particular acute toxicity associated with a substance.
- Short-term exposure limit, STEL; Threshold limit value-short-term exposure limit, TLV-STEL
- Ceiling value, CV; Threshold limit value-ceiling, TLV-C

## Experimental values
- No observed adverse effect level, NOAEL
- Lowest observed adverse effect level, LOAEL
- Maximum tolerable concentration, MTC, LC0; Maximum tolerable dose, MTD, LD0
- Minimum lethal concentration, LCmin; Mimimum lethal dose, LDmin
- Median lethal concentration, LC50; Median lethal dose, LD50; Median lethal time, LT50
- Absolute lethal concentration, LC100; Absolute lethal dose, LD100
Adenocarcinoma

# Overview
Adenocarcinoma is a form of carcinoma that originates in glandular tissue. To be classified as adenocarcinoma, the cells do not necessarily need to be part of a gland, as long as they have secretory properties.  This form of carcinoma can occur in some higher mammals, including humans. The term adenocarcinoma is derived from 'adeno' meaning 'pertaining to a gland' and 'carcinoma', which describes a cancer that has developed in the epithelial cells. It can first present as an adenoma (a glandular tumor that is benign).

# Pathophysiology
Examples of tissues where adenocarcinomas may arise:
- Breast cancer
- Colon cancer
- Lung cancer
- Prostate cancer
- Stomach cancer
- Pancreatic cancer (99% of pancreatic cancers are ductal adenocarcinomas )
- Cervical cancer
- Vaginal cancer

# Physical Examination

## Adenocarcinoma-In The Submandibular Salivary Glands
- Adenocarcinoma-In The Submandibular Salivary Glands  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Adenocarcinoma-In The Submandibular Salivary Glands  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Adenocarcinoma-In The Submandibular Salivary Glands  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas

# Differential Diagnosis
Afferent nerve

# Overview
In the nervous system, afferent neurons--otherwise known as sensory or receptor neurons--carry nerve impulses from receptors or sense organs toward the central nervous system.  This is the case vice versa as well. This term can also be used to describe relative connections between structures. Afferent neurons communicate with specialized interneurons. (The opposite activity of direction or flow is efferent.)
In the nervous system there is a "closed loop" system of sensation, decision, and reactions. This process is carried out through the activity of afferent neurons, interneurons, and efferent neurons.
A touch or painful stimulus, for example, creates a sensation in the brain only after information about the stimulus travels there via afferent nerve pathways. Afferent neurons are pseudounipolar neurons, that have a single long dendrite and a short axon, and a smooth and rounded cell body. The dendrite is structurally and functionally similar to an axon, and is myelinated; it is these axon-like dendrites that make up the afferent nerves. Just outside the spinal cord, thousands of afferent neuronal cell bodies are aggregated in a swelling in the dorsal root known as the dorsal root ganglion. (See efferent nerve.)

# Etymology and mnemonics
Afferent is derived from from Latin participle afferentem (af- = ad- : to + ferre : bear, carry), meaning carrying into.
Ad and ex give an easy mnemonic device for remembering the relationship between afferent and efferent : afferent connection arrives and an efferent connection exits.
Agalmatophilia
Agalmatophilia (from the Greek agalma 'statue', and philos 'friend') is the sexual attraction to a statue, doll, mannequin or other similar figurative object. The attraction may include the desire for actual sexual contact with the objects, a fantasy of having sexual (or non-sexual) encounters with the animate or inanimate instances of the preferred objects, the act of watching encounters between the objects themselves, or sexual pleasure gained from thoughts of being transformed or transforming another into the preferred object. Agalmatophilia may also encompass Pygmalionism (from the myth of Pygmalion) which describes a state of love for an object of one's own creation.

# Clinical study
Agalmatophilia became a subject of clinical study with the publication of Richard von Krafft-Ebbing's Psychopathia Sexualis. Ebbing recorded the case in 1877 of a gardener falling in love with a statue of the Venus de Milo and being discovered while attempting coitus with it.

# Fantasy, transformation and role-play
An important fantasy for some individuals is being transformed into the preferred object (such as a statue) and experiencing an associated state of immobility or paralysis. Such fantasies may be extended to roleplaying, and the self-coined term used by fetishists who enjoy being transformed appears to be "rubber doll" or "latex doll".

# Representation in the arts
A number of famous art photographers have extensively featured sexualised life-sized dolls in their work, such as: Hans Bellmer, Bernard Faucon, Helmut Newton, Morton Bartlett, Katan Amano, Kishin Shinoyama, and Ryoichi Yoshida.
Agalmatophilia features prominently in Luis Bunuel's L'Age d'or and in Tarsem Singh's 2000 thriller movie The Cell. The movie centres on a serial killer named Carl Stargher who drowns his victims (all young women) and then bleaches their bodies so they resemble dolls. He then masturbates while hanging himself above them. Later on in the movie there is a scene taking place inside his mind in which a psychiatrist finds a collection of grotesque, doll-like, corpse-like women inside display cases depicting scenes, while attached to crude machinery that jerks them about in sadomasochistic sexual poses; how the killer perceives his victims.