Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Risk factor

# Overview
A risk factor is a variable associated with an increased risk of disease or infection. Risk factors are correlational and not necessarily causal, because correlation does not imply causation. For example, being young cannot be said to cause measles, but young people are more at risk as they are less likely to have developed immunity during a previous epidemic.
Risk factors are evaluated by comparing the risk of those exposed to the potential risk factor to those not exposed. Let's say that at a wedding, 74 people ate the chicken and 22 of them were ill, while of the 35 people who had the fish or vegetarian meal only 2 were ill. Did the chicken make the people ill?
Risk = \frac {\mbox{number of persons experiencing event (food poisoning)}} {\mbox{number of persons exposed to risk factor (food)}} 
So the chicken eaters' risk = 22/74 = 0.297
And non-chicken eaters' risk = 2/35 = 0.057.
Those who ate the chicken had a risk over five times as high as those who did not, suggesting that eating chicken was the cause of the illness. Note, however, that this is not proof. Statistical methods would be used in a less clear cut case to decide what level of risk the risk factor would have to present to be able to say the risk factor "causes" the disease (for example in a study of the link between smoking and lung cancer).
The term "risk factor" was first coined by heart researcher Dr. Thomas R. Dawber in a landmark scientific paper in 1961, where he attributed heart disease to specific conditions (blood pressure, cholesterol, smoking).
de:Risikofaktor
lt:Rizikos veiksnys
nl:Risicofactor
Rosa canina
Rosa canina (lit. Dog Rose, often called incorrectly Rosehip) is a variable scrambling rose species native to Europe, northwest Africa and western Asia.
It is a deciduous shrub normally ranging in height from 1-5 m, though sometimes it can scramble higher into the crowns of taller trees. Its stems are covered with small, sharp, hooked spines, which aid it in climbing. The leaves are pinnate, with 5-7 leaflets. The flowers are usually pale pink, but can vary between a deep pink and white. They are 4-6 cm diameter with five petals, and mature into an oval 1.5-2 cm red-orange fruit, or hip.

# Cultivation and uses
The plant is high in certain antioxidants. The fruit is noted for its high vitamin C level and is used to make syrup, tea and marmalade. It has been grown or encouraged in the wild for the production of vitamin C, from its fruit (often as rose-hip syrup), especially during conditions of scarcity or wartime. The species has also been introduced to other temperate latitudes. During World War II in the United States Rosa canina was planted in victory gardens, and can still be found growing throughout the United States, including roadsides, and in wet, sandy areas up and down coastlines.
During the Vietnam War, for Steve Arnold fighting with the North, Rosa Canina was dried and then smoked with tobacco to produce mild hallucinogenic effects and abnormal dreams.
Forms of this plant are sometimes used as stocks for the grafting or budding of cultivated varieties.
The wild plant is planted as a nurse or cover crop, or stabilising plant in land reclamation and specialised landscaping schemes.
Numerous cultivars have been named, though few are common in cultivation. The cultivar Rosa canina 'Assisiensis' is the only dog rose without thorns.
The hips are used as a flavouring in the Slovenian soft drink Cockta.
The dog rose was the stylized rose of Medieval European heraldry, and is still used today.
The dog rose is the flower of Hampshire

# Etymology
The name 'dog' has a disparaging meaning in this context, indicating 'worthless' (by comparison with cultivated garden roses) (Vedel & Lange 1960).
Howard (1987) states that it was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to treat the bite of rabid dogs, hence the name "dog rose" arose.
Other old folk names include rose briar (also spelt brier), briar rose, dogberry,, herb patience, sweet briar, wild briar, witches' briar, and briar hip.
In Turkish, its name is 'kusburnu', which translates as "bird nose".
Ross Upshur
Ross Upshur, MA, MD, MSc, CCFP, FRCPC, is a Canadian physician and researcher. He is the Director of the University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics, Director of the Primary Care Research Unit and a staff physician at the Department of Family and Community Medicine, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre.

# Biography
He received his BA (Hons.) in philosophy from the University of Manitoba in 1982, MA in philosophy from Queen's University in 1983, before receiving his MD from McMaster University in 1986. After 7 years of rural primary care practice in southern Ontario, he returned to university to complete a MSc in epidemiology and fellowship training in Community Medicine and Public Health at the University of Toronto in 1997.
From 1997 to 2003, he was appointed Adjunct Assistant Professor, School of Geography and Geology at McMaster University. He was appointed by the University of Toronto as Assistant Professor in 1998 and Associate Professor in 2004 in the Department of Family and Community Medicine, with Cross-Appointment to the Department of Public Health Sciences. Since 2000, he has been the Director of the Primary Care Research Unit at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre. In 2006, he was appointed Director of the University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics.
He holds other academic positions, including the Canada Research Chair in Primary Care Research, Director of the PAHO/WHO Collaborating Centre for Bioethics, Adjunct Scientist at the Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences at the University of Toronto, Associate Member of the Institute of Environment and Health at McMaster University, affiliate of the Institute of the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology at the University of Toronto.
At the University of Toronto, he has designed and taught courses in the undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate curriculum in ethics and epidemiology, as well as supervising doctoral and masters candidates, in addition to serving as a clinical supervisor for the post-graduate Family Medicine Residency program.
He has served on advisory boards for the International Joint Commission, Doctors Without Borders, and Scidev.net and consulted with the World Health Organization.

# Research
He has published over 90 articles in scientific journals such as Lancet, British Medical Journal, Canadian Medical Association Journal, among others.
His research interests include: the concept of evidence in health care, medical epistemology, clinical reasoning, public health ethics, ethics and health information, empirical approaches in bioethics, primary care research methods, time series applications in health services research, communicable disease and environmental epidemiology.
A list of Ross Upshur's publications is available on PubMed, click here.
Rotigaptide

# Overview
Rotigaptide (ZP-123) is a stable gap junction conduction-enhancing antiarrhythmic peptide analog that has been shown to increase gap junction intercellular conductance in cardiac myocytes. Gap junctions are protein channels that are responsible for conducting electrical impulses between cells in the heart to maintain normal rhythm. It is currently under clinical investigation for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias  specifically atrial fibrillation. Gap junction modulation is a promising and novel mechanism of action for the treatment of cardiovascular disorders.

# Indications
Rotigaptide is being studied for its antiarrhythmic effects, specifically for treating atrial fibrillation. Atrial fibrillation is an irregular and often rapid heart rhythm. The irregular rhythm, results from abnormal electrical impulses in the heart. The irregularity can be continuous or intermittent. In atrial fibrillation, multiple impulses travel through the atria at the same time. Instead of a coordinated contraction, the atrial contractions are irregular, disorganized and very rapid. These irregular impulses reach the AV node in rapid succession, but not all of them make it past the AV node. Therefore, the ventricles beat slower in an irregular rhythm. The resulting rapid, irregular heartbeat causes an irregular pulse and sometimes a sensation of fluttering in the chest.

# Mechanism of action
The exact mechanism of action of rotigaptide is not completely understood. However, rotigaptide is believed to exert its effects on cardiomyocyte gap junctions through phosphorylation events. Each gap junction is composed of a series of connexons in close proximity to each other. Each connexon is made up of 6 functional units (connexins) that associate together to form a channel between adjacent cells. Rotigaptide acts at connexins, preferentially to connexin 43 (Cx43). Treatment with rotigaptide has been shown to activate various protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms to cause the phosphorylation of Cx43, which aids in proper function of the connexon. This allows for a smoother conduction to pass through the myocytes to propagate a synchronous contraction. This has been shown to reduce the occurrence of atrial fibrillation.

# Limitations
A potential limitation for this drug is that animals being used for studies are most commonly anesthetized with isoflurane, which has been shown to be a partial gap junction uncoupler and thus would negate the effects of rotigaptide. However, this effect can be only minor, as one study showed that a low dose of isoflurane was kept continuous over the progression of the study, indicating that the dose was not high enough to uncouple rotigaptide. Therefore, it may be unlikely that isoflurane plays a role in the results presented.
Russian Flu
H1N1 is a subtype of the species  Influenza A virus. H1N1 has mutated into various strains including the Spanish Flu strain (now extinct in the wild), mild human flu strains, endemic pig strains, and various strains found in birds.
A variant of H1N1 was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic that killed some 50 million to 100 million people worldwide over about a year in 1918 and 1919 .  A different variant exists in pig populations.  Controversy arose in October 2005, after the H1N1 genome was published in the journal Science. Many fear that this information could be used for bioterrorism.
"When he compared the 1918 virus with today's human flu viruses, Dr. Taubenberger noticed that it had alterations in just 25 to 30 of the virus's 4,400 amino acids. Those few changes turned a bird virus into a killer that could spread from person to person." 
Low pathogenic H1N1 strains still exist in the wild today, causing roughly half of all flu infections in 2006. 

# Spanish Flu
The Spanish Flu, also known as La Grippe, or La Pesadilla, was an unusually severe and deadly strain of avian influenza, a viral infectious disease, that killed some 50 million to 100 million people worldwide over about a year in 1918 and 1919. It is thought to have been one of the most deadly pandemics so far in human history. It was caused by the H1N1 type of influenza virus, which is similar to bird flu of today, mainly H5N1 and H5N2.
The Spanish flu caused an unusual number of deaths because it, like H5N1, caused a cytokine storm in the body. The virus infected lung cells, leading to overstimulation of the immune system via release of cytokine bursts into the lung tissue. This leads to extensive leukocyte migration towards the lungs, causing destruction of lung tissue and secretion of liquid into the lung, and making it difficult for the patient to breathe. Due to the nature of the infection, people with a normal healthy immune system were more susceptible to the disease, such as young adults compared to young children and the elderly.

# Russian flu
The Russian flu was a 1977-1978 flu epidemic caused by strain Influenza A/USSR/90/77 (H1N1). It infected mostly children and young adults under 23 because a similar strain was prevalent in 1947-57, causing most adults to have substantial immunity. Some have called it a flu pandemic but because it only affected the young it is not considered a true pandemic. The virus was included in the 1978-1979 influenza vaccine.
Rmer scale
Rmer is a disused temperature scale named after the Danish astronomer Ole Christensen Rmer, who proposed it in 1701.
In this scale, the zero was initially set using freezing brine. The boiling point of water was defined as 60 degrees. Rmer then saw that the freezing point of water fell at roughly one eighth of that value (7.5 degrees), so he used that value as the other fixed point. Thus the unit of this scale, a Rmer degree, is 40/21 of a kelvin (or of a Celsius degree). The symbol is sometimes given as R, but since that is also sometimes used for the Rankine scale, the other symbol R is to be preferred. The name should not be confused with Reaumur.
A plausible story of how the Fahrenheit scale was invented is that Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit learned of Rmer's work and visited him in 1708; he improved on the scale, increasing the number of divisions by a factor of four and eventually establishing what is now known as the Fahrenheit scale, in 1724.
SARS (gene)
SARS and cytoplasmic seryl-tRNA synthetase are a human gene and its encoded enzyme product, respectively. SARS belongs to the class II amino-acyl tRNA family and is found in all humans; its encoded enzyme, seryl-tRNA synthetase, is involved in protein translation and is related to several bacterial and yeast counterparts.
Mutations in SARS have been associated with several conditions, including HUPRA syndrome.

# Discovery
Since the 1960s, seryl-tRNA synthetases have been described in various eukaryotic species, in both biochemical and structural analyses. It was not until 1997 that human SARS and its enzyme product were isolated and expressed in Escherichia coli by a team from The European Molecular Biology Laboratory in France.

# Gene location
The human SARS gene is located on the plus strand of chromosome 1, from base pair 109,213,893 to base pair 109,238,182.

# Protein
Seryl-tRNA synthetase is made up of 514 amino acid residues as weighs 58,777 Da. It exists as a homodimer of two identical subunits, with the tRNA molecule binding across the dimer by similarity. It has two distinct domains:
- A catalytic core
- A 3 base pair serine binding N-terminal extension

# Function and mechanism
"SARS" and its enzyme product seryl-tRNA synthetase are involved in protein translation; specifically, seryl-tRNA synthetase catalyses the transfer of L-serine to tRNA (Ser). The cytosolic enzyme recognises its cognate tRNA species and binds with a high level of specificity, allowing the accurate interaction between corresponding codons and anticodons on mRNA and tRNA during protein translation.

# Mutations
As with many mutations that affect protein translation, mutations in the SARS gene set have been shown to cause a collection of diseases, such as hyperuricemia, metabolic alkalosis, pulmonary hypertension, and progressive renal failure in infancy; together, these conditions are known as HUPRA syndrome.
In these cases, the SARS gene (in particular, "SARS2") undergoes a missense mutation, which results in a complete lack of acetylated seryl-tRNA synthetase and a severely reduced amount of non-acetylated enzyme. This results in the ineffective or complete inability of L-serine to be transferred to its cognate tRNA, resulting in incomplete protein translation and folding. The impacts appear to only reach a phenotypic pathology in certain high energy expenditure cells, such as renal cells and lung tissue. It has been suggested that the residual activity of the SARS2 gene allows most other tissues to avoid cytopathic symptoms, however, is unable to protect high-energy requirement cells from damage.
The prevalence of SARS mutations resulting in HUPRA syndrome are incredibly rare, with less than 1 in 1,000,000 babies born with the condition. A Palestinian community in the Greater Jerusalem region appears to have a much higher incidence of the mutation, potentially due to a common ancestor.
SVG anatomy
The great saphenous vein (GSV) originates from where the dorsal vein of the first digit (the large toe) merges with the dorsal venous arch of the foot.
After passing anterior to the medial malleolus (where it often can be visualized and palpated), it runs up the medial side of the leg. At the knee, it runs over the posterior border of the medial epicondyle of the femur bone.
The great saphenous vein then courses laterally to lie on the anterior surface of the thigh before entering an opening in the fascia lata called the saphenous opening. It joins with the femoral vein in the region of the femoral triangle at the saphenofemoral junction.
The small saphenous vein (also lesser saphenous vein) is originated where the dorsal vein from the fifth digit (smallest toe) merges with the dorsal venous arch of the foot, which attaches to the great saphenous vein. It is considered a superficial vein and is subcutaneous (just under the skin). From its origin, it courses around the lateral aspect of the foot (inferior and posterior to the lateral malleolus) and runs along the posterior aspect of the leg (with the sural nerve), passes between the heads of the gastrocnemius muscle, and drains into the popliteal vein, approximately at or above the level of the knee joint.
- Cross-section through the middle of the thigh.
- Cross-section through middle of leg.
- The great saphenous vein and landmarks along its course
- The great saphenous vein and its tributaries at the fossa ovalis in the groin.
- Small saphenous vein and its tributaries.
Salix nigra
Salix nigra, commonly known as the black willow, is a tree species native to eastern North America. It is present from Nova Scotia and southern Ontario, west to Nebraska and southeastern Arizona and south to Florida and northeastern Mexico. The largest American species of willow, it is typically found along streams and in swamps, hence it is also known as the swamp willow (not to be confused with Salix myrtilloides). Goodding's willow  (Salix gooddingii) is sometimes considered a variety of the black willow, which would extend its range to western North America.

# Description
It is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree, growing to 20-30 m in good conditions, exceptionally up to 40 m. It has long, thin leaves, 7-13 cm long and 1-2 cm broad, dark, shiny green color, with a lighter green underside. It is dioecious, with small, green flowers that are borne on catkins 2.5-7.5 cm long. The fruit is a 5 mm capsule which splits open when mature to release the numerous minute, down-covered seeds.

# Uses
Black Willow roots are very bitter, and have been used as a substitute for quinine in the past.
Salpingitis

# Overview
Salpingitis is an infection and inflammation in the fallopian tubes. It is often used synonymously with PID, although PID lacks an accurate definition and can refer to several diseases of the female upper genital tract, such as endometritis, oophoritis, myometritis, parametritis and infection in the pelvic peritoneum
. In contrast, salpingitis only refers to infection and inflammation in the fallopian tubes.

# Epidemiology
Over one million cases of acute salpingitis are reported every year in the U.S., but the number of incidents is probably larger, due to incomplete and untimely reporting methods and that many cases are reported first when the illness has gone so far that it has developed chronic complications. For women aged 16-25, salpingitis is the most common serious infection. It affects approximately 11% of the female of reproductive age.
Salpingitis has a higher incidence among blacks and members of lower socioeconomic classes. However, this is thought of being an effect of earlier sex debut, multiple partners and decreased ability to receive proper health care rather than any independent risk factor for salpingitis.
As an effect of an increased risk due to multiple partners, the prevalence of salpingitis is highest for people aged 15-24 years. Decreased awareness of symptoms and less will to use contraceptives are also common in this group, raising the occurrence of salpingitis.

# Acute and chronic salpingitis
There are two types of salpingitis: Acute salpingitis and chronic salpingitis.
Acute salpingitis causes the fallopian types to become red and swollen. The inner walls get adhered to each other, causing a block in the tube. The fallopian tube can also get stuck to the surrounding intestine.
In contrast, the chronic salpingitis is milder, showing lesser symptoms. It often comes after an attack of acute salpingitis, and lasts longer than the former.  Chronic salpingitis may result in a hydrosalpinx.

# Causes and pathophysiology
The infection usually has its origin in the vagina, and ascends to the fallopian tube from there. Because the infection can spread via the lymph vessels, infection in one fallopian tube usually leads to infection of the other. 

# Differential diagnosis
- Salpingitis must be differentiated from other diseases that cause lower abdominal pain and fever like appendicitis, diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease, cystitis, colorectal cancer and endometritis.
Sandbox/JRH

# 1.- Substance/Medication-Induced Psychotic Disorder
Synonyms and keywords: Medication induced psychotic disorder; substance induced psychotic disorder; substance-medication induced psychotic disorder;

# Differential Diagnosis
- Alcohol withdrawal
- Brief psychotic disorder
- Cannabis intoxication
- Delusional disorder
- Flashback hallucinations
- Intoxication with stimulants
- Phencyclidine
- Schizophrenia
- Schizoaffective disorder
- Schizophrenia spectrum
- Delusional disorder
- Opioid meperidine

# Epidemiology and Demographics

## Prevalence
The prevalence of substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder is unknown of the overall population.

# Risk Factors
- Cocaine usage
- Heavy and constant ingestion of alcohol
- History of psychopathic disorder 

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Poor prognosis factors include:
- Depersonalization
- Flashbacks
- Hallucinations
- Marked anxiety
- Persecutory delusions

# Diagnostic Criteria
- A. Presence of one or both of the following symptoms:
AND
- B. There is evidence from the history, physical examination, or laboratory findings of both (1) and (2):
AND
- C. The disturbance is not better explained by a psychotic disorder that is not substance/medication-induced. Such evidence of an independent psychotic disorder could include the following:
The symptoms preceded the onset of the substance/medication use; the symptoms persist for a substantial period of time (e.g., about 1 month) after the cessation of acute withdrawal or severe intoxication: or there is other evidence of an independent non-substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder (e.g., a history of recurrent non-substance/medication-related episodes).
AND
- D. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of a delirium.
AND
- E. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
Note: This diagnosis should be made instead of a diagnosis of substance intoxication or substance withdrawal only when the symptoms in Criterion A predominate in the clinical picture and when they are sufficiently severe to warrant clinical attention.