Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Ocularist
An ocularist is someone who specializes in the fabrication and fitting of ocular prostheses for people who have lost an eye or eyes due to trauma or illness. The fabrication process for a custom made eye typically includes taking an impression of the eye socket, shaping a plastic shell, painting the iris and then fitting the ocular prostheses.
In addition to creating the prosthetic eye, they show the patient how to care for and handle the prosthesis.
Ocularists may develop their skills from various background disciplines, for example medical, optometry, dental, nursing, biology, medical arts and illustration.

# United States
Training and registration varies. There is not a specific training program of study to become an "ocularist" at the present time. This field is practiced in many places by maxillofacial prosthodontists who are dentists who have undergone 3-4 years of specialty residency training.  There are also technicians who practice this field as well after learning how to make artificial eyes through an apprenticeship program approved by the American Society of Ocularists or Anaplastologists.
Oculotect
Oculotect is used in the treatment of dry eye syndrome, also called 
'Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS), keratitis sicca or xerophthalmia.
It is available over the counter and is usually found in the form of sterile eye drops or ointment. It contains retinol, which is vital for the eyes, and povidone (polyvidone) 5%. Ocolutect does not contain preservatives.

# Indications for use
Relief of dry eye symptoms; as a tear substitute when preservative use may be contraindicated or considered inadvisable. It is also sometimes used for the treatment of corneal ulcers as it covers the cornea with a protective layer and helps in the healing process. It can also help contact lens wearers who complain of dry eyes. Patients with severe occular allergies may experience dry eyes and the medication is particularly useful in such cases as it blocks out allergens such as pollens and dust mites.

# Contraindication/s
Known allergy (sensitivity) to any of the eye drops ingredients .

# Specific precautions
The drug has not been tested on animals, children or pregnant patients, so it is advisable to consult an ophthalmologist before using Ocultect.

# Adverse drug reactions
Since the drug does not contain active chemical ingredients, no adverse reactions are expected. Blurred vision, itching and burning sensation can sometimes appear shortly after application. These are usually short-lived and should not be a cause for concern.

# External link
Olbas oil
Olbas oil is a brand name for a  nasal decongestant, manufactured under licence by G. R. Lane Health Products Ltd in England (license holder) and  Penn Herb Company Ltd in the United States. It is a mixture of essential plant oils: cajuput, clove, eucalyptus, juniper berry, levomenthol, peppermint and wintergreen.
Olbas oil originated in Basel, Switzerland in the 19th century. As well as providing bronchial and nasal relief - hence its popularity for common cold sufferers - it can soothe muscles and joints of sufferers in conditions such as arthritis and spinal pain.
Olbas is available in its original oil form, and is now also available in other forms such as nasal inhaler, herbal tea (US), herbal bath, cough syrup (US), cough drops (US),sport massage oil (US), and an analgesic salve.
There is also a formulation for children available in the UK.
Its British manufacturer also claims it is used as a cat repellent to discourage damage to flowerbeds, furniture, etc.
Olbas oil is effective for coughs colds and for suffers of hayfever.
Opacifier
An opacifier is a substance added to a material in order to make the ensuing system opaque. An example of a chemical opacifier is tin dioxide (SnO2), which is used to opacify ceramic glazes.
Opacifiers must have a refractive index (RI) substantially different from the system. Conversely, clarity may be achieved in a system by choosing components with very similar refractive indices.
Opacifiers must also form small particles in the system. Opacifiers are generally inert.
Sometimes opacifiers are added to medical implants to make them visible under X-ray imaging. This is especially true in the case of most polymers which are often unrecognizable in the body when viewed using X-rays.
In solid (composite) rocket motors, the primary method of heat transfer into the propellant grain from the combustion process is by radiation, and opacifiers such as "lamp black" may be added to the propellant mixture to ensure the heat does not penetrate far below the surface of the grain, which could cause detonation.
Orbivirus
African horse sickness virus
Bluetongue virus
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer virus
Equine encephalosis virus
Ibaraki virus
Palyam virus
The genus Orbivirus is a member of the Reoviridae family.  This genus contains 19 species and at least 130 different serotypes.  Orbiviruses can infect and replicate within a wide range of arthropod and vertebrate hosts.

# Virus Particles
Orbiviruses are named after their characteristic doughnut shaped capsomers (In Latin Orbi means ring).  They have non-enveloped particles that are between 70-80nm in diameter.  The virus particles are spherical in appearance and have icosahedral symmetry.  An outer and an inner capsid layer surround the genome.

# Genome
These viruses have double stranded RNA genomes and therefore are classified as Class III viruses.  Their genome is linear and is segmented into 10 segments of various lengths.  One copy of each gene segment is packaged per virion.  In most cases each gene segment encodes a single open reading frame (ORF).

# Replication
Many Orbiviruses preferentially infect vascular endothelial cells.  Orbiviruses enter the host cell by endocytosis and the outer capsid is subsequently removed.  The whole cycle of viral replication takes place within the cytoplasm of the host cell.  Transcription of the viral genome into mRNA occurs within the core particle and mRNA is translated into proteins using the host cell ribosomes.  Viral proteins are synthesized 2-14 days after initial infection.  New virons self-assemble within the cytoplasm and are then released from the host cell by budding.  During the budding process they transiently acquire a lipid envelope which can be detected for a short period of time following their release but this is subsequently lost.

# Pathogenesis
Orbiviruses primarily cause diseases in animals.  The different Orbivirus species have different host specificities.  Orbiviruses are vector-borne pathogens transmitted between vertebrate hosts by vectors such as mosquitoes, midges, gnats, sandflies and ticks.  Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an Orbivirus that causes bluetongue disease in sheep, cattle, goats and wild ungulates.  BTV has been in the forefront of molecular studies for last three decades and now represents one of the best understood viruses at the molecular and structural levels.  Other species of Orbiviruses are responsible for other diseases of animals such as African Horse sickness and Colorado Tick Fever.
Oripavine
Oripavine is an opiate and the major metabolite of thebaine. It is the prototypical molecule of a series of semi-synthetic opioids which includes buprenorphine. Although its analgesic potency is comparable tomorphine, it is not used clinically due to its severe toxicity and low therapeutic index.

# Pharmacological Properties
Oripavine possesses an analgesic potency comparable to morphine; however, it is not clinically useful due to severe toxicity and low therapeutic index. In both mice and rats, toxic doses caused tonic-clonic_seizures followed by death, similar to thebaine.
Oripavine has a potential for dependence which is significantly greater than that of thebaine but slightly less than that of morphine.

# Legal Status
Due to the relative ease of synthetic modification of oripavine to produce other narcotics (by either direct or indirect routes via thebaine), the World Health Organization's Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended in 2003 that oripavine be controlled under Schedule I of the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. On March 14 2007, the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs formally decided to accept these recommendations, and placed oripavine in the Schedule I.
Until recently, oripavine was a Schedule II drug in the United States by default as a thebaine derivative, although it was not explicitly listed. However, as a member state under the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the US was obligated to specifically control the substance under the Controlled Substances Act following its international control by the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs. On September 24 2007, the Drug Enforcement Administration formally added oripavine to Schedule II.
Ornithine
Ornithine is an amino acid, whose structure is:

# Role in urea cycle
Ornithine is one of the products of the action of the enzyme arginase on L-arginine, creating urea. Therefore, ornithine is a central part of the urea cycle, which allows for the disposal of excess nitrogen.
Ornithine is not an amino acid coded for by DNA, and in that sense, is not involved in protein synthesis. However, in mammalian non-hepatic tissues, the main use of the urea cycle is in arginine biosynthesis, so as an intermediate in metabolic processes, ornithine is quite important.

# Lactamization
It is believed to not be a part of genetic code because polypeptides containing unprotected ornithines undergo spontaneous lactamization.  This proved to be a problem when ornithine was artificially incorporated in 21st amino acid systems.

# Other reactions
Ornithine, via the action of ornithine decarboxylase (E.C. 4.1.1.17), is the starting point for the synthesis of polyamines such as putrescine.
In bacteria, such as E. coli, ornithine can be synthesized from L-glutamate.
Osteotome

# Overview
An osteotome is an instrument used for cutting or preparing bone.
1. Today osteotomes are used in dental implantation. With the osteotome technique, osteoplastic procedures have been developed with which the bone quality (compaction
-f local bone) and bone quantity (ridge extension in horizontal and vertical dimension)
are routinely improved and adequate primary stability of the implants can be ensured
with a high degree of predictability.
2. The instrument invented by Bernhard Heine, a German physician in Wurzburg in 1830 was used as a bone saw, especially for opening the skull.It is a kind of chain saw moved by turning a winder. Heine's osteotome is not used in surgery any longer.
Ovalbumin

# Overview
Ovalbumin is the main protein found in egg white, making up 60-65% of the total protein. It belongs to the serpin superfamily of proteins, although unlike the majority of serpins it is unable to inhibit any proteases.
The function of ovalbumin is unknown, although it is presumed to be a storage protein.

# Research
Ovalbumin is an important protein in several different areas of research, including:
- general studies of protein structure and properties (because it is available in large quantities).
- studies of serpin structure and function (the fact that ovalbumin does not inhibit proteases means that by comparing its structure with that of inhibitory serpins, the structural characteristics required for inhibition can be determined).
- proteomics (chicken egg ovalbumin is commonly used as a molecular weight marker for calibrating electrophoresis gels).
- immunology (commonly used to stimulate an allergic reaction in test subjects).

# Structure
The ovalbumin protein of chickens is made up of 385 amino acids, and its relative molecular mass is 45 kD. It is a glycoprotein with 4 sites of glycosylation.
It is secreted from the cell, despite lacking an N-terminal leader sequence.

# Medicinal characteristics
In cases where poisoning by heavy metals (such as Iron) is suspected, ovalbumin may be administered. Ovalbumin chelates to heavy metals and traps the metal ions within the sulfhydryl bonds of the protein. Chelating prevents the absorption of the metals into the gastrointestinal tract and prevents poisoning.
Oxygen-18
Oxygen-18 (18O) is a natural, stable isotope of oxygen and one of the environmental isotopes.
18O is an important precursor for the production of fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) used in positron emission tomography (PET). Generally, in the radiopharmaceutical industry, enriched water (H218O) is bombarded with hydrogen ions in either a cyclotron or linear accelerator creating fluorine-18. This is then synthesized into FDG and injected into a patient.

# Paleoclimatology
In Arctic and Antarctic ice cores, O-18 is used to retrieve the original temperatures of the precipitation during different years by analyzing the isotope ratio of the respective annual layers of ice.  This happens due to the differing weights of water with the normal isotope of oxygen, and water with oxygen-18.  In the 1950s, Harold Urey performed an experiment in which he mixed both normal water and water with oxygen-18 in a barrel, and then partially froze the barrel's contents.  The water with oxygen-18 sunk to the bottom of the barrel and was first to freeze.
Trypsin 1
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Trypsin-1, also known as cationic trypsinogen, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRSS1 gene.  Trypsin-1 is the main isoform of trypsinogen secreted by pancreas, the others are trypsin-2 (anionic trypsinogen), and trypsin-3 (meso-trypsinogen).

# Function
This gene encodes a trypsinogen, which is a member of the trypsin family of serine proteases. This enzyme is secreted by the pancreas and cleaved to its active form in the small intestine. It is active on peptide linkages involving the carboxyl group of lysine or arginine. Mutations in this gene are associated with hereditary pancreatitis. This gene and several other trypsinogen genes are localized to the T cell receptor beta locus on chromosome 7.

# Clinical significance
Its malfunction acts in an autosomal dominant manner to cause pancreatitis.  Many mutations that can lead to pancreatitis have been found. An example is a mutation at Arg 117. Arg 117 is a trypsin-sensitive site which can be cleaved by another trypsin and becomes inactivated.  This site may be a fail-safe mechanism by which trypsin, when activated within the pancreas, may become inactivated.  Mutation at this cleavage site would result in a loss of control and permit autodigestion, causing pancreatitis.
PX domain
The PX domain is a phosphoinositide-binding structural domain involved in targeting of proteins to cell membranes.
This domain was first found in P40phox and p47phox domains of NADPH oxidase (phox stands for phagocytic oxidase). It was also identified in many other proteins involved in membrane trafficing, including nexins, Phospholipase D, and  phosphoinositide-3-kinases.
The PX domain is structurally conserved in eukaryotes, although amino acid sequences show little similarity. PX domains interact primarily with PtdIns(3)P lipids. However some of them bind to Phosphatidic acid, (PtdIns(3,4)P2),  PtdIns(3,5)P2, PtdIns(4,5)P2), and PtdIns(3,4,5)P3. The PX-domain can also interact with other domains and proteins.
Pack year
A pack year is a quantification of cigarette smoking.

# Definition
A way to measure the amount a person has smoked over a long period of time. It is calculated by multiplying the number of packs of cigarettes smoked per day by the number of years the person has smoked. For example, 1 pack year is equal to smoking 1 pack per day for 1 year, or 2 packs per day for half a year, and so on.

# Calculating 'Pack Years'
Number of pack years = (number of cigarettes smoked per day x number of years smoked)/20
For example: a patient who has smoked 15 cigarettes a day for 40 years has a (15x40)/20 = 30 pack year smoking history. 
(1 pack has 20 cigarettes).
A pack-year is smoking 20 cigarettes a day for one year. If someone has smoked ten cigarettes a day for six years they
would have a three pack-year history. Someone who has smoked forty cigarettes daily for twenty years has a forty pack-year history.

# Significance and Usage
Quantification of pack years smoked is important in clinical care where degree of tobacco exposure is closely correlated to risk of disease.
Palpation

# Overview
Palpation is used as part of a physical examination in which an object is felt (usually with the hands of a healthcare practitioner) to determine its size, shape, firmness, or location. Palpation should not be confused with palpitation, which is an awareness of the beating of the heart.

# Uses
In the assessment of patients with pain conditions, practitioners (e.g. chiropractors, doctors of osteopathic medicine, physical therapists, and massage therapists) may use palpation to feel for tissue texture (e.g. swelling or muscle tone), to assess range and quality of joint motion, and to assess tenderness through tissue deformation (e.g. provoking pain with pressure or stretching). The scientific literature has shown that motion palpation is often unreliable between practitioners. In contrast, manual tests that provoke or relieve pain have been shown to be more reliable.
Palpation is typically employed for thoracic and abdominal examinations, but can also be used to diagnose edema and measure the pulse. It is used by veterinarians to check animals for pregnancy, and by midwives to determine the position of a fetus.
Pamaquine
Pamaquine is an 8-aminoquinoline drug used for the treatment of malaria.  It is closely related to primaquine.

# History
Pamaquine was the first synthetic antimalarial drug.

# Adverse effects
Like primaquine, pamaquine causes haemolytic anaemia in patients with G6PD deficiency.  Patients should therefore always be screened for G6PD deficiency prior to being prescribed pamaquine.

# Uses
Pamaquine is effective against the hypnozoites of the relapsing malarias (P. vivax and P. ovale); and unlike primaquine, it is also very effective against the erythrocytic stages of all four human malarias.  One small clinical trial of pamaquine as a causal prophylactic was disappointing (whereas primaquine is an extremely effective causal prophylactic).

# Dosing
60 mg once daily for 1421 days.
When treating Plasmodium vivax, an initial course of chloroquine is unnecessary.

# Synonyms
- Plasmaquine
Panaeolus
Panaeolus is a genus of small, black-spored, saprotrophic agarics. The word Panaeolus is Greek for "all variegated", alluding to the spotted gills of the mushrooms produced.

# Characteristics
These fungi are mostly dung and grassland species, some of which are quite common in Europe and North America.  The gills of Panaeolus do not deliquesce as do the members of the related genus Coprinus.  Members of Panaeolus can also be mistaken for Psathyrella, however the later genus are usually found growing on wood.
The gills of these mushrooms are black or grey and have a spotty, speckled or cloudy appearance, caused by the way that the dark spores ripen together in tiny patches on the gill surface;  different patches darken at different times.  Another character of the genus is that the spores are smooth. 
The closely related genus Panaeolina shares the spotted gills but they are dark brown (not black) and the spores are ornamented.  This genus is sometimes treated as part of  Panaeolus. 

# Edibility
No members of Panaeolus are used for food, though some are used as a recreational drug.   Thirteen  species of Panaeolus contain the hallucinogen psilocybin including Panaeolus cyanescens and Panaeolus subbalteatus. The bluing hallucinogenic members of this genus are sometimes segregated into a separate genus, Copelandia.
Several members of this genus are known to contain psilocin and psilocybin and it is suspected that a number of other members of this genus contain unidentified psychoactive compounds.   All members of this genus contain serotonin, urea, and tryptophan.  

# Notable species
- Panaeolus acuminatus
- Panaeolus africanus
- Panaeolus bispora
- Panaeolus cambodginiensis
- Panaeolus castaneifolius
- Panaeolus cyanescens
- Panaeolus fimicola
- Panaeolus foenisecii (= Panaeolina foenisecii)
- Panaeolus papilionaceus var. papilionaceus
- Panaeolus papilionaceus var. parvisporus
- Panaeolus semiovatus var. phalaenarum (= Panaeolus antillarum)
- Panaeolus semiovatus var. semiovatus
- Panaeolus subbalteatus
- Panaeolus tropicalis
Panthenol

# Overview
Panthenol is the alcohol analog of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), and is thus the provitamin of B5. In organisms it is quickly oxidized to pantothenate. Panthenol is a highly viscous transparent liquid at room temperature, but salts of pantothenic acid (for example sodium pantothenate) are powders (typically white). It is well soluble in water, alcohol and propylene glycol, soluble in ether and chloroform, and slightly soluble in glycerin.
Panthenol comes in two enantiomers, D and L. Only D-panthenol (dexpanthenol) is biologically active, however both forms have moisturizing properties. For cosmetic use, panthenol comes either in D form, or as a racemic mixture of D and L (DL-panthenol).
Pantothenol's expanded chemical formula is: HO-CH2-C(CH3)2-CH(OH)-CONH-CH2CH2CH2-OH.

# Uses
In cosmetics, panthenol is a humectant, emollient and moisturizer. It binds to hair follicles readily and is a frequent component of shampoos and hair conditioners (in concentrations of 0.1-1%). It coats the hair and seals its surface, lubricating follicles and making strands appear shiny.
In ointments it is mixed with allantoin, in concentrations of up to 2-5%, and is used for treatment of sunburns, mild burns and minor skin disorders.
Pantothenol is not, however, absorbed through the skin and thus has limited effects that are not due to its provitamin character.
If ingested, panthenol is metabolized to pantothenic acid.
Other names for panthenol are:
- Butanamide, 2,4-dihydroxy-N-(3-hydroxypropyl)-3,3-dimethyl-, (R)-
- Butyramide, 2,4-dihydroxy-N-(3-hydroxypropyl)-3,3-dimethyl-, D-(+)-
- Butanamide, 2,4-dihydroxy-N-(3-hydroxypropyl)-3,3-dimethyl-, (2R)-
- D-Panthenol
- Dexpanthenol (DCIR)
- Dexpanthenolum
- Panthenol
- Propanolamine, N-pantoyl-
- d-Pantothenyl alcohol
Papilloma

# Overview
Papilloma refers to a benign epithelial tumor growing exophytically (outwardly projecting) in finger-like fronds. In this context Papilla refers to the projection created by the tumor, not a tumor on an already existing papilla (such as the nipple.)

# Causes
When used without context, it frequently refers to infections caused by Human papillomavirus. However, there are other conditions that cause papilloma, such as Choroid plexus papilloma (CPP).
Two types of papilloma often associated with HPV are "squamous cell papilloma" and "transitional cell papilloma" (also known as "bladder papilloma".)

# Symptoms
Papilloma in larynx may cayse hoarseness, cough and shortness of breath.
Symptoms of papilloma in breast may be bloody nipple discharge, pain and lump in breast.
Vulvar papilloma may cause itching, lump or ulcer even infection in vulva.

# Treatment

## Surgery
Surgery is recommended for the treatment of papilloma.

# Related Chapters
- Papilla
- Genital wart
- Laryngeal papillomatosis