Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Flotation process
The flotation process is a method for the separation of particles from a mixture by causing some particles to collect on the surface of bubbles. Flotation is a separation technique used widely in the minerals industry, for paper, de-inking, and water treatment amongst others. It can also be used in the food and coal industries. The technique relies upon differences in the surface properties of different particles to separate them. The particles that are to be floated are rendered hydrophobic by the addition of the appropriate chemicals. Air is then bubbled through the mixture and the desired particles become attached to the small air bubbles and move to the surface where they accumulate as a froth and are collected, or if the non-desired particles float to the surface they are collected and discarded.  The flotation process was developed on a commercial scale early in the 20th century at Broken Hill in Australia and is widely used for processing of sulphide minerals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt etc...).  When used in this connection, it is termed froth flotation.
The flotation process is also widely used in industrial waste water treatment plants, where it is applied to remove fats, oil, grease and suspended solids from waste water. These units are called Dissolved air flotation (DAF) units.
In particular, dissolved air flotation units is used in removing oil from the wastewater effluents of oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and similar industrial facilities.
Some important suppliers and innovators of DAF technology are REDOX Water Technology, Veolia and US Filter.
Folate receptor 1
Folate receptor alpha is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FOLR1 gene.
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the folate receptor (FOLR) family. Members of this family have a high affinity for folic acid and for several reduced folic acid derivatives, and mediate delivery of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate to the interior of cells.
This gene is composed of 7 exons; exons 1 through 4 encode the 5' UTR and exons 4 through 7 encode the open reading frame. Due to the presence of 2 promoters, multiple transcription start sites, and alternative splicing of exons, several transcript variants are derived from this gene. These variants differ in the lengths of 5' and 3' UTR, but they encode an identical amino acid sequence.

# Clinical significance
FRA can be overexpressed by a number of epithelial-derived tumors including ovarian, breast, renal, lung, colorectal, and brain. Hence antibodies to it are used in targeted therapies and diagnostic tests, e.g. farletuzumab in phase III trial for ovarian cancer.
Autoantibodies to the FRA have been linked to neurodevelopmental diseases, particularly cerebral folate deficiency schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. Recent studies have shown that these neurodevelopmental disorders can be treated with folinic acid.
Pharyngeal recess
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# Overview
Behind the ostium of the auditory tube is a deep recess, the pharyngeal recess (fossa of Rosenmuller).

# Clinical significance
At the base of this recess is the retropharyngeal lymph node (the Node of Rouvier.) This is clinically significant in that it may be involved in certain head and neck cancers, notably Nasopharyngeal cancer.
Fothergill's sign
Fothergill's sign is a medical sign.  It can be elicited by:
- Making the patient touch his chest using his chin
- While in this position, press on the patient's abdomen
- While the abdomen is being pressed, ask the intensity of the pain
- If the pain felt is increased or has the same intensity, then it is positive, this means that the lesion is located on the abdominal wall
- If the pain felt is reduced, then the lesion is suggested to be intraabdominal
Fragmin injection
For information about {{{genericName}}}, click here.

# Disclaimer

# Overview
Fragmin injection is a {{{drugClass}}} drug that is FDA approved for the treatment of {{{indication}}}.   Adverse reactions include {{{adverseReactions}}}.

# Adult Indications and Dosage

# Pediatric Indications and Dosage

# Contraindications

# Warnings

# Adverse Reactions

# Drug Interactions

# Use in Specific Populations

# Routes and Preparations

# IV Compatibility

# Overdosage

# Pharmacology

# Clinical Studies

# How Supplied

# Images

# Patient Information

## Patient Information from FDA

## Patient Information from NLM

# Look-Alike Drug Names

# Price

# Drug Shortage

# Adult Indications and Dosage
Below is the code to be placed on the Adult Indications and Dosage Microchapeter:
__NOTOC__
===FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Adult)===
===Off-Label Use and Dosage (Adult)===

# Pediatric Indications and Dosage
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===FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Pediatric)===
===Off-Label Use and Dosage (Pediatric)===

# Use in Specific Populations
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__NOTOC__
===Pregnancy===
There is no FDA guidance on usage of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in women who are pregnant.
There is no Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) guidance on usage of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in women who are pregnant.
===Labor and Delivery===
There is no FDA guidance on use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} during labor and delivery.
===Nursing Mothers===
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in women who are nursing.
===Pediatric Use===
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in pediatric settings.
===Geriatic Use===
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in geriatric settings.
===Gender===
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} with respect to specific gender populations.
===Race===
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {BASEPAGENAME}} with respect to specific racial populations.
===Renal Impairment===
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in patients with renal impairment.
===Hepatic Impairment===
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in patients with hepatic impairment.
===Females of Reproductive Potential and Males===
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in women of reproductive potentials and males.
===Immunocompromised Patients===
There is no FDA guidance one the use of {{BASEPAGENAME}} in patients who are immunocompromised.

# Overdose
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'''Please contact the National Poison Help hotline (1-800-222-1222) immediately if there is suspicion of drug poisoning or overdose.'''
===Overdose===

# Pharmacology
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===Mechanism of Action===
===Structure===
===Pharmacodynamics===
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===Nonclinical Toxicology===
Free nerve ending

# Overview
A free nerve ending (FNE) is an unspecialized, afferent nerve ending, meaning it brings information from the body's periphery to the brain. Free nerve endings are unencapsulated and have no complex sensory structures, unlike those found in Meissner's or Pacinian corpuscles. They are the most common type of nerve ending, and are most frequently found in the skin. They penetrate the epidermis and end in the stratum granulosum. These nerve endings are responsible for detecting temperature, mechanical stimuli (such as pressure), pain (nociception), and information about touch. Some FNEs can also detect stretch stimuli.
The majority of A (A delta) fibers (group III) and C (group IV) fibers end as free nerve endings.
Different types of FNE can be fast-adapting, intermediate, or slow-adapting. A fibres are fast-adapting, while C fibers are slow-adapting.
Fukuyama coupling

# Overview
The Fukuyama coupling is a coupling reaction taking place between a thioester and an organozinc halide in the presence of a palladium catalyst. The reaction product is a ketone. This reaction was discovered by Tohru Fukuyama et al. in 1998 . Advantages are high chemoselectivity, mild reaction conditions and the use of less-toxic reagents .
One advantage of this method is that the reaction stops at the ketone and does not proceed to a tertiary alcohol. In addition, the protocol is compatible with functional groups such as ketones, acetates, sulfides, aromatic bromides, chlorides and aldehydes.
The reaction (interrupted) has been used in the synthesis of biotin
Functional murmur
Synonyms and keywords: Innocent murmur

# Overview
A functional murmur (innocent murmur, physiologic murmur) is a heart murmur that is primarily due to physiologic conditions outside the heart, as opposed to structural defects in the heart itself.  Serious conditions can arise even in the absence of a primary heart defect, and it is possible for peripheral conditions to generate abnormalities in the heart. Therefore, caution should be applied to use of the terms "innocent" or "benign" in this context.

# Natural history, Complications and Prognosis
Innocent murmurs are inconsequential and usually disappear as the child grows.

# Physical Exam
- The characteristics of the murmur:
Soft, less than 3/6 in intensity (although note that even when structural heart disease is present, intensity does not predict severity.)
Often position-dependent: Murmurs are heard while supine and may disappear when upright or sitting.
Occurs during systole or continuously during both systole and diastole. (Murmurs occurring only during diastole are always pathologic.)
- Soft, less than 3/6 in intensity (although note that even when structural heart disease is present, intensity does not predict severity.)
- Often position-dependent: Murmurs are heard while supine and may disappear when upright or sitting.
- Occurs during systole or continuously during both systole and diastole. (Murmurs occurring only during diastole are always pathologic.)
- Physiologic splitting of S2 (A2 and P2 components should only be resolvable during inspiration and should merge during expiration.)
- No palpable thrill
Fungemia overview

# Overview
Fungemia is the presence of fungi or yeasts in the blood. It is most commonly seen in immunosuppressed or immunocompromised patients with severe neutropenia, oncology patients, or in patients with intravenous catheters.  Recently, it has been suggested the otherwise immunocompetent patients taking infliximab may be at a higher risk for fungemia.

# Causes
The most commonly known pathogen
- Candida albicans, causing roughly 70% of fungemias
- Candida glabrata with 10%
- Aspergillus with 1%.
- Tinea  glabrata
- Candida tropicalis
- C. krusei
- C. parapsilosis

# Risk Factors
Immunocompromised patients, long term severe illnesses, use of broad spectrum antibiotics and colonization of fungi are the major risk factors for development of fungemia.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Symptoms can range from mild to extreme, often described as extreme flu-like symptoms. Pain, mental disorders, chronic fatigue,infections, are a few of the long list of associated symptoms with Fungemia.

## Laboratory Findings
The diagnosis is complicated, as routine blood cultures have poor sensitivity.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
Treatment involves use of antifungals, e.g. fluconazole or amphotericin.
Fusarium culmorum
Fusarium culmorum is the causal agent of seedling blight, foot rot, ear blight, stalk rot, and other diseases of cereals, grasses, and a wide variety of monocots and dicots.

# Identification
Growth on PDA
Colonies grow rapidly. Aerial mycelium is whitish to yellow, tan or pale orange, but become brown to dark brown to red-brown with age.  Under alternating conditions of light and temperature, rings of spore masses may be formed by some isolates. 
Microconidia
- Absent
Macroconidia
- Abundance: Usually abundant.
- Sporodochia: Orange to bronw color and relatively common
- Morphology: Thick and bluntly pointed at their apex. Conspicuously wider above the center of the spore.  The dorsal side is somewhat curved, but the ventral side is almost straight. Distinguishing character from F. sambucinum is the broader macroconidia.
- Size: Range from 4 to 7 m wide and from 25 to 50 m long.	Number of septa: Usually 3- or 5-septate
- Development: Develop singly from phialides (5 x 15-20 m). They are loose at first and are later aligned in sporodochia.
Chlamydospores
- Abundance/Speed of formation: Usually abundant and form relatively quickly, requiring 3-5 weeks on CLA.
- Location: In hyphae and macroconidia. Those found in the macroconidia persist longer than those found in the hyphae under field conditions.
- Morphology: Thick-walled, globose.
- Appearance: Found singly, in clumps or chains.
- Size: 9-14  m in diameter.
Granuloma faciale
Synonyms and keywords: GF

# Overview
Granuloma faciale (GF) is an uncommon benign chronic skin disease of unknown origin characterized by single or multiple cutaneous nodules, usually occurring over the face. Occasionally, extrafacial involvement is noted, most often on sun-exposed areas.

# Historical Perspective
Lever and Leeper first recognized GF as a distinct entity in 1950. Pinkus' group suggested the name granuloma faciale that same year.

# Differential Diagnosis
The disease mimics many other dermatoses and can be confused with:
- Discoid lupus erythematosus
- Fixed drug eruption
- Mycosis fungoides
- Sarcoidosis
Gadopentetic acid

# Overview
Gadopentetic acid is one of the  trade names for a gadolinium-based MRI contrast agent, usually administered as a salt of a complex of gadolinium with DTPA (diethylenetriaminepentacetate) with the chemical formula A2; when cation A is the protonated form of the amino sugar meglumine the salt goes under the name "Gadopentetate dimeglumine". It was described in 1981 and introduced as the first MRI contrast agent in 1987. It is used to assist imaging of blood vessels and of inflamed or diseased tissue where the blood vessels become "leaky".  It is often used when viewing intracranial lesions with abnormal vascularity or abnormalities in the bloodbrain barrier.  It is usually injected intravenously. Gd-DTPA is classed as an acyclic, ionic gadolinium contrast medium.  Its paramagnetic property reduces the T1 relaxation time (and to some extent the T2 and T2- relaxation times) in NMR, which is the source of its clinical utility.
Marketed as Magnevist by Bayer Schering Pharma, it was the first intravenous contrast agent to become available for clinical use, and is in widespread use around the world.  Similar contrast agents are Dotarem (gadoterate) manufactured by Guerbet, MultiHance (gadobenate dimeglumine) and ProHance (gadoteridol) manufactured by Bracco, Omniscan (gadodiamide) manufactured by GE Healthcare, and OptiMARK (gadoversetamide) manufactured by Mallinckrodt.
Gadolinium based agents may cause a toxic reaction known as nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) in patients with severe kidney problems.
Compared to other gadolinium-based MRI contrast agents, Gadopentetate dimeglumine (Gd-DTPA2-) chelates allow delayed Gadolinium-enhanced Magnetic Resonance of Cartilage (dGEMRIC). The unique charge characteristic of this complex allows researchers to inversely measure spin-lattice relaxation times as they are related to the concentration of proteoglycan aggregates and charged glycosaminoglycan side chains in articular cartilage.

# Chemical structure and mode of action
In the complex of Gd3+ and DTPA5 the gadolinium ion is 9-coordinate, surrounded by the 3 nitrogen atoms and 5 oxygen atoms from the carboxylate groups. The ninth coordination site is occupied by a water molecule. This water molecule is labile and exchanges rapidly with water molecules in the immediate vicinity of the gadolinium complex. The gadolinium ion has 7 unpaired electrons with parallel spins and is strongly paramagnetic with an 8S electronic ground state. The relaxation time of the water molecules is affected by their intermittent binding to the paramagnetic centre. This alters their MRI properties and enables contrast enhancement to be achieved.
Genetic averaging
Genetic averaging is a the notion that people of European descent are in some way a genetic average of people of Sub-Saharan African descent and people of East Asian descent.  It is promoted by J. Phillipe Rushton.  Some argue that the genetic research Rushton cites has shown no biological basis for race and that his identifications of genetic groups are arbitrary - specifically, the genetic diversity found between members of a group is higher than differences between groups.
Arthur Jensen argues that, "if the differences between the means of various populations were not smaller than the mean difference between individuals within each population, it would be impossible to distinguish different populations statistically." Others assert that Jensen makes a logical error in believing that any observed genetic difference must be representative of all genetic differences - that is to say, it is possible to distinguish arbitrary groups which have minor differences between means, but more differences within those groups.  For example, blue and green bags of coins may differ as groups, by 2 cents, but within groups larger amounts:
Some claim that the genetic linkage trees Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza provides clearly show distinct branches for all the three main races Rushton describes. Others claim that when Cavalli-Sforza applied the wholly objective mathematical procedure of principal component analysis to his genetic data, the major racial groupings Rushton describes formed very clear and unambiguous clusters. Rushton claims his focus on race is consistent with the work of forensic experts, research in bio-medicine, and biologists studying geographic variation in other species. Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson told journalist Peter Knudson. "The basic reasoning by Rushton is solid evolutionary reasoning; that is it's logically sound. If he had seen some apparent geographic variation for a non-human species-a species of sparrow or sparrow hawk, for example-no one would have batted an eye."
These claims are highly contested by other scientists and researchers, including those whom Rushton cites.  Rushton's research has also been criticised by those that consider his conclusions and methods as "sloppy" and "unscientific".
Geniohyoid muscle

# Overview
The Geniohyoid muscle is a narrow muscle situated superior to the medial border of the mylohyoid muscle.

# Origin and insertion
It arises from the inferior mental spine, on the back of the symphysis menti, and runs backward and slightly downward, to be inserted into the anterior surface of the body of the hyoid bone; it lies in contact with its fellow of the opposite side. It thus belongs to the suprahyoid muscles.  The nerve supply to geniohyoid comes via the hypoglossal nerve via C1.

# Action
During the first act of deglutition, when the mass of food is being driven from the mouth into the pharynx, the hyoid bone and with it the tongue, is carried upward and forward by the anterior bellies of the Digastrici, the Mylohyoidei, and Geniohyoidei.

# Variations
It may be blended with the one on opposite side or double; slips to greater cornu of hyoid bone and Genioglossus occur.

# Additional images
- Hyoid bone. Anterior surface. Enlarged.
- Sagittal section of nose mouth, pharynx, and larynx.
Geographic tongue

# Overview
Geographic tongue, also known as benign migratory glossitis, erythema migrans, or continental tongue, is a condition affecting the tongue.  The colloquial names are due to the condition resembling a map.

# Symptoms
The top side of the tongue is covered in small protrusions called papillae.  In a tongue affected by geographic tongue, there are red patches on the surface of the tongue bordered by grayish white.  The papillae are missing from the reddish areas and overcrowded in the grayish white borders.  The small patches may disappear and reappear in a short period of time (hours or days), and change in shape or size.  While it is not common for the condition to cause pain, it may cause a burning or stinging sensation, especially after contact with certain foods, such as spicy or citrus foods.  Chemicals, such as mouth washes and teeth whiteners, can also aggravate the condition. Geographic tongue may also cause numbness. Co-existence of fissures of the tongue is often noticed.

# Histopathology
Irregular areas of dekeratinized and desquamated filiform papillae (red in color) are surrounded by elevated whitish/yellow margins due to acantholysis and hyperkeratosis.  Neutrophils migrate into the epithelial layer, creating what are termed Munro's Abscesses.

# Cause
Its cause is uncertain, though it tends to run in families and is associated with several different genes.  Geographic tongue is more commonly found in people who are affected by environmental sensitivity, such as allergies, eczema, and asthma.  Some think that it may be linked to stress or diets high in sugar or processed foods. Its prevalence also varies by ethnicity (0.6% of Americans, 4% of young Iraqis, 2% of young Finns) and gender (females affected 3 times more than males).

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Tongue
- Tongue geographic. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Tongue geographic. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.

# Treatment
While there is no known cure or commonly prescribed treatment for geographic tongue, there are several ways to suppress the condition, including avoiding foods which exacerbate the problem.  Some people affected by geographic tongue also report that taking Vitamin B supplements causes the condition to go away temporarily.  Burning may also be reduced by taking antihistamines.  The condition is usually asymptomatic and significant, persisting pain is rare.  Geographic tongue is not associated with any known systemic diseases.
It has recently been found that geographic tongue can respond to zinc enhancements, such as Solvazinc,  taken orally.  This opens up the question as to whether the condition is caused by an allergy or a deficiency.