Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Alan Langlands
Sir Alan Langlands FRSE is principal and vice chancellor of the University of Dundee and former chief executive of the NHS executive in England.

# Early career
Robert Alan Langlands (born May 29 1952 in Glasgow) attended Allan Glen's School and graduated with an ordinary degree (ie, a pass without honours) in biological science from the University of Glasgow in 1974. He progressed from NHS graduate trainee through various administrative posts where he drew attention by  adherence to the principles of "new managerialism". He became General Manager of North West Thames Regional Health Authority in 1991. Between 1994 and 2000 he served as the chief executive of the NHS executive in England where he was the Secretary of States principal policy adviser for the NHS. In 1998 he received a Knighthood in the Queen's birthday honours list for his services to the NHS.
While head of the NHS, Langlands took the controversial decision to give a monopoly on provision of patient telephone and internet services to Patientline, banning mobile  phones and wireless internet fron all NHS hospitals and removing payphones. Four months after resigning from the NHS, Langlands became a director of Patientline. 
Alan Langlands lives between England and Scotland and has an official residence, University House, in Dundee.

# University of Dundee
On September 1 2001 he was appointed the Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Dundee; a position which currently holds. On August 1 2003 he was appointed Convener of the Universities Scotland funding policy group. He currently chairs the development board of the International Virtual Medical School (see IVIMEDS), a collaboration of 37 medical schools in 14 countries committed to making optimum use of new technologies in medical education.

# Honours
In October 2001 Langlands was conferred a doctor of the university of Glasgow and in April 2001 he was awarded an honorary fellowship of the RCGP for his contribution to the general medical field for his work with the NHS. He is an honorary professor at the University of Warwick business school and the US Advisory Board of the Johns Hopkins University Bioethics Institute. He has also received honorary fellowships by the Royal college of physicians (London), the Royal College of General Practitioners, the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow), the Faculty of Public Health Medicine and the Institute of Actuaries. He holds a diploma of the Institute of healthcare management.
He also holds membership of the Health Advisory Board at INSEAD, the External Advisory Board of the Royal College of Physicians and the National Advisory Board of the Johns Hopkins University Bioethics Institute.
He has also been awarded the HM Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother Fellowship by the Nuffield Trust.
Alexander Rich
Alexander Rich, MD (American; born c. 1925) is a biologist and biophysicist. He is the William Thompson Sedgwick Professor of Biophysics at MIT (since 1958) and Harvard Medical School. Dr. Rich earned both an A.B. (magna cum laude) and an M.D. (cum laude) from Harvard University. He was a post-doc of Linus Pauling along with James Watson. He has over 600 publications to his name.
Rich is the founder of Alkermes and has been its director since 1987. Dr. Rich is Co-Chairman of the Board of Directors of Repligen Corporation, a biopharmaceutical company. He is also a member of the Board of Directors for Profectus BioSciences, Inc. He also serves on the editorial board of Genomics and the Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics.
In 1979, Rich and co-workers at MIT accidentally grew a crystal of Z-DNA. This was the first crystal structure of any form of DNA. After 26 years of attempts, Rich et al. finally crystallised the junction box of B- and Z-DNA. Their results were published in an October 2005 Nature journal. Whenever Z-DNA forms, there must be two junction boxes that allow the flip back to the canonical B-form of DNA.

# List of awards and prizes received
- a member of the National Academy of Sciences
- a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
- a member of the Philosophical Society
- a member of the French Academy of Sciences
- a member of the Institute of Medicine.
- a member of the Scientific Advisory Board of U.S. Genomics, Inc.
- President Bill Clinton recognized his outstanding scientific achievements with the National Medal of Science in 1995.
- 2001 William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement
Alkyl nitrites
Alkyl nitrites are chemical compounds of structure R-ONO. Formally they are alkyl esters of nitrous acid.
The first few members of the series are volatile liquids; methyl nitrite and ethyl nitrite are gaseous at room temperature and pressure. The compounds have a distinctive fruity odor. Another frequently encountered nitrite is amyl nitrite.

# Synthesis
Organic nitrites are prepared from alcohols and sodium nitrite in sulfuric acid solution. They decompose slowly on standing, the decomposition products being oxides of nitrogen, water, the alcohol, and polymerization products of the aldehyde.

# Reactions
- In the laboratory, solutions of alkyl nitrites in glacial acetic acid are sometimes used as mild nitrating agents. The nitrating species formed is acetyl nitrate generated in situ.
- n-Butyl nitrite and ammonia convert phenylhydroxylamine to its nitrosamine derivative cupferron . Likewise pyrrolidine is a substrate for ethyl nitrite  .
- Alkyl nitrites are also used in the formation of oximes with the stronger carbon acids and acid or base catalysis for example in the reaction of 2-butanone, ethyl nitrite and hydrochloric acid forming the oxime  , the similar reaction with phenacyl chloride . or the reaction of phenylacetonitrile with methyl nitrite and sodium hydroxide .
An isolated but classic example of the use of alkyl nitrites can be found in Woodward's and Doering's quinine total synthesis :
for which they proposed this reaction mechanism:
Allan variance

# Overview
The Allan variance, named after David W. Allan, is a measurement of stability in clocks and oscillators.  It is also known as the two-sample variance.
It is defined as one half of the time average of the squares of the differences between successive readings of the frequency deviation sampled over the sampling period.
The Allan variance depends on the time period used between samples: therefore it is a function of the sample period, as well as the distribution being measured, and is displayed as a graph rather than a single number.
A low Allan variance is a characteristic of a clock with good stability over the measured period.
The Allan variance is given by
where yn is the normalized frequency departure, averaged over sample period n, and \tau is the time per sample period. The samples are taken with no dead-time between them.
where  is the frequency,  is the frequency error, and the average is taken over sampling period n.
For a clock, the time error, xn, at sampling period n, is the sum of the preceding frequency errors, given by
This can be reversed to compute frequency error from time error measurements
which leads to the equation for Allan variance in terms of time errors:
Just as with standard deviation and variance, the Allan deviation is defined as the square root of the Allan variance.
Allan variance is used as a measure of frequency stability in a variety of exotic precision oscillators, such as frequency-stabilized lasers over a period of a second or more.  Short term stability (under a second) is typically expressed as phase noise.  The Allan variance is also used to characterize the bias stability of gyroscopes, including fiber optic gyroscopes and MEMS gyroscopes.  There are also a number of variants, notably the modified Allan variance, the total variance, and the Hadamard variance.
Allyl chloride

# Overview
Allyl chloride is a colorless liquid with the chemical formula CH2=CHCH2Cl.  It features an alkene group next to, or "allylic to", an alkyl halide group,  It is insoluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents.  It is a common as an alkylating agent relevant to the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and pesticides. It is also a component in thermosetting resins.
Allyl chloride is a common building block in organic synthesis. Illustrative important reactions include cyanation to allyl cyanide (CH2=CHCH2CN), reductive coupling to give diallyl,CH2=CHCH2CH2CH=CH2), complexation to palladium to give allyl palladium dimer, (C3H5)2Pd2Cl2, and dehydrohalogenation to cyclopropene.
Allyl chloride is prepared by the reaction of propylene with chlorine gas at 500 C.

# Safety
Allyl chloride is toxic and flammable.
Alvarado score

# Overview
The Alvarado score is a clinical scoring system used in the diagnosis of appendicitis. The score has 6 clinical items and 1 laboratory measurement which total 9 points.  A score of less than 5 is not likely appendicitis, 5 or 6 is equivocal, 7 or 8 is probably appendicitis and 9 points means that the patient is highly likely to have appendicitis.

# The Alvarado Score
Shown below is the Alvarado score in acute appendicitis which includes aelements from the patient's history, the physical examination and from laboratory tests.
The two most important factors, tenderness in the right lower quadrant and leukocytosis, are assigned two points, and the six other factors are assigned one point each, for a possible total score of ten points.  A score of 5 or 6 is compatible with the diagnosis of acute appendicitis. A score of 7 or 8 indicates a probable appendicitis, and a score of 9 or 10 indicates a very probable acute appendicitis.
A popular mnemonic used to remember the Alvarado score factors is MANTRELS - Migration to the right iliac fossa, Anorexia, Nausea/Vomiting, Tenderness in the right iliac fossa, Rebound pain, Elevated temperature (fever), Leukocytosis, and Shift of leukocytes to the left (factors listed in the same order as presented above). Due to the popularity of this mnemonic, the Alvarado score is sometimes referred to as the MANTRELS score.
A useful mnemonic to remember the modified Alvarado score is: MAFLTRN - My Appendix Feels Likely To Rupture Now (2 points for A and T, one for all the others).
The Alvarado score has a very low sensitivity and a low specificity, especially in women who can have gynecological diseases mimicking appendicitis. The score has been modified to try and find adapted scores with higher clinical importance. Trials have studied the usefulness for the score in guiding the management of patients with pain in the right fossa, for example to see which patients need a CT scan and which patients need surgery.
Alveolar ridge

# Overview
An alveolar ridge (also known as the alveolar margin) is one of the two jaw ridges either on the roof of the mouth between the upper teeth and the hard palate or on the bottom of the mouth behind the lower teeth. The alveolar ridges contain the sockets (alveoli) of the teeth.
You can touch their shapes by moving your tongue in the area right above or beneath the teeth sockets. Its surface is covered with little ridges. You can only see these with a mirror small enough to go inside your mouth. Sounds made with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge while speaking are called alveolar. Alveolar consonants are, for instance, , , , , ,  like in the words time, dragon, superman, zeal, nasty and lollipop. When pronouncing these sounds you can feel your tongue touching (, , ), or nearly touching (, ) the upper alveolar ridge which can also be referred to as gum ridge.
In many languages consonants are articulated with the tongue on (touching), or close to (without touching) the upper alveolar ridge. The former are called alveolar plosives, and the latter alveolar fricatives. See also alveolar consonant.
See also: List of phonetic topics

# Literature
Roach, Peter: English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
ko:
he: ()
sv:Tandvall
Amaranth (dye)
Amaranth, FD&C Red No. 2, C.I. Food Red 9, Acid Red 27, Azorubin S, or C.I. 16185, is a dark red to purple azo dye once used as a food dye and to color cosmetics, but since 1976 it has been banned in the United States by FDA as it is a suspected carcinogen.  It usually comes as a trisodium salt. It has the appearance of reddish-brown, dark red to purple water-soluble powder that decomposes at 120 C without melting. Its water solution has absorption maximum at about 520 nm. Amaranth is made from coal tar.
Amaranth is an anionic dye. It can be applied to natural and synthetic fibers, leather, paper, and phenol-formaldehyde resins.
As a food additive it has E number E123.

# Decertification
In 1969, Soviet scientists discovered that long-term usage of Red Dye #2, even at the low dosages found in foods, caused cancer in test animals. The FDA conducted its own tests, following the Soviet guidelines, with the results being inconclusive. The FDA banned FD&C Red No. 2 in 1976. FD&C Red No. 3 (erythrosine), FD&C Red No. 40, and Allura Red AC replaced the decertified color.
Amphiarthrosis

# Overview
Amphiarthrosis is a type of continous joint.
In Amphiarthroses (slightly movable articulations), the contiguous bony surfaces are either:
- symphysis: connected by broad flattened disks of fibrocartilage, of a more or less complex structure, as in the articulations between the bodies of the vertebrae. An example is the sternocostal joint.
- syndesmosis: united by an interosseous ligament, as in the inferior tibiofibular articulation.
de:Amphiarthrose
Nephrotoxicity
Nephrotoxicity is a poisonous effect of some substances, both toxic chemicals and medication, on the kidney. There are various forms of toxicity.  Nephrotoxicity should not be confused with the fact that some medications have a predominantly renal excretion and need their dose adjusted for the decreased renal function (e.g. heparin).
Nephrotoxins are chemicals displaying nephrotoxicity.
The nephrotoxic effect of most drugs is more profound in patients who already suffer from renal impairment. Some drugs may affect renal function in more than one way.

# Types of toxicity

## Cardiovascular
- General: diuretics, -blockers, vasodilator agents
- Local: ACE inhibitors, ciclosporin.

## Direct tubular effect
- Proximal convoluted tubule: Aminoglycoside (Amikacin sulfate) antibiotics (e.g. gentamicin), amphotericin B, cisplatin, radiocontrast media, immunoglobulins, mannitol
- Distal tubule: NSAIDs (e.g. aspirin, ibuprofen, diclofenac), ACE inhibitors, ciclosporin, lithium salts, cyclophosphamide, amphotericin B
- Tubular obstruction: sulphonamides, methotrexate, aciclovir, polyethylene glycol.

## Acute interstitial nephritis
- -lactam antibiotics, vancomycin, rifampicin, sulphonamides, ciprofloxacin, NSAIDs,  ranitidine, cimetidine, furosemide, thiazides, phenytoin.

## Acute glomerulonephritis
- Penicillamine.

## Causes of diabetes insipidus
- Lithium salts
- amphotericin B
- fluoride
- demeclocycline
- foscarnet.

## Other nephrotoxins
- Heavy metals interfere with enzymes of energy metabolism.
- Aristolochic acid, found in some plants and, more dangerously, in some herbal supplements derived from those plants, has been shown to have nephrotoxic effects on humans.

## Medications Causing Nephrotoxicity
- Adefovir
- Kanamycin
- Cyclophosphamide
- Cisplatin

# Surveillance
Nephrotoxicity is usually monitored through a simple blood test. An elevated level of creatinine indicates poor renal function. Normal creatinine levels are between 80 - 120 mm/l. In interventional radiology, a patients' creatinine levels are all checked prior to a procedure.  Should an elevated creatinine level be found, a special contrast medium or radiocontrast is used which is less harmful for the patient.
Creatinine clearance is another measure of renal function, which may be more useful clinically when dealing with patients with early kidney disease.
Amputation toe
In addition to the common indications for any amputation (e.g., infection, arteriosclerosis with gangrene, etc.), specific indications for toe amputations exist as well. For example, the fifth toe (the most commonly amputated toe) is usually removed for being overriding on the fourth toe. This toe can be amputated with impunity and this is usually preferred over reconstructive procedures because it is easy and definitive. Complications of toe amputations with regards to gait are minimal. For example, any single toe can be removed with little gait or stance disturbance. This is true for amputation of the great toe during standing or walking at a normal pace. However, if the patient walks rapidly a limp appears from the loss of the normal push-off provided by the great toe. With amputations of all toes, the patients gait is likewise normal with slow, but impaired with rapid locomotion.  Additional complications specific to the toes include a severe hallux valgus deformity seen in amputations of the second (see below).

# Diagnostic Images

## Osteomyelitis
The below images show both the pre-operative and post-operative left foot of the same patient. The pre-op film demonstrate osteomyelitis of the distal first phalanx that was treated with a great toe amputation. (Courtesy of A. Gentili MD)
- Before amputation
- After amputation

## Hallux Valgus
- Second toe amputation with resultant hallux valgus deformity.  This is a common complication of second toe amputations and occurs because the great toe tends to drift toward the third to fill the gap left by the amputation. (Courtesy of A. Gentili MD)
Anal dysplasia

# Overview
Anal dysplasia is a pre-cancerous condition which occurs when the lining of the anal canal undergoes abnormal changes. It can be classified as low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL) and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL)   
Most cases are not associated with symptoms, but people may notice lumps in and around the anus.broken link

# Causes
Anal dysplasia is most commonly linked to human papillomavirus (HPV), a usually sexually-transmitted infection. HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection.
Anal retentive
The term anal-retentive (or anally retentive, anal retentive) derives from Freudian Psychology, although in common usage the original meaning has been altered.  This term is an extension of anal, and can be used  interchangeably.

# Common usage
Conversationally, the term is often used to describe a person deemed to be overly obsessed with minor details. Its roots are said to be from Sigmund Freud.
The term is often used in a derogatory sense to describe a person with such attention to detail that the obsession becomes an annoyance to others, and can be carried out to the detriment of the so-called anal-retentive person.

# Origins
In the psychology of Freud, the anal stage is said to follow the oral stage of infant/early-childhood development. This is a time when an infant's attention moves from oral stimulation to anal stimulation (including the bowels and bladder), usually synchronous with learning to control their excretory functions, a time of toilet training.  Freud theorized that children who experience conflicts during this period of time may develop "anal" personality traits, namely those associated with a child's efforts at excretory control: orderliness, stubbornness, a compulsion for control.  Those whose anal characteristics continue into later life are said to be "anal retentive", or conversely, those who reject anal characteristics are said to have "anal expulsive" personality types. Some believe this to be a mild expression of obsessive-compulsive disorder or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.
Although Freud's theories on early childhood have been influential to the psychological community, research suggests that the overall pattern of parental attitudes has a much more concrete effect on how an infant will grow up.  There is no conclusive research linking anal stage conflicts with anal personality types.
Andrew Schally
Andrzej Viktor Schally, also known as Andrew V. Schally, born november 30 1926 in Wilno, Poland (now Vilnius, Lithuania), is an endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate (1977) in Medicine.

# Life
Born in Poland, Andrew Schally received his education in Scotland and England. In 1952, he moved to Canada. He received his doctorate in endocrinology from McGill University in 1957.  That same year he left for a research career in the United States where he has worked principally at Tulane University. A Canadian citizen when he left Canada, Schally became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1962. He was affiliated with the Baylor College of Medicine for some years in Houston, Texas.
He developed a whole new realm of knowledge concerning the brains control over the body chemistry. His works also addressed birth control methods and growth hormones. He - as well as Roger Guillemin- described the neurohormone GnRH that controls FSH and LH.

# Honors
He has been awarded an honorary doctorate by the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Poland.
He received a Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1977.
Calcium iodide

# Overview
Calcium iodide (CaI2) is an ionic compound of calcium and iodine. It is highly soluble in water and it is deliquescent. It is a salt that is solid at room temperature, and it behaves as a typical ionic halide. Because of its hygroscopic nature, it must be kept in tightly-sealed containers. It is similar to calcium chloride in many respects. It is used in photography.

# Reactions
Henri Moissan first isolated pure calcium metal by reducing calcium iodide with pure sodium metal:
Calcium iodide can be formed by reacting calcium carbonate with hydroiodic acid:
Calcium iodide slowly reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air, giving free iodine.