Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Isothermal process

# Overview
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the system stays constant: T = 0. This typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir (heat bath), and processes occur slowly enough to allow the system to continually adjust to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange. An alternative special case in which a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings (Q = 0) is called an adiabatic process.
Consider an ideal gas, in which the temperature depends only on the internal energy, which is a function of the mean translational kinetic energy of the molecules, as given by a Boltzmann distribution; if the internal energy is constant, so is the temperature. Take the number of moles n as a constant.
but this means, according to the ideal gas law, that
so that
where  P_i  and  V_i  are the pressure and volume of the initial state,  P_f  and  V_f  are the pressure and volume of the final state, and the variables P and V stand for the pressure and volume of any intermediate state during an isothermal process.
Curves called isotherms appear as a hyperbolas on a P-V (pressure-volume) diagram (T = constant). Each one asymptotically approaches both the V (abscissa) and P (ordinate) axes. This corresponds to a one-parameter family of curves, a function of T, whose equation is
By the first law of thermodynamics, the isotherms of an ideal gas are also determined by the condition that
where W is work done on the system. (While Q and W are incremental quantities, they do not represent differentials of state functions.) This means that, during an isothermal process, all heat accepted by the system from its surroundings must have its energy entirely converted to work which it performs on the surroundings. That is, all the energy which comes into the system comes back out; the internal energy and thus the temperature of the system remain constant.
In a minute process of this process, the minute work dW can be shown as follow.
Therefore the entire work of the process from A to B is shown with the integration of the previous equation.
Here, by the ideal gas equation,
Therefore in the isothermal process, the following equation is formed.
Isothermal processes can occur in any kind of system, including highly structured machines, and even living cells. Various parts of the cycle of some heat engines are carried out isothermally and may be approximated by a Carnot cycle.
Isotopes of cerium
Naturally occurring cerium (Ce) is composed of 3 stable isotopes and 1 radioactive isotope; 136Ce, 138Ce, 140Ce, and 142Ce with 140Ce being the most abundant (88.48% natural abundance). 27 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most {abundant and/or stable} being 142Ce with a half-life of greater than 51016 years, 144Ce with a half-life of 284.893 days, 139Ce with a half-life of 137.640 days, and 141Ce with a half-life of 32.501 days.  All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4 days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 10 minutes. This element also has 2 meta states.
The isotopes of cerium range in atomic weight from 123 u (123Ce) to 152 u (152Ce).
Standard atomic mass: 140.116(1) u

# Table

## Notes
- Evaluated isotopic composition is for most but not all commercial samples.
- Geologically exceptional samples are known in which the isotopic composition lies outside the reported range. The uncertainty in the atomic mass may exceed the stated value for such specimens.
- Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
- Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which use expanded uncertainties.
Isotopes of iodine
There are 37 isotopes of iodine (I) and only one, 127I, is stable.
In many ways, 129I is similar to 36Cl. It is a soluble halogen, fairly non-reactive, exists mainly as a non-sorbing anion, and is produced by cosmogenic, thermonuclear, and in-situ reactions. In hydrologic studies, 129I concentrations are usually reported as the ratio of 129I to total I (which is virtually all 127I). As is the case with 36Cl/Cl, 129I/I ratios in nature are quite small, 1014 to 1010 (peak thermonuclear 129I/I during the 1960s and 1970s reached about 107). 129I differs from 36Cl in that its half-life is longer (15.7 vs. 0.301 million years), it is highly biophilic, and occurs in multiple ionic forms (commonly, I and IO3) which have different chemical behaviors. This makes it fairly easy for 129I to enter the biosphere as it becomes incorporated into vegetation, soil, milk, animal tissue, etc.
Excesses of stable 129Xe in meteorites have been shown to result from decay of "primordial" 129I produced newly by the supernovas which created the dust and gas from which the solar system formed. 129I was the first extinct radionuclide to be identified as present in the early solar system. Its decay is the basis of the I-Xe radiometric dating scheme, which covers the first 83 million years of solar system evolution.
Standard atomic mass: 126.90447(3) u

# Table

## Notes
- Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
- Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which use expanded uncertainties.
Isotopes of nickel
Naturally occurring nickel (Ni) is composed of 5 stable isotopes; 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni and 64Ni with 58Ni being the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance). 18 radioisotopes have been characterised with the most stable being 59Ni with a half-life of 76,000 years, 63Ni with a half-life of 100.1 years, and 56Ni with a half-life of 6.077 days.  All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 1 meta state.
Nickel-56 is produced in large quantities in type Ia supernovae and the shape of the light curve of these supernovae corresponds to the decay of nickel-56 to cobalt-56 and then to iron-56.
Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide with a half-life of 76,000 years. 59Ni has found many applications in isotope geology. 59Ni has been used to date the terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment. Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide 60Fe (half-life = 1.5 Myr). Because the extinct radionuclide 60Fe had such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the solar system at high enough concentrations may have generated observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60Ni. Therefore, the abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history.
Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy per nucleon of any isotope for any element. Isotopes heavier than 62Ni cannot be formed by nuclear fusion without losing energy.
Nickel-48, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich nickel isotope known . With 28 protons and 20 neutrons 48Ni is "doubly magic" (like 208Pb) and therefore unusually stable
The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48 u (48-Ni) to 78 u (78-Ni).  Nickel-78's half-life was recently measured to be 110 milliseconds and is believed to be an important isotope involved in supernova nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron. 
Standard atomic mass: 58.6934(2) u

# Table

## Notes
- Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
- Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which use expanded uncertainties.
Jacksonian seizure

# Overview
Jacksonian seizure (or Jacksonian march) is associated with a form of epilepsy. They involve a progression of the location of the seizure in the brain, which leads to a "march" of the motor presentation.

# Presentation
Epilepsy involves abnormal activity in the brain that can lead to neurons firing at many times their normal rate. This leads to a kind of electrical "storm" developing in the brain and can lead to temporary impairment to the sensory, motor, and cognitive functions.
Jacksonian seizures are initiated with abnormal electrical activity within the primary motor cortex. They are unique in that they travel through the primary motor cortex in succession, affecting the corresponding muscles, often beginning with the fingers. This is felt as a tingling sensation. It then affects the hand and moves on to more proximal areas. Symptoms often associated with a Jacksonian seizure are sudden head and eye movements, tingling, numbness, smacking of the lips, and sudden muscle contractions. Most of the time any one of these actions can be seen as normal movements, without being associated with the seizure occurring.  They occur at no particular moment and last only briefly.

# Eponym
These seizures are named after their discoverer, John Hughlings Jackson, an English neurologist, whose studies led to the discovery of the seizures' initiation point (in the primary motor cortex) in 1863.
James-Lange theory

# Overview
The James-Lange theory refers to a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions developed independently by two 19th-century scholars, William James and Carl Lange. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause. James and Lange arrived at the theory independently. Lange specifically stated that vasomotor changes are emotions. (Ex. A person rationalizes that because they are crying, they must be sad.)
James elucidated his concept as:
The notion of causality is a difficult one. The theory has been largely disfavored in modern times. Some evidence to support it, however, may come from the fact that sufferers of various psychological challenges such as panic disorders often experience psychoemotional trauma after physiological responses arise in the body, responses which individuals are conditioned to associate with a particular emotional state but which can, via therapy, be dissociated.
This theory was challenged in the 1920s by psychologists such as Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, who theorized that physiological changes are caused by emotions (collectively known as the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion).
The third theory of emotion is called the Schachter & Singer's Two factor theory of emotion. This theory states that emotions are a direct result of an analysis of the surroundings.

# Criticisms
- The viscera are largely unresponsive and react relatively slowly (i.e. - we 'feel' the emotion before the physiological changes have occurred.)
- Cutting nerves from the viscera has no effect on emotions in rats.
- Visceral responses are the same no matter what the reported emotion.
- Injecting adrenaline/epinephrine (as in released from the adrenal glands during "normal" emotional state) does not induce the feeling of an emotion only your moods.sc
John Lyle Robinson
John Lyle Robinson (died 1953) was a Canadian politician who served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1935 until 1953 and as Alberta's Minister of Industries and Labour from 1948 until 1953.
A chiropractor, Robinson was first elected to the legislature in the Alberta general election, 1935 as a candidate of William Aberhart's Social Credit Party of Alberta; he was re-elected in the Alberta general election, 1940, Alberta general election, 1944, Alberta general election, 1948, and Alberta general election, 1952 elections.
In March 1938, during a debate on a workman's compensation act, Brown took the position that he would support a committee's recommendation that chiropractic services not be covered by the act, up to and until the point at which somebody moved an amendment to include them, in which case he would support the amendment.  He was subsequently reported in the Edmonton Journal by legislative reporter Don Brown as being opposed to the inclusion of chiropractic services in the act.  Robinson angrily insisted that he had been misquoted, and his fellow Social Crediters, who has a poor relationship with the news media (see Accurate News and Information Act) passed a resolution that Brown be jailed "during the pleasure of the assembly".  Brown was never actually jailed, and a resolution the next day ordered "the release of Mr. Don C. Brown from custody".
In 1948, Premier of Alberta Ernest Manning appointed Robinson Minister of Industries and Labour effective May 8.

# Notes
-  "Past by-election results". Elections Alberta. Retrieved December 16, 2009..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
-  Barr 112
-  Barr 112113
-  "Alberta Gazette". Legislative Assembly of Alberta. May 15, 1948. Retrieved December 16, 2009.
Joint mobilization
Joint mobilization is a type of passive movement of a skeletal joint. It is usually aimed at a 'target' synovial joint with the aim of achieving a therapeutic effect. When applied to the spine, it is known as spinal mobilization.

# Terminology
Mobilization is a manual therapy intervention and is classified by five 'grades' of motion, each of which describes the range of motion of the target joint during the procedure.
Roman numerals are generally used in labelling the grades of motion (i.e. Grades I to V). Grade V is the same as manipulation.

# Mechanisms of action
The different grades of mobilization are believed to produce selective activation of different mechanoreceptors in the joint:Template:PDFlink.
- Grade I - Activates Type I mechanoreceptors with a low threshold and which respond to very small increments of tension.
- Grade II - Similar effect as Grade I.
- Grade III - Similar to Grade II.
- Grade IV - Similar to Grade III.
- Grade V - This is the same as joint manipulation. Use of the term 'Grade V' is only valid if the joint is positioned near to its end range of motion during joint manipulation. Evans and Breen recently contested this assumption, in fact arguing that an individual synovial joint should be positioned near to its resting, neutral position.
Kaempferia galanga
Kaempferia galanga, commonly known as aromatic ginger, sand ginger or resurrection lily, is a monocotyledonous plant in the ginger family. It is found primarily in open areas in southern China, Taiwan, Cambodia and India, but is also widely cultivated throughout Southeast Asia. The plant is used as an herb  in cooking, especially in Thai cuisine. It is also used in Chinese cooking and Chinese medicine and is sold in Chinese groceries under the name Sha Jiang, while the plant itself is referred to as shan nai (Template:Zh-cp). Kaempferia galanga has a peppery camphorous taste. It is one of four plants known as galangal, and is differentiated from the others by the absence of stem and dark brown rounded rhizomes, while the other varieties all have stems and pale rosebrown rhizomes.

# Pharmacology
The rhizomes of aromatic ginger have been reported to include cineol, borneol, 3-carene, camphene, kaempferol, kaempferide, cinnamaldehyde, p-methoxycinnaamic acid, ethyl cinnamate and ethyl p-methoxycinnamate. Extracts of the plant using methanol have shown larvicidal activity against the second stage larva of dog roundworm (Toxocara canis). It was also found to be effective as an amebicide in vitro against three species of Acanthamoeba which cause granulomatous amebic encephalitis and amebic keratitis. In 1999 the rhizome extract was found to inhibit activity of Epstein-Barr virus. Further research has demonstrated that the extract effectively kills larvae of the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus and repels adult Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, both of which are serious disease vectors. As a result of these findings, research is underway to evaluate the plant extract's use as an insect repellent, with preliminary findings suggesting that it is a non-irritant to the skin of rats.

# Uses
The rhizomes of the plant, which contains essential oils, have been used in Chinese medicine as a decoction or powder for treating indigestion, cold, pectoral and abdominal pains, headache and toothache. Its alcoholic maceration has also been applied as liniment for rheumatism.
Keinbock's disease

# Etiology
- Likely related to overuse and ulnar negative wrist variance.
- Associated with sickel cell anemia, steriod use, gout, cerebral palsy.
- Age: 2nd-5th decade.
- Male > female

# Anatomy
Lunate blood supply: single nutrient vessel, or poorly organized intraosseous anastamoses.

# Clinical Findings
- A painful and sometimes swollen wrist
- Limited range of motion in the affected wrist (stiffness)
- Decreased grip strength in the hand
- Tenderness directly over the lunate (on the top of the hand at about the middle of the wrist)
- Pain or difficulty in turning the hand upward

# Diagnostic Tests
- PA, Lateral, oblique views of the wrist. Generally demonstrate sclerotic lunate. Early films may be normal or minimal sclerosis. Evaluate for ulnocarpal impaction.
- MRI: demonstrates avascular changes in the lunate.
- Ct: demonstrates degree of fragmentation and collapse
- Bone scan diagnostic at 48hrs (100% sensitive, 98%specific)

# Classification and Treatment
Lichtman Classification (Lichtman DM, JBJS 59A; 899:1977).

## Stage 1
- The lunate appears normal on xray or there may be a nondisplaced fracture;
- MRI demonstrates loss of signal consistent with osteonecrosis.
- Treatment: spinting, activity modifications, NSAIDs
- Consider ulnar lengthening or radial shortening for patients with negative ulnar variane.

## Stage 2
- Increased lunate radiodensity without loss of contour;
- Lunate not collapsed.
- Consider Proximal row carpectomy.
Treatment: 4 + 5 extensor compartmental vascularized bone graft. (Moran CL, J Hand Surg 2005;30A:50).

## Stage 3A
- Increased lunate radiodensity and fragmentation without loss of carpal height.
- Treatment: 4 + 5 extensor compartmental vascularized bone graft. (Moran CL, J Hand Surg 2005;30A:50).
- Consider scaphocapitate arthrodesis, or scaphotrapeziotrapezoid arthrodesis

## Stage 3B
Lunate fragmentation with proximal migration of the capitate and rotation of the scaphoid.
- Treatment: scaphocapitate arthrodesis, or scaphotrapeziotrapezoid arthrodesis
- Consider Proximal row carpectomy

## Stage 4
- Lunate severely collapsed and fragmented, secondary arthritic changes in the wrist.
- Treatment: Proximal row carpectomy.
- Consider: scaphocapitate arthrodesis and scaphotrapeziotrapezoid arthrodesis.

# Differential Diagnosis
- Ulnocarpal impaction syndrome
- Preiser's Disease

# Complications
- Degenerative changes in adjacent joints.
- Stiffness, motion loss.
- Weakness.
- CRPS
- Continued pain.
- Instability.

# Follow-up Care
- Post-op: Volar splint in neutral, elevation.
- 7-10 Days: Wound check, short arm cast.
- 4 Weeks: Cast removed, xray wrist. Start gentle ROM, strengthening exercises. Functional activities.
- 3 Months: Full activities, may resume manual labor if adequate strength has been achieved.
- 6 Months and 1 year follow-up: x-rays, assess outcome
Keratosis obturans

# Overview
Keratosis obturans is accumulation of desquamated keratin in the external auditory meatus. It is common in young patient population.

# Pathophysiology
Keratosis obturans is thought to occur due to abnormal epithelial migration of ear canal skin. The movement of the surface epithelium appears to be reversed in these patients. These keratin squames are shed from the complete circumference of the deep ear canal forming a lamina. It appears like onion skin. There exists 3 types of Keratosis obturans depending upon the pathology. They  are:
- Inflammatory type - it may be caused due to viral infection
- Silent type - it is caused by abnormal separation of the keratin of the ears
- Primary auditory canal cholesteatoma - it is caused by trauma to the external ear canal. Hearing impairment is not found in this type of keratosis obturans.

# Risk Factors
- Sinusitis
- Bronchiectasis

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
- Partial hearing loss
- Otalgia
- Otorrhea
- Associated sinusitis or bronchitis may be present.

## CT
- CT scan of temporal bones may reveal canal erosion and widening.

## Other Diagnostic Studies
- Surgical specimen after surgery should be sent for pathology testing to rule out malignancy.

# Treatment

## Surgery
- Surgical removal is the main stay of treatment
- Canal plasty - in case of recurrence
- Mastoidectomy - in the primary auditory canal cholesteatoma type