Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Vaginitis

# Overview
Vulvovaginitis, a common condition for which women seek medical care, accounts for greater than 10% of visits made to providers of women's health care. It is characterized by symptoms that cause itching, irritation, burning, and abnormal vaginal discharge. The three most common causes of vaginal discharge in women within the reproductive age group are bacterial vaginosis, candida vulvovaginitis, and trichomoniasis. All patients with vulvovaginitis present with common symptoms like vaginal discharge, itching, and dysuria. Diagnosis of vulvovaginitis requires a detailed history of the patient's symptoms, as well as her sexual history, both of which facilitate an accurate diagnosis. Physical examination of the external genitalia and speculum examination should focus on documenting the nature of the discharge, the presence of any vulvar or labial lesions, foreign body, presence of cervical inflammation, cervical lesions, and any cervical motion or adnexal tenderness with a bimanual examination. It is essential to rule out pelvic inflammatory disease and cervical lesions as the cause of vaginal discharge. Estimation of vaginal pH and vaginal smear wet mount examination constitute the initial diagnostic test, which helps differentiate among common etiologies. Treatment of vulvovaginitis includes medical therapy targeted against the causative pathogen and counseling on hygiene, voiding techniques, and sexual practices. The prognosis is good in most patients, though a minority of patients experience recurrence.

# Classification
Based on the etiology vaginitis is classified into the following:
- Candida Vulvovaginitis
- Bacterial vaginosis
- Trichomoniasis
- Atrophic vaginitis
- Aerobic vagnitis

# Differential Diagnosis
The differential diagnosis for patients presenting with vaginal discharge includes the following considerations:

## Diagnosis and Treatment
The following table summarizes the diagnosis and management of common vaginitis conditions:
Allodynia
Allodynia, meaning "other pain", is an exaggerated response to otherwise non-noxious stimuli and can be either static or mechanical. Allodynia is not referred pain, but can occur in other areas than the one stimulated; it is also dysesthetic.
For example, a person with allodynia may perceive light pressure or the movement of clothes over the skin as painful, whereas a healthy individual will not feel pain.

# Pathophysiology
One explanation of the mechanism for allodynia is that the associated nerve damage results in decreased firing thresholds of nociceptive fibres.
Alternatively, it has been postulated that peripheral nerve injury could induce collateral sprouting of non-nociceptive primary afferent neurones, such as A-beta low threshold mechanoreceptors, into the superficial (nociceptive) laminae in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. These collateral branches could form functional contacts with nociceptive second order neurons, normally innervated by C-fibre nociceptive primary afferent neurones and transmit an innocous input as noxious.

# Associated disturbances
Allodynia is a clinical feature of pain conditions such as migraine, postherpetic neuralgia, fibromyalgia, and neuropathies.

# Types
There are different kinds or types of allodynia:
- Mechanical allodynia (also known as tactile allodynia) - Pain from light touch/pressure applied to the skin in the area of the damaged nerve. Mechanical allodynia can be dynamic or static. Also it has been shown that lowering barometric pressure aggravates mechanical allodynia in a rat model of neuropathic pain
- Thermal (heat or cold) allodynia - Pain from normally mild skin temperatures in the affected area.
Allograft

# Overview
An allograft or allogeneic transplant or homograft is a transplant in which transplanted cells, tissues, or organs are sourced from a genetically non-identical member of the same species. Most human tissue and organ transplants are allografts.
In contrast, a transplant from another species is called a xenograft. When a transplanted organ or tissue from a genetically identical donor, i.e., an identical twin, is termed an isograft.  Finally, when a tissue is transplanted from one site to another on the same patient, it is termed an autograft.
Allografts and xenografts will be recognised by the recipient's immune system as foreign and will therefore be attacked in a process termed rejection. This does not occur in autografts or true isografts, although in practice, transplants between identical twins are usually covered with immunosuppressants in case they are not 100% genetically identical.

# Tissue allografts
A variety of tissue and organs types can be used for allografts. These include:
- skin transplants
- corneal transplants
- heart transplants
- liver transplants
- kidney transplants
- bone marrow transplants
- bone allograft
- ligament or tendon allograft
Allophone
In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar phones that belong to the same phoneme. A phone is a sound that has a definite shape as a sound wave, while a phoneme is a basic group of sounds that can distinguish words (i.e. changing one phoneme in a word can produce another word); speakers of a particular language perceive a phoneme as a single distinctive sound in that language.  Thus an allophone is a phone considered as a member of one phoneme.
We may distinguish complementary allophones, which are distributed regularly within the idiolect of the same speaker according to phonetic environment, from free variants, which are a matter of personal habit or regional accent.
In the case of complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and many times there is some sort of phonological process.  Not all phonemes have significantly different allophones, but there are always minor differences in articulation from one piece of speech to the next.

# Examples in English
For example, Template:IPA as in pin and Template:IPA as in spin are allophones for the phoneme Template:IPA in the English language because they occur in complementary distribution. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different; the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Plain Template:IPA also occurs as the p in cap Template:IPA, or the second p in paper Template:IPA. In contexts where plain p appears in English (e.g. spin, cap, paper), speakers may hear it as b since the p in these contexts lacks the burst of air found with the p in pin. Besides, there are many different allophones in English, like lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, dentalisation and retruction.
Certain Chinese languages treat these two phones differently, for example in Mandarin, Template:IPA is always written b in pinyin; thus, they are not allophones.
English-speaking people may become aware of the difference between two allophones of the phoneme t  when they consider the pronunciations of the following phrases:
- Night rate: IPA Template:IPA
- Nitrate: IPA Template:IPA

# "Elsewhere" condition
When there are two allophones for one phoneme in a given language, linguists use the "elsewhere condition" to determine which is the original allophone and which is the variation.  For example, to determine when oral and nasalized vowels occur in English, the pattern is noted that all vowels are oral, except when the vowel comes before a nasal within the same syllable.  Therefore, according to the "elsewhere condition", nasalized vowels are allophones of their oral counterparts.
Alloplant

# Overview
Alloplant is an experimental, chemically processed biomaterial used for transplantation. It is made primarily from deceased human flesh. The tissue is subjected to radiating sterilization and is being studied for possible regeneration of tissues of the recipient. The concept has been rejected by the general medical community.

# Use in eye transplant
The primary advocate of alloplants is the Russian surgeon Ernest Muldashev.  In 2000, he claimed to have successfully transplanted a human eye onto a blind woman using a harvested cornea and retina combined with an alloplant.
The operation happened after he and his colleagues made a trip to Tibet. According to Muldashev, this voyage gave him an innate and unprecedented understanding of certain worldly ideas and concepts. He claims he witnessed paranormal phenomena involving "time mirrors" in search of forefather "giants".
The claim was widely rejected by the scientific and medical community.  Although they avoid the use of the term "quack", doctors interviewed by The Guardian maintain that such transplants are medically impossible and not supported by peer-reviewed medical evidence. Nevertheless, the patient in question claims to have developed the ability to distinguish shapes, colors, and even letters with her transplanted eye.
Almitrine

# Overview
Almitrine (marketed as Duxil by Servier) is a diphenylmethylpiperazine derivative classified as a respiratory stimulant by the ATC. It enhances respiration by acting as an agonist of peripheral chemoreceptors located on the carotid bodies. The drug increases arterial oxygen tension while decreasing arterial carbon dioxide tension in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It may also prove useful in the treatment of nocturnal oxygen desaturation without impairing the quality of sleep.
A significant literature exists for this compound, including over 60 papers that Medline labels as reviews.
The clinical efficacy of almitrine-raubasine combination therapy for age related cerebral disorders and functional rehabilitation after stroke has been reviewed by Allain and Bentue-Ferrer. They summarize two studies in which almitrine-raubasine improved some symptoms significantly more than placebo, especially in vascular cases.  Their paper also suggests that other studies have shown a beneficial effect of this compound on neurosensory vascular disorders, specifically chorioretinal dysfunctions (visual symptomatology) and vertigo associated with electronystagmographic modifications.  This paper further claims that the dosage and tolerance of the compound have been confirmed in a French multi-center study of 5,361 outpatients.
Alpha-GPC

# Overview
L-Alpha Glycerylphosphorylcholine (Alpha GPC) is a naturally occurring phospholipid precursor and metabolite.
Alpha GPC delivers choline to the brain across the blood-brain barrier.
Studies have investigated its efficacy for cognitive disorders including stroke and Alzheimers Disease. An Italian multicentre clinical trial on 2,044 patients suffering from recent stroke were supplied alpha-GPC in doses of 1,000 mg/day for 28 days and 400 mg/day for five ensuing months. The trial confirmed the therapeutic role of alpha-GPC on the cognitive recovery of patients based on four measurement scales, three of which reached statistical significance.
Meprodine
Meprodine is an opioid analgesic that is an analogue of pethidine (meperidine). It is closely related to the drug prodine, the only difference being that meprodine has an ethyl group rather than a methyl at the 3-position of the piperidine ring.
As with prodine, there are two isomers of meprodine, Alphameprodine and Betameprodine, with the  isomer having been more widely used.
Meprodine has similar effects to other opioids, and produces analgesia, sedation and euphoria. Side effects can include itching, nausea and potentially serious respiratory depression which can be life-threatening.
Alveolate
The alveolates are a major line of protists.  There are three phyla, which are very divergent in form, but are now known to be close relatives based on various ultrastructural and genetic similarities:
The most notable shared characteristic is the presence of cortical alveoli, flattened vesicles packed into a continuous layer supporting the membrane, typically forming a flexible pellicle.  In dinoflagellates they often form armor plates.  Alveolates have mitochondria with tubular cristae, and their flagella or cilia have a distinct structure.
The Apicomplexa and dinoflagellates may be more closely related to each other than to the ciliates.  Both have plastids, and most share a bundle or cone of microtubules at the top of the cell.  In apicomplexans this forms part of a complex used to enter host cells, while in some colorless dinoflagellates it forms a peduncle used to ingest prey.  Various other genera are closely related to these two groups, mostly flagellates with a similar apical structure.  These include free-living members in Oxyrrhis and Colponema, and parasites in Perkinsus, Parvilucifera, Rastrimonas, and the ellobiopsids.  In 2001, direct amplification of the rRNA gene in marine picoplankton samples revealed the presence of two novel alveolate linages, called group I and II.  Group I has no cultivated relatives, while group II is related to the dinoflagellate parasite Amoebophrya, which was classified until now in the Syndiniales dinoflagellate order.
Relationships between some of these the major groups were suggested during the 1980s, and between all three by Cavalier-Smith, who introduced the formal name Alveolata in 1991.  They were confirmed by a genetic study by Gajadhar et al.  Some studies suggested the haplosporids, mostly parasites of marine invertebrates, might belong here but they lack alveoli and are now placed among the Cercozoa.
The development of plastids among the alveolates is uncertain.  Cavalier-Smith proposed the alveolates developed from a chloroplast-containing ancestor, which also gave rise to the Chromista (the chromalveolate hypothesis).  However, as plastids only appear in relatively advanced groups, others argue the alveolates originally lacked them and possibly the dinoflagellates and Apicomplexa acquired them separately.
Amatoxins
Amatoxins are a subgroup of at least eight toxic compounds found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms, most notably Amanita phalloides and several other members of the genus Amanita, as well as some Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species.

# Structure
The compounds have a similar structure, that of eight amino-acid rings; they were isolated in 1941 by Heinrich O. Wieland and Rudolf Hallermayer of the University of Munich. All amatoxins are oligopeptides synthesized as proproteins 34 or 35 amino acids long and then cleaved by a prolyl oligopeptidase
There are currently ten known amatoxins:
-Amanitin has been reported, but its chemical structure has not been determined.

# Function
Their major toxic mechanism is the inhibition of RNA polymerase II, a vital enzyme in the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA, and small nuclear RNA (snRNA). Without mRNA, essential protein synthesis, and hence cell metabolism, grind to a halt and the cell dies. The liver is the principal organ affected, as it is the organ which is first encountered after absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, though other organs, especially the kidneys, are susceptible. The RNA polymerase of Amanita phalloides is insensitive to the effects of amatoxins; as such, the mushroom does not poison itself.
Their swift intestinal absorption coupled with their thermostability explains why their toxic effects occur in a relatively short period of time. The most severe effects are toxic hepatitis with centrolobular necrosis and hepatic steatosis, as well as acute tubulointerstitial nephropathy, which altogether induce a severe hepatorenal syndrome (with a potentially fatal outcome).
The estimated minimum lethal dose is 0.1 mg/kg or 7 mg of toxin in adults.

# Detection
Presence of amatoxins in mushroom samples may be detected by the Meixner Test (also known as the Wieland Test).
Ames Test
The Ames test is a biological assay to assess the mutagenic potential of chemical compounds. As cancer is often linked to DNA damage, the test also serves as a quick assay to estimate the carcinogenic potential of a compound since the standard tests for carcinogenicity done on rodents take years to complete and are expensive to do. The procedure is described in a series of papers from the early 1970s by Bruce Ames and his group at the University of California, Berkeley.

# General procedure
The test uses several strains of the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium that carry mutations in genes involved in histidine synthesis, so that they require histidine for growth. The variable being tested is the mutagen's ability to cause a reversion to growth on a histidine-free medium. The tester strains are specially constructed to have both frameshift and point mutations in the genes required to synthesize histidine, which allows for the detection of mutagens acting via different mechanisms. Some compounds are quite specific, causing reversions in just one or two strains.  The tester strains also carry mutations in the genes responsible for lipopolysaccharide synthesis, making the cell wall of the bacteria more permeable,  and in the excision repair system to make the test more sensitive.  Rat liver extract is added to simulate the effect of metabolism, as some compounds, like benzopyrene, are not mutagenic themselves but their metabolic products are.
The bacteria are spread on an agar plate with a small amount of histidine. This small amount of histidine in the growth medium allows the bacteria to grow for an initial time and have the opportunity to mutate.
When the histidine is depleted only bacteria that have mutated to gain the ability to produce its own histidine will survive. The plate is incubated for 48 hours. The mutagenicity of a substance is proportional to the number of colonies observed.

# Problems
As Salmonella is a prokaryote, it is not a perfect model for humans. An adapted in vitro model has been made for eukaryotic cells, for example yeast structure.
Amlexanox

# Overview
Amlexanox (trade name Aphthasol) is an anti-inflammatory antiallergic immunomodulator used to treat recurrent aphthous ulcers (canker sores), and (in Japan) several inflammatory conditions. This drug has been discontinued in the U.S.

# Medical uses
Amlexanox is the active ingredient in a common topical treatment for recurrent aphthous ulcers of the mouth (canker sores), reducing both healing time and pain.  Amlexanox 5% paste is well-tolerated, and is typically applied four times per day directly on the ulcers.  A 2011 review found it to be the most effective treatment of the eight treatments investigated for recurrent canker sores.  It is also used to treat ulcers associated with Behcet disease.
In Japan, it is used to treat bronchial asthma, allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis.

# Contraindications
The drug is contraindicated in those with known allergies to it.

# Adverse effects
Amlexanox may cause a slightly painful stinging or burning sensation, nausea or diarrhea.

# Mechanism of action
The drug is an anti-inflammatory, antiallergic immunomodulator.
Its mechanism of action is not well-determined, but it might inhibit inflammation by inhibiting the release of histamine and leukotrienes. It has been shown to selectively inhibt TBK1 and IKK-, producing reversible weight loss and improved insulin sensitivity, reduced inflammation and attenuated hepatic steatosis without affecting food intake in obese mice.

# Physical and chemical properties
The chemical itself is an odorless, white to yellowish-white powder.
The 5% preparation for patient use is an adherent beige paste, and it is also available in some countries as a tablet that adheres to the ulcer in the mouth.

# Pharmacokinetics
Amlexanox applied to an aphthous ulcer is largely absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract; an insignificant amount enters the bloodstream through the ulcer itself.  After a single 100 mg dose, mean maximum serum concentration occurs 2.4 +/- 0.9 hours after application, with a half-life of elimination (through urine) of 3.5 +/- 1.1 hours.  With multiple daily applications (four doses per day), steady state serum levels occur after one week, with no accumulation occurring after four weeks.

# History
The patent for its use as a treatment for aphthous ulcers was issued in November 1994 to inventors Kakubhai R. Vora, Atul Khandwala and Charles G. Smith, and assigned to Chemex Pharmaceuticals, Inc.

# Society and culture

## Legal status
A prescription is required to obtain the medication.

## Economics
A 2011 review found a one week supply of amlexanox 5% paste to cost $30.

# Research
A review found that, as of  July 2011, robust studies investigating its effectiveness alongside other canker sore treatments were still needed.
Because it is an inhibitor of the protein kinases TBK1 and IKK-, which are implicated in the etiology of type II diabetes and obesity, amlexanox may be a candidate for human clinical trials testing in relation to these diseases.

# Synthesis
Penectomy
Penectomy is the surgical removal of the penis for medical reasons.
Cancer, for example, sometimes necessitates removal of all or part of the penis. In  very rare instances, botched circumcisions have also resulted in full or partial penectomies.
Genital surgical procedures for transsexual women undergoing sex reassignment surgery do not usually involve the complete removal of the penis.  Instead, part or all of the glans is usually kept and reshaped as a clitoris, while the skin of the penile shaft may also be inverted to form the vagina. When procedures such as this are not possible, other procedures such as colovaginoplasty are used which may involve the removal of the penis.
Issues related to the removal of the penis appear in psychology, for example in the condition known as castration anxiety.  Others, who associate the organ with rape, male dominance and aggression, may consciously or unconsciously see the organ (their own or those of others) as a weapon and express a hatred for it, potentially desiring to see it violently removed.
Some men have undergone penectomies as a voluntary body modification, but professional opinion is divided as to whether or not the desire for penile amputation is a pathology, thus including it as part of a body dysmorphic disorder. Voluntary subincision, removal of the glans penis, and bifurcation of the penis are related topics.
Amrubicin

# Overview
Amrubicin (INN; previously known as SM-5887) is an anthracycline used in the treatment of lung cancer. It is marketed in Japan since 2002 by Sumitomo Pharmaceuticals under the brand name Calsed.
Amrubicin acts by inhibiting topoisomerase II, and has been compared in clinical trials with topotecan, a Topoisomerase I inhibitor. 
It has also been studied for the treatment of bladder carcinoma and gastric cancer.
Amy Bloom
Amy Bloom (b. 1953) is an American writer. She has been nominated for the National Book Award and the National Book Critics Circle Award. In addition to novels, Bloom has written articles in periodicals including The New Yorker, The New York Times Magazine, The Atlantic Monthly,  Vogue,  Slate, and Salon.com..  Her short fiction has appeared in The Best American Short Stories, The  O. Henry Prize Stories and several other anthologies and has won a National Magazine Award..
Trained as a social worker, Bloom has practiced psychotherapy and is currently a part-time lecturer of Creative Writing at the department of English at Yale University.. Although not a psychologist, her involvement with psychotherapy played a role in writing the Lifetime Television network TV show,  State of Mind, which takes a look at the professional lives of psychiatrists. Bloom is listed as one of the writers for the series and a co-executive producer . Bloom received her B.A. from Wesleyan University, and a M.S.W. (Masters of Social Work) from Smith College.
Bloom is divorced and has two daughters and a son. She resides in Connecticut.

# Bibliography

## Fiction
- Come to Me: Stories (1993) (short stories)
- Love Invents Us (1997) (novel)
- A Blind Man Can See How Much I Love You: Stories (2000) (short stories)
- Away (2007) (novel)

## Non-fiction
- Normal: Transsexual CEOs, Cross-dressing Cops, and Hermaphrodites with Attitude (2002) (Psychology)

## Screenplays, teleplays and television shows
- State of Mind (2007)