Germanic languages
The Germanic languages are a group of related languages constituting a branch of the Indo-European (IE) language family. The common ancestor of all languages comprising this branch is Proto-Germanic, spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change known as Grimm's law. Early Germanic varieties enter history with the  Germanic peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the Roman Empire from the second century.
The most-spoken Germanic languages are English and German, with approximately 400 and 100 million native speakers respectively.  The group includes other major languages, such as Dutch with 23 million and Afrikaans with over 16 million speakers; and the North Germanic languages including Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese with a combined total of about 20 million speakers.  The SIL Ethnologue lists 53 different Germanic languages.

# Characteristics
Germanic languages possess several unique features, such as the following:
- The leveling of the Indo-European (IE) tense and aspect system into the present tense and past tense (also called preterite)
- A large class of verbs that use a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of vowel alternation (Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense; these are called the Germanic weak verbs; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the Germanic strong verbs
- The use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase; (modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative)
- The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law; (the consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the High German consonant shift)
- A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages, See Germanic substrate hypothesis
- The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word, (though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them)
Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such as German, Dutch, and Icelandic have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans have moved toward a largely analytic type.
Another characteristic of Germanic languages is the verb second or V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English (which nevertheless appears to have had V2 earlier in its history), but has largely replaced the structure with an overall Subject Verb Object syntax.

# Writing
The earliest evidence of Germanic languages comes from names recorded in the first century by Tacitus (especially from his work Germania), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the second century BC on the Negau helmet.
From roughly the second century AD, certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the Elder Futhark, an early form of the Runic alphabet. Early runic inscriptions also are largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the fourth century. Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in addition to their native Germanic varieties began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters. However, throughout the Viking Age, Runic alphabets remained in common use in Scandinavia.
In addition to the standard Latin alphabet, many Germanic languages use a variety of accent marks and extra letters, including umlauts, the  (Eszett), IJ, , , A, A, O, , ], and the runes  and ]. Historical printed German is frequently set in blackletter typefaces (e.g. fraktur or schwabacher).

# History
All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical Proto-Germanic, united by their having been subjected to the sound shifts of Grimm's law and Verner's law. These probably took place during the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe from ca. 500 BC, but other common innovations separating Germanic from Proto-Indo European suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the Nordic Bronze Age.
From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic varieties are divided into three groups,  West, East, and North Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration period, so that some individual varieties are difficult to classify.
The sixth century Lombardic language, for instance, may constitute an originally, either North or East, Germanic variety that became assimilated to West Germanic as the Lombards settled at the Elbe. The Western group would have formed in the late Jastorf culture, the Eastern group may be derived from the first century variety of Gotland (see Old Gutnish), leaving southern Sweden as the original location of the Northern group. The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the fourth century Gothic translation of the New Testament by Ulfilas. Early testimonies of West Germanic are in Old High German (scattered words and sentences sixth century, coherent texts ninth century), Old English (coherent texts tenth century). North Germanic is only attested in scattered runic inscriptions, as Proto-Norse, until it evolves into Old Norse by about 800.
Longer runic inscriptions survive from the eighth and ninth centuries (Eggjum stone, Rok stone), longer texts in the Latin alphabet survive from the twelfth century (Islendingabok), and some skaldic poetry held to date back to as early as the ninth century.
By about the tenth century, the varieties had diverged enough to make inter-comprehensibility difficult. The linguistic contact of the Viking settlers of the Danelaw with the Anglo-Saxons left traces in the English language and, is suspected to have facilitated the collapse of Old English grammar that resulted in Middle English from the twelfth century.
The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration period. The Burgundians, Goths, and Vandals became linguistically assimilated to their respective neighbors by about the seventh century, with only Crimean Gothic lingering on until the eighteenth century.
During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand and, by the High German consonant shift on the continent on the other, resulting in Upper German and Low Saxon, with graded intermediate Central German varieties. By Early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from Highest Alemannic in the South to Northern Low Saxon in the North and, although both extremes are considered German, they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties have completed the second sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant shift.
The North Germanic languages, on the other hand, remained more unified, with the peninsular languages largely retaining mutual intelligibility into modern times.

# Classification
Note that divisions between and among subfamilies of Germanic rarely are precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent varieties being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.

## Diachronic
General Note: The table shows the succession of the significant historical stages of each language (vertically), and their approximate groupings in subfamilies (horizontally). Horizontal sequence within each group does not imply a measure of greater or lesser similarity.

## Contemporary
Mentioned here are all the principal and some secondary contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below, may contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.
- Proto-Germanic
West Germanic languages
High German languages
standard German
Central German
East Central German
West Central German
Luxembourgish
Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
Upper German
Alemannic German
Swabian German, including Stuttgart
Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
Alsatian
High Alemannic German, including Zurich German and Bernese German
Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
Austro-Bavarian German
North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
Low Franconian
Standard Dutch
Old Dutch
Middle Dutch
Modern Dutch
Brabantic
Zealandic
West Flemish
East Flemish
Hollandic
Limburgish
Zuid-Gelders
Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
Low German
West Low German
Northern Low Saxon
East Frisian Low Saxon
Westphalian language
Eastphalian language
East Low German
Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
Anglo-Frisian
Old Frisian
Frisian
Stadsfries language
West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
Wood Frisian (Waldfrysk)
Noardhoeks
South Frisian (Sudhoeks)
Southwest Frisian (Sudwesthoeksk)
Schiermonnikoogs
Hindeloopers
Aasters
Westers
East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Saterland Frisian language
Several extinct Frisian variants
North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Mainland Frisian
Mooring
Goesharde Frisian
Wiedingharde Frisian
Halligen Frisian
Karrharde Frisian
Island Frisian
Sol'ring
Fering
Oomrang
Heligolandic
Anglic
Old English
Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
Early Modern English
Modern English
British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
North American English (American English and Canadian English)
Australian English and New Zealand English
South African English
South Asian English (Indian English)
South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
West Indian English (Caribbean English)
Early Scots (from early Northern Middle English.)
Middle Scots
Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Yola
North Germanic
Proto-Norse
Old Norse
West Scandinavian
Norwegian (genealogically Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
Bokmal (official written standard)
Hgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
Landsmal (unofficial written standard)
Nynorsk (official written standard)
Riksmal (unofficial written standard)
Vestlandsk
Srlandsk
South-West Norwegian
Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
North-West Norwegian
Nord-Norsk
Helgeland Norwegian
Nordland Norwegian
Troms Norwegian
Finnmark Norwegian
East Norwegian
Vikvr Norwegian
Middle East Norwegian
Oppland Norwegian
sterdal Norwegian
Midland Norwegian
Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
Valdres and Hallingdal
Western Telemark Norwegian
Eastern Telemark Norwegian
Trndelag Norwegian
Outer Trndelag Norwegian
Inner Trndelag Norwegian
Namdal Norwegian
South-eastern Trndersk
Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
Hardalic (also considered Norrlandic)
Icelandic
Old Icelandic
Modern Icelandic
Gtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
Faroese
Norn (extinct)
Shetland Norn (extinct)
Orkney Norn (extinct)
East Scandinavian
Danish
Rigsdansk/Rigsmal
Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skane, Halland, Blekinge)
Bornholmsk
Scanian
Island Danish
Jutlandic/Jutish
North Jutlandic
East Jutlandic
West Jutlandic
Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
Swedish
Dalecarlian
Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamal dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
Old Swedish
Modern Swedish
Svealand Swedish
Norrlandic
Gotish
East Swedish/Finland Swedish
South Swedish
Gotalandic
Old Gutnish
Modern Gutnish
- West Germanic languages
High German languages
standard German
Central German
East Central German
West Central German
Luxembourgish
Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
Upper German
Alemannic German
Swabian German, including Stuttgart
Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
Alsatian
High Alemannic German, including Zurich German and Bernese German
Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
Austro-Bavarian German
North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
Low Franconian
Standard Dutch
Old Dutch
Middle Dutch
Modern Dutch
Brabantic
Zealandic
West Flemish
East Flemish
Hollandic
Limburgish
Zuid-Gelders
Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
Low German
West Low German
Northern Low Saxon
East Frisian Low Saxon
Westphalian language
Eastphalian language
East Low German
Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
Anglo-Frisian
Old Frisian
Frisian
Stadsfries language
West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
Wood Frisian (Waldfrysk)
Noardhoeks
South Frisian (Sudhoeks)
Southwest Frisian (Sudwesthoeksk)
Schiermonnikoogs
Hindeloopers
Aasters
Westers
East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Saterland Frisian language
Several extinct Frisian variants
North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Mainland Frisian
Mooring
Goesharde Frisian
Wiedingharde Frisian
Halligen Frisian
Karrharde Frisian
Island Frisian
Sol'ring
Fering
Oomrang
Heligolandic
Anglic
Old English
Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
Early Modern English
Modern English
British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
North American English (American English and Canadian English)
Australian English and New Zealand English
South African English
South Asian English (Indian English)
South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
West Indian English (Caribbean English)
Early Scots (from early Northern Middle English.)
Middle Scots
Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Yola
- High German languages
standard German
Central German
East Central German
West Central German
Luxembourgish
Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
Upper German
Alemannic German
Swabian German, including Stuttgart
Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
Alsatian
High Alemannic German, including Zurich German and Bernese German
Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
Austro-Bavarian German
North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
- standard German
- Central German
East Central German
West Central German
Luxembourgish
Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
- East Central German
- West Central German
Luxembourgish
Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
- Luxembourgish
- Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
- Upper German
Alemannic German
Swabian German, including Stuttgart
Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
Alsatian
High Alemannic German, including Zurich German and Bernese German
Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
Austro-Bavarian German
North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
- Alemannic German
Swabian German, including Stuttgart
Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
Alsatian
High Alemannic German, including Zurich German and Bernese German
Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
- Swabian German, including Stuttgart
- Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
Alsatian
- Alsatian
- High Alemannic German, including Zurich German and Bernese German
- Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
- Austro-Bavarian German
North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
- North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
- Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
- South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
- Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
- Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
- Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
- Low Franconian
Standard Dutch
Old Dutch
Middle Dutch
Modern Dutch
Brabantic
Zealandic
West Flemish
East Flemish
Hollandic
Limburgish
Zuid-Gelders
Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
- Standard Dutch
Old Dutch
Middle Dutch
Modern Dutch
Brabantic
Zealandic
West Flemish
East Flemish
Hollandic
Limburgish
Zuid-Gelders
- Old Dutch
Middle Dutch
Modern Dutch
Brabantic
Zealandic
West Flemish
East Flemish
Hollandic
Limburgish
Zuid-Gelders
- Middle Dutch
Modern Dutch
Brabantic
Zealandic
West Flemish
East Flemish
Hollandic
Limburgish
Zuid-Gelders
- Modern Dutch
Brabantic
Zealandic
West Flemish
East Flemish
Hollandic
Limburgish
Zuid-Gelders
- Brabantic
- Zealandic
- West Flemish
- East Flemish
- Hollandic
- Limburgish
- Zuid-Gelders
- Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
- Low German
West Low German
Northern Low Saxon
East Frisian Low Saxon
Westphalian language
Eastphalian language
East Low German
Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
- West Low German
Northern Low Saxon
East Frisian Low Saxon
Westphalian language
Eastphalian language
- Northern Low Saxon
East Frisian Low Saxon
- East Frisian Low Saxon
- Westphalian language
- Eastphalian language
- East Low German
Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
- Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
- Anglo-Frisian
Old Frisian
Frisian
Stadsfries language
West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
Wood Frisian (Waldfrysk)
Noardhoeks
South Frisian (Sudhoeks)
Southwest Frisian (Sudwesthoeksk)
Schiermonnikoogs
Hindeloopers
Aasters
Westers
East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Saterland Frisian language
Several extinct Frisian variants
North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Mainland Frisian
Mooring
Goesharde Frisian
Wiedingharde Frisian
Halligen Frisian
Karrharde Frisian
Island Frisian
Sol'ring
Fering
Oomrang
Heligolandic
Anglic
Old English
Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
Early Modern English
Modern English
British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
North American English (American English and Canadian English)
Australian English and New Zealand English
South African English
South Asian English (Indian English)
South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
West Indian English (Caribbean English)
Early Scots (from early Northern Middle English.)
Middle Scots
Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Yola
- Old Frisian
Frisian
Stadsfries language
West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
Wood Frisian (Waldfrysk)
Noardhoeks
South Frisian (Sudhoeks)
Southwest Frisian (Sudwesthoeksk)
Schiermonnikoogs
Hindeloopers
Aasters
Westers
East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Saterland Frisian language
Several extinct Frisian variants
North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Mainland Frisian
Mooring
Goesharde Frisian
Wiedingharde Frisian
Halligen Frisian
Karrharde Frisian
Island Frisian
Sol'ring
Fering
Oomrang
Heligolandic
- Frisian
Stadsfries language
West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
Wood Frisian (Waldfrysk)
Noardhoeks
South Frisian (Sudhoeks)
Southwest Frisian (Sudwesthoeksk)
Schiermonnikoogs
Hindeloopers
Aasters
Westers
East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Saterland Frisian language
Several extinct Frisian variants
North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Mainland Frisian
Mooring
Goesharde Frisian
Wiedingharde Frisian
Halligen Frisian
Karrharde Frisian
Island Frisian
Sol'ring
Fering
Oomrang
Heligolandic
- Stadsfries language
- West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
Wood Frisian (Waldfrysk)
Noardhoeks
South Frisian (Sudhoeks)
Southwest Frisian (Sudwesthoeksk)
Schiermonnikoogs
Hindeloopers
Aasters
Westers
- Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
- Wood Frisian (Waldfrysk)
Noardhoeks
- Noardhoeks
- South Frisian (Sudhoeks)
- Southwest Frisian (Sudwesthoeksk)
- Schiermonnikoogs
- Hindeloopers
- Aasters
- Westers
- East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Saterland Frisian language
Several extinct Frisian variants
- Saterland Frisian language
- Several extinct Frisian variants
- North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
Mainland Frisian
Mooring
Goesharde Frisian
Wiedingharde Frisian
Halligen Frisian
Karrharde Frisian
Island Frisian
Sol'ring
Fering
Oomrang
Heligolandic
- Mainland Frisian
Mooring
Goesharde Frisian
Wiedingharde Frisian
Halligen Frisian
Karrharde Frisian
- Mooring
- Goesharde Frisian
- Wiedingharde Frisian
- Halligen Frisian
- Karrharde Frisian
- Island Frisian
Sol'ring
Fering
Oomrang
Heligolandic
- Sol'ring
- Fering
- Oomrang
- Heligolandic
- Anglic
Old English
Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
Early Modern English
Modern English
British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
North American English (American English and Canadian English)
Australian English and New Zealand English
South African English
South Asian English (Indian English)
South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
West Indian English (Caribbean English)
Early Scots (from early Northern Middle English.)
Middle Scots
Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Yola
- Old English
Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
Early Modern English
Modern English
British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
North American English (American English and Canadian English)
Australian English and New Zealand English
South African English
South Asian English (Indian English)
South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
West Indian English (Caribbean English)
Early Scots (from early Northern Middle English.)
Middle Scots
Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Yola
- Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
Early Modern English
Modern English
British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
North American English (American English and Canadian English)
Australian English and New Zealand English
South African English
South Asian English (Indian English)
South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
West Indian English (Caribbean English)
Early Scots (from early Northern Middle English.)
Middle Scots
Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
- Early Modern English
Modern English
British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
North American English (American English and Canadian English)
Australian English and New Zealand English
South African English
South Asian English (Indian English)
South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
West Indian English (Caribbean English)
- Modern English
British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
North American English (American English and Canadian English)
Australian English and New Zealand English
South African English
South Asian English (Indian English)
South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
West Indian English (Caribbean English)
- British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English, Welsh English, Scottish English, and others) and Irish English
- North American English (American English and Canadian English)
- Australian English and New Zealand English
- South African English
- South Asian English (Indian English)
- South East Asian English (Philippine English, Singapore English, and Malaysian English)
- West Indian English (Caribbean English)
- Early Scots (from early Northern Middle English.)
Middle Scots
Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
- Middle Scots
Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
- Modern Scots
Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
Ulster Scots
Southern Scots
Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
- Northern Scots
North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
South Northern
- North Northern (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
- Mid Northern (North East Scots or Doric)
- South Northern
- Central Scots
North East Central
South East Central
West Central
South West Central Scots
- North East Central
- South East Central
- West Central
- South West Central Scots
- Ulster Scots
- Southern Scots
- Insular Scots (Scandinavian influence via Norn)
- Yola
- North Germanic
Proto-Norse
Old Norse
West Scandinavian
Norwegian (genealogically Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
Bokmal (official written standard)
Hgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
Landsmal (unofficial written standard)
Nynorsk (official written standard)
Riksmal (unofficial written standard)
Vestlandsk
Srlandsk
South-West Norwegian
Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
North-West Norwegian
Nord-Norsk
Helgeland Norwegian
Nordland Norwegian
Troms Norwegian
Finnmark Norwegian
East Norwegian
Vikvr Norwegian
Middle East Norwegian
Oppland Norwegian
sterdal Norwegian
Midland Norwegian
Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
Valdres and Hallingdal
Western Telemark Norwegian
Eastern Telemark Norwegian
Trndelag Norwegian
Outer Trndelag Norwegian
Inner Trndelag Norwegian
Namdal Norwegian
South-eastern Trndersk
Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
Hardalic (also considered Norrlandic)
Icelandic
Old Icelandic
Modern Icelandic
Gtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
Faroese
Norn (extinct)
Shetland Norn (extinct)
Orkney Norn (extinct)
East Scandinavian
Danish
Rigsdansk/Rigsmal
Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skane, Halland, Blekinge)
Bornholmsk
Scanian
Island Danish
Jutlandic/Jutish
North Jutlandic
East Jutlandic
West Jutlandic
Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
Swedish
Dalecarlian
Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamal dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
Old Swedish
Modern Swedish
Svealand Swedish
Norrlandic
Gotish
East Swedish/Finland Swedish
South Swedish
Gotalandic
Old Gutnish
Modern Gutnish
- Proto-Norse
Old Norse
West Scandinavian
Norwegian (genealogically Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
Bokmal (official written standard)
Hgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
Landsmal (unofficial written standard)
Nynorsk (official written standard)
Riksmal (unofficial written standard)
Vestlandsk
Srlandsk
South-West Norwegian
Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
North-West Norwegian
Nord-Norsk
Helgeland Norwegian
Nordland Norwegian
Troms Norwegian
Finnmark Norwegian
East Norwegian
Vikvr Norwegian
Middle East Norwegian
Oppland Norwegian
sterdal Norwegian
Midland Norwegian
Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
Valdres and Hallingdal
Western Telemark Norwegian
Eastern Telemark Norwegian
Trndelag Norwegian
Outer Trndelag Norwegian
Inner Trndelag Norwegian
Namdal Norwegian
South-eastern Trndersk
Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
Hardalic (also considered Norrlandic)
Icelandic
Old Icelandic
Modern Icelandic
Gtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
Faroese
Norn (extinct)
Shetland Norn (extinct)
Orkney Norn (extinct)
East Scandinavian
Danish
Rigsdansk/Rigsmal
Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skane, Halland, Blekinge)
Bornholmsk
Scanian
Island Danish
Jutlandic/Jutish
North Jutlandic
East Jutlandic
West Jutlandic
Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
Swedish
Dalecarlian
Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamal dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
Old Swedish
Modern Swedish
Svealand Swedish
Norrlandic
Gotish
East Swedish/Finland Swedish
South Swedish
Gotalandic
Old Gutnish
Modern Gutnish
- Old Norse
West Scandinavian
Norwegian (genealogically Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
Bokmal (official written standard)
Hgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
Landsmal (unofficial written standard)
Nynorsk (official written standard)
Riksmal (unofficial written standard)
Vestlandsk
Srlandsk
South-West Norwegian
Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
North-West Norwegian
Nord-Norsk
Helgeland Norwegian
Nordland Norwegian
Troms Norwegian
Finnmark Norwegian
East Norwegian
Vikvr Norwegian
Middle East Norwegian
Oppland Norwegian
sterdal Norwegian
Midland Norwegian
Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
Valdres and Hallingdal
Western Telemark Norwegian
Eastern Telemark Norwegian
Trndelag Norwegian
Outer Trndelag Norwegian
Inner Trndelag Norwegian
Namdal Norwegian
South-eastern Trndersk
Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
Hardalic (also considered Norrlandic)
Icelandic
Old Icelandic
Modern Icelandic
Gtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
Faroese
Norn (extinct)
Shetland Norn (extinct)
Orkney Norn (extinct)
East Scandinavian
Danish
Rigsdansk/Rigsmal
Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skane, Halland, Blekinge)
Bornholmsk
Scanian
Island Danish
Jutlandic/Jutish
North Jutlandic
East Jutlandic
West Jutlandic
Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
Swedish
Dalecarlian
Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamal dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
Old Swedish
Modern Swedish
Svealand Swedish
Norrlandic
Gotish
East Swedish/Finland Swedish
South Swedish
Gotalandic
Old Gutnish
Modern Gutnish
- West Scandinavian
Norwegian (genealogically Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
Bokmal (official written standard)
Hgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
Landsmal (unofficial written standard)
Nynorsk (official written standard)
Riksmal (unofficial written standard)
Vestlandsk
Srlandsk
South-West Norwegian
Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
North-West Norwegian
Nord-Norsk
Helgeland Norwegian
Nordland Norwegian
Troms Norwegian
Finnmark Norwegian
East Norwegian
Vikvr Norwegian
Middle East Norwegian
Oppland Norwegian
sterdal Norwegian
Midland Norwegian
Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
Valdres and Hallingdal
Western Telemark Norwegian
Eastern Telemark Norwegian
Trndelag Norwegian
Outer Trndelag Norwegian
Inner Trndelag Norwegian
Namdal Norwegian
South-eastern Trndersk
Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
Hardalic (also considered Norrlandic)
Icelandic
Old Icelandic
Modern Icelandic
Gtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
Faroese
Norn (extinct)
Shetland Norn (extinct)
Orkney Norn (extinct)
- Norwegian (genealogically Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
Bokmal (official written standard)
Hgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
Landsmal (unofficial written standard)
Nynorsk (official written standard)
Riksmal (unofficial written standard)
Vestlandsk
Srlandsk
South-West Norwegian
Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
North-West Norwegian
Nord-Norsk
Helgeland Norwegian
Nordland Norwegian
Troms Norwegian
Finnmark Norwegian
East Norwegian
Vikvr Norwegian
Middle East Norwegian
Oppland Norwegian
sterdal Norwegian
Midland Norwegian
Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
Valdres and Hallingdal
Western Telemark Norwegian
Eastern Telemark Norwegian
Trndelag Norwegian
Outer Trndelag Norwegian
Inner Trndelag Norwegian
Namdal Norwegian
South-eastern Trndersk
Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
Hardalic (also considered Norrlandic)
- Bokmal (official written standard)
- Hgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
- Landsmal (unofficial written standard)
- Nynorsk (official written standard)
- Riksmal (unofficial written standard)
- Vestlandsk
Srlandsk
South-West Norwegian
Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
North-West Norwegian
- Srlandsk
- South-West Norwegian
- Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
- North-West Norwegian
- Nord-Norsk
Helgeland Norwegian
Nordland Norwegian
Troms Norwegian
Finnmark Norwegian
- Helgeland Norwegian
- Nordland Norwegian
- Troms Norwegian
- Finnmark Norwegian
- East Norwegian
Vikvr Norwegian
Middle East Norwegian
Oppland Norwegian
sterdal Norwegian
- Vikvr Norwegian
- Middle East Norwegian
- Oppland Norwegian
- sterdal Norwegian
- Midland Norwegian
Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
Valdres and Hallingdal
Western Telemark Norwegian
Eastern Telemark Norwegian
- Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
- Valdres and Hallingdal
- Western Telemark Norwegian
- Eastern Telemark Norwegian
- Trndelag Norwegian
Outer Trndelag Norwegian
Inner Trndelag Norwegian
Namdal Norwegian
South-eastern Trndersk
Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
Hardalic (also considered Norrlandic)
- Outer Trndelag Norwegian
- Inner Trndelag Norwegian
- Namdal Norwegian
- South-eastern Trndersk
- Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
- Hardalic (also considered Norrlandic)
- Icelandic
Old Icelandic
Modern Icelandic
- Old Icelandic
Modern Icelandic
- Modern Icelandic
- Gtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
- Faroese
- Norn (extinct)
Shetland Norn (extinct)
Orkney Norn (extinct)
- Shetland Norn (extinct)
- Orkney Norn (extinct)
- East Scandinavian
Danish
Rigsdansk/Rigsmal
Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skane, Halland, Blekinge)
Bornholmsk
Scanian
Island Danish
Jutlandic/Jutish
North Jutlandic
East Jutlandic
West Jutlandic
Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
Swedish
Dalecarlian
Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamal dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
Old Swedish
Modern Swedish
Svealand Swedish
Norrlandic
Gotish
East Swedish/Finland Swedish
South Swedish
Gotalandic
- Danish
Rigsdansk/Rigsmal
Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skane, Halland, Blekinge)
Bornholmsk
Scanian
Island Danish
Jutlandic/Jutish
North Jutlandic
East Jutlandic
West Jutlandic
Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
- Rigsdansk/Rigsmal
Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skane, Halland, Blekinge)
Bornholmsk
Scanian
Island Danish
Jutlandic/Jutish
North Jutlandic
East Jutlandic
West Jutlandic
Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
- Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skane, Halland, Blekinge)
Bornholmsk
Scanian
- Bornholmsk
- Scanian
- Island Danish
- Jutlandic/Jutish
North Jutlandic
East Jutlandic
West Jutlandic
Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
- North Jutlandic
- East Jutlandic
- West Jutlandic
- Snderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
- Swedish
Dalecarlian
Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamal dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
Old Swedish
Modern Swedish
Svealand Swedish
Norrlandic
Gotish
East Swedish/Finland Swedish
South Swedish
Gotalandic
- Dalecarlian
Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamal dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
- Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamal dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
- Old Swedish
Modern Swedish
Svealand Swedish
Norrlandic
Gotish
East Swedish/Finland Swedish
South Swedish
Gotalandic
- Modern Swedish
Svealand Swedish
Norrlandic
Gotish
East Swedish/Finland Swedish
South Swedish
Gotalandic
- Svealand Swedish
- Norrlandic
- Gotish
- East Swedish/Finland Swedish
- South Swedish
- Gotalandic
- Old Gutnish
Modern Gutnish
- Modern Gutnish
Alternate classification of contemporary North Germanic languages
- Insular Scandinavian
Icelandic
Faroese
- Icelandic
- Faroese
- Continental Scandinavian
Danish
Norwegian
Swedish
- Danish
- Norwegian
- Swedish

# Vocabulary comparison
Several of the terms in the table below have had semantic drift. For example, the form Sterben and other terms for die are cognates with the English word starve. There is also at least one example of a common borrowing from a non-Germanic source (ounce and its cognates from Latin).