Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Lytic cycle
The lytic cycle is one of the two cycles of viral reproduction, the other being the lysogenic cycle. These cycles should not, however, be seen as separate, but rather as somewhat interchangeable. The lytic cycle is typically considered the main method of viral replication, since it results in the destruction of the infected cell.

# Description
The lytic cycle is a three-stage process.

## Penetration
To infect a cell, a virus must first enter the cell through the plasma membrane and (if present) the cell wall.  Viruses do so by either attaching to a receptor on the cell's surface or by simple mechanical force.  The virus then releases its genetic material (either single- or double-stranded DNA or RNA) into the cell.

## Biosynthesis
The virus' nucleic acid uses the host cells machinery to make large amounts of viral components. In the case of DNA viruses, the DNA transcribes itself into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules that are then used to direct the cell's ribosomes. One of the first polypeptides to be translated is one that destroys the hosts' DNA. In retroviruses (which inject an RNA strand), a unique enzyme called reverse transcriptase transcribes the viral RNA into DNA, which is then transcribed again into mRNA.

## Maturation and lysis
After many copies of viral components are made, they are assembled into complete viruses. The phage then directs production of an enzyme that breaks down the bacteria cell wall and allows fluid to enter.  The cell eventually becomes filled with viruses (typically 100-200) and liquid, and bursts, or lyses; thus giving the lytic cycle its name. The new viruses are then free to infect other cells.

### Lytic cycle without lysis
Some viruses escape the host cell without bursting the cell membrane, but rather bud off from it by taking a portion of the membrane with them. Because it otherwise is characteristic of the lytic cycle in other steps, it still belongs to this category. Hepatitis C viruses presumably use this method.
de:Lytischer Zyklus
Levy flight
A Levy flight, named after the French mathematician Paul Pierre Levy, is a type of random walk in which the increments are distributed according to a "heavy-tailed" distribution.
A heavy-tailed distribution is a probability distribution which falls to zero as 1/|x|+1 where 0 <  < 2 and therefore has an infinite variance. According to the central limit theorem, if the distribution were to have a finite variance, then after a large number of steps, the distance from the origin of the random walk would tend to a normal distribution. In contrast, if the distribution is heavy-tailed, then after a large number of steps, the distance from the origin of the random walk will tend to a Levy distribution. Levy flight is part of a class of Markov processes.
Two-dimensional Levy flights were described by Benoit Mandelbrot in The Fractal Geometry of Nature.  The exponential scaling of the step lengths gives Levy flights a scale invariant property, and they are used to model data that exhibits clustering.
This method of simulation stems heavily from the mathematics related to chaos theory and is useful in stochastic measurement and simulations for random or pseudo-random natural phenomena. Examples include earthquake data analysis, financial mathematics, cryptography, signals analysis as well as many applications in astronomy and biology.
MAFA (gene)
Transcription factor MafA is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MAFA gene. It is a member of the Maf family of transcription factors.

# MAFA assists in insulin regulation
An in vivo study on mice proved MafA binds to the promoter in an insulin gene to regulate insulin transcription in response to serum glucose levels. MafA is a   cell-specific activator, which differentiates it from other transcription factors involved with insulin gene expression. It helps regulate the  cells involved with insulin secretion primarily by maintaining  cell metabolism. The amount of MafA in the  cells is regulated by levels of glucose and oxidative stress.

# Interactions
MafA (gene) has been shown to interact with NEUROD1 and Pdx1. MafA works with Pdx1 to activate the insulin gene.
MAFB (gene)
Transcription factor MafB also known as V-maf musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma oncogene homolog B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MAFB gene. This gene maps to chromosome 20q11.2-q13.1, consists of a single exon and spans around 3 kb.

# Function
MafB is a basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factor that plays an important role in the regulation of lineage-specific hematopoiesis. The encoded nuclear protein represses ETS1-mediated transcription of erythroid-specific genes in myeloid cells.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in the murine Mafb gene are responsible for the mutant mouse Kreisler (kr) that presents an abnormal segmentation of the hindbrain and exhibit hyperactive behavior, including head tossing and running in circles. This mice dies at birth due to renal failure whereas the Mafb -/- mice dies of central apnea.
Recently, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) near MAFB have been found associated with  nonsyndromic cleft lip and palate.  The GENEVA Cleft Consortium study,  a genomewide association study involving 1,908 case-parent trios from Europe, the United States, China, Taiwan, Singapore, Korea, and the Philippines, first identified MAFB as being associated with cleft lip and/or palate with stronger genome-wide significance in Asian than European populations. The difference in populations could reflect variable coverage by available markers or true allelic heterogeneity.  In mouse models, Mafb mRNA and protein were detected in both craniofacial ectoderm and neural crest-derived mesoderm between embryonic days 13.5 and 14.5; expression was strong in the epithelium around the palatal shelves and in the medial edge epithelium during palatal fusion. After fusion, Mafb expression was stronger in oral epithelium compared to mesenchymal tissue. In addition, sequencing analysis detected a new missense mutation in the Filipino population, H131Q, that was significantly more frequent in cases than in matched controls. The gene-poor regions either side of the MAFB gene include numerous binding sites for transcription factors that are known to have a role in palate development.
MAFF (gene)
Transcription factor MafF is a bZip Maf transcription factor protein that in humans is encoded by the MAFF gene.
MafF is one of the small Maf proteins, which are basic region and basic leucine zipper (bZIP)-type transcription factors. The HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee-approved gene name of MAFF is v-maf avian musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma oncogene homolog F.

# Discovery
MafF was first cloned and identified in chicken in 1993 as a member of the small Maf (sMaf) genes. MAFF has been identified in many vertebrates, including humans. There are three functionally redundant sMaf proteins in vertebrates, MafF, MafG, and MafK.

# Structure
MafF has a bZIP structure that consists of a basic region for DNA binding and a leucine zipper structure for dimer formation. Similar to other sMafs, MafF lacks any canonical transcriptional activation domains.

# Expression
MAFF is broadly but differentially expressed in various tissues. MAFF expression was detected in all 16 tissues examined by the human BodyMap Project, but relatively abundant in adipose, colon, lung, prostate and skeletal muscle tissues. Human MAFF gene is induced by proinflammatory cytokines, interleukin 1 beta and tumor necrosis factor in myometrial cells.

# Function
Because of sequence similarity, no functional differences have been observed among the sMafs in terms of their bZIP structures.  sMafs form homodimers by themselves and heterodimers with other specific bZIP transcription factors, such as CNC (cap 'n' collar) proteins  and Bach proteins (BACH1 and BACH2).

# Target genes
sMafs regulate different target genes depending on their partners. For instance, the p45-NF-E2-sMaf heterodimer regulate genes responsible for platelet production. Nrf2-sMaf heterodimer regulates a battery of cytoprotective genes, such as antioxidant/xenobiotic metabolizing enzyme genes. The Bach1-sMaf heterodimer regulates the heme oxygenase-1 gene. In particular, it has been reported that MafF regulates the oxytocin receptor gene. The contribution of individual sMafs to the transcriptional regulation of their target genes has not yet been well examined.

# Disease linkage
Loss of sMafs results in disease-like phenotypes as summarized in table below. Mice lacking MafF are seemingly healthy under laboratory conditions. However, mice lacking MafG exhibit mild neuronal phenotype and mild thrombocytopenia, mice lacking Mafg and one allele of Mafk (Mafg/::Mafk+/) exhibit progressive neuronal degeneration, thrombocytopenia and cataract, and mice lacking MafG and MafK (Mafg/::Mafk/) exhibit more severe neuronal degeneration and die in the perinatal stage. Mice lacking MafF, MafG and MafK are embryonic lethal, demonstrating that MafF is indispensable for embryonic development. Embryonic fibroblasts that are derived from Maff/::Mafg-/::Mafk/ mice fail to activate Nrf2-dependent cytoprotective genes in response to stress.
In addition, accumulating evidence suggests that as partners of CNC and Bach proteins, sMafs are involved in the onset and progression of various human diseases, including neurodegeneration, arteriosclerosis and cancer.
MCAT (gene)
Malonyl CoA-acyl carrier protein transacylase, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MCAT gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is found exclusively in the mitochondrion, where it catalyzes the transfer of a malonyl group from malonyl-CoA to the mitochondrial acyl carrier protein. The encoded protein may be part of a fatty acid synthase complex that is more like the type II prokaryotic and plastid complexes rather than the type I human cytosolic complex. Two transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene.

# Clinical significance
The enzyme encoded by the MCAT gene, along with other enzymes that regulate Malonyl-CoA concentration, have been shown to regulate levels such that malonyl-CoA concentration decreases in human muscle tissue when under exercise training. This enzyme specifically has increased activity under these conditions, as it is known to catabolize malonyl-CoA.

# Interactions
The human Malonyl CoA-acel carrier protein transacylase in human mitochondria associates with respiratory complex one, such that it interacts functionally with a mitochondrial malonyltransferase. Both species are encoded by nuclear genes, and their translocation into mitochondria is dependent on the presence of an N-terminal targeting sequence.
MLIP (gene)
Muscular LMNA interacting protein (MLIP) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MLIP gene.

# Function
The function of MLIP is not known but it has been suggested that it may have a role in the growth of the heart and heart disease. There is some evidence that MLIP may be involved in maintaining cardiac homeostasis and in the initial reaction to changes in workload. However, a knockout mouse model had normal cardiac function and no structural abnormalities, showing that MLIP is not vital to these processes.

# Gene

## Aliases
Muscular LMNA interacting protein has a number of aliases including MLIP, C6orf142, CIP and  Muscle-enriched A-type Lamin-interacting Protein.

## Locus and size
MLIP is located on the short arm of chromosome 6 in humans with the exact locus of 6p12.1. The gene spans 53929982 to 54266280 on the + strand of chromosome 6. It has 19 exons and 13 splice variants ranging in size from 23 to 57 kDa.

## Orthologs and homologs
MLIP is found only in amniotes (reptiles, birds and mammals), where it is highly conserved. The mouse homologue is 2310046A06rik.

# Expression and interactions
MLIP is expressed throughout the body with higher levels found in the heart and muscle cells. It interacts with the nuclear envelope proteins lamin A/C, which is what led to its discovery. It also interacts with Islet1 transcription factor.
MSRA (gene)
Peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase (Msr) is a family of enzymes that in humans is encoded by the MSRA gene.

# Function
Msr is ubiquitous and highly conserved. Human and animal studies have shown the highest levels of expression in kidney and liver.  It carries out the enzymatic reduction of methionine sulfoxide (MetO), the oxidized form of the amino acid methionine (Met), back to methionine, using thioredoxin to catalyze the enzymatic reduction and repair of oxidized methionine residues. Its proposed function is thus the repair of oxidative damage to proteins to restore biological activity. Oxidation of methionine residues in tissue proteins can cause them to misfold or otherwise render them dysfunctional.

# Clinical significance
MetO increases with age in body tissues, which is believed by some to contribute to biological ageing. Moreover, levels of methionine sulfoxide reductase A (MsrA) decline in aging tissues in mice and in association with age-related disease in humans. There is thus a rationale for thinking that by maintaining the structureincreased levels or activity of MsrA might retard the rate of aging.
Indeed, transgenic Drosophila (fruit flies) that overexpress methionine sulfoxide reductase show extended lifespan. However, the effects of MsrA overexpression in mice were ambiguous. MsrA is found in both the cytosol and the energy-producing mitochondria, where most of the body's endogenous free radicals are produced. Transgenically increasing the levels of MsrA in either the cytosol or the mitochondria had no significant effect on lifespan assessed by most standard statistical tests, and may possibly have led to early deaths in the cytosol-specific mice, although the survival curves appeared to suggest a slight increase in maximum (90%) survivorship, as did analysis using Boschloo's Exact test, a binomial test designed to test greater extreme variation.
Deletion of this gene has been associated with insulin resistance in mice, while overexpression reduces insulin resistance in old mice.
Macromerine
Macromerine is a psychedelic, hallucinogenic and entheogenic of the phenethylamine family. It can be synthesized or extracted from the Donana (Coryphantha macromeris), C. macromeris v. runyonii, C. elephantidens, and other related members of the Cactaceae family. The plants may have been used by Tarahumara shamans for their entheogenic effects.

# Chemistry
Macromerine is in a family of chemicals called the phenethylamines, and it is a close analogue of mescaline. The full chemical name of macromerine is 1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-2-(dimethylamino)ethanol.

# Dosage
Macromerine is said to have "1/5th" the potency of mescaline, so a dosage could be 1250-2500 mg based on the dosage of mescaline sulfate.

# Effects
Little is known about the psychedelic effects of macromerine. K. Trout states that a bioassay of macromerine-containing cactus, Donana, "had been very mild and very strange, with many waves of intense nausea and extremely persistent after effects, such as distorted vision and a very weird feeling of unreality lasting for weeks after its use."
However, considering Donana is usually no more than 0.1 percent macromerine, several pounds of the dried cactus would be required to consume a psychedelic dosage of macromerine. What is more likely is that the combination of all alkaloids present in the cactus produce the effects of Donana.

# Legality
Macromerine is not illegal in any known part of the world, but possession and sales of macromerine could be prosecuted under the Federal Analog Act in the USA because of its structural similarities to mescaline.
Macroscopic
Macroscopic is commonly used to describe physical objects that are measurable and observable by the naked eye. When applied to phenomena and abstract objects, it describes existence in the world as we perceive it. Lengths scales generally considered macroscopic roughly fall in the range 1 mm1 km.
The term macroscopic may also refer to a "larger view", namely a view only available from a large perspective. A macroscopic position could be considered the "big picture".

# Examples
- A macroscopic view of a ball is just that: a ball. A microscopic view could reveal a thick round skin seemingly composed entirely of puckered cracks and fissures (as viewed through a microscope) or, further down in scale, a collection of molecules in the rough shape of a sphere.

# Macroscopy in physics
In physics, macroscopy can be a physical trait applied relative to what one is observing. If one looks at a galaxy, a star is a microscopic entity, even if it is many, many orders of magnitude larger than us.
Maculopathy
A maculopathy is any pathological condition of the macula, an area at the centre of the retina that is associated with highly sensitive, accurate vision.

# Examples Of Maculopathies
- Age-Related Macular Degeneration is a degenerative maculopathy associated with progressive sight loss. It is characterised by changes in pigmentation in the Retinal Pigment Epithelium, the appearance of drusen on the retina of the eye and choroidal neovascularization. AMD has two forms; 'dry' or atrophic/non-exudative AMD, and 'wet' or exudative/neovascular AMD.
- Malattia Leventinese (or Doynes honeycomb retinal dystrophy) is another maculopathy with a similar pathology to wet AMD.
- Cellophane Maculopathy A fine glistening membrane forms over the macula, obscuring the vision.

# Causes

## Drug Induced
- Mitotane
Mahshid Mir
Mahshid Mir, MD
phone number: +16178997155
Email: drmahshidmir@yahoo.com

# Current Position
Postdoctoral Research Fellow, PERFUSE Study Group, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

# Professional Background
Dr. Mahshid Mir is a MD physician graduated from Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehan, Iran. She received her M.D. from the Iranian Medical Council, after which she joined as a post-doctoral research fellow at PERFUSE Study Group at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston. She is now working as Associate Editor in Chief for the PERFUSE study group and different Internal Medicine subjects.

# Education
2014 - MD Degree, Iranian Medical Council, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science.

# Pages Authored
Malabathrum
Malabathrum, also known as Malobathrum or Malabar leaf, is the name used in classical and medieval texts for the leaf of the plant Cinnamomum tamala (sometimes given as Cinnamomum tejpata).  In ancient Greece and Rome, the leaves were used to prepare a fragrant oil, called Oleum Malabathri, and were therefore valuable.  The leaves are mentioned in the 1st century Greek text Periplus Maris Erytraei as one of the major exports of the Tamil kingdoms of southern India. The name is also used in mediaeval texts to describe the dried leaves of a number of trees of the genus Cinnamomum, which were thought to have medicinal properties.
The leaves, known as tejpat, tej pat, tejpatta, or tejpata or in Hindi and tamalpatra in Marathi, are used extensively in the cuisines of India (particularly in the Moghul cuisine of North India). They are often erroneously labeled as "Indian bay leaves," though the bay leaf is from the Bay Laurel, a tree of Mediterranean origin in a different genus, and the appearance and aroma of the two are quite different. Bay leaves are shorter and light to medium green in color, with one large vein down the length of the leaf;photo while tejpat are about twice as long and wider than laurel leaves. They are usually olive green in color, may have some brownish spots and have three veins down the length of the leaf.photo  True tejpat leaves impart a strong cassia- or cinnamon-like aroma to dishes, while the bay leaf's aroma is more reminiscent of pine and lemon.  Indian grocery stores usually carry true tejpat leaves. Some grocers may only offer Turkish bay leaves, in regions where true tejpat is unavailable.
The bark is also sometimes used for cooking, although it is regarded as inferior to true cinnamon or cassia.
"Malabar" is the name of a region on the west coast of southern India that forms the northern portion of the present-day state of Kerala. The word "Mala" or "Malaya" means "Mountain" in the Tamil and Malayalam languages, as also in Sanskrit. The word "Malabathrum" is also thought to have been derived from the Sanskrit tamalapattram (), literally meaning "dark-tree leaves."

# Related species
- Cassia
- Cinnamon
- Saigon cinnamon
Maleic acid

# Overview
Maleic acid (ionised maleate in biology) or (Z)-butenedioic acid or cis-butenedioic acid or malenic acid or maleinic acid or toxilic acid is an organic compound which is a dicarboxylic acid (molecule with two carboxyl groups). The molecule consists of an ethylene group flanked by two carboxylic acid groups. Maleic acid is the cis isomer of butenedioic acid, whereas fumaric acid is the trans isomer.  The cis isomer is the less stable one of the two; the difference in heat of combustion is 22.7 kJ/mol. The physical properties of maleic acid are very different from that of fumaric acid. Maleic acid is soluble in water whereas fumaric acid is not and the melting point of maleic acid (130 - 139 C) is also much lower than that of fumaric acid (287 C). Both properties of maleic acid can be explained on account of the intramolecular hydrogen bonding that takes place at the expense of intermolecular interactions.
Maleic acid should not be confused with malic acid or malonic acid, both of which are different types of dicarboxylic acids.

# Synthesis
In industry maleic acid is derived from maleic anhydride by hydrolysis. Maleic anhydride is produced from benzene or butane in an oxidation process.

# Reactions
Maleic acid and fumaric acid can normally not be interconverted because rotation around a carbon carbon double bond is not possible. In the laboratory conversion of the cis isomer into the trans isomer is possible by application of light and a small amount of bromine. Light converts elemental bromine into a bromine radical which attacks the alkene in a radical addition reaction to a bromo-alkane radical and now single bond rotation is possible.  The bromine radicals recombine and fumaric acid is formed.
In the classroom, maleic acid is transformed into Fumaric acid through the process of heating the maleic acid to a high temperature in a 12mol HCl solution. The heated molecule loses a water molecule and becomes an acid anhydride while in the heated solution. Once the heat is removed, the acid anhydride takes back the water molecule, but reforms as fumaric acid, the more stable isomer of butenedioic acid. This isomer is more stable because the carboxyl groups are no longer on the same side of the molecule, but are now on opposite sides, causing the molecule to become non-polar. That is why it comes out of the polar HCl solution, as a polar solvent will not dissolve a non-polar solute.
In industry fumaric acid is produced from maleic acid by catalytic isomerization with mineral acids, bromates or thiourea. The large difference in water solubility makes fumaric acid purification easy. Maleic acid is an industrial raw material for the production of glyoxylic acid by ozonolysis.
Maleic acid is converted into maleic anhydride by dehydration, to malic acid by hydration, and to succinic acid by hydrogenation. It reacts with thionyl chloride or phosphorus pentachloride to give the maleic acid chloride (it is not possible to isolate the mono acid chloride). Maleic acid is a reactant in many Diels-Alder reactions.

# Maleate ion
The maleate ion is the ionised form of maleic acid. It is of importance to biochemistry.
Mammoplasty

# Overview
Mammoplasty refers to a plastic surgery surgical procedure on the breast, to alter the shape or form of the breast.
Most commonly, it refers to procedures such as breast enlargement or augmentation mammoplasty ,
breast lift or mastopexy, and breast reduction or reduction mammoplasty procedures.  
Mammoplasty procedures can also be combined; for example, breast lift and augmentation can be performed in one or two stages to achieve both enhancement of breast size and a lifted and tighter breast form.