Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Mevalonate pathway

# Overview
The mevalonate pathway or HMG-CoA reductase  pathway or mevalonate-dependent (MAD) route, is an important cellular metabolic pathway present in all higher eukaryotes and many bacteria. It is important for the production of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), which serve as the basis for the biosynthesis of molecules used in processes as diverse as protein prenylation, cell membrane maintenance, hormones, protein anchoring, and N-glycosylation. It is also a part of steroid biosynthesis.

# Regulation and feedback
Several key enzymes can be activated through DNA transcriptional regulation on activation of SREBP (Sterol Regulatory Element-Binding Protein-1 and -2). This intracellular sensor detects low cholesterol levels and stimulates endogenous production by the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, as well as increasing lipoprotein uptake by up-regulating the LDL receptor. Regulation of this pathway is also achieved by controlling the rate of translation of the mRNA, degradation of reductase and phosphorylation.

# Pharmacology
A number of drugs target the mevalonate pathway:
- Statins (used for elevated cholesterol levels);
- Bisphosphonates (used in treatment of various bone-degenerative diseases)

# Alternative
Plants and apicomplexan protozoa such as malaria parasites have the ability to produce their isoprenoids (terpenoids) using an additional alternative pathway called the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) or non-mevalonate pathway, which takes place in their plastids. In addition, most eubacteria including important pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, synthesize IPP and DMAPP via the non-mevalonate pathway instead.

# Reactions
Choroidal effusion

# Overview
Choroidal effusions are an accumulation of fluid in the suprachoroidal space, between the choroid and sclera. They differ from retinal detachments in their clinical presentation and radiologic appearance.

# Pathophysiology

## Associated Conditions
- Choroidal effusions can be associated with:
- Ocular hypotony
Neoplasm
Inflammatory choroidal disorders
Carotid cavernous fistulas
- Ocular hypotony
- Neoplasm
- Inflammatory choroidal disorders
- Carotid cavernous fistulas
- Once choroidal effusions are detected, causes can be narrowed down by careful evaluation of the CT scans.
- Ocular hypotony is the determined cause when there is visualization of a small globe with a characteristic umbrella sign or scleral infolding.
Tumors can be identified by a focal mass.
Inflammatory processes are associated with fat stranding.
Enlarged superior ophthalmic veins and enlarged cavernous sinuses are associated with carotid cavernous fistulas.
- Ocular hypotony is the determined cause when there is visualization of a small globe with a characteristic umbrella sign or scleral infolding.
- Tumors can be identified by a focal mass.
- Inflammatory processes are associated with fat stranding.
- Enlarged superior ophthalmic veins and enlarged cavernous sinuses are associated with carotid cavernous fistulas.

# Diagnosis
The imaging findings are
- On cross-sectional images, choroidal detachments appear as semilunar elevations with the anterior margins at the ciliary bodies and the posterior extensions at the entry points of the vortex veins or posterior ciliary arteries.
- Retinal detachments appear as V-shaped elevations with the apex at the optic nerve, because the retina is a neural structure continuous with the optic nerve.
Patient #1: CT images demonstrate a left choroidal effusion
Chronic colestites

# Overview
Chronic colestites is a made-up term created by Guinness World Records to describe total insomnia. The term was first seen in the 1991 edition and was removed after the 2000 edition. It was used in the entry for sleep deprivation, which read:
The longest recorded period for which a person has voluntarily gone without sleep is 453 hours 40 minutes by Robert McDonald of California in a rocking chair on Mar 14 to Apr 2, 1986. Victims of the very rare condition chronic colestites (total insomnia) have been known to go without definable sleep for many years. Jesus de Frutos (b. 1925) of Segovia, Spain asserts that he has only dozed since 1954.
The term befuddled many who were doing reports on sleep deprivation. To this day it is not known how the term was created.

# Purported accounts of total insomnia
Vietnam man handles three decades without sleep
This is featured as a question in Trivial Pursuit
Ciona intestinalis
Ciona intestinalis or vase tunicate is a Urochordata (sea squirt) whose genome has been sequenced has become, over the past decade, a major experimental model for developmental biologists.
Ciona intestinalis is a solitary tunicate with a cylindrical, gelatinous body, up to 14 cm long. The soft, smooth, translucent tunic (outer skin) is pale yellow or green in colour with orange body parts visible through the translucent tunic. Incurrent and excurrent siphons are easily seen near the tip of the organism.
The body of Ciona is bag-like and covered by a tunic, which is a secretion of the epidermal cells. The body is attached at a permanent base located at the posterior part, and the opposite bears two openings, the Buccal and Atrial siphons. The water is drawn into the ascidian through the buccal(oral)siphon and leaves the atrium through the atrial siphon(cloacal).
It is considered to be an invasive species and grows in dense aggregations on any floating or submerged substrate, particularly artificial structures like pilings, aquaculture gear, floats and boat hulls, in the lower intertidal to sub-tidal zones. Often grows with or on other fouling organisms.
Ciona intestinalis is a hermaphroditic broadcast spawner but cannot self-fertilize. Eggs and sperm, when released, can stay in the water column for 1 to 2 days while the larvae are free-swimming for 2 to 10 days.
Ciona intestinalis is thought to be spread to new areas mainly through hull fouling. Since its larvae can live for up to 10 days this species may also be transferred through the release of bilge or ballast water.
To avoid spreading this organism fish and shellfish harvesters should avoid transferring harvested shellfish and fishing gear to other areas. Gear should be thoroughly dried before transfer. Boat hulls should be inspected and, if necessary, thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with bleach or vinegar and dried before moving to other areas. Any organisms removed from boat hulls or gear should be disposed of on land. Bilge water should be released on land or disinfected.

# Hox Genes
The draft genome analysis identified nine Hox genes, which are Ci-Hox1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, and 13. Ciona savignyi, the closest relative of Ciona intestinalis, also have the same set of Hox genes. The organization of Hox genes is only known for C. intestinalis among asicdians. The nine Hox genes are located on two chromosomes; Ci-Hox1 to 10 on one chromosome and Ci-Hox12 and 13 on another. The intergenic distances within the Ciona Hox genes are extraordinarily long. Seven Hox genes, Ci-Hox1 to 10, are distributed, spanning approximately half the length of the chromosome. From comparisons to the Hox gene expressions and locations in other species, it is likely that the ascidian genomes are under a dispersing condition.
Clark Leonard Hull
Clark Leonard Hull (1884 - 1952) was an influential American psychologist who sought to explain learning and motivation by scientific laws of behavior. Born in Akron, New York, Hull obtained bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Michigan, and in 1918 a PhD in from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he also taught from 1916 to 1929. His doctoral research on "Quantitative Aspects of the Evolution of Concepts" was published in Psychological Monographs.
Hull conducted research demonstrating that his theories could predict and control behavior. His most significant works were the Mathematico-Deductive Theory of Rote Learning (1940), and Principles of Behavior (1943), which established his analysis of animal learning and conditioning as the dominant learning theory of its time. Hull is known for his debates with Edward C. Tolman. He is also known for his work in Drive Theory. Hulls model is couched in evolutionary terms: Oranisms suffer deprivation.  Deprivation creates needs.  Needs activate drives.  Drives activate behaviour.  Behavoiur is goal directed.  Achieving the goal has survival value.
Hull's formula for determining motivation, is Ser = Shr - D - K
Ser = strength of habit/drive
sHr, is determined by the number of reinforces
Drive strength, D, is measured by the hours of deprivation of a need
K, is the incentive value of a stimulus,
In experimental psychology, he created the "hypothetic-deductive" systematic method, after the observation and elaboration of hypotheses. This method brought him precise definitions and conceptualised axioms which helped him develop his theories. He believed that behavior was a set of interactions between an individual and their environment. He analysed behavior from a perspect of biological adaptation, which is an optimization of living conditions through need reduction.
Hull is often credited with having begun the modern study of hypnosis. His work Hypnosis and Suggestibility (1933) was a rigorous study of the phenomenon, using statistical and experimental analysis. Hull's studies emphatically demonstrated once and for all that hypnosis had no connection with sleep ("hypnosis is not sleep, ... it has no special relationship to sleep, and the whole concept of sleep when applied to hypnosis obscures the situation"). The main result of Hull's study was to rein in the extravagant claims of hypnotists, especially regarding extraordinary improvements in cognition or the senses under hypnosis. Hull's experiments did show the reality of some classical phenomena such as hypnotic anaesthesia and post-hypnotic amnesia. Hypnosis could also induce moderate increases in certain physical capacities and change the threshold of sensory stimulation; attenuation effects could be especially dramatic. Hull is famous for his signature hypnotic induction in which he would look at someone straight in the eyes until they were induced.
Hull received the Warren Medal in 1945 from the Society of Experimental Psychology.
In 1929, he moved to Yale and stayed there until his death.  He died on May 10, 1952, in New Haven, Connecticut.
Clathrate compound

# Overview
A clathrate or clathrate compound or cage compound is a chemical substance consisting of a lattice of one type of molecule trapping and containing a second type of molecule. The word clathrate is derived from the  Latin clatratus meaning with bars or a lattice. An example of a clathrate is clathrate hydrate, a special type of gas hydrate in which a lattice of water molecules encloses molecules of a trapped gas. Scientists believe that compounds on the sea bed have trapped large amounts of methane in similar configurations.  Researchers have begun to investigate silicon and germanium clathrates for possible semiconducting and superconducting properties.
A clathrate therefore is a material which is a weak composite, with molecules of suitable size captured in spaces which are left by the other compounds. They are also called host-guest complexes, inclusion compounds, and adducts (chiefly in the case of urea and thiourea).  They used to be called "molecular compounds".
In 1945, H. M. Powell named these compounds clathrate.  Clathrate complex used to refer only to the inclusion complex of hydroquinone, but recently it has been adopted for many complexes which consist of a host molecule (forming the basic frame) and a guest molecule (set in the host molecule by interaction).  The clathrate complexes are various and include, for example, strong interaction via chemical bonds between host molecules and guest molecules, or guest molecules set in the geometrical space of host molecules by weak intermolecular force. Typical examples of host-guest complexes are inclusion compounds and intercalation compound.
The history of clathrate compounds is relatively new. Clathrate hydrates were discovered in 1810 by Sir Humphrey Davy. Clathrates were studied by P. Pfeiffer in 1927 and in 1930, E. Hertel defined molecular compounds as substances decomposed into individual components following the mass action law in solution or gas state.  Therefore, basic information about clathrate compounds (then called molecular compounds) was known in those days. The development of clathrate compounds was attained by analyzing crystal structure by Powell (mentioned above), and they were applied to the separation of paraffin using a urea or thiourea host. Thereafter, cyclodextrin, crown ether, and cryptand were found as host molecules (see figure). A much studied host molecule is Dianin's compound.
In analyzing and separating techniques, the concept of inclusion compounds has taken root and many applications of them are known. It is possible to isolate not only chemically different species but also structural isomers, positional isomers (enantiomers and diastereomers), and radioactive isomers using clathrate compounds.
The structure of Clathrates is also related to the structure of foams (see Weaire-Phelan structure).
For a theory regarding the sudden release of methane clathrate from ocean sediments see clathrate gun hypothesis.
Cleavage (breasts)
Cleavage is the cleft created by the partial exposure of a woman's breasts, especially when exposed by low-cut clothing. The neckline of a garment that exposes cleavage is known as decolletage (or "decollete" in current French).

# Anatomical terminology
"Intermammary sulcus" or "intermammary cleft" are the terms adopted by the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists for the area of cleavage between the breasts not including the breasts.

# Theories of cleavage
Evolutionary psychologists theorize that humans' permanently enlarged breasts, in contrast to other primates' breasts that only enlarge during ovulation, allowed females to "solicit male attention and investment even when they are not really fertile."  Popular British zoologist and ethologist Desmond Morris theorizes that cleavage is a sexual signal that imitates the image of the cleft between the buttocks.

# Annual celebration
In South Africa, brassiere marketer Wonderbra sponsors a 
"National Cleavage Day" each Spring.
Clinical pathology
Clinical pathology is one of the two major divisions within the medical specialty of pathology.  A clinical pathologist is a medical doctor responsible for the diagnosis of diseases based on the analysis of body fluids like blood, urine, etc. He/she works in close collaboration with medical technologists.
The American Board of Pathology certifies clinical pathologists, and recognizes the following secondary specialties of clinical pathology:
- Chemical pathology, also called clinical chemistry
- Haematology
- Blood banking - Transfusion medicine
- Medical microbiology
- Cytogenetics
- Molecular genetics pathology
In some country, in Western Europe or Africa this specialty can be exercized by non-physicians doctors, like Pharm.D or Ph.D after a variable number of year of residency.
For example, in France, Clinical Pathology called Medical Biology ("Biologie medicale") is both exercized by M.D and Pharm.D .
Clinical chemistry

# Overview
Clinical chemistry (also known as clinical biochemistry, chemical pathology or pure blood chemistry) is the area of pathology that is generally concerned with analysis of bodily fluids.
The discipline originated in the late 19th century with the use of simple chemical tests for various components of blood and urine. Subsequently other techniques were applied including the use and measurement of enzyme activities, spectrophotometry, electrophoresis and immunoassay.
Most current laboratories are now highly automated and use assays that are closely monitored and quality controlled.
Tests that require examination and measurement of the cells of blood, as well as blood clotting studies, are not included as in the UK these are usually grouped under hematology, but in many countries these specialties along with immunology and microbiology are grouped under laboratory medicine.
All biochemical tests come under chemical pathology. These are performed on any kind of body fluid, but mostly on serum or plasma.  Serum is the yellow watery part of blood that is left after blood has been allowed to clot and all blood cells have been removed. This is most easily done by centrifugation which packs the more dense blood cells and platelets to the bottom of the centrifuge tube, leaving the liquid serum fraction resting above the packed cells.  Plasma is essentially the same as serum, but is obtained by centrifuging the blood without clotting.  Plasma therefore contains all of the clotting factors, including fibrinogen.
A large laboratory will accept samples for up to about 700 different kinds of tests. Even the largest of laboratories rarely does all these tests themselves and some need to be referred to other labs.
This large array of tests can be further sub-categorised into sub-specialities of:
- General or routine chemistry
- Endocrinology - the study of hormones
- Immunology - the study of the immune system and antibodies
- Pharmacology or Toxicology - the study of drugs

# Chemical pathology tests
Common chemical pathology tests include:
- Sodium;
- Potassium;
- Chloride;
- Bicarbonate;
- Urea;
- Creatinine;
- Calcium;
- Phosphate;
- Albumin;
- Bilirubin;
- AST;
- ALT;
- GGT;
- Alkaline phosphatase;
- Magnesium;
- Osmolality;
- Urate;
- Iron;
- Transferrin;
- Total protein;
- Globulins;
- Glucose;
- C-reactive protein;
- HbA1c.
- Blood gases (  , P_{{\mathrm{CO}}_2} , P_{{\mathrm{O}}_2} )
Cobalt(II) nitrate
Cobalt nitrate is a chemical salt formed from the metal cobalt and the nitrate ion. It is an oxidizer and is soluble in water.  The molecular formula is Co(NO3)2
It is deliquescent in moist air and soluble in most polar solvents. It is derived from reacting metallic cobalt or one of its oxides, hydroxides, or carbonate with nitric acid. It is commonly used in dyes and inks.
The high solubility of cobalt nitrate makes it a common source of cobalt in metal-organic frameworks and polymers. It is also reduced to metallic cobalt or precipitated on various substrates for Fischer-Tropsch catalysis.
Cognitive slippage

# Overview
Cognitive slippage is a symptom of several psychiatric diseases and mental disorders associated with cognition and formal thought disorders. It is manifested in patterns of speech, where categories and lists become overly broad as concepts unrelated at first glance become related through tangential connections.
An example of cognitive slippage might be as follows:
(Schutz, 2006)
The inclusion of extraneous items in the listing is evidence of the cognitive slippage. While the concepts such as Toyota, Japan, Rising Sun, etc. are all related, the relation is no longer defined by the initial prompt. The cognitive slippage, however, causes the inability to disregard these extraneous connections and results in patterns of speech and association as seen here. In contrast, another disorder of speech, word salad is even more disorganized than the loose associations of cognitive slippage.
Cognitive slippage is one of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, a psychiatric illness which has impacts on every facet of a patient's life.
Coital cephalalgia
Also known as "sexual headaches", coital cephalalgia is a rare type of severe headache that occurs at the base of the skull before orgasm during sexual activity, including masturbation. The pain usually moves from the base of the skull through the head towards the frontal lobes. Extremely severe and sharp pain behind the eyes is also a symptom. The headaches usually have an immediate onset and typically last for a few minutes to a few hours, although it is possible for such headaches to last up to a few days.
More prevalent in men, by a factor of 3 (a 4:1 ratio), these headaches appear in roughly 1% of the population, though it has been suggested that the prevalence may be higher, due to the embarrassment of presenting with the disorder, especially in cases where spontaneous remission occurs after a few days. It is important to see a doctor if you have such symptoms in order to rule out a potential brain aneurysm, or tumors. In most cases, these headaches are benign. More serious symptoms include a stiff neck, confusion, and dizziness.
As for treatment, a doctor may recommend abstaining from sexual activities and masturbation for a short period of time ranging from a few days to a few weeks. In addition, doctors may recommend medications that can be taken in advance of sexual activity to prevent such headaches. Reduction in weight to a more ideal level and increased exercise may also reduce the likelihood of recurrences.
Coital cephalalgia can frequently occur in a timeframe that exertion headaches occur.
Trabeculae carneae

# Overview
The trabeculae carneae (columnae carneae or fleshy beams) are rounded or irregular muscular columns which project from the whole of the inner surface of the ventricle, with the exception of the conus arteriosus.
They are of three kinds:
- some are attached along their entire length on one side and merely form prominent ridges,
- others are fixed at their extremities but free in the middle,
- while a third set (musculi papillares) are continuous by their bases with the wall of the ventricle, while their apices give origin to the chord tendine which pass to be attached to the segments of the tricuspid valve.
The purpose of the trabeculae carnae is most likely to prevent suction that would occur with a flat surfaced membrane and thus impair the heart's ability to pump efficiently.
The trabeculae carnae also serve a similar function to papillary muscles in that their contraction pulls on the chordae tendinae, preventing inversion of the mitral (bicuspid) and tricuspid valves. This prevents backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atriums.

# Echocardiographical and Angiographical Demonstration of Trabeculae Carnae
Images shown below are taken from a case report titled "Atrioventricular and ventriculoarterial discordance associated with Ebstein-like displacement of mitral valve"
- The atrioventricular valve of the left-sided ventricle (right facing to the screen) is attached closer to the apex. The trabeculae carneae of the left-sided ventricle are finer than those of the right ventricle. (Courtesy of the National Cardiovascular Center - Japan}
- Regurgitation through the left-sided atrioventricular valve is mild. (Courtesy of the National Cardiovascular Center - Japan}
- The catheter passes through the inferior vena cava located on the left side of the spine with its tip located in the left pulmonary ventricle. The right structure is found to be the morphological RV (systemic ventricle) and the left one is the morphological LV from the shape of the ventricles and the fineness of the trabeculae carneae. (Courtesy of the National Cardiovascular Center - Japan}
Common wood sorrel
Common wood sorrel is a plant from the genus Oxalis, common in most of Europe and parts of Asia. It flowers for a few months during the spring, with small white flowers with pink streaks. Red or violet flowers also occur rarely. The binomial name is Oxalis acetosella, because of its sour taste.
The leaflets are made up by three heart-shaped leaves, folded through the middle. The stalk is red/brown, and during the night or when it rains both flowers and leaves contract.
Historically, people have extracted calcium oxalate, or "sal acetosella" from the plant, through boiling. It is slightly toxic, as oxalic acid is known to interfere with food digestion.
Another common wood sorrel is Oxalis montana, a North American species found from New England and Nova Scotia to Wisconsin and Manitoba.  It is similar to the species described above, but the petals are noticeably notched.
The common wood sorrel is sometimes referred to as a shamrock (due to its three-leaf clover-like motif) and given as as gift on St. Patrick's Day.