Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Hydrophobe

# Overview
In chemistry, hydrophobicity (from the combining form of water in Attic Greek hydro- and for fear phobos)  refers to the physical property of a molecule (known as a hydrophobe) that is repelled from a mass of water .
Hydrophobic molecules tend to be non-polar and thus prefer other neutral molecules and nonpolar solvents. Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together forming micelles. Water on hydrophobic surfaces will exhibit a high contact angle.
Examples of hydrophobic molecules include the alkanes, oils, fats, and greasy substances in general. Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, and chemical separation processes to remove non-polar from polar compounds.
Hydrophobic is often used interchangeably with "lipophilic". However, the two terms are not synonymous. While hydrophobic substances are usually lipophilic, there are exceptions  the silicones, for instance.

# Chemical background
According to thermodynamics, matter seeks to be in a low-energy state, and bonding reduces chemical energy. Water is electrically polarized, and is able to form hydrogen bonds internally, which gives it many of its unique physical properties. But, since hydrophobes are not electrically polarized, and because they are unable to form hydrogen bonds, water repels hydrophobes, in favour of bonding with itself. It is this effect that causes the hydrophobic interaction  which in itself is incorrectly named as the energetic force comes from the hydrophilic molecules. Thus the two immiscible phases (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic) will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal. This effect can be visualized in the phenomenon called phase separation.

# Superhydrophobicity
Superhydrophobic materials have surfaces that are extremely difficult to wet with water contact angles in excess of 150. Many of these very hydrophobic materials found in nature rely on Cassie's law and are biphasic on the submicrometer level with one component air. The Lotus effect is based on this principle. An example of a biomimetic superhydrophobic material in nanotechnology is nanopin film. In one study  a vanadium pentoxide surface is presented that can switch reversibly between superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity under the influence of UV radiation. According to the study any surface can be modified to this effect by application of a suspension of rose-like V2O5 particles for instance with an inkjet printer. Once again hydrophobicity is induced by interlaminar air pockets (separated by 2.1 nm distances). The UV effect is also explained. UV light creates electron-hole pairs, with the holes reacting with lattice oxygen creating surface oxygen vacancies while the electrons reduce V5+ to V3+. The oxygen vacancies are met by water and this water absorbency by the vanadium surface makes it hydrophilic. By extended storage in the dark, water is replaced by oxygen and hydrophilicity is once again lost.
Apple mint
Apple mint (sometimes called woolly mint) (Mentha suaveolens; syn. M. rotundifolia; syn. Mentha macrostachya Ten.; syn. Mentha insularis Req.) is a member of the mint genus Mentha that ranges through southern and western Europe and the western Mediterranean region. It is a herbaceous, upright perennial plant that is most commonly grown as a culinary herb and/or ground cover.
It typically grows to 40-100 cm tall and spreads by rhizomes to form clonal colonies. The foliage is light green, with the opposite, sessile leaves being oblong to nearly ovate, 3-5 cm long and 2-4 cm broad. They are somewhat hairy on top and downy underneath with serrated edges.
Apple mint flowers in mid to late summer with light purple-pink flowers.

# Cultivation and Uses
An attractive herb, Apple mint is often used as an ornamental plant. It is hardy and easy to grow, preferring full-sun to lightly-shady conditions.
The leaves of this plant can be used to make Apple mint jelly, as well as a flavoring in dishes such as Apple mint couscous. It is also often used to make a mint tea, as a garnish, or in salads.
Pineapple mint (Mentha suaveolens 'Variegata') is a cultivar of Apple mint that has leaves which are banded with white. A hybrid derived from it is Grapefruit mint (Mentha suaveolens x piperata).
Aprosodias

# Overview
Aprosodias are defined as acquired or developmental conditions marked by an imparied ability to comprehend or generate the emotion conveyed in spoken language.

# Symptoms
Aprosodias have several subtypes:
- Motor aprosodia
- Sensory aprosodia
- Global aprosodia
- Transcortical motor aprosodia
- Transcortical sensory aprosodia
- Mixed transcortical aprosodia
- Expressive aprosodia  Disruption in pitch, loudness, rate, or rhythm that convey a speakers emotional intent.  It can have devastating effects on communication and personal relationship. It is less awareness than for aphasia. Partner or family may think they have become uncaring

# Proposed Mechanisms
Aprosoidas are caused by impairment of non-dominant hemisphere, manifested with inability of affective expression and comprehension.  Its anatomical location homologous to aphasic syndrome due to dominant hemisphere damage.

# Related Chapters
- Aphasia
- Apraxia
- Communication disorder
de:Aprosodie
Aqua Detox
Aqua Detox is a device promoted for use in detoxification, based on the research of Royal Rife and involves soaking an individual's feet in a saline bath through which an electrical current is passed.  The device has been criticized for misleading consumers.  The device, or something similar, is marketed under a wide variety of names. due to the company responsible for developing the original device offers offers in-house web-design services for resellers.
As of October 15th, 2006, the Aqua Detox brand officially came under a new umbrella company called The Agenta Group.

# Manufacturer claims
According to its manufacturer, the Aqua Detox system produces positive and negative ions, that "resonate through the body and stimulates the cells within it", claiming that this 'rebalances' cellular energy, allowing efficient performance and excretion of toxins that have accumulated within the tissues  and that 20 - 35 minutes of usage every second or third day causes toxins from throughout the body to be excreted from the 2000 pores of the feet   The manufacturer currently lacks evidence to demonstrate any detoxifying effect, but claims it is conducting a clinical trial to establish proof..

# Criticisms
Although the manufacturer does not make direct claims for Aqua Detox in the treatment or cure of disease, the Aqua Detox International was the subject of a British Advertising Standards Authority adjudication for April 6, 2005, specifically challenging the use of user testimonials which implied efficacy in serious disease, and challenges to the general efficacy of the device; both complaints were upheld, with the advertiser not addressing the efficacy of the device but promising to remove the misleading testimonials from their advertisements.
The marketer Miracle Beauty claims that the color of the bath indicates what areas have allegedly been cleansed of toxins: black for liver, orange for joints, green for gall bladder.  Aqua detox machines have iron electrodes that corrode to generate rust and tint the water brown when used to electrolyze saline in the footbath.  The different variations in color can be accounted by varying amount of salt added to the water and variations in the compositions of the electrodes.  An experiment with salt water and a car battery showed that the water will change color regardless, whether there are feet in the water or not, and that the composition the analyzed water was the same in both cases.  Barrett claims that it's nothing more than electrolysis, or rusting of the electrodes in the case of iron, and the change in color is being used by the manufacturers to mislead the consumers.
Aqua Detox has not been evaluated by the US Food and Drug Administration, and marketing materials related to the product carry a disclaimer to the effect that "it is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease."
Aquaretics
An aquaretic is a class of drug that is used to promote aquaresis. They are not strictly speaking diuretics, but are sometimes classified as such.
Herbal aquaretics include adonis, agrimony, bearberry, buchu, dandelion, heartsease, hydrangea, lady's mantle, larch, and sassafras.  These increase blood flow to the kidneys without increasing sodium and chloride resorption, thus causing an increase in urine whilst retaining electrolytes.  However, the increase in intravascular fluid volume that they cause translates into an increase vascular resistance, and higher blood pressure.
Synthetic aquaretics, a new class of drug, are V2 receptor antagonists, such as OPC-31260.  These have been used in clinical trials as a treatment for Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH).
Etoricoxib

# Overview
Etoricoxib (brand name Arcoxia worldwide; also Algix and Tauxib in Italy) is a new COX-2 selective inhibitor (approx. 106.0 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1) from Merck & Co. Doses are 60, 90 mg/day for chronic pain and 120 mg/day for acute pain. Currently it is approved in more than 60 countries worldwide but not in the US, where the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) require additional safety and efficacy data for etoricoxib before it will issue approval. Current therapeutic indications are: treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, chronic low back pain, acute pain and gout. Note that approved indications differ by country.
Like any other COX-2 selective inhibitor, Etoricoxib selectively inhibits isoform 2 of cyclo-oxigenase enzyme (COX-2). This reduces the generation of prostaglandins (PGs) from arachidonic acid. Among the different functions exerted by PGs, their role in the inflammation cascade should be highlighted. 
COX-2 selective inhibitor (aka "COXIB") showed less marked activity on type 1 cycloxigenase compared to traditional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). This reduced activity is the cause of reduced gastrointestinal toxicity, as demonstrated in several large clinical trials performed with different COXIB (see below links on NEJM and The Lancet).
Some clinical trials and meta-analysis showed that treatment with COXIB led to increased incidence of adverse cardiovascular events compared to placebo. Because of these results, some molecules were withdrawn from the market (Rofecoxib, September 2004 and Valdecoxib, April 2005). In addition, the FDA and EMEA (USA and European Community Health Authorities respectively) started a revision process of the entire class of both NSAID and COX-2 inhibitors.
FDA concluded its revision on April 6, 2005: the final document can be found at: 
EMEA concluded its revision on June 27, 2005: the final document can be found at: 
On April 27, 2007, the Food and Drug Administration issued Merck a "non-approvable letter" for Arcoxia. The letter said Merck needs to provide more test results showing that Arcoxia's benefits outweigh its risks before it has another chance of getting approved.
Arfendazam
Arfendazam is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. Arfendazam is a 1,5-benzodiazepine, with the nitrogen atoms located at positions 1 and 5 of the diazepine ring, and so is most closely related to other 1,5-benzodiazepines such as clobazam.
Arfendazam has sedative and anxiolytic effects similar to those produced by other benzodiazepine derivatives, but is a partial agonist at GABAA receptors, so the sedative effects are relatively mild and it produces muscle relaxant effects only at very high doses.
Arfendazam produces an active metabolite lofendazam, which is thought to be responsible for part of its effects.
Aron Brand
Aron Brand-Auraban (1910-1977), born in Ozorkow, Poland, was an Israeli pediatric cardiologist. He served as chairman of the Israel Medical Association in Jerusalem, Israel, and founded the Jerusalem Academy of Medicine.
Brand grew up in Kolo, where he attended heder and the Jewish gymnasium. In 1925, his father Ze'ev, a fervent Zionist, sent him to Palestine to study at Gymnasia Herzliya in Tel Aviv. In 1928, he studied philosophy and Jewish studies in Berlin.
In the summer of 1939, Brand returned to Poland and married Esther Malka (Mala) nee Auerbach, of Przedecz. By a stroke of luck, they left Poland the week before the Nazis invaded. At the time, Brand was a teacher at the Ma'aleh School in Jerusalem. The couple had three sons, Avraham, Natan and Haim.
In 1955, Brand founded the Jerusalem Academy of Medicine. From 1964 until his death, he headed the Pediatric Department of Bikur Cholim Hospital in Jerusalem. He was the founder of the Israel Institute for Medical History.
Brand published numerous articles on medicine, philosophy, literature and art, and organized hundreds of lectures and workshops open to the general public on health-related issues. In 1976, he was awarded the Henrietta Szold Prize for his contribution to public health.
Artemether

# Overview
Artemether (INN) is an antimalarial for the treatment of multi-drug resistant strains of falciparum malaria. Its combination (co-formulation) with Lumefantrine has first been marketed by Novartis under the brand names Riamet and Coartem. Today, this combination therapy is available as generic from several manufacturers.

# Category
Antimalarial

# US Brand Names
COARTEM

# FDA Package Insert
Description

# Mechanisms of Action
The specific mechanism of action of artemisinin is not well understood, and there is ongoing research directed at elucidating it.  When the parasite that causes malaria infects a red blood cell, it consumes hemoglobin and liberates free heme, an iron-porphyrin complex.  The iron reduces the peroxide bond in artemisinin generating high-valent iron-oxo species, resulting in a cascade of reactions that produce reactive oxygen radicals which damage the parasite leading to its death.
Numerous studies have investigated the type of damage that these oxygen radicals may induce.  For example, Pandey et al. have observed inhibition of digestive vacuole cysteine protease activity of malarial parasite by artemisinin. These observations were further confirmed by ex vivo experiments showing accumulation of hemoglobin in the parasites treated with artemisinin, suggesting inhibition of hemoglobin degradation. They found artemisinin to be a potent inhibitor of hemeozoin formation activity of malaria parasite.
A 2005 study investigating the mode of action of artemisinin using a yeast model demonstrated that the drug acts on the electron transport chain, generates local reactive oxygen species, and causes the depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane.
Artemisinins have also been shown to inhibit PfATP6, a SERCA-type enzyme (calcium transporter) and artemisinin has been shown to compete with thapsigargin for SERCA binding, though artemesinin is much less toxic to mammalian cells. Resistance to artemisinin is conferred by a single mutation in the calcium transporter (PfATP6). This mutation has been studied in the laboratory but recently a study from French Guiana in field isolates of malaria parasites has identified a different mutation in the calcium transporter (PfATP6) that is associated with resistance to artemether, lending support to the idea that PfATP6 is the target for artemisinins.
Vasa recta
In the blood supply of the kidney, the vasa recta renis (or straight arteries of kidney, or straight arterioles of kidney) form a series of straight capillaries (recta is from the Latin for "straight") that descend from the cortex into the medulla.
These vessels branch off of the efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary nephrons (those nephrons closest to the medulla), enter the medulla, and surround the loop of Henle.

# Histology
On a slide, vasa recta can be distinguished from the tubules of the loop of Henle by the presence of blood.

# Function
Each of the vasa recta has a hairpin turn in the medulla and carries blood at a very slow rate, two factors crucial in the maintenance of countercurrent exchange that prevent washout of the concentration gradients established in the renal medulla.
The maintenance of this concentration gradient is one of the components responsible for the kidney's ability to produce concentrated urine.

# Nomenclature
According to Terminologia Anatomica, the term "vasa recta renis" is an alternate name for "arteriolae rectae renis", and a separate term, venulae rectae renis, is used to identify the venous portion.
However, other sources consider "vasa recta renis" to refer to both the arterial and venous portions.
The "renis" is often omitted, but there do exist two other structures with the same name:
- vasa recta (intestines) (in the ileum and jejunum)
- the straight portion of the seminiferous tubule

# Pathology
The slow blood flow in vasa recta makes them a likely place of thrombosis in hypercoagulable states, or erythrocyte sickling in sickle cell disease. Ischemia that results may lead to renal papillary necrosis.
Ascaridida
The order Ascaridida includes several families of parasitic roundworms with three "lips" on the anterior end. They are sometimes placed in the subclass Rhabditia, but more often in the Spiruria.
Important families include:
- Ascarididae, which includes the giant intestinal roundworm and related species.
- Toxocaridae, which includes parasites of canids, felids, and raccoons, but which can unsuccessfully parasitize humans and cause visceral larva migrans.
- Anisakidae, also called the marine mammal Ascarids.  The larvae of these worms cause anisakiasis when ingested by humans, but do not reproduce.
Astemizole

# Overview
Astemizole (marketed under the brand name Hismanal) is a second generation antihistamine drug which has a long duration of action. Astemizole was discovered by Janssen Pharmaceutica in 1977. It has been withdrawn from the market in most countries because of rare but potentially fatal interactions with CYP3A4 enzyme inhibitors (e.g. erythromycin, grapefruit juice).

# Pharmacology
Astemizole is an histamine H1-receptor antagonist. It is structurally similar to terfenadine and haloperidol (a butyrophenone antipsychotic). It has anticholinergic and antipruritic effects.
Astemizole competitively binds to histamine H1-receptor sites in the gastrointestinal tract, uterus, blood vessels, and bronchial muscle. This suppresses the formation of edema and pruritus (caused by histamine).
Astemizole does not cross the blood-brain barrier, and H1 receptor binding is mostly in the peripheral rather than central nervous system (CNS depression is thus minimal). Astemizole may also act on histamine H3 receptors, thereby producing adverse effects.
Astemizole is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract; protein binding is around 96%.

# Toxicity
Astemizole has an oral LD50 of approximately 2052mg/kg (in mice).

# Research
It has been reported that this drug might prevent 97% of the muscle wasting (atrophy) that occurs in immobile, bedridden patients.
Testing upon mice showed that it blocked the activity of a protein present in the muscle that is involved in muscle atrophy. Recent studies have also suggested anti-malarial properties of astemizole. However the concerns for the drug's longterm effects on the heart preclude its routine use in humans for this indication.
Astemizole has recently been found to be a potent treatment for malaria.  It has a mechanism of action similar to chloroquine but has activity even in chloroquine-resistant parasites.
Asteraceae

# Overview
Asteraceae or Compositae (commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, or sunflower family), are an exceedingly large and widespread family of Angiospermae.  The group has more than 23.000 currently accepted species, spread across 1620 genera and 12 subfamilies. In terms of numbers of species, Asteraceae is rivaled only by Orchidaceae. (Which of the two families is actually larger is unclear, owing to uncertainty about exactly how many species exist in each family). The main feature of the family is the composite flower type in the form of capitula surrounded by involucral bracts.The name "Asteraceae" comes from Aster, the most prominent generum in the family, that derives from the Greek  meaning star, and is connected with its inflorescence star form. As for the term "Compositae", more ancient but still valid, it obviously makes reference to the fact that the family is one of the few angiosperms that have composite flowers. This family has a remarkable ecological and economical importance, and is present from the polar regions to the tropics, colonizing all available habitats. The Asteraceae may represent as much as 10% of autochthon flora in many regions of the world.  The largest composite genera are Senecio (1,000 species), Vernonia (1,000 species), Centaurea (700 species), Cousinia (600 species), Helichrysum (550 species), and Artemesia (550 species).
Most members of Asteraceae are herbaceous, but a significant number are also shrubs, vines and trees.  The family has a worldwide distribution, and is most common in the arid and semi-arid regions of subtropical and lower temperate latitudes.
Asteraceae is an economically important family. Some members provide products including cooking oils, lettuce, sunflower seeds, artichokes, sweetening agents, coffee substitutes and teas.  Several genera are popular with the horticultural community, including marigold, pot marigold (calendula), cone flowers, various daisies, fleabane Erigeron, chrysanthemums, dahlias, zinnias, and heleniums. Asteraceae are important in herbal medicine, including Grindelia, Echinaceae, yarrow Achillea and many others. A number of species have become weeds, including most famously in North America, dandelion Taraxacum officinale.
Asthenopia

# Overview
Asthenopia or eye strain is an ophthalmological condition that manifests itself through nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, red eyes, eye strain, pain in or around the eyes, blurred vision, headache and occasional double vision. Symptoms often occur after reading, computer work, or other activities that involve tedious visual tasks.
When concentrating on a visually intense task, such as continuously focusing on a book or computer monitor, the inner eye muscles may tighten, which can cause the eyes to get irritated, dry, and uncomfortable. Giving the eyes a chance to focus on a distant object at least once an hour usually alleviates the problem. Small font sizes exacerbate the strain if they cause unconscious squinting or straining to focus.
On a computer, a CRT with a low refresh rate (less than 70 Hz) can cause similar problems because of the flickering image.  Aging CRTs also often go slightly out of focus, and this can also cause eye strain.  LCDs do not go out of focus and are less susceptible to visible flicker.  Higher refresh rates and larger font sizes are worthwhile when addressing eyestrain problems.

# Causes
Sometimes, asthenopia can be due to specific visual problems, such as uncorrected refraction errors or binocular vision problems like accommodative insufficiency or heterophoria.