Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Forced suicide

# Overview
Forced suicide is a method of execution where the victim is given the choice of committing suicide or facing an alternative they perceive as worse, such as suffering torture; having friends or family members imprisoned, tortured or killed; or losing honor, position or means.

# Historical Perspective

## Ancient Greece & Rome
Forced suicide was a common means of execution in ancient Greece and Rome. As a mark of respect it was generally reserved for aristocrats sentenced to death; the victims would either drink hemlock or fall on their swords.  Economic motivations promoted some suicides in ancient Rome. A person who was condemned to death would forfeit property to the government. People could evade that provision and let the property pass to their heirs by committing suicide prior to arrest.
Probably the most famous forced suicide is that of the philosopher Socrates, who drank hemlock after his trial for corrupting the youth of Athens. Seneca also killed himself in response to a request by the Roman Emperor Nero, who was also forced to perform the suicide at a later date. Other famous forced suicides include that of Brutus, Mark Antony and Otho the Roman Emperor and it was quite common in the Roman Imperial Court.

## Asia
Forced suicides have occurred in ancient China, where generals who were responsible for major debacles that seriously brought a downfall in the course of a state's history would be held liable and were given orders to commit suicide.
In some cases Japanese seppuku could fall into this category, since failing to commit seppuku could in some situations lead to great dishonor for a samurai and his family; it was especially the case in the Edo period, and Asano Naganori is a clear example.

# Modern times
Another famous example is the forced suicide of Erwin Rommel, a field marshal in the Second World War German army. After Rommel lost faith in Germany's ability to win the war, and came under suspicion for having taken part in the July 20, 1944 plot to kill Adolf Hitler, he was forced to commit suicide. Due to Rommel's popularity with the German people, Hitler gave him an option to commit suicide with cyanide or face dishonor and retaliation against his family and staff. Since the guilty verdict had already been entered, the option of facing trial was hopeless, and thus, in order to save his family and his honor, he was forced to take cyanide.

## As a substitute for honour killings
A forced suicide may be a substitute of an honor killing when a woman violates the namus in conservative Islamic societies. According to a BBC report  the United Nations is, as of 2006, investigating reports of forced suicides of women in Turkey.
Prosencephalon
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# Overview
In the anatomy of the brain of vertebrates, the prosencephalon (or forebrain) is the rostral-most portion of the brain. The prosencephalon, the mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain) are the three primary portions of the brain during early development of the central nervous system.
- At the five-vesicle stage, the prosencephalon separates into the diencephalon (prethalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, subthalamus, epithalamus, and pretectum) and the telencephalon (cerebrum).  The cerebrum consists of the cerebral cortex, underlying white matter, and the basal ganglia.
When the embryonic prosencephalon fails to divide the brain into two lobes, it results in a condition known as holoprosencephaly.

# Additional images
- Embryo between eighteen and twenty-one days.
- Head of chick embryo of about thirty-eight hours incubation, viewed from the ventral surface. X 26
Fragaria vesca
Fragaria vesca, commonly known as Woodland Strawberry occurs naturally throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Other names for this species include the Wild Strawberry, Alpine Strawberry and European Strawberry.
All strawberry species have a base haploid count of seven chromosomes; Fragaria vesca is diploid, having two pairs of these chromosomes for a total of 14.

# Cultivation and uses
The Woodland Strawberry was widely cultivated in Europe before being largely replaced by the Garden Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa and other hybrids), which have much larger berries. Woodland Strawberry fruit is strongly flavored, and is still grown on a small scale commercially for the use of gourmets.
Unlike most commercial and garden cultivars of strawberries, Woodland Strawberries rarely form runners, and are usually propagated by seeds or division of the plants.
Some cultivars of F. vesca have berries that are green, white, or yellow when fully ripe, in addition to the normal red.
F. vesca is sometimes used as an herbal medicine; an herbal tea made from the leaves, stems, and flowers is believed to aid in the treatment of diarrhea.
Frenulum breve
Frenulum breve is the condition in which the  frenulum preputii penis, which is an elastic band of tissue under the glans penis that connects to the prepuce (foreskin) and helps contract the prepuce over the glans, is  short and restricts the movement of the prepuce. The frenulum should normally be sufficiently long and supple to allow for the full retraction of the prepuce so that it lies smoothly back on the shaft of the erect penis. The frenulum is comparable to the small band between the tongue's lower surface and the lower jaw.
Frenulum breve is often complicated by tearing of the frenulum during sexual activity. The torn frenulum results in healing with scar tissue which is less flexible after the incident causing further difficulties.
The diagnosis of frenulum breve is frequently confounded with that of phimosis (an occurrence as well as phimosis is however possible).  The condition is treated either by a reparative plastic surgery operation called a frenuloplasty, or by complete circumcision including removal of the frenulum (frenectomy).
Froment's sign

# Overview
Froment's sign tests for palsy of the ulnar nerve, specifically, the action of adductor pollicis.  To perform the test, a patient is asked to hold an object, usually a piece of paper, between the thumb and a flat palm. The object is then is pulled away.
A normal individual will be able to maintain a hold the object without difficulty. However, with ulnar nerve palsy, the patient will experience difficultly maintaining a hold and will compensate by flexing the flexor pollicis longus of the thumb.
Clinically, this compensation manifests as flexion of the DIP joint of the thumb (rather than extension, as would occur with correct use of the adductor pollicis). Note that the flexor pollicis longus is normally innervated by the anterior interosseous branch of the median nerve.
Another way to perform this test is to have the patient hold the piece of paper between the tip of the thumb and the tip of the index finger. Then, pull the paper out from between their fingers asking patient not to let go of it. If the patient has to resort to pad-to-pad pinch, the patient is positive for Froment's sign.
Full-body scan
Full-body scan, also known as a full-body CT scan, involves a CT scan of the patient's entire body to support the diagnosis and treatment of specific illnesses. 

# History and overview
CT scans were first used in medicine in the 1970s, and they now play an important role in diagnosis in medicine.  Controversy arises from the use of CT scans in the screening of patients who have not been diagnosed with a disease, or who do not have symptoms suggestive of a disease, due to the low rate of finding disease, and the inconclusiveness of the cause of abnormalities seen.
As with any test that screens for disease, the risks of full-body CT scans, (including radiation, incidental or wrong diagnosis, and a false sense of security in a test with error), need to be outweighed by the benefit of identifying a treatable disease at an early stage.  One of the risks of a full body CT scan is the relatively high doses of radiation.  Conventional CT scanners may expose patients to 10 mSv of radiation, or over a hundred times that of a chest x-ray.  However, the radiation risk of CT scanners used for screening may be less than this, and depends upon the mathematical model used for calculation.  Additional risks include the possible identification of incidental abnormalities of unclear significance.  This may lead to further unnecessary testing, which may be invasive.
Cost is an additional disadvantage; at a cost of US$600 to $3000 full-body scans are expensive, and are rarely covered by insurance.

# Other scans
Other CT scans may be used in screening for disease in high risk groups.  These scans are more localized and are identical to those used in the course of treating a disease, the only difference being that these scans are done before any disease is found.
Low-dose CT scanning of the lungs may be done to screen for lung cancer, but it has showed varied success.
CT colography, or virtual colonoscopy is a CT scan that looks for polyps that may develop into colon cancer.   It has shown detection rates for polyps of size greater or equal to 8 mm that are comparable to traditional or "optical" colonoscopy.  One of the downsides of imaging is that although they provide comparable detection rates, they have no inherent capability of treatment. For example, if polyps are found on virtual colonoscopy the next step is to perform a traditional colonoscopy to remove the polyps.
Other types of scans include Heart, Brain, Bone density, Angiogram, Carotid artery. 
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans are associated with a lesser radiation risk than CT scans, and are being evaluated for their use in screening.

# In popular culture
- In the episode "Role Model" of the TV show House the lead character Dr. Gregory House refers to full-body scans as "useless" because they could find several things wrong in anybody.
- In the Scrubs episode "My Fault", Dr. Kelso decides to offer full-body scans at Sacred Heart Hospital, despite the objections of Dr. Cox.
Ophthalmoscope

# Overview
The ophthalmoscope is an instrument used to examine the eye. Its use is crucial in determining the health of the retina and the vitreous humor.

# Indications
In patients with headaches, the finding of swollen optic discs, otherwise known as papilledema, on ophthalmoscopy is a key sign.  This indicates increased  intracranial pressure (ICP) which could be a result of hydrocephalus, benign intracranial hypertension (aka pseudotumor cerebri), or  a brain tumor.  Cupped optic discs are seen in glaucoma.
In patients with diabetes mellitus, regular ophthalmoscopic eye examinations every 6 months to every year is mandatory to screen for diabetic retinopathy.  Visual loss due to diabetes can be prevented by retinal laser treatment if retinopathy is spotted early.
In arterial hypertension, hypertensive changes of the retina closely mimic those in the brain, and may be predictive of futurecerebrovascular accidents (strokes).
There are numerous companies other than Welch Allyn that manufacture direct ophthalmoscopes, including Heine, Riester and Keeler. Ophthalmoscopes are often sold with an otoscopes as a diagnostic set for physical exams.

# History
Although originally invented by Charles Babbage in 1847, it was not until it was independently reinvented by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1851 that its usefulness was recognized.
While training in France, Andreas Anagnostakis, MD, an ophthalmologist from Greece, brought forth the idea of making the instrument hand-held by adding a concave mirror. Liebreich created a model for Anagnostakis, which he used in his practice and subsequently when presented at the first Ophthalmological Conference in Brussels in 1857, the instrument became very popular among ophthalmologists.
In 1915, Willam Noah Allyn and Frederick Welch invented the world's first hand-held direct illuminating ophthalmoscope, precursor to the device now used by clinicians around the world. This refinement and updating of von Helmholtz's invention enabled ophthalmoscopy to become one of the most ubiquitous medical screening techniques in the world today. The company started as a result of this invention is Welch Allyn.

# Types
- Direct ophthalmoscope
- Indirect ophthalmoscope
- Binocular indirect ophthalmoscope
- Monocular indirect ophthalmoscope

# Dilatation of pupils
Use of mydriatics allows better visualizing of the retina as the pupils constrict due to of light from the ophthalmoscope.
GABAB receptor
GABAB receptors (GABABR) are metabotropic transmembrane receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) that are linked via G-proteins to potassium channels. The changing potassium concentrations hyperpolarize the cell at the end of an action potential. The reversal potential of the GABAB-mediated IPSP is 100 mV, which is much more hyperpolarized than the GABAA IPSP.  GABAB receptors are found in the central nervous system and the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system.
The receptors were first named in 1981 when their distribution in the CNS was determined, which was determined by Norman Bowery and his team using radioactively labelled baclofen.

# Functions
They can stimulate the opening of K+ channels which brings the neuron closer to the equilibrium potential of K+. This reduces the frequency of action potentials which reduces neurotransmitter release. Thus GABAB receptors are inhibitory receptors.
GABAB receptors also reduces the activity of adenylyl cyclase  and Ca2+ channels by using G-proteins with Gi/G0  subunits.
GABAB receptors are involved in behavioral actions of ethanol, gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), and possibly in pain. Recent research suggests that these receptors may play an important developmental role.

# Structure
GABAB Receptors are similar in structure to and in the same receptor family with metabotropic glutamate receptors.  There are two subtypes of the receptor, GABAB1 and GABAB2, and these appear to assemble as heterodimers in neuronal membranes by linking up by their intracellular C termini.
It is speculated that binding of GABA causes the subunits to swing shut around the agonist like a venus fly trap.

# Ligands

## Agonists
- GABA
- Baclofen is a GABA analogue which acts as a selective agonist of GABAB receptors, and is used as a muscle relaxant. However, it can aggravate absence seizures, and so is not used in epilepsy.
- gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB)
- Phenibut
- Isovaline
- 3-Aminopropylphosphinic acid
- Lesogaberan
- SKF-97541: 3-Aminopropyl(methyl)phosphinic acid, 10x more potent than baclofen as GABAB agonist, but also GABAC antagonist
- CGP-44532

## Positive Allosteric Modulators
- CGP-7930
- BHFF
- Fendiline
- BHF-177
- BSPP
- GS-39783

## Antagonists
- Homotaurine 
- Ginsenosides 
- 2-OH-saclofen
- Saclofen
- Phaclofen
- SCH-50911
- 2-Phenethylamine
- CGP-35348
- CGP-52432: 3-(amino]propyl) diethoxymethyl)phosphinic acid, CAS# 139667-74-6
- CGP-55845: (2S)-3-(amino-2-hydroxypropyl)(phenylmethyl)phosphinic acid, CAS# 149184-22-5
- SGS-742
Gadobenic acid

# Overview
Gadobenic acid (tradename MultiHance) is a complex of gadolinium with the ligand BOPTA. In the form of the diglumine salt it functions as a gadolinium-based MRI contrast medium, under the trade name gadobenate dimeglumine.
BOPTA is a derivative of DTPA in which one terminal carboxyl group, C(O)OH is replaced by -COCH2C6H5. Thus gadobenic acid is closely related to gadopentetic acid. BOPTA itself was first synthesized in 1995.
In the "gadobenate" ion gadolinium ion is 9-coordinate with BOPTA acting as an 8-coordinating ligand. The ninth position is occupied by a water molecule, which exchanges rapidly with water molecules in the immediate vicinity of the strongly paramagnetic complex, providing a mechanism for MRI contrast enhancement. 139La NMR studies on the diamagnetic La-BOPTA2 complex suggest that the Gd complex maintains in solution the same kind of coordination as found, by X-ray crystallography, in the solid state for Gd-BOPTA disodium salt.
-  Jump up to: 1.0 1.1 Uggeri, F.; Aime, S., Anelli, P.L., Botta, M., Brocchetta, M., De Haen, C., Ermondi, G., Grandi, M., Paoli, P. (1995). "Novel contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging. Synthesis and characterization of the ligand BOPTA and its Ln(III) complexes (Ln = Gd, La, Lu). X-ray structure of disodium (TPS-9-145337286-C-S)-gadolinate(2-) in a mixture with its enantiomer". Inorg. Chem. 34 (3): 633642. doi:10.1021/ic00107a017.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Galium aparine
Galium aparine is a herbaceous annual plant of the family Rubiaceae. It is native to North America and Eurasia. It has several common names, including Cleavers, Clivers, Goosegrass, Stickywilly, Stickyweed, Catchweed, and Coachweed.
The long stems of this climbing plant sprawl over the ground and other plants, reaching heights of 1-1.5 m, occasionally 2 m. The leaves are simple and borne in whorls of six to eight. Both leaves and stem have fine hairs tipped with tiny hooks, making them cling to clothes and fur much like velcro. The white to greenish flowers are 2-3 mm across, with four petals.
It flowers in early spring to summer, with the flowers occurring in most of the leaf nodes. The fruits are clustered 1-3 seeds together; each seed is 4-6 mm diameter, and is also covered with hooked hairs (a burr) which cling to animal fur, aiding in seed dispersal.
It is a common weed in hedges and other low shrubby vegetation, and is also a common weed in arable fields, as well as gardens. As they grow quite rampantly and thickly, they end up shading out any small plants that they overrun.
The seeds are similar size to cereal grains, and so are a common contaminant in cereals since they are difficult to filter out. The presence of some seed in cereals is not considered a serious problem as they are not toxic.
When dried and roasted, the fruits of this plant can be used to make a coffee-like drink. The plant can also be made into a tea.

# Herbalism
The plant was traditionally used to treat skin diseases. It is a diuretic and vulnerary. Herbalists use it to lower blood pressure and body temperature, as well as for cystitis.
The whole plant is considered rich in vitamin C. Its roots produce a red dye, and the tea has been used as an anti-perspirant (by the Chinese), and as a relief for head colds (home remedy), restlessness, and sunburns.
As a pulp, it has been used to relieve poisonous bites. 

# Notes
-  Howard, Michael. Traditional Folk Remedies (Century, 1987) pp. 145-6
-  Jones, Pamela. Just Weeds: History, Myths, and Uses. Prentice Hall Press, New York. 1991.
Game of chance
A game of chance is a game whose outcome is strongly influenced by some randomizing device, and upon which contestants frequently wager money.  Common devices used include dice, spinning tops, playing cards, roulette wheels or numbered balls drawn from a container.
Gambling is known in nearly all human societies, even though many have passed laws restricting it.  Early people used the knucklebones of sheep as dice.  Some people develop a psychological addiction to gambling, and will risk even food and shelter to continue.
Some games of chance may also involve a certain degree of skill. This is especially true where the player or players have decisions to make based upon previous or incomplete knowledge, such as poker and blackjack. The distinction between 'chance' and 'skill' is relevant as in some countries chance games are illegal or at least regulated, where skill games are not.
- Dice games
- Casino games
- Lottery, Bingo, Keno
- slot machines, spinning tops
- board games (e.g. "Risk")
Gamma globulin

# Overview
Gamma globulins, or Ig's, are a class of proteins in the blood, identified by their position after serum protein electrophoresis.  The most significant gamma globulins are immunoglobulins.

# Injections
Gamma globulin injections are usually given in an attempt to temporarily boost a patient's immunity against disease.  Injections are most commonly used on patients who have been exposed to hepatitis A or measles, or to make a donor and a kidney recipient compatible regardless of blood type of tissue match.  Injections are also used to boost immunity in patients who lack the ability to produce gamma globulins because of an immune deficiency, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and hyper IgM syndrome.  Such injections are less common in modern medical practice than they were previously, and injections of gamma globulin previously recommended for travelers have largely been replaced by the use of hepatitis A vaccine.
Gamma globulin infusions are also used to treat immunological diseases, such as idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura (ITP), a disease in which the platelets are being attacked by antibodies, leading to seriously low platelet counts.  Gamma globulin apparently causes the spleen to ignore the antibody-tagged platelets, thus allowing them to survive and function.
Gamma globulin injections also provide substantial benefit to many suffering from Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, also known as Chronic Fatigue and Immune Disfunction Syndrome; Mylagic Encyphalitis; Chronic Epsteinn-Barr; Chronic Mono.  In particular, it helps those who are greatly affected by changes in the barometric pressure (i.e., change in weather conditions, especially rain or other storms).
Another theory on how gamma globulin administration works in autoimmune disease is by overloading the mechanisms which degrade gamma globulins. Over loading the degradation mechanism causes the harmful gamma globulins to have a much shorter halflife in sera.

# Pathology
An excess is known as hypergammaglobulinemia.
A disease of gamma globulins is called a "gammopathy" (for example, in monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance.)

# Disease treatments
- Kawasaki disease
Kidney Transplant:  Intravenous Gamma globulin was FDA approved in 2004 to reduce antibodies in a patient in kidney failure to allow that person to accept a kidney from a donor who has a different blood type, (ABO incompatible) or is an unacceptable tissue match.  Dr. Stanley Jordan at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles pioneered this treatment.
Gartners duct
Gartner's duct is a potential embryological remnant in human female development of the mesonephric ducts in the development of the urinary and reproductive organs.
The paired mesonephric ducts in the male, in contrast, go on to form the paired epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct and seminal vesicle.
In the female they may persist between the layers of the broad ligament of the uterus and in the wall of the vagina.

# Clinical significance
These may give rise to Gartner's duct cysts.