Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Dental dam

# Overview
Dental dams or rubber dams are essentially rectangular sheets of latex used in dentistry, specifically endodontic therapy. They are also used during sexual activities as a safer sex technique.

# In dentistry
A dental dam, also known as in Europe as a "Kofferdamm" (from German), is used mainly in endodontic treatment and when putting fillings into teeth. They are often made from thin latex rubber, and because of possible latex allergy, they are also available in silicone.
The main function is to isolate the tooth being treated from its environment, in particular from the bacteria in the oral cavity. The rubber dam is held over individual teeth or groups of teeth by appropriate clips or threads (ligatures) along the edge of the gum. The tooth crown stands out from the rubber dam through individual holes made by hole pliers, and permits a clean and dry treatment of the appropriate tooth without admission of blood and saliva.
Routine use of dental dams is not always appropriate because of some difficulties: communication with the patient is strongly reduced and the patient may feel restricted.

# For oral sex
When held over the vulva or anus, an unpierced, intact dental dam protects both the person performing oral sex on those body parts and the person receiving it from potential harm from sexually transmitted diseases.
Desiccator
Desiccators are sealable enclosures containing desiccants used for preserving moisture-sensitive items. A common use for desiccators are to protect hygroscopic chemicals from humidity.
The contents of desiccators are exposed to atmospheric moisture whenever the desiccators are opened. It also requires some time to achieve a low humidity. Hence they are not appropriate for storing chemicals which react quickly or violently with atmospheric moisture. A glovebox or Schlenk-type apparatus may be more suitable for these purposes.

# Laboratory use
In laboratory use, the most common desiccators are circular, and made of heavy glass. There is usually a removable platform on which the items to be stored are placed. The desiccant, usually an otherwise-inert solid such as silica gel, fills the space under the platform.
A stopcock may be included to permit the desiccator to be evacuated. Such models are usually known as vacuum desiccators. When a vacuum is to be applied, it is a common practice to criss-cross the vacuum desiccator with tape, or to place it behind a screen to minimize damage or injury caused by an implosion.
To maintain a good seal, vacuum grease is usually applied to the flanges.
Deslorelin

# Overview
Deslorelin acetate is an injectable gonadotropin releasing hormone super-agonist (GnRH agonist) also known as an LHRH agonist.  It stops the production of sex hormones (testosterone and oestrogen).
Deslorelin Acetate is marketed by Peptech with the brand name Ovuplant. It is currently approved for use in veterinary medicine and is used to induce ovulation in mares as part of the artificial insemination process. It is also used to stabilize high-risk pregnancies, mainly of livestock. Unlike other GnRH agonists, which are mainly used to inhibit luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone by their ultimate downregulation of the pituitary gland, Deslorelin is primarily used for the initial flare effect upon the pituitary, and its associated surge of LH secretion.

# Pharmacokinetics
Deslorelin is a synthetic analogue of a naturally occurring luteinising-hormone releasing hormone (LHRH). Bioavailability is almost complete.

# Clinical trials
Deslorelin was successfully trialed in the US and was approved for veterinary use under certain circumstances. In Europe, it was approved for use in equine assisted reproduction.
It is also being trialed in humans to study its efficacy in treatment of breast cancer in women, and in treating precocious puberty and congenital adrenal hyperplasia in male and female children.
As of August 2011 this drug was not approved for general use in the US, other than within approved clinical trials. Orphan drug status has been designated in the US, though approval had not been issued as of 2011.
Desorption
Desorption is a phenomenon whereby a substance is released from or through a surface. The process is the opposite of sorption (that is, adsorption and absorption).  This occurs in a system being in the state of sorption equilibrium between bulk phase (fluid, i.e. gas or liquid solution) and an adsorbing surface (solid or boundary separating two fluids). When the concentration (or pressure) of substance in the bulk phase is lowered, some of the sorbed substance changes to the bulk state.
In chemistry, especially chromatography, desorption is the ability for a chemical to move with the mobile phase. The more a chemical desorbs, the less likely it will adsorb, thus instead of sticking to the stationary phase, the chemical moves up with the solvent front.
In chemical separation processes, stripping is also referred to as desorption as one component of a liquid stream moves by mass transfer into a vapor phase through the liquid-vapor interface.
After adsorption, the adsorbed chemical will remain on the substrate nearly indefinitely, provided the temperature remains low. However,as the temperature rises, so does the likelihood of desorption occurring. The general equation for the rate of desorption is:
R = r N^x,
where r is the rate constant for desorption, N is the concentration of the adsorbed material, and x is the kinetic order of desorption.
Usually, the order of the desorption can be predicted by the number of elementary steps involved:
Atomic or simple molecular desorption will typically be a first-order process (i.e. a simple molecule on the surface of the substrate  desorbs into a gaseous form).
Recombinative molecular desorption will generally be a second-order process (i.e. two hydrogen atoms on the surface desorb and form a gaseous H2 molecule).
The rate constant r may be expressed in the form:
r = A exp(-E/kT)
where A is the "attempt frequency" (often the Greek letter nu), the chance of the adsorbed molecule overcoming its potential barrier to desorption, E is the activation energy of desorption, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is the temperature.
de:Desorption
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Detomidine

# Overview
Detomidine is an imidazole derivative and alpha2-adrenergic agonist, used as a large animal sedative,primarily used in horses. Usually available as detomidine hydrochloride. This is a prescription medication available to veterinarians sold inder the trade name Domosedan.

# Properties
Detomidine is a sedative with analgesic properties. Alpha2-adrenergic agonists produce dose-dependent sedative and analgesic effects, mediatated by activation of alpha-2 catecholamine receptors, thus inducing a negative feedback response, reducing production of excitatory neurotransmitters. Due to inhibition of the sympathetic nervous system, detomidine also has cardiac and respiratory effects and an antidiuretic action.

# Effects
A profound lethargy and characteristic lowering of the head with reduced sensitivity to environmental stimuli (sounds, etc.) are seen with detomidine. A short period of in-coordination is characteristically followed by immobility and a firm stance with front legs spread.  Following administration there is an initial increase in blood pressure, followed by bradycardia and second degree atrioventricular block (this is not pathologic in horses). The horse commonly sweats to excess, especially on the flanks and neck. Other side effects reported include pilo erection (hair standing erect), ataxia, salivation, slight muscle tremors, and (rarely) penile prolapse.

# Uses
Sedation and anaesthetic premedication in horses and other large animals, commonly combined with butorphanol for increased analgesia and depth of sedation. In conjunction with ketamine it may also be used for intravenous anaesthesia of short duration. Detomidine is only licenced for use in horses at the present time.
The drug is normally administered by the intravenous route, and is fastest and most efficient when given i/v (usually 2-5 minutes to take effect, although this is highly dependent upon the individual and the environment. Some horses are highly resistant to sedation!). However, in recalcitrant animals, detomidine may be administered by the intramuscular or sublingual routes. The dose range advised by the manufacturers is 20-40 mcg/kg i/v for moderate sedation. This dose may need to be higher if given i/m.

# Cautions
As detomidine is an arrhythmogenic agent, extreme care should be exercised in horses with cardiac disease, and in the concurrent administration of other arrhythmogenics. The concurrent use of potentiated sulphonamide antibiotics is considered particularly dangerous.
Gliclazide

# Overview
Gliclazide is an oral hypoglycemic (anti-diabetic drug) and is classified as a sulfonylurea. It is marketed as Diamicron MR.
DIAMICRON MR is also distributed as:
Diabeton MR, Diamicron 30mg, Diamicron LM 30mg, Diamicron MR 30 mg, Diamicron Uno 30mg, Dianormax MR, Diaprel MR and Uni Diamicron.

# Form and Composition:
Each tablet contains 80 mg of gliclazide.
Not marketed in the United States.

# Indication:
Control of hyperglycemia in gliclazide responsive diabetes mellitus of stable, mild, non-ketosis prone, maturity onset or adult type which cannot be controlled by proper dietary management and exercise, or when insulin therapy is not appropriate.

# Dosage:
40 to 240 mg depending on response, once or twice daily before food, no more that 160 mg at a time.

# Properties:
Hypoglycemic sulfonylurea, restoring first peak of insulin secretion, increasing insulin sensitivity.
Glycemia-independent hemovascular effects, antioxidant effect. 
No active circulating metabolites.

# Contraindications:
type 1 diabetes, 
hypersensitivity to sulfonylureas, 
severe renal or hepatic failure, 
pregnancy and lactation, 
miconazole coprescription.

# Interactions:
Hyperglycemic action may be caused by danazol, chlorpromazine, glucocorticoids, progestogens, -2 agonists. 
Its hypoglycemic action may be potentiated by phenylbutazone, alcohol, fluconazole, -blockers, possibly ACE inhibitors.

# Adverse effects:
Hypoglycemia, gastrointestinal disturbance (reported), skin reactions (rare), hematological disorders (rare), hepatic enzyme rises (exceptional).

# Overdosage:
Possible severe hypoglycemia requiring urgent IV glucose and monitoring.
Dibenzepin

# Overview
Dibenzepin (Noveril, Anslopax, Deprex, Ecatril, Neodit, Victoril) is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) used widely throughout Europe for the treatment of depression. It has similar efficacy and effects relative to other TCAs like imipramine but with fewer side effects. Dibenzepin acts as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, potent antihistamine, and weak anticholinergic. It lacks any 5-HT2 antagonistic properties.

# Chronic Pain
Like other tricyclic antidepressants, dibenzepin may have potential use in the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain.

# Overdose
As tricyclic antidepressants have a relatively narrow therapeutic index, the likelihood of overdose (both accidental and intentional) is fairly high and should be considered carefully by the prescribing physician prior to patient use. Symptoms of overdose are similar to those of other tricyclic antidepressants, with cardiac toxicity (due to inhibition of sodium and calcium channels) generally occurring before the threshold for serotonin syndrome is reached. Due to this risk, tricyclic antidepressants are rarely selected as the first line treatment for depression.

# Synthesis
The Ullmann reaction provides the key for preparing the diaryl-amine or -ether starting materials in this series.
Copper catalyzed coupling of methyl N-methylanthranilate () with nitrobromobenzene () leads to the arylaniline (). The ester is then saponified () and the nitro group reduced to the corresponding amine (). That product cyclizes to the lactam () on heating. A strong base preferentially removes the proton on the lactam nitrogen to form an anion. Alkylation with 2-chloroethyldimethylamine then affords dibenzepin (), a compound that shows antidepressant activity.
Dichromacy
Dichromacy in humans is a moderately severe color vision defect in which one of the three basic color mechanisms is absent or not functioning. It is hereditary and sex-linked, predominantly affecting males. Dichromacy occurs when one of the cone pigments is missing and color is reduced to two dimensions.
Organisms with dichromacy are called dichromats. Dichromats can match any color they see with a mixture of no more than two pure spectral lights. By comparison, a trichromat requires three pure spectral lights to match all colors in their visual spectrum.
There are various kinds of color blindness.  Protanopia is a severe form of red-green color-blindness, where there is impairment in perception of very long wavelengths, such as reds.  To these sufferers, reds are perceived as beige and greens tend to look like reds.  Protanomaly is a less severe version.  Deuteranopia consists of an impairment in perceiving medium wavelengths, such as greens.  Deuteranomaly is a less severe form of deuteranopia.  Those living with deuteranomaly cannot see reds and greens like normal people, however they can still distinguish them in most cases.  A more rare form of color blindness is tritanopia, where there exists an inability to perceive short wavelengths, such as blues.  Sufferers have trouble distinguishing between yellow and blue and tend to mistake greens for blues and yellows for reds.

# Dichromacy in mammals
It is currently believed that most mammals are dichromats.  The straightforward exceptions are primates closely related to humans, which are usually trichromats, and sea mammals (both pinnipeds and cetaceans) which are monochromats.  New World Monkeys are a partial exception: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but the owl monkeys are monochromats, and both sexes of howler monkeys are trichromats.  Recent research (e.g. Arrese et al, 2005) suggests that trichromacy may be widespread among marsupials.

# Notes
-  Cassin, B. and Solomon, S. Dictionary of Eye Terminology. Gainsville, Florida: Triad Publishing Company, 1990.
-  "Guidelines: Color Blindness." Tiresias.org. Accessed September 29, 2006.
Dioxygenyl
The dioxygenyl ion, O2+, is a rarely-encountered oxycation in which both oxygen atoms have an oxidation state of +12.  It is formally derived from oxygen by the removal of an electron:
The energy change for this process is called the ionization energy of the oxygen molecule.  Relative to most molecules, this ionization energy is very high at 1165 kJ/mol.

# Structure and molecular properties
O2+ has a bond order of 2.5, and a bond length of 112.3 pm.  It has the same number of valence electrons as nitric oxide. The bond energy is 625.1 kJ mol1 and stretching frequency of 1858 cm1, both of which are high relative to most molecules.

# Compounds

## Dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate
The reaction of dioxygen, O2, with platinum hexafluoride, PtF6, yields dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate, O2:
PtF6 is one of the few oxidising agents sufficiently powerful to oxidise O2.
Dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate played a pivotal role in the discovery of noble gas compounds.  After Neil Bartlett found that PtF6 could oxidise O2 to O2+, he investigated its reaction with noble gases and discovered "xenon hexafluoroplatinate. "

## Other compounds
O2+ is also found in the similar compound O2, dioxygenyl hexafluoroarsenate.
Dipipanone
Dipipanone hydrochloride is an opioid painkiller. In combination with cyclizine hydrochloride, it is marketed as Diconal, indicated for relief of moderate to severe pain.
Chemically, dipipanone belongs to the class of opiates called the 3-diphenyl heptanones. It closely resembles methadone, the only structural difference being the N,N-dimethyl moiety of methadone being replaced with a piperidine ring. It's usage is now officially discouraged because of the abuse risk. The combination with cyclizine lends a very strong rush if the drug is injected. During the late 1970s to early 1980s in the UK, a whole spate of deaths were blamed on this preparation.
As supplies became unavailable, opiate users would mix crushed methadone tablets with crushed Valoid (a cyclizine containing antihistamine) tablets in an attempt to replecate the affect of dipipanone.
See P. A. J. Janssen, Synthetic Analgesics. Part 1. Diphenylpropylamines, Pergamon Press, NY. for details on the synthesis of methadone and its cogeners before 1960.  The general procedure for synthesis is illustrated by nucleophillic attack of diphenylacetonitrile on 2-chloro--1-dimethylaminoethane.  The resulting aminonitrile is then converted to the ethyl ketone with ethyl magnesium bromide by way of the kitimine which is hydrolized by cold aqueous acid (Casey & Parfitt, Opioid Analgesics, Plenum Press, NY, london).
Dipsacales
The Dipsacales are an order of flowering plant, included within the asterid group of dicotyledons.
Under the Cronquist system, the order included Adoxaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Dipsacaceae, and Valerianaceae.  Under the more recent Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG II) system, the circumscription of the order is much the same but the families are circumscribed differently.  APG includes Adoxaceae and a broadly circumscribed Caprifoliaceae, the latter including the alternatively acceptable families Diervillaceae, Dipsacaceae, Linnaeaceae, Morinaceae, and Valerianaceae.
Under the APG II definition some well-known members of Dipsacales are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, and valerian.
A few other families may also belong near this order. These include the Columelliaceae, Paracryphiaceae, and Sphenostemonaceae.
Optic disc
The optic disc or optic nerve head is the location where ganglion cell axons exit the eye to form the optic nerve. There are no light sensitive rods or cones to respond to a light stimulus at this point thus it is also known as "the blind spot" or "anatomical blind spot"; the break in the visual field created by the optic disc is also called "the blind spot" or "physiological blind spot". The optic nerve head in a normal human eye carries from 1 to 1.2 million neurons from the eye towards the brain.

# Clinical examination
The eye is unique due to the transparency of its optical medium. Almost all eye structures can be examined with appropriate optical equipment and lenses. Using a modern direct ophthalmoscope gives a view of the optic disc using the principle of reversibility of light. A slit lamp biomicroscopic examination along with an appropriate aspheric focusing lens (+66D, +78D or +90D) is required for a detailed stereoscopic view of the optic disc and structures inside the eye. 
Inspection of the optic disc by ophthalmoscopy or biomicroscopy can give an indication of the health of the optic nerve. In particular, the eye care physician notes the colour, cupping size (as a cup-to-disc ratio), sharpness of edge, swelling, hemorrhages, notching in the optic disc and any other unusual anomalies. It is useful for finding evidence corroborating the diagnosis of glaucoma and other optic neuropathies, optic neuritis, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy or papilledema (i.e. optic disc swelling produced by raised intracranial pressure). Women in advanced stage of pregnancy with pre-eclampsia should be screened by an ophthalmoscopic examination of the optic disc for early evidence of rise in intracranial pressure.

# Imaging of the optic disc
Traditional colour-film camera images are the gold standard in imaging, requiring an expert ophthalmic photographer, ophthalmic technician, optometrist or an ophthalmologist for taking standardised pictures of the optic disc. Stereoscopic images offer an excellent investigative tool for serial follow-up of suspected changes in the hands of an expert optometrist or ophthalmologist. However, since not everybody can be trained so well, automated techniques have been devised to supplant or replace the human expertise. Heidelberg Retinal Tomography (HRT-II), GDx-VCC and optical coherence tomography (Stratus-OCT 3) are the currently available computerised techniques for imaging various structures of the eyes, including the optic disc. They quantitate the nerve fiber layer of disc and surrounding retina and statistically correlate the findings with a database of previously screened population of normals. They are useful for baseline and serial follow-up to monitor minute changes in optic disc morphology. 
It should be noted that imaging won't provide conclusive evidence for clinical diagnosis however, and the evidence needs to be supplanted by serial physiological testing for functional changes. Such tests may include visual field charting, and final clinical interpretation of the complete eye examination by an eye care physician. Ophthalmologists and Optometrists are able to provide this service.
Disulphide
In chemistry, a disulfide usually refers to the structural unit composed of a linked pair of sulfur atoms.  The disulfide anion is S22.  The term disulfide can also refer to a chemical compound that contains a disulfide center, such as diphenyl disulfide, C6H5S-SC6H5.
Sulfur is usually assigned to the reduced oxidation number 2, described as S2 and called sulfide.  It has the electron configuration of a noble gas (argon).
In disulfides, sulfur is only reduced to a state with oxidation number 1. Its  configuration then resembles that of chlorine and, like it, has the tendency to form a covalent bond with another S ion to form a disulfide (S2)2 group. Oxygen can also do this; e.g. in peroxides such as H2O2.  In many cases, each of the two sulfur atoms in a disulfide group is covalently bonded to a carbon atom in an organic compound, forming a disulfide bond, sometimes called a disulfide linkage or a disulfide bridge.
The tendency is a bit more elaborate in the case of sulfur, which can form polysulfides.

# Some examples
- Iron disulfide (FeS2), known as the mineral pyrite.
- Disulfur dichloride (S2Cl2), a distillable liquid.
- The amino acid cystine
- The vitamin lipoic acid
- Diphenyl disulfide (Ph2S2).

# Misnomers
Disulfide is also used to refer to compounds that contain two sulfide (S2) centers.  The compound carbon disulfide, CS2 is described with the structural formula  i.e. S=C=S.  This molecule is not a disulfide in the sense that it lacks a S-S bond.  Similarly, molybdenum disulfide, MoS2, is not a disulfide in the sense again that its sulfur atoms are not linked.
Dithionate
The dithionate anion, S2O62, is a sulfur oxoanion derived from dithionic acid, H2S2O6.  Its chemical formula is sometimes written in a semistructural format, as 2.
The sulfur atoms of the dithionate ion are in the +5 oxidation state due to the presence of the S-S bond. Generally dithionates form stable compounds that are not readily oxidised or reduced. Strong oxidants oxidise them to sulfates and strong reducing agents reduce them to sulfites and dithionites. Aqueous solutions of dithionates are quite stable and can be boiled without decomposition .
The  irradiation of crystalline dithionates  produces SO3 radical ions. The unpaired electron in the SO3 radical can be detected with electron paramagnetic resonance and barium dithionate has been proposed as the basis for a radiation dosimeter 
The dithionate ion can act as a bidentate ligand .
The structure of the dithionate ion in the solid state is staggered in Na2S2O6.2H2O whereas in the anyhydrous potassium salt it is nearly eclipsed.

# Compounds
Compounds containing the dithionate ion include:
- sodium dithionate, Na2S2O6
- potassium dithionate, K2S2O6
- barium dithionate, BaS2O6