Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Plasma osmolality
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# Overview
Plasma osmolality is a measure of the concentration of substances such as sodium, chloride, potassium, urea, glucose, and other ions in human blood. It is calculated as the osmoles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Normal osmolality in plasma is about 280 - 303 milli-osmoles per kilogram.  It is affected by changes in water content.

# Composition
Plasma osmolality can be approximated with the following formula:
US units (sodium as mEq/l, BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) and glucose as mg/dl)
Plasma osmolality (mOsm/kg) = 2() + (/2.8) + (/18)
SI units (all variables in mmol/l):
Plasma osmolality (mOsm/kg) = 2 +  + 

# Clinical Relevance
As cell membranes in general are freely permeable to water, the osmolality of the extracellular fluid (ECF) is approximately equal to that of the intracellular fluid (ICF). Therefore, plasma osmolality is a guide to intracellular osmolality. This is important, as it shows that changes in ECF osmololity have a great affect on ICF osmolality - changes that can cause problems with normal cell functioning and volume. If the ECF was to become too hypotonic, water would readily fill surrounding cells, increasing their volume and potentially lysing them (cytolysis).
Plasmodium yoelii
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Plasmodium achiotense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia.
Like all Plasmodium species P. yoelii has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.

# Description
This species was described in 1968 by Landau, Michel and Adam.

# Geographical occurrence

# Clinical features and host pathology
This is a species that infects rodents.

# Notes
Its most notable feature is that it is used in the laboratory to infect mice, as a model of human malaria, particularly with respect to the immune response.
It is advantageous to have a whole-animal model of malaria because often it is difficult to know which factors to study in vitro, particularly in a complex system like the immune system.  Moreover, for many experiments it is not ethical or practical to use humans.
One of the special things about this particular model is that is has two strains with vastly different pathogenicity.  These are generally referred to as the "lethal" and "non-lethal" strains of the species. Comparison of these two strains can be used to deduce which factors may contribute to more serious malaria infections in humans.
Pleurisy overview

# Overview
Pleurisy is a disease state in which there is inflammation of the pleura, the lining of the pleural cavity, surrounding the lungs.  A symptom associated with pleurisy or pleuritis is pleuritic chest pain.  Pleuritic chest pain is defined as a sharp pain on either inspiration or expiration. Pleurisy can be caused by a variety of infectious and non-infectious causes.

# Pathophysiology
The visceral pleura does not contain any noci-ceptors or pain receptors. The parietal pleura is innervated by somatic nerves that sense pain when the parietal pleura is inflamed. Inflammation that occurs at the periphery of the lung parenchyma can extend into the pleural space and involve the parietal pleura, thereby activating the somatic pain receptors and resulting in pleuritic pain. Parietal pleurae of the outer rib cage and lateral aspect of each hemidiaphragm are innervated by intercostal nerves. Pain is localized to the cutaneous distribution of those nerves. The phrenic nerve supplies innervations to the central part of each hemidiaphragm; when these fibers are activated, the sensation of pain is referred to the ipsilateral neck or shoulder.

# Risk Factors
Underlying lung disease, such as pneumonia or tuberculosis, has a higher risk for pleurisy.

# Treatment

## Prevention
Early treatment of bacterial respiratory infections can prevent pleurisy.
Pluteus salicinus
Pluteus salicinus is a hallucinogenic mushroom which grows on wood and is widely distributed.

# Description
The cap is 2 to 8 cm across, convex to plane, gray, smooth with tiny scales near the center, darker at the margin, often with blue or greenish stains.  The gills are free and start out white, turning pink in age.  The stem is 3 to 11 cm long and 2 to 5 mm thick, white with bluish or greenish stains, especially near the bottom.  The spores are pink, smooth, 8 x 6 micrometres.  It is always found growing on wood.

# Habitat and distribution
This mushroom grows in woodlands and is widely distributed across Europe and the United States.  It is often found on alder and willow.
Pneumopericardium
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# Overview
Pneumopericardium is a medical condition where air enters the pericardial cavity and a well-recognized clinical and radiologic entity.  It can be congenital, or introduced by a wound.

# Differential Diagnosis of Underlying Causes
- Congenital diseases
- Surgery
- Penetrating trauma
- Blunt trauma (rare)
- Infectious pericarditis with gas-producing organisms
- Fistula formation between the pericardium and an adjacent air-containing organ (i.e. stomach or esophagus))

# Diagnosis

## Chest X-Ray
- The heart partially or completely surrounded by air, with the pericardium sharply outlined by air density on either side.
- Pneumopericardium can usually be distinguished from pneumomediastinum, since air in the pericardial sac should not rise above the anatomic limits of the pericardial reflexion on the proximal great vascular pedicle. Also on radiographs obtained with the patient in the decubitus position, air in the pericardial sac will shift immediately, while air in the mediastinum will not shift in a short interval between films.
- Occasionally, it may not be possible to distinguish pneumopenicardium from pneumomediastinum on plain film.

# Examples
Population growth
Population growth is the change in population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals in a population per unit time. The term population growth can technically refer to any species, but almost always refers to humans, and it is often used informally for the more specific demographic term population growth rate (see below), and is often used to refer specifically to the growth of the population of the world.
Simple models of population growth include the Malthusian Growth Model and the logistic model.

# Population growth rate
In demographics and ecology, Population growth rate (PGR) is the fractional rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases. Specifically, PGR ordinarily refers to the change in population over a specific time period expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the beginning of that period.  This can be written as the formula:
The crude death rate as defined above and applied to a whole population can give a misleading impression. For example, the number of deaths per 1000 people can be higher for developed nations than in less-developed countries, despite standards of health being better in developed countries.
It is usually measured in a fraction or percent in relation to the base population.

# Human population growth rate
Population growth which exceeds the carrying capacity of an area or environment results in overpopulation. Spikes in human population can cause problems such as pollution and traffic congestion, though these can be addressed by technological and economic changes.  Conversely, such areas may be considered "underpopulated" if the population is not large enough to maintain an economic system (see population decline).
Globally, the growth rate of the human population has been steadily declining (ie. population is growing more slowly than in the recent past, see External Links), although the last 50 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity made by the Green Revolution.
The actual annual growth in the number of humans is in decline, from 87 million per annum in the late 1980s, down to 75 million per annum in 2006. Growth remains high in the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and primarily in Sub-Saharan Africa.
In some countries there is negative population growth (ie. net decrease in population over time), especially in Central and Eastern Europe (mainly due to low fertility rates) and Southern Africa (due to the high number of HIV-related deaths). Within the next decade, Japan and some countries in Western Europe are also expected to encounter negative population growth due to sub-replacement fertility rates.
Portal venous gas

# Overview
Portal venous gas is the ominous sign in the clinical setting of mesenteric ischemia in adults or necrotizing enterocolitis. Mortality rates associated with portal venous system gas are 29%43%. Other reported causes of portal venous system gas are pancreatitis, abdominal abscess, small bowel obstruction, large bowel obstruction, perforated gastric ulcer or carcinoma, diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease, abdominal trauma, ingestion of a caustic agent, enema administration, colonoscopy, gastrostomy tubes, and liver transplantation.

# Diagnosis
The imaging findings are
- Plain radiographs demonstrate linear at the periphery of the liver.
- On CT scans, air in the portal vein manifests as streaks of air that can reach the capsule at the periphery of the liver.
- Air has a propensity to accumulate in the the left portal vein due to its more ventral location.
- Pneumobilia is a differential consideration but gas with pneumobilia is more centrally located in the liver.
Patient #1
Patient #2: Patient presenting with portal venous gas and aortic dissection
Posterior chamber
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# Overview
The posterior chamber is a narrow chink behind the peripheral part of the iris of the human eye, and in front of the suspensory ligament of the lens and the ciliary processes the Posterior Chamber consists of small space directly posterior of the Iris but anterior to the lens.
Potassium lactate

# Overview
Potassium lactate is a compound with formula KC3H5O3, or H3C-CHOH-COOK. It is the potassium salt of lactic acid. It is produced by neutralizing lactic acid which is fermented from a sugar source.  It has E number "E326".  Potassium lactate is a liquid product that is usually 60% solids but is available at up to 78% solids.
Potassium lactate is commonly used in meat and poultry products to extend shelf life and increase food safety as it has a broad antimicrobial action and is effective at inhibiting most spoilage and pathogenic bacteria.
Potassium lactate is also used as an extinguishing media in the First Alert Tundra fire extinguishers.
Potassium sorbate
Potassium sorbate is the potassium salt of sorbic acid.  Its primary use is as a food preservative (E number 202). Potassium sorbate is effective in a variety of applications including food, wine, and personal care.

# Chemistry
The molecular formula of potassium sorbate is C6H7O2K and its systematic name is potassium (E,E)-hexa-2,4-dienoate. Its has a molecular weight of 150.22 g/mol.  It is very soluble in water (58.2% at 20 C).  It is prepared by the reaction of sorbic acid with potassium hydroxide.

# Use
Potassium sorbate is used to inhibit molds and yeasts in many foods, such as cheese, wine, yogurt, dried meats, and baked goods. It can also be found in the ingredients list of many dried fruit products. In addition, herbal dietary supplement products generally contain potassium sorbate, which acts to prevent mold and microbes and to increase shelf life, and is used in quantities at which there are no known adverse health effects. Labeling of this preservative reads as "potassium sorbate" on the ingredient statement. Also, it is used in many personal care products to inhibit the development of microorganisms for shelf stability. Some manufacturers are using this preservative as a replacement for parabens.
Also known affectionately as "wine stabilizer", potassium sorbate produces sorbic acid when added to wine. It serves two purposes. When active fermentation has ceased and the wine is racked for the final time after clearing, potassium sorbate will render any surviving yeast incapable of multiplying. Yeast living at that moment can continue fermenting any residual sugar into CO2 and alcohol, but when they die no new yeast will be present to cause future fermentation. When a wine is sweetened before bottling, potassium sorbate is used to prevent refermentation when used in conjunction with potassium metabisulfite. It is primarily used with sweet wines, sparkling wines, and some hard ciders but may be added to table wines which exhibit difficulty in maintaining clarity after fining.
Some molds (notably some Trichoderma and Penicillium strains) and yeasts are able to detoxify sorbates by decarboxylation, producing 1,3-pentadiene. The pentadiene manifests as a typical odor of kerosene or petroleum.

# Toxicology
Potassium sorbate is considered to be safe because of its long term safety record and non-toxic profile.  Potassium sorbate is non-irritating and non-sensitizing. Allergic reactions are rare and it is well tolerated when administered internally.
Potassium sulfide
Potassium sulfide is the chemical compound with the formula K2S.  It is an inorganic polymer with the "antifluorite structure," which means that the small K+ ions occupy the tetrahedral (F) sites in fluorite, and the larger S2 centers occupy the eight-coordinate (Ca2+) sites.  Li2S, Na2S, and Rb2S crystallize similarly.
This salt contains the highly basic anion S2, which completely hydrolyzes in water according to the following equation:
For many purposes, this reaction is inconsequential since the mixture of SH and OH behaves as a source of S2.  Other alkali metal sulfides behave similarly.
K2S arises from the reaction of potassium and sulfur.  In the laboratory, this synthesis is usually conducted in a solution of anhydrous ammonia.

# Sulfurated potash (Liver of Sulfur)
Sulfurated potash is a poorly defined mixture of potassium sulfide, potassium polysulfide, potassium thiosulfate, and probably potassium bisulfide.  Synonyms include hepar sulfuris, Liver of sulfur, sulfurated potash, sulfurated potassa.
Liver of sulfur is mainly used in metalworking to form a patina, turning copper alloys brown.
Liver of sulfur was once used in pharmaceutical preparations such as white lotion.  At one time sulfurated potash was used to combat arthritis.  It is not surprising that it fell into disfavor because sulfides and polysulfides are toxic.
Potassium sulfides are formed when black powder is burned, and are important intermediates in many pyrotechnic effects, such as senko hanabi and some glitter formulations.  The compound is not added directly to the fireworks but rather forms during their combustion.
Protein precursor
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# Overview
A protein precursor, also called a pro-protein or pro-peptide, is an inactive protein (or peptide) that can be turned into an active form by posttranslational modification. The name of the precursor for a protein is often prefixed by pro. Examples include proinsulin and proopiomelanocortin.
Protein precursors are often used by an organism when the subsequent protein is potentially harmful, but needs to be available on short notice and/or in large quantities. Enzyme precursors are called zymogens or proenzymes. Examples are enzymes of the digestive tract in humans.
Some protein precursors are secreted from the cell. Many of these are synthesized with an N-terminal signal peptide that targets them for secretion. Like other proteins that contain a signal peptide, their name is prefixed by pre. They are thus called pre-pro-proteins or pre-pro-peptides. The signal peptide is cleaved off in the endoplasmic reticulum.
Prickle (protein)
The first prickle protein was identified in Drosophila as a planar cell polarity protein. Vertebrate prickle-1 was first found as a rat protein that binds to a transcription factor, neuron-restrictive silencer factor (NRSF). It was then recognized that other vertebrates including mice and humans have two genes that are related to Drosophila prickle. Mouse prickle-2 was found to be expressed in mature neurons of the brain along with mouse homologs of Drosophila planar polarity genes flamingo and dischevelled. 
Prickle is recruited to the cell surface membrane by strabismus, another planar cell polarity protein. In the developing Drosophila wing, prickle becomes concentrated at the proximal side of cells. Prickle can compete with the ankyrin-repeat protein Diego for a binding site on Dishevelled.
In Drosophila, prickle is present inside cells in multiple forms due to alternative splicing of the prickle mRNA. The relative levels of the alternate forms may be regulated and involved in the normal control of planar cell polarity.
Psychodermatology
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Psychodermatology is the practice of treating skin disorders using psychological and psychiatric techniques.
An estimated 30 to 60% of patients who seek medical help for skin problems have emotional issues as well.  These stressors can keep the most advanced medical treatment from working effectively.
The most frequently treated disorders are:  psoriasis, eczema, hives, genital and oral herpes, acne,  warts, skin allergies, pain and burning sensations, and compulsive skin picking and hair pulling.
Techniques include:  relaxation, imaging, meditation,  hypnosis and self-hypnosis, psychotropic medications, biofeedback, and focused psychotherapy.
Rafiq Abdus Sabir
An American doctor convicted of supporting terrorism, Rafiq Abdus Sabir had agreed to provide medical treatment to insurgents wounded in the US-led Invasion of Iraq.
Born in New York, Sabir was raised by his mentally-ill mother after his father abandoned the family. He graduated from Columbia University and worked as an emergency room physician in Boca Raton, Florida (including at Glades General Hospital) and Saudi Arabia, paying off $750,000 from medical school debts, living with his common-law wife Arlene Morgan, and their two sons.
He was approached by an undercover FBI agent Ali Soufan, who pretended to a member of al-Qaeda wanting to set up medical care for injured fighters. Sabir was arrested on May 28, 2005 at his home in the Villa San Remo gated community, where he had lived for the past two years.
Sabir is a friend of Tarik Shah, a New York jazz musician and martial-arts expert who was convicted of agreeing to provide training to Iraqi insurgents. Shah plead guilty and agreed to serve 15 years in prison, and was the one who gave the FBI Sabir's name as a "co-accomplice".  A Brooklyn bookstore owner and a Washington D.C. cabdriver received 13 and 15 years imprisonment respectively, in the same FBI sting operation.
Shah and Sabir of them swore Bayat together, though Sabir later claimed that since the oath was simply repeating Arabic that were read to him by the FBI agent, he hadn't understood what was being said, and that the agent's primitive Arabic resulted in words like "al-Qaeda" being mispronounced and undecipherable, as demonstrated in audiotapes played for the courtroom. Federal prosecutor Karl Metzner argued that since Sabir had lived in Saudi Arabia for several months, he must be able to speak Arabic.
Other evidence argued by Metzner included the fact that Sabir was a legal firearms owner.
Sabir was found guilty on May 21, 2007, and expressed disappointment with the 
verdict through his lawyer Ed Wilford. Sentencing, which carries a maximum of 30 years imprisonment, is scheduled for September 12, 2007.
Rapunzel syndrome
Rapunzel Syndrome (also known as Trichobezoar) is an extremely rare intestinal condition in humans resulting from the consumption of hair. It is named after the beautiful long-haired character Rapunzel in the fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm.
Its characteristics include:
- The body of a trichobezoar (hairball) located in the stomach, and its tail in the small bowel and/or in the right colon
- Small or large bowel obstruction
- Occurring in psychiatric patients
- Trichotillomania
At least fourteen cases have been reported in the pediatric age group.

# Treatment
As the human gastrointestinal tract is unable to digest human hairs, the trichobezoar usually has to be treated surgically.