Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Pyelectasis
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# Overview
Pyelectasis is a dilation of the renal pelvis.  The term is derived from the prefix pyelo- meaning "pelvis" and ectasia meaning "dilation or distension".  It is a relatively common ultrasound finding and is three times more common in male fetuses.  In most cases pyelectasis resolves normally, having no ill effects on the baby. The significance of pyelectasis in fetuses is not clear. It was thought to be a marker for obstruction, which in some cases it can be. In most cases it resolves spontaneously. In some studies it has been shown to appear and disappear several times throughtout the course of pregnancy. There is some discussion about what degree of pyelectasis is considered severe enough to warrant further investigation and most authorities use 6mm as the cut-off point.
Pyelectasis is considered to be a "soft marker for Down syndrome. This, along with other factors such as age and a Triple test, may be grounds for an amniocentesis to test for Down syndrome.
Babies with unresolved pyelectasis may experience urological problems requiring surgery.
Triple test

# Overview
The triple test, also called  triple screen, the Kettering test or the Bart's test, is an investigation performed during pregnancy (usually the second trimester).

# Conditions detected
The most common abnormality the test can detect is fetal trisomy 21 (Down syndrome).
In addition to Down syndrome, the triple and quadruple tests preferentially identify fetal trisomy 18, Turner syndrome, triploidy, trisomy 16 mosaicism, fetal death, Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, and steroid sulfatase deficiency.

# Values measured
The triple test measures the following three levels in the maternal serum:
- alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
- human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
- unconjugated estriol (UE3)

# Interpretation
Low values for AFP and UE3 and high values for hCG and nuchal thickness suggest an increased risk of developing Down's Syndrome. High levels for AFP indicate possible neural tube defects like spina bifida. An estimated risk is calculated and adjusted for the expectant mother's age, weight and ethnicity; if she's diabetic; if she's having twins or other multiples and the gestational age of the fetus. Many of these factors affect the levels of the substances being measured and the interpretation of the results.
The test is for screening, not for diagnosis, and does not have nearly the same predictive power of amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. However, the screening test carries a much lower risk to the fetus, and in conjunction with the age-related risk by the patient is useful to indicate the need to proceed to the more invasive tests.

# Variations
Only two of the hormones above can be tested for. Then the test is instead called a double test. In contrast, a quad test focuses on yet another hormone in addition. Furthermore, the triple test may be combined with an ultrasound measurement of nuchal translucency.

## Double test
Only AFP and hCG are measured. However, the maternal age, weight, ethnicity etc. are still included. A double test is almost as effective as a triple test, because unconjugated estriol, the omitted hormone, is, in practice, not detected at a higher rate in people who have it, than in people without.

## Quad test
The term "quadruple test" or "quad test" is sometimes used to refer to the above three tests plus a test for dimeric inhibin A (DIA).
R-spondin 1
R-spondin-1 is a secreted protein that in humans is encoded by the Rspo1 gene, found on chromosome 1.  In humans, it interacts with WNT4 in the process of female sex development.  Loss of function can cause female to male sex reversal.  Furthermore, it promotes canonical WNT/ catenin signaling.

# Structure
The protein has two cysteine-rich, furin-like domains and one thrombospondin type 1 domain.

# Function

## Sex Development

### Early Gonads
RSPO1 is required for the early development of gonads, regardless of sex.  It has been found in mice only eleven days after fertilization.  To induce cell proliferation, it acts synergistically with WNT4.  They help stabilize -catenin, which activates downstream targets.  If both are deficient in XY mice, there is less expression of SRY and a reduction in the amount of SOX9.  Moreover, defects in vascularization are found.  These occurrences result in testicular hypoplasia.  Male to female sex reversal, however, does not occur because Leydig cells remain normal.  They are maintained by steroidogenic cells, now unrepressed.

### Ovaries
RSPO1 is necessary in female sex development.  It augments the WNT/ catenin pathway to oppose male sex development.  In critical gonadal stages, between six and nine weeks after fertilization, the ovaries upregulate it while the testes downregulate it.

## Mucositis
Oral mucosa has been identified as a target tissue for RSPO1.  When administered to normal mice, it causes nuclear translocation of -catenin to this region.  Modulation of the WNT/ catenin pathway occurs through the relief of Dkk1 inhibition.  This occurrence results in increased basal cellularity, thickened mucosa, and elevated epithelial cell proliferation in the tongue.  RSPO1 can therefore potentially aid in the treatment of mucositis, which is characterized by inflammation of the oral cavity.  This unfortunate condition often accompanies chemotherapy and radiation in cancer patients with head and neck tumors.  RSPO1 has also been shown to promote gastrointestinal epithelial cell proliferation in mice.
R-spondin 3
R-spondin-3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RSPO3 gene.

# Function
This gene encodes a member of the thrombospondin type 1 repeat supergene family. In addition, the protein contains a furin-like cysteine-rich region. Furin-like repeat domains have been found in a variety of eukaryotic proteins involved in the mechanism of signal transduction by receptor tyrosine kinases.
During embryonic development, RSPO3 is expressed in the tail bud and the posterior presomitic mesoderm of the embryo. In tissue engineering, R-spondin 3 has been used to differentiate pluripotent stem cells into paraxial mesoderm progenitors
RARS (gene)
Arginyl-tRNA synthetase, cytoplasmic is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the RARS gene.
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases catalyze the aminoacylation of tRNA by their cognate amino acid. Because of their central role in linking amino acids with nucleotide triplets contained in tRNAs, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are thought to be among the first proteins that appeared in evolution. Arginyl-tRNA synthetase belongs to the class-I aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase family.

# Genetics
Mutations in RARS cause                 hypomyelination            .

# Interactions
RARS (gene) has been shown to interact with QARS.
RHCE (gene)
Blood group Rh(CE) polypeptide is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RHCE gene. RHCE has also recently been designated CD240CE (cluster of differentiation 240CE).
The Rh blood group system is the second most clinically significant of the blood groups, second only to ABO. It is also the most polymorphic of the blood groups, with variations due to deletions, gene conversions, and missense mutations. The Rh blood group includes this gene which encodes both the RhC and RhE antigens on a single polypeptide and a second gene which encodes the RhD protein. The classification of Rh-positive and Rh-negative individuals is determined by the presence or absence of the highly immunogenic RhD protein on the surface of erythrocytes. Alternative splicing of this gene results in four transcript variants encoding four different isoforms.
A recent study in the population of the island of Sardinia shows the association of a noncoding variant in the RHCE gene (rs630337) with an increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate(ESR). This suggest a possible causal effect of this polymorphism on this inflammatory marker despite not found in coding region of the gene.
Radiophobia

# Background
Radiophobia is an abnormal fear of ionizing radiation, also used in the sense of fear of X-rays. The term is used in several related senses: in reference to a neurological disorder, to a specific phobia, and (polemically, not medically) to general opposition to the use of nuclear energy.
Fear of ionizing radiation is not unnatural, since it can pose significant risks; however this fear may become abnormal and even irrational, often owing to poor information or understanding, but also as a consequence of traumatic experience.

# Radiophobia and Chernobyl
In the former Soviet Union many patients with radioactive sickness after the Chernobyl disaster were accused of radiophobia, perhaps in attempts to diminish the scale of the consequences. These claims were supported in some reports of experts from IAEA. At the same time, radiophobia (in the sense of an excessive fear of radiation) existed widely amongst the affected population, for the very reason that people believed that the government was lying and seriously understating the degree of danger. Lyubov Sirota, the author of Chernobyl Poems wrote in her poem, Radiophobia:
At the same time, medical experts investigating the psychological consequences of Chernobyl have presented evidence indicating that certain psychoneurological symptoms, manifesting themselves in fatigue, sleep disturbances, impaired memory, etc., (i.e., similar to those of chronic fatigue syndrome), appeared to have no direct correlation to the dose of radiation received, or to the level of contamination of the area of residence.

# Radiophobia as a term in the atomic energy debate
Attempts to downplay the danger of radiation by stigmatizing the opponents of nuclear plants and nuclear tests with the label of "phobiacs" took place in the USA.
Today the term "radiophobia" is polemically applied to the arguments of proponents of the LNT concept (Linear no-threshold response model for ionizing radiation) of radiation security proposed by  the U.S. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) in 1949. The "no-threshold" position effectively assumes that even negligible doses of radiation may pose danger. The issue remains controversial.
Rakesh Jain

# Overview
Dr. Rakesh K. Jain is the Andrew Werk Cook Professor of Tumor Biology at Massachusetts General Hospital in the Harvard Medical School.  Dr. Jain primarily researches tumor pathophysiology.  His work on cancer therapies led to discovery of an alternate use of Herceptin, an anti-tumor cell pharmaceutical compound produced by Genentech, as an inhibitor for blood vessel growth necessary for tumor growth.  His award-winning work on tumor biology has been recognized by a number of professional recognitions, including the following awards in 2006:
- Distinguished Service Award, Nature Biotechnology-Miami Symposium on Angiogenesis
- Outstanding Achievement Award, Society of American Asian Scientists in Cancer Research
- Robert L. Krigel Lecture, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia
- Alpha Chi Sigma Research Award, American Institute of Chemical Engineers
- Benjamin Zweifach Distinguished Lecture, The City College, New York
Dr. Jain received his B.Tech. degree from the Indian Institutes of Technology in Chemical Engineering in 1972 and received his M.Ch.E. and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Delaware in 1974 and 1976, respectively.
Raltitrexed

# Overview
Raltitrexed (brand name Tomudex) is a chemotherapy drug manufactured AstraZeneca  
Company,  is an antimetabolite used in chemotherapy. It is an inhibitor of thymidylate synthase.

# Uses
Used in treatment of colorectal cancer since 1998.

# Mechanism of action
Raltitrexed is chemically similar to folic acid and is in the class of chemotherapy drugs called folate antimetabolites.  It works by inhibiting enzyme used in pyrimidine synthesis thymidylate synthase (TS). Raltitrexed is fully active after polyglutamylation. Inhibition of L1210 cell growth i culture IC50 = 9 nM, is one of the strongest antimetabolite in use.
By inhibiting the formation of precursor  pyrimidine nucleotides, raltitrexed prevents the formation of DNA and RNA, which are required for the growth and survival of both normal cells and cancer cells.
Recall bias
In psychology, recall bias (or reporting bias) is a type of systematic bias which occurs when the way a survey respondent answers a question is affected not just by the correct answer, but also by the respondent's memory.
This can affect the results of the survey. As a hypothetical example, suppose that a survey in 2005 asked respondents whether they believed that O.J. Simpson had killed his wife, 10 years after the criminal trial. Respondents who believed him innocent might be more likely to have forgotten about the case, and therefore to state no opinion, than respondents who thought him guilty. If this is the case, then the survey would find a higher-than-accurate proportion of people who believed that Simpson did kill his wife.
Relatedly but distinctly, the term might also be used to describe an instance where a survey respondent intentionally responds incorrectly to a question about their personal history which results in response bias. As a hypothetical example, suppose that a researcher conducts a survey among women of group A, asking whether they have had an abortion, and the same survey among women of group B.
If the results are different between the two groups, it might be that women of one group are less likely to have had an abortion, or it might simply be that women of one group who have had abortions are less likely to admit to it. If the latter is the case, then this would skew the survey results; this is a kind of response bias. (It is also possible that both are the case: women of one group are less likely to have had abortions, and women of one group who have had abortions are less likely to admit to it. This would still affect the survey statistics.)
In experimental sciences, "reporting bias" refers to a tendency to under-report unexpected or undesirable experimental results, attributing the results to experimental error, while being more trusting of expected or desirable results, though these may be subject to the same experimental errors. Over time, reporting bias can lead to a status quo where multiple investigators discover and discard experimental results, and later experimenters justify their own reporting bias by observing that previous experimenters reported different results (even though those earlier experimenters may have fallen victim to a weaker case of reporting bias). Thus, each incident of reporting bias can make future incidents more likely.
Red nucleus
The red nucleus is a structure in the rostral midbrain involved in motor coordination.

# Function
In animals without a significant corticospinal tract, gait is mainly controlled by the red nucleus.
In humans, the red nucleus mainly controls the muscles of the shoulder and upper arm, but it has some control over the lower arm and hand as well. It is less important in its motor functions for humans than in many other mammals, because, in humans, the corticospinal tract is dominant. However the crawling of babies is controlled by the red nucleus, as is arm-swinging in normal walking. Since the red nucleus has sparse control over hands (as the Rubrospinal tract is more involved in  large muscle movement such as that for Arms and Legs), fine control of the fingers is not modified by the functioning of the red nucleus (rather it relies on the corticobulbar tract ).

# Input and output
The red nucleus receives many inputs from the contralateral cerebellum and an input from the ipsilateral motor cortex.
It sends efferent axons (the rubrospinal projection) to the contralateral half of the rhombencephalic reticular formation and spinal cord. These efferent axons cross just ventral to the nucleus and descend through the midbrain to the spinal cord, where the rubrospinal tract which they make up runs ventral to the lateral corticospinal tract in the lateral funiculus.

# Meaning of name
Its name derives from an iron-containing pigment in many of the cells, which in fresh samples gives it a pink appearance.
Redirection
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# Why redirect a page?
Sometimes a topic will have multiple names or abbreviations, and you will want to direct them all to one page
For example take the page ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction.  The names STEMI, MI, Acute MI, Myocardial Infarction, AMI all are redirected to the page ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction.

# How to make a redirect (redirect command)
To redirect a page A to a different page B (also called target page), enter the following redirecting command (using "edit source") at the top of the redirecting page.
For example, to redirect the MI page ( redirecting page ) to the ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction page (target page),  edit the MI page (using "edit source") and enter:

# How Do I Redirect To A Subheading of the Page Instead of the Page in General?
Say you want to redirect the page "Alcohol septal ablation" to a section of the parent page entitled Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy interventional cardiology. You can redirect to a specific subheading within a page by putting the name of the page followed by the hatch mark of the subheading you want to direct to. The example for alcohol septal ablation is shown below:

## What if I misspell the name of a page that I create?
If a spelling mistake occurs in a title such as STElevation Myocardial Infarction, it is not possible for a regular user to move the page with all its history. It is however possible to create a redirect. A new page ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction must be created first, and the contents from the old page must be copied manually. Then the old page STElevation Myocardial Infarction must be edited and its source code replaced by:

## Undesirable redirects
Don't make a redirect that points to another redirect. This is called a double redirect. These redirects don't work, and they can create a slow, unpleasant experience for the reader.
Renal colic

# Overview
Renal colic is a type of pain commonly caused by kidney stones or accumulation of crystals.
These kidney stones cause interference with the flow of urine and the kidney may swell up causing pain (colic).
The pain typically begins in the kidney area or below it and radiates through the flank until it reaches the bladder.  The pain is colicky in nature, meaning that it comes on in spasmodic waves as opposed to being a steady continuous pain. It may come in two varieties: dull and acute; the acute variation is particularly unpleasant and has been described as one of the strongest pain sensations felt by humans.
Depending on the type and sizes of the kidney stones moving through the urinal tract the pain may be stronger in the renal or bladder area or equally strong in both.

# Differential diagnosis
Reticulon 4
Reticulon 4, also known as Neurite outgrowth inhibitor or Nogo,  is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RTN4 gene that has been identified as an inhibitor of neurite outgrowth specific to the central nervous system. During neural development Nogo is expressed mainly by neurons and provides an inhibitory signal for the migration and sprouting of CNS endothelial (tip) cells, thereby restricting blood vessel density.
This gene belongs to the family of reticulon-encoding genes. Reticulons are associated with the endoplasmic reticulum, and are involved in neuroendocrine secretion or in membrane trafficking in neuroendocrine cells. The product of this gene is a potent neurite outgrowth inhibitor that may also help block the regeneration of the central nervous system in higher vertebrates. Alternatively spliced transcript variants derived both from differential splicing and differential promoter usage and encoding different isoforms have been identified. There are three isoforms: Nogo A, B and C. Nogo-A has two known inhibitory domains including amino-Nogo, at the N-terminus and Nogo-66, which makes up the molecules extracellular loop. Both amino-Nogo and Nogo-66 are involved in inhibitory responses, where amino-Nogo is a strong inhibitor of neurite outgrowth, and Nogo-66 is involved in growth cone destruction.
Research suggests that blocking Nogo-A during neuronal damage (from diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis) will help to protect or restore the damaged neurons. The investigation into the mechanisms of this protein presents a great potential for the treatment of auto-immune mediated demyelinating diseases and spinal cord injury regeneration. It has also been found to be a key player in the process whereby physical exercise enhances learning and memory processes in the brain.

# Interactions
Reticulon 4 has been shown to interact with WWP1, BCL2-like 1 and Bcl-2.
Retinoscopy

# Overview
Retinoscopy is a technique to obtain an objective measurement of the refractive condition of a patient's eyes. The examiner uses a retinoscope to shine light into the patient's eye and observes the reflection (reflex) off the patient's retina. While moving the streak or spot of light across the pupil the examiner observes the relative movement of the reflex then uses a phoropter or manually places lenses over the eye to "neutralize" the reflex.
Retinoscopy is especially useful in prescribing corrective lenses for patients who are unable to undergo a subjective refraction that requires a judgement and response from the patient (such as mentally handicapped or non-verbal people). It is also used to evaluate accommodative ability of the eye and detect latent hyperopia.
Retinoscope works on a principle called Foucault's principle. Basically it indicates that the examiner should simulate the infinity to obtain the correct refractive power. Hence a power corresponding to the working distance is subtracted from the gross retinoscope value.
Static retinoscopy is performed when the patient has relaxed accommodative status viewing a distance target; dynamic retinoscopy is performed when the patient has active accommodation from viewing a near target.
Rhodamine B
Molecular Formula: C28H31N2O3Cl
Molecular Weight: 479.02 grams per mole
CAS Number: 81-88-9
SMILES structure: Template:SMILES
Rhodamine B is used in biology as a staining fluorescent dye, sometimes in combination with auramine O, as the auramine-rhodamine stain to demonstrate acid-fast organisms, notably Mycobacterium.
Rhodamine B is tunable around 610 nm when used as a laser dye.
Rhodamine B is also called Rhodamine 610, C.I. Pigment Violet 1, Basic Violet 10, or C.I. 45170.
In California, Rhodamine B is suspected to be carcinogenic and thus products containing it must contain a warning on its label.
-  , Naval Jelly msds with Rhodamine B