Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Medical education

# Overview
Medical education is education related to the practice of being a medical practitioner, either the initial training to become a doctor or further training thereafter (including residency).
Medical education and training varies considerably across the world. Various teaching methodologies have been utilised in medical education, which is an active area of educational research.

# Entry-level education
Entry-level medical education programs are tertiary-level courses undertaken at a medical school. Depending on jurisdiction and university, these may be either undergraduate-entry (most of Europe, India, China) or graduate-entry programs (mainly United States).
Generally, initial training is taken at medical school. Traditionally initial medical education is divided between preclinical and clinical studies. The former consists of the basic sciences such as anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology, pathology. The latter consists of teaching in the various areas of clinical medicine such as internal medicine, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, and surgery. Increasingly, however, medical programs are using systems-based curricula in which learning is integrated, and several institutions do this.
There has been a proliferation of programmes that combine medical training with research (MD PhD) or management programmes (MD MBA), although this has been criticised.

# Post-graduate education
Following completion of entry-level training, newly graduated doctors are often required to undertake a period of supervised practice before full registration is granted; this is most often of one year duration and may be referred to as "internship" or "provisional registration" or "residency".
Further training in a particular field of medicine may be undertaken. In some jurisdictions this is commenced immediately following completion of entry-level training, whilst other jurisdictions require junior doctors to undertake generalist (unstreamed) training for a number of years before commencing specialisation.

# Example of medical education systems
- Medical education in Australia
- Medical education in the United Kingdom
- Medical education in the United States
- Medical College (India)
- Medical education in Hong Kong
- Medical education in the Philippines
Medical direction

# Overview
Medical Direction, or Online Medical Direction, allows a Paramedic or Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) to contact a physician from the field via radio or other means to obtain instructions on further care of a patient. This is used particularly when a patient is in need of care that is not allowed without medical direction under the caregiver's scope of practice.
Example: A paramedic may be treating a burn victim in the field, and has already given the maximum amount of narcotic painkiller allowed without physicians permission. The paramedic will attempt to contact his or her base station hospital and ask for further instructions, to provide the patient with pain relief.
There are two different types of Medical Direction. Direct Medical Direction, often called On-Line Medical Direction, where care is rendered under direct orders of the Base Station Physician, usually over the radio or telephone.  The other is Indirect Medical Direction, or Off-Line Medical Direction, which includes the development of a set of written instructions, known as Protocols.  These can also be called Standing Orders.
Medical emergency
A medical emergency is an injury or illness that poses an immediate threat to a person's life or long term health.  These emergencies may require assistance from another person, who should ideally be suitably qualified to do so, although some of these emergencies can be dealt with by the victim themselves.  Dependant on the severity of the emergency, and the quality of any treatment given, it may require the involvement of multiple levels of care, from a first aider to  an emergency physician through to specialist surgeons.
Any response to an emergency medical situation will depend strongly on the situation, the patient involved and availability of resources to help them.  It will also vary depending on whether the emergency occurs whilst in hospital under medical care, or outside of any care (for instance, in the street)

# Response
For emergencies starting outside of medical care, a key component of providing proper care is to summon the emergency medical services (usually an ambulance), by calling for help using the appropriate local emergency telephone number, such as 911 or 999.  The emergency dispatchers will generally run through a questioning system such as AMPDS in order to assess the priority level of the call, along with the caller's name and location.
Those trained to perform first aid can act within the bounds of the knowledge they have, whilst awaiting the next level of definitive care.  Those who are not able to perform first aid can also assist by remaining calm and staying with the injured or ill person.  A common complaint of emergency service personnel is the propensity of people to crowd around the scene of victim, as it is generally unhelpful, making the patient more stressed, and obstructing the smooth working of the emergency services.
The principles of the chain of survival apply to medical emergencies where the patient has an absence of breathing and heartbeat.  This involves the four stages of Early access, Early CPR, Early defibrillation and Early advanced life support
Unless the situation is particularly hazardous, and is likely to further endanger the patient, evacuating the victim requires special skills, and should be left to the professionals of the emergency medical and fire service.

# Clinical response
Within hospital settings, an adequate staff is generally present to deal with the average emergency situation. Emergency medicine physicians have training to deal with most medical emergencies, and maintain CPR and ACLS certifications. In disasters or complex emergencies, most hospitals have protocols to summon on-site and off-site staff rapidly.
Both emergency room and inpatient medical emergencies follow the basic protocol of Advanced Cardiac Life Support. Irrespective of the nature of the emergency, adequate blood pressure and oxygenation are required before the cause of the emergency can be eliminated. Possible exceptions include the clamping of arteries in severe hemorrhage.
Medical restraint

# Overview
Medical restraints are a subset of general physical restraint used for medical purposes. Unlike some other forms of restraint, medical restraints are designed to restrain their wearer without causing pain.
Medical restraints are generally used to prevent people with severe physical or mental disorders from harming themselves or others.
Forms of medical restraint include four-point restraints, fabric body holders and straitjackets, as well as less-confining devices such as safety vests, jackets, lap and wheel chair belts.
Although medical restraints, used properly, can help prevent injury, they can also be dangerous. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) estimated in 1992 that at least 100 deaths occur annually in the U.S. from their improper use in nursing homes, hospitals and private homes.  Most of the deaths are due to strangulation.  The agency has also received reports of broken bones, burns and other injuries related to improper use of restraints.
Because of the potential for abuse, the use of medical restraints is regulated in many jurisdictions.

# Types of medical restraints
- A vest that can be placed on a patient like any other vest garment. It has a long strap at each end that can be tied behind a chair in order to prevent the patient from getting out of the chair, or to the sides of a bed to keep the patient in bed.
- Limb restraints are used to prevent activity in various limbs. They are wrapped around the wrists or ankles, and tied to the side of a bed, to prevent the patient from using one's arms, legs, hands, or feet, and to prevent said patient from harming oneself or others.

# Laws pertaining to medical restraints
Current United States' law requires that medical restraints may only be used when ordered by a physician. Such a physician's order, which is subject to renewal upon expiration if necessary, is valid only for a maximum of 24 hours.

# Other uses
Medical restraints have been fetishised by some people, and are used in some BDSM activities.
Mercury(II) oxide
Mercury(II) oxide, also called mercuric oxide, has a formula of HgO and a formula weight of 216.6. It has a red or orange color. Mercury(II) oxide is a solid at room temperature and pressure.

# Synthesis
The red form of HgO can be made by heating Hg on oxygen at roughly 350 C, or by pyrolysis of Hg(NO3)2. The yellow form can be obtained by precipitation of aqueous Hg2+ with alkali.

# Uses
HgO is sometimes used in the production of mercury as it decomposes quite easily. When it decomposes, oxygen gas is generated. Historically, in 1774, Joseph Priestley discovered the oxygen released by heating mercuric oxide, although he did not identify the gas as oxygen. Rather, Priestly called it "dephlogisticated air", as that was the paradigm that he was working under at the time. Lavoisier called "dephlogisticated air" as "oxygen" due to the acidic compounds that the gas produce. This is why the textbook account of the discovery of oxygen is inaccurate in the sense that it is really impossible to answer who "discovered" oxygen. This was, however one of the major milestones of chemistry.
It is also used as a material for cathodes for mercury batteries.
Messianic complex

# Overview
Messianic complex is a psychological state in which the individual believes him/herself to be, or is destined to become, the saviour of the particular field, a group, an event, a time period, or in an extreme scenario, the world.
People with Messianic Complexes tend to see themselves as saviours to a specific group of people or a specific field, making claims of their own glory, or claiming a self awareness of their own gift and how that gift can affect a group of people or a field of life.
In the most extreme cases, people with Messianic Complexes may see themselves as spiritual/religious Messiahs with transcendent powers who are destined to save the world.
Methyl salicylate

# Overview
Methyl salicylate (chemical formula C6H4(HO)COOCH3; also known as salicylic acid methyl ester, oil of wintergreen, betula oil, methyl-2-hydroxybenzoate) is a natural product of many species of plants.  Some of the plants producing it are called wintergreens, hence the common name.

# Botanical background
Plants containing methyl salicylate produce this organic ester (a combination of an organic acid with an alcohol) most likely as an anti-herbivore defense.  Aside from its toxicity, methyl salicylate may be used by plants as a pheromone to warn other plants of pathogens such as tobacco mosaic virus. If the plant is infested with herbivorous insects, the release of methyl salicylate may function as an aid in the recruitment of beneficial insects to kill the herbivorous insects. Numerous plants produce methyl salicylate in very small amounts.
Plants producing it in significant amounts (readily detected by scent) include:
- Most species of the family Pyrolaceae, particularly those in the genus Pyrola.
- Some species of the genus Gaultheria in the family Ericaceae.
- Some species of the genus Betula in the family Betulaceae, particularly those in the subgenus Betulenta.

# Commercial production
Methyl salicylate can be produced by esterifiying salicylic acid with methanol.  Commercial methyl salicylate is now synthesized, but in the past, it was commonly distilled from the twigs of Sweet Birch (Betula lenta) and Eastern Teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens).

# Uses
It is used as a rubefacient in deep heating liniments, and in small amounts as a flavoring agent at no more than 0.04%.  It is also used to provide fragrance to various products. It is also used as an odor masking agent for some organophosphate pesticides. If applied in too high quantities it can cause stomach and kidney problems.
It is one of many compounds that is attractive to males of various species of orchid bees, who apparently gather the chemical to synthesize pheromones; it is commonly used as bait to attract and collect these bees for study.
Methyl salicylate also has the ability to clear plant or animal tissue samples of color, and as such is useful for microscopy and immunohistochemistry when excess pigments obscure structures or block light in the tissue being examined. This clearing generally only takes a few minutes, but the tissue must first be dehydrated in alcohol.
Methyl salicylate can also be used as a transfer agent, to produce a manual copy of an image on a surface.

# Safety
In pure form, methyl salicylate is toxic, especially when taken internally.  The lowest published lethal dose is 101 mg/kg body weight in adult humans. It has proven fatal to small children in doses as small as 4 mL.  A 17 year-old cross-country runner at Notre Dame Academy on Staten Island, died April 3, 2007, after her body absorbed high levels of methyl salicylate through excessive use of topical muscle-pain relief products.
Methyltransferase

# Overview
Methyltransferase is a type of transferase enzyme which transfers a methyl group from a donor to an acceptor.
Often methylation occurs on nucleic bases in DNA or amino acids in protein structures. Methytransferase uses a reactive methyl group bound to sulfur in S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) as the methyl donor.
DNA methylation is often utilized to silence and regulate genes without changing the original DNA sequence. This methylation occurs on cytosine residues. DNA methylation may be necessary for normal growth from embryonic stages in mammals. When mutant embryonic stem cells lacking the murine DNA methyltransferase gene were introduced to a germline of mice they caused a recessive lethal phenotype.  Methylation may also be linked to cancer development as methylation of tumor suppressor genes promotes tumorgenesis and metastasis. 
Site-specific methyltransferases have the same DNA target sequences as certain restriction enzymes. Methylation can also serve to protect DNA from enzymatic cleavage, since restriction enzymes are unable to bind and recognize externally modified sequences. This is especially useful in bacterial restriction modification systems which use restriction enzymes to cleave foreign DNA while keeping their own DNA protected by methylation.
Methylation of amino acids in the formation of proteins leads to more diversity of possible amino acids and therefore more diversity of function. The methylation reaction occurs on nitrogen atoms either on the N terminus or side-chain position of the protein and are usually irreversible.
Examples include:
- DNA methyltransferase
- Histone methyltransferase
- 5-Methyltetrahydrofolate-homocysteine methyltransferase
- Catechol-O-methyl transferase
- 5-hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase
Mevalonate kinase
Mevalonate kinase is an enzyme (specifically a kinase) that in humans is encoded by the MVK gene.  Mevalonate kinases are found in a wide variety of organisms from bacteria to mammals.  This enzyme catalyzes the following reaction:

# Function
Mevalonate is a key intermediate, and mevalonate kinase a key early enzyme, in isoprenoid and sterol synthesis.

# Clinical significance
Defects can be associated with hyperimmunoglobulinemia D with recurrent fever.
Mevalonate kinase deficiency caused by mutation of this gene results in mevalonic aciduria, a disease characterized psychomotor retardation, failure to thrive, hepatosplenomegaly, anemia and recurrent febrile crises. Defects in this gene also cause hyperimmunoglobulinaemia D and periodic fever syndrome, a disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of fever associated with lymphadenopathy, arthralgia, gastrointestinal dismay and skin rash.
Microbial ecology
Microbial ecology is the relationship of microorganisms with one another and with their environment. It concerns the three major domains of life  Eukaryota, Archaea, and Bacteria  as well as viruses.
Microorganisms, by their omnipresence, impact the entire biosphere. They are present in virtually all of our planet's environments, including some of the most extreme, from acidic lakes to the deepest ocean, and from frozen environments to hydrothermal vents.
Microbes, especially bacteria, often engage in symbiotic relationships (either positive or negative) with other organisms, and these relationships affect the ecosystem. One example of these fundamental symbioses are chloroplasts, which allow eukaryotes to conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are considered to be endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, a group of bacteria that are thought to be the origins of aerobic photosynthesis. Some theories state that this invention coincides with a major shift in the early earth's atmosphere, from a reducing atmosphere to an oxygen-rich atmosphere. Some theories go as far as saying that this shift in the balance of gasses might have triggered a global ice-age known as the Snowball Earth.
They are the backbone of all ecosystems, but even more so in the zones where light cannot approach and thus photosynthesis cannot be the basic means to collect energy. In such zones, chemosynthetic microbes provide energy and carbon to the other organisms.
Other microbes are decomposers, with the ability to recycle nutrients from other organisms' waste poducts.  These microbes play a vital role in biogeochemical cycles. The nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus cycle and the carbon cycle all depend on microorganisms in one way or another. For example, nitrogen which makes up 78% of the planet's atmosphere is "indigestible" for most organisms, and the flow of nitrogen into the biosphere depends on a microbial process called fixation.
Due to the high level of horizontal gene transfer among microbial communities, microbial ecology is also of importance to studies of evolution.

# Microbial resource management
Biotechnology may be used alongside microbial ecology to address a number of environmental and economic challenges. Managing the carbon cycle to sequester carbon dioxide and prevent excess methanogenesis is important in mitigating global warming, and the prospects of bioenergy are being expanded by the development of microbial fuel cells. Microbial resource management advocates a more progressive attitude towards disease, whereby biological control agents are favoured over attempts at eradication. Fluxes in microbial communities must be better characterized for this field's potential to be realised.
Microcytic anemia

# Overview
Microcytic anemia is characterized by small red blood cells. The normal mean corpuscular volume (abbreviated to MCV on full blood count results) is 76-100 fl, with smaller cells (100 fl) as macrocytic.
In microcytic anemia, the red blood cells (erythrocytes) are usually also hypochromic, meaning that the red blood cells are paler than usual. This can be quantified as the mean corpuscular hemoglobin or mean cell hemoglobin (MCH), the amount of hemoglobin per cell; the normal value is 27-32 picograms (pg). Similar is the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration or mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), giving the amount of hemoglobin per volume of erythrocytes (normally about 320-360 g/l or 32-36 g/dl). Typically, therefore, anemia of this category is described as "microcytic, hypochromic anemia".
Microcytic anaemia is classically caused by:
- iron deficiency anemia, by far the most common cause of anemia in general and of microcytic anemia in particular;
- thalassemia;
- sideroblastic anemia, congenital or acquired;
- sometimes, anemia of chronic disease, although this more typically causes normochromic, normocytic anemia;
- lead poisoning (rare).
Other causes that are "typically" thought of as causing normocytic anemia or macrocytic anemia must also be considered, and the presence of two or more causes of anemia can distort the "typical" picture of each.

# Differentiating Microcytic Anemia from Other Diseases
To review the differential diagnosis of anemia, click here.
Military medicine

# Overview
The term military medicine has a number of potential connotations. It may mean:
- A medical specialty, specifically a branch of occupational medicine attending to the medical risks and needs (both preventive and interventional) of soldiers, sailors and other service members. This disparate arena has historically involved the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases (especially tropical diseases), and, in the 20th Century, the ergonomics and health effects of operating military-specific machines and equipment such as submarines, tanks, helicopters and airplanes. Undersea and aviation medicine can be understood as subspecialties of military medicine, or in any case originated as such. (The American Board of Medical Specialties does not, however, certify or recognize a specialty or subspecialty of military medicine.)
- The planning and practice of the surgical management of mass battlefield casualties and the logistical and administrative considerations of establishing and operating combat support hospitals. This involves military medical hierarchies, especially the organization of structured medical command and administrative systems that interact with and support deployed combat units. (See Battlefield medicine.)
- The administration and practice of health care for military service members and their dependents in non-deployed (peacetime) settings. This may (as in the United States) consist of a medical system paralleling all the medical specialties and sub-specialties that exist in the civilian sector. See also Veterans Health Administration for medical services given to US veterans.
- Medical research and development specifically bearing upon problems of military medical interest. Historically, this encompasses all of the medical advances emerging from medical research efforts directed at addressing the problems encountered by deployed military forces (e.g., vaccines or drugs for soldiers, medical evacuation systems, drinking water chlorination, etc) many of which ultimately prove important beyond the purely military considerations that inspired them.