Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Blood test

# Overview
Blood tests are laboratory tests done on blood to gain an appreciation of disease states and the function of organs. Since blood flows throughout the body, acting as a medium for providing oxygen and other nutrients, and drawing waste products back to the excretory systems for disposal, the state of the bloodstream affects, or is affected by, many medical conditions. For these reasons, blood tests are the most commonly performed medical tests. Blood is obtained from one of the patient's veins by venipuncture or fingerprick, except for tests such as Arterial blood gas.
Blood is useful as it is a relatively non-invasive way to obtain cells, and extracellular fluid (plasma), from the body to check on its health. Although the term blood test is used, most routine tests (except for most haematology) are done on plasma or serum.
The list below includes both specific tests, and general techniques.

# Blood chemistry tests
A basic metabolic panel measures sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), magnesium, creatinine, and glucose. It also sometimes includes calcium.
While the regular glucose test is taken at a certain point in time, the glucose tolerance test involves repeated testing to determine the rate at which glucose is processed by the body.
While the above tests are all taken from venous blood, by contrast the arterial blood gas test is, as its name would suggest, taken from arterial blood, and is therefore more dangerous and uncomfortable.

# Large organic molecules

## Proteins
- Protein electrophoresis (general technique -- not a specific test)
- Western blot (general technique -- not a specific test)
- Liver function tests

## Antibody Proteins
- Serology  (general technique -- not a specific test)
Wassermann test (for syphilis)
- Wassermann test (for syphilis)
- ELISA test
- Coombs test

## Other
- Polymerase chain reaction (DNA). DNA testing is today possible with even very small quantities of blood: this is commonly used in forensic science, but is now also part of the diagnostic process of many disorders.
- Northern blot (RNA)

# Cells
- Full blood count (or "complete blood count")
- Hematocrit and MCV ("mean corpuscular volume")
- Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)
- Cross-matching. Determination of blood type for blood transfusion or transplants
- Blood cultures are commonly taken if infection is suspected. Positive cultures and resulting sensitivity results are often useful in guiding medical treatment.
Human body

# Overview
The human body is the entire physical structure of a human organism. The human body consists of a head, neck, torso, two arms and two legs. The average height of an adult human is about 1.6 m (5 to 6 feet) tall. This size is largely determined by genes. Body type and body composition are influenced by postnatal factors such as diet and exercise.
The human body is often called a "body". The body of a dead person is called a "corpse" or "cadaver".
The human body consists of systems, organs, 
tissues and cells. Human anatomy studies structures and systems of the human body. The study of the workings of the human body is called physiology. Ecology focuses on the distribution and abundance of the bodies and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between bodies and its environment.
Combination of individual atoms, molecules, polypeptides, cells in human body,  is a source of emergence.

# Social psychology
The human body can be used for communication. Many people, consciously or unconsciously, send and receive non-verbal signals all the time. Body language forms part of paralanguage.
Bonesetter
A bonesetter is a practitioner of joint manipulation. Before the advent of chiropractors, osteopaths and physical therapists, bonesetters were the main providers of this type of treatment in the world. Bonesetters would also reduce joint dislocations and 're-set' bone fractures.
The original spinal adjustment was a variation of a procedure known today as spinal manipulation. This form of treatment has documented use as far back as Hippocrates, the ancient Egyptians and Asian Cultures and was carried through the ages by families of bonesetters. The modern form of spinal manipulation techniques have charactersitic biomechanical features, and are usually associated with an audible "popping" sound.
In some older Eastern families and communities bonesetting was learned in conjunction with acupressure / acupuncture as the main healing art and treatment for the remote location and family members.  For many years this type of training was normal practice in these families and communities being passed on from generation to generation. These teachings and uses could be easily found in regular use in the Samurai culture of Japan.  This type of ancient formal training has almost completely vanished due to the modern chiropractic / medical boards and certifications.  However you can still find a small number classicaly trained martial arts practitioners practicing this art in traditional ways today.
Other "Lay" bonesetters still practice in some parts of the world. 

# Present day bonesetting in the United Kingdom
Bonesetting involves the bonesetter adjusting the position of the bones in relation to another without the use of anaesthetics.

## The Profession
Bonesetters practice in the United Kingdom and are listed with Unified Bonesetters Ltd. The practicing title of Bonesetter in the United Kingdom is protected. All members are subject to a continuing peer review system to assess fitness to practice. This is carried out in the practitoner's own practice.

## Therapeutic Principles
Bonesetters accept the general principles that relief of pain and restoration of function through manipulation of the bones will allow the body as a whole to improve its function of both nerves and arteries.

## Treatments
Bonesetters treat pain and dysfunction and include in the treatment plan patient review and self management.
Bragg peak

# Overview
The Bragg curve plots the energy loss of ionizing radiation during its travel through matter. For protons, -rays, and other ion rays, there is a pronounced peak in the curve immediately before the particles come to rest. This is called Bragg peak, for William Henry Bragg who discovered it in 1903.
When a fast charged particle moves through matter, it ionizes particles and deposits a dose along its path. A peak occurs because the interaction cross section increases as the charged particle's energy decreases. In the figure to the right, it is the narrow peak of the native proton beam curve which is produced by a particle accelerator of 250 MeV.
The figure also shows the absorption of a beam of energetic photons which is entirely different in nature; the curve is mainly exponential.
The phenomenon is exploited in particle therapy of cancer, to concentrate the effect of light ion beams on the tumor being treated while minimizing the effect on the surrounding healthy tissue. The blue curve in the figure ("modified proton beam") shows how the originally monoenergetic proton beam with the sharp peak is widened by increasing the range of energies, so that a larger range of depths can be treated. This is typically achieved by using variable thickness attenuators: spinning wedges  are often used.
de:Bragg-Kurve
Bretazenil
Bretazenil is an anxiolytic drug which is derived from the benzodiazepine family, and was invented in 1988. It is most closely related in structure to the benzodiazepine antagonist flumazenil, although its effects are somewhat different.
Bretazenil was originally developed as an anti-anxiety drug, but never commercialised. It is a partial agonist for GABAA receptors in the brain. David Nutt from the University of Bristol has suggested bretazenil as a possible base from which to make a better social drug, as it displays several of the positive effects of alcohol intoxication such as relaxation and sociability, but without the bad effects such as aggression, amnesia, nausea, loss of coordination, liver disease and brain damage. The effects of bretazenil can also be quickly reversed by the action of flumazenil, which is used as an antidote to benzodiazepine overdose, in contrast to alcohol for which there is no effective and reliable antidote.
However, while less addictive than benzodiazepine full agonists such as diazepam, long-term use of bretazenil would still be expected to result in dependence and addiction. Bretazenil, were it to be made commercially available, would thus most likely be classed as a controlled substance, e.g. Schedule III or Schedule IV in the USA, and so is unlikely to ever be commercialised for recreational use in that country. More liberal jurisdictions however might potentially permit the sale of bretazenil as a recreational alternative to alcohol, especially in countries such as Russia where liver and brain damage from chronic alcohol abuse place a severe burden on the health service and so the potential advantages of a less toxic alternative drug might outweigh the complications of introducing a new recreational drug to the market.
Brevetoxin
Brevetoxin, or brevetoxins, are a suite of cyclic polyether compounds produced naturally by a species of dinoflagellate known as Karenia brevis.  Brevetoxins are neurotoxins that bind to voltage-gated sodium channels in nerve cells, leading to disruption of normal neurological processes and causing the illness clinically described as Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP).
Other Brevetoxins:
- Brevetoxin-5 (PbTx-5): like PbTx-3, but acetylated hydroxyl group in position 38.
- Brevetoxin-6 (PbTx-6): like PbTx-2, but double bond 27-28 is epoxidated.
Brevetoxin-2 was synthesized in 1995 by K.C. Nicolau and coworkers in 123 steps with 91% average yield (final yield ~910-6).
Bromhexine

# Overview
Bromhexine is a mucolytic (expectorant) agent used in the treatment of respiratory disorders associated with viscid or excessive mucus.  In addition, bromhexine has antioxidant properties.

# Function
Bromhexine is intended to support the body's mechanisms for clearing mucus from the respiratory tract.
It is secretolytic, increasing the production of serous mucus in the respiratory tract and makes the phlegm thinner and less viscous. This contributes to a secretomotoric effect by helping the cilia transport the phlegm out of the lungs. For this reason it is often added to cough syrups.
Bromhexine is a synthetic derivative of the herbal active ingredient vasicine. It has been shown to increase the proportion of serous bronchial secretion, making it more easily expectorated. It is indicated as "secretolytic therapy in bronchopulmonary diseases associated with abnormal mucus secretion and impaired mucus transport".
Bromhexine is contained in various formulations, high and low strength syrups 8 mg/5 ml, 4 mg/5 ml, tablets and soluble tablets (both with 8 mg bromhexine) and solution for oral use 10 mg/5 ml, adapted to the need of the patients. The posology varies with the age and weight, but there are products for all age groups from infant on. Bromhexine is well established and tolerated.
Sometimes it is replaced by its metabolite ambroxol, as in Mucosolvan or Mucoangin.

# Brand names
- Bisolvon
- Paxirasol
- Barkacin
- Bromhexin
- Vasican
- Bisolex
- Robitussin Chesty/Forte
- Duro-Tuss Chesty
- Benadryl Chesty/Forte
- Movex
- Bromex
- Solvex
- Mucolyte
- Brofentol
- Brofentol Plus
- Dysolvon
- Flegamina
Bromopride

# Overview
Bromopride (INN) is a dopamine antagonist with prokinetic properties widely used as an antiemetic, closely related to metoclopramide. It is not available in the United States.
Bromopride appears to be safe and effective for use in pregnancy.

# Indications
Bromopride is indicated in the treatment of nausea and vomiting, including postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV); gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD); and as preparation for endoscopy and radiographic studies of the gastrointestinal tract. The manufacturer also claims it is valuable in, among other indications, hiccups and gastrointestinal adverse effects of radiation therapy.

# Adverse effects
Bromopride is generally well tolerated; the most common adverse effects of its use are somnolence and fatigue. Bromopride may rarely cause extrapyramidal symptoms and, as with metoclopramide, may increase prolactin levels.

# Chemistry
Bromopride is a substituted benzamide, closely related to metoclopramide. It is identical to metoclopramide except for the presence of a bromine atom where metoclopramide has a chlorine substituent.

# Availability
Bromopride is not available in the United States or the United Kingdom. It is marketed in Brazil by Sanofi-Synthelabo under the trade name 'Digesan, by LIBBS under the name Plamet, and as a generic drug.
Bronchiole

# Overview
The bronchioles are the first  airway branches that no longer contain cartilage. They are branches of the bronchi, and are smaller than one millimeter in diameter.
There are no glands or cartilage in any of the bronchioles, and the epithelial cells become more cuboidal in shape.
The bronchioles terminate by entering the circular sacs called alveoli.
Control of airflow resistance and air distrubution in the lungs is controlled by the bronchioles.

# Pathology
Bronchospasm, a life-threatening situation, occurs when the smooth muscular tissue of the bronchioles constricts, severely narrowing their diameter.  Bronchospasm is commonly treated by oxygen therapy and bronchodilators.
The medical condition of inflammation of the bronchioles is termed bronchiolitis. Diseases of the bronchioles include asthma, bronchiolitis obliterans, respiratory syncytial virus infection, and influenza.

# Additional images
- Cross sectional cut of primary bronchiole
- Bronchi, bronchial tree, and lungs
- 1. Trachea2. Mainstem bronchus3. Lobar bronchus4. Segmental bronchus5. Bronchiole6. Alveolar duct7. Alveolus
Brotizolam

# Overview
Brotizolam (marketed under brand name Lendormin) is a drug which is thienobenzodiazepine (a benzodiazepine derivative). It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties, and is considered to be similar in effect to short-acting benzodiazepines such as triazolam.  It is used in the short term treatment of insomnia although due to its short half life it is considered to have relatively high abuse potential and so would not be a first-line treatment. Brotizolam is a potent drug with a dosage of between 0.5 and 1.5 milligrams, but is rapidly eliminated with an average half life of 4.4 hours (range 3.6 - 7.9 hours).
Brotizolam is not approved for sale in the UK, United States or Canada.

# Pharmacology
Brotizolam induces impairment of motor function and has hypnotic properties.
Brotizolam increases the slow wave light sleep (SWLS) in a dose-dependent manner whilst suppressing deep sleep stages. Less time is spent in stages 3 and 4 which are the deep sleep stages when benzodiazepines such as brotizolam are used. Benzodiazepines are therefore not good hypnotics in the treatment of insomnia. The suppression of deep sleep stages by benzodiazepines may be especially problematic to the elderly as they naturally spend less time in the deep sleep stage.

# Indications
Insomnia. Brotizolam is prescribed for the short term treatment, 2 - 4 weeks only of severe insomnia. Insomnia can be described as a difficulty falling asleep, frequent awakening, early awakenings or a combination of each. Brotizolam is a short-intermediate acting benzodiazepine and is sometimes used in patients who have difficulty in maintaining sleep or getting to sleep. Hypnotics should only be used on a short term basis or in those with chronic insomnia on an occasional basis.
BrownBoost
BrownBoost is a boosting algorithm that is robust to noisy datasets.  BrownBoost is an adaptive version of the boost by majority algorithm.  As is true for all boosting algorithms, BrownBoost is used in conjunction with other machine learning methods.  BrownBoost was introduced by Yoav Freund.

# Motivation
AdaBoost performs  well on a variety of datasets; however, it can be shown that AdaBoost does not perform well on noisy data sets.  This is a result of AdaBoost's focus on examples that are repeatedly misclassified.  In contrast, BrownBoost effectively "gives up" on examples that are repeatedly misclassified.
The user of the algorithm can set the amount of error to be tolerated in the training set.  Thus, if the training set is noisy (say 10% of all examples are assumed to be mislabeled), the booster can be told to accept a 10% error rate.  Since the noisy examples may be ignored, only the true examples will contribute to the learning process.

# BrownBoost Learning Algorithm
BrownBoost is unique in that it uses a non-convex potential loss function, thus it does not fit into the AnyBoost framework.  The non-convex optimization provides a method to avoid overfitting data sets. AdaBoost has one parameter to set: the number of rounds of boosting. BrownBoost has an analogue parameter referred to as the amount of time the booster runs.  This paramter is referred to as c.
Input: m training examples (x_{1},y_{1}),\ldots,(x_{m},y_{m}) where x_{y} \in X,\, y_{j} \in Y = \{-1, +1\}
Initialise: s=c, r_1(x_j) = 0 \forall j.
While s > 0:
- Set the weights of each example: W_{i}(x_j) = e^{- \frac{(r_i(x_j)+s)^2}{c}}, where r_i(x_j) is the margin of example x_j
- Find a classifier h_i : X \to \{-1,+1\} such that \sum_j W_i(x_j) h_i(x_j) y_j > 0
- Find values \alpha^*, t^- that satisfy the differential equation:  \frac{dt}{d\alpha} = \sum_j e^{-\frac{(r_i(x_j)+\alpha h_i(x_j) y_j + s - t)^2}{c}} = 0.  (Note this is similar to the condition E_{W_{i+1}}=0 set forth by Schapire and Singer)
This update is subject to the constraint
\sum 
\left(\Phi\left(r_i(x_j) + \alpha h(x_j) y_j + s - t\right)  -  
\Phi\left( r_i(x_j) + s  \right)
, where 
\Phi(z) = 1-erf(z/\sqrt{c})
 is the potential loss for a point with margin r_i(x_j)
- Update the margins for each example: r_{i+1}(x_j) = r_i(x_j) + \alpha h(x_j) y_j
- Update the time remaining: s = s - t
Output: H(x) = \textrm{sign}\left( \sum_i \alpha_{i} h_{i}(x) \right)

# Empirical Results
In preliminary experimental results with noisy datasets, BrownBoost outperformed AdaBoost's generalization error; however, LogitBoost performed as well as BrownBoost.  An implementation of BrownBoost can be found in the open source software JBoost.
Bryostatin

# Overview
Bryostatins are a group of macrocyclic lactones first discovered in the late 1960s in a species of bryozoan, Bugula neritina. Believed to be produced by symbiont bacteria to protect the bryozoan larva from predation, they have cytotoxic properties and are under investigation as anti-cancer agents and as a memory enhancement agent.
In vitro trials have shown bryostatins to act synergistically with other anti-cancer drugs and to modulate protein kinase C (PKC) activity, with a potent antileukemic effect and action against lung, prostate and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma tumor cells.
Human clinical trials have been less promising, but suggest bryostatins to have a potentially useful synergistic action with other chemotherapeutic agents.
The low concentration in bryozoans (to extract one gram of bryostatin, roughly one tonne of the raw bryozoans is needed) makes extraction unviable for large scale production. Due to the structural complexity, synthesis has proved difficult, with only a few total syntheses reported so far.  However, structurally simpler synthetic analogs have been prepared which exhibit similar biological profile and in some cases greater potency, which may provide a practical supply for clinical use.
Bufanolide
Bufanolides (bu-fano-lid) are a type of steroids. Bufanolides are found mostly as cardiac glycoside aglycones, meaning that bufanolides are bound with sugars to form glycosides (specifically, cardiac glycosides). Bufanolides are toxic, both as steroids and glycoside aglycones.

# Etymology
Supposedly, the term derives from the toad genus Bufo. Derivatives are named replacing the suffix -anolide with -enolide, -adienolide etc.

# Classification
According to MeSH, bufanolides are classified as fallows;
- Polycyclic compounds
- Steroids
- Cardanolides
- Cardenolides
- Cardiac glycosides
- Bufanolides
- Bufenolides
- Bufadienolides
- Proscillaridin
- Daigremontianin
- Cardenolides
Note that cardenolides have been classified under cardanolides as well as cardiac glycosides in this classification.
Buffy coat
The buffy coat is the fraction of an anticoagulated blood sample after centrifugation that contains most of the white blood cells.

# Description
After centrifugation, one can distinguish a layer of clear fluid (the plasma), a layer of red fluid containing most of the red blood cells, and a thin layer in between, making up less than 1% of the total volume of the blood sample, the buffy coat (so-called because it is usually buff in hue), with most of the white blood cells and platelets. The buffy coat is used, for example, to extract DNA from the blood of mammals (since mammalian red blood cells are anucleate and do not contain DNA).
The buffy coat is usually whitish in color but sometimes green, if the blood sample contains large amounts of neutrophils, which are high in green myeloperoxidase.

# Diagnostic Uses of the Buffy Coat
- Quantitative Buffy Coat (QBC) is a laboratory test to detect infection with malaria or other blood parasites: the blood is taken in a QBC capillary tube which is coated with acridine orange (a fluorescent dye) and centrifuged;  the fluorescing parasites can then be observed under ultraviolet light at the interface between red blood cells and buffy coat. This test is more sensitive than the conventional thick smear and in >90% of cases, the species of parasite can also be identified.
- In cases of extremely low white blood cell count, it may be difficult to perform a manual differential of the various types of white cells, and it may be virtually impossible to obtain an automated differential.  In such cases the medical technologist may obtain a buffy coat, from which a blood smear is made.  This smear contains a much higher number of white blood cells than whole blood.
Bupranolol

# Overview
Bupranolol is a non-selective beta blocker without intrinsic sympathomimetic activity (ISA), but with strong membrane stabilizing activity. Its potency is similar to propranolol.

# Uses and Dosage
Like other beta blockers, oral bupranolol can be used to treat hypertension and tachycardia. The initial dose is 50 mg two times a day. It can be increased to 100 mg four times a day. Bupranolol eye drops (0.05%-0.5%) are used against glaucoma.

# Pharmacology
Bupranolol is quickly and completely absorbed from the gut. Over 90% undergo first-pass metabolism. Bupranolol has a plasma half life of about two to four hours, with levels never reaching 1 g/l in therapeutic doses. The main metabolite is carboxybupranolol, 4-chloro-3-benzoic acid  that is, the methyl group at the benzene ring is oxidized to a carboxyl group , of which 88% are eliminated renally within 24 hours.

# Adverse Effects, Contraindications, Interactions
Adverse effects, contraindications and interactions are similar to other beta blockers.