Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Sternohyoid muscle

# Overview
The sternohyoid muscle is a thin, narrow muscle attaching the hyoid bone to the sternum, one of the paired strap muscles of the infrahyoid muscles serving to depress the hyoid bone. It is innervated by the ansa cervicalis.
The muscle arises from the posterior border of the medial end of the clavicle, the posterior sternoclavicular ligament, and the upper and posterior part of the manubrium sterni.
Passing upward and medially, it is inserted by short tendinous fibers into the lower border of the body of the hyoid bone.

# Variations
Doubling; accessory slips (Cleidohyoideus); absence.
It sometimes presents, immediately above its origin, a transverse tendinous inscription.

# Additional images
- Posterior surface of sternum.
- Left clavicle. Inferior surface.
- Hyoid bone. Anterior surface. Enlarged.
- Section of the neck at about the level of the sixth cervical vertebra.
- Posterior surface of sternum and costal cartilages, showing Transversus thoracis.
- The fascia and middle thyroid veins. The veins here designated the inferior thyroid are called by Kocher the thyroidea ima.
Streptococcus suis
Streptococcus suis is spherical, Gram-positive bacteria, and an important pathogen of pigs. Endemic in nearly all countries with an extensive pig industry, S. suis is also a zoonotic disease, capable of transmission to humans from pigs.  Humans can be infected with S. suis when they handle infected pig carcasses or meat, especially with exposed cuts and abrasions on their hands. Human infection can be severe, with meningitis, septicaemia, endocarditis, and deafness as possible outcomes of infection. Fatal cases of S. suis are uncommon, but not unknown.
Penicillin is the most common antibiotic used in treatment of S. suis infection; in cases with cardiac involvement (endocarditis), gentamicin should also be given for synergistic effect.

# Zoonotic outbreaks
In July 2005, an outbreak of the disease in humans was reported in Sichuan, China, with higher than usual human morbidity and mortality; over 100 cases and more than 20 deaths were initially reported. Prior to this outbreak, less than 200 total human cases had been reported, and mortality was assumed to be less than 10%. Details of this outbreak and a similar earlier outbreak, also in Sichuan province, have recently been published.
A total of 204 human cases were documented during the Sichuan outbreak, with 38 fatalities. The human outbreak co-incided with one in the local pig populations. There was no evidence of human-to-human transmission; all of the patients had been in direct contact with pigs. Many of the patients, and almost all of the fatal cases, had typical symptoms of Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS). To date, STSS has only been documented in patients infected with S. pyogenes, another member of the Streptococcus family but very different from S. suis. However, the bacteria isolates from the human and pig samples were clearly S. suis, and those isolates were able cause typical S. suis disease in piglets. The genome of S. suis isolates from the outbreak were examined to see whether its DNA sequence could explain why these particular bacteria were able to cause STSS. However, none of the genes that are present in S. pyogenes and thought to cause STSS were detected in the S. suis isolates. Comparison with other S. suis isolates from around the world, including one from an earlier smaller S. suis outbreak in Sichuan province that killed 14 out of 25 reported human cases, revealed that the two Chinese isolates were more similar to each other than to any other strains.
Additional experiments are necessary to determine whether the size and high mortality of the recent outbreak is because the Chinese S. suis version is more virulent than other strains or due to the circumstances under which the Chinese patients got infected and treated. Studies are under way to characterize the bacterial isolates from the outbreak in detail. Physicians around the world should be aware of the possibility of S. suis-associated STSS when they see patients with unexplained sepsis who had been in contact with pigs.
Strontium fluoride
Strontium fluoride, SrF2, also called strontium difluoride and strontium(II) fluoride, is a fluoride of strontium. It is a stable brittle white crystalline solid with melting point of 1477C and boiling point 2460C.

# Preparation
Strontium fluoride is prepared by reaction of strontium chloride with fluorine gas, or by action of hydrofluoric acid on strontium carbonate.

# Structure
The solid adopts the fluorite structure. In the vapour phase the SrF2 molecule is non-linear with an F-Sr-F angle  of approximately  120.  This is an exception to VSEPR theory which would predict a linear structure. Ab initio calculations have been cited to propose that contributions from d orbitals in the shell below the valence shell are responsible. Another proposal is that polarisation of the electron core of the barium atom creates an approximately tetrahedral distribution of charge that interacts with  the Sr-F bonds.

# Properties
It is almost insoluble in water (its Ksp value is approximately 4.33x10-9 at 25 degrees Celsius. 
It irritates eyes and skin, and is harmful when inhaled or ingested.
Similar to CaF2 and BaF2, SrF2 displays superionic conductivity at elevated temperatures.
Strontium fluoride is transparent to light in the wavelengths from vacuum ultraviolet (150 nm) to infrared (11 m). Its optical properties are intermediate to calcium fluoride and barium fluoride.

# Uses
Strontium fluoride is used as an optical material for a small range of special applications, for example, as an optical coating on lenses and also as a thermoluminescent dosimeter crystal.
Another use is as a carrier of strontium-90 radioisotope in radioisotope thermoelectric generators.
Subarachnoid space

# Overview
In the brain, the subarachnoid cavity (subarachnoid space) is the interval between the arachnoid mater and pia mater.
It is occupied by a spongy tissue consisting of trabecul (delicate connective tissue filaments that extend from the arachnoid mater and blend into the pia mater) and intercommunicating channels in which the cerebrospinal fluid is contained.
This cavity is small on the surface of the hemispheres of the brain. On the summit of each gyrus the pia mater and the arachnoid are in close contact, but in the sulci between the gyri, triangular spaces are left, in which the subarachnoid trabecular tissue is found. Whilst the pia mater closely follows the surface of the brain and dips into the sulci, the arachnoid bridges across them from gyrus to gyrus.
At certain parts of the base of the brain, the arachnoid is separated from the pia mater by wide intervals, which communicate freely with each other and are named subarachnoid cistern; in these the subarachnoid tissue is less abundant. The subarachnoid space is the location of the interface between the vascular tissue and the cerebrospinal fluid and is active in the blood brain barrier.
The arachnoid mater continues down the spinal cord too, and the subarachnoid layer with it. It serves a similar function in the spinal cord as it does in the brain.
Subcostal arteries
The subcostal arteries, so named because they lie below the last ribs, constitute the lowest pair of branches derived from the thoracic aorta, and are in series with the intercostal arteries.
Each passes along the lower border of the twelfth rib behind the kidney and in front of the Quadratus lumborum muscle, and is accompanied by the twelfth thoracic nerve.
It then pierces the posterior aponeurosis of the Transversus abdominis, and, passing forward between this muscle and the Obliquus internus, anastomoses with the superior epigastric, lower intercostal, and lumbar arteries.
Each subcostal artery gives off a posterior branch which has a similar distribution to the posterior ramus of an intercostal artery.
Submandibular duct
The submandibular duct (Wharton's duct, submaxillary duct) is about 5 cm. long, and its wall is much thinner than that of the parotid duct.
It begins by numerous branches from the deep surface of the gland, and runs forward between the mylohyoideus, hyoglossus, and genioglossus, then between the sublingual gland and the genioglossus, and opens by a narrow orifice on the summit of a small papilla at the side of the frenulum lingu.
On the hyoglossus it lies between the lingual and hypoglossal nerves, but at the anterior border of the muscle it is crossed laterally by the lingual nerve; the terminal branches of the lingual nerve ascend on its medial side.
It drains saliva from the submandibular glands and sublingual glands to the sublingual caruncle at the base of the tongue.
Subungal exostosis
Subungual exostoses are bony projections which arise from the dorsal surface of the distal phalanx, most commonly of the hallux.
They tend to be painful due to the pressure applied to the nail bed and plate.
They are commonly osteochondromas which have identical radiographical and pathological features and never metastasize.
Surgical excision is common and is a very effective mode of treatment.
MHE / MO / HME is Skeletal disorder characterized by benign cartilage-capped bone tumors. MHE Research Foundation,includes Comprehensive information on Orthopeadics, Genetics, Research being conducted and MHE Conferences. Website: 

# Treatment
Subungual hematoma

# Overview
A subungual hematoma is a collection of blood (hematoma) underneath a toenail or fingernail which often results from a traumatic injury such as slamming a finger in a door. A laceration of the nail bed causes bleeding into the constricted area underneath the hard nail plate. Because the blood disrupts the connections between the nail bed and nail plate, throbbing pain is common. The nail develops a black discoloration overlying the laceration.

# Causes
It may result from an acute injury or from repeated minor trauma such as running in undersized shoes.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination
The following image shows a subungual hematoma after trauma to the nail.

# Treatment

## Surgery and Device Based Therapy
Subungual hematomas are treated by either releasing the pressure by drilling a hole through the nail into the hematoma (trephining) or by removing the entire nail. Trephining is generally accomplished by using a heated instrument to pass through the nail into the blood clot. It should be noted that a heated instrument is not used on acrylic nails because they are flammable. Removal of the nail is typically done when the nail itself is disrupted, a large laceration requiring suturing is suspected, or there is a fracture of the tip of the finger. Although anesthesia is generally not required, a digital nerve block may be performed if the nail is to be removed. Subungual hematomas typically heal without incident, though infection or disruption of the nail (onycholysis) may occur.
Sulfhemoglobinemia
Sulfhemoglobinemia is a rare blood condition that occurs when a sulfur atom is incorporated into the hemoglobin molecule. When hydrogen sulfide (H2S) (or sulfide ions) and ferric ions combine in the blood, the blood is incapable of carrying oxygen.
This can be caused by taking medications that contain sulfonamides under certain conditions (i.e.: overdosing of sumatriptan). Drugs associated with sulfhemoglobinemia include acetanilid, phenacetin, nitrates, trinitrotoluene and sulfur compounds (mainly sulphonamides). Another possible cause is occupational exposure to sulfur compounds. The condition generally resolves itself with erthryocyte (red blood cell) turnover, although blood transfusions can be necessary in extreme cases. The pigment is a greenish derivative of hemoglobin which cannot be converted back to normal, functional hemoglobin. It causes cyanosis even at low blood levels.
Symptoms include a blueish or greenish discoloration of the blood, skin, and mucous membranes, even though a blood count test may not show any abnormalities in the blood.
On June 11, 2007, Canadian surgeons Dr. Stephan Schwarz and Dr. Alana Flexman presented an unusual case in The Lancet. A 42-year-old male patient was brought into Vancouver's St. Paul's Hospital after falling asleep in a sitting position. When doctors drew the man's blood to relieve pressure from his legs, the blood was green. A sample of the blood was immediately sent to a lab. In this case, sulfhemoglobinaemia was likely caused by the patient taking higher-than-prescribed doses of sumatriptan.
Superior vena cava

# Overview
The superior vena cava is a large, yet short vein that carries de-oxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the heart's right atrium.
It is formed by the left and right brachiocephalic veins, (also referred to as the innominate veins) which receive blood from the upper limbs and the head and neck, behind the lower border of the first right costal cartilage. The azygous vein (which receives blood from the rib cage) joins it just before it enters the right atrium, at the upper right front portion of the heart.
In the adult, no valve separates the superior vena cava from the right atrium.  As a result, the (right) atrial and (right) ventricular contractions are conducted up into the internal jugular vein and, through the sternocleidomastoid muscle, can be seen as the jugular venous pressure.  In tricuspid valve regurgitation, these pulsations are very strong.

# Additional images
- Diagram showing completion of development of the parietal veins.
- Front view of heart and lungs.
- Heart seen from above.
- Transverse section of thorax, showing relations of pulmonary artery.
- The arch of the aorta, and its branches.
- The brachiocephalic veins, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, azygos vein and their tributaries
- The thymus of a full-time fetus, exposed in situ.
Supraorbital ridge
The supraorbital ridge, supraorbital torus, superciliary ridge, arcus superciliaris, or brow ridge, refer to a bony ridge located above the eye sockets of all primates. In Homo sapiens sapiens (modern man) the eyebrows are located on their lower margin.

# Anthropological concept
The size of these ridges varies also between different species of Primate, either living or fossil. The closest living relatives of man, the Great Apes, have relatively pronounced supraorbital ridges, while in modern humans it is relatively reduced. The fossil record indicates that the supraorbital ridge in early homo was reduced as the cranial vault grew and became positioned vertically, above the face.
Some palaeanthropologists distinguish between "torus" and "ridge." In anatomy a torus is a projecting shelf of bone. Fossil hominids, in this theory, have the torus, but modern humans only have the ridge.
- Gorilla face.
Gorilla face.
- Chimpanzee face.
Chimpanzee face.

# Purpose
The brow ridge is a thick piece of bone on top of the eyes.  Its purpose is to reinforce the weaker bones of the face in much the same way that the chin of modern humans was developed to reinforce their comparatively thin mandibles.  This was necessary in pongids and early hominids because of the tremendous strain put on the cranium by their tremendous chewing apparatuses, which is best demonstrated by any of the members of the genus Paranthropus.  The brow ridge was one of the last traits to be lost in the path to modern humans, and only disappeared with the development of the modern pronounced frontal lobe.  This is one of the most salient differences between Homo sapiens sapiens and Homo sapiens neanderthalensis  The name for this theory is the Bio-mechanical model for brow ridge formation.

# Myths
The folk-myth that the size of the ridges is a mark of the degree of development of rationality has no basis in fact. There is no link between the size of the ridges and any other anatomical trait, including intelligence, in modern humans.

# In modern humans
Some varieties of modern man have slightly more pronounced ridges than others; for example, indigenous Australians, conventionally termed "aborigines."  However, there is no basic genetic difference between these people and any other type of modern humans, and again, the presence of a brow ridge is not in any way indicative of intelligence or development.
-  For some basic English definitions refer to the American Heritage Dictionary online under supraorbital and torus. Webster's Third New International Dictionary also does not make the distinction.
Surprise (emotion)
Surprise Template:Audio is a brief emotional state that is the result of experiencing an unexpected event. Surprise can have any valence; that is, it can be neutral, pleasant, or unpleasant. Accordingly, some would not categorize surprise in itself as an emotion.
Surprise is expressed in the face by the following features:
- Eyebrows that are raised so they become curved and high.
- Stretched skin below the eyebrows.
- Horizontal wrinkles across the forehead.
- Open eyelids-- the upper lid is raised and the lower lid is drawn down, often exposing the white sclera above and below the iris.
- Dropped jaw so that the lips and teeth are parted, with no tension around the mouth.
Spontaneous, involuntary surprise is often expressed for only a fraction of a second. It may be followed immediately by the emotion of fear, joy or confusion. The intensity of the surprise is associated with how much the jaw drops, but the mouth may not open at all in some cases. The raising of the eyebrows, at least momentarily, is the most distinctive and predictable sign of surprise.
Swelling (medical)

# Overview
In medical parlance, swelling is the enlargement of organs caused by accumulation of excess fluid in tissues, called edema.
It can occur throughout the body (generalized), or a specific part or organ can be affected (localized). Swelling is considered one of the five characteristics of inflammation; along with pain, heat, redness, and loss of function.
In a general sense, the suffix "-megaly" is used to indicate a growth, as in hepatomegaly, acromegaly, and splenomegaly.
A body part may swell in response to injury, infection, or disease, as well as because of an underlying lump. Swelling  especially swelling of the ankle can also occur if the body is not circulating fluid well.
Generalized swelling, or massive edema (also called anasarca), is a common sign in severely ill people. Although slight edema may be difficult to detect to the untrained eye, especially in an overweight person, massive edema is very obvious.

# Causes
The following medical conditions are some of the possible causes of swelling symptoms:
General possible causes of localized swelling:
Some possible causes of skin swelling include:
Causes of generalized swelling:
Some possible causes of a swollen limb include:

# Treatment
While it's possible for mild swelling to go away on its own, several things can be done to relieve the symptoms or haste the process. The HI-RICE first aid method of rest and protecting the affected area has long been taught as a short term solution.

# Related Chapters
- Edema
Causes of edema
- Causes of edema
Symbiotic bacteria
Symbiotic bacteria are bacteria living in symbiosis with another organism or each other. For example, Zoamastogopera, found in the stomach of termites, enable them to digest cellulose.
Symbiotic bacteria are able to live in or on plant or animal tissue. In digestive systems, symbiotic bacteria help break down foods that contain fibre. They also help produce vitamins. Symbiotic bacteria can live near hydrothermal vents. They usually have a mutual relationship with other bacteria. Some live in tube worms.
A use for symbiotic bacteria has recently been in paratransgenesis for controlling important vectors for disease, such as the transmission of Chagas disease by Triatome kissing bugs.
Tamoxifen overdose

# Overdosage topics
Signs
Acute overdosage: neurological symptoms
Acute overdosage: QT changes on ECG
Treatment

## Signs
Signs observed at the highest doses following studies to determine LD50 in animals were respiratory difficulties and convulsions.  Return to top

## Acute overdosage: neurological symptoms
Acute overdosage in humans has not been reported. In a study of advanced metastatic cancer patients which specifically determined the maximum tolerated dose of Tamoxifen in evaluating the use of very high doses to reverse multidrug resistance, acute neurotoxicity manifested by tremor, hyperreflexia, unsteady gait and dizziness were noted. These symptoms occurred within 3-5 days of beginning Tamoxifen and cleared within 2-5 days after stopping therapy. No permanent neurologic toxicity was noted. Doses given in these patients were all greater than 400 mg/m2 loading dose, followed by maintenance doses of 150 mg/m2 of Tamoxifen given twice a day.   Return to top

## Acute overdosage: QT changes on ECG
In the same study, prolongation of the QT interval on the electrocardiogram was noted when patients were given doses higher than 250 mg/m2 loading dose, followed by maintenance doses of 80 mg/m2 of Tamoxifen given twice a day. For a woman with a body surface area of 1.5 m2 the minimal loading dose and maintenance doses given at which neurological symptoms and QT changes occurred were at least 6 fold higher in respect to the maximum recommended dose.   Return to top

## Treatment
No specific treatment for overdosage is known; treatment must be symptomatic.   Return to top
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
Tapeworm infection
Adult tapeworm infection is the infection of the digestive tract by parasitic flatworms called cestodes or Woods.  Live tapeworm larvae are sometimes ingested by consuming undercooked food.  Once inside the digestive tract, the larva grows into an adult tapeworm, which can live for years and grow very large.  Additionally, many tapeworm larvae cause symptoms in an intermediate host.  For example, cysticercosis is a disease of humans involving larval tapeworms in the human body.

# Common types
Among the most commonly tapeworms in humans are the pork tapeworm, the beef tapeworm, the fish tapeworm, and the dwarf tapeworm.  Infections involving the pork and beef tapeworms are also called taeniasis.  Tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus also infect animals and humans, and cause the most harm to intermediate hosts such as sheep and cattle. Infection with this type of tapeworm is referred to as Echinococcosis or hydatid disease. Symptoms vary widely, as do treatment options, and these issues are discussed in detail in the individual articles on each worm.  With a few notable exceptions like the fish tapeworm, most cestodes that infect humans and livestock are cyclophyllids, and can be identified as such by the presence of four suckers on their scolex or "head."

# Occurrence
Most occurrences are found in areas which lack adequate sanitation and included China and East Africa.
Taxadiene synthase
In enzymology, a taxadiene synthase (EC 4.2.3.17) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
Hence, this enzyme has one substrate, geranylgeranyl diphosphate, and two products, taxa-4,11-diene and diphosphate.
This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically those carbon-oxygen lyases acting on phosphates.  The systematic name of this enzyme class is geranylgeranyl-diphosphate diphosphate-lyase (cyclizing, taxa-4,11-diene-forming). Other names in common use include geranylgeranyl-diphosphate diphosphate-lyase (cyclizing,, and taxadiene-forming).  This enzyme participates in diterpenoid biosynthesis.