Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Hyoid bone

# Overview
The hyoid bone (Lingual Bone) is a bone in the human neck, and is the only bone in the skeleton not articulated to any other bone. It is supported by the muscles of the neck and in turn supports the root of the tongue.
The hyoid bone is shaped like a horseshoe, and is suspended from the tips of the styloid processes of the temporal bones by the stylohyoid ligaments.

# Segments
It consists of five segments:
- body of hyoid bone
- greater cornu (2)
- lesser cornu (2)

# Ossification
The hyoid is ossified from six centers: two for the body, and one for each cornu. Ossification commences in the greater cornua toward the end of fetal life, in the body shortly afterward, and in the lesser cornua during the first or second year after birth.

# Muscle attachments
The following muscles attach to the hyoid:
- superior
Middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle
Hyoglossus muscle
Digastric muscle
Stylohyoid muscle
Geniohyoid muscle
Mylohyoid muscle
Genioglossus
- Middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle
- Hyoglossus muscle
- Digastric muscle
- Stylohyoid muscle
- Geniohyoid muscle
- Mylohyoid muscle
- Genioglossus
- inferior
Thyrohyoid muscle
Omohyoid muscle
Sternohyoid muscle
- Thyrohyoid muscle
- Omohyoid muscle
- Sternohyoid muscle

# Function
The hyoid bone is involved in the production of human speech. It allows a wider range of tongue and laryngeal movements by bracing these structures against each other. It is not present in any of our closest living relatives, but it did exist in virtually identical form in Neanderthal man. That suggests, along with other anthropological clues of communication, that the Neanderthal employed some form of spoken language.

# Fracture
Due to its position, the hyoid bone is not usually easy to fracture in most situations.
In cases of suspicious death, a fractured hyoid is a strong sign of strangulation.

# Etymology
Its name is derived from the Greek word hyoeides meaning "shaped like the letter upsilon" ().

# Additional images
- Larynx
- Head and neck of a human embryo eighteen weeks old, with Meckels cartilage and hyoid bar exposed.
- Muscles of the pharynx and cheek.
- Muscles of the neck. Lateral view.
- The internal carotid and vertebral arteries. Right side.
- The ligaments of the larynx. Antero-lateral view.
- Sagittal section of the larynx and upper part of the trachea.
- Coronal section of larynx and upper part of trachea.
- The entrance to the larynx, viewed from behind.
- Sagittal section of nose mouth, pharynx, and larynx.
- Extrinsic muscles of the tongue. Left side.
- The thyroid gland and its relations.
- Front view of neck.
Hyperaemia

# Overview
Hyperemia describes the increase of blood flow to different tissues in the body. It can have medical implications, but is also a regulatory response, allowing change in blood supply to different tissues through vasodilation.  When this occurs in the coronary bed, it is referred to as TIMI grade 4 flow.

# Hyperemia and the regulation of blood flow
Functional hyperemia is an increase in blood flow to a tissue due to the presence of metabolites and a change in general conditions. When a tissue increases activity there is a well characterized fall in the partial pressure of oxygen and pH, an increase in  partial pressure of carbon dioxide, and a rise in temperature and the concentration of potassium ions. The mechanism for vasodilation is unclear, but it may have something to do with the opening of precapillary sphincters.
Active hyperemia is also a term used to describe dilation of arteriolar smooth muscle to increase blood flow in response to an increase in metabolism. Reactive hyperemia is the same but in response to a profound increase in blood flow to an organ after being occluded. There will be a shortage of oxygen and a build-up of metabolic waste. - Blood flow to the heart becomes hyperemic if a balloon is inflated in a coronary artery (reactive hyperemia) and if there is embolism. The hyperemia in the heart is mediated by local adenosine release which can be documented to rise when the coronary sinus is sampled following embolization.
Tet spells
Synonyms and keywords: hypercyanotic spell, hypercyanosis

# Overview
Children with Tetralogy of Fallot may develop acute severe cyanosis or hypoxic "tet spells".  The spells are unpredictable and are associated with profound cyanosis and can be fatal.

# Pathophysiology
The mechanism underlying these episodes is not entirely clear, but may be due to spasm of the infundibular septum and the right ventricular outflow tract. Whatever the mechanism, there is an increase in resistance to blood flow to the lungs with increased preferential flow of desaturated blood to the systemic circulation. The child will often squat during a Tet Spell to improve venous return to the right side of the heart. Squating increases the systemic vascular resistance and thereby shunts flow to pulmonary circuit.

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
- Prolonged crying

## Physical Examination

### Vitals
- Tachypnea

### Skin
- Intense cyanosis

### Heart
The ordinarily harsh murmur will be greatly diminished as blood is not flowing through the pulmonary vasculature.

# Emergency Medical Management of Tet Spells
'Tet spells' cause acute hypoxia and may be treated with:
- Beta-blockers such as propranololor esmolol. Beta-blockers cause relaxation of the right ventricular outflow tract and increases blood flow into the pulmonary vessels.
- Morphine to reduce ventilatory drive
- Phenylephrine to increase systemic afterload that in turn increases the flow across right ventricle and the pulmonary artery and decreases right to left shunting
- There is data limited to case reports describing the use of dexmedetomidine. Care must be taken to titrate the drug starting at a very low dose of 0.1-0.125 mcg/kg/hour (without a bolus).
- Procedures such as the knee-chest position which increases aortic wave reflection, increasing pressure on the left side of the heart, decreasing the right to left shunt thus decreasing the amount of deoxygenated blood entering the systemic circulation.
- Oxygen is ineffective in treating hypoxic spells as the underlying problem is lack of blood flow through the pulmonary circuit and not alveolar oxygenation.
- In case all these measures fail, an emergency Blalock-Taussig shunt might be needed.
- General anesthesia can be considered

# Prognosis
These spells can be fatal, and can occur in patients who are not cyanotic.
Hypnagogia

# Overview
Hypnagogia (also spelled hypnogogia) describes vivid dreamlike auditory, visual, or tactile sensations, which are often accompanied by sleep paralysis and experienced when falling asleep as opposed to the hypnopompic state leading to waking up.

# Hypnagogic sensations
The hypnagogic experience occurs between being awake and asleep, while the hypnopompic experience occurs as one is waking up; both experiences occur within the time period between sleep and waking (or vice versa).  Experienced qualities vary, and include fear, awareness of a "presence," chest or back pressure, an inability to breathe (hence the folkloric notion of mara-like creatures tormenting sleepers), and a falling sensation or a feeling of tripping (as hypnic jerks are interpreted by the brain). Exploding head syndrome may also be experienced, or just an overwhelmingly loud sound.
During the hypnagogic state, an individual may appear to be fully awake, but has brain waves indicating that the individual is technically sleeping. Also, the individual may be completely aware of their state, which enables lucid dreamers to enter the dream state consciously directly from the waking state (see wake-initiated lucid dream technique).
The hypnagogic state is sometimes proposed as an explanation of experiences such as alien abduction, apparitions, or visions.

# Further reading
- Leaning, F.E. (1925). An introductory study of hypnagogic phenomena. Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, 35, 289-409.
- Mavromatis, A. (1987). Hypnagogia: the Unique State of Consciousness Between Wakefulness and Sleep. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
- Warren, Jeff (2007). "The Hypnagogic". The Head Trip: Adventures on the Wheel of Consciousness. ISBN 978-0679314080..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Hypocapnia

# Overview
Hypocapnia, sometimes incorrectly called acapnia, is a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood. Hypocapnia usually results from deep or rapid breathing, known as hyperventilation.
Even when severe, hypocapnia is normally well tolerated. However, hypocapnia causes cerebral vasoconstriction, leading to cerebral hypoxia and this can cause transient dizziness, visual disturbances, and anxiety. A low partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood also causes alkalosis (because CO2 is acidic in solution), leading to lowered plasma calcium ions and nerve and muscle excitability. This explains the other common symptoms of hyperventilation pins and needles, muscle cramps and tetany in the extremities, especially hands and feet.
Hypocapnia is sometimes induced in the treatment of the medical emergencies, such as intracranial hypertension and hyperkalaemia.
Because the brain stem monitors the level of blood CO2 in blood to regulate breathing, hypocapnia can suppress breathing to the point of blackout from cerebral hypoxia.  Self-induced hypocapnia through hyperventilation is the basis for the deadly schoolyard choking game.  Deliberate hyperventilation has been unwisely used by underwater breath-hold divers to extend dive time but at the risk of shallow water blackout, which is a significant cause of drowning.
Hypoplasia

# Overview
Hypoplasia is an incomplete or arrested development of an organ or a part . It is descriptive of many medical conditions such as:
- Underdeveloped breasts during puberty.
- Underdeveloped testes in Klinefelter's syndrome.
- Underdeveloped thymus in DiGeorge syndrome.
- Underdeveloped labia majora in popliteal pterygium syndrome.
- Underdeveloped cerebellum caused by mutation in the Reelin gene.
- Underdeveloped tooth caused by oral pathology, such as Turner's hypoplasia.
- Underdeveloped chambers of the heart in hypoplastic left heart syndrome and hypoplastic right heart syndrome
- Underdeveloped optic nerve in optic nerve hypoplasia
- Underdeveloped sacrum in sacral agenesis
- Underdeveloped facial muscle in asymmetric crying facies

# Related Chapters
- Aplasia
- Atrophy.
ID3 (gene)
DNA-binding protein inhibitor ID-3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ID3 gene.

# Function
Members of the ID family of helix-loop-helix (HLH) proteins lack a basic DNA-binding domain and inhibit transcription through formation of nonfunctional dimers that are incapable of binding to DNA.

# Interactions
ID3 (gene) has been shown to interact with TCF3.

# Repressors of ID3
BTG2 binds to the promoter of Id3 and represses its activity. By this mechanism, the upregulation of Id3 in the hippocampus caused by BTG2 ablation prevents terminal differentiation of hippocampal neurons.
ITK (gene)
Tyrosine-protein kinase ITK/TSK also known as interleukin-2-inducible T-cell kinase or simply ITK, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ITK  gene. ITK is a member of the TEC family of kinases and is highly expressed in T cells.

# Function
This gene encodes an intracellular tyrosine kinase expressed in T-cells.  The protein is thought to play a role in T-cell proliferation and differentiation. ITK is functionally important for the development and effector function of Th2 and Th17 cells.
Mice lacking ITK were shown to not be susceptible to asthma.

# Structure
This protein contains the following domains, which are often found in intracellular kinases:
- N-terminus  PH (pleckstrin homology domain)
- TH  Tec family homology domain (including Bruton's tyrosine kinase Cys-rich motif and Proline rich region)
- SH3  (Src homology 3)
- SH2  (Src homology 2)
- C-terminus  tyrosine kinase, catalytic domain

# Interactions
ITK (gene) has been shown to interact with:
- FYN,
- Grb2 and
- KHDRBS1,
- KPNA2,
- LAT,
- LCP2,
- PLCG1,
- PPIA, and
- WAS.
Icodextrin

# Overview
Icodextrin (INN, USAN) is a colloid osmotic agent, derived from maltodextrin, used in form of an aqueous solution for peritoneal dialysis under the trade name Extraneal, and after gynecological laparoscopic surgery for the reduction of post-surgical adhesions (fibrous bands that form between tissues and organs) under the trade name Adept.

# Physical and chemical properties
Icodextrin is a starch-derived, branched, water-soluble glucose polymer linked by -(14) and less than 10% -(16) glycosidic bonds, making it a type of dextrin. Its weight-average molecular weight is between 13,000 and 19,000 Daltons and its number-average molecular weight between 5,000 and 6,500 Daltons. The substance is a white to off-white solid, and the solution is clear and colourless to pale yellow.

# Mechanism of action
The osmotic activity of icodextrin keeps the solution inside the peritoneum for three to four days, separating tissues and thus reducing adhesion between them when fibrin is formed after a surgery. In other words, the tissues are kept from gluing together.
When used for peritoneal dialysis, the icodextrin solution absorbs waste products from the blood, and is removed from the peritoneum after a few hours together with the waste.

# Pharmacokinetics
Icodextrin is not significantly metabolised inside the peritoneum. Instead, it is absorbed slowly (40% after 12 hours) into the bloodstream via the lymph vessels. There it is broken down into oligosaccharides by the enzyme alpha-amylase. In patients with intact kidney function, both icodextrin and its fragments are excreted via the kidney by glomerular filtration.

# Contraindications
Icodextrin is contraindicated in patients with cornstarch allergy, maltose or isomaltose intolerance, glycogen storage disease, or severe lactic acidosis.

# Adverse effects
Adverse effects include peritonitis, respiratory infection, hypertension (high blood pressure), rashes, and headache. Of these side effects, only hypertension and rashes occurred significantly more often than under glucose solution; the other events seem to be related to peritoneal dialysis in general.

# Interactions
Icodextrin can mimic increased blood glucose levels, depending on the used testing system. Specifically, glucose dehydrogenase pyrroloquinolinequinone (GDH-PQQ) or glucose-dye-oxidoreductase (GDO) based tests can erroneously show high blood glucose in patients that have been treated with icodextrin.
Idiopathic

# Overview
Idiopathic is an adjective used primarily in medicine meaning arising spontaneously or from an obscure or unknown cause. From Greek , idios (one's own) + , pathos (suffering), it means approximately "a disease of its own kind."
It is technically a term from nosology, the classification of disease. For most medical conditions, one or more causes are somewhat understood, but in a certain percentage of people with the condition, the cause may not be readily apparent or characterized. In these cases, the origin of the condition is said to be "idiopathic."
With some medical conditions, the medical community cannot establish a root cause for a large percentage of all cases (e.g. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, the majority of which are idiopathic); with other conditions, however, idiopathic cases account for a small percentage (e.g., pulmonary fibrosis). As medical and scientific advances are made with relation to a particular condition or disease, more root causes are discovered, and the percentage of cases designated as idiopathic shrinks.
In his book The Human Body, Isaac Asimov noted a comment about the term "idiopathic" made in the 20th edition of Stedman's Medical Dictionary: "A high-flown term to conceal ignorance."
Iliac vein

# Overview
In human anatomy, iliac vein refers to several anatomical structures located in the pelvis:
- External iliac vein - terminates at the common iliac vein, drains the femoral vein.
- Internal iliac vein - terminates at the common iliac vein, drains pelvic organs and perineum.
- Common iliac vein - formed by the external and internal iliac veins, drains into the inferior vena cava.
Imidazenil
Imidazenil is an anxiolytic drug which is derived from the benzodiazepine family, and is most closely related to other imidazobenzodiazepines such as midazolam, flumazenil and bretazenil.
Imidazenil is a GABAA partial agonist with an unusual profile of effects, producing some of the effects associated with normal benzodiazepines such as anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects, yet without any notable sedative or amnestic effects. In fact, imidazenil blocks the sedative effects of diazepam, yet without lowering the convulsion threshold, and so potentially could be a more flexible antidote than the antagonist flumazenil which is commonly used to treat benzodiazepine overdose at present.
This unusual profile of effects makes imidazenil potentially a very useful drug. In animal studies it has been shown to be an effective anxiolytic and strong anticonvulsant, yet without many of the side effects associated with other benzodiazepines; it does not produce tolerance or dependence, reverses the amnestic effects of conventional benzodiazepines, and does not potentiate the effects of alcohol.
Imidazenil has not yet been developed commercially for use in humans, however it has been suggested as a safe and effective treatment for anxiety, a potent yet non-sedating anticonvulsant which might be particularly useful in the treatment of poisoning with organophosphate nerve agents, and as a novel treatment for schizophrenia.
Penetrance

# Overview
Penetrance is a term used in genetics that describes the extent to which the properties controlled by a gene, its phenotype, will be expressed. For example Huntingtons disease has 95% penetrance whereby 5% of those with the dominant allele for Huntingtons don't acquire the disease and 95% do. Penetrance is the percentage of individuals with a specific genotype which possess an associated phenotype. For example, if 50% of the individuals carrying the "blue" gene are blue, the "blue" gene has 50% penetrance.
If a gene is highly penetrant, the trait it produces will always or almost always be apparent in an individual carrying the gene. A gene with low penetrance will only sometimes produce the symptom or trait with which it has been associated at a detectable level. In the case of low penetrance it is difficult to distinguish environmental from genetic factors.
Common examples used to show degrees of penetrance are often highly penetrant. There are several reasons for this:
- Highly penetrant genes, and highly heritable symptoms, are easier to demonstrate  if the gene is present, the phenotype is expressed (recessivity, dominance, and co-dominance are fairly simple additions to this principle);
- Genes which are highly penetrant are more easily noticed by geneticists, and genes for symptoms which are highly heritable are more easily inferred to exist, and then more easily tracked down.
However, relatively few of the genes in the genome show high penetrance. Traits such as height or intelligence are modified by multiple genes as well as by environmental factors. Distribution of polygenic traits often falls along a bell curve.
The penetrance of some diseases is age-related.  An example is multiple endocrine neoplasia 1 (MEN 1), a disorder characterized by parathyroid hyperplasia and pancreatic islet-cell and pituitary adenomas.   It is due to a mutation in the menin gene on chromosome 11q13.  In one study the age-related penetrance of MEN1 was 7 percent by age 10 years and nearly 100 percent by age 60 years.
Induration
Induration (in'doo ra'shn, -dyoo-), a noun, means, in terms of pathology, (a) hardening of an area of the body as a reaction to inflammation, hyperemia, or neoplastic infiltration, or (b) an area or part of the body that has undergone such a reaction.  Most often this term is used to describe dermatologic findings.

# Examples of usage
"Both erythema and induration appear to be adequate indices of tuberculin sensitivity."
"The erythema had spread to 20 cm, and the central induration had spread to 9 cm."

# Footnotes
-  Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. Random House, Inc. 2001. Page 975. ISBN 037572026.
-  Kimura, et al. "Comparison of erythema and induration as results of tuberculin tests." Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2005;9(8):853-7. PMID 16104630.
-  Race, et al. "Painful nodule with induration and spreading erythema." Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings. 2005;18(4):401404.
Infarction

# Overview
An infarction is the process resulting in a macroscopic area of necrotic tissue in some organ caused by loss of adequate blood supply. Supplying arteries may be blocked from within by some obstruction (e.g. a blood clot or fatty cholesterol deposit), or may be mechanically compressed or ruptured by trauma.
Infarction is commonly associated with atherosclerosis, where an atherosclerotic plaque ruptures, a thrombus forms on the surface occluding the blood flow and occasionally forming an embolus that occludes other blood vessels downstream. Infarction can also involve mechanical blockage of the blood supply, such as when part of the gut herniates or twists.
Infarctions are divided into two types according the amount of hemorrhaging present:
- White infarctions (anemic infarcts) affect solid organs such as the heart, spleen, and kidneys. The occlusion is most often composed of platelets, and the organ becomes white, or pale.
- Red infarctions (hemorrhagic infarcts), generally affecting the lungs. The occlusion consists more of red blood cells and fibrin strands.
Diseases commonly associated with infarctions include:
- Myocardial infarction (heart attack)
- Pulmonary embolism ("lung attack")
- Cerebrovascular accident (stroke  80% are due to infarction)
- Peripheral artery occlusive disease (the most severe form of which is gangrene)
- Antiphospholipid syndrome
- Sepsis
- Giant-cell arteritis (GCA)
- Hernia
- Volvulus
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