Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Dot blot

# Overview
A Dot blot (or Slot blot) is a technique in molecular biology used to detect biomolecules.  It represents a simplification of the northern blot, Southern blot, or western blot methods.  In a dot blot the biomolecules to be detected are not first separated by chromatography.  Instead, a mixture containing the molecule to be detected is applied directly on a membrane as a dot.  This is then followed by detection by either nucleotide probes (for a northern blot and Southern blot) or antibodies (for a western blot).
The technique offers significant savings in time, as chromatography or gel electrophoresis, and the complex blotting procedures for the gel are not required.  However, it offers no information on the size of the target biomolecule.  Furthermore, if two molecules of different sizes are detected, they will still appear as a single dot.  Dot blots therefore can only confirm the presence or absence of a biomolecule or biomolecules which can be detected by the DNA probes or the antibody.
A radioactive sample can be hybridized to it allowing the researcher to detect variation between samples. The DNA is quantified and equal amounts are aliquoted into tubes in excess of the number of its targets in the samples, such as 10ug for a plasmid and 1ug for a PCR amplicon.  These are denatured (NaOH and 95C) and added to the wells where a vacuum sucks the water (with NaOH and NH4OAc) from underneath the membrane (nylon or nitrocellulose).
Dropwort
Dropwort (Filipendula vulgaris), also known as Fern-leaf Dropwort is a perennial herb of the family Rosaceae closely related to Meadowsweet. It is found in dry pastures across much of Europe and central and northern Asia. It has finely-cut, radical leaves, fern-like in appearance, and an erect stem 50-80 cm tall bearing a loose terminal inflorescence of small white flowers. The tiny flowers appear in dense clusters from late spring to mid summer.
This plant prefers full sun to partial shade. It is more tolerant of dry conditions than most other members of its genus.

# Cultivation and uses
A root decoction has been made from this plant to treat kidney ailments and is an expectorant. Propagation is by seed and the division of the creeping roots.
da:Knoldet Mjdurt
hsb:Dulkata smjetanka
nl:Knolspirea
sv:Brudbrod
uk:
Drug use

# Overview
Drugs can be used in many different ways, as detailed below.

# Medication
People can use drugs to relieve pain or discomfort or to cure or prevent disease. Not all medication is drugs however.

# Recreational drug use
Recreational drug use is the use of psychoactive drugs for recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes, although the distinction is not always clear. At least one psychopharmacologist who has studied this field refers to it as the 'Fourth Drive,' arguing that the human instinct to seek mind-altering substances has so much force and persistence that it functions like the human drives for hunger, thirst and shelter.

# Responsible drug use
The concept of responsible drug use is that a person can use recreational drugs with reduced or eliminated risk of negatively affecting other parts of one's life or other peoples lives. Advocates of this idea point to the many well-known artists and intellectuals who have used drugs, experimentally or otherwise, with few detrimental effects on their lives. Critics argue that the drugs are escapist--and dangerous, unpredictable and sometimes addictive; thus predicating the idea of a responsible use of drugs as an idea, ultimately disputable upon debate.

# Gateway drug theory
The gateway drug theory is the belief that use of a lower classed drug can lead to the subsequent use of "harder", more dangerous drugs. The term is also used to describe introductory experiences to addictive substances. Some believe tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana are gateway drugs.
Some research suggests that serious drug abusers adopt an atypical drug use sequence with use of other drugs initiated before marijuana or alcohol.
There are many pharmacological similarities between various drugs of abuse. Individual social histories show that "hard" drug users do progress from one drug to another, but the reasons are not clear enough to generalise a gateway.

# Drug addiction
Drug addiction is a condition characterized by compulsive drug intake, craving and seeking, despite what the majority of society may perceive as the negative consequences associated with drug use.

# Drug abuse
Drug abuse has a wide range of definitions related to taking a psychoactive drug or performance enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. Some of the most commonly abused drugs include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methaqualone, and opium alkaloids. Use of these drugs may lead to criminal penalty in addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, both strongly depending on local jurisdiction.  Other definitions of drug abuse fall into four main categories: public health definitions, mass communication and vernacular usage, medical definitions, and political and criminal justice definitions.
Duodenum

# Overview
In anatomy of the digestive system, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. It is the first and shortest part of the small intestine and it is where most chemical digestion takes place. It begins with the duodenal bulb and ends at the ligament of Treitz. The name duodenum is from the Latin duodenum digitorum, twelve fingers' breadths or inches.

# Function
The duodenum is largely responsible for the breakdown of food in the small intestine. Brunner's glands, which secrete mucus, are found in the duodenum. The duodenum wall is composed of a very thin layer of cells that form the muscularis mucosae. The duodenum is almost entirely retroperitoneal. The pH in the duodenum is approximately six.

# Sections
The duodenum is divided into four sections for the purposes of description. The first three sections form a "C" shape.

## First part
The first (superior) part began as a continuation of the duodenal end of the pylorus. From here it passes laterally (right), superiorly and posteriorly, for approximately 5 cm, before making a sharp curve inferiorly into the superior duodenal flexure (the end of the superior part). It is intraperitoneal.

## Second part
The second (descending) part of the duodenum begins at the superior duodenal flexure. It passes inferiorly to the lower border of vertebral body L3, before making a sharp turn medially into the inferior duodenal flexure (the end of the descending part).
The pancreatic duct and common bile duct enter the descending duodenum, commonly known together as the hepatopancreatic duct (or pancreatic duct in the United States), through the major duodenal papilla. This part of the duodenum also contains the minor duodenal papilla, the entrance for the accessory pancreatic duct. The junction between the embryological foregut and midgut lies just below the major duodenal papilla.

## Third part
The third (inferior/horizontal) part of the duodenum begins at the inferior duodenal flexure and passes transversely to the left, crossing the inferior vena cava, aorta and the vertebral column.

## Fourth part
The fourth (ascending) part passes superiorly, either anterior to, or to the right of, the aorta, until it reaches the inferior border of the body of the pancreas. Then, it curves anteriorly and terminates at the duodenojejunal flexure where it joins the jejunum. The duodenojejunal flexure is surrounded by a peritoneal fold containing muscle fibres: the ligament of Treitz.

# Additional images
- The celiac artery and its branches; the stomach has been raised and the peritoneum removed.
- Superior and inferior duodenal foss.
- Duodenojejunal fossa.
- Interior of the stomach.
- Section of duodenum of cat. X 60.
- The pancreas and duodenum from behind.
- Transverse section through the middle of the first lumbar vertebra, showing the relations of the pancreas.
- The pancreatic duct.
- Duodenum with amyloid deposition in lamina propria.
- Region of pancreas
- Stomach
Dynactin

# Overview
Dynactin or Dynein activator complex is a multi-subunit protein found in eukaryotic cells that aids in bidirectional intracellular organelle transport by binding to dynein and Kinesin II and linking them to the organelles to be transported.

# Structure and mechanism of action
Dynactin consists of many subunits of which the p150Glued doublet (encoded by the DCTN1 gene) is the largest and has been found to be essential for function.  This structure of dynactin is highly conserved in vertebrates. There are three isoforms encoded by a single gene.
Dynactin interacts with dynein directly by the binding of dynein intermediate chains with the p150 (glued homolog) doublet.

# Functions
Dynactin is often essential for dynein activity and can be thought of as a "dynein receptor" that modulates binding of dynein to cell organelles which are to be transported along microtubules.
Dynactin is involved in various processes like chromosome alignment and spindle organization in cell division, maintaining nuclear position in addition to transport of various organelles in the cytoplasm.
Dynactin also links Kinesin II to organelles.
Dyskerin
H/ACA ribonucleoprotein complex subunit 4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the gene DKC1.
This gene is a member of the H/ACA snoRNPs (small nucleolar ribonucleoproteins) gene family. snoRNPs are involved in various aspects of rRNA processing and modification and have been classified into two families: C/D and H/ACA. The H/ACA snoRNPs also include the NOLA1, 2 and 3 proteins. The protein encoded by this gene and the three NOLA proteins localize to the dense fibrillar components of nucleoli and to coiled (Cajal) bodies in the nucleus. Both 18S rRNA production and rRNA pseudouridylation are impaired if any one of the four proteins is depleted.  The protein encoded by this gene is related to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cbf5p and Drosophila melanogaster Nop60B proteins. The gene lies in a tail-to-tail orientation with the palmitoylated erythrocyte membrane protein (MPP1) gene and is transcribed in a telomere to centromere direction. Both nucleotide substitutions and single trinucleotide repeat polymorphisms have been found in this gene. Mutations in this gene cause X-linked dyskeratosis congenita.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in DKC1 are associated to                 Hoyeraal-Hreidarsson syndrome            .
Dysmelia
Dysmelia (from Greek  - = "bad" plus  (plural ) = "limb") is a congenital disorder referring to the limbs. 
Dysmelia can refer to
- missing (aplasia) limbs: amelia, oligodactyly, congenital amputation
- malformation of limbs: ectrodactyly, phocomelia, syndactyly, brachydactyly, clubfoot
- too many limbs: polymelia, polydactyly, polysyndactyly

# Occurrence rate
Birth defects involving limbs occur in 1 per 1000.

# Causes
Dysmelia can be caused by
- inheritance of abnormal genes, e.g. polydactyly, ectrodactyly or brachydactyly, symptoms of deformed limbs then often occur in combination with other symptoms (syndromes)
- external causes during pregnancy (thus not inherited), e.g. via amniotic band syndrome
- teratogenic drugs (e.g. thalidomide, which causes phocomelia) or environmental chemicals
- ionizing radiation (atomic weapons, radioiodine, radiation therapy)
- infections
- metabolic imbalance
de:dysmelie
Dystocia

# Overview
Dystocia (antonym eutocia) is an abnormal or difficult childbirth or labour. Dystocia may arise due to incoordinate uterine activity, abnormal fetal lie or presentation, or absolute or relative cephalopelvic disproportion. Oxytocin is commonly used to treat incoordinate uterine activity. However, pregnancies complicated by dystocia often end with assisted deliveries including forceps, ventouse or, commonly, caesarean section.  Recognized risks of dystocia include fetal death, respiratory depression, hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, and brachial nerve damage.
Shoulder dystocia is a specific case of dystocia whereby the anterior shoulder of the infant cannot pass below the pubic symphysis, or requires significant manipulation to pass below, the pubic symphysis.
A prolonged second stage of labour is another type oftocia whereby the fetus has not been delivered within three hours after the mother's cervix has become fully dilated.
Synonyms: difficult labour, abnormal labour, difficult childbirth, abnormal childbirth, dysfunctional labour
Dystocia pertaining to birds and reptiles is also called egg binding.  See egg bound.
Dystonin
Dystonin (DST), also known as Bullous pemphigoid antigen 1,(BPAG1), isoforms 1/2/3/4/5/8, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DST gene.
This gene encodes a member of the plakin protein family of adhesion junction plaque proteins. Multiple alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been found for this gene, but the full-length nature of some variants has not been defined. It has been known that some isoforms are expressed in neural and muscle tissue, anchoring neural intermediate filaments to the actin cytoskeleton, and some isoforms are expressed in epithelial tissue, anchoring keratin-containing intermediate filaments to hemidesmosomes. Consistent with the expression, mice defective for this gene show skin blistering and neurodegeneration.

# Interactions
Dystonin has been shown to interact with Collagen, type XVII, alpha 1, DCTN1 and Erbin.
Egophony
Synonyms and Keywords: e to a changes

# Overview
Egophony (British: Aegophony) is an increased resonance of voice sounds heard when auscultating the lungs, often caused by consolidated or compressed lung tissue due to an infection, pleural effusion, tumor, or congestion. It is due to enhanced transmission of high-frequency noise across fluid, such as in abnormal lung tissue, with lower frequencies filtered out. It results in a high-pitched nasal or bleating quality in the affected person's voice.
While listening to the lungs with a stethoscope, the patient is asked to say the letter "e."  What is heard is a higher pitched sound that sounds like the letter "a."  (Some doctors refer to this as "e to a changes.")  Most commonly, this indicates pneumonia.
Similar terms are bronchophony and whispered pectoriloquy.  The mechanism is the same: fluid or consolidation causes the sound of the voice to be transmitted loudly to the periphery of the lungs where it is usually not heard.
Egophony comes from the Greek word for "goat," (aix, aig-) in reference to the bleating quality of the sound.
Ear drop
Ear drops are a form of medicine used to treat or prevent ear infections, especially infections of the outer ear and ear canal (Otitis externa).
Bacterial infections are sometimes treated with antibiotics. Examples are:-
- Gentisone HC ear drops (containing Gentamicin and hydrocortisone).
- Ciproxin HC ear drops (containing ciprofloxacin and hydrocortisone).
- Sofradex ear drops (containing Framycetin Sulphate, Gramicidin, Dexamethasone]]/
- Kenacomb ear drops, containing triamcinolone acetonide, neomycin and gramicidin (antibiotics) and nystatin (antifungal).
Over the counter ear drops are also available, including spirit drops (alcohol solution), which dries out the ear, and drops such as Aqua Ear (used for swimmer's ear) containing a mixture of substances such as alcohol and acetic acid, to dry the ear and make it difficult for microbes to grow.

# Cautions
If there is a possibility that you already have an ear infection, or your ear drum has ever been perforated, or otherwise injured, or if you have ever had ear surgery, it is important to consult an ear doctor (ENT, or ear, nose and throat specialist) before you use any type of ear drops (or before swimming).
Ebastine

# Overview
Ebastine (trade names Evastin, Kestine, Ebastel, Aleva, Ebatrol) is a H1 antihistamine with low potential for causing drowsiness.
It does not penetrate the bloodbrain barrier to a significant amount and thus combines an effective block of the H1 receptor in peripheral tissue with a low incidence of central side effects, i.e. seldom causing sedation or drowsiness.
The patent in which the structure of ebastine is first mentioned is Template:Patent in Europe and Template:Patent in the US. The substance is often provided in micronised form due to poor water solubility.

# Uses and availability
Ebastine is a second-generation H1 receptor antagonist that is indicated mainly for allergic rhinitis and chronic idiopathic urticaria. It is available in 10 and 20 mg tablets and as fast-dissolving tablets, as well as in pediatric syrup. It has a recommended flexible daily dose of 10 or 20 mg, depending on disease severity.
Ebastine is available in different formulations (tablets, fast dissolving tablets and syrup) and commercialized under different brand names around the world, Ebet, Ebastel FLAS, Kestine, KestineLIO, KestinLYO, EstivanLYO, Evastel Z, Ebatrol, etc.

# Pharmacokinetic profile
After oral administration, ebastine undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism by hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4 into its active carboxylic acid metabolite, carebastine. This conversion is practically complete.

# Efficacy
Data from over 8,000 patients in more than 40 clinical trials and studies suggest efficacy of ebastine in the treatment of intermittent allergic rhinitis, persistent allergic rhinitis and other indications.

# Safety
Ebastine has shown overall safety and tolerability profile with no cognitive/psychomotor impairment and no sedation worse than placebo, and cardiac safety, that is, no QT prolongation. The incidence of most commonly reported adverse events was comparable between the ebastine and placebo groups, which confirms that ebastine has a favourable safety profile.
While experiments in pregnant animals showed no risk for the unborn, no such data are available in humans. It is not known whether ebastine passes into the breast milk.
Ecamsule
Ecamsule (USAN, trade name Mexoryl SX, INCI Terephthalylidene Dicamphor Sulfonic Acid) is a chemical which is added to many sunscreens to filter out UVA rays. It is a benzylidene camphor derivative, many of which are known for their excellent photostability.
Although there are a few different UV absorbers with the trade name Mexoryl, only two of them are widely used where approved. Mexoryl SX (water soluble) and Mexoryl XL (INCI Drometrizole Trisiloxane, oil soluble). Together they show a synergistic effect in protection. The patents are held by LOreal. Sunscreens containing ecamsule are exclusive to LOreal and its brands.

# Mode of action
Exposed to UV, ecamsule undergoes reversible photoisomerization, followed by photoexcitation. The absorbed UV is then released as thermal energy, without penetrating the skin.
UVB rays cause short-term sunburn and skin cancer; UVA rays cause wrinkling and may have some role in development of skin cancer. There is no official rating for UVA protection in the US. In Europe, there are several different rating systems that are used to measure effectiveness in blocking UVA rays, including the IPD (immediate pigment darkening assay) and the PPD (persistent pigment darkening assay). The UVB range is 280 to 320 nanometers, and the UVA range is 320 to 400. Ecamsule protects against UV wavelengths in the 290400 nanometer range, with peak protection at 345 nm. Since ecamsule doesn't cover the entire UV spectrum, it should be combined with other active sunscreen agents to ensure broad-spectrum UV protection. Ecamsule is a photostable organic UVA absorber, meaning it doesn't degrade significantly when exposed to light. This is in contrast to the widely used UVA absorber avobenzone that is not intrinsically photostable and requires photostabilizers to prevent significant degradation in light.

# Efficacy
A 5% ecamsule containing sunscreen can prevent early changes leading to photoaging in humans. A broad spectrum sunscreen with ecamsule, avobenzone and octocrylene significantly reduces the skin damage associated with UV exposure in human subjects.
In studies done in mice it reduces the formation of UV induced pyrimidine dimers and delays the onset of skin cancer. In vitro ecamsule effectively protects against the harmful effects of UV.

# Safety
Ecamsule has little percutaneous absorption and little systemic effects, therefore it is considered relatively safe. 
A mouse study shows that it does not increase the probability of promoting skin cancer. Studies done in vitro show that it is not photomutagenic.
Because ecamsule is an acid it needs to be neutralized in order to be used without offsetting the final pH of the sunscreen too much. Usually this is done with triethanolamine.

# Availability
LOreal patented ecamsule first in 1982. It was approved in the EU in 1991. Sunscreens based on ecamsule have been available in Europe, Canada and other parts of the world since 1993, and was just recently given approval by the FDA in the U.S. However this approval only extends to ecamsule containing sunscreens registered as New Drug Application, not ecamsule itself.
Elastase

# Overview
In molecular biology, elastase is an enzyme from the class of proteases (peptidases) that break down proteins.

# Forms and classification
Eight human genes exist for elastase:
Bacterial forms: Organisms such as P. aeruginosa also produce elastase, and is considered a virulence factor.

# Function
Elastase breaks down elastin, an elastic fiber that, together with collagen, determines the mechanical properties of connective tissue. The neutrophil form breaks down the Outer membrane protein A (OmpA) of E. coli and other Gram-negative bacteria. Elastase also has the important immunological role of breaking down Shigella virulence factors.  This is accomplished through the cleavage of peptide bonds in the target proteins.  The specific peptide bonds cleaved are those on the carboxy side of small, hydrophobic amino acids such as glycine, alanine, and valine.  For more on how this is accomplished, see serine protease.

# The role of human elastase in disease

## A1AT
Elastase is inhibited by the acute-phase protein 1-antitrypsin (A1AT), which binds almost irreversibly to the active site of elastase and trypsin. A1AT is normally secreted by the liver cells into the serum. 1-antitryspin deficiency (A1AD) leads to uninhibited destruction of elastic fiber by elastase; the main result is pulmonary emphysema.

## Cyclic hematopoeiesis
The rare disease cyclic hematopoeiesis (also called "cyclic neutropenia") is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder characterised by fluctuating neutrophil granulocyte counts over 21-day periods. During neutropenia, patients are at risk for infections. In 1999, this disease was linked to disorders in the ELA-2 / ELANE gene. Other forms of congenital neutropenia also appear to be linked to ELA-2 mutations.

## Other diseases
Neutrophil elastase is responsible for the blistering in bullous pemphigoid, a skin condition, in the presence of antibodies.

# The role of bacterial elastase in disease
Elastase has been shown to disrupt tight junctions, cause proteolytic damage to tissue, break down cytokines and alpha proteinase inhibitor, cleave immunoglobuline A and G (IgA, IgG), and cleave both C3bi, a component of the complement system, and CR1, a receptor on neutrophils for another complement molecule involved in phagocytosis. The cleavage of IgA, IgG, C3bi, and CR1 contributes to a decrease of the ability of neutrophils to kill bacteria by phagocytosis. Together, all these factors contribute to human pathology.
Elective
Elective used as an adjective means that it is optional and chosen, for example, by election.  An elective, a noun, chosen by a student means that it is an optional subject or course in a curriculum.
Elective is a term used for an academic course chosen by the student from a set of options, as opposed to a required course. For example, an undergraduate college may require students studying psychology to take six required courses and four electives, chosen from a list of ten options.
The term elective is also used for a period of medical study conducted away from the student's home medical school, often abroad.