Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Cerium(IV) oxide
Cerium(IV) oxide, ceric oxide, ceria, or sometimes simply cerium oxide or cerium dioxide, is a pale yellow-white powder, CeO2. It is used in ceramics, to polish glass, and to sensitize photosensitive glass. It is also used in lapidary as "jeweller's rouge"; it is also known as "optician's rouge". Ceria is used in the walls of self-cleaning ovens as a hydrocarbon catalyst during the high-temperature cleaning process. It has high absorption of ultraviolet radiation while it is transparent for visible light, so it is a prospective replacement of zirconia and titania in sunscreens, as it has lower photocatalytic activity. However its thermal catalytic properties have to be decreased by coating the particles by amorphous silica or boron nitride.
It is slightly hygroscopic and will also absorb a small amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Note that cerium also forms cerium(III) oxide, Ce2O3.

# As a fuel cell electrolyte
In the doped form, ceria has seen interest as a material for solid oxide fuel cells or SOFCs because of its relatively high oxygen ion conductivity (i.e. oxygen atoms readily move through it) at intermediate temperatures (500-800 C). Undoped and doped ceria also exhibit high electronic conductivity at low partial pressures of oxygen due to the formation of small polarons.  However, doped ceria has an extended electrolytic region (area of predominant ionic conductivity), over that of ceria, that allows its use as an electrolyte in SOFCs.  Substituting a fraction of the ceria with gadolinium or samarium will introduce oxygen vacancies in the crystal without adding electronic charge carriers. This increases the ionic conductivity and results in a better electrolyte.
Under reducing conditions, those experienced on the anode side of the fuel cell, a large amount of oxygen vacancies within the ceria electrolyte can be formed. This results in the normally pale yellow ceria to turn black or grey as the result of color center formation.  Some of the cerium(IV) oxide is also reduced to cerium(III) oxide under these conditions which consequently increases the electronic conductivity of the material.  Finally, ceria undergoes what is described as a chemical expansion under reducing conditions as a result of reduction of the cerium cation from a 4+ to a 3+ state in order to charge compensate for oxygen vacancy formation.

# As a catalyst
Ceria has been used in catalytic converters in automotive applications.  Since ceria can become non-stoichioimetric in oxygen content (i.e. it can give up oxygen without decomposing) depending on its ambient partial pressure of oxygen, it can release or take in oxygen in the exhaust stream of a combustion engine.  In association with other catalysts, ceria can effectively reduce NOx emissions as well as convert harmful carbon monoxide to the less harmful carbon dioxide.

# Defects
In the fluorite structure, ceria exhibits several defects depending on partial pressure of oxygen.  The primary defects of concern are oxygen vacancies and small polarons (electrons localized on cerium cations) because these two are located in the "useful" range of ceria.
Chandipura virus
Chandipura virus is a member of the Rhabdoviridae family that is associated with an encephalitic illness in humans. It was first identified in 1965 after isolation from the blood of two patients from Chandipura village in Maharashtra state, India (Bhatt et al,1967) and has been associated with a number of otherwise unexplained outbreaks of encephalitic illness in central India. The most recent occurred in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra in June-August of 2003 with 329 children affected and 183 deaths. Further sporadic cases and deaths in children were observed in Gujarat state in 2004.
Chandipura virus has been isolated from sandflies in India and West Africa (Fontenille et al, 1994) and is probably spread through its bite. The presence of the virus in Africa indicates a wide distribution although no human cases have been observed outside of India.
The significance of Chandipura virus as a human pathogen is unresolved due to doubts over its role in the 2003 and 2004 outbreaks.
Chaotropic agent
A chaotropic agent is an agent which causes molecular structure to be disrupted; in particular, those formed by noncovalent forces such as hydrogen bonding, Van der Waals interactions, and the hydrophobic effect. Often structural features, as detected by means such as circular dichroism can be titrated in a chaotrope concentration-dependent fashion.
The most commonly used chaotropes are 6~8M urea and 6M guanidinium chloride, with urea being a noncharged molecule and guanidinium chloride being a hydrochloride salt.
High generic salts can have chaotropic properties, by shielding charges and preventing the stabilization of salt bridges.  Hydrogen bonding is stronger in nonpolar media, so salts, which increase the dipole moment of the solvent, can also destabilize hydrogen bonding.
Chemerin peptide
Chemerin Peptides are short peptides (on the order of 9 amino acids) that are produced from the carboxyl terminus of the chemokine chemerin. They display the same activities as chemerin, although at higher efficacy and potency.
A particular synthetic chemerin-derived peptide, termed C15, was developed at Oxford University. It showed anti-inflammatory activities. Intraperitoneal administration of C15 (0.32 ng/kg) to mice before zymosan challenge conferred significant protection against zymosan-induced peritonitis, suppressing neutrophil (63%) and monocyte (62%) recruitment with a concomitant reduction in proinflammatory mediator expression.
C15 was found to promote phagocytosis and efferocytosis in peritoneal macrophages at picomolar concentrations. C15 enhanced macrophage clearance of microbial particles and apoptotic cells by factor of 360% in vitro
Chemoselectivity
Chemical reactions are defined usually in small contexts (only up to a small number of neighbouring atoms), such generalizations are a matter of utility. The preferential outcome of one instance of a generalized reaction over a set of other plausible reactions, is defined as chemoselectivity.
Practicing chemists typically try to predict whether or not an instance of a particular generalized reaction will yield product based on the molecular connectivity alone. Such predictions based on connectivity are generally considered plausible, but the physical outcome of the actual reaction is ultimately dependent on a number of factors that are practically impossible to predict to any useful accuracy (solvent, atomic orbitals etc.).
As such, chemoselectivity can be difficult to predict but observing selective outcomes in cases where many reactions are plausible, is common. Examples include the selective organic reduction of 4-nitro-2-chlorobenzonitrile to the corresponding aniline, 4-amino-2-chlorobenzonitrile and the greater relative chemoselectivity of sodium borohydride reduction vs. lithium aluminium hydride reduction.
Salvia hispanica
Chia (Salvia hispanica) is a plant of the genus Salvia in the Mint family. It originated in the central Valley of Mexico.
Chia is grown commercially for its seed, a food that is very rich in Omega 3 fatty acids.

# Etymology
The word chia is derived from the Aztec word chian, meaning oilyTemplate:Ref label.  The present Mexican state of Chiapas got its name from the Nahua "chia water or river".  The species was named hispanica ("of Spain") because Linnaeus described the species from cultivated plants in Spain.

# Botany
Chia is an annual herb growing to 1 m tall, with opposite leaves 4-8 cm long and 3-5 cm broad. Its flowers are purple or white and are produced in numerous clusters in a spike at the end of each stemTemplate:Ref label.

# Chia seed
Chia seeds are typically small ovals with a diameter of about one millimeter. They are mottle-colored with brown, gray, black and white.  Chia seeds typically contain 20% protein, 34% oil, 25% dietary fiber (mostly soluble with high molecular weight), and significant levels of antioxidants (chlorogenic and caffeic acids, myricetin, quercitin, and kaempferol flavonols). The oil from chia seeds contains a very high concentration of Omega 3 fatty acid - approximately 64%.Template:Ref label Chia seeds contain no gluten and trace levels of sodiumTemplate:Ref label. There are no known toxic components of chia.
Chia seed is traditionally consumed in Mexico, the southwestern United States, and South America, but is not widely known in Europe. The United States Food and Drug Administration regards chia as a food with an established history of safe consumption.
Historically, chia seeds served as a staple food of the Nahuatl (Aztec) cultures of Central Mexico.  Jesuit chroniclers referred to chia as the third most important crop to the Aztecs behind only corn and beans, and ahead of amaranth. Tribute and taxes to the Aztec priesthood and nobility were often paid in chia seedTemplate:Ref labelTemplate:Ref label.
Today, chia is grown commercially in its native Mexico, and in Bolivia, Argentina, Ecuador, and Guatemala.  A similar species, golden chia, is used in the same way but not widely grown commercially.

## Food Preparation
Chia seed may be eaten raw as a dietary fiber and omega-3 supplement.  Grinding chia seeds produces a meal called pinole, which can be made into porridge or cakes.  Chia seeds soaked in water or fruit juice is also often consumed and is known in Mexico as chia fresca.  The soaked seeds are gelatinous in texture and are used in gruels, porridges and puddings.  Ground chia seed is used in baked goods including breads, cakes and biscuits.
Chia sprouts are used in a similar manner as alfalfa sprouts in salads, sandwiches and other dishes.  Chia sprouts are sometimes grown on porous clay figurines which has led to the popular (U.S.) cultural icon of the chia pet.
Child-Pugh score

# Overview
In medicine (gastroenterology), the Child-Pugh score (sometimes the Child-Turcotte-Pugh score) is used to assess the prognosis of chronic liver disease, mainly cirrhosis. Although it was originally used to predict mortality during surgery, it is now used to determine the prognosis, as well as the required strength of treatment and the necessity of liver transplantation.

# Historical Perspective
Dr C.G. Child and Dr J.G. Turcotte of the University of Michigan first proposed the scoring system in 1964 (Child et al). It was modified by Pugh in 1972 (see reference below). He replaced Child's criterion of nutritional status with the prothrombin time or INR, and thus eliminated the most subjective part of the score.

# Scoring
The score employs five clinical measures of liver disease. Each measure is scored 1-3, with 3 indicating most severe derangement.
It should be noted that different textbooks and publications use different measures. Some older reference works substitute PT prolongation for INR. If the PT is 6 seconds over control, scores 3 points.
In primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), the bilirubin references are changed to reflect the fact that these diseases feature high conjugated bilirubin levels. The upper limit for 1 point is 68 mol/l (4 mg/dL) and the upper limit for 2 points is 170 mol/l (10 mg/dL).

# Interpretation
Chronic liver disease is classified into Child-Pugh class A to C, employing the added score from above.
Not only this, one can also use Child-Pugh to predict development of complications of cirrhosis. A Child-Pugh class C indicates higher chance of developing a bleeding varix than those with class A.

# Other scoring systems
Although the Child-Turcotte scoring system was the first of its kind in stratifying the seriousness of end-stage liver disease, it is by no means the only one. The Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) is used increasingly to assess patients for liver transplantation, although both scores seem to be more or less equivalent.
Chloride channel

# Overview
Chloride channels are a superfamily of poorly understood ion channels consisting of approximately 13 members.
It is now recognised that chloride channels display a variety of important physiological and cellular roles that include regulation of pH, volume homeostasis, organic solute transport, cell migration, cell proliferation and differentiation. A number of different gene products have been shown to function as chloride channels. Based on sequence homology the chloride channels can be subdivided into a number of groups. The importance of one such group, the CLC family of chloride channels, can be seen from the diseases that develop when the channel does not function normally.

# Pathology
Bartter's syndrome, which is associated with renal salt wasting and hypokalemic alkalosis, is due to the defective transport of chloride ions and associated ions in the thick ascending loop of Henle. CLC-Kb has been implicated.
Another inherited disease that affects the kidney organs is Dent's Disease, characterised by low molecular weight proteinuria and hypercalciuria where mutations in CLC-5 are implicated.
Thomsen disease is associated with domininate mutations and Becker disease with recessive mutations in CLCN1.

# Functions
Chloride channels are important for setting cell resting membrane potential and maintaining proper cell volume. These channels conduct Cl- as well as other anions such as HCO3-, I-, SCN-, and NO3-.  The structure of these channels is also not other known channels. Chloride channel subunits contain between 1 and 12 transmembrane segments. Some members of this family are activated by voltage, while others are activated by Ca2+, extracellular ligands, and pH among other modulators.

# Commercial Applications
Chloride channels are disrupted in fleas, causing death, with some organic materials. Selamectin is the active ingredient in Revolution, a topical insecticide and antihelminthic used on dogs and cats. Selamectin works by replacing glutamate which normally interacts with receptors that open chloride channels at muscle synapses found in parasites. Unlike glutamate, selamectin activates the chloride current without desensitization, thereby producing prolonged hyperpolarization and impaired muscle contraction.

# Genes
- CLCN1, CLCN2, CLCN3, CLCN4, CLCN5, CLCN6, CLCN7
- CLCNKA, CLCNKB
- CLIC1, CLIC2, CLIC3, CLIC4, CLIC5, CLIC6
- CLNS1A, CLNS1B
- CLCA1, CLCA2, CLCA3, CLCA4
Choice blindness
In psychology, choice blindness is a phenomenon in which subjects fail to detect conspicuous mismatches between their intended (and expected) choice and the actual outcome.
Writing in Science, psychologist Petter Johansson and coworkers describe choice blindness demonstrated in an experiment.
The subject is presented with two cards, on which different (female) faces appear.  The subject is asked to choose which one he finds more attractive.  In the non-manipulated (NM) version, the subject is handed the card that he chose and asked to say why he chose that one.  In the manipulated (M) version, the experimenter uses sleight of hand techniques to switch the cards without the subject's knowledge and give the subject the other card.
The workers found that most subjects failed to notice the switch, and furthermore justified their decision using post-hoc confabulated evidence.  For example, in a M trial, a subject might say "I preferred this one because I prefer blondes" when he had in fact chosen (and pointed to) the dark-haired woman, but was handed a blonde.
They point out that his experiment allows one to investigate the relationship between choice and introspection.
Johansson concludes that he has found that some normal participants unequivocally produce confabulatory reports when asked to describe the reasons behind their choices and suggests that choice blindness affords some insight into the mechanisms behind truthful report.
Jerusalem cherry
The Jerusalem cherry (Solanum pseudocapsicum) is a plant belonging to the same family as deadly nightshade, whose fruit are also poisonous. These perennials can be grown decoratively as a house plant, but in some areas of Australia the plant has become a weed.
The plant is perennial in zones up to USDA 8. Native to Peru, they can survive frosts and cold weather. They generally live up to 10 years, producing fruit usually in their 2nd or 3rd year, and every year after that. Their fruit is extremely similar to cherry tomatoes (as they share the same genus with tomatoes) in taste and texture, and are therefore easily confused with them.
S. pseudocapsicum's poison is primarily solanocapsine, which is similar to other alkaloids found in their genus, such as solanine and atropine. Although the toxin is poisonous, it is generally not life threatening. It may cause gastric problems, including vomiting and gastroenteritis.

# Diseases
Chromium carbide

# Overview
Chromium carbide (Cr3C2) is an extremely hard refractory ceramic material. It is usually processed by sintering. It has the appearance of a gray powder with orthorhombic crystal structure. Its CAS number is 12012-61-9.
Other compositions are available, eg. Cr23C6, and Cr7C3.
Chromium carbide is used as a thermal spray material for protecting the underlying metal surface, and as an additive to corrosion-resistant and wear-resistant materials. It is used in coatings of bearings, seals, orifices, and valve seals, and as a fine-crystal phase in other sintered carbides, where, like the vanadium carbide, it inhibits growth of submicrometre grains during pressing and sintering. It is highly corrosion-resistant, and does not oxidize even at high temperature (1000-1100 C). The powder for coating costs $40-$65 per pound.
The thermal expansion coefficient of chromium carbide is almost equal to that of steel, reducing the mechanical stress buildup at the layer boundary.
Precipitation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries, depleting the grain edges of chromium, is the cause of intergranular corrosion of stainless steel near the welds.
Physical Properties:
- Density ( kg/m3 ): 	6,650-6,680 (Cr3C2)
- Melting point ( C ): 	1250 (Cr23C6), 1665 (Cr7C3), 1890 (Cr3C2).
Chylopericardium

# Overview
Chylopericardium is defined as a pericardial effusion which consists of chyle. Chyle comes from the lacteals (the lymphatics draining the small intestine) via the thoracic duct.            .           

# Pathophysiology
Chylopericardium is most often secondary to injury to the thoracic duct. It may also be primary or idiopathic. As result of the leakage of chyle, there can be nutritional and immunologic sequala. In addition, cardiac complications can occur such cardiac tamponade. Because chyle may be a pericardial irritant, constrictive pericarditis may eventually develop.

# Causes
Chylopericardium refers to a communication between the pericardial sac and the thoracic duct, as a result of trauma, congenital anomalies, or as a complication of open-heart surgery, mediastinal lymphangiomas, lymphangiomatous hamartomas, lymphangiectasis, and obstruction or anomalies of the thoracic duct.

# Differentiation of Chylopericardium from other Disorders
- Cholesterol pericarditis

# Natural History, Complications, Prognosis
Infection, tamponade, or constriction may aggravate the prognosis. The pericardial fluid is sterile, odourless, and opalescent with a milky white appearance and the microscopic finding of fat droplets. The chylous nature of the fluid is confirmed by its alkaline reaction, specific gravity between 1010 and 1021, Sudan III stain for fat, the high concentrations of triglycerides (5 to 50 g/L) and protein (22 to 60 g/L).

# Diagnosis
Pericardial drainage yields a fluid that is usually milky and opaque in patients with chylopericardium.
Enhanced CT, alone or combined with lymphography, can identify not only the location of the thoracic duct but also its lymphatic connection to the pericardium.
In chylopericardium the cholesterol content can be quite high. However, chylopericardium should not be confused with cholesterol pericarditis. In cholesterol pericarditis the fluid contains cholesterol crystals, foam cells, macrophages and giant cells. The fluid in cholesterol pericarditis is clear, and classically is said to have a glittering "gold paint" appearance.

# Treatment
Treatment depends on the aetiology and the amount of chylous accumulation. Chylopericardium after thoracic or cardiac operation without signs of tamponade is preferably treated by pericardiocentesis and diet (medium chain triglycerides). If further production of chylous effusion continues, surgical treatment is mandatory (level of evidence B, class I).
When conservative treatment and pericardiocentesis fail, pericardio-peritoneal shunting by a pericardial window is a reasonable option. Alternatively, when the course of the thoracic duct was precisely identified, its ligation and resection just above the diaphragm is the most effective treatment. In secondary chylopericardium the underlying disease (e.g., mediastinal tumour) should be treated.
Chytridiomycosis
Chytridiomycosis is a fatal infectious disease that affects amphibians, caused by the chytrid - Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis . Chytridiomycosis has been linked to dramatic population declines or even extinctions in western North America, Central America, South America, and eastern Australia. There is no effective measure for control of the disease in wild populations. The disease is contributing to a worldwide decline in amphibian populations, a worldwide decline of species that apparently has affected 30% of the amphibian species of the world.
Although some declines have been credited to the fungus B. dendrobatidis, there are species that resist the infection and some reports have found that some populations can survive with a low level of persistence of the disease. In addition, most of the laboratory studies are not ecologically-relevant, which makes it difficult to take their conclusions to the field.
The first reports of infection of Batrachochytrium are from African clawed frogs of the genus Xenopus. Because Xenopus has been widely transported around the world, it is one potential vector for transmission of B. dendrobatidis. Other studies, however, suggest that B. dendrobatidis has been present in North and Central America for decades.
Laboratory studies suggest that the fungus performs poorly at high temperatures, and that exposure of infected frogs to high temperatures will kill the fungus. This may explain why chytridiomycosis occurs primarily in cool climates.

# Notes
-  Stuart, S. N., J. S. Chanson, et al. (2004). "Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide." Science 306: 1783-1786.
-  Retallick, R. W. R., H. McCallum, et al. (2004). "Endemic Infection of the Amphibian Chytrid Fungus in a Frog Community Post-Decline." PLoS Biology 2(11): e351.
-  Berger, L., R. Speare, et al. (2004). "Effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis." Australian Veterinary Journal 82: 31-36.
-  Woodhams, D. C., R. A. Alford, et al. (2003). "Emerging disease of amphibians cured by elevated body temperature." Diseases of aquatic organisms 55: 65-67.
Ciliary arteries
The ciliary arteries are divisible into three groups, the long posterior, short posterior, and the anterior.
- The short posterior ciliary arteries from six to twelve in number, arise from the ophthalmic as it crosses the optic nerve.
- The long posterior ciliary arteries, two in number, pierce the posterior part of the sclera at some little distance from the optic nerve.
- The anterior ciliary arteries are derived from the muscular branches of the ophthalmic artery.

# Additional images
- The ophthalmic artery and its branches
- Iris, front view.
- The terminal portion of the optic nerve and its entrance into the eyeball, in horizontal section.