Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Acetamide

# Overview
Acetamide (or acetic acid amide or ethanamide), CH3CONH2, the amide of acetic acid, is a white crystalline solid in pure form. It is produced by dehydrating ammonium acetate. It is used as a plasticizer and in the synthesis of many other organic compounds.
Acetamide is not extremely combustible, but releases irritating fumes when ignited. It is toxic by inhalation (of dust), ingestion, skin and eye contact. Skin or eye contact may cause redness and pain.
The derivative N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMA), which has two methyl groups replacing the amine protons, is used as a solvent. N-methylacetamide is often used as the simplest model in studies of the peptide bond.
Recent work on the Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope has resulted in the discovery of several organic (carbon-based) compounds near the center of the Milky Way galaxy.  Acetamide has been detected.  This is particularly important as acetamide has an amide bond, similar to the essential bond between amino acids in proteins.  This supports the theory that organic molecules that can lead to life (as we know it on Earth) can form in space.

# Cancer link
Acetamide has been found to cause cancer in laboratory animals. It is classified in Group 2B "possible human carcinogen" by the IARC.
Acrodynia
Acrodynia is characterized by pink discoloration of the hands and feet, irritability, photophobia (sensitivity to light) and polyneuritis (inflamed nerves).
It is caused by chronic exposure to mercury.
The most common form of exposure in young children is ingesting mercury from a broken thermometer. The signs and symptoms of mercury toxicity may not appear until weeks or months after exposure has occurred.

# Signs and Symptoms

## Initial signs
- Listlessness, drowsiness, irritability and a tendency to cry
- Loss of appetite and subsequent weight loss
- More than 50% complain of sensitivity to light
- Generalized weakness and painful extremities

## Within 2-4 weeks
- Tip of the nose, fingers and toes turn a pinkish color, which progressively darkens and spreads into a net-like pattern.
- Hands and feet become painful, cold, cyanotic (blue), erythematous (red) and swollen.
- Extreme pain and itchiness in the extremity often leads to thickened scratched skin as the child rubs and scratches the area.
- Hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating) with a mouselike smell may occur. This may lead to miliaria and secondary bacterial skin infections.
- Inflammation, swelling and gum erosion may occur with subsequent loss of teeth.
- Alopecia and nail loss have also been reported.

# Clinical Characteristics

## Central nervous system
- Irritability
- Extreme photophobia (patient burrows head or covers eyes to block out light)

## Cardiovascular
- Hypertension
- Tachycardia

## Gastrointestinal
- Stomatitis with anorexia
- Colitis with diarrhea or constipation
- Salivation

## Renal
- Proteinuria
- Nephrotic syndrome progressing to renal failure in extreme cases

## Dermal
- Erythema of the palms, soles, and face
- Edema and desquamation of the skin of hands and feet
- Pruritus

## Muscular/Skeletal
- Hypotonia

## Various
- Gingivitis
- Diaphoresis
- Paresthesia
- Generalized pain

# Treatment
The goal of treatment is to remove the mercury and correct any fluid or electrolyte imbalances.
- Chelating agents such as meso 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid are used to prevent methylmercury uptake by erythrocytes (red blood cells) and hepatocytes (liver cells).
- Hemodialysis with and without the addition of L-cysteine as a chelating agent has been used in patients with acute renal failure from mercury toxicity.
Actinides
The actinoid (according to IUPAC terminology) (previously actinide) series encompasses the 15 chemical elements that lie between actinium and lawrencium included on the periodic table, with atomic numbers 89 - 103.  The actinoid series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium, and ultimately from the Greek  (aktis), "ray," reflecting the elements' radioactivity.
The actinoid series (An) is included in some definitions of the rare earth elements. IUPAC is currently recommending the name actinoid rather than actinide, as the suffix "-ide" generally indicates ions (moreover, from Latin, the suffix -ide means "sons of actinium", while -oid means "similar to actinium").  There are alternative arrangements of the periodic table that exclude actinium or lawrencium from appearing together with the other actinoids.
The actinoids  display less similarity in their chemical properties than the lanthanoid series (Ln), exhibiting a wider range of oxidation states, which initially led to confusion as to whether actinium, thorium, and uranium should be considered d-block elements. All actinoids are radioactive.
Only thorium and uranium occur naturally in the earth's crust in anything more than trace quantities. Neptunium and plutonium have been known to show up naturally in trace amounts in uranium ores as a result of decay or bombardment. The remaining actinides were discovered in nuclear fallout, or were synthesized in particle colliders. The latter half of the series possess exceedingly short  half-lives.
The actinoids are typically placed below the main body of the periodic table (below the lanthanoid series), in the manner of a footnote. The full-width version of the periodic table shows the position of the actinoids more clearly.
An organometallic compound of an actinoid is known as an organoactinoid.

# History of the actinoid series
From the earlier known chemical properties of actinium (89) up to uranium (92), indicating a relation to the transition metals, it was generally assumed that the transuraniums would have similar qualities. During his Manhattan Project research in 1944, Glenn T. Seaborg experienced unexpected difficulty isolating americium (95) and curium (96). He began wondering if these elements more properly belonged to a different series than the transition metals, which would explain why the expected chemical properties of the new elements were different. In 1945, he went against the advice of colleagues and proposed the most significant change to Mendeleev's periodic table to have been accepted universally by the scientific community: the actinide series.
In 1945, Seaborg published his actinide concept of heavy element electronic structure, predicting that the actinides would form a transition series analogous to the rare earth series of lanthanoid elements.
In 1961, Antoni Przybylski discovered a star that contained unusually high amounts of actinides.
Enteritis
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# Overview
Enteritis is the inflammation of the small intestine (inflammation of the large intestine is termed colitis, while enterocolitis refers to an inflammation of both the large and small intestine.).

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Enteritis from Other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

## Natural History

## Complications

## Prognosis

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria

## History and Symptoms
Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, abdominal distension and hematochezia.
If there is vomiting, gastroenteritis is the more correct diagnosis.
Generally a good history is the most important tool in distinguishing serious cases of enteritis from self-limiting ones. The presence of blood in the faeces, dehydration, cutaneous eruptions, presumed link with food exposure, as well as recent travel to endemic areas can prompt further investigation.
Acute enteritis is usually due to bacteria or viruses. When food is involved, foodborne illness is to be suspected. If other family members or members of the household are affected, this may signify infectious causes.
Chronic enteritis can be due to Crohn's disease, giardiasis, tuberculosis, coeliac disease, or rarely due to Whipple's disease.

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
Viral diarrhea is usually self-limiting and is treated with rehydration. When bacterial causes are suspected (recent travel, food poisoning), antibiotics can be considered.
Chronic enteritides are treated according to the diagnosis (please refer to individual articles).

## Surgery

## Prevention
Addressin
Addressin also known as mucosal vascular addressin cell adhesion molecule 1 (MAdCAM-1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MADCAM1 gene.
Addressin is an extracellular protein of the endothelium of venules.
Addressins are the ligands to the homing receptors of lymphocytes. The task of these ligands and their receptors is to determine which tissue the lymphocyte will enter next.  They carry carbohydrates in order to be recognized by L-selectin.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is an endothelial cell adhesion molecule that interacts preferentially with the leukocyte beta7 integrin LPAM-1 (alpha4 / beta7), L-selectin, and VLA-4 (alpha4 / beta1) on myeloid cells to direct leukocytes into mucosal and inflamed tissues. It is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily and is similar to ICAM-1 and VCAM-1.
In terms of migration, MADCAM is selectively expressed on mucosal endothelial cells, driving memory T-cell re-circulation through mucosal tissues. In contrast, and indeed the main difference between the two molecules, ICAM molecules are involved with naive T-cell re-circulation. Whereas MADCAM is selectively expressed, ICAM is broadly expressed on inflamed endothelium.
Adipiplon
Adipiplon (NG2-73) is an anxiolytic drug developed by Neurogen Corporation. It has similar effects to benzodiazepine drugs, but is structurally distinct and so is classed as a nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytic.
Adipiplon is a subtype selective GABAA partial agonist, which binds preferentially to the 3 subtype. This is significant as while several previous nonbenzodiazepine drugs have been developed that are selective for 2/3 over the other subtypes, adipiplon is one of the first drugs selected for clinical development which is able to discriminate between 2 and 3, as well as showing little affinity for the 1 or 5 subtypes - alpidem is selective for 3 over 2, but still has moderate affinity to 1, whereas adipiplon is highly 3-selective with little affinity for either 1, 2 or 5.
Adipiplon is being researched as a potential medication for the treatment of anxiety and insomnia, and is currently (as of 2008) in Phase IIb trials.
Adipocyte

# Overview
Adipocytes are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat.

# Description
There are two types of adipose tissue, white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which are also known as white fat and brown fat, respectively, and comprise two types of fat cells:
- White fat cells (also known as Unilocular Cells) contain a large lipid droplet surrounded by a ring of cytoplasm. The nucleus is flattened and located on the periphery.
The fat stored is in a semi-liquid state, and is composed primarily of triglycerides and cholesterol ester. White fat cells secrete resistin, adiponectin, and leptin.
- Brown fat cells (also known as Multilocular Cells) are polygonal in shape. Unlike white fat cells, these cells have considerable cytoplasm, with lipid droplets scattered throughout. The nucleus is round, and, although eccentrically located, it is not in the periphery of the cell. The brown color comes from the large quantity of mitochondria. Brown fat, also known as "baby fat," is used to generate heat.

# Lineage
Although the lineage of adipocytes is still unclear, Preadipocytes are undifferentiated fibroblasts that can be stimulated to form adipocytes.
Mesenchymal stem cells can differentiate into adipocytes, connective tissue, muscle or bone.
Areolar connective tissue is composed of adipocytes.
Adipokine
The adipokines or adipocytokines are a group of cytokines (cell-to-cell signalling proteins) secreted by adipose tissue.
Members include:
- adiponectin
- chemerin
- interleukin-6 (IL-6)
- leptin (Ob ligand)
- plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1)
- resistin
- retinol binding protein 4 (RBP4)
- tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF)
- visfatin
Their relative roles in modifying appetite, insulin resistance and atherosclerosis are the subjects of intense research, as they may be modifyable causes of morbidity in people with obesity.

# Notes
-  MacDougald1, Ormond A. and Burant, Charles F. (September 2007) "The Rapidly Expanding Family of Adipokines" Cell Metabolism 6: pp. 159-161
-  Monzillo, Lais U. (2003) "Effect of Lifestyle Modification on Adipokine Levels in Obese Subjects with Insulin Resistance" Obesity Research 11(9): pp. 1048-1054
-  Matsuzawa, Yuji; Funahashi, Tohru and Nakamura, Tadashi (1999) "Molecular Mechanism of Metabolic Syndrome X: Contribution of Adipocytokines - Adipocyte-derived Bioactive Substances" Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 892: pp. 146-54 Abstract
-  Funahashi, T. et al. (1999) "Role of adipocytokines on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in visceral obesity" Internal Medicine (Japan) 38: pp. 202-206 Abstract
Aeromonas
Aeromonas is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic rod that morphologically resembles members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Fourteen species of Aeromonas have been described, most of which have been associated with human diseases. The most important pathogens are A. hydrophila, A. caviae, and A. veronii biovar sobria. The organisms are ubiquitous in fresh and brackish water.
Two major diseases associated with Aeromonas are gastroenteritis and wound infections, with or without bacteremia. Gastroenteritis typically occurs after the ingestion of contaminated water or food, whereas wound infections result from exposure to contaminated water.
Although some potential virulence factors (e.g. endotoxins, hemolysins, enterotoxins, adherence factors) have been identified, their precise role is unknown. Aeromonas species cause: 1) opportunistic systemic disease in immunocompromised patients, 2) diarrheal disease in otherwise healthy individuals, and 3) wound infections.

# Gastroenteritis
Gastrointestinal disease in children is usually an acute, severe illness, whereas that in adults tends to be chronic diarrhea. Severe Aeromonas gastroenteritis resembles shigellosis, with blood and leukocytes in the stool. Acute diarrheal disease is self limited, and only supportive care is indicated in affected patients.

# Antimicrobial Therapy
Is necessary for patients with chronic diarrheal disease or systemic infection. Aeromonas species are resistant to penicillins, most cephalosporins, and erythromycin. Ciprofloxacin is consistently active against their strains in the U.S. and Europe, but resistant cases has been reported in Asia.
de:Aeromonas
Afterload

# Overview
In cardiac physiology, afterload is used to mean the tension produced by a chamber of the heart in order to contract.  If the chamber is not mentioned, it is usually assumed to be the left ventricle.  However, the strict definition of the term relates to the properties of a single cardiac myocyte. It is therefore only of direct relevance in the laboratory; in the clinic, the term end-systolic pressure is usually more appropriate, although not equivalent.
Afterload can also be described as the pressure that the chamber of the heart has to generate in order to eject blood out of the chamber. Everything else held equal, as afterload increases, cardiac output decreases.
In the case of the left ventricle, the afterload is a consequence of the blood pressure, since the pressure in the ventricle must be greater than the peripheral blood pressure in order to open the aortic valve.

# Pathology
Disease processes that increase the left ventricular afterload include increased blood pressure and aortic valve disease.
Hypertension (Increased blood pressure) increases the left ventricular afterload because the left ventricle has to work harder to eject blood into the aorta.  This is because the aortic valve won't open until the pressure generated in the left ventricle is higher than the elevated blood pressure.
Aortic stenosis increases the afterload because the left ventricle has to overcome the pressure gradient caused by the stenotic aortic valve in addition to the blood pressure in order to eject blood into the aorta.  For instance, if the blood pressure is 120/80, and the aortic valve stenosis creates a trans-valvular gradient of 30 mmHg, the left ventricle has to generate a pressure of 150 mmHg in order to open the aortic valve and eject blood into the aorta.
Aortic insufficiency increases afterload because a percentage of the blood that is ejected forward regurgitates back through the diseased aortic valve.  This leads to elevated systolic blood pressure as well as dialostic blood pressure.
Mitral regurgitation decreases the afterload.  During ventricular systole, the blood can regurgitate through the diseased mitral valve as well as be ejected through the aortic valve.  This means that the left ventricle has to work less to eject blood, causing a decreased afterload.  Afterload is largely dependent upon aortic pressure.
Akuammine

# Overview
Akuammine, an indole alkaloid, is the most abundant active alkaloid found in the seeds from the tree Picralima nitida, commonly known as Akuamma.
The dried seeds from this plant are used in traditional medicine throughout West Africa, particularly in Ghana as well as in the Ivory Coast and Nigeria. The seeds are crushed or powdered and taken orally, and are mainly used for the treatment of malaria and diarrhoea, and as a painkiller. An enterprising Ghanaian hospital started manufacturing standardised 250mg capsules of the powdered P. nitida seed, and sold them around the country where they became widely accepted as a safe and effective pain relief product. This then led researchers to try and discover the active component of the seeds.
P. nitida seeds contain a mixture of alkaloids producing antipyretic and antiinflammatory effects along with analgesia. Several of these were shown to bind to opioid receptors in vitro, and two compounds, akuammidine and -akuammigine, were found to be potent -opioid agonists, although not particularly selective. Surprisingly the main alkaloid from the seeds, akuammine, was found to be an opioid antagonist when tested in vitro and canceled out the effects of the active agonist components.
Given the confirmed activity of the whole seed extract in humans, this makes it likely that akuammine is in fact being metabolised once inside the body to form an active metabolite, in a similar way to how the closely related compound mitragynine is metabolised to the more active 7-hydroxymitragynine.
Akuammine is the main alkaloid found in the seeds, comprising 0.56% of the dried powder, indicating that the 250 mg "Picap Capsules" sold commercially should contain approximately 1.4 mg of akuammine, plus 0.085 mg akuammidine and 0.015 mg -akuammigine. Akuammine is structurally related to both yohimbine and mitragynine, both of which are alkaloid plant products with uses in medicine.
Al Herpin

# Background
Al Herpin was known as the "Man Who Never Slept."
Born in 1853 in, Trenton, New Jersey, Al Herpin claimed to have developed a rare case of insomnia, whereby he could not sleep. The supposed cause is unknown, although it may be linked to his mother suffering a major injury a few days prior to his birth.
In the late 1940s, Al Herpin's claim attracted the attention of several medical professionals, who marched to his door one day. They found no bed, or other sleep-related furniture, but only a rocking chair. Herpin claimed that after a long day's work, he would rest in his rocking chair reading the newspaper until dawn, then return to work. He was in good health, and had a constant level of high awareness, defying all scientific understanding of the necessity for sleep.
A piece in the New York Times on February 29, 1904 reported that:
Albert Herpin, born in France in 1862 and for fifteen years a hostler in the employ of Freeholder Walter Phares of this city, declares that he has not slept a wink during the past ten years. Notwithstanding this, he is in perfect health, and does not seem to suffer any discomfort from his remarkable condition.
Al Herpin died on January 3, 1947 at the age of 94. His death saw another New York Times story more skeptical of his claim:
Death came today for Alfred E. Herpin, a recluse who lived on the outskirts of the city and insisted that he never slept. He was 94 years old and, when questioned concerning his claim of "sleeplessness", maintained that he never actually dozed but merely "rested".
No other person with total insomnia has lived for such a long period of time. It was likely that he died for other reasons, not sleep deprivation, as his insomnia did not seem to have any effect on his health.
Alesse-28
Synonyms / Brand Names:

# Dosing and Administration
To achieve maximum contraceptive effectiveness, Alesse (levonorgestrel and ethinyl estradiol tablets) must be taken exactly as directed and at intervals not exceeding 24 hours. The dosage of Alesse-28 is one pink tablet daily for 21 consecutive days, followed by one light-green inert tablet daily for 7 consecutive days, according to the prescribed schedule. It is recommended that Alesse-28 tablets be taken at the same time each day.
The dispenser should be kept in the wallet supplied to avoid possible fading of the pills. If the pills fade, patients should continue to take them as directed.
FDA Package Insert Resources
Indications, Contraindications, Side Effects, Drug Interactions, etc.
Calculate Creatine Clearance
On line calculator of your patients Cr Cl by a variety of formulas.
Convert pounds to Kilograms
On line calculator of your patients weight in pounds to Kg for dosing estimates.
 Publication Resources
Recent articles, WikiDoc State of the Art Review, Textbook Information
Trial Resources
Ongoing Trials, Trial Results
Guidelines & Evidence Based Medicine Resources
US National Guidelines, Cochrane Collaboration, etc.
Media Resources
Slides, Video, Images, MP3, Podcasts, etc.
Patient Resources
Discussion Groups, Handouts, Blogs, News, etc.
International Resources
en Espanol

# FDA Package Insert Resources
Indications
Contraindications
Side Effects
Drug Interactions
Precautions
Overdose
Instructions for Administration
How Supplied
Pharmacokinetics and Molecular Data
FDA label
FDA on Alesse-28
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# Publication Resources
Most Recent Articles on Alesse-28
Review Articles on Alesse-28
Articles on Alesse-28 in N Eng J Med, Lancet, BMJ
WikiDoc State of the Art Review
Textbook Information on Alesse-28
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# Trial Resources
Ongoing Trials with Alesse-28 at Clinical Trials.gov
Trial Results with Alesse-28
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# Guidelines & Evidence Based Medicine Resources
US National Guidelines Clearinghouse on Alesse-28
Cochrane Collaboration on Alesse-28
Cost Effectiveness of Alesse-28
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# Media Resources
Powerpoint Slides on Alesse-28
Images of Alesse-28
Podcasts & MP3s on Alesse-28
Videos on Alesse-28
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# Patient Resources
Patient Information from National Library of Medicine
Patient Resources on Alesse-28
Discussion Groups on Alesse-28
Patient Handouts on Alesse-28
Blogs on Alesse-28
Alesse-28 in the News
Alesse-28 in the Marketplace
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# International Resources
Alesse-28 en Espanol
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Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.