Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Beef tapeworm
Taenia saginata, also known as Taeniarhynchus saginata or the Beef tapeworm, is a parasite of both cattle and humans, but which can only reproduce in humans. T. saginata occurs where cattle is raised, human feces is improperly disposed of, meat inspection programs are poor, and where meat is eaten without proper cooking. The disease is relatively common in Africa, some parts of eastern Europe, the Philippines, Mexico, and Latin America. Undercooked meat from small farms in the United States may also be infected. Proglottids full of eggs are passed with human fecal matter and then eaten by cattle. Oncosphere larvae hatch in the small intestine of the bovid and then travel through the blood to muscle tissue and form "bladder worms," which are larval stages called cysticerci (singular cysticercus). Cysticerci are infectious to humans that eat them.
Like all cyclophyllid cestodes, T. saginata has four suckers on its scolex, but unlike the closely related Taenia solium, it has no other structures there.
The eggs look like other eggs from the family Taeniidae, so it is only possible to identify the eggs to the family, not to the species, level. On the other hand, proglottids sometimes trickle down the thighs of infected humans and are visible with unaided eye and aid with identification. When the uterus is injected with India ink, its branches become visible. Counting the uterine branches enables some identification (T. saginata uteri have twelve or more branches on each side, while other species like T. solium only have five to ten).
Symptoms include a loss of appetite or feeling of fullness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea. Niclosamide, used to treat many different kinds of infections with trematodes and adult tapeworms, is the best drug. Proper disposal of feces, and making sure that all meat has been cooked properly helps prevent the spread of disease. In Western societies, meat is inspected for parasites. Additionally, freezing the meat at -10oC for five days kills any worms and larvae.
de:Taenia saginata
id:Cacing pita sapi
it:Taenia saginata
lt:jautinis kaspinuotis
nl:Runderlintworm
sk:Pasomnica dlha
Bent-over row
A bent-over row is a weight training exercise that targets the latissimus dorsi muscle.
The exercise is performed with one knee and one hand on the same side of the body braced on a bench with the back straight and parallel to the ground, and the other hand holding a weight with the arm extended.  The weight is lifted towards the hip until elbow bends past 90 and the humerus is in line with the back, then lowered to the original position.
A variation of this exercise can be performed using a barbell.  This version uses both arms to lift a barbell from the floor to the stomach in a bent-forward position.  The hands are kept pronated and the back straight.
The bent over row is a much used exercise in training for both bodybuilding and powerlifting as it is a good exercise for increasing strength if carried out correctly.
Benzbromarone

# Overview
Benzbromarone (INN) is a uricosuric agent used in the treatment of gout, especially when allopurinol, a first-line treatment, fails or produces intolerable adverse effects. It is structurally related to the antiarrhythmic amiodarone.
Benzbromarone is highly effective and well-tolerated, and clinical trials as early as 1981 and as recently as April 2008 have suggested it is superior to both allopurinol and probenecid, another uricosuric drug.

# Effect on cytochrome P450
Benzbromarone is a very potent inhibitor of CYP2C9. Several analogues of the drug have been developed as CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 inhibitors for use in research.

# Safety
Benzbromarone was introduced in the 1970s and was viewed as having few associated serious adverse reactions. It was registered in about 20 countries throughout Europe, Asia and South America.
In 2003, the drug was withdrawn by Sanofi-Synthelabo, after reports of serious hepatotoxicity, although it is still marketed in several countries by other drug companies.
Benzimidazole
Benzimidazole is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound.  This bicyclic compound consists of the fusion of benzene and imidazole.  The most prominent benzimidazole compound in nature is N-ribosyl-dimethylbenzimidazole, which serves as an axial ligand for cobalt in vitamin B12. 
It is produced commercially as an parasiticide.  The usual synthesis involves condensation of trimethylorthoformate and o-phenylenediamine:
Benzimidazole, in an extension of the well-elaborated imidazole system, has been used as carbon skeletons for N-heterocyclic carbenes. The NHCs are usually used as ligands for transition metal complexes. They are often prepared by deprotonating an N,N'-disubstituted benzimidazolium salt at the 2-position with a base.
Lipodystrophy

# Overview
Lipodystrophy is a medical condition characterized by abnormal or degenerative conditions of the body's adipose tissue. ("Lipo" is Latin for "fat" and "dystrophy" is Latin for "abnormal or degenerative condition".) A more specific term, lipoatrophy is used when describing the loss of fat from one area (usually the face).

# Insulin injections
A lipodystrophy can be a lump or small dent in the skin that forms when a person keeps performing injections in the same spot. These types of lipodystrophies are harmless. People who want to avoid them can do so by changing (rotating) the places where they perform injections. For people with diabetes, using purified insulins may also help.
One of the side-effects of lipodystrophy is the rejection of the injected medication, the slowing down of the absorption of the medication, or trauma that can cause bleeding that, in turn, will reject the medication.  In either scenarios, the dosage of the medication, such as insulin for diabetics, becomes impossible to gauge correctly and the treatment of the disease for which the medication is administered is impaired thereby allowing the medical condition to worsen.
In some cases, rotation of the injection sites may not be enough to prevent lipodystrophy.

# Antiretroviral drugs
Lipodystrophies can be a possible side effect of antiretroviral drugs such as Dolutegravir, lamivudine, Rilpivirine, Ritonavir, Saquinavir mesylate.  Other lipodystrophies manifest as lipid redistribution; with excess, or lack of, fat in various regions of the body.  These include, but are not limited to, having sunken cheeks and/or "humps" on the back or back of the neck (also referred to as buffalo hump).

# Hereditary form
Lipodystrophy can be caused by metabolic abnormalities due to genetic issues. These are often characterized by insulin resistance and are associated with Syndrome X.
Berberidaceae
Berberidaceae is a family of 15 genera flowering plants commonly called the barberry family. This family is in the order Ranunculales. The family contains about 570 species, of which the majority (450) are in Berberis. The species include trees, shrubs and perennial herbaceous plants.

# Genera
- Achlys
- Berberis - Barberry
- Bongardia
- Caulophyllum
- Diphylleia
- Dysosma
- Epimedium
- Gymnospermium
- Jeffersonia - Twinleaf
- Leontice
- Mahonia
- Nandina
- Podophyllum - Mayapple
- Ranzania
- Vancouveria
The APG II system of 2003 (unchanged from the APG system of 1998) recognises the family and places it in the order Ranunculales in the clade eudicots.
In some older treatments of the family, Berberidaceae only included four genera (Berberis, Epimedium, Mahonia, Vancouveria), with the other genera treated in separate families, Leonticaceae (Bongardia, Caulophyllum, Gymnospermium, Leontice), Nandinaceae (Nandina), and Podophyllaceae (Achlys, Diphylleia, Dysosma, Jeffersonia, Podophyllum, Ranzania).
Mahonia is very closely related to Berberis, and some botanists include it within Berberis. Species in the two genera can be hybridised, with the hybrids being classified in the hybrid genus  Mahoberberis.
Beta defensin
Beta defensins  are a family of mammalian defensins. The beta defensins are antimicrobial peptides implicated in the
resistance of epithelial surfaces to microbial colonization.
Defensins are 2-6 kDa, cationic, microbicidal peptides active against many Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, fungi, and enveloped viruses, containing three pairs of intramolecular disulfide bonds. On the basis of their size and pattern of disulfide bonding, mammalian defensins are classified into alpha, beta and theta categories. Every mammalian species explored thus far has beta-defensins. In cows, as many as 13 beta-defensins exist in neutrophils. However, in other species, beta-defensins are more often produced by epithelial cells lining various organs (e.g. the epidermis, bronchial tree and genitourinary tract).
Human, rabbit and guinea-pig beta-defensins, as well as human beta-defensin-2 (hBD2), induce the activation and degranulation of mast cells, resulting in the release of histamine and prostaglandin D2.

# Human proteins containing this domain
DEFB1;     DEFB103A;  DEFB105A;  DEFB105B;  DEFB108B;  DEFB109;   DEFB110;   DEFB111;
DEFB114;   DEFB130;   DEFB136;   DEFB4;     SPAG11A;
Beta particle
Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons emitted by certain types of radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40. The beta particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation also known as beta rays. The production of beta particles is termed beta decay. They are designated by the Greek letter beta (). 
There are two forms of beta decay,  and +, which respectively give rise to the electron and the positron.

#  decay (electron emission)
An unstable atomic nucleus with an excess of neutrons may undergo  decay, where a neutron is converted into a proton, an electron and an electron-type antineutrino (the antiparticle of the neutrino):
\mbox{n} \rightarrow \mbox{p} + \mbox{e}^- + \bar{\nu}_{e}
This process is mediated by the weak interaction.  The neutron turns into a proton through the 
emission of a virtual W boson.  At the quark level, W emission turns a down-type quark into an up-type quark, turning a neutron (one up quark and two down quarks) into a proton (two up quarks and one down quark).
The virtual W boson then decays into an electron and an antineutrino.
Beta decay commonly occurs among the neutron-rich fission byproducts produced in nuclear reactors. Free neutrons also decay via this process.  This is the source of the copious amount of electron antineutrinos produced by fission reactors.

# + decay (positron emission)
Unstable atomic nuclei with an excess of protons may undergo + decay, also called inverse beta decay, where a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron and an electron-type neutrino:
\mbox{p} \rightarrow \mbox{n} + \mbox{e}^+ + \nu_e
Beta plus decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energy of the daughter nucleus is higher than that of the mother nucleus.
Inverse beta decay is one of the steps in nuclear fusion processes that produce energy inside stars.

# Uses
Beta particles can be used to treat health conditions such as eye and bone cancer, and are also used as tracers. Strontium-90 is the material most commonly used to produce beta particles. Beta particles are also used in quality control to test the thickness of an item, such as paper, coming through a system of rollers. Some of the beta radiation is absorbed while passing through the product. If the product is made too thick or thin, a correspondingly different amount of radiation will be absorbed. A computer program monitoring the quality of the manufactured paper will then move the rollers to change the thickness of the final product.
Inverse beta decay of a radioactive tracer isotope is the source of the positrons used in positron emission tomography (PET scan).
Betty Kershaw
Dame Betty Kershaw, DBE, FRCN, CStJ is Professor of Nursing and Dean at the School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Sheffield. She was previously Head of the Manchester College of Midwifery and Nursing Director of Nursing Education at Stockport, Tameside and Glossop College of Nursing.
She received an honorary doctorate from Manchester University in 1995 in recognition of her contribution to nursing education. Professor Kershaw was created Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1998 for services to nursing education. Her recent international consultancy work includes projects in Colombia and China on the modernization agenda for nursing. She has ongoing commitments to the Department of Health Leadership Project including advising on how the program develops black nurses for leadership positions.
She is also a fellow of the Royal College of Nursing and one of its former presidents. She was also St John Ambulance's chief nursing and social care officer (see ).
She lives in Manchester and is married to historian Sir Ian Kershaw.
Biceps reflex

# Overview
A reflex test that examines the function of the C5 reflex arc and to a lesser degree the C6 reflex arc.  The test is performed by using of a tendon hammer to quickly depress the biceps brachii tendon as it passes through the cubital fossa. Specifically, the test activates the stretch receptors inside the biceps brachii muscle which communicates mainly with the C5 spinal nerve and partially with the C6 spinal nerve to induce a reflex contraction of the biceps muscle and jerk of the forearm.
A strong contraction indicates a 'Brisk' reflex, and a weak or absent reflex is known as 'diminished'. Brisk or absent reflexes are used as clues to the location of neurological disease. Typically brisk reflexes are found in lesions of upper motor neurones, and absent or reduced reflexes are found in lower motor neurone lesions.
A change to the biceps reflex indicates pathology at the level of C5/6 or at some point above it in the spinal cord or brain.
Bilirubinuria
To view a comprehensive algorithm of common findings of urine composition and urine output, click here

# Overview
In medicine, bilirubinuria is an abnormality where bilirubin is detected in the urine.
The term "biliuria" is very similar, but more general. It refers to the presence of any bile pigment in the urine.

# Differential Diagnosis
- Biliary atresia
- Cholangitis
- Cirrhosis
- Dubin-Johnson Syndrome
- Fetal erythroblastosis
- Hepatitis
- Obstructive jaundice
- Polycythemia Vera
- Rotor's Syndrome

## Causes

## Drug Causes
- Isoniazid
Binomial test

# Overview
In statistics, the binomial test is an exact test of the statistical significance of deviations from a theoretically expected distribution of observations into two categories.
For example, suppose we have a board game that depends on the roll of a die, and special importance attaches to rolling a 6.  In a particular game, the die is rolled 235 times, and 6 comes up 51 times.  If the die is fair, we would expect 6 to come up 235/6 = 39.17 times.  Is the proportion of 6s significantly higher than would be expected by chance, on the null hypothesis of a fair die?
To find an answer to this question using the binomial test, we consult the binomial distribution B(235,1/6) to find out what the probability is of finding exactly 51 6s in a sample of 235 if the true probability of a 6 on each trial is 1/6.  We then find the probability of finding exactly 52, exactly 53, and so on up to 235, and add all these probabilities together. In this way, we obtain the probability of obtaining the observed result (51 6s) or a more extreme result (>51 6s) and in this example, the result is 0.02654425,which means we cannot reject the null hypothesis (two-tailed test) if we are working at the 5% significance level. The result calculated, 0.02654425 is significant for a one-tailed test of the observed number of 6s.
For large samples such as this example, the binomial distribution is well approximated by convenient continuous distributions, and these are used as the basis for alternative tests that are much quicker to compute, Pearson's chi-square test and the G-test.  However, for small samples these approximations break down, and there is no alternative to the binomial test.
The most common use of the binomial test is in the case where the null hypothesis is that two categories are equally likely to occur.  Tables are widely available to give the significance observed numbers of observations in the categories for this case.  However, as the example above shows, the binomial test is not restricted to this case.
Where there are more than two categories, and an exact test is required, a test based on the multinomial distribution must be used instead of the binomial test.
Bioenergetics

# Overview
Bioenergetics is the subject of a field of biochemistry that concerns energy flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and the many other metabolic processes that can lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as ATP molecules. All biological processes including the chemical reactions of bioenergetics obey the "laws" of thermodynamics.
Growth, development and metabolism are some of the central phenomena in the study of biological organisms. The role of energy is fundamental to such biological processes. The ability to harness energy from a variety of metabolic pathways is a property of all living organisms. Life  is dependent on energy transformations; living organisms survive because of exchange of energy within and without.
In a living organism chemical bonds are broken and made as part of the exchange and transformation of energy. The chemical bonds in carbohydrates, including sugars, are important for the storage of energy. Other chemical bonds that are important for metabolism include the terminal phosphate bonds of ATP and the energy-rich bonds of fats and oils. These molecules, along with oxygen, are important energy sources for many biological processes. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecules powers biological processes in every biological organism. Bioenergetics is the part of biochemistry concerned with the energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds in the molecules found in biological organisms.
Food molecules are sources of chemical energy for many organisms. Not all metabolizable energy is available for the production of ATP. Some energy is utilized during the metabolic processes associated with digestion, absorption and intermediary metabolism of food and can be measured as heat production; this is referred to as dietary-induced thermogenesis (DIT), or thermic effect of food, and varies with the type of food ingested.
The predator-prey relationships of food chains involve energy transformations within ecosystems and the term "bioenergetics" is also applied to such large-scale transformations of energy.

# Chemiosmotic theory
One of the major triumphs of bioenergetics is Peter D. Mitchell's chemiosmotic theory of how protons in aqueous solution function in the production of ATP in cell organelles such as mitochondria. Other cellular sources of ATP such as glycolysis were understood first, but such processes for direct coupling of enzyme activity to ATP production are not the major source of useful chemical energy in most cells. Chemiosmotic coupling is the major energy producing process in most cells, being utilized in chloroplasts and many single celled organisms in addition to mitochondria.
Bitter orange
The name "bitter orange" refers to a citrus tree (Citrus aurantium) and its fruit.  Many varieties of bitter oranges are used for their essential oil, which is used in perfume and as a flavoring. They are also used in herbal medicine. Other names include sour orange, bigarade orange and Seville orange.

## Varieties
- Citrus aurantium subsp. amara is a spiny evergreen tree native to southern Vietnam, but widely cultivated.   It is used as grafting stock for citrus trees, in marmalade, and in the liqueurs Triple sec, Grand Marnier and Curacao. It is also cultivated for the essential oil expressed from the fruit, and for neroli oil and orange flower water, which are distilled from the flowers.
- Seville orange (or bigarade) is a widely-known, extremely tart orange now grown throughout the Mediterranean region. It has a thick, dimpled skin and is prized for making marmalade, being higher in pectin than the sweet orange, and therefore giving a better set and a higher yield. It is also used in compotes and for orange-flavored liqueurs.
- Bergamot orange, C. aurantium subsp. bergamia is cultivated in Italy for the production of bergamot oil, a component of many brands of perfume and tea.
- Chinotto, from the myrtle-leaved orange tree, C. aurantium var. myrtifolia, native to Italy
- Daidai,  C. aurantium var. daidai, used in Chinese medicine and Japanese New Year celebrations.

# Uses in Cooking
The unripe fruit called "narthangai" is commonly used in Southern Indian food, especially in Tamil cuisine. The unripe fruit is pickled by cutting it into spirals and stuffing it with salt.  The pickle is usually consumed with thayir sadam.  The fresh fruit is also used frequently in pachadis.
The juice from the ripe fruit is also used as a marinade in meat in Cuban cooking.
The peel can also become an ingredient in bitters.

# Health supplement status
The extract of bitter orange (and bitter orange peel) has been used in dietary supplements as an aid to fat loss and as an appetite suppressant, although in traditional Chinese medicine, it is always prescribed in concert with other support herbs, not in isolation. Bitter orange contains synephrine, a drug similar to ephedrine, acting as a stimulant (3 agonist) with a possible risk of ischemic stroke and heart problems.
Black cocaine
Black cocaine, also known as Coca Negra, is a combination of regular cocaine hydrochloride and various chemicals, such as  potassium thiocyanate, usually added at 40% admixture. This renders it undetectable to drug sniffing dogs and the regular chemical tests. Since the result is usually black, it is generally smuggled in as toner in fake IBM brand toner cartridges, fingerprint powder, fertilizer or pigment. The potassium thiocyanate substance is separated out after delivery with a solvent such as acetone and discarded.
The Securtec "Drugwipe test" has been one of a few that have worked in detecting the mixture.
This is not a new process, Black cocaine was detected for the first time in Germany in February 1998.

# Berrios
Eugenio Berrios, a Chilean biochemist who worked for the DINA during Pinochet's dictatorship, has been alleged to have produced black cocaine on orders of Pinochet, who engaged in illegal drug trade .
Blood culture

# Overview
Blood culture is microbiological culture of blood. It is employed to detect infections that are spreading through the bloodstream (bacteremia, septicemia).

# Method
A minimum of 10 ml of blood is taken through venipuncture and injected into two or more "blood bottles" with specific media for aerobic and anaerobic organisms.
Care needs to be taken that the bottles are not contaminated with bacteria from staff members or other patients. To that end, the patient's skin is rubbed or sprayed with denaturated alcohol and betadine applied to the sampling site. Sterile gloves should be used to minimize contamination.
To maximise the diagnostic yield of blood cultures, multiple samples are sometimes taken from different veins.  The larger the amount of blood taken, the more likely it is that the causative organism is found.  Some guidelines for infective endocarditis recommend taking up to 6 sets of blood for culture (around 60 ml).

# Uses
Any infection causing fever may prompt hospital physicians to request blood cultures. Identifying the agent may aid in choosing the correct antibiotic and addressing particular risk factors.
Blood culture is essential in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. In this elusive disease, blood cultures may have to be repeatedly taken during febrile episodes, when bacteria are shed from the heart valves into the bloodstream (bacteremia)..

# History
Blood cultures were pioneered in the early 20th century. Gustav Mahler, the composer, was diagnosed with infective endocarditis close to the end of his life, but as this was before the introduction of antibiotics, it contributed to his (early) death.