Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Bowman's capsule
The Bowman's capsule(other names: capsula glomeruli, glomerular capsule) is a cup like sac at the beginning of the tubular component of a nephron in the mammalian kidney. A glomerulus is enclosed in the sac. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are collected in the Bowman's capsule (i.e., glomerular filtrate) and further processed along the nephron to form urine. This process is known as ultrafiltration.

# Anatomy
Outside the capsule, there are two "poles":
- The vascular pole is the side with the afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole, as well as the distal convoluted tubule.
- the urinary pole is the side with the proximal convoluted tubule.
Inside the capsule, the layers are as follows, from outside to inside:

# Physiology
The process of filtration of the blood in the Bowman's capsule is ultrafiltration (or glomerular filtration), and the normal rate of filtration is 125 ml/min, equivalent to ten times the blood volume daily.
Any proteins under roughly 30 kilodaltons can pass freely through the membrane, although there is some extra hindrance for negatively charged molecules due to the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytes.
Any small molecules such as water, glucose, salt (NaCl), amino acids, and urea pass freely into Bowman's space, but cells, platelets and large proteins do not.
As a result, the filtrate leaving the Bowman's capsule is very similar to blood plasma in composition as it passes into the proximal convoluted tubule.

# Clinical significance
Measuring the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a diagnostic test of kidney function.
A decreased GFR may be a sign of renal failure.

# Eponym
Bowman's capsule is named after Sir William Bowman (1816-1892), a British surgeon and anatomist.
Together with the glomerulus it is known as a renal corpuscle, or a Malpighian corpuscle, named after Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), an Italian physician and biologist. This name is not used widely anymore, probably to avoid confusion with a Malpighian corpuscle in the spleen.
Schmidt reaction
The Schmidt reaction is an organic reaction involving alkyl migration over the carbon to nitrogen chemical bond in an azide with expulsion of nitrogen  . A key reagent introducing this azide group is hydrazoic acid and the reaction product depends on the type of reactant: carboxylic acids form amines through an isocyanate intermediate:
and ketones form amides:
A catalyst is required which can be a protic acid usually sulfuric acid or a lewis acid. The reaction was discovered in 1924 by R.F. Schmidt  who successfully converted benzophenone and hydrazoic acid to benzanilide. It is a tool regularly used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of new organic compounds for example in that of the unusual  2-quinuclidone.

# Reaction mechanism
The carboxylic acid Schmidt reaction starts with acylium ion 1 obtained from protonation and loss of water. Reaction with hydrazoic acid forms the protonated azido ketone 2 which goes through a rearrangement reaction with the alkyl group R migrating over the C-N bond with expulsion of nitrogen. The protonated isocyanate is attacked by water forming carbamate 4 which after deprotonation loses carbon dioxide to the amine.
The reaction is related to the Curtius rearrangement except that in this reaction the azide is protonated and hence with different intermediates.
In the reaction mechanism for the ketone Schmidt reaction the carbonyl group is activated by protonation for nucleophilic addition by the azide forming intermediate 3 which loses water in a elimination reaction to temporary imine 4 over which one of the alkyl groups migrates from carbon to nitrogen with loss of nitrogen. A similar migration is found in the Beckmann rearrangement. Attack by water and proton loss converts 5 to 7 which is a tautomer of the final amide.

# Reactions involving alkyl azides
The scope of this reaction has been extended to reactions of carbonyls with alkyl azides R-N3. This extension was first reported by J.H. Boyer in 1955  (hence the name Boyer reaction) for example the reaction of m-nitrobenzaldehyde with -azido-ethanol:
Variations involving intramolecular Schmidt reactions have been known since 1991 . An intramolecular reaction has been applied to the synthesis of novel bicyclic lactams :
Cerebral atrophy

# Overview
Cerebral atrophy is a common feature of many of the diseases that affect the brain. Atrophy of any tissue means loss of cells. In brain tissue, atrophy describes a loss of neurons and the connections between them. Atrophy can be generalized, which means that all of the brain has shrunk; or it can be focal, affecting only a limited area of the brain and resulting in a decrease of the functions that area of the brain controls. If the cerebral hemispheres (the two lobes of the brain that form the cerebrum) are affected, conscious thought and voluntary processes may be impaired.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Cerebral atrophy from Other Diseases
The pattern and rate of progression of cerebral atrophy depends on the disease involved. Diseases that cause cerebral atrophy include:
- Cerebral palsy, in which lesions (damaged areas) may impair motor coordination
- Dementias such as Alzheimer's disease, Picks disease, senile dementia,  fronto-temporal dementia, and vascular dementia
- Epilepsy, in which lesions cause abnormal electrochemical discharges that result in seizures
- Huntington's disease, and other genetic disorders that cause build-up of toxic levels of proteins in neurons
- Infectious diseases, such as encephalitis, neurosyphilis, and AIDS, in which an infectious agent or the inflammatory reaction to it destroys neurons and their axons
- Leukodystrophies, such as Krabbe disease, which destroy the myelin sheath that protects axons
- Mitochondrial encephalomyopathies, such as Kearns-Sayre syndrome, which interfere with the basic functions of neurons
- Multiple sclerosis, which causes inflammation, myelin damage, and lesions in cerebral tissue
- Stroke and traumatic brain injury

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria

## History and Symptoms
Many diseases that cause cerebral atrophy are associated with dementia, seizures, and a group of language disorders called the aphasias. Dementia is characterized by a progressive impairment of memory and intellectual function that is severe enough to interfere with social and work skills. Memory, orientation, abstraction, ability to learn, visual-spatial perception, and higher executive functions such as planning, organizing and sequencing may also be impaired. Seizures can take different forms, appearing as disorientation, strange repetitive movements, loss of consciousness, or convulsions. Aphasias are a group of disorders characterized by disturbances in speaking and understanding language. Receptive aphasia causes impaired comprehension. Expressive aphasia is reflected in odd choices of words, the use of partial phrases, disjointed clauses, and incomplete sentences.
Patient #1: CT images demonstrate marked prominence of the ventricles and sulci. This is consistent with cerebral atrophy

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy

## Surgery

## Prevention
Brain stem tumor

# Overview
A brain stem tumor is a tumor in the part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord (the brain stem).

# Types of brain stem tumors
The most common form of brainstem tumor is the brainstem glioma.

# Symptoms
The symptoms of brain stem tumors vary greatly and can include ataxia, cranial nerve palsy, headaches, problems with speech and swallowing, hearing loss, weakness, hemiparesis, vision abnormalities, ptosis, and behavioral changes. Another possible symptom is vomiting. Headaches related to brainstem tumors may be worse shortly after waking up in the morning.

# Diagnosis
An MRI is better than a CT scan when a brainstem tumor is in the differential diagnosis.

# Treatment and prognosis
Treatment typically consists of radiotherapy and steroids for palliation of symptoms. Radiotherapy may result in minimally extended survival time. Prognosis is very poor, with only 37% of treated patients surviving one year or more. Topotecan has been studied in the treatment of brainstem glioma, otherwise, chemotherapy is probably ineffective, though further study is needed.
Fibroadenolipoma
Synonyms and keywords: Hamartoma of the breast; breast with in a breast

# Overview
Fibroadenolipoma is the benign proliferation of fibrous, glandular, and fatty tissue surrounded by a thin capsule of connective tissue. Majority of these lesions occur in women over 35 years of age. When the lesion is asymptomatic and demonstrates a typical mammographic appearance, the patient can be followed up mammographically without the need for ultrasound or intervention.

# Diagnosis
- At mammography, fibroadenolipoma are typically well-circumscribed, round to oval masses containing both fat and soft-tissue density with a thin, radiopaque pseudocapsule.
- At ultrasound, a sharply defined, heterogeneous oval mass is seen, or the lesion may manifest as normal glandular tissue.
Bright's disease
Bright's disease is a historical classification of kidney diseases that would be described in modern medicine as acute or chronic nephritis. The term is no longer used, as diseases are now classified according to their more fully understood etiologies.
It is typically denoted by the presence of serum albumin (blood plasma) in the urine, and frequently accompanied by edema (tissue particulate).
These associated symptoms in connection with kidney disease were first described in 1827 by noted English physician Richard Bright. Since that time, it has been established that the symptoms, instead of being, as was formerly supposed, the result of one form of disease of the kidneys, may be dependent on various morbid conditions of those organs. Thus, the term Bright's disease, which is retained in medical nomenclature in honor of Dr. Bright, must be understood as having a strictly historical application.
The symptoms are usually of a severe nature. Back pain, vomiting and fever commonly signal an attack. Edema, varying in degree from slight puffiness of the face to an accumulation of fluid sufficient to distend the whole body, and sometimes severely restrict breathing, is a very common ailment. The urine is reduced in quantity, is of dark, smoky or bloody color, and exhibits to chemical reaction the presence of a large amount of albumin, while, under the microscope, blood corpuscles and casts, as above mentioned, are found in abundance.
This state of acute inflammation may severely limit normal daily activities, and if left unchecked, may lead to one of the chronic forms of Bright's disease. In many cases though, the inflammation is reduced, marked by increased urine output and the gradual disappearance of its albumen and other abnormal by-products. A reduction in edema and a rapid recovery of strength usually follows.
Acute Bright's disease was treated with local depletion, warm baths, diuretics, and laxatives. There was no successful treatment for chronic Bright's disease, though dietary modifications were sometimes suggested.
Brodie's abscess
Brodie's abscess is a subacute osteomyelitis, which may persist for years before converting to a frank osteomyelitis. Classically, this may present after conversion as a draining abscess extending from the tibia out through the shin.
Most frequent causitive organism is Staphylococcus aureus.
Classic clinical presentation:
Localized pain, often nocturnal, alleviated by aspirin.  Often mimics the symptoms of Osteoid osteoma.
Most frequent sites:
Distal tibia,
proximal tibia,
distal femur,
proximal or distal fibula, and 
distal radius.
Raidographic features:
Oval elliptical or serpiginous radiolucency usually >1cm surrounded by a heavily reactive sclerosis and a Nidus often less than 1cm.
Whonamedit
Brodmann area 22

# Overview
Brodmann area 22 is one of Brodmann's cytologically defined regions of the brain.  It is involved in auditory processing.

# Human
Brodmann area 22 is a region of the human brain (the 22nd numbered Brodmann area). On the left side of the brain this area  helps with generation and understanding of individual words. On the right side of the brain it helps tell the difference between melody, pitch, and sound intensity. Researchers believe this part of the brain is active in processing language.
This area is also known as superior temporal area 22, and it refers to a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined temporal region of cerebral cortex. In the human it corresponds approximately to the lateral and caudal two thirds of the superior temporal gyrus. It is bounded rostrally by the temporopolar area 38 (H), medially by the posterior transverse temporal area 42 (H), ventrocaudally by the middle temporal area 21 and dorsocaudally by the supramarginal area 40 (H) and the angular area 39 (H) (Brodmann-1909).
The posterior section of Brodmann area 22 is home to Wernicke's area (most commonly in the left hemisphere only).

# Guenon
Brodmann area 22 is a subdivision of the cerebral cortex of the guenon defined on the basis of cytoarchitecture. It is cytoarchitecturally homologous to the superior temporal area 22 of the human (Brodmann-1909). Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): compared to Brodmann area 21-1909 the cortical thickness of area 22 is greater; cell density is reduced overall and the internal granular layer (IV) is even less developed with fewer cells; there is no detectable boundary between the internal pyramidal layer (V) and the multiform layer (VI); as in area 21, the ganglion cells of layer V are numerous and are arrayed adjacent to its boundary with layer IV, but they are plumper and more pyramidal in shape; the polymorphic cells of the multiform layer (VI) become gradually more numerous as one goes deeper and gives way to a wide sublayer 6b of fusiform cells as one approaches the boundary of the cortex with the subcortical white matter.
Brodmann area 46
Brodmann area 46, or BA46, is part of the frontal  cortex in the human brain. It is sandwiched between BA10 and BA45.
This area is known as middle frontal area 46. In the human it occupies approximately the middle third of the middle frontal gyrus and the most rostral portion of the inferior frontal gyrus.  Brodmann area 46 roughly corresponds with the  dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), though the borders of area 46 are based on cytoarchitecture rather than function. The DLPFC also encompasses part of granular frontal area 9, directly adjacent on the dorsal surface of the cortex.
Cytoarchitecturally, area 46 it is bounded dorsally by the granular frontal area 9, rostroventrally by the frontopolar area 10 and caudally by the triangular area 45 (Brodmann-1909). There is some discrepancy between the exetent of Brodman's area 8 (1905) and the same area as described by Walker (1940)

# Function
The DLPFC plays a role in sustaining attention and working memory. Lesions to the DLPFC impair short-term memory and cause difficulty inhibiting responses. Lesions may also eliminate much of the ability to make judgements about what's relevant and what's not.
Bromophenol blue
Bromophenol blue, Tetrabromophenolsulfonephthalein, is an acid-base indicator whose useful range as an indicator lies between pH 3.0 and 4.6. It changes from yellow at pH 3.0 to purple at pH 4.6; this reaction is reversible.
Bromophenol blue is also used as a color marker to monitor the process of agarose gel electrophoresis and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.  Since bromophenol blue carries a slight negative charge at moderate pH, it will migrate in the same direction as DNA or protein in a gel; the rate at which it migrates varies according to gel density and buffer composition, but in a typical 1% agarose gel in TAE buffer or TBE buffer, bromophenol blue migrates at the same rate as a DNA fragment of approximately 500 base pairs. Xylene cyanol and Orange G may also be used for this purpose.
The molecular weight of bromophenol blue is around 670 Daltons or grams per mole.
The bromophenol blue is also used as a dye. At neutral pH, the dye absorbs red light most strongly and transmits blue light.  Solutions of the dye therefore are blue.  At low pH, the dye absorbs ultraviolet and blue light most strongly and appears yellow in solution. 
In solution at pH 3.6 (in the middle of the transition range of this pH indicator) obtained by dissolution in water without any pH adjustment, bormophenol blue has a characteristic green red colour. This phenomenon is called dicromatic colour..
Bromophenol blue is commonly used in entry-level lab courses to stain proteins in wet-mount slides.
Bronchial artery
In human anatomy, the bronchial arteries help supply the lungs with oxygenated blood.  Although there is much variation, there are usually two bronchial arteries that run to the left lung, and one to the right lung.

# Origin
The left bronchial arteries usually arise directly from the thoracic aorta.
The single right bronchial artery usually arises from one of the following:
- 1) the thoracic aorta at a common trunk with the right 3rd posterior intercostal artery
- 2) the superior bronchial artery on the left side

# Distribution to lung
The bronchial arteries supply blood to the bronchi and connective tissue of the lungs.  They travel with and branch with the bronchi, ending about at the level of the repiratory bronchioles.  They anastomose with the branches of the pulmonary arteries, and together, they supply the visceral pleura of the lung in the process.
Note that much of the blood supplied by the bronchial arteries is returned via the pulmonary veins rather than the bronchial veins.

# Comparison with pulmonary arteries
It is easy to confuse the bronchial arteries with the pulmonary arteries, because they both supply the lungs with blood, but there are important differences:

# Pathology
The bronchial arteries are typically enlarged and tortuous in chronic pulmonary thromboembolic hypertension.
Bruch's membrane
Bruch's membrane is the innermost layer of the choroid.

# Layers
Bruch's membrane consists of five layers:
- the basement membrane of the retinal pigment epithelium
- the inner collagenous zone
- a central band of elastic fibers
- the outer collagenous zone
- the basement membrane of the choriocapillaris
The retinal pigment epithelium transports metabolic waste from the photoreceptors across Bruch's membrane to the choroid.

# Pathology
Bruch's membrane thickens with age slowing the transport of metabolites. This may lead to the formation of drusen in age-related macular degeneration. There is also a build up of deposits (Basal Linear Deposits or BLinD and Basal Lamellar Deposits BLamD) on and within the membrane. This build up seems to fragment the membrane into a lamellar structure more like puff-pastry than a barrier. Inflammatory and neovascular mediators can then invite choroidal vessels to grow into and beyond the fragmented membrane. This neovascular membrane destroys the architecture of the outer retina and leads to sudden loss of central vision - wet age related macular degeneration.
Pseudoxanthoma elasticum, myopia and trauma can also cause defects in Bruch's membrane which may lead to choroidal neovascularization. Alport's Syndrome, a genetic disorder affecting the alpha(IV) collagen chains, can also lead to defects in the Bruch membrane such as 'dot and fleck' retinopathy.

# Eponym
Bruch's membrane was named after the German anatomist Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Bruch.
Brunner's glands

# Overview
Brunner's glands (or duodenal glands) are compound tubular submucosal glands located throughout the duodenum. The main function of these glands is to produce an alkaline secretion (containing bicarbonate) in order to:
- protect the duodenum from the acidic content of chyme (which is introduced into the duodenum from the stomach);
- provide an alkaline condition for the intestinal enzymes to be active, thus enabling absorption to take place;
- lubricate the intestinal walls.
They are also the distinguishing feature of the duodenum.
Buergers disease
Synonyms and keywords: Thromboangiitis obliterans; Winiwarter-Buerger disease; Buerger disease; Endarteritis obliterans
Not to be confused with Berger's disease (IgA nephropathy)

# Overview

# Historical Perspective

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Buerger's Disease from other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

# Diagnosis
Diagnostic Criteria | History and Symptoms | Physical Examination | Laboratory Findings | Ultrasound  | Other Imaging Findings | Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment
Medical Therapy | Surgery | Primary Prevention | Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy | Future or Investigational Therapies

# Case Studies
Case #1
de:Endangiitis obliterans
he: 
nl:Ziekte van Buerger
sv:Morbus Buerger
CME Category::Cardiology
Burow's solution
Burow's solution is a pharmacological preparation made of aluminium acetate dissolved in water. It was invented in the mid-1800s by Karl August Burow, an ophthalmologist.
The preparation has astringent and antibacterial properties and is used to treat a number of skin conditions such as insect bites, rashes caused by poison ivy and poison sumac, swelling, allergies and bruises.  Burow's solution is traditionally applied in cold compresses over the affected area.
Burow's solution is available over the counter as a generic preparation. Bayer also manufactures a modified form of the preparation under the commercial name Domeboro.
Butea monosperma

# Overview
Butea monosperma (syn. Butea frondosa, Erythrina monosperma, Plaso monosperma; Kinshuk, Palash, Dhak, Flame of the Forest or Parrot Tree), is a species of Butea native to tropical southern Asia, from Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and western Indonesia. Also known as kesudo in Gujarati
It is a medium sized dry season-deciduous tree, growing to 15 m tall. The leaves are pinnate, with an 8-16 cm petiole and three leaflets, each leaflet 10-20 cm long. The flowers are 2.5 cm long, bright orange-red, and produced in racemes up to 15 cm long. The fruit is a pod 15-20 cm long and 4-5 cm broad.
It is said that the tree is a form of Agnidev, God of Fire. It was a punishment given to Him by Goddess Parvati for disturbing Hers and Lord Shiva's privacy.