Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Crural fascia

# Overview
The crural fascia (deep fascia of the leg) forms a complete investment to the muscles, and is fused with the periosteum over the subcutaneous surfaces of the bones.
It is continuous above with the fascia lata, and is attached around the knee to the patella, the ligamentum patell, the tuberosity and condyles of the tibia, and the head of the tibula.
Behind, it forms the popliteal fascia, covering in the popliteal fossa; here it is strengthened by transverse fibers, and perforated by the small saphenous vein.
It receives an expansion from the tendon of the Biceps femoris laterally, and from the tendons of the Sartorius, Gracilis, Semitendinosus, and Semimembranosus medially; in front, it blends with the periosteum covering the subcutaneous surface of the tibia, and with that covering the head and malleolus of the fibula; below, it is continuous with the transverse crural and laciniate ligaments.
It is thick and dense in the upper and anterior part of the leg, and gives attachment, by its deep surface, to the Tibialis anterior and Extensor digitorum longus; but thinner behind, where it covers the Gastrocnemius and Soleus.
It gives off from its deep surface, on the lateral side of the leg, two strong intermuscular septa, the anterior and posterior peroneal septa, which enclose the Peroni longus and brevis, and separate them from the muscles of the anterior and posterior crural regions, and several more slender processes which enclose the individual muscles in each region.
A broad transverse intermuscular septum, called the deep transverse fascia of the leg, intervenes between the superficial and deep posterior crural muscles.
Methyl violet
Methyl violet is the name given to a group of similar chemicals used as pH indicators and dyes. Methyl violets are mixtures of tetramethyl, pentamethyl and hexamethyl pararosanilins. By blending the different versions, the dyemaker can create different shades of violet in the final dye. The more methylated the compound (the more methyl groups attached), the deeper blue the final color will be:
- Tetramethyl (four methyls) is known as methyl violet 2B, and this specific chemical finds uses in chemistry and medicine.
- Pentamethyl (five methyls) is known as methyl violet 6B, and is darker (in dye form) than 2B.
- Hexamethyl (six methyls) is known as methyl violet 10B, or specifically as crystal violet. This is much darker than 2B, and often darker than 6B.
In pure form, the tetramethyl appears as lustrous blue-green crystals that melt at 137C (279F).
The main use of methyl violet (by sheer volume used worldwide) is to dye textiles purple and give deep violet colors in paints and printing ink.
Methyl violet 2B (simply called methyl violet) is used in chemistry as a pH indicator to test pH ranges from 0 to 1.6. At the acid end of its measuring range, it takes on a yellow color. At the alkaline end, it becomes bluish-violet. Methyl violet can be supplied as premade pH testing paper, or it can be supplied as pure crystals and dissolved in the sample being checked.
In medicine, Methyl Violet 10B is known as Gentian violet and is the active ingredient in Gram's stain, used to classify bacteria. Gentian violet destroys cells, and is used as a moderate-strength external disinfectant. Gentian violet is very poisonous to most animals, dogs and cats included  it should never be used as a disinfectant for animals' skin.
Methyl violet has also the ability of binding DNA. Therefore, in biomedical sciences, it is used for cell viability assays. The binding to DNA can also cause disruption in DNA replication process, which can lead to mutations and cancers.
Methyl violets are soluble in water, ethanol, diethylene glycol, and dipropylene glycol. Specifically, methyl violet 6B is 2.93% soluble in water and 15.21% soluble in ethanol.
Methyl violet should not be confused with methyl blue or methylene blue, two other stains.
- Methyl Violet 2B
- Methyl Violet 6B
Methyl Violet 6B
- Methyl Violet 10B
Methyl Violet 10B
Cubitus varus
Cubitus varus (Opposite: Cubitus valgus) is a common deformity resulting from a Supracondylar fracture of the lower humerus. It can be corrected via a corrective osteotomy of the humerus and either internal or external fixation of the bone until union.
Cubitus varus is not able to be diagnosed until after healing of the prior fracture, as the arm must be in full extension, not flexion, for the deformity to be noticed.
A cubitus varus deformity is more cosmetic than limiting of any function, however internal rotation of the radius over the ulna may be limited due to the overgrowth of the humerus. This may be noticeable during an activity such as using a computer mouse.
Instances in which the medial epicondyle of the distal humerus is malformed due to the inital fracture at the humeral endplate may result in subluxation (snapping) of the ulnar nerve over the medial epicondyle with active flexion and extension of the elbow.  In such instances,conductance of the ulnar nerve may be compromised due to chronic irritation, potentially resulting in irreversible ulnar neuropathy.
Cubitus varus is often referred to as 'Gunstock deformity', due to the crooked nature of the healing.
Cullen's sign

# Overview
Cullen's sign is blue-black bruising of the area around the umbilicus.

# Etymology
It is named for Thomas S. Cullen (1869-1953), who was an obstetrician and first described the sign in ruptured ectopic pregnancy in 1916.

# Pathophysiology
This sign takes 24-48 hours to appear and predicts a severe attack of acute pancreatitis, with mortality rising from 8-10% to 40%.
It may be accompanied by Grey-Turner's sign (bruising of the flank).

# Diagnosis

## Common Causes
Causes include:
- acute pancreatitis, where methaemalbumin formed from digested blood tracks around the abdomen from the inflamed pancreas
- bleeding from blunt abdominal trauma
- bleeding from ruptured ectopic pregnancy

## Physical Examination

### Skin
Importance of the sign is on a decline since better diagnostic modalities are now available
Curve of spee

# Overview
In Anatomy, the Curve of Spee (called also von Spee's curve or "Spee's curvature") is defined as the curvature of the mandibular occlusal plane beginning at the tip of the lower cuspid and following the buccal cusps of the posterior teeth, continuing to the terminal molar. According an another definition c. of Spee is an anatomic curvature of the occlusal alignment of teeth, beginning at the tip of the lower canine, following the buccal cusps of the natural premolars and molars, and continuing to the anterior border of the ramus.
Ferdinand Graf von Spee, German embryologist, (18551937) was first to describe anatomic relations of human teeth in the sagittal plane.
The pull of the main muscle of mastication the "masseter" is at a perpendicular angle  with the curve of Spee to adapt for favorable loading of force on the teeth.
The Curve of Spee is, essentially, a series of slipped contact points.  It is of importance to orthodontists as it may contribute to an increased overbite.  Larry Andrews, in his important paper: Six Keys to Normal Occlusion (1972), stated that a flat or mild curve of Spee was essential to an ideal occlusion.
de:Spee-Kurve
Cutaneos Horn

# Overview
Cutaneous horns, also known by the Latin name cornu cutaneum, are unusual keratinous skin tumors with the appearance of horns, or sometimes of wood or coral. Formally, this is a clinical diagnosis for a "conical projection above the surface of the skin." They are usually small and localized, but can, in very rare cases be much larger. Although often benign, they can also be malignant or premalignant.

# Etiology
The cause of cutaneous horns is still unknown, but it is believed that exposure to radiation can trigger the condition. This is evidenced by a higher rate of cases occurring on the face and hands, areas that are often exposed to sunlight. Other cases have reported cutaneous horns arising from burn scars. As with many other wart-like skin conditions, a link to the HPV virus family, especially the HPV-2 subtype has been suggested.

# Prominent cases
- Zhang Ruifang, aged 101 (living in Linlou Village, Henan province, China), has grown a cutaneous horn on her forehead, resembling what those who have examined her and her family call "Devil's Horns." Notably, this growth has expanded to reach a total of 6 centimeters in length.  Another is forming on the opposite side of her forehead.
- Huang Yuanfan, aged 84 (living in Ziyuan, China).
- Madame Dimanche, called Widow Sunday, a French woman living in Paris in the early 19th century, grew, in six years from the age of 76, a 24.9 cm (9.8") horn from her forehead before it was successfully removed by French surgeon Br. Joseph Souberbeille (17541846). A wax model of her head is on display at the Mutter Museum, The College of Physicians of Philadelphia, US.

# Mortality/Morbidity
The lesion at the base of the keratin mound is benign in the majority of cases. Malignancy is present in up to 20% of cases, with squamous cell carcinoma being the most common type. The incidence of squamous cell carcinoma  increases to 37% when the cutaneous horn is present on the penis. Tenderness at the base of the lesion is often a clue to the presence of a possible underlying squamous cell carcinoma .

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Cutaneos horn. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.

# Treatments
As the horn is composed of keratin, the same material found in fingernails, the horn can usually be removed with a sterile razor.
However, the underlying condition will still need to be treated. Treatments vary, but they can include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.
Cyberchondria

# Overview
Cyberchondria is a colloquial term to describe the behavior of individuals who use the Internet to gather information on health or healthcare, for themselves or people in their care.  The market research company Harris Interactive Inc., which makes use of the word in various studies, states that cyberchondria literally means "online concern about health."

# Derivation
The term "cyberchondria" appears to be a portmanteau neologism derived from the terms cyber and hypochondria. (The term "-chondria" derives from Greek and literally means "cartilage" or "breast bone.")
Researchers at Harris Interactive have clarified this etymology, and state in studies and interviews that the term is not necessarily intended to be pejorative.

# Medical websites
Many reputable medical organizations maintain websites that may include brief overviews of various conditions for individuals with a general curiosity, or more detailed information to aid the understanding of people who have been properly diagnosed.  However, some life-threatening diseases, including HIV infections, can present themselves with very general flu-like symptoms. Sites that disseminate medical information without stressing that many conditions (both major and minor) can have similar symptoms, and that proper diagnosis is generally impossible without the help of a medical professional, can potentially cause undue panic in those cyberchondriacs who are also hypochondriacs.  These individuals can come to believe that their minor illnesses are caused by crippling diseases, and these incorrect self-diagnoses can lead to anxiety, guilt, and depression.
Less reputable websites may deliberately encourage hypochondria to get people to visit their site or to buy expensive and unnecessary medication.

# Opening lines of communication
Therefore, although some medical practitioners are open to cyberchondriacs' personal research, stating that this can open lines of communication between doctors and patients, there is concern by other doctors about misuse of the Internet by people who mistakenly believe that the information they find is sufficient to make a self-diagnosis.
Cycloheximide
- Interactive image
- CC(=O)CC2CC(=O)NC(=O)C2
Cycloheximide is an inhibitor of protein biosynthesis in eukaryotic organisms, produced by the bacterium Streptomyces griseus.  Cycloheximide exerts its effect by interfering with peptidyl transferase activity of the 60S ribosome, thus blocking translational elongation. Cycloheximide is widely used in biomedical research to inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells studied in vitro (i.e. outside of organisms).  It is inexpensive and works rapidly. Its effects are rapidly reversed by simply removing it from the culture medium.
Due to significant toxic side effects, including DNA damage, teratogenesis, and other reproductive effects (including birth defects and toxicity to sperm - ), cycloheximide is generally used only in in vitro research applications, and is not suitable for human use as a therapeutic antibiotic compound.  Although it has been used as a fungicide in agricultural applications, this application is now decreasing as the health risks have become better understood.
Cycloheximide is degraded by alkali (pH > 7), decontamination of work surfaces and containers can be achieved by washing with a non-harmful alkali solution such as soap.
In vitro applications
Cycloheximide can be used as an experimental tool in molecular biology to determine the half-life of a protein (enzyme). Treating cells with cycloheximide in a time-course experiment followed by Western blotting of the cell lysates for the protein of interest can show differences in protein expression due to interference with translation.
Cytochrome C1
Cytochrome C1 (also known as Complex III subunit 4) is a protein encoded by the CYC1 gene. Cytochrome is a heme-containing subunit of the cytochrome b-c1 complex, which accepts electrons from Rieske protein and transfers electrons to cytochrome c in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. It is formed in the cytosol and targeted to the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Cytochrome c1 belongs to the cytochrome c family of proteins.

# Function
Cytochrome C1 plays a role in the electron transfer during oxidative phosphorylation. As an iron-sulfur protein approaches the b-c1 complex, it accepts an electron from the cytochrome b subunit, then undergoes a conformational change to attach to cytochrome c1. There, the electron carried by the iron-sulfur protein is transferred to the heme carried by cytochrome c1. This electron is then transferred to a heme carried by cytochrome c. This creates a reduced species of cytochrome c, which separates from the b-c1 complex and moves to the last enzyme in the electron transport chain, cytochrome c oxidase (Complex IV).

# Species
CYC1 is a human gene that is conserved in chimpanzee, Rhesus monkey, dog, cow, mouse, rat, zebrafish, fruit fly, mosquito, C. elegans, S. cerevisiae, K. lactis, E. gossypii, S. pombe, N. crassa, A. thaliana, rice, and frog. There are orthologs of CYC1 in 137 known organisms.
In its structure and function, the cytochrome b-c1 complex bears extensive analogy to the cytochrome b6f complex of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria; cytochrome c1 plays an analogous role to cytochrome f, despite their different structures.

# Clinical relevance
Mutations in the CYC1 gene are associated with mitochondrial complex III deficiency nuclear type 6. The disease symptoms include early childhood onset of severe lactic acidosis and ketoacidosis, usually in response to infection. Insulin-responsive hyperglycemia is also present, but psychomotor development appears normal. Mutation of CYC1 was observed to cause instability in the cytochrome b-c1 complex, which decreased its ability to create energy through oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondrial complex III deficiency nuclear type 6 is autosomal recessive.
Cytopathology
Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The most common use of cytopathology is the Pap smear, used to detect cervical cancer at an early treatable stage.
Two methods of collecting cells for analysis are:
- Exfoliative Cytology  Cells are extracted from fluid shed into the body cavities. For example, in pleural fluid, ascitic fluid, or in the case of the Pap smear, cells scraped from the cervix.
- Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology or Needle aspiration biopsy  An 18 to 27 gauge (most commonly 23-25) needle attached to a 10 cc syringe is used to aspirate (pull out) cells from lesions or masses in various organs of the body by application of negative pressure (suction). FNAC can be done directly on a mass in superficial regions like the neck, thyroid or breast; or it may be be assisted by ultrasound or CAT scan. FNAC, while poorly developed in the USA, is widely used in Europe and India. Being a skill dependent procedure, the success rate may vary. If performed by pathologist or as team with pathologist-cytotechnologist, the success rate of proper diagnosis is superior. The two countries with the most advanced FNAC services are Sweden (Karolinska hospital performs about 11 thousand annual aspirates), and Slovenia (Institute of Oncology performs about 10 thousand annual aspirates). The highest volumes in USA are encountered at Emory University Hospital in Atlanta GA, and MD Anderson Hostpital in Houston, TX, each contributing no more than 4 thousand aspirates per year.

# Equipment
Fine needles are 23 to 27 gauge. Needle diameters and color codes for 23G, 25G and 27G are as follows, respectively: 0,6 mm/Blue-dark, 0,5 mm/Orange, and 0,4 mm/Grey. If a cell-block preparation is indicated, after obtaining diagnostic cytology smears, a wider gauge needle, up to 18 gauge, may be used.
Topoisomerase
Topoisomerases (type I: EC 5.99.1.2, type II: EC 5.99.1.3) are  isomerase enzymes that acts on the topology of DNA. It was first discovered by Harvard Professor James C. Wang.

# Function
The double-helical configuration that DNA strands naturally reside in makes them difficult to separate, and yet they must be separated  by helicase proteins if other enzymes are to transcribe the sequences that encode proteins, or if chromosomes are to be replicated. In so-called circular DNA, in which double helical DNA is bent around and joined in a circle, the two strands are topologically linked, or knotted. Otherwise identical loops of DNA having different numbers of twists are topoisomers, and cannot be interconverted by any process that does not involve the breaking of DNA strands. Topoisomerases catalyze and guide the unknotting of DNA.
The insertion of viral DNA into chromosomes and other forms of recombination can also require the action of topoisomerases.

# Clinical significance
Many drugs operate through interference with the topoisomerases. The broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibiotics act by disrupting the function of bacterial type II topoisomerases.
Some chemotherapy drugs work by interfering with topoisomerases in cancer cells:
- type 1 is inhibited by irinotecan and topotecan.
- type 2 is inhibited by etoposide and teniposide.
Topoisomerase I is the antigen recognized by Anti Scl-70 antibodies in scleroderma.

# Topological problems
There are three main types of topology; supercoiling, knotting and catenation. When outside of replication or transcription DNA needs to be kept as compact as possible and these three states help this cause. However when transcription or replication occur DNA needs to be free and these states seriously hinder the processes.

# Types
Topoisomerases can fix these topological problems and are separated into two types separated by the number of strands cut in one round of action:
- Type I topoisomerase cuts one strand, passes the other through it then reanneals the cut strand.
- Type II topoisomerase cuts both strands, and passes an unbroken double strand through it then reanneals the cut strand.
Both type I and type II topoisomerases change the linking number of DNA.
DSM (company)
DSM (in full Koninklijke DSM N.V., or Royal DSM N.V.) is a multinational chemicals company. Its headquarters are in Heerlen, the Netherlands. Originally a state-owned coal mining company (Dutch State Mines/De StaatsMijnen), the activities of DSM are now grouped into five clusters: 
Nutrition, Pharma, Performance Materials, Polymer Intermediates and Base Chemicals and Materials.

# Name
The name DSM is actually derived from the English language, it is the acronym of the translation of the Dutch name; De Nederlandse Staatmijnen translated into Dutch State Mines (DSM). This company was regularly in the news in the late 1960s, because of the Dutch government's decision to close all the (state)mines. In 1973, after the last mine was closed, the company decided to carry the acronym as its name.

# Company information
DSMs products and services are used globally in a wide range of markets and applications. End markets include human and animal nutrition and health, personal care, pharmaceuticals, automotive, coatings and paint, electrics and electronics, life protection and housing. The company strategy focuses on accelerating profitable and innovative growth of the companys specialties portfolio. DSM has annual sales of almost EUR 9 billion and employs some 23,000 people worldwide. The company is headquartered in the Netherlands, with locations in Europe, Asia, the Americas, Africa and Australia. DSM sells products for mass consumers and not the end users.

# History
DSM was established in 1902 as a state coal mining company. Through the years the company focussed not only on mining, but also on the chemical sector. Due to the closure of all the mines and the unemployment that followed, the Dutch government stimulated the chemical plants, to provide jobs for the miners.
In 1989 DSM was privatized, and started its first sale of the company's common shares to public investors. In 2002 the company sold their petrochemical division (the naphtha crackers) to SABIC of Saudi Arabia. Also in 2002, DSM acquired the nutritional products (amongst others vitamins) division of Roche. In 2005 NeoResins, the coating resins business of Avecia was purchased.