Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Hemoglobinopathy

# Overview
Hemoglobinopathy is a kind of genetic defect that results in abnormal structure of one of the globin chains of the hemoglobin molecule. Most common hemoglobinopathies include sickle-cell disease and thalassemia. The hemoglobinopathies can be broadly divided into quantitative or qualitative defects. The clinical manifestations of the hemoglobinopathies ranges from mild hypochromic anemia to severe hematological disease.

# Classification
Hemoglobinopathy can be classified according to genetic and structure of hemoglobin into two main groups:
The range of clinical manifestations of the hemoglobinopathies are from mild hypochromic anemia to moderate hematological disease to severe.

# Epidemiology and Demographics

## Prevalence
- In 2008, the prevalence of hemoglobinopathy carrier was estimated to be 700 per 100,000 (7%), worldwide.
- The most prevalence of hemoglobinopathy gene carriers in the world's are in South-East Asia (up to 70%) and Arab nations (up to 60%).
- In Russia, prevalence of hemoglobinopathy is rare.
- In recent years, prevale of hemglobinopathy is increased in Germany.

## Region
-thalassemias
It occurs frequently in Africa, Arab nations, South-East Asia.
-thalassemias
It occurs frequently in Mediterranean countries, South-East Europe, Arab nations, and Asia.

# Diagnostic Approach
Hemoglobin testing (hemoglobin electrophoresis or chromatography), [[Red blood cell
Contraindication

# Overview
In medicine, a contraindication is a condition or factor that increases the risks involved in using a particular drug, carrying out a medical procedure, or engaging in a particular activity.
Some contraindications are absolute, meaning that there are no reasonable circumstances for undertaking a course of action.  For example, a baby with a fever should never be given aspirin because of the risk of Reye's syndrome, and a person with a severe food allergy should never eat that food.
Other contraindications are relative, meaning that the patient is at higher risk of complications, but that these risks may be outweighed by other considerations or mitigated by other measures.  For example, a pregnant woman should normally avoid getting X-rays, but the risk may be far less than the risk of not diagnosing or being able to treat a serious condition such as tuberculosis or a broken bone.
Absorptive state

# Overview
Absorptive state is the period in which the Gastrointestinal tract is full and the anabolic processes exceed catabolism. The fuel used for this process is Glucose.

# Nutrient Processing in The Absorptive State
Carbohydrates - Simple sugars are sent to the liver where they are converted to glucose. The glucose then travels to the blood or is converted to glycogen and fat(triglyceride). The glycogen and fat will be stored in the liver and adipose tissue, respectively, as reserves for the post-absorptive state. The remaining glucose is taken in for use by body cells or stored in skeletal muscle as glycogen.
Triglycerides - Chylomicrons, the main product of fat digestion, are first broken down to fatty acids and glycerol through hydrolysis using Lipoprotein lipase. This allows them to freely pass through capillary walls. Most of this will be reconstituted as triglycerides and stored in adipose tissue. The rest is used for energy in adipose cells, skeletal muscle, and hepatocytes. In a low carb environment, other body cells will also begin to use triglycerides as energy sources.
Amino Acids - The liver deaminates amino acids to keto acids to be used in the krebs cycle in order to produce ATP. They may also be converted to fat stores. Some are used to make plasma proteins, but most leave through liver sinusoids to be used by body cells to construct proteins.
Acacia cornigera
Acacia cornigera, commonly known as Bullhorn Acacia (family Fabaceae), is a swollen-thorn acacia native to Mexico and Central America. The common name of "bullhorn" refers to the large, enlarged, hollowed-out swollen thorns (technically called stipular spines) that occur in pairs at the base of leaves, and resemble the horns of a steer.  In Yucatan (one region where the bullhorn acacia thrives) it is called "subin".  The tree grows to a height of 10m.

# Mutualism
Bullhorn Acacia is best known for its symbiotic relationship with a species of ant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) that lives in its hollowed out thorns.  Unlike other acacias, Bullhorn acacias are deficient in the bitter alkaloids usually located in the leaves that defend against ravaging insects and animals. Bullhorn acacia ants fulfill that role.
The ants act as a defense mechanism for the tree, protecting it against harmful insects, animals or humans that may come into contact with it. The ants live in the hollowed-out thorns for which the tree is named. In return, the tree supplies the ants with protein-lipid nodules called  Beltian bodies from its leaflet tips and carbohydrate-rich nectar from glands on its leaf stalk.  These Beltain bodies have no known function other than to provide food for the symbiotic ants. The aggressive ants release an alarm pheromone and rush out of their thorn "barracks" in great numbers.
According to Daniel Janzen (Costa Rican Natural History, 1983), livestock can apparently smell the pheromone and avoid these acacias day and night. Getting stung in the mouth and tongue is an effective deterrent to browsing on the tender foliage. In addition to protecting A. conigera from leaf-cutting ants and other unwanted herbivores, the ants also clear away invasive seedlings around the base of the tree that might overgrow it and block out vital sunlight.

# Uses

## Decorative uses
The thorns of A. cornigera, are often strung into unusual necklaces and belts. In El Salvador the horn-shaped thorns provide the legs for small ballerina seed dolls which are worn as decorative pins.

## Medicinal uses
Snake doctors use the bark and root to slow down snake venom from entering the bloodstream.  
Acne and various skin problems can be treated with water extract of the thorns.
It is used to treat impotency in males.
Acacia decurrens
Acacia decurrens (Acacia bark, Early black wattle, Green wattle, Sydney wattle, Wattle bark) is a perennial tree or shrub native to the Greater Blue Mountains Area, which is a World Heritage Site in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales, Australia.  It is also found in Africa, the Americas, Europe, New Zealand & the Pacific, the Indian Ocean area, and Japan.  It grows to a height of 2-10m and it flowers from July to September.

# Uses
Uses for it include chemical products, environmental management and wood.
The flowers are edible and are used in fritters.  An edible gum oozes out of the tree's trunk and it can be used as a lesser-quality substitute for Gum Arabic, for example in the production of fruit jelly.
The tree's bark has astringent properties, but it has to be stored for a year before it can be made use of.  It is used as an anti-diarrheal medicine.  The bark contains about 37-40% tannin.  The flowers are used to produce yellow dye and the seed pods are used to produce green dye.  An organic chemical compound called Kaempferol is what gives the flowers of Acacia decurrens their color.

# Cultivation
Cultivation of Acacia decurrens can be started by soaking its seeds in warm water and sowing them outdoors.  The seeds keep their ability to germinate for many years.
Acacia mellifera
Acacia mellifera is a perennial tree which is not listed as being threatened.
The name mellifera refers to its sweet-smelling blossoms and honey.  Its lumber turns pitch black when oiled. Common names of the tree include Blackthorn and Swaarthaak (Afrikaans).

# Distribution
Acacia mellifera is found in the dry areas of Africa, the Arabian Penninsula, Australia, India and in the Indian Ocean area.

# Characteristics
Acacia mellifera can manifest itself either as a multi-trunked bush up to seven meters high with more or less a funnel-shaped crown, but also as a small single-trunked tree, which can reach a height of up to nine meters. This kind of acacia can reproduce by seed formation and by stick excursion to form an impenetrable thicket of several hundred individuals.

# Uses
In the dry regions of Africa, Acacia mellifera is used, among other things, as fencing, feed and building material for huts. In some places, the blossom nectar is used as food, but primarily the milky sap is used to induce vomiting and the boiled bark is used to treat belly pain, pneumonia and malaria.

# Animal Uses
This tree is an important food resource for both cattle and wild animals especially in dry areas of Africa as the leaves and young branches are very nutritious containing a high percentage of protein. The flowers are often eaten by kudu. Common browsers of the tree include black rhino, giraffe and the eland.

# Subspecies
- Acacia mellifera (Vahl)Benth. subsp. detinens (Burchell)Brenan
- Acacia mellifera (Vahl)Benth. subsp. mellifera
Accessory spleen
Synonyms and keywords: Supernumerary spleen; splenule; splenunculus.

# Overview
An accessory spleen is a small nodule of splenic tissue found in some people in the neighborhood of the spleen, and especially in the gastrolienal ligament and greater omentum.  Accessory spleens may be isolated or connected to the spleen by thin bands of splenic tissue.  They vary in size from that of a pea to that of a plum.
Accessory spleens are congenital foci of normal splenic tissue that are separate from the main body of the spleen. They arise from the failure of fusion of the splenic anlage during the fifth week of fetal life. Accessory spleens are relatively common and are seen in 1030% of patients at autopsy. Accessory spleens are present in 16% of patients undergoing contrast-enhanced abdominal CT. Most frequent location is posteromedial to the spleen (22%).

# Diagnosis
The imaging findings are
- Typical appearance of accessory spleens on CT scans are well-marginated, round masses that are smaller than 2 cm and enhance homogeneously.
- Accessory spleens are smaller than 1 cm may display an attenuation lower than that of the spleen because of partial volume averaging.
- An accessory speen may mimic lymphadenopathy and tumors in other abdominal organs.
CT and Ultrasound images demonstrate an accessory spleen
Acetoacetic acid
Acetoacetic acid is the organic compound with the formula CH3C(O)CH2CO2H.  It is the simplest beta-keto acid group and like other members of this class is unstable.

# Synthesis and properties
Acetoacetic acid  is a weak acid (like most alkyl carboxylic acids) with a pKa of 3.77.  It be prepared by the hydrolysis of the ethyl acetoacetate followed by acidification of the anion.
In general, acetoacetic acid is generated at 0 C and used in situ immediately.  It decomposes at a moderate rate to acetone and carbon dioxide:
The acid form has a half-life of 140 minutes at 37o C in water, whereas the basic form (the anion) has a half-life of 130 hours. That is, it reacts about 50 times more slowly.

# Biochemistry
Acetoacetic acid is produced in the human liver under certain metabolic conditions such as during fatty acid breakdown.  It is then partially converted to acetone by spontaneous decarboxylation and excreted either in urine or through respiration. The acid is also present in the metabolism of those undergoing starvation or prolonged physical exertion as part of gluconeogenesis. Acetoacetic acid  is not the major ketone produced by the body, that being beta-hydroxybutyrate.

# Detection
When ketone bodies are measured by way of urine concentration, acetoacetic acid, along with beta-hydroxybutyric acid (BHB), and acetone, is what is detected. This is done using dipsticks coated in nitroprusside or similar reagents. Nitroprusside changes from pink to purple in the presence of acetoacetate, the conjugate base of acetoacetic acid, and the colour change is graded by eye.  The popular dipstick used to detect ketone bodies in urine "Ketostix" by Bayer, only detects acetoacetate, not BHB or acetone.
Achievement test
An achievement test is a measure of developed skill or knowledge. The most common type of achievement test is a standardized test developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade level, usually through planned instruction, such as training or classroom instruction. Achievement tests are often contrasted with ability tests, which measure more general and stable cognitive traits. Achievement test scores are often used to determine what level of instruction a student is ready for. High achievement scores usually indicate a mastery of grade-level material, and the readiness for advanced instruction. Low achievement scores can indicate the need for remediation or repeating a course grade.
Under No Child Left Behind, achievement tests have taken on an additional role of assessing proficiency of students. Proficiency is defined as the amount of grade-appropriate knowledge and skills a student has acquired up to the point of testing. Better teaching practices are expected to increase the amount learned in a school year, and therefore to increase achievement scores, and yield more "proficient" students than before.
When writing achievement tests, writers usually begin with a list of content standards (either written by content specialists or based on state-created content standards) which specify exactly what students are expected to learn in a given school year. The goal of test writers is to create test items that measure the most important skills and knowledge attained in a given grade-level. The number and type of test items written is determined by the grade-level content standards. Content validity is determined by the representativeness of the items included on the final test.
Lysosomal lipase
Lysosomal lipase is a form of lipase which functions intracellularly, in the lysosomes.

# Clinical significance
A deficiency associated with lysosomal acid lipase deficiency, Wolman disease, and cholesteryl ester storage disease.
Chlorpromazine is an inhibitor of lysosomal lipase.
A genome wide survey suggests that lysosomal lipase A (located at chromosome 10q23.31) is associated with coronary artery disease in humans.
Acid phosphatase
Acid phosphatase is a phosphatase, a type of enzyme, used to free attached phosphate groups from other molecules during digestion.It is basically a phospho homo esterase .  It is stored in lysosomes and functions when these fuse with endosomes, which are acidified while they function; therefore, it has an acid pH optimum.
Different forms of acid phosphatase are found in different organs, and their serum levels are used as a diagnostic for disease in the corresponding organs.  For example, elevated prostatic acid phosphatase levels may indicate the presence of prostate cancer.
Acid phosphatase catalyzes the following reaction at an optimal pH below 7:
Orthophosphoric monoester + H2O   alcohol + H3PO4

# Differential Diagnosis

## Common causes of Increased Acid Phosphatase
- Benign prostatic hypertrophy
- Bone metastases
- Breast Cancer
- Chronic Renal Disease
- Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
- Gaucher's Disease
- Hemolysis
- Hyperparathyroidism
- Leukemia
- Liver disease
- Megaloblastic anemia
- Multiple Myeloma
- Osteogenesis imperfecta
- Osteosarcoma
- Paget's Disease
- Polycythemia
- Prostate Cancer
- Prostatic manipulation
- Prostatitis
- Thrombocytosis

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Alcoholic Hepatitis
- Amifostine
- Bone disease in diabetes mellitus
- Bone metastases
- Benign prostatic hypertrophy
- Breast Cancer
- Buserelin
- Castration resistant prostate cancer
- Cholesteatoma
- Chronic otitis media
- Chronic Renal Disease
- Disease of liver
- Diseases of kidney
- Diseases of lungs
- Diseases of spleen
- Diseases of the liver
- Disseminated intravascular coagulation
- Extrapulmonary small cell cancer
- Gaucher disease
- Glucocorticoid-resistant asthma
- Glycogen storage disease
- Haemolytic anaemia
- Hairy cell leukemia
- Hemolysed blood sample
- Hepatotoxicity
- Hyperostosis corticalis deformans juvenilis
- Hyperparathyroidism
- Imiglucerase (glucocerebrosidase)
- Jaundice
- Leukemia
- Leuprolide
- Liver disease
- Histrelin
- Mastoiditis in adults
- Megaloblastic anemia
- Mirtazapine
- Multiple myeloma
- Murine Leukemia
- Myopathy
- Osteopetrosis (benign)
- Osteopetrosis (malignant)
- Osteogenesis imperfecta
- Osteosarcoma
- Paget disease of bone
- Polycythemia
- Primary biliary cirrhosis
- Prostate cancer
- Prostatitis
- Prostatic manipulation
- Rheumatic fever
- Sickle cell disease
- Sphingomyelinase deficiency
- Systemic lupus erythematosus
- Thrombocytosis
Acidity function
- Acid-base extraction
- Acid-base reaction
- Acid-base physiology
- Acid-base homeostasis
- Dissociation constant
- Acidity function
- Buffer solutions
- pH
- Proton affinity
- Self-ionization of water
- Acids:
Lewis acids
Mineral acids
Organic acids
Strong acids
Superacids
Weak acids
- Lewis acids
- Mineral acids
- Organic acids
- Strong acids
- Superacids
- Weak acids
- Bases:
Lewis bases
Organic bases
Strong bases
Superbases
Non-nucleophilic bases
Weak bases
- Lewis bases
- Organic bases
- Strong bases
- Superbases
- Non-nucleophilic bases
- Weak bases
An acidity function is a measure of the acidity of a medium or solvent system, usually expressed in terms of its ability to donate protons to (or accept protons from) a solute (Brnsted acidity). The pH scale is by far the most commonly used acidity function, and is ideal for dilute aqueous solutions. Other acidity functions have been proposed for different environments, most notably the Hammett acidity function, H0, for superacid media and its modified version H for superbasic media. The term acidity function is also used for measurements made on basic systems, and the term basicity function is uncommon.
Hammett-type acidity functions are defined in terms of a buffered medium:
where pKa is the dissociation constant of BH+. They were originally measured by using nitroanilines as acid-base indicators and by measuring the concentrations of the protonated and unprotonated forms with UV-visible spectroscopy. Other spectroscopic methods, such as NMR, may also be used. The function H is defined similarly:

# Comparison of acidity functions with aqueous acidity
In dilute aqueous solution, H0 and H are equivalent to pH values determined by the buffer equation. However, an H0 value of 21 (a 25% solution of SbF5 in HSO3F) does not imply a hydrogen ion concentration of 1021 mol/dm3: such a "solution" would have a density more than a hundred times greater than than a neutron star. Rather, H0 = 21 implies that the reactivity of the solvated hydrogen ions is 1021 times greater than the reactivity of the hydrated hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution of pH 0. The actual reactive species are different in the two cases, but both can be considered to be sources of H+, i.e. Brnsted acids. The hydrogen ion H+ never exists on its own in a condensed phase, it is always solvated to a certain extent. The high negative value of H0 in SbF5/HSO3F mixtures indicates that the solvation of the hydrogen ion is much weaker in this solvent system than in water. Other way of expressing the same phenomenon is to say that SbF5FSO3H is a much stronger proton donor than +.
Aconitum anthora
Aconitum anthora, variously known as Anthora, Yellow Monkshood, or Healing Wolfsbane, is a yellow flowering plant species of the genus Aconitum in the family Ranunculaceae.
It's native range is widespread, but mainly in European mountains, such as  the Alps and the Carpathians, and the northern parts of Asia. Like all Aconitum species, it has great variability, due to isolation and hybridisation. Because of this polymorphism, Aconitum anthora is included in the Aconitum vulparia-group. It flowers from July to September.
Historically, its root, which is tuberous, was reputed to be a good antidote, and counter-poision to poisons from 'thora' or Aconitum pardalianches, whence its naming anthora or "against thora". This plant is extremely toxic to livestock and humans. Even small doses can be deadly.
The root contains a large amount of volatile salt and essential oil, while the foliage and stems contain diterpenoid alkaloids. It has been used externally against rheumatism and deep pain, but it can irritate the skin. Internally, it has been used for weak pulse, vegetable poisons (shoot), feverish colds, pneumonia, croup, heart conditions, and cardiac arrest.
It is considered a threatened plant in the Czech Republic.

# Synonyms
- Aconitum pseudanthora  Blocki ex Pacz.
- Aconitum eulophum	Rchb.
- Aconitum jacquinii Rchb.
- Aconitum nemorosum M.Bieb.
Activating group
In organic chemistry, a functional group is called an activating group (or electron donating group) if a benzene molecule to which it is attached more readily participates in electrophilic substitution reactions.  Benzene itself will normally undergo substitutions by electrophiles, but additional substituents can alter the reaction rate or products by electronically or sterically affecting the interaction of the two reactants.
Functional groups are typically divided into three levels of activating ability.  Deactivating groups are assigned to similar groupings.

# Strongly Activating Groups
R = alkyl
Strongly activating substituents favor electrophilic substitution about the ortho and para positions. This is illustrated by drawing the resonance structure's of aniline: 

# Moderately Activating Groups

# Weakly Activating Groups