Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Georg Joseph Beer
Georg Joseph Beer (December 23, 1763, Vienna - April 11, 1821), Vienna. He is notable for inventing the flap operation for cataracts known as Beer's operation.

# Career
He first studied theology, but soon changed to medicine, receiving his doctorate in 1786. Under Joseph Barth (1745-1818) he devoted himself to ophthalmology, without neglecting his other studies. Thus, for some time he successfully conducted investigations on the developmental history of anatomy. His relationship with Barth, however, never seems to have been very close; he later referred to his four years with Barth as his "years of torture" (Barth - mentor and tormentor). Their relationship ended with a final break caused by Barth's favour of Johann Adam Schmidt (1759-1809), of future fame as an ophthalmologist.
Out of Barth's realm, Beer began his own and independent work as an ophthalmologist. This was not at all easy, however, as Barth did his best to obstruct his work and even publicly expressed his doubts of Beers qualifications. Despite this Beer was able to build a successful practice, and became a popular teacher, attracting several of the next generation of giants in the field. Among his students were William McKenzie, Philipp Franz von Walther, Carl Ferdinand von Graefe (1787-1840), Johann Nepomuk Fischer (1777-1847), Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck (1776-1851), Anton von Rosas (1791-1855), Maximilian Joseph von Chelius (1794-1876), Francesco Flarer (1791-1850), Karl Christoph Friedrich von Jaeger (1775-1858), and Christoph Friedrich Jaeger Ritter von Jaxtthal (1784-1871) - his future son-in-law.
His teaching activity took on such proportions and was so highly reputed, that in 1812 the government decided to establish an extraordinary chair of ophthalmology - to which Beer was appointed. Unfortunately he was not able to exercise his duties in this chair for a very long time, as he in 1818 suffered a stroke that incapacitated him for work, and which caused his death in 1821.
Beer was indisputably one of the leaders of ophthalmology in his time, and must be reckoned as one of the more prominent representatives of this discipline. Unable to liberate himself from the peculiar physiologic-pathological views of his time, he strived to liberate ophthalmology from the grip of strictly dogmatic views, and to found it on a solid basis of careful observations. His textbook of ophthalmology was to have a great impact on this medical specialty. His works on the history of ophthalmology, however, were coldly received and leave much to be desired, as he judged all previous epochs on an absolute scale against the most updated work in the field.
George A. Sheehan
Dr. George A. Sheehan (1918--1993) was born in Brooklyn, New York. He is best known for his books and writings about the sport of running. His book, "Running & Being: The Total Experience," became a New York Times best seller. He was a track star in college, and later became a cardiologist like his father. He served as a doctor in the United States Navy in the South Pacific during World War II on the destroyer USS Daly (DD-519). He married Mary Jane Fleming and they raised twelve children. He continued to write while struggling with prostate cancer. His last book, Going the Distance, was published shortly after his death.

# Life and work
George A. Sheehan was the oldest of 14 children. He was a track star at Manhattan College, but did not renew his interest in running until age 45 while living in Rumson, New Jersey. He began running in his back yard (26 loops to a mile) and then started running along the river road during his lunch break wearing long-johns and a ski mask. Five years later, he ran a 4:47 mile, which was the world's first sub-five-minute time by a 50-year-old.
Sheehan began writing a weekly column in the local newspaper and continued to write the column for twenty five years. Many of these years were served as the medical editor for Runner's World magazine.  (He had been introduced to Joe Henderson by Hal Higdon during the 1968 Olympics. Henderson later recruited him as medical editor for Runner's World.) He continued to write for Runner's World after the magazine was purchased by Rodale Press. He wrote eight books and lectured around the world.
Sheehan was a devoted Catholic; in 1958, he was one of the co-founders of Christian Brothers Academy, an all-male school in Lincroft, NJ near his home in Rumson.  It grew to become one of New Jersey's premier prep schools.
In 1986, he was diagnosed with prostate cancer. He continued to run until his legs could no longer carry him. During this period he continued to write about his experiences. This time it wasn't about running, it was about dying. "Going the Distance" was his last book. It was published shortly after his death in 1993.

# Books
- Dr. Sheehan on Running (1975) ISBN 0-89037-069-9
- Dr. George Sheehan's Medical Advice for Runners (1978) ISBN 0-02-499170-8
- Running & Being: The Total Experience (1978) ISBN 0-446-97090-5
- This Running Life (1980) ISBN 0-671-25608-4
- How to Feel Great Twenty Four Hours a Day (1983) ISBN 0-671-45478-1
- Dr. Sheehan on Fitness (1983) ISBN 0-671-45478-1
- Personal Best: The Foremost Philosopher of Fitness Shares Techniques and Tactics for Success and Self-Liberation (1989) ISBN 0-87857-858-7
- George Sheehan on Running to Win: How to Achieve the Physical, Mental & Spiritual Victories of Running (1992) ISBN 0-87596-145-2
- Going the Distance: One Man's Journey to the End of His Life (1996) ISBN 0-614-95718-4
Gitelman syndrome

# Overview
Gitelman syndrome is a rare inherited defect in the renal tubule of kidneys.  It causes the kidneys to pass sodium, magnesium, chloride, and potassium into the urine, rather than allowing it to be resorbed into the bloodstream.

# Causes
Gitelman's syndrome is linked to inactivating mutations in the SLC12A3 gene resulting in a loss of function of the encoded thiazide-sensitive sodium-chloride co-transporter (NCCT). This cell membrane protein participates in the control of ion homeostasis at the distal convoluted tubule portion of the nephron.
Gitelman's syndrome is an autosomal-recessive disorder: one defective gene has to be inherited from each parent.

# Presentation
People suffering from Gitelman's syndrome present symptoms which are identical to those of patients who are on thiazide diuretics
Clinical symptoms for this disease are hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis, hypokalemia, and hypocalciuria. Hypomagnesemia is present in many but not all cases. In contrast to patients with Liddle syndrome, those suffering from Gitelman's syndrome are generally normotensive. Carriers of Gitelman's syndrome-linked mutations are often asymptomatic while some complain of mild muscular cramps or weakness expressed as fatigue or irritability. More severe symptoms such as tetany and paralysis have however also been reported. Phenotypic variations observed among patients probably result from differences in their genetic background and may depend on which particular amino acid in the NCCT protein has been mutated.
See Naesens et al. for a recent review.

# Eponym
It is named for Hillel Gitelman.
Glagov phenomenon
Synonyms and keywords: Glagov's phenomenon; Glagov's remodeling

# Overview
Glagov phenomenon denotes the adaptive enlargement of coronary artery in response to plaque formation. Lumen area is preserved during the early stage of coronary artery disease and lumen encroachment becomes evident until the lesion occupies greater than 40% of the internal elastic lamina area. Thus, angiography-detectable stenosis and significant functional impairment may be delayed despite the presence of a fairly sizable atherosclerotic plaque.

# Historical Perspective
Based on the study of human left main coronary arteries obtained at autopsy by Seymour Glagov et al. in 1987, it was concluded that during the initial development of atherosclerosis, coronary artery enlarges in parallel with the growth of plaque and a nearly normal cross-sectional lumen area is maintained, as the internal elastic lamina area directly correlates with the plaque area. Lumen area starts to diminish in close relation to the percentage of stenosis, defined as the ratio of plaque area to internal elastic lamina area, for values above 40 percent.

# Clinical Significance
Atherosclerosis is a disease of the vessel wall. Since coronary angiography only allows visualization of the arterial lumen, atherosclerotic burden and disease extent may be underestimated due to the compensatory coronary enlargement in response to plaque formation which preserves the ordinary lumen size. Arterial narrowing becomes appreciable on coronary angiography until the plaque occupies greater than 40% of the internal elastic lamina area. Therefore, a normal-sized coronary artery on angiogram does not rule out the presence of atherosclerotic plaque nor certainly indicates a small plaque burden.
Glucagon receptor
The glucagon receptor is a 62 kDa protein that is activated by glucagon and is a member of the class B G-protein coupled family of receptors, coupled to G alpha i, Gs and to a lesser extent G alpha q. Stimulation of the receptor results in activation of adenylate cyclase and increased levels of intracellular cAMP.  In humans, the glucagon receptor is encoded by the GCGR gene.
Glucagon receptors are mainly expressed in liver and in kidney with lesser amounts found in heart, adipose tissue, spleen, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, cerebral cortex, and  gastrointestinal tract.

# Structure
The 3D crystallographic structures of the seven transmembrane helical domain (7TM) and the extracellular domain (ECD) and an electron microscopy (EM) map of full length glucagon receptor have been determined. Furthermore, the structural dynamics of an active state complex of the Glucagon receptor, Glucagon, the Receptor activity-modifying protein, and the G-protein C-terminus has been determined using a computational and experimental approach.

# Clinical significance
A missense mutation in the GCGR gene is associated with diabetes mellitus type 2.
Inactivating mutation of glucagon receptor in humans causes resistance to glucagon and is associated with pancreatic alpha cell hyperplasia, nesidioblastosis, hyperglucagonemia, and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors, also known as Mahvash disease.
Glyoxalase system
The glyoxalase system is a set of enzymes that carry out the detoxification of methylglyoxal and the other reactive aldehydes that are produced as a normal part of metabolism. This system has been studies in both bacteria and eukaryotes.
This detoxification is accomplished by the sequential action of two thiol-dependent enzymes; firstly glyoxalase , which catalyses the isomerisation of the spontaneously formed hemithioacetal adduct between GSH and 2-oxoaldehydes (such as methylglyoxal) into S-2-hydroxyacylglutathione. Secondly, glyoxalase  hydrolyses these thiolesters and in the case of methylglyoxal catabolism, produces D-lactate and GSH from S-D-lactoyl-glutathione.
This system shows many of the typical features of the enzymes that dispose of endogenous toxins. Firstly, in contrast to the amazing substrate range of many of the enzymes involved in xenobiotic metabolism, it shows a narrow substrate specificity. Secondly, intracellular thiols are required as part of its enzymatic mechanism and thirdly, the system acts to recycle reactive metabolites back to a form which may be useful to cellular metabolism.
Guidewire lengths

# Overview
The standard length of a coronary guidewire is 175-190 cm.  The standard length of an exchange length coronary guidewire is 270-400 cm.

# Advantages of a Short Coronary Guidewire
Shorter guidewires are easier to use and more manageable for a single operator. A short wire is often used in conjunction with a rapid exchange catheter. Rapid exchange catheters take up less space in the guiding catheter and allow for better contrast injections (and thereby allow better opacification of the coronary artery) and also allow for additional equipment to easily pass through the guiding catheter. This is often useful in the management of bifurcation lesions.

# Disadvantages of a Short Coronary Guidewire
Short coronary guidewires and rapid exchange catheters do not perform as well in passing through tortuous or angulated lesions or tight lesions when compared with long wires and over the wire (OTW) systems.  The operator cannot exchange for alternate devices as easily with a short wire.  Once the lesion is crossed, you cannot exchange for a guidewire offering more support.  As result of this, sure wires are often not use in the management of chronic total occlusions and in those cases where there is pronounced tortuosity or angulation of the lesion.

# Use of a Docking Wire to Extend the Length of a Short Coronary Guidewire
If you are using a standard length wire and need to create an exchange length wire, you can use a "docking system" to mount an additional length of wire onto the standard wire.  The docking wire attaches to the standard length wire.  Care should be exercised as the docking joint is prone to snapping when bent, and the docking joint may give way.

# Use of an Exchange Link Wire As Part of a Single Operator Procedure
When using an exchange length wire and delivering a balloon or a stent, a magnet may be used to hold the wire in place.  It is preferable to have two operators when using an exchange length wire.

# Use of a Long Coronary Guidewire
Long coronary guide wires are used in chronic total occlusions where there is a need to switch out wires, and in tortuous and  angulated lesions.  Over the wire systems are often used in teaching hospitals and training programs.
Gymnema sylvestre
Gymnema sylvestre is a herb native to the tropical forests of southern and central India where it  has been used as a naturopathic treatment for diabetes for nearly two millennia.

# Use as herbal medicine
While it is still being studied, and the effects of the herb are not entirely known, the herb has been shown to reduce blood sugar levels when used for an extended period of time. Additionally, Gymnema reduces the taste of sugar when it is placed in the mouth, thus some use it to fight sugar cravings. 
From extract of the leaves were isolated glycosides known as Gymnemic acids, which exhibit anti-sweet activity.
This effect, however, is short-lived, lasting a mere fifteen minutes.  Some postulate that the herb actually reduces cravings for sugar by blocking sugar receptors in the tongue, but no scientific studies have supported this hypothesis. It is currently being used in an all natural medication for diabetes with other ingredients such as cinnamon, chromium, zinc, biotin, banaba, huckleberry and bitter melon.
The active ingredient is thought to be gurmenic acid which has structure similar to saccharose. Extracts of Gymnema is not only claimed to curb sweet tooths but also for treatment of as varied problems as hyperglycemia, overweightness, high cholesterol levels, anemia and digestion. According to the Sushruta of the Ayurveda it is helps to treat Madhumeha ie glycosuria.

# Alternative names
The plants also goes under many other names such as; Gurmari, Gurmarbooti, Gurmar, periploca of the woods, meshasring  and mesbasringi. The hindi word gur-mar literally means sugar destroyer. Mesbasringi means ram's horn because of the shape of its fruits. Gymnema probably derives from the Latin word meaning naked and sylvestre means from the forest.
HGH controversies
There are many controversies around the claims, products, and businesses related to the use of growth hormone as an anti-aging therapy. Most of this controversy falls into two categories:
- Claims of exaggerated, misleading, or unfounded assertions that real growth hormone treatment slows or reverses the effects of aging
- The sale of products that fraudulently or misleadingly purport to be growth hormone or to increase the user's own secretion of natural human growth hormone to a beneficial degree.
Following a study in 1990 by Rudman which showed fat loss, muscle mass increase and maintenance of healthy skin from the administration of growth hormone in elderly men, there has been a burgeoning industry surrounding the sale and administration of GH and its purported anti-aging effects.
As is common with such therapies, the literature is now dominated by advocacy from pharmaceutical companies.  Solid medical evidence is harder to find, and appears to indicate mixed results.  It is likely that there is some advantage, but it is also evident that benefits are being exaggerated by some for commercial gain.
Some of the side effects reportedly seen in previously healthy mature patients after taking HGH include:
- Edema (retention of fluids) in extremities
- Arthralgia (joint pain)
- Carpal tunnel syndrome
- Hypertension
- Diabetes and other glucose metabolism imbalances
- Gynecomastia (enlargement of male mammary glands)
- Enlargement of Testicles
Chronic use of HGH is not well studied, except when used in children for acute growth deficiencies. A long term increase in colon cancer and Hodgkin's Disease has been observed in these cases.
HIV/AIDS in India
India has had a sharp decrease in the estimated number of HIV infections, from 2005 reports saying 5.2 million to 5.7 million had HIV to 2007 UNAids reports saying that number is now between 2 million and 3 million. . This brings the HIV prevalence rate in India below many western nations including the US, Canada, Italy, France, and Spain, at .36 percent.
India's national epidemic is made up of a number of local epidemics, and in some places they occur within the same state. The epidemics vary, from states with mainly heterosexual transmission of HIV (85%), often via interaction with sex workers, to some states where intravenous drug use is the main route of transmission. Both tracking the epidemic and implementing effective programmes poses a serious challenge to the authorities and communities in India. HIV surveillance in India falls under the auspices of the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO). The majority of HIV surveillance data collected by NACO is done through annual unlinked anonymous testing of prenatal clinic (or antenatal clinics) and sexually transmitted infection clinic attendees. Annual reports of HIV surveillance are freely available on NACO's website.
India has a large population and population density, low literacy levels and consequently low levels of awareness, and HIV/AIDS is one of the most challenging public health problems ever faced by the country. A recent study published in the British medical journal "The Lancet" in (2006) reported an approximately 30% decline in HIV infections among young women aged 15 to 24 years attending prenatal clinics in selected southern states of India from 2000 to 2004 where the epidemic is thought to be concentrated. The authors cautiously attribute observed declines to increased condom use by men who visit commercial sex workers and cite several pieces of corroborating evidence.
Habenular trigone
The habenular trigone is a small depressed triangular area situated in front of the superior colliculus and on the lateral aspect of the posterior part of the taenia thalami.
It contains a group of nerve cells termed the ganglion habenul.
Fibers enter it from the stalk of the pineal body, and others, forming what is termed the habenular commissure, pass across the middle line to the corresponding ganglion of the opposite side.
Most of its fibers are, however, directed downward and form a bundle, the fasciculus retroflexus of Meynert, which passes medial to the red nucleus, and, after decussating with the corresponding fasciculus of the opposite side, ends in the interpeduncular ganglion.
Hairy leukoplakia
Hairy leukoplakia is a white patch on the side of the tongue with a corrugated or hairy appearance.
Hairy leukoplakia is seen in severe defects of immunity, particularly in HIV infection. The cause of this condition is an opportunistic infection by the Epstein-Barr virus. Oral hairy leukoplakia is not associated with any malignant potential.
The condition does not cause any other symptoms and does not require any treatment.
If treatment is required, acyclovir is used.
Although the vast majority of cases are found in immunosuppressed patients, in 1999, the first immunocompetent patient was found with the condition.
Halogenated ether

# Overview
A halogenated ether is a subcategory of a larger group of chemicals known as ethers.  An ether is an organic chemical that contains an ether group  an oxygen atom connected to two (substituted) alkyl groups.  A good example of an ether is the solvent diethyl ether.
What differentiates a halogenated ether from other types of ethers is the substitution (halogenation) of one or more hydrogen atoms with a halogen atom.  Halogen atoms include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.  Technically, the element astatine is also a halogen, but due to a number of factors it is rarely, if ever, used in organic chemistry.
Perhaps the most common use of halogenated ethers has been in anesthesiology.  The first widely used inhalation anesthetic was diethyl ether, which is not a halogenated ether, but it enabled surgeons to perform painful surgeries without the patient being conscious.  Unfortunately for doctors of that era, diethyl ether has the disadvantage of being extremely flammable and in some cases, explosive.  Occasionally, this led to fires or explosions during surgery, and is one of the reasons that diethyl ether is no longer used in hospital settings.  It is still commonly used as a solvent in organic chemistry labs, though with caution.  In some countries, diethyl ether was eventually replaced with non-flammable (but more toxic) halogenated hydrocarbons such as chloroform and trichloroethane.  Much later, safer halogenated hydrocarbon anesthetics such as halothane were developed.
Halogenated ethers have replaced most other compounds for use as inhalation anesthetics.  Halogenated ethers have the advantages of being non-flammable as well as less toxic than earlier general anesthetics.  Halogenated ethers differ from other ethers because they contain at least one halogen atom in each molecule.  Examples of halogenated ethers include the general anethetics isoflurane, desflurane, and sevoflurane.
Currently, all inhalation anesthetics except for halothane are halogenated ethers, and when used, are always mixed with oxygen or air and then inhaled by the patient before or during surgery.  In most surgical situations, other drugs such as opiates are used for pain and skeletal muscle relaxants are used to cause temporary paralysis.  Additional drugs such as midazolam may be used to produce amnesia during surgery.
Newer intravenous anesthetics (such as propofol) have increased the options of anesthesiologists, but halogenated ethers remain a mainstay of general anesthesia.
Haptic perception

# Overview
Haptic perception is the process of recognizing objects through touch. It involves a combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface (e.g., edges, curvature, and texture) and proprioception of hand position and conformation.
People can rapidly and accurately identify three-dimensional objects by touch.  They do so through the use of exploratory procedures, such as moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand.
Gibson defined the haptic system as "The sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body". Gibson and others emphasized the close link between haptic perception and body movement: haptic perception is active exploration. The concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of extended physiological proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool.
Haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch. This research allows the creation of "virtual", illusory haptic shapes with different perceived qualities which has clear application in haptic technology.
Loss of the sense of touch is a catastrophic deficit that can impair walking and other skilled actions such as holding objects or using tools .