Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Left lung

# Overview
The Left lung is divided into two lobes, an upper and a lower, by the oblique fissure, which extends from the costal to the mediastinal surface of the lung both above and below the hilus.
As seen on the surface, this fissure begins on the mediastinal surface of the lung at the upper and posterior part of the hilus, and runs backward and upward to the posterior border, which it crosses at a point about 6 cm. below the apex.
It then extends downward and forward over the costal surface, and reaches the lower border a little behind its anterior extremity, and its further course can be followed upward and backward across the mediastinal surface as far as the lower part of the hilus.

# Lobes
The superior lobe lies above and in front of this fissure, and includes the apex, the anterior border, and a considerable part of the costal surface and the greater part of the mediastinal surface of the lung.
The inferior lobe, the larger of the two, is situated below and behind the fissure, and comprises almost the whole of the base, a large portion of the costal surface, and the greater part of the posterior border.

# Impressions
On the mediastinal surface, immediately above the hilus, is a well-marked curved furrow produced by the aortic arch, and running upward from this toward the apex is a groove accommodating the left subclavian artery; a slight impression in front of the latter and close to the margin of the lung lodges the left innominate vein.
Behind the hilus and pulmonary ligament is a vertical furrow produced by the descending aorta, and in front of this, near the base of the lung, the lower part of the esophagus causes a shallow impression.

# Additional images
- diagram of the respiratory system
- Anatomy of lungs.
- Front view of heart and lungs.
- Transverse section of thorax, showing relations of pulmonary artery.
- The position and relation of the esophagus in the cervical region and in the posterior mediastinum. Seen from behind.
- The thymus of a full-time fetus, exposed in situ.
Leucocyte
Leukocytosis is an elevation of the white blood cell count (the leukocyte count) above the normal range.
Although it may be a sign of illness, leukocytosis in-and-of itself is not a disorder, nor is it a disease.  It is simply a laboratory finding.
A leukocyte count above 25 to 30 x 109/L is termed a leukemoid reaction, which is the reaction of a healthy bone marrow to extreme stress, trauma, or infection. (It is different from leukemia and from leukoerythroblastosis, in which immature blood cells are present in peripheral blood.)

# Leukocyte counts
The normal adult human leukocyte count in peripheral blood is 4.4-10.8 x 109/L. A white blood cell count of 11.0 x 109/L or more suggests leukocytosis.

# Causes
Leukocytosis is very common in acutely ill patients. It occurs in response to a wide variety of conditions, including viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infection, cancer, hemorrhage, and exposure to certain medications or chemicals including steroids.  Leukocytosis can also be the first indication of neoplastic growth of leukocytes.
For lung diseases such as pneumonia and tuberculosis, WBC count are very important for the diagnosis of the disease,as leucocytosis is usually present.
The mechanism that causes leukocytosis can be of several forms: an increased release of leukocytes from bone marrow storage pools, decreased margination of leukocytes onto vessel walls, decreased extravasation of leukocytes from the vessels into tissues, or an increase in number of precursor cells in the marrow.

# Classification
Leukocytosis can be subcategorized by the type of white blood cell that is increased in number. Leukocytosis in which neutrophil count is elevated is neutrophilia; leukocytosis in which lymphocyte count is elevated is lymphocytosis; leukocytosis in which monocyte count is elevated is monocytosis; and leukocytosis in which eosinophil count is elevated is eosinophilia.
de:Leukozytose
Lewy body
Lewy bodies are abnormal aggregates of protein that develop inside nerve cells. They are identified under the microscope when histology is performed on the brain.
Lewy bodies appear as spherical masses that displace other cell components. There are two morphological types: classical (brain stem) Lewy bodies and cortical Lewy bodies.  A classical Lewy body is an eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion that consists of a dense core surrounded by a halo of 10-nm wide radiating fibrils, the primary structural component of which is alpha-synucleinL.  In contrast, a cortical Lewy body is less well-defined and lacks the halo.  Nonetheless, it is still made up of alpha-synuclein fibrils.

# Cell biology
A Lewy body is composed of the protein alpha-synuclein associated with other proteins such as ubiquitin, neurofilament protein, and alpha B crystallin. It is believed that Lewy bodies represent an aggresome response in the cell.

# Associated diseases
The main disease associated with the presence of Lewy bodies is Parkinson's disease. Lewy bodies are also present in neurons in dementia with Lewy bodies and the Lewy body variant of Alzheimer's disease, as well as Hallervorden-Spatz syndrome.
Inclusions composed of alpha synuclein, different to Lewy bodies, can be found in glial cells in multiple system atrophy. These are termed glial cytoplasmic inclusions. Multiple system atrophy can be clinically confused with Parkinson's disease.

# History
Lewy bodies were first seen and linked to Parkinson's disease ("paralysis agitans") in 1912 by the neurologist Frederic Lewy (1885-1950).
Lie bumps

# Overview
Lie bumps (transient lingual papillitis
and fungiform papillary glossitis
) are painful, hypertrophic, red and white papillae on the tongue.

# Description
Lie bumps are relatively common  a 1996 study found that 56% of the respondents to their  survey reported these lesions. The most common presentation of this was found to be in young women, involving one or several fungiform papillae. The symptoms last several days and resolve on their own with no treatment.

# Cause
The name "lie bumps" is a result of a myth stating that telling a lie would cause one.
Lie bumps are often attributed to irritation of the tongue's papillae (taste buds) by sharp food or teeth. However, very little has been written about this condition in scientific articles or textbooks and scientific studies have failed to produce a definite cause. Possible causes include: "stress, gastrointestinal upset, menstruation, acidic or sour food, and local trauma" (direct physical irritation) of the tongue.

# Treatment
There is no specific treatment for this problem, other than using ice or numbing medicines to ease the pain.  Anecdotal remedies include gargling with salt water and direct application of hydrogen peroxide.
Linamarin
Linamarin is a cyanogenic glucoside found in the leaves and roots of plants such as cassava, lima beans, and flax. Upon exposure to enzymes and gut flora in the human intestine, linamarin and its methylated relative lotaustralin can decompose to the toxic chemical hydrogen cyanide; hence food uses of plants that contain significant quantities of linamarin are inhibited by extensive preparation and detoxification requirements. Linamarin itself is not acutely toxic, although neurotoxic effects of long-term exposure have been suggested. Consumption of linamarin-containing cassava products is widespread in the developing world and has been associated with dietary toxicity, particularly with the upper motor neuron disease known as konzo to the African populations in which it was first described, through the work of Hans Rosling. Dietary exposure to linamarin has also been reported as a risk factor in developing glucose intolerance and diabetes, although studies in experimental animals have been inconsistent in reproducing this effect and may indicate that the primary effect is in aggravating existing conditions rather than inducing diabetes on its own.
The generation of cyanide from linamarin is usually enzymatic and occurs when linamarin is exposed to linamarase, an enzyme normally expressed in the cell walls of cassava plants. Because the resulting cyanide derivatives are volatile, processing methods that induce such exposure are common traditional means of cassava preparation; foodstuffs are usually made from cassava after extended blanching, boiling, or fermentation. Food products made from cassava plants include garri (toasted cassava tubers), porridge-like fufu, the dough agbelima, and cassava flour.
Recent research efforts have developed a transgenic cassava plant that stably downregulates linamarin production via RNA interference.
Lipiduria

# Overview
Lipiduria, also termed Lipuria, is the presence of lipids in the urine.1

# Differential diagnosis of causes of lipiduria
It most frequently observed in nephrotic syndrome where it is passed as lipoproteins along with other proteins.
It has also been reported as a sign following fat embolism.
User:Ludi
Liudvikas Jagminas, M.D., FACEP, Associate Professor (Clinical) in Emergency Medicine, Brown Medical School; Physician-in-Chief, Department of Emergency Medicine Memorial Hospital of Rhode Island; Medical Director, Barrington Urgent Care Center
Contact:  ; Phone: 401-729-2419
Address: Liudvikas Jagminas, M.D., FACEP Memorial Hospital of Rhode Island 111 Brewster St Pawtucket, RI 02860

# Education
1981:							Stonehill College, North Easton, MA, B.S., Biology
1987:					                Brown University Medical School, Providence, RI, Doctor of Medicine

# Internship
1987-1988:	        The Miriam Hospital
			Brown University Medical School
			Providence, RI
			Internal Medicine

# Residency
1988-1991:	        Long Island Jewish Medical Center 
			and Albert Einstein College of Medicine
			New Hyde Park, NY
			Emergency Medicine

# Positions and Employment
1991-2003: Attending Physician, Emergency Medicine, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI 
1995-2003: Medical Director for Trauma, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI
1995-present: Division Director, Emergency Medicine, Department of Surgey, Rhode Island Hospital
1996-present: Assistant Professor in Surgery, Brown University School of Medicine, Providence, RI
2003-present: Physician-in-Chief, Department of Emergency Medicine, Memorial Hospital of RI

# Postgraduate Honors and Awards
2000: The Jacek Franaszek Faculty Teaching Award, Rhode Island Hospital, Department of Emergency Medicine 
2006: Teaching Recognition Award, Brown Medical School
2006: Top Doc in Emergency Medicine, RI Monthly Magazine 
2008: Dean's Teaching Excellence Award, Exemplary teaching in preclinical courses and core clerkships, Brown Medical School

# Academic Appointments
July 1992 - September 1995: Instructor in Medicine, Brown Medical School
September 1995 - 1996: Assistant Professor in Medicine, Brown Medical School
September 1996  September 2003: Assistant Professor in Surgery, Brown Medical School
September 2003  July 2004: Assistant Professor (Clinical) in Surgery, Brown Medical School
July 2004  July 2007: Assistant Professor (Clinical) in Emergency Medicine, Brown Medical School
July 2007 - present: Associate Professor (Clinical) in Emergency Medicine, Brown Medical School
Lubricity
Lubricity is the measure of the reduction in friction of a lubricant. The study of lubrication and mechanism wear is called tribology.

# Measurement of lubricity
Lubricity of a material cannot be directly measured, so tests are performed to quantify a lubricant's performance. This is done by determining how much wear is caused to a surface by a given friction-inducing object in a given amount of time. Other factors such as surface size, temperature, and pressure are also specified. The greater the wear scar the worse the lubricity. For this reason lubricity is also termed a substance's anti-wear property.
Examples of test setups include "Ball-on-cylinder" and "Ball-on-three-discs" tests.

# Lubricity in diesel engines
In a modern diesel engine, the fuel is part of the engine lubrication process. Diesel fuel naturally contains sulfur compounds that provide good lubricity, but because of regulations in many countries (such as the US and the EU) sulfur must be removed. Reformulated diesel fuel has a lower lubricity and requires lubricity improving additives to prevent excessive engine wear.
MAP3K7IP1
Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 7-interacting protein 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MAP3K7IP1 gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene was identified as a regulator of the MAP kinase kinase kinase MAP3K7/TAK1, which is known to mediate various intracellular signaling pathways, such as those induced by TGF beta, interleukin 1, and WNT-1. This protein interacts and thus activates TAK1 kinase. It has been shown that the C-terminal portion of this protein is sufficient for binding and activation of TAK1, while a portion of the N-terminus acts as a dominant-negative inhibitor of TGF beta, suggesting that this protein may function as a mediator between TGF beta receptors and TAK1. This protein can also interact with and activate the mitogen-activated protein kinase 14 (MAPK14/p38alpha), and thus represents an alternative activation pathway, in addition to the MAPKK pathways, which contributes to the biological responses of MAPK14 to various stimuli. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been reported.
This protein plays an important role in skin homeostasis, wound repair, and oncogenesis.

# Interactions
MAP3K7IP1 has been shown to interact with:
- MAP3K7IP2,
- MAP3K7IP3,
- MAP3K7,
- MAPK14,
- Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 7,
- TRAF6,
- XIAP,  and
- ZMYND11.
MDL Chime
MDL Chime  is a free plugin used by web browsers to display the three dimensional structures of molecules.  It is part of the ISIS product line acquired by Symyx Technologies from scientific publisher Elsevier in October 2007. It is based on the RasMol code.
Chime is used by a wide range of biochemistry web sites for the visualization of macromolecules. Many of these sites are linked to the World Index of Molecular Visualization Resources MolVisIndex.Org. Chime was also used until 2006 at the Protein Data Bank to examine structures stored there.
Although available in 1998 in both Windows 98 and Mac OS 9 versions for both Netscape and Internet Explorer browsers, development of Chime did not follow the move to Mac OS X for the Mac and support for Windows-based browsers other than Internet Explorer was dropped (although it works well in Mozilla Firefox). No significant features have been added since 1998 except for updates in the installation package to follow the development of Windows and Internet Explorer.
Chime may be superseded by Jmol, but the current market share and trends are unclear. Jmol is a non-proprietary Java molecular visualization application/applet that has maintained most Chime command compatibility while adding features.
Two features of Chime which are not yet reproduced with Jmol:
- 'Sculpt' mode: The ability to change the conformation of molecules in a realistic way by dragging their atoms to new positions. This is a useful feature for exploring the conformational possibilities of a molecule such as the inability to rotate a carbon-carbon double bond.
- Calculating and drawing molecular surfaces coloured according to electrostatic or hydrophobic potential. Chime can calculate these surfaces for any molecule.
MRI Robot

# Overview
MRI Robot:
An MRI robot is a medical robot capable of operating within a Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI scanner for the purpose of performing or assisting in image-guided interventions (IGI).
IGI interventions are commonly performed manually by physicians operating instruments such as needle based on medical images, in most medical field and in the Interventional_radiology specialty. IGI robots help manipulating the instrument or provide guidance for image-navigation. These have the potential to improve the performance of IGI because, unlike humans, robots are digital devices that may directly communicate with the digital imagers.

# MRI Compatible
To be MRI compatible a robot needs to safely operate and perform its function within the magnetic field of the MRI without deteriorating the image quality. But the development of MRI robots is a very challenging engineering task, because MRI scanners use magnetic fields of very high density (3 Tesla is now common), and most of the components commonly used in robotics may not be used in close proximity of the magnet ( see Google video on MRI Safety]).

# Examples
The URobotics research group at the Johns Hopkins University has developed an electricity-free, non-magnetic, and dielectric robot, MrBot. This operates with air for the motors and light for its sensors ( YouTube movie). This achievement was possible through the invention of a new type of pneumatic motor, the PneuStep, which allows for simple, fail-safe precision controlled motion.
MS Contin
MS Contin is a time-released formulation of morphine, usually taken every twelve hours for chronic pain. It is the brand name for morphine sulfate marketed by Purdue Pharma.
It is available in tablet and liquid formulas in doses of 5mg, 10mg, 15mg, 20mg, 30mg, 60mg, 100mg and 200mg. Due to its strength, it is typically prescribed to cancer patients and victims of severe but non-cognitive-damaging trauma.
Like its relative cousin OxyContin, MS Contin has been the subject of pharmacy robberies. It is considered particularly dangerous to recreational drug users who are unaware that the time-release mechanism is a wax inside of the pill (not the colored coating on the outside) that, when heated, expands and encases the morphine sulfate. The danger presented to drug users who prefer intravenous/intramuscular injection is the wax.
MS Contin is a DEA Schedule II substance in the United States. Alternative formulations made and marketed by other pharmaceutical companies include Ligand's Avinza and Faulding Laboratories' Kadian.
Superacid
- Acid-base extraction
- Acid-base reaction
- Acid-base physiology
- Acid-base homeostasis
- Dissociation constant
- Acidity function
- Buffer solutions
- pH
- Proton affinity
- Self-ionization of water
- Acids:
Lewis acids
Mineral acids
Organic acids
Strong acids
Superacids
Weak acids
- Lewis acids
- Mineral acids
- Organic acids
- Strong acids
- Superacids
- Weak acids
- Bases:
Lewis bases
Organic bases
Strong bases
Superbases
Non-nucleophilic bases
Weak bases
- Lewis bases
- Organic bases
- Strong bases
- Superbases
- Non-nucleophilic bases
- Weak bases
A superacid is an acid with an acidity greater than that of 100% sulfuric acid, which has a Hammett acidity function of -12.  Commercially available superacids include trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (CF3SO3H), also known as triflic acid, and fluorosulfuric acid (FSO3H), both of which are about a thousand times stronger (i.e. have more negative H0 values) than sulfuric acid.  The strongest superacids are prepared by the combination of two components, a strong Lewis acid and a strong Brnsted acid.
The term superacid was originally coined by James Bryant Conant in 1927 to describe acids that were stronger than conventional mineral acids. George A. Olah was awarded the  1994 Nobel prize in chemistry for his investigations of superacids and their use in the direct observation of carbocations.  Olah's "magic acid", so-named for its ability to attack hydrocarbons, is prepared by mixing antimony pentafluoride (SbF5) and fluorosulfuric acid. The name was coined after one of Professor Olah's post-doctoral associates placed a candle in a sample of magic acid. The candle was dissolved, showing the ability of the acid to protonate hydrocarbons (which are not basic).
The strongest super acid system, the so-called fluoroantimonic acid, is a combination of hydrogen fluoride and SbF5.  In this system, HF releases its proton (H+) concomitant with the binding of F by the antimony pentafluoride.  The resulting anion (SbF6) is both a weak nucleophile and a weak base.  The proton effectively becomes "naked", which accounts for the system's extreme acidity.  Fluoroantimonic acid is 21019 times stronger than 100% sulfuric acid, and can produce solutions with a pH down to 25.
Olah showed that at 140 C (284 F), FSO3H-SbF5 will convert methane into the tertiary-butyl carbocation, a reaction that begins with the protonation of methane:

# Applications
Common uses of superacids include providing an environment to create and maintain organic cations which are useful as intermediate molecules in numerous reactions, such as involving plastics and high-octane gasoline production and study.
Manganism
Manganism or manganese poisoning is a toxic condition resulting from chronic exposure to manganese and first identified in 1837 by James Couper. Its symptoms resemble those of idiopathic Parkinson's disease, which it is often misdiagnosed as, although there are particular differences in both the symptoms (nature of tremors, for example), response to drugs such as Levadopa, and affected portion of the basal ganglia.  Symptoms are also similar to Lou Gehrig's disease and multiple sclerosis.
Manganism has become an active issue in workplace safety as it has been the subject of numerous product liability lawsuits against manufacturers of arc welding supplies.  In these lawsuits, welders have accused the manufacturers of failing to provide adequate warning that their products could cause welding fumes to contain dangerously high manganese concentrations that could lead welders to develop manganism.

# External references
- Lucchini et al., "Metals and Neurodegeneration" - Research paper on heavy metals poisoning
- Antonini., "Health Effects of Welding" - Critical review including manganese discussion from National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
- Welding and Manganese Poisoning - Safety Corner column in IBEW Journal regarding manganese and welding.
- AWS Study on Welding and Exposure to Manganese - Report of an independent study commissioned by the American Welding Society
- Welding Fume Product Liability -   Viewpoint of plaintiffs on welding rod litigation
- Welding Rod Litigation Information Network - Viewpoint of defense on welding rod litigation
nl:Manganisme
Manubrium

# Overview
The manubrium (from Latin manubrium, "a handle") or manubrium sterni is the broad, upper part of the sternum. With a quadrangular shape, wider superiorly and narrower inferiorly, it articulates with the clavicles and the first two ribs.

# Features

## Surfaces
Its anterior surface, convex from side to side, concave from above downward, is smooth, and affords attachment on either side to the sternal origins of the pectoralis major and Sternocleidomastoideus. Sometimes the ridges limiting the attachments of these muscles are very distinct. Its posterior surface, concave and smooth, affords attachment on either side to the Sternohyoideus and Sternothyreoideus.

## Borders
The superior  border is the thickest and presents at its center the jugular or presternal notch; on either side of the notch is an oval articular surface, directed upward, backward, and lateralward, for articulation with the sternal end of the clavicle. The inferior border, oval and rough, is covered in a fresh state with a thin layer of cartilage, for articulation with the body. The lateral borders are each marked above by a depression for the first costal cartilage, and below by a small facet, which, with a similar facet on the upper angle of the body, forms a notch for the reception of the costal cartilage of the second rib. Between the depression for the first costal cartilage and the demi-facet for the second is a narrow, curved edge, which slopes from above downward and medialward.

# Additional images
- Sternoclavicular articulation. Anterior view.