Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Abraham-men

# Background
The Abraham-men (alternative spellings: Abram-Man or Abraham Cove) were a class of beggars claiming to be lunatics allowed out of restraint, in the Tudor and Stuart periods in England.
The phrase can be traced back as far as 1561, when it was given as one of The Fraternity of Vagabonds, by John Awdeley. It also appears in the taxonomy of rogues given by Thomas Harman, which was copied by later writers of rogue literature. It also appears in King Lear and John Fletcher's Beggar's Bush). It normally refers to the practice of beggars pretending that they were patients discharged from the Abraham ward at Bedlam. They were called anticks or God's minstrels, and later Poor Toms, from the popular song "Tom of Bedlam". John Aubrey the antiquary said they were common before the English Civil War, and wore a badge of tin on their left arms, an ox horn around their necks, a long staff and fantastical clothing. However, the badge seems to have been in myth. It may have been convenient theatrical property. In 1675 the governors of Bedlam issued a public notice:-
Bedlam specialised in the care of mental illness from 1403, and remained the only such hospital in England until the seventeenth century. There cannot have been many genuine ex-inmates. In 1598 there were only 20 patients there, one who had been there over 25 years and others for several years.
Acanthocyte
Acanthocyte is a general term meaning 'spiny cell'. AKA "spur cell" in more severe cases
- In human biology and medicine, the term refers to pathological red blood cells, which are coarse and irregularly crenelated  resembling many-pointed stars. They are seen on blood films in, among others, lipid abnormalities, liver disease, chorea acanthocytosis, McLeod syndrome and several inherited neurological disorders, such as neuroacanthocytosis.
- In veterinary medicine, Acanthocytosis may be seen in dogs with liver disease or hemangiosarcoma.
- In mycology, the term also refers to stellate cells found on the hyphae of fungi of the genus Stropharia. Recent work, published in 2006, on those of Stropharia rugosoannulata has shown them to have nematode-killing properties.
- Acanthocytes
- Acanthocytes
Acidophilus
Acidophilus is a general name for a group of probiotics, often added to milk or sold as a capsule, which contains one or more of the following bacteria which aid in digestion: -
- Lactobacillus acidophilus (A)
- Lactobacillus casei (C)
- Lactobacillus bulgaricus (L)
- Bifidobacterium bifidum (B)
- Streptococcus thermophilus
Only L. acidophilus is the true acidophilus strain, but many producers (mainly in the US) use it as a more generic name for mixtures of bacteria, one of which is L. acidophilus.
Acidophilus can be found in some quality yogurts and other traditional foods naturally.
See the individual bacteria and the link on probiotics for more detailed information.
Acriflavine
Acriflavine is a topical antiseptic. It has the form of an orange or brown powder. It may be harmful in the eyes or if inhaled. It is a dye and it stains the skin and may irritate. Commercial preparations are often mixtures with proflavine. It is known under a variety of names.
Acriflavine was developed in 1912 by Paul Ehrlich, a German medical researcher and was used during the First World War against sleeping sickness. It is derived from acridine. The hydrochloride form is more irritating than the base form.
Acriflavine is also used as treatment for external fungal infections of aquarium fish.
Acrivastine

# Overview
Acrivastine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies and hay fever. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine (like its base molecule triprolidine) and works by blocking Histamine H1 receptors.
This non-sedating antihistamine is sold under the brand name Benadryl Allergy Relief in the United Kingdom by McNeil Laboratories, not to be confused with Benadryl Once a Day, which is cetirizine and is also sold by McNeil in the UK. It is available as an over-the-counter medication in the UK, also offered with pseudoephedrine under the Benadryl brand
In the U.S., acrivastine is the active ingredient in the Semprex brand. Semprex-D is also acrivastine-based, but contains a decongestant, pseudoephedrine. Semprex-D is marketed in the U.S. by Actient Pharmaceuticals.

# Comparisons with other popular antihistamines
Unlike cetirizine or loratadine, the standard dosage of which is one tablet every day, a single acrivastine tablet may be taken up to three times a day. Not to be taken by over 65's, pregnant women or people with compromised liver or kidney function.

# Pill Images
Acrochordon
Synonyms and keywords:: Skin tag; pedunculated papilloma; fibroepithelial polyp.

# Overview
An acrochordon (a.k.a. skin tag, pedunculated papilloma or fibroepithelial polyp) is a small benign tumor that forms primarily in areas where the skin forms creases, such as the neck, armpits and groin. They may also occur on the face, usually on the eyelids. Though larger have been seen, they usually range in size from grain of rice to that of a golf ball. The surface of acrochorda may be smooth or irregular in appearance.  They are often raised from the surface of the skin on a fleshy stalk called a peduncle. Microscopically, an acrochordon consists of a fibrovascular core, sometimes also with fat cells, covered by an unremarkable epidermis. Since they also contain nerve cells, acrochorda cannot be painlessly removed without anesthesia (usually local).
Skin tags are harmless, although they are sometimes irritated by clothing or jewelery and can interfere with shaving and other routine grooming.  Why and how skin tags form is not entirely known, but there are correlations with age and obesity. Some also state that individuals with high stress levels tend to attain more acrochorda then other individuals. However, none of that has been scientifically proven. They are more common in people with diabetes mellitus and in pregnant women. Acrochorda have been reported to have an incidence of 46% in the general population. A genetic component (causation) is thought to exist.  Rarely, they can be associated with the Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome.

# Treatment
- Cauterization: with an electrolysis instrument
- Cryosurgery (freezing)
- Ligation: cutting off blood supply
- Excision: with a scalpel, or other surgical instrument
Each of these treatments is considered minor surgery, typically performed by a physician in the office. In some jurisdictions, an aesthetician is permitted to remove them with electrology. Since removal of skin tags is considered cosmetic, the procedure may not be covered by health care systems and medical insurance.

# Physical examination

## Gallery
- Acrochordon. Adapted from [
- Acrochordon. Adapted from [
- Acrochordon. Adapted from [
Acrospiroma
Synonyms and keywords:: Nodular hidradenoma, poroma.

# Overview
Acrospiroma (sometimes alternatively described as poroma) is a term used to refer to a benign adnexal tumor of the apical sweat gland (akral "peripheral" + spiroma "epithelial tumor of sweat gland"). Some authoritative sources use this term as a synonym for poroma, and others use it as a broader designation that includes poroma and hidradenoma. Under the general umbrella of sweat gland tumors derived from the apical portion of the secretory duct, there are several sub-types that are distinct by subtle histologic differences and slightly different clinical presentations. Specific types include:
- poromas
- hidroacanthoma simplex
- dermal duct tumor
- hidradenomas (nodular and clear cell sub-types)
Generally, these tumors can be of either eccrine or apocrine or even mixed-type sweat gland origin.  Acrospiroma/poromas were traditionally thought to display purely eccrine differentiation, but it is now accepted that these tumors can be variable.  Thus, it is more specific to classify any single tumor as a eccrine/apocrine sub-type of acrospiroma.  This is in contrast to sub-types that have shown to be more purely eccrine differentiation, such as dermal duct tumors, hidroacanthoma simplex, or eccrine poromas.
Acrospiromas are by definition benign, with malignant transformation very rare.  Surgical excision is usually curative and local recurrences are rare, although malignant tumors may metastasize.

# Physical Examination

## Gallery

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Actinomycin
Actinomycin is any of a class of polypeptide antibiotics isolated from soil bacteria of the genus Streptomyces.

# Mechanism
Actinomycin-D is primarily used as an investigative tool in cell biology to inhibit transcription.  It does this by binding DNA at the transcription initiation complex and preventing elongation by RNA polymerase.
As it can bind DNA duplexes, it can also interfere with DNA replication, although other chemicals such as hydroxyurea are better suited for use in the laboratory as inhibitors of DNA synthesis.

# Clinical use

## As chemotherapy
Actinomycin-D is marketed under the trade name Dactinomycin. Actinomycin-D is one of the older chemotherapy drugs which has been used in therapy for many years.
It is a clear, yellow liquid which is administered intravenously and most commonly used in treatment of a variety of cancers, including:
- gestational trophoblastic neoplasia
- Wilms' tumor
- rhabdomyosarcoma 

## As an antibiotic
It was the first antibiotic shown to have anti-cancer activity, but is not normally used as such, as it is highly toxic, causing damage to genetic material.
It was the first antibiotic ever isolated by Selman Waksman.

# Research use
Actinomycin-D and its fluorescent derivative, 7-amino-actinomycin D, are used as stains  in microscopy and flow cytometry applications.  The affinity of these stains compounds for GC-rich regions of DNA strands makes them excellent markers for DNA.
7-amino-actinomycin D (7aad) is used as a DNA stain .7aad binds to single stranded DNA. Therefore it is a useful tool in determining apoptosis and distinguishing between dead cells and live ones. (Source)
Acyl halide
An acyl halide (also known as an acid halide) is a chemical compound derived from an acid by replacing a hydroxyl group with a halide group.
If the acid is a carboxylic acid, the compound contains a COX functional group, which consists of a 
carbonyl group singly bonded to a halogen atom. The general formula for such an acyl 
halide can be written RCOX, where R may be, for example, an alkyl group, CO is the carbonyl group, and 
X represents the halogen atom, e.g. chlorine: acyl chlorides are the most commonly used acyl halides.
The hydroxyl group of a sulfonic acid may also be replaced by a halogen to produce the corresponding sulfonyl halide. In practical terms this is almost always chlorine to create a sulfonyl chloride.

# Preparation
A common method for the synthesis of acyl halides in the laboratory is by reaction of carboxylic acids with reagents such as thionyl chloride or phosphorus pentachloride for acyl chlorides, phosphorus tribromide for acyl bromides and 
cyanuric fluoride for acyl fluorides.
Aromatic acyl chlorides can be prepared by chloroformylation, a specific type of Friedel-Crafts acylation using formaldehyde as the reagent.

# Reactions
Acyl halides are rather reactive compounds often synthesized to be used as intermediates in the synthesis of other organic compounds. For example, an acyl halide can react with:
- water, to form a carboxylic acid
- an alcohol to form an ester
- an amine to form an amide
- an aromatic compound, using a Lewis acid catalyst such as AlCl3, to form an aromatic ketone. See Friedel-Crafts acylation.
In the above reactions, HX (hydrogen halide or hydrohalic acid) is also formed.  For example, if the acyl halide is an acyl chloride, HCl (hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid) is also formed.

# Multiple functional groups
A molecule can have more than one acyl halide functional group. For example, "adipoyl dichloride", usually simply called adipoyl chloride, has two acyl chloride functional groups; see the structure at right. It is the dichloride (i.e., double chloride) of the 6-carbon dicarboxylic acid adipic acid. An important use of adipoyl chloride is polymerization with an organic di-amino compound to form a polyamide called nylon or polymerization with certain other organic compounds to form polyesters.
Phosgene (carbonyl dichloride, ClCOCl) is a very toxic gas which may be thought of as the dichloride of carbonic acid (HOCOOH). Both chloride radicals in phosgene can undergo reactions analogous to the preceding reactions of acyl halides. Phosgene is used a reactant in the production of polycarbonate polymers, among other industrial applications.

# General hazards
Volatile acyl halides are lachrymatory because they can react with water at the surface of the eye producing hydrohalic and organic acids irritating to the eye. Similar problems can result if one inhales acyl halide vapors. In general, acyl halides (even non-volatile compounds such as tosyl chloride) are irritants to the eyes, skin and mucous membranes.
Aerosol-PFC

# Overview
The applications mission is treatment of pulmonary diseases by aerososolized perfluorocarbon(PFC). This new technology  of PFC aerosolization via an introducible jet-nebulizer (Aer-Probe, Trudell) has been demonstrated in several animal studies (Kandler, von der Hardt). Aerosol way of PFC application offers a safe and easy to handle procedure for perfluorocarbon assisted ventilation. Patients with ARDS and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome show sustained improvement in gas exchange and lung mechanics. Ventilator associated lung injury is attenuated by the applied perfluorocarbon, diminishing inflammatory induction of chronic lung disease.
Technology is dedicated to perfluorocabons relatively independent from the molecular structure. It offers the chance to register an appropriate PFC for use as respiratory drug.
Recent invetigations showed after induction of lung injury by repeated saline lung lavage due to surfactant depletion in neonatal piglets, the new ventilatory strategy with aerosolized perfluorocarbon led to a reduction of the initial pulmonary inflammatory reaction and an improvement of gas exchange.
Gene expression of IL-1, IL-6, IL-8 and TGF-1 in pulmonary tissue was significantly lower in surfactant depleted neonatal piglets with severe respiratory distress syndrome receiving aerosolized perfluorocarbon (Aerosol-PFC) than in the control group ventilated with intermittent mandatory ventilation (von der Hardt, Kandler). In this surfactant piglet model, mRNA expression of inflammation mediated adhesion molecules, such as E-Selectin, P-Selectin and ICAM-1 was effectively diminished by using aerosolized perfluorocarbon (Schoof, von der Hardt). Relative neutrophil infiltration in lung tissue was significantly reduced after treatment with aerosolized perfluorocarbon. 
Proinflammatory cytokines and intercellular adhesion molecules in porcine lung tissue participating in acute pulmonary inflammatory response were detected and could be modulated by a new protective  respiratory support with aerosolized perfluorocarbon.
Agrammatism

# Overview
Agrammatism is a form of expressive aphasia that refers to the inability to speak in a grammatically correct fashion.  People with agrammatism may have telegraphic speech, a unique speech pattern with simplified formation of sentences (in which many or all function words are omitted), akin to that found in telegraph messages.
Errors made in agrammatism depend on the severity of aphasia. In severe forms language production is severely telegraphic and in more mild to moderate cases  necessary elements for sentence construction are missing.  Common errors include errors in tense, number, and gender. Patients also find it very hard to produce sentences involving movement of elements, such as passive sentences, Wh questions or complex sentences.
Agrammatism is seen in many brain disease syndromes, including Broca's aphasia and traumatic brain injury.
Alamethicin
Alamethicin is a peptide antibiotic, produced by the fungus Trichoderma viride. It contains the non-proteinogenic amino acid 2-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib), which strongly induces helical peptide structures. The peptide sequence is:
Ac-Aib-Pro-Aib-Ala-Aib-Ala-Gln-Aib-Val-Aib-Gly-Leu-Aib-Pro-Val-Aib-Aib-Glu-Gln-Phl
(Ac = acetyl, Phl = phenylalaninol)
- Molecular Formula:  C92H150N22O25
- CAS number: 27061-78-5
- Appearance:  Off white solid
- UV spectrum maxima:  265, 257
- Melting point: 255C-270C
- Solubility information:  DMSO, Methanol, Ethanol. Not soluble in water
In cell membranes, it forms voltage-dependent ion channels by aggregation of four to six molecules.
data copied from Fermentek Alamethicin product page
Albuminuria

# Overview
Albuminuria is a pathological condition where albumin is present in the urine. It is a type of proteinuria.

# Causes

## Life Threatening Causes

## Common Causes
The kidneys normally filter out large molecules from the urine, so albuminuria can be an indicator of damage to the kidneys. It can also occur in patients with long-standing diabetes especially type 1 diabetes.
Causes of albuminuria can be discriminated between by the amount of protein excreted.
- The nephrotic syndrome usually results in the excretion of about 3.0 to 3.5 grams per 24 hours.
- Nephritic syndrome results in far less albuminuria.
- Microalbuminuria (less than 300mg) can be a forerunner of diabetic nephropathy.

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order

# Diagnosis

## Laboratory Findings
The amount of protein being lost in the urine can be quantified by collecting the urine for 24 hours, measuring a sample of the pooled urine, and extrapolating to the volume collected.
Mees' lines
Synonyms and keywords: Mee's lines; Aldrich-Mees' lines

# Overview
Mees' lines are lines of discoloration across the nails of the fingers and toes after an episode of poisoning with arsenic or thallium or other heavy metals. They are typically white bands traversing the width of the nail. As the nail grows they move towards the end, and finally disappear when trimmed.

# Historical Perspective
Although the phenomenon is named after the Dutch physician R.A. Mees, earlier descriptions of the same abnormality were made by the Englishman E.S. Reynolds and the American C.J. Aldrich in 1901 and 1904, respectively.

# Pathophysiology

## Associated Conditions
- Fluorosis
- Occasionally occurs in leprosy

# Causes

## Common Causes
- Drugs/Toxins
- Poisoning with:
Arsenic
Heavy metal
Thallium
- Arsenic
- Heavy metal
- Thallium
- Renal failure

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination
The following image shows an example of the white bands present on the nails of a person with Mees' lines.
Image shown below is courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission  PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology
- Nail disease; white banding
Aleppo Pine
The Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis) is a pine native to the Mediterranean region. The range extends from Morocco and Spain north to southern France, Italy and Croatia, and east to Greece and northern Libya, with an outlying population (from which it was first described) in Syria (including Aleppo), Jordan and Israel. It is generally found at low altitudes, mostly from sea level to 200 m, but can grow at an altitude of up to 1000 m in southern Spain, and up to 1700 m in the south, in Morocco and Algeria.
It is a small to medium-size tree, reaching 15-25 m tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 60 cm, exceptionally up to 1 m. The bark is orange-red, thick and deeply fissured at the base of the trunk, and thin and flaky in the upper crown. The leaves ("needles") are very slender, 6-12 cm long, distinctly yellowish green and produced in pairs (rarely a few in threes). The cones are narrow conic, 5-12 cm long and 2-3 cm broad at the base when closed, green at first, ripening glossy red-brown when 24 months old. They open slowly over the next few years, a process quickened if they are exposed to heat such as in forest fires. The cones open 5-8 cm wide to allow the seeds to disperse. The seeds are 5-6 mm long, with a 20 mm wing, and are wind-dispersed.
Aleppo Pine is closely related to the Turkish Pine, Canary Island Pine and Maritime Pine which all share many of its characteristics. Some authors include the Turkish Pine as a subspecies of the Aleppo Pine, as Pinus halepensis subsp. brutia (Ten.) Holmboe, but it is usually regarded as a distinct species. It is a relatively non-variable species, with its morphological characteristics staying constant over the entire range.
It is widely planted for timber in its native area, being one of the most important trees in forestry in Algeria and Morocco. It is also a popular ornamental tree, extensively planted in parks and gardens in hot dry areas such as southern California, where its considerable heat and drought tolerance is highly valued. However, the tree is also considered a feral weed on South Australia's Eyre Peninsula, where an eradication program is in place.
The resin of the Aleppo Pine is used to flavor the Greek wine retsina.

# In art
Paul Cezanne had an Aleppo Pine in his garden at Aix-en-Provence; this tree was the inspiration and model for his painting, The Big Trees. As of 2005, the tree is still growing in Cezanne's garden.
Alglucerase

# Overview
Alglucerase was a biopharmaceutical drug for the treatment of Gaucher's disease.  It was a modified form of human  -glucocerebrosidase enzyme, where the non-reducing ends of the oligosaccharide chains have been terminated with mannose residues.
Ceredase is the trade name of a citrate buffered solution of alglucerase that was manufactured by Genzyme Corporation from human placental tissue. It is given intravenously in the treatment of Type 1 Gaucher's disease.   This was the first drug appoved as an enzyme replacement therapy.
It was approved by the FDA in 1991. It has been withdrawn from the market due to the approval of similar drugs made with recombinant DNA technology instead of being harvested from tissue; drugs made recombinantly, since there is no concern about diseases being transmitted from the tissue used in harvesting, and are less expensive to manufacture (see imiglucerase).
Amaxophobia

# Overview
Amaxophobia, hamaxophobia, ochophobia, or motorphobia is an abnormal or persistent fear of being in, or riding in, a vehicle. Amaxophobia is a clinical phobia classified as a specific phobia, fear of a single specific panic trigger.
Amaxophobic sufferers riding in a vehicle will typically fear the accident and its consequences, especially injury or death. They may do backseat driving, which involves haranguing the driver which can distract the driver and increase the odds of car crash. In addition, sufferers may fear enclosed spaces or being trapped in a vehicle. Amaxophobic people may try to look for jobs or careers that do not require car rides, which may limit potential lifetime achievements.
The term amaxophobia comes from the Greek  (amaxa) or  (hamaxa), "a carriage" and  (phobos), "fear".

# Symptoms and treatment
Many amaxophobics may feel a sense of panic or feeling out of control. Other symptoms include headache, nausea, dizziness, terror, and other facets of panic attacks when sufferer is in a vehicle.
Therapies are recommended to treat amaxophobia, such as cognitive "tapping" therapy used to erase negative memory that caused fear. Psychotherapy is a traditional treatment method, and talk therapy is used to soothe the sufferer. Anti-depressants are often recommended tool to treat amaxophobia, especially in the modern world when/where vehicles are common.