Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Agronomy
Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science that deals with the study of crops and the soils in which they grow. Agronomists work to develop methods that will improve the use of soil and increase the production of food and fiber crops. They conduct research in crop rotation, irrigation and drainage, plant breeding, soil classification, soil fertility, weed control, and other areas.
Def. the "science of utilizing plants, animals and soils for food, fuel, feed, and fiber and more" is called agronomy.

# Agriculture
Agriculture is the science, art, or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other products.

# Soils
"In soil, estimates are that 80 to 99% of the microorganisms remain unidentified (1)."
"The soil at the Arlington site is a Plano silt-loam. The 20-cm-deep A horizon is a silt-loam and contains 4.4% organic matter. The loess mantel is >1.25 m deep. Four 2.5-cm-diameter soil cores were taken from the top 10 cm of a clover-grass pasture at the Arlington Agricultural Research Station. The soil samples were immediately placed on dry ice, mixed, and then stored at -70C prior to DNA extraction. Soil analysis was done by the Soil Testing Laboratory of the University of WisconsinMadison as described by Schulte et al. (40). The soil sample contained 13% sand, 70% silt, 17% clay, 4.4% organic matter, 0.3% total N, 400 ppm of K+, and 98 ppm of P. The soil pH was 6.5. The site is well drained, with groundwater more than 25 m below the surface. Two-thirds of the 79-cm annual rainfall occurs from April to October. The site has an average of 165 frost-free days."
Aldicarb
Aldicarb is a carbamate insecticide with structural formula: 2-methyl-2-(methylthio)propionaldehyde O-methylcarbamoyloxime. Aldicarb is the active substance in Temik pesticide, which is effective against thrips, aphids, spider mites, lygus, fleahoppers, and leafminers but is primarily used as a nematicide. In mammals it is a cholinesterase inhibitor (prevents neurotransmitter breakdown). In case of severe poisoning, the victim dies of respiratory failure. It is also highly toxic for birds.

# Regulatory Status
Aldicarb is approved by the USEPA for use by professional pesticide applicators on a variety of crops, including cotton, beans, and others. It is not approved for household use.
"Tres Pasitos", a mouse, rat, and roach killer that contains high concentrations of aldicarb, has been illegally imported into the United States from Mexico and other Latin American countries. The product is highly toxic to animals and people, and it should not be used. EPA

# Toxicity in mammals
Aldicarb is a fast-acting cholinesterase inhibitor, causing rapid accumulation of acetylcholine at the synaptic cleft.
It is widely used to study cholinergic neurotransmission in simple systems such as the nematode C. elegans.
Exposure to high amounts of aldicarb can cause weakness, blurred vision, headache, nausea, tearing, sweating, and tremors in people.  Very high doses can kill people, because it can paralyze the respiratory system.  EPA
Aleatory
Aleatory means "pertaining to luck", and derives from the Latin word alea, the rolling of dice. Aleatoric, indeterminate, or chance art is that which exploits the principle of randomness.

# Law
In some legal systems, aleatory contracts are those where the effects (outcomes) for the parties to the contract are uncertain. This may apply to gambling contracts, insurance contracts and many modern forms of derivatives and options. For example, the French civil code contains a chapter on aleatory contracts, with specific provisions for gaming (gambling) and life annuities.

# Literature
An example of aleatory writing is the automatic writing of the French Surrealists involving dreams, et cetera. The French literary group Oulipo for example saw no merit in aleatory work and its members altogether eliminated chance and randomness from their writing, substituting potentiality as in Raymond Queneau's Cent Mille Milliards de Poemes (Hundred Thousand Billion Poems).
Luke Rhinehart's novel The Dice Man tells the story of a psychiatrist named Luke Rhinehart who, feeling bored and unfulfilled in life, starts making decisions about what to do based on a roll of a die.
Charles Hartman's book
discusses several methods of automatic generation of poetry; see especially pp. 54-64.

# Music
Pierre Boulez applied the term aleatoric music to his own pieces to distinguish them from the indeterminate music of John Cage, though both are often described as aleatory. While Boulez purposefully composed his pieces to allow the performer certain liberties with regard to the sequencing and repetition of parts, Cage often composed through the application of chance operations without allowing the performer liberties.  Another prolific aleatory music composer is Karlheinz Stockhausen. Qubais Reed Ghazala, founder of the circuit-bending chance-music movement, is an important contemporary chance artist also pioneering aleatoric work in visual media (original techniques in suminagashi, dye migration, aperture shift photography).

# Film
In film-making, there are several avant-garde examples; Andy Voda's "Chance Chants" (1979) was created completely using various chance operations (coin flip, choosing words out of a hat, a recorded "telephone game", the vagaries of tracing over drawings) in the decision-making for each creative choice. It was a three part film, the first part being a hand-made computer film, the second a visualization of Allison Knowles' computer poem "House of Dust", and the third a visualization of evolution through a children's telephone game. Fred Camper's SN (1984, first screening 2002) uses coin-flipping to determine which three of 18 possible reels to screen and what order they should go in (4896 permutations). Barry Salt, now better known as a film scholar, is known to have made a film, Permutations, six reels long which takes the word aleatory quite literally by including a customized die for the projectionist to roll to determine the reel order (720 permutations).
Alhandal
Alhandal was a term used in Arabian pharmacy for the purgative extract of colocynth, or Bitter Cucumber (Citrullus colocynthis).
The Troches of Alhandal, or Trochisci Alhandal, were a kind of troche, or tablet, composed of colocynth, bdellium, and gum tragacanth. They were esteemed good purgatives, and used on diverse occasions.
The word alhandal is formed of the Arabic handel, or handhal, a name for colocynth.
Althesin
Althesin is an intravenous anaesthetic agent now withdrawn from the market due to severe drug reactions.  It was popular because of its short duration of action.  It is composed of a mixture of alphaxolone and alphadolone, two steroids.  It provides rapid onset of action and recovery.
Cremophor EL was the solubilizing agent (excipient / additive) of Althesin.
Some authors have said "It should be emphasized that there is no evidence of any toxic action from Cremophor in man. The toxic effects or reactions to Propanidid and Althesin are due to the drugs themselves" .
However, more recent literature  state that Cremophor EL (aka Polyoxyl 35 Castor Oil, a surfactant and derivative of castor oil), when previously used as a solubilising agent in lipid emulsions (such as propofol, vitamin K, and Althesin), was responsible for severe anaphylactoid reactions. Propofol  was reformulated as a Soya Bean Oil emulsion ("Diprivan"), and Vitamin K ("Konakion") is also free of Cremophor EL (see product descriptions).
Alphaxolone/Alphadolone has been re-branded as "Saffan" (Pitman-Moore Pharmaceuticals Ltd) and is available for use in veterinary anaesthesia.
Amatoxin
Amatoxins are a subgroup of toxins found in Amanita phalloides and several other members of the genus Amanita, as well as some Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species.
Their swift intestinal absorption coupled with their thermostability explains why their toxic effects occur in a relative short period of time. The most severe effects are toxic hepatitis with centrolobular necrosis and hepatic steatosis, as well as acute tubulointerstitial nephropathy, which altogether induce a severe hepatorenal syndrome (with a potential fatal outcome).
The estimated minimum lethal dose is 0.1 mg/kg or 7 mg of toxin in adults. There are eight amatoxins:
- alpha-amanitin
- beta-amanitin
- gamma-amanitin
- epsilon-amanitin
- amanullin
- amanullinic acid
- proamanullin
da:Amatoxiner
it:Amatossine
fi:Amatoksiini
Ambroxol

# Overview
Ambroxol is a secretolytic agent used in the treatment of respiratory diseases associated with viscid or excessive mucus. It is the active ingredient of Mucosolvan, Mucobrox, Mucol, Lasolvan, Mucoangin, Surbronc, Ambolar, and Lysopain. The substance is a mucoactive drug with several properties including secretolytic and secretomotoric actions that restore the physiological clearance mechanisms of the respiratory tract, which play an important role in the bodys natural defence mechanisms. It stimulates synthesis and release of surfactant by type II pneumocytes. Surfactant acts as an anti-glue factor by reducing the adhesion of mucus to the bronchial wall, in improving its transport and in providing protection against infection and irritating agents. Ambroxol is often administered as an active ingredient in cough syrup.
Ambroxol is indicated as "secretolytic therapy in bronchopulmonary diseases associated with abnormal mucus secretion and impaired mucus transport. It promotes mucus clearance, facilitates expectoration and eases productive cough, allowing patients to breathe freely and deeply".
There are many different formulations developed since the first marketing authorisation in 1978. Ambroxol is available as syrup, tablets, pastilles, dry powder sachets, inhalation solution, drops and ampules as well as effervescent tablets.
Ambroxol also provides pain relief in acute sore throat. Pain in sore throat is the hallmark of acute pharyngitis. Sore throat is usually caused by a viral infection. The infection is self limited and the patient recovers normally after a few days. What is most bothering for the patient is the continuous pain in the throat maximized when the patient is swallowing. The main goal of treatment is thus to reduce pain. The main property of Ambroxol for treating sore throat is the local anaesthetic effect, described first in the late 1970s, but explained and confirmed in more recent work.
Ambroxol is a potent inhibitor of the neuronal Na+ channels. This property led to the development of a lozenge containing 20 mg of ambroxol. Many state-of-the-art clinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy of Ambroxol in relieving pain in acute sore throat, with a rapid onset of action, with its effect lasting at least three hours. Ambroxol is also anti-inflammatory, reducing redness in a sore throat.
Ambroxol has recently been shown to increase activity of the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase.  Because of this it may be a useful therapeutic agent for both Gaucher disease and Parkinson's disease.

# Side effects
Field tests to date have not uncovered specific contraindications of Ambroxol. However, caution is suggested for patients with gastric ulceration, and usage during the first trimester of pregnancy is not recommended.

# Synthesis
Amidrine
Amidrine, Duradrin or Midrin, is a combination of Acetaminophen, Dichloralphenazone, and Isometheptene used mostly to treat headaches.

# Description
Acetaminophen (paracetamol) is a common over-the-counter pain reliever and fever reducer.
Dichloralphenazone is a mild sedative owing primarily to its hydrolysis product, chloral hydrate.  Chloral hydrate, a schedule C-IV controlled substance, is a sedative/hypnotic drug that acts on the central nervous system to produce relaxation and decrease emotional stimuli that influence the perception of pain associated with headache.
Isometheptene is a vasoconstrictor, a drug that causes constriction (narrowing) of cerebral blood vessels.
The pathophysiology of vascular headaches, especially migraine, is thought to be related to dilation of these cerebral blood vessels, so drugs that act to constrict them are used in the treatment of these problems.

# Common Application
This drug is commonly used in the treatment of Migraine headaches and is currently available in the United States and United Kingdom by prescription only.
Aminorex
Aminorex is an anorectic stimulant drug of the 2-Amino-5-Aryloxazoline class. It is closely related to the popular drug 4-methyl-aminorex. It was disvered in 1960 by McNeil Laboratories, and was quickly found in 1962 to have an appetite suppressant effect in rats. It was introduced as a prescription anorectic in Germany, Switzerland and Austria in 1965 but was soon withdrawn when a number of occurrences of pulmonary hypertension including a number of fatalities were reported. The drug reappeared as a designer analog of 4-methyl-aminorex in the US during the 1990s. It is, in fact, 4 times stronger than 4-methyl-aminorex and the 4-fluoro analog is listed as four times as potent again as an anorectic (in rats), but is unknown outside the laboratory. Aminorex has been shown to have a locomotor stimulant properties lying midway between dextroamphetamine and methamphetamine.
The simple synthetic routes available mean that future outbreaks of abuse of this drug seem likely. The requirement for highly toxic precursors such as cyanogen bromide making the synthesis of aminorex and its derivatives potentially very dangerous for inexperienced clandestine chemists, has now been superseded with a newer route using cyanate salts which is easier, safer & cleaner. The route has been reported by the DEA in its monthly newsletter Microgram.
Ring-substituted aminorex derivatives have yet to be researched, but seem likely candidates for a new generation of designer drugs since the immediate precursors are legal and can easily be made from substituted benzaldehydes. The risk of pulmonary hypertension would be much lower if, for example, the DOM analogue were made, since the dosage level would be so much lower. However, the MDMA analogue would most likely be quite risky.
Ammonium
The ammonium cation is a positively charged polyatomic cation of the chemical formula NH4+. It has a molecular mass of 18.04 and is formed by protonation of ammonia (NH3). The resulting ion has a pKa of 9.25.
Ammonium and aminium are also general names for positively charged or protonated substituted amines and quaternary ammonium cations N+R4, where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic radical groups (which could be symbolized as R).

# Chemistry
In an ammonium ion, the positively charged nitrogen atom forms four covalent bonds, instead of three as in ammonia. This reaction is reversible. The ammonium ion can act as a very weak Brnsted-Lowry acid in the sense that it can protonate a stronger base using any one of its hydrogen ( H ) atoms and convert back to ammonia. This means that the ammonium ion is a conjugate acid of the base ammonia. In a solution, the degree to which ammonia forms the ammonium ion depends on the pH of the solution.
However, formation of ammonium compounds can also occur in the vapor phase; for example, when ammonia vapor comes in contact with hydrogen chloride vapor, a white cloud of ammonium chloride forms, which eventually settles out as a solid in a thin white layer on surfaces. Ammonium cations resemble alkali metal ions like Na+ or K+ and can be found in salts such as ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium chloride, and ammonium nitrate. Most simple ammonium salts are very water soluble.
The ammonium ion behaves somewhat like an alkali metal ion.
At attempt of reception of metal ammonium the ion, receiving electron, breaks up to ammonia and hydrogen:
Ammonium ions may dissolve in mercury to form an amalgam.

# Substituted ammonium ions
Any hydrogen in the ammonium ion can be substituted with an alkyl (or other organic radical) group to form a substituted ammonium ion, also called aminium ion; see amine for details. Depending on the number of organic radical groups, it is called a primary, a secondary, a tertiary, or a quaternary ammonium cation. They exist in an equilibrium with the respective substituted amine,depending on the pH.
Only quaternary ammonium cations are permanently charged.
An example of a reaction forming an ammonium ion is that between dimethylamine, (CH3)2NH, with an acid to give the dimethylaminium cation, (CH3)2NH2+:
NH4NO3

# In Biology
Ammonium ions are a toxic waste product of the metabolism in animals. In humans, it is converted in the urea cycle to urea, because it wastes less water to excrete. By water animals it is excreted unchanged in the urine.
Anabaena
Anabaena is a genus of filamentous cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, found as plankton. It is known for its nitrogen fixing abilities, and they form symbiotic relationships with certain plants, such as the mosquito fern. They are one of four genera of cyanobacteria that produce neurotoxins, which are harmful to local wildlife, as well as farm animals and pets.
A DNA sequencing project was undertaken in 1999, which mapped the complete genome of Anabaena, which is 7.2 million base pairs long. The study focussed on heterocysts, which convert nitrogen into ammonia. Certain species of Anabaena have been used on rice paddy fields, proving to be an effective natural fertilizer.

# Species
- Anabaena aequalis
- Anabaena affinis
- Anabaena angstumalis
Anabaena angstumalis angstumalis
Anabaena angstumalis marchica
- Anabaena angstumalis angstumalis
- Anabaena angstumalis marchica
- Anabaena aphanizomendoides
- Anabaena azollae
- Anabaena bornetiana
- Anabaena catenula
- Anabaena circinalis
- Anabaena confervoides
- Anabaena constricta
- Anabaena cycadeae
- Anabaena cylindrica
- Anabaena echinispora
- Anabaena felisii
- Anabaena flosaquae
Anabaena flosaquae flosaquae
Anabaena flosaquae minor
Anabaena flosaquae treleasei
- Anabaena flosaquae flosaquae
- Anabaena flosaquae minor
- Anabaena flosaquae treleasei
- Anabaena helicoidea
- Anabaena inaequalis
- Anabaena lapponica
- Anabaena laxa
- Anabaena lemmermannii
- Anabaena levanderi
- Anabaena limnetica
- Anabaena macrospora
Anabaena macrospora macrospora
Anabaena macrospora robusta
- Anabaena macrospora macrospora
- Anabaena macrospora robusta
- Anabaena monticulosa
- Anabaena oscillarioides
- Anabaena planctonica
- Anabaena raciborskii
- Anabaena scheremetievi
- Anabaena sphaerica
- Anabaena spiroides
Anabaena spiroides crassa
Anabaena spiroides spiroides
- Anabaena spiroides crassa
- Anabaena spiroides spiroides
- Anabaena subcylindrica
- Anabaena torulosa
- Anabaena unispora
- Anabaena variabilis
- Anabaena verrucosa
- Anabaena viguieri
- Anabaena wisconsinense
- Anabaena zierlingii

# Nitrogen Fixation by Anabaena
Under nitrogen-limiting conditions, vegetative cells differentiate into heterocysts at semi-regular intervals along the filaments. Heterocysts are cells that are terminally specialized for nitrogen fixation. The interior of these cells is microoxic as a result of increased respiration, inactivation of O2-producing photosystem (PS) II, and formation of a thickened envelope outside of the cell wall. Nitrogenase, sequestered within these cells, transforms dinitrogen into ammonium at the expense of ATP and reductantboth generated by carbohydrate metabolism, a process that is supplemented, in the light, by the activity of PS I. Carbohydrate, probably in the form of sucrose, is synthesized in vegetative cells and moves into heterocysts. In return, nitrogen fixed in heterocysts moves into the vegetative cells, at least in part in the form of amino acids.
Anethole

# Overview
Anethole (or trans-anethole) is an aromatic compound that accounts for the distinctive "licorice" flavor of anise, fennel, star anise, and anise myrtle. It may also be referred to as p-propenylanisole, anise camphor, isoestragole, or oil of aniseed. It is unrelated to glycyrrhizic acid, the compound which makes licorice taste sweet.  The full chemical name is trans-1-methoxy-4-(prop-1-enyl)benzene.  The chemical structure is shown at right.  Chemically, an aromatic, unsaturated ether.
Anethole appears as white crystals at room temperature. Its melting point is 21 C, and its boiling point is 234 C. It has a chemical formula of C10H12O, and is closely related to estragole, an aromatic compound found in tarragon and basil.
Anethole is distinctly sweet as well as having its flavoring properties and is measured to be 13 times sweeter than sugar. It is perceived as being pleasant to the taste even at higher concentrations.
It is slightly toxic and may act as an irritant in large quantities. It can stimulate hepatic regeneration in rats, and can also produce spasmolytic activity in high doses. It is a chemical precursor for paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA), which has been sold as ecstasy resulting in several deaths.
Angstrom
An angstrom or angstrom (symbol A) (Template:PronEng; Swedish: Template:IPA2) is a non-SI unit of length that is internationally recognized, equal to 0.1 nanometre or 1Template:E metres. It is sometimes used in expressing the sizes of atoms, lengths of chemical bonds and visible-light spectra, and dimensions of parts of integrated circuits. It is commonly applied in structural biology. It is named after Anders Jonas Angstrom.
Unicode includes the "angstrom sign" at U+212B (A). However, the "angstrom sign" is normalized into U+00C5 (A), and is thereby seen as a (pre-existing) encoding mistake, and it is better to use U+00C5 (A) directly.

# History
The angstrom is named after the Swedish physicist Anders Jonas Angstrom (18141874), one of the founders of spectroscopy who is known also for studies of astrophysics, heat transfer, terrestrial magnetism, and the aurora borealis.
In 1868, Angstrom created a spectrum chart of solar radiation that expresses the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum in multiples of one ten-millionth of a millimetre, or 1Template:E metres. This unit of length later became known as the angstrom, A.
The visual sensitivity of a human being is from about 4,000 angstroms (violet) to 7,000 angstroms (deep red) so the use of the angstrom as a unit provided a fair amount of discrimination without resort to fractional units. Because of its closeness to the scale of atomic and molecular structures it also became popular in chemistry and crystallography.
Although intended to correspond to 1Template:E metres, for precise spectral analysis the angstrom needed to be defined more accurately than the metre which until 1960 was still defined based on the length of a bar of metal held in Paris. In 1907 the International Astronomical Union defined the international angstrom by making the wavelength of the red line of cadmium in air equal to 6438.4696 international angstroms, and this definition was endorsed by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1927. From 1927 to 1960, the angstrom remained a secondary unit of length for use in spectroscopy, defined separately from the metre, but in 1960, the metre itself was redefined in spectroscopic terms, thus aligning the angstrom as a submultiple of the metre.
Since the angstrom is now defined as exactly 1Template:E metres, there are therefore 10,000 angstroms in a micrometre (commonly called a 'micron', abbreviated m, of which there are 1 million to a metre), and 10 in a nanometre (1 nm = 1Template:E metres).
Today, the use of the angstrom as a unit is less popular than it used to be and the nanometre (nm) is often used instead (with the angstrom being officially discouraged by both the International Committee for Weights and Measures and the American National Standard for Metric Practice).