Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Caverject
Caverject is an injection of a chemical called alprostadil, produced by Upjohn, used to treat Erectile dysfunction (impotence in men).
Caverject Sterile Powder contains alprostadil as the naturally occurring form of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) and designated chemically as (11alpha, 13E, 15S)-11,15-dihydroxy-9-oxoprost-13-en-1-oic acid. The molecular weight is 354.49. Alprostadil is a white to off-white crystalline powder with a melting point between 115 and 116C. Its solubility at 35C is 8000 micrograms (mcg) per 100 milliliter double distilled water.

# Usage
Caverject is administered via small-needle injection into an area of the penis known as the corpus cavernosum. It works by relaxing smooth muscle tissue which, in turn, enhances blood flow to the penis, creating an erection. The drug is indicated for the treatment of erectile dysfunction whether the cause is neurological, vascular, psychological or of mixed origin. Patients selected for treatment with Caverject receive initial injections from medically-trained personnel to determine optimum dosing. Usual dosing is from 5 mg to 20 mg.  Up to 60 mg can be injected at one time. Caverject can be administered by the patient once he has been trained to self-inject.  The syringes are self-contained and easy to use.  A kit contains the alcohol wipes used before and after to clean the penis, the needle which is attached to the syringe, and a preloaded syringe.
Penile Injection using Caverject System (note placement of needle) - Immediate Effect (notice swelling) - Resultant Erection (~10 minutes later)

# Directions
First the user must remove the wipes and clean the injection site. The site chosen should be free of visible veins and on either side of shaft of penis.  After attaching the needle the user must twist the syringe to mix the diluent (sterile, normal saline) and the drug.  The syringe is then held upward and the excess air expelled by pushing the syringe as far as it will go.  The dosage ring (blue) is turned until the desired dosage (5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, or 20 mg) is displayed.  The needle is exposed by removing the needle cap and protector.  The penis is secured with one hand.  (Only one hand is visible in the photo because the other hand was holding the camera.) The other hand is used to insert the needle in the desired location and depress the top of the syringe all the way down.  The needle is then withdrawn and the cap and protector replaced.  The other wipe is used to clean any blood off the penis.  Results usually take 5 to 20 minutes.  The duration of the erection is related to the dosage, among other factor, and may last 30 mintutes to over an hour.  Because of the very fine needle used the injection is seldom felt and generally not painful.

# Side Effects
Caverject may cause mild pain, irritation or slight bleeding at the injection site. There is also a possibility to develop: tenderness or swelling of the penis, redness/lumps/unusual curving of the penis. Caverject can cause priapism and long-term use carries a 3% risk of developing fibrosis of the penis.
Cediranib

# Overview
Cediranib (tentative trade name Recentin), also known as AZD2171, is a potent inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptor tyrosine kinases. It is being developed by AstraZeneca as a possible chemotherapeutic agent for oral administration.
As of 2007, it is undergoing Phase I clinical trials for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer and colorectal cancer in adults, as well as tumors of the central nervous system in children.

# Further reading
- Wedge S, Kendrew J, Hennequin L;  et al. (2005). "AZD2171: a highly potent, orally bioavailable, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 tyrosine kinase inhibitor for the treatment of cancer". Cancer Res. 65 (10): 4389400. PMID 15899831.CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Cefovecin

# Overview
Cefovecin (INN) is an antibiotic of the cephalosporin class, licensed for the treatment of skin infections in cats and dogs. It is marketed by Zoetis under the trade name Convenia. It is the first single-dose injectable antibiotic for dogs and cats that assures owner compliance with dosing for the animal. It is used for the treatment of skin infections caused by Pasturella multocida in cats, and Streptococcus intermedius/S. canis in dogs. The advantage of using injectable antibiotics is not missing a dose that can allow partially resistant microbes to recover during missed doses. It is highly effective, but should not be used in pregnant or lactating animals or in animals with a history of allergies to penicillin or cephalosporin drugs.

# Approval and usage
Cefovecin was first authorized for use in the European Union in June 2006, and was approved for use in the United States in June 2008.
It is approved as a broad-spectrum, fourth-generation cephalosporin for subcutaneous injection lasting 14 days for treating skin and soft tissue infections.

# Precautions
Contraindications include known allergies to cefovecin or antibiotics containing -lactam rings such as penicillin or cephalosporins. Adverse reactions can include anaphylaxis. It is not for use in humans and should be kept out of reach of children. Individuals with similar known allergies should avoid dermal contact when handling the drugs.
Adverse reactions in dogs can include lethargy, decreased appetite, vomiting, diarrhea, blood in feces, and flatulence. Adverse reactions in cats can include vomiting, diarrhea, decreased appetite, lethargy, odd hyperactive behavior, and inappropriate urination. Mildly increased serum ALT and gamma glutamyl transferase have been noted.

# Effectiveness
Cefovecin functions by interfering with cell wall synthesis. The chemical covalently binds to the so-called penicillin-binding proteins. Due to the high protein-binding of the chemical, it is not effective against Pseudomonas spp., or enterococci.
In drug studies, cefovecin administered to dogs was 92.4% effective against skin infections (secondary superficial pyoderma, abscesses, and infected wounds). In cats, it was 96.8% effective against skin infections.
Cefradine

# Overview
Cefradine (INN) (formerly cephradine BAN) is a first generation  cephalosporin antibiotic.

# Indications
It has similar spectrum of activity to cefalexin.
RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS (e.g., tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and lobar pneumonia) caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococci and S. pneumoniae (formerly D. pneumonia).
(Penicillin is the usual drug of choice in the treatment and prevention of streptococcal infections, including the prophylaxis of rheumatic fever. Velosef is generally effective in the eradication of streptococci from the nasopharynx; substantial data establishing the efficacy of Velosef in the subsequent prevention of rheumatic fever are not available at present.)
OTITIS MEDIA caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, S. pneumoniae (formerly D. pneumoniae), H. influenzae, and staphylococci.
SKIN AND SKIN STRUCTURE INFECTIONS caused by staphylococci (penicillin-susceptible and penicillin-resistant) and beta-hemolytic streptococci.
URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS, including prostatitis, caused by E. coli, P. mirabilis, Klebsiella species, and enterococci (S. faecalis). The high concentrations of cephradine achievable in the urinary tract will be effective against many strains of enterococci for which disc susceptibility studies indicate relative resistance. It is to be noted that among beta-lactam antibiotics, ampicillin is the drug of choice for enterococcal urinary tract (E. faecalis) infection.

# Formulations
Capsules containing 250 mg or 500 mg, Syrup containing 250 mg/5 ml, or vials for injection containing 500 mg or 1 g.

# Brand Names
International Brands Velocef, Infexin (by Merck Pvt, Ltd) Intracef (by Beximco Pharma) SEFRIL(The ACME laboratories Ltd., Bangladesh), REOCEF(Rephco Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Bangladesh). Lebac (by Square pharmaceuticals Ltd., Bangladesh)
Cell type
A cell type is a distinct morphological or functional form of cell.  When a cell switches state from one cell type to another, it undergoes cellular differentiation.
Three Domains of life: Eukaryota, bacteria and archaea 
Eukaryotes: animals, humans, plants and , also algae, and protozoa.
Prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea (Special kind of prokaryotes).

# Animals

## Humans
Different cell types react differently to external stimuli. For instance, the function of PKA differs from cell type to cell type. Calcium, too, has specific cell type actions in humans.
A partial list of cell types includes:
- Blastomere
- Egg
- Embryonic stem cell
- Erythrocyte
- Fibroblast
- Hepatocyte
- Myoblast
- Myotube
- Neuron
- Oocyte
- Osteoblast
- Osteoclast
- T-Cell
- Zygote

# Plants
A partial list of cell types includes:
- Aleurone
- Collenchyma
- Endodermis
- Endosperm
- Epidermis
- Mesophyll
- Meristematic cells
- Palisade
- Parenchyma
- Phloem sieve tube
- Pollen generative
- Pollen vegetative
- Sclerenchyma
- Tracheids
- Xylem vessel
- Zygote
de:Zelltyp
-  Robert F.Weaver. Posttranslation.In. Molecular Biology. Fourth Edition. Page 600.McGraw-Hill International Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-110216-2
Centrales
Order Centrales is a traditional subdivision of the heterokont algae known as diatoms.  The order is named for the shape of the cell walls (or valves or frustules) of centric diatoms, which are circular or ellipsoid in valve view.  The valves often bear radially symmetrical ornamental patterns that can appear as dots when viewed with an optical microscope.  Some also bear spines on their valves, which may either increase cell surface area and reduce sinking, or act as a deterrant to zooplankton grazers.  Unlike pennate diatoms, centric diatoms never have a raphe.
In terms of cell cycle, vegetative cells are diploid and undergo mitosis during normal cell division.  In sexual species, oogamous meiosis produces haploid gametes, either ova or sperm cells.  These fuse to produce a zygote which expands in size to develop into an auxospore from which full-size vegetative cells are produced.
In some taxonomic schemes, the centric diatoms are known instead as Order Coscinodiscophyceae.
Ceragenin
Ceragenins, or cationic steroid antibiotics (CSAs), are synthetically produced small molecule chemical compounds comprised of a sterol backbone with amino acids and other chemical groups attached to them. These compounds have a net positive charge that is electrostatically attracted to the negatively charged cell membranes of certain viruses, fungi and bacteria. CSAs have a high binding affinity for such membranes (including Lipid A) and are able to rapidly disrupt the target membranes leading to rapid cell death. While CSAs have a mechanism of action that is also seen in antimicrobial peptides, which form part of the body's innate immune system, they avoid many of the difficulties associated with their use as medicines.
Ceragenins were invented by Dr. Paul B. Savage of Brigham Young University's Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and exclusively licensed to Ceragenix. In data previously presented by Dr. Savage and other researchers, CSAs have been shown to have broad spectrum antibacterial activity.  Dr. Derya Unutmaz, Associate Professor of Microbiology and Immunology at the Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, tested several CSAs in his laboratory for their ability to kill HIV directly.  According to Unutmaz, "We have some preliminary but very exciting results.  But we would like to formally show this before making any claims that would cause unwanted hype."
On February 6, 2006, researchers (including Dr. Paul B. Savage) announced that a Ceragenin compound, CSA-54, appears to inactivate HIV. This conclusion is still awaiting peer review.
Cerealine
Cerealine, also known as malt flakes, was a popular 19th century American cereal product and the first dry breakfast food. Similar to but predating corn flakes, which appeared in 1898 and are first rolled and then toasted, cerealine is corn grits in the form of uncooked flakes. It was originally used by the brewing industry.
More popularly, Cerealine Flakes, colloquially called simply Cerealine, was also the brand name for raw-flake cereal made from grits by the Cerealine Manufacturing Company of Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.

# History
After having long been used for beer brewing, cerealine in the late 19th century became one the three most popular cereals of that time, along with cracked wheat and  oatmeal.  All three were typically sold by retailers who bought cereal in barrel lots and scooped it out to sell by the pound to customers. Cerealine Flakes was later sold in packages.
White-corn cerealine flakes were invented, perhaps accidentally, by Columbus, Indiana mill worker James Vannoy circa 1884 or 1887. Cerealine was established as a breakfast food by at least 1897, when the Illinois Farmer's Institute annual report noted that, "Some mills make hominy of white corn, roll it into broad, flat flakes, called cerealine, which are used here as a breakfast dish...."

## Cerealine Manufacturing
Aurora, Indiana's T. & J.W. Gaff & Co. distillery built the Cerealine Mill, at 607 Jackson Street in Columbus, Indiana, in 1867. Their Cerealine Manufacturing Company moved to Indianapolis, Indiana sometime prior to 1898, though the Columbus mill's building remained extant and was restored in the late 20th or early 21st century for use as a cafeteria and conference center by the engine manufacturing corporation Cummins Inc.
Prior to being annexed by Indianapolis in 1895, the settlement around what was then called the Cerealine Works was known as Cerealinetown.

# Footnotess
-  TripTrivia.com: Columbus, Indiana Tourism
-  The Evening Republican (July 22, 1902); James Vannoy obituary
-  Mills, Charles F. editor, Annual Report, Illinois Farmer's  Institute with Reports of County Farmers'  Institutes for the Year 1897 (Phillips Bros., State Printers, Springfield, Ill.) p. 122
-  Hillforest.org: History of Hillforest
-  Joseph Hart and His Descendants, by Rev. Charles Coffin Hart (1901): Gideon B. Hart
-  The Digital Collections of IUPUI University Library: Indianapolis Sanborn Map #61, 1898
-  Repp and Mundt: Restoration. Includes image of building.
-  Cartage.org: Cummins Engine Co.
-  HistoricColumbusIndiana.org: "Columbus Indiana Pictures and Photos From Bygone Days", p. 8. Includes image of building.
-  Historic Landmarks Foundation of Indiana: Press release (Oct. 20, 2002): "Preservationists aim to save historic schools and taxpayer money"
Chalazion
Synonyms and keywords: Meibomian gland lipogranuloma

# Overview
A chalazion  is a cyst in the eyelid that is caused by inflammation of a blocked meibomian gland, usually on the upper eyelid. Chalazions differ from styes (hordeolums) in that they are usually painless apart from the tenderness caused when they swell up. A chalazion may eventually disappear on its own after a few months, though more often than not, some treatment is necessary.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
A large chalazion can cause astigmatism due to pressure on the cornea. This will resolve with resolution of the chalazion.
Complications including, but not limited to hypopigmentation may occur with corticosteroid injection.
The presence of a recurring chalazion in the same area sometimes leads to a consideration of sebaceous cell carcinoma.
The minor operation is quite painless, the eyelid is injected with a local anesthetic a clamp is put on the eyelid, then the eyelid is turned over and the chalazion is scraped out.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
- Swelling on the eyelid
- Eyelid tenderness
- Sensitivity to light
- Increased tearing

## Physical Examination

### Eyes

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
The primary treatment is application of warm compresses for 10 to 20 minutes at least 4 times a day. This may soften the hardened oils blocking the duct and promote drainage and healing.
Topical antibiotic eye drops or ointment (eg chloramphenicol or fusidic acid) are sometimes used for the initial acute infection, but are otherwise of little value in treating a chalazion.  Chalazia will often disappear without further treatment within a few months and virtually all will resorb within two years.

## Surgery
If they continue to enlarge or fail to settle within a few months, then smaller lesions may be injected with a corticosteroid or larger ones may be surgically removed using local anesthesia. 
This is usually done from underneath the eyelid to avoid a scar on the skin. Rarely chalazia may reoccur and these will be biopsied to help rule out tumors.

## Primary Prevention
Proper cleansing of the eyelid may prevent recurrences in people prone to chalazia. Cleaning the eyelash area with diluted baby shampoo will help reduce clogging of the ducts.

# Related Chapters
- Blepharitis
- Stye
Chalcogen

# Overview
The chalcogens (with the "ch" pronounced like a k) are the name for the periodic table group 16 (old-style: VIB or VIA)  in the periodic table. It is sometimes known as the oxygen family. It consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), the radioactive polonium (Po), and the synthetic ununhexium (Uuh).  The compounds of the heavier chalcogens (particularly the sulfides, selenides, and tellurides) are collectively known as chalcogenides.  Unless grouped with a heavier chalcogen, oxides are not considered chalcogenides.
The name is generally considered to mean "ore former" from the Greek chalcos "ore" and -gen "formation". 
Oxygen and sulfur are nonmetals, and polonium, selenium and tellurium are metalloid semiconductors (i.e., their electrical properties are between those of a metal and an insulator). Nevertheless, tellurium, as well as selenium, is often referred to as a metal when in elemental form.
Chalcogens are quite common as minerals. For example, pyrite (FeS2) is an iron ore and AuTe2 gave its name to the gold rush town of Telluride, Colorado in the United States.
The formal oxidation number of the chalcogen is generally -2 in a chalcogenide but other values, such as -1 in pyrite, can be attained.
The highest formal oxidation number +6 is found in sulfates, selenates and tellurates, such as in sodium selenate (Na2SeO4). Modern chemical understanding based on quantum theory somewhat outdates the use of formal oxidation numbers in favour of a many-electron wavefunction approach allowing detailed computer simulation, though the concept, while flawed, is still useful in thought experiments.
Chemostat
A chemostat (from Chemical environment is static) is a device used in microbiology for growing and harvesting microbes.  It consists of two primary parts: a nutrient reservoir and a growth chamber.  The most important feature of a chemostat is that all fermentation parameters; growth chamber volume, dissolved oxygen, nutrient concentrations, pH, cell density, etc, remain constant throughout the experiment.
Some sources of concern are:
- Foaming results in overflow with the volume of liquid not exactly constant
- Some very fragile cells are ruptured when caught between the magnetic stirring bar and the glass of the vessel. Suspending the stirring bar usually corrects this fault.
- Changing pumping rate by turning the pump on and off over short time periods may not work because cells respond to sudden changes by altering their rates. Very short intervals of on/off are alright.
- Bacteria travel upstream quite easily. They will reach the reservoir of sterile medium quickly unless the liquid path is interrupted by an air break in which the medium falls in drops through air.
The chemostat is typically used to gather steady state data about an organism in order to generate a mathematical model relating to its metabolic processes.
Chemostats are frequently used in the industrial manufacture of ethanol.  In this case, several chemostats are used in series, each maintained at decreasing sugar concentrations.
Cherubism
Cherubism is a rare genetic disorder that causes prominence in the lower portion in the face. The name is derived from the temporary chubby-cheeked resemblance to putti, often confused with cherubs, in Renaissance paintings.

# Presentation
The appearance of people with the disorder is caused by a loss of bone in the mandible which the body replaces with excessive amounts of tissue. In most cases, the condition fades as the child grows, but in a few even rarer cases the condition continues to deform the afflicted person's face. Also causes premature loss of the primary teeth and uneruption of the permanent teeth.

# Genetics
Mutations in the SH3BP2 gene have been identified in about 80 percent of people with cherubism. In most of the remaining cases, the genetic cause of the condition is unknown. The SH3BP2 gene provides instructions for making a protein whose exact function is unclear. The protein plays a role in transmitting chemical signals within cells, particularly cells involved in the replacement of old bone tissue with new bone (bone remodeling) and certain immune system cells.
Mutations in the SH3BP2 gene lead to the production of an overly active version of this protein. The effects of SH3BP2 mutations are still under study, but researchers believe that the abnormal protein disrupts critical signaling pathways in cells associated with the maintenance of bone tissue and in some immune system cells. The overactive protein likely causes inflammation in the jaw bones and triggers the production of osteoclasts, which are cells that break down bone tissue during bone remodeling. An excess of these bone-eating cells contributes to the destruction of bone in the upper and lower jaws. A combination of bone loss and inflammation likely underlies the cyst-like growths characteristic of cherubism.
This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. In some cases, an affected person inherits the mutation from one affected parent. Other cases may result from new mutations in the gene. These cases occur in people with no history of the disorder in their family.