Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Autoxidation

# Overview
Autoxidation is any oxidation that occurs in open air or in presence of oxygen and/or UV radiation and forms peroxides and hydroperoxides. A classic example of autoxidation is that of simple ethers like diethyl ether, whose peroxides can be dangerously explosive. It can be considered to be a slow, flameless combustion of materials by reaction with oxygen. Autoxidation is important because it is a useful reaction for converting compounds to oxygenated derivatives, and also because it occurs in situations where it is not desired (as in the destructive cracking of the rubber in automobile tires).
Although virtually all types of organic materials can undergo air oxidation, certain types are particularly prone to autoxidation, including unsaturated compounds that have allylic hydrogens or benzylic hydrogens; these materials are converted to hydroperoxides by autoxidation.
Autoxidation is a free radical chain process. Such reactions can be divided into three stages: chain initation, propagation, and termination. In the initiation process, some event causes free radicals to be formed. For example, free radicals can be produced purposefully by the decomposition of a radical initiator, such as benzoyl peroxide. In some cases, initiation occurs by a process that is not well understood but is thought to be the spontaneous reaction of oxygen with a material with a readily abstractable hydrogen. Destructive autoxidation processes also are initiated by pollutants such as those in smog.
Once free radicals are formed, they react in a chain to convert the material to a hydroperoxide. The chain is ended by termination reactions in which free radicals collide and combine their odd electrons to form a new bond.
Autoxidation is a process of enormous economic impact, since all foods, plastics, gasolines, oils, rubber, and other materials that must be exposed to air undergo continuous destructive reactions of this type. All plastics and rubber and most processed foods contain antioxidants to protect them against the attack of oxygen.

# Autoxidations in industry
In the chemical industry many chemicals are produced by autoxidation:
- in the cumene process phenol and acetone are made from benzene and propylene
- the autoxidation of cyclohexane yields cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone
- p-xylene is oxidized to terephthalic acid
- ethylbenzene is oxidized to ethylbenzene hydroperoxide, an epoxidizing agent in the propylene oxide/styrene process POSM.
de:Autoxidation
Hypophysitis
Synonyms and keywords:Autoimmune hypophysitis, lymphocytic hypophysitis

# Overview
Hypophysitis is the inflammation of the pituitary gland that typically results in some degree of pituitary dysfunction, ranging from under secretion of some pituitary hormones to complete panhypopituitarism requiring lifelong hormone supplementation. While hypophysitis by itself is seldom life-threatening, the sequelae of pituitary inflammation, particularly adrenal insufficiency and severe hypothyroidism, may be fatal if unrecognized and left untreated. There are several recognized causes of hypophysitis, including lymphocytic infiltration, granulomatous infiltration (e.g. in the setting of a systemic granulomatous disease such as sarcoidosis or granulomatosis with polyangiitis), and cell-mediated autoimmune reactivity in the setting of treatment of certain solid tumors with immunomodulatory checkpoint inhibitors (i.e. CTLA-4 inhibitors and PD-1 inhibitors). Although there are several different subtypes of hypophysitis, there are many commonalities in the diagnostic evaluation and treatment of this rare endocrinopathy.

# Historical Perspective
The first documented case of hypophysitis occurred in a 22-year-old woman who died of circulatory collapse within 8 hours of appendectomy for gangrenous appendicitis in 1962. Autopsy was notable for an enlarged thyroid, grossly normal pituitary, and absent adrenal glands. Histologic examination of the thyroid was consistent with Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and microscopic examination of the pituitary revealed extensive lymphocytic infiltration of the anterior lobe. The authors of the case report posited an autoimmune etiology to the patient's apparent thyroid and pituitary dysfunction.

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

## Genetics

## Associated Conditions

## Gross Pathology

## Microscopic Pathology

# Causes

## Life Threatening Causes
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.

## Common Causes

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- A...
- Z...
Make sure that each diagnosis is linked to a page.

# Differentiating Hypophysitis From Other Diseases
Hypophysitis should be differentiated from other diseases causing severe headache for example: 
Hypophysitis should be differentiated from other diseases causing hypopituitarism.
Axel Ullrich

# Overview
Axel Ullrich  born October 19, 1943) Lauban, Schlesien, Germany in is an German cancer researcher and has been the Director of Molecular biology at the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry in Martinsried, Germany since 1988. His research has primarily focused on signal transduction.
After taking a degree in biochemistry at the University of Tuebingen, Germany, he received a Ph.D. from the University of Heidelberg in Molecular Genetics in 1975. He then did his postdoctoral work at the University of California, San Francisco from 1975 to 1977 and then worked as a senior scientist at Genentech in San Francisco, California from 1978 to 1988. From 1988, he has been at the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry.
He was one of the developers of the anti-cancer drug Trastuzumab (trade name: Herceptin) and has founded at least three biotech companies one of which is Sugen which is owned by Pfizer.
He is listed by the Institute for Scientific Information) (ISI) as a highly cited biologist and he is also in the top ten of H-index of living biologists.
Azapropazone

# Overview
Azapropazone  is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.  It is manufactured by Goldshield under the tradename Rheumox.
It was available in the UK as a prescription-only drug, with restrictions due to certain contra-indications and side-effects. Azopropazone has now been discontinued in the British National Formulary.
Azapropazone has a half-life of approximately 20 hours in humans and is not extensively metabolized.
Azo compound
Azo compounds refer to synthetic inorganic chemical compounds bearing the functional group R-N=N-R', in which R and R' can be either aryl or alkyl. The N=N group is called an azo or diimide.  Many of the more stable derivatives contain two aryl groups due to the electron delocalisation.  Because of this delocalisation, many azo compounds are coloured and in fact many are used as dyes.
The name azo comes from azote, an old name of nitrogen that originates in French and is derived from the Greek a (not) + zoe (to live).
Aromatic azo compounds (R = R' = aromatic) are usually stable and have vivid colours such as red, orange, and yellow. Therefore, they are used as dyes, which are called azo dyes. Some azo compounds, eg. Methyl orange, can also be used as acid-base indicators, due to their ability to function as weak acids, and the different colours of the acid and salt forms. Azobenzene is another typical aromatic azo compound. Their colour originates from absorbance in the visible region of the spectrum due to the delocalization of electrons in the benzene and azo groups forming a conjugated system, whereby the N=N group is part of the chromophore.
Aliphatic azo compounds (R and/or R' = aliphatic) are less common.  One example is diethyldiazene, EtN=NEt.
At an elevated temperature or by irradiation, two carbon-nitrogen (R-N) bonds are cleaved simultaneously with the loss of nitrogen gas to generate carbon-centered radicals. Owing to this process, some aliphatic azo compounds are utilized as radical initiators. Representative is Azobisisobutylonitrile (AIBN) which is widely used as an initiator in polymerization.
Aromatic azo compounds can be synthesized by using an azo coupling reaction, that is, an electrophilic substitution reaction on aromatic rings with diazonium salts.  Diazonium salts decompose at temperatures warmer than about 5 degrees Celsius, so the reaction must take place in solution under freezing conditions:
Oxidation of hydrazines (R-NH-NH-R') can also give an azo compound.
Because of their instability, especially for aliphatic ones, care should be taken with the handling of azo compounds or an explosion may occur.
Azurocidin 1
Azurocidin also known as cationic antimicrobial protein CAP37 or heparin-binding protein (HBP) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AZU1 gene.

# Function
Azurophil granules, specialized lysosomes of the neutrophil, contain at least 10 proteins implicated in the killing of microorganisms. The protein encoded by this gene is an azurophil granule antimicrobial protein, with monocyte chemotactic and antibacterial activity. It is also an important multifunctional inflammatory mediator. This encoded protein is a member of the PA clan of proteases but it is not a serine proteinase, because the active site serine and histidine residues are replaced, making it a pseudoenzyme. The genes encoding this protein, neutrophil elastase 2, and proteinase 3 are in a cluster located at chromosome 19pter. All 3 genes are expressed coordinately and their protein products are packaged together into azurophil granules during neutrophil differentiation.

# Clinical significance
In patients with fever, high plasma levels of HBP indicates that the patient is at high risk of developing sepsis with circulatory collapse.
Azygous lobe

# Overview
The azygos lobe is a normal variant that is found in 1% of anatomic specimens and on about 0.4% of chest radiographs. It occurs when the right posterior cardinal vein, one of the precursors of the azygos vein, fails to migrate over the apex of the lung and penetrates it instead, carrying along pleural layers that entrap a portion of the right upper lobe.

## Chest X-ray
- The azygos lobe is usually well seen on the chest radiograph, where it is limited by a fine, convex (relative to the mediastinum) line that crosses the apex of the right lung.

## CT
- CT shows the deep penetration of the lung behind the SVC and the trachea.
- The azygous fissure ends anteriorly at the right brachiocephalic vein and SVC, and posteriorly at the lateral aspect of the vertebral body near the location of the right superior intercostal vein.
- The azygos vein is seen as a thicker structure following the same path as the fissure. The position of the arch is higher than when it follows an intramediastinal course
- The azygous vein ends in the SVC and occasionally in the right brachiocephalic vein
BECAIT Trial

# Objective
To evaluate if bezafibrate could slow the progression of coronary stenoses in dyslipidemic male survivors of myocardial infarction who were younger than 45 years at the time of the event.

# Method
The Bezafibrate Coronary Atherosclerosis Intervention Trial (BECAIT) was a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial over 5 years to assess the angiographic benefits of bezafibrate retard (400 mg a day) in 92 young (45 yrs), male, post-myocardial infarction (post-MI) patients with dyslipidemia (fasting serum cholesterol concentration above 240 mg/dL and triglyceride concentration above 141 mg/dL).

# Results
- Bezafibrate reduced the levels of LDL-C and triglycerides by 53% and 46% respectively
- Plasma apolipoprotein (apo) B levels reduced by 9%
- HDL3 levels rose by 9%

# Conclusion
The effect of bezafibrate on progression of focal coronary atherosclerosis could be at least partly attributed to a rise in HDL3 cholesterol and a decrease in the total number of apo B-containing lipoproteins. Treatment with bezafibrate also significantly reduced the levels of insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) which is one other factor associated with disease progression.
Barcoo Fever
Barcoo Fever is an illness once common in the Australian outback but is now virtually unknown. It was characterised by nausea and vomiting exacerbated by the sight or smell of food and, unlike the usual gastro-intestinal infections, by constipation rather than diarrhoea. Fever and myalgia were also symptoms. Severe cases developed inanition and even death. It was seen in travellers in the outback rather than in cities or towns but occasionally entire settlements were affected, such as occurred in Toowoomba in 1903. The aboriginal population knew to avoid the ailment by not drinking from certain water sources but rather by taking water from soaks or pits dug in the dry sandy bed of a stream.
It is postulated that the disease is due to ingestion of cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) toxins, in particular cylindrospermopsin, a toxin from Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and other cyanobacteria, which is a hepatotoxin. The symptoms of the disease are consistent with a hepatitis or liver disorder and Cylindrospermopsis is known to be widespread in inland Australian water sources. The toxin is not destroyed by boiling and although it would flavor drinking water this flavor would be masked by tea, the common beverage in the Australian bush. Provision of safe drinking water sources in Australia, with the development of bores and covered tanks to collect rainwater would explain the demise of a once common illness.

# References:
Cumpston JHL. Health and disease in Australia. A history. Canberra. AGPS 1989. 372-373.
Durack M. Kings in grass castles. Moorebank, NSW. Corgi Books:251.
Hayman J. Beyond the Barcoo - probable human tropical cyanobacterial poisoning in outback Australia. Med J Aust 1992;157:794-796.
Esophagogram

# Overview
A barium swallow is a medical imaging procedure used to examine the upper GI (gastrointestinal) tract, which includes the oesophagus and, to a lesser extent, the stomach.

# Principle
Barium sulphate is a type of Contrast medium that is visible to x-rays.  As the patient swallows the Barium suspension, it coats the oesphagus with a thin layer of the barium.  This enables the hollow structure to be imaged.

# Examination
The patient is asked to drink a suspension of barium sulfate.  Fluoroscopy images are taken as the barium is swallowed. This is typically at a rate of 2 or 3 frames pers second. The patient is asked to swallow the Barium a number of times, whilst standing in different positions, i.e. AP, oblique and lateral, to assess the 3D structure as best possible.

# Pathology
Pathologies detected on a Barium Swallow include:
- Achalasia
- Oesophageal pouch
- Cancer of oesophagus
- Tracheoesophageal fistula
- Schatzki ring
- Reflux
- Zenker's diverticulum
- Hiatus hernia
Baroreceptor

# Overview
Baroreceptors (or baroceptors) in the human body detect the pressure of blood flowing through them, and can send messages to the central nervous system to increase or decrease total peripheral resistance and cardiac output.
Baroreceptors can be divided into two categories, high pressure arterial baroreceptors and low pressure baroreceptors (also known as cardiopulmonary receptors).

# Arterial baroreceptors
There are baroreceptors present in the arch of the aorta, and the carotid sinuses of the left and right internal carotid arteries. In some sensitive people, due to baroreceptors, vigorous palpation of a carotid artery can cause severe bradycardia or even cardiac arrest.
Baroreceptors act to maintain mean arterial blood pressure to allow tissues to receive the right amount of blood.
See main article Baroreflex
If blood pressure falls, such as in shock, baroreceptor firing rate decreases. Signals from the carotid baroreceptors are sent via the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). Signals from the aortic baroreceptors travel through the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X). 
Baroreceptors work by detecting the amount of stretch. The more the baroreceptor walls are stretched, the more frequently they generate action potentials.  The arterial baroreceptors have a lower threshold of around 70 mmHg (typical arterial blood pressure is around 80-90 mmHg).  Below this the receptors stop firing signals completely, any further decrease in pressure will cause no additional effect.  At this low pressure however the response of chemoreceptors becomes more vigorous, especially below 60 mmHg.
Baroreceptors respond very quickly to maintain a stable blood pressure, but they only respond to short term changes. Over a period of days or weeks they will reset to a new value. Thus, in people with essential hypertension the baroreceptors behave as if the elevated blood pressure is normal and aim to maintain this high blood pressure.

# Low pressure baroreceptors
These are found in the large veins and in the walls of the atria of the heart.  The low pressure baroreceptors are involved with the regulation of blood volume.  The blood volume determines the mean pressure throughout the system, in particular in the venous side where most of the blood is held.
The low pressure baroreceptors have both circulatory and renal effects, they produce changes in hormone secretion which have profound effects on the retention of salt and water and also influence intake of salt and water.  The renal effects allow the receptors to change the mean pressure in the system in the long term.
Denervating these receptors 'fools' the body into thinking that we have too low blood volume and initiates mechanisms which retain fluid and so push up the blood pressure to a higher level than we would otherwise have.
Baruch Modan

# Overview
Dr. Baruch Modan (born c. 1944) is a famous medic from Israel. Dr. Modan has made significant findings in his specialized field, oncology, and he is also an expert in radiation.
Admired by many of his colleagues, Dr. Modan has worked with various types of cancer, and, in 1974, he demonstrated that chances of getting breast cancer increase for anyone who has X-rays done with doses as low as 1.6 rem. He is also an expert on treating cancer among children.
A professor at the University of Tel Aviv, Dr. Modan is Israel's department of health's secretary. During a 2004  rally by some Israeli manifestants from an area where the government allegedly made atomic testings, Dr. Modan was criticized in person by some of that area's inhabitants, who accused him of being on the government's side, contrary to being with the public, among other things. This rally was later televised in the United States.
Dr. Modan has travelled extensively to share his knowledge with other doctors as well as patients, to treat patients in need of emergency service, and to give lectures. He has also written a number of books on cancer and cancer treatment.
Basal lamina
The basal lamina is a layer on which epithelium sits and which is secreted by the epithelial cells.  It is often confused with the basement membrane, and sometimes used inconsistently in the literature, see below.
It is typically about 40-50 nanometres thick (with exceptions such as the basal laminae that compose the 100-200 nanometre thick glomerular basement membrane).

# Layers
The layers of the basal lamina ("BL") and those of the basement membrane ("BM") are described below:
Anchoring fibers composed of type IV collagen extend from the basal lamina into the underlying reticular lamina and loop around collagen bundles. Although found beneath all basal laminae, they are especially numerous in stratified squamous cells of the skin.
These layers should not be confused with the lamina propria, which is found outside the basal lamina.

# Basal lamina vs. basement membrane
The term "basal lamina" is usually used with electron microscopy, while the term "basement membrane" is usually used with light microscopy. The structure known as the basement membrane in light microscopy refers to the stained structure anchoring an epithelial layer. This encompasses the basal lamina secreted by epithelial cells and typically a reticular lamina secreted by other cells.
The basal lamina cannot be distinguished under the light microscope, but under the higher magnification of an electron microscope, the basal lamina and lamina reticularis are visibly distinct structures.
Some theorize that the lamina lucida is an artifact created when preparing the tissue, and that the basement membrane is therefore equal to the lamina densa in vivo.
Examples of basement membranes include:
- Basilar membrane
- Bruch's membrane
- Descemet's membrane
- Glomerular basement membrane

# Additional images
- Transverse section of a villus, from the human intestine. X 350.
- The basal lamina is a component of the basement membrane that separates epithelium from the underlying connective tissue.
Base of lung
The base of the lung is broad, concave, and rests upon the convex surface of the diaphragm, which separates the right lung from the right lobe of the liver, and the left lung from the left lobe of the liver, the stomach, and the spleen.
Since the diaphragm extends higher on the right than on the left side, the concavity on the base of the right lung is deeper than that on the left.
Laterally and behind, the base is bounded by a thin, sharp margin which projects for some distance into the phrenicocostal sinus of the pleura, between the lower ribs and the costal attachment of the diaphragm.
The base of the lung descends during inspiration and ascends during expiration.
Basilic vein

# Overview
In human anatomy, the basilic vein is a large superficial vein of the upper limb that helps drain parts of hand and forearm.  It originates on the medial (ulnar) side of the dorsal venous network of the hand, and it travels up the base of the forearm and arm.  Most of its course is superficial; it generally travels in the fat and other fasciae that lie superficial to the muscles of the upper extremity.  Because of this, it is usually visible through the skin.
Near the region anterior to the cubital fossa, in the bend of the elbow joint, the basilic vein usually connects with the other large superficial vein of the upper extremity, the cephalic vein, via the median cubital vein.  The layout of superficial veins in the forearm is highly variable from person to person, and there are generally a variety of other unnamed superficial veins that the basilic vein communicates with.
About halfway up the arm proper (the part between the shoulder and elbow), the basilic vein goes deep, travelling under the muscles.  There, around the lower border of the teres major muscle, it joins the brachial veins to form the axillary vein.
Along with other superficial veins in the forearm, the basilic vein is a possible site for venipuncture.

# Additional images
- Cross-section through the middle of upper arm.
- Cross-section through the middle of the forearm.
- The brachial artery.
- The veins on the dorsum of the hand.
Bathmophobia

# Overview
Bathmophobia is the fear of stairs or slopes, a type of specific phobia. It is similar to climacophobia, except that climacophobics suffer symptoms when climbing or going downstairs, while bathmophobics suffer symptoms simply by observing stairs or slopes.
This fear is often caused by falling down stairs or a hill. The most prominent symptom of bathmophobics is vertigo, with a fear associated with it (illygnophobia). Bathmophobia can even be triggered from other phobia, acrophobia, due to height variations when using stairs.
Like climacophobia, bathmophobia can most commonly be treated using cognitive-behavioral therapy.