Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Brown tumor

# Overview
Brown tumors are tumors of bone that arise in settings of excess osteoclast activity, such as hyperparathyroidism, and consist of fibrous tissue, woven bone and supporting vasculature, but no matrix. They are radiolucent on x-ray. The osteoclasts consume the trabecular bone that osteoblasts lay down and this front of reparative bone deposition followed by addition resorption can expand beyond the usual contour of the bone, involving the periosteum and causing bone pain.  The characteristic brown coloration results from hemorrhage into the ostelytic cysts.
Brown tumors represent a reparative cellular process rather than a neoplastic process. In chronic renal disease, continual, excessive urinary calcium excretion can lower the serum calcium level and lead to a rise in parathonmone secretion so that skeletal calcium can be mobilized to maintain normal serum calcium levels. This mobilization occurs through rapid osteoclastic turnover of bone, a direct effect of parathormone on bone. In localized regions where bone loss is particularly rapid, hemorrhage, reparative granulation tissue, and active, vascular, proliferating fibrous tissue may replace the normal marrow contents, resulting in a brown tumor. Hemosidenin imparts the brown color. Brown tumors have a slightly greater frequency in primary hyperparathyroidism than in secondary hyperparathyroidism (3% vs 2%). However, secondary hyperparathyroidism is much more common than primary hypenparathyroidism so that most brown tumors are associated with secondary hyperparathyroidism.

# Causes
- Hyperparathyroidism

# Diagnosis
The following are the imaging findings

## X-ray
- Well-defined, purely lytic lesions that provoke little reactive bone. The cortex may be thinned and expanded, but will not be penetrated.

## CT
- Attenuation values on CT will be in the range of blood and fibrous tissue.

## Angiography
- Hypervascular.

## Bone scan
- Intensely uptake.
Patient #1: Hip pain in a patient with hyperparathyroidism
Patient #1: Primary hyperparathyroidism
Bucladesine

# Overview
Bucladesine  is a cyclic nucleotide derivative which mimics the action of endogenous cAMP and is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor.
Bucladesine is a cell permeable cAMP analog. The compound is used in a wide variety of research applications because it mimics cAMP and can induce normal physiological responses when added to cells in experimental conditions. cAMP is only able to elicit minimal responses in these situations.
The neurite outgrowth instigated by bucladesine in cell cultures has been shown to be enhanced by nardosinone.
CBLB (gene)
CBL-B is an E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase that in humans is encoded by the CBLB gene.  CBLB is a member of the CBL gene family.

# Function
CBL-B functions as a negative regulator of T-cell activation. CBL-B expression in T cells causes ligand-induced T cell receptor down-modulation, controlling the activation degree of T cells during antigen presentation.

# Clinical significance
Mutation of the CBLB gene has been associated with autoimmune conditions such as type 1 diabetes.

# Interactions
CBLB has been shown to interact with:
- CRKL,
- Epidermal growth factor receptor,
- Grb2,
- NEDD4,
- PIK3R1, and
- SH3KBP1.
CCNC (gene)
Cyclin-C is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCNC gene.
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the cyclin family of proteins. The encoded protein interacts with cyclin-dependent kinase 8 and induces the phosphorylation of the carboxy-terminal domain of the large subunit of RNA polymerase II. The level of mRNAs for this gene peaks in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Two transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene.

# Interactions
CCNC (gene) has been shown to interact with Estrogen receptor alpha and Cyclin-dependent kinase 8.
CCR3 (gene)
C-C chemokine receptor type 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCR3 gene.
CCR3 has also recently been designated CD193 (cluster of differentiation 193).

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a receptor for C-C type chemokines. It belongs to family 1 of the G protein-coupled receptors. This receptor binds and responds to a variety of chemokines, including eotaxin (CCL11), eotaxin-3 (CCL26), MCP-3 (CCL7), MCP-4 (CCL13), and RANTES (CCL5). It is highly expressed in eosinophils and basophils, and is also detected in TH1 and TH2 cells, as well as in airway epithelial cells. This receptor may contribute to the accumulation and activation of eosinophils and other inflammatory cells in the allergic airway, and possibly at sites of parasitic infection. It is also known to be an entry co-receptor for HIV-1. This gene and seven other chemokine receptor genes form a chemokine receptor gene cluster on the chromosomal region 3p21. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding the same protein have been described.
CCR8 (gene)
Chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 8, also known as CCR8, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the CCR8 gene. CCR8 has also recently been designated CDw198 (cluster of differentiation w198).

# Function
This gene encodes a member of the beta chemokine receptor family, which is predicted to be a seven transmembrane protein similar to G protein-coupled receptors. Chemokines and their receptors are important for the migration of various cell types into the inflammatory sites. This receptor protein preferentially expresses in the thymus. The ligand of the CCR8 is CCL1. CCL8 also functions as a CCR8 agonist.
Studies of this receptor and its ligands suggested its role in regulation of monocyte chemotaxis and thymic cell apoptosis. More specifically, this receptor may contribute to the proper positioning of activated T cells within the antigenic challenge sites and specialized areas of lymphoid tissues. This gene is located at the chemokine receptor gene cluster region.
CD82 (gene)
CD82 (Cluster of Differentiation 82) is a human protein encoded by the CD82 gene.
This metastasis suppressor gene product is a membrane glycoprotein that is a member of the transmembrane 4 superfamily. Expression of this gene has been shown to be downregulated in tumor progression of human cancers and can be activated by p53 through a consensus binding sequence in the promoter. Its expression and that of p53 are strongly correlated, and the loss of expression of these two proteins is associated with poor survival for prostate cancer patients. Two alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been found for this gene.

# Interactions
CD82 (gene) has been shown to interact with CD19, CD63 and CD234
CDH3 (gene)
Cadherin-3, also known as P-Cadherin, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CDH3 gene.

# Function
This gene is a classical cadherin from the cadherin superfamily. The encoded protein is a calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion glycoprotein composed of five extracellular cadherin repeats, a transmembrane region and a highly conserved cytoplasmic tail. This gene is located in a six-cadherin cluster in a region on the long arm of chromosome 16 that is involved in loss of heterozygosity events in breast and prostate cancer. In addition, aberrant expression of this protein is observed in cervical adenocarcinomas.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in this gene have been associated with congenital hypotrichosis with juvenile macular dystrophy.

# Interactions
CDH3 (gene) has been shown to interact with:
- Beta-catenin,
- CDH1,
- Catenin (cadherin-associated protein), alpha 1,
- Nephrin  and
- Plakoglobin.
Torcetrapib
Torcetrapib (CP-529414) was a drug developed by Pfizer to treat hypercholesterolemia (elevated cholesterol levels) and prevent cardiovascular disease.  Its development was halted when the drug was associated with off target toxicity including an increase in blood pressure and adverse effects on the aldosterone axis.

# Mechanism
Torcetrapib is a cholesterylester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitor.  This inhibition results in higher HDL cholesterol levels and reduces LDL cholesterol levels.  Torcetrapib development began around 1990. The drug was first administered to humans in 1999.  Manufacturing at production scale began in Ireland in 2005.

# Development and research
Pfizer had previously announced that torcetrapib would be sold in combination with Pfizer's statin, atorvastatin (Lipitor); however, following media and physician criticism, Pfizer had subsequently planned for torcetraipib to be sold independently of Lipitor.
A 2004 trial showed that torcetrapib could increase HDL and lower LDL with and without an added statin.

# End of study
On December 2 2006 Pfizer discontinued the pivotal phase III trial evaluating torcetrapib's safety and efficacy because of an increase in mortality and cardiovascular events associated with the drug's use.
The cost of advancing the development of the drug to Phase III was over 800 million dollars.
CHML (gene)
Rab proteins geranylgeranyltransferase component A 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CHML gene.
The product of the CHML gene supports geranylgeranylation of most Rab proteins and may substitute for REP-1 in tissues other than retina. CHML is localized close to the gene for Usher syndrome type II.

# Interactions
CHML (gene) has been shown to interact with RAB1A and RAB5A.
CKLF (gene)
Chemokine-like factor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CKLF gene.
The product of this gene is a cytokine. Cytokines are small proteins that have an essential role in the immune and  inflammatory responses. This gene is one of several chemokine-like factor genes located in a cluster on chromosome 16.
The protein encoded by this gene is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils, monocytes and lymphocytes. It also can stimulate the proliferation of skeletal muscle cells. This protein may play important roles in inflammation and in the regeneration of skeletal muscle. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been identified.
Hypercarbia

# Overview
Hypercarbia means  to have more than normal CO2 (Carbon dioxide) levels in the blood.

# Pathophysiology
- Value is usually obtained while performing a basic Chem-7 blood test, which tests for basic electrolyte levels from a blood sample.
- Normal values of CO2 for anyone over 2 years of age is between 22 and 26 mmol/L.
- Increased levels of serum CO2 are found in some disease processes such as COPD and emphysema and is related to the lung's decreased capacity for effective gas exchange.
- Hypercarbia has been used to induce NDE-like experiences in patients, and to treat mental disorders.
- VA = (VT-VD) X breaths/min is a formula that can calculate ventilation in the alveolar (VA).

# Causes
- Hypercarbia can be caused by decreased tidal volume (VT), increased dead space (VD), or decreased breaths per minute.

# Related Chapters
- Hypercapnia
- Respiratory system
COPA (gene)
Coatomer subunit alpha is a protein that in humans is encoded by the COPA gene.

# Function
In eukaryotic cells, protein transport between the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi compartments is mediated in part by non-clathrin-coated vesicular coat proteins (COPs). Seven coat proteins have been identified, and they represent subunits of a complex known as coatomer. The subunits are designated alpha-COP, beta-COP, beta-prime-COP, gamma-COP, delta-COP, epsilon-COP, and zeta-COP. The alpha-COP, encoded by COPA, shares high sequence similarity with RET1P, the alpha subunit of the coatomer complex in yeast. Also, the N-terminal 25 amino acids of alpha-COP encode the bioactive peptide, xenin, which stimulates exocrine pancreatic secretion and may act as a gastrointestinal hormone. Alternative splicing results in multiple splice forms encoding distinct isoforms.

# Interactions
COPA (gene) has been shown to interact with COPE and COPB1.
CT template
To go to the main page, click here.

# Introduction to the CT or MRI Page
- The page name should be "(Disease name) CT or MRI", with only the first letter of the title and the letters "CT" or "MRI" capitalized.
- Goal: To provide a description and examples the CT findings that might be seen with the disease you are describing.
- As with all microchapter pages linking to the main page, at the top of the edit box put {{CMG}}, your name template, and the microchapter navigation template you created at the beginning.
- Remember to create links within Wikidoc by placing ] around key words which you want to link to other pages. Make sure you makes your links as specific as possible. For example if a sentence contained the phrase anterior spinal artery syndrome, the link should be to anterior spinal artery syndrome not anterior or artery or syndrome.  For more information on how to create links click here.
- Remember to follow the same format and capitalization of letters  as outlined in the template below.
- You should include the name of the disease in the first sentence of every subsection.

# Overview
- The overview section should include the disease name in the first sentence.
- The goal is to summarize the CT or MRI findings page in several sentences. This section can be the same as the CT or MRI segment on the overview page.
- To see an example of an overview section on a CT page, click here.

## Template
- First Sentences:
 CT scan is diagnostic of .
- Examples:

# Preferred Template Statements
IF there are no CT findings associated with the disease:
- There are no CT scan findings associated with .
IF a CT scan is useful for diagnosis:
-  CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of . Findings on CT scan suggestive of/diagnostic of  include , , and .
IF a CT scan is not helpful for diagnosis, but may be helpful in identifying complications of the disease:
- There are no CT scan findings associated with . However, a CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of , which include , , and .

# Key CT or MRI Findings in (Disease Name)
- Describe in detail the CT  or MRI findings that may be seen in the disease you are describing, as well as in sub-classifications of the disease, and associated conditions.
- Describe how the CT or MRI findings relate to the underlying pathophysiology of the disease.

# CT or MRI Examples of (Disease Name)
- Here you should provide visual examples of CT or MRI findings for the disease you are describing.
Good copyleft source to use for images is RadsWiki , National Library of Medicine (/), Wikipedia (), or Radiopedia (/).
- Good copyleft source to use for images is RadsWiki , National Library of Medicine (/), Wikipedia (), or Radiopedia (/).
- For help on how to insert images, click here.
Calcifediol

# Overview
Calcifediol (INN), also known as calcidiol, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, or 25-hydroxyvitamin D (abbreviated 25(OH)D),  is a prehormone that is produced in the liver by hydroxylation of vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) by the enzyme cholecalciferol 25-hydroxylase which was isolated by Michael F. Holick. Physicians worldwide measure this metabolite to determine a patient's vitamin D status. Calcifediol is then converted in the kidneys (by the enzyme 25(OH)D-1-hydroxylase) into calcitriol (1,25-(OH)2D3), a secosteroid hormone that is the active form of vitamin D.  It can also be converted into 24-hydroxycalcidiol in the kidneys via 24-hydroxylation.

# Blood test
In medicine, a 25-hydroxy vitamin D (calcidiol) blood test is used to determine how much vitamin D is in the body. The blood concentration of calcidiol is considered the best indicator of vitamin D status.
This test can be used to diagnose vitamin D deficiency, and it is indicated in patients with high risk for vitamin D deficiency and when the results of the test would be used as supporting evidence for beginning aggressive therapies. Patients with osteoporosis, chronic kidney disease, malabsorption, obesity, and some other infections may be high risk and thus have greater indication for this test. Although vitamin D deficiency is common in some populations including those living at higher latitudes or with limited sun exposure, the 25(OH)D test is not indicated for entire populations. Physicians may advise low risk patients to take over-the-counter vitamin D in place of having screening.
It is the most sensitive measure, though experts have called for improved standardization and reproducibility across different laboratories. According to MedlinePlus, the normal range of calcidiol is 30.0 to 74.0 ng/mL. The normal range varies widely depending on several factors, including age and geographic location. A broad reference range of 20150 nmol/L (8-60 ng/ml) has also been suggested, while other studies have defined levels below 80 nmol/L (32 ng/ml) as indicative of vitamin D deficiency.
US labs generally report 25(OH)D levels as ng/mL. Other countries often use nmol/L. Multiply ng/mL by 2.5 to convert to nmol/L.

## Clinical significance
Increasing calcidiol levels are associated with increasing fractional absorption of calcium from the gut up to levels of 80 nmol/L (32 ng/mL).
A study by Cedric F. Garland and Frank C. Garland of the University of California, San Diego analyzed the blood from 25,000 volunteers from Washington County, Maryland, finding that those with the highest levels of calcifediol had a risk of colon cancer that was one-fifth of typical rates.
However, randomized controlled trials failed to find a significant correlation between vitamin D supplementation and the risk of colon cancer.
Perfect gas
By definition, a perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are neglected. So, along with the assumptions of an ideal gas, the following assumptions are added:
- Neglected intermolecular forces
By neglecting these forces, the equation of state for a perfect gas can be simply derived from kinetic theory or statistical mechanics.
This type of assumption is useful for making calculations very simple and easy to do. With this assumption we can apply the Ideal gas law without restriction and neglect many complications that may arise from the Van der Waals forces.
Along with the definition of a perfect gas, there are also two more simplifications that can be made although various textbooks either omit or combine the following simplifications into a general "perfect gas" definition. For the sake of clarity, these simplifications are defined separately.

# Thermally perfect
- The gas is in thermodynamic equilibrium
- Not chemically reacting
- Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heat are functions of temperature only.
e = e(T)
h = h(T)
de = C_vdT
dh = C_pdT
This type of approximation is useful for modeling, for example, an axial compressor where temperature fluctuations are usually not large enough to cause any significant deviations from the thermally perfect gas model. Heat capacity is still allowed to vary, though only with temperature, and molecules are not permitted to dissociate.

# Calorically perfect
Finally, the most restricted gas model is one where all the above assumptions apply and we also apply:
- Constant Specific Heats
e = C_vT
h = C_pT
Although this may be the most restrictive model, it still may be accurate enough to make reasonable calculations. For example, if a model of one compression stage of the axial compressor mentioned in the previous example was made (one with variable C_p, and one with constant C_p) to compare the two simplifications, the deviation may be found at a small enough order of magnitude that other factors that come into play in this compression would have a greater impact on the final result than whether or not C_p was held constant (compressor tip-clearance, boundary layer/frictional losses, manufacturing impurities, etc).
Ylang-ylang
Ylang-ylang (Template:IPA2) (ee-lahng ee-lahng) Cananga odorata, is a small flower of the cananga tree. It is a fast-growing tree that exceeds 5 meters per year and attains an average height of 12 meters. It grows in full or partial sun, and prefers the acidic soils of its native rainforest habitat. The leaves are long, smooth and glossy. The flower is greenish yellow (rarely pink), curly like a starfish, and yields a highly fragrant essential oil. A related species is Cananga fruticosa, which is a dwarf ylang-ylang that grows as small tree or compact shrub with highly scented flowers. Ylang-ylang has been cultivated in temperate climates under conservatory conditions. 
Its fruit are an important food item for birds, such as the Collared Imperial-pigeon, Purple-tailed Imperial-pigeon, Zoe's Imperial-pigeon, Superb Fruit-dove, Pink-spotted Fruit-dove, Coroneted Fruit-dove, Orange-bellied Fruit-dove, and Wompoo Fruit-dove (Frith et al. 1976).
The name ylang-ylang is derived from Tagalog, either from the word ilang, meaning "wilderness", alluding to its natural habitat, or  the word ilang-ilan, meaning "rare", suggestive of its exceptionally delicate  scent. The plant is native to the Philippines and Indonesia and is commonly grown in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia.
The fragrance of ylang-ylang is rich and deep with notes of rubber and custard, and bright with hints of jasmine and neroli. The essential oil of the flower is obtained through steam distillation of the flowers and separated into different grades (extra; 1; 2; 3) according to when the distillates are obtained. The main aromatic component of ylang-ylang is methyl anthranilate.
The essential oil of ylang-ylang is used in aromatherapy. It is believed to relieve high blood pressure, normalize sebum secretion for skin problems, and is considered to be an aphrodisiac. According to Margaret Mead, it was used as such by South Pacific natives such as the Solomons where she did much of her research. The oil from ylang-ylang is widely used in perfumery for oriental or floral themed perfumes. Ylang-ylang blends well with most floral, fruit and wood smells. In Indonesia, ylang-ylang flowers are spread on the bed of newlywed couples. In the Philippines, its flowers, together with the flowers of the sampaguita, are strung into a necklace and worn by women and used to adorn religious images.
Ylang-ylang's essential oil makes up 29% of the Comoros' annual export (1998).

# Notes
-   Manner, Harley and Craig Elevitch,Traditional Tree Initiative: Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (2006), Permanent Agricultural Resources, Honolulu, Hi.
-  The Perfume Tree Ylang-Ylang
CankerMelts
CankerMelts is a non-prescription medication for canker sores sold by Orahealth Corporation, a privately held company based in Bellevue, WA. The active ingredient is licorice extract, with collagen added which may help soothe pain and accelerate healing. CankerMelts is an all-natural self-adhering patch that sticks directly on the sore, delivering time-released medication over 2-6 hours.

# History
Invented by patent attorney Jeff Haley, CankerMelts was first sold online at Amazon.com in 2004. In 2006, clinical tests at the University of Washington found that CankerMelts relieves pain and reduces the healing time of canker sores from 1-2 weeks to 1-5 days.
Active ingredient Glycyrrhiza extract (licorice) has been used for over 4000 years as an herbal remedy, including use in Traditional Chinese Medicine as a treatment for all varieties of ulcers. CankerMelts combines this natural remedy with a new oral patch technology that allows a fully-dissolving troche to adhere directly to the afflicted region.