Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Carbon group

# Overview
The carbon group is group 14 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table.  Once also known as the tetrels (from Latin tetra, four), stemming from the earlier naming convention of this group as Group IVB.
Each of the elements in this group has 4 electrons in its outer energy level. The last orbital of all these elements is the p2 orbital. In most cases, the elements share their electrons. The tendency to lose electrons increases as the size of the atom increases, as it does with increasing atomic number.
Carbon alone forms negative ions, in the form of carbide (C4-) ions.
Silicon and germanium, both metalloids, each can form +4 ions.
Tin and lead both are metals while ununquadium is a synthetic shortlived radioactive metal.
The group consists of carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and ununquadium (Uuq).
ar: 
ast:Elementos del grupu 14
ca:Grup del carboni
cs:Tetrely
de:Kohlenstoffgruppe
eo:Elemento de grupo 14
ko:14 
it:Gruppo del carbonio
lmo:Grupp del carboni
nl:Koolstofgroep
nn:Gruppe 14
nds:Cheemsch Elementen vun de 14. Grupp
sr:14.   
sh:14. grupa hemijskih elemenata
fi:Hiiliryhma
sv:Kolgruppen
th:
Nutmeg liver
Synonyms and keywords: Cardiac cirrhosis

# Overview
Nutmeg liver is the pathological appearance of the liver caused by chronic passive congestion of the liver secondary to right heart failure. The liver appears "speckled" like a grated nutmeg kernel, from the dilated, congested central veins (dark spots) and paler, unaffected surrounding liver tissue. When severe and longstanding, hepatic congestion can lead to cirrhosis, a state described as cardiac cirrhosis.

# Pathophysiology
Increased pressure in the sublobular branches of the hepatic veins causes an engorgement of venous blood, and is most frequently due to chronic cardiac lesions, especially those affecting the right heart, the blood being dammed back in the inferior vena cava and hepatic veins.

## Gross Pathology
Central regions of the hepatic lobes are red/brown and stand out against the non-congested tan colored liver. Centrilobular necrosis occurs. Macroscopically liver has a pale and spotty appearance in affected areas as stasis of the blood causes pericentral hepatocytes (liver cells surrounding the periportal venules of the liver) to become deoxygenated compared to the relatively better oxygenated periportal hepatocytes adjacent to the hepatic arterioles. This retardation of the blood also occurs in pulmonary lesions, such as chronic interstitial pneumonia, pleural effusions, and intrathoracic tumors.

## Pathological Findings
Images shown below are courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission.  PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology
- Passive Congestion: Gross natural color typical nutmeg liver
- Chronic Passive Congestion: Gross looks like natural color classical nutmeg liver
- Chronic Passive Congestion: Gross natural color frontal section nutmeg liver really a shock liver
- Liver: Congestive heart failure, liver fibrosis; Central hepatic veins are pale spots, nutmeg liver
- Liver: Passive Congestion: Gross close-up excellent nutmeg appearance
- Passive Congestion: Gross split picture with liver on one side and a polished nutmeg on the other (very good demonstration)
- Passive Congestion: Gross close-up of cut surface natural color looks almost exactly like a nutmeg

# Symptoms
These depend largely upon the primary lesions giving rise to it. In addition to the cardiac or pulmonary symptoms, there will be a sense of fullness and tenderness in the right hypochondriac region. Gastro-intestinal catarrh is usually present, and hematemesis may occur. There is usually more or less jaundice. Owing to portal obstruction, ascites occurs, followed later by general dropsy. The stools are light or clay colored, and the urine is colored by bile. On palpation, the liver is found enlarged and tender, sometimes extending several inches below the costal margin of the ribs.

# Treatment
This is directed largely to removing the cause, or, where that is impossible, to modifying its effects. Thus hygienic and dietary measures must be carried out, even although it is due to valvular lesions.
Cardioplegia

# Overview
Cardioplegia is the intentional and temporary cessation of cardiac activity, primarily used in cardiac surgery.
The most common procedure for accomplishing asystole is infusing cold crystalloid cardioplegia into the coronary circulation.  This process is considered the most successful because it protects the myocardium, or heart muscle, from damage .  In most cases, the patient is first exposed to mild hypothermia (34 degrees celsius).  Then an iced (4 degrees celsius) solution of dextrose, potassium chloride, and other ingredients  is introduced into coronary circulation via specialized cannulae.
When solution is introduced into the aortic root (with an aortic cross-clamp on the distal aorta to limit systemic circulation), this is called Antegrade Cardioplegia.  When introduced into the coronary sinus it is called Retrograde Cardioplegia.
Carey Coombs
Carey Franklin Coombs (1879-1932) was an English cardiologist who practiced medicine at Bristol General Hospital.
Coombs is remembered for his work involving rheumatic and coronary heart disease.

# Murmur
- He performed important studies of rheumatic fever, and described a rumbling mid-diastolic cardiac murmur that occurs in the acute phase of rheumatic fever which disappears as the valvulitis improves.
- It is often associated with an S3 gallop rhythm, and can be distinguished from the diastolic murmur of mitral stenosis by the absence of an opening snap before the murmur.
- The murmur is caused by increased blood flow across a thickened mitral valve.
This cardiac murmur is now referred to as the Carey Coombs murmur. In 1910 he made one of the earliest diagnoses of coronary thrombosis, and before his death in 1932, he had documented 144 cases of this condition.
His best known written work is Rheumatic Heart Disease, which was published in 1924. He is also remembered for his work in the management and prevention of childhood heart disease.

# Related Chapters
- Rheumatic fever
Carnauba wax
Carnauba is a wax derived from the leaves of the carnauba palm (Copernicia prunifera), a plant native to northeastern Brazil. It is known as "queen of waxes" and usually comes in the form of hard yellow-brown flakes. It is obtained from the leaves of the carnauba palm by collecting them, beating them to loosen the wax, then refining and bleaching the wax.

# Composition
Carnauba wax contains mainly esters of fatty acids (80-85%), fatty alcohols (10-16%), acids (3-6%) and hydrocarbons (1-3%). Specific for carnauba wax is the content of esterified fatty diols (about 20%), hydroxylated fatty acids (about 6%) and cinnamic acid (about 10%). Cinnamic acid, an antioxidant, may be hydroxylated or methoxylated.

# Uses
Carnauba wax can produce a glossy finish and as such is used in automobile waxes, shoe polishes, food products such as candy corn, instrument polishes, and floor and furniture polishes, especially when mixed with beeswax. It is used as a coating on dental floss.  Use for paper coatings is the most common application in the United States. It is the main ingredient in surfboard wax, combined with coconut oil.
Carnauba wax is a prominent ingredient in cosmetics formulas: lipsticks, eyeliners, mascara, eye shadows, foundations, blushers, skin care preparations, sun care preparations, etc.
It is the finish of choice for most briar pipes.  It produces a high gloss finish when buffed on to wood.  This finish dulls with time rather than flaking off (as is the case with most other finishes used.)
In foods, it is used as a formulation aid, lubricant, release agent, anticaking agent, and surface finishing agent in baked foods and mixes, chewing gum, confections, frostings, fresh fruits and juices, gravies, sauces, processed fruits and juices, soft candy, tic tacs and Altoids.
It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as a tablet coating agent.
In 1890, Charles Tainter patented the use of carnauba wax on phonograph cylinders as a replacement for a mixture of paraffin and beeswax.
When used as a mold release, carnauba, unlike silicone or PTFE, is suitable for use with liquid epoxy, epoxy molding compounds (EMC) and some other plastic types. Carnauba wax is compatible with epoxies and generally enhances its properties along with those of most other engineering plastics.
An aerosol mold release is formed by suspending carnauba wax in a solvent.  This aerosol version is used extensively in molds for semiconductor devices. Semiconductor manufacturers also use chunks of carnauba wax to break in new epoxy molds or to release the plunger when it sticks.

# Technical characteristics
- INCI name is Copernicia Cerifera (carnauba) wax
- E Number is E903.
- melting point: 78-85 C, among the highest of natural waxes.
- relative density is about 0.97
- It is among the hardest of natural waxes, being harder than concrete in its pure form.
- It is practically insoluble in water, soluble on heating in ethyl acetate and in xylene, practically insoluble in ethyl alcohol.
Case Studies
To go to the main page, click here.

# Introduction to the  Page
- The page name should be "(Disease name) case study one", with only the first letter of the title capitalized.
- Goal: To provide a case reports of the disease seen in the hospital.
- As with all microchapter pages linking to the main page, at the top of the edit box put {{CMG}}, your name template, and the microchapter navigation template you created at the beginning.
- Remember to create links within Wikidoc by placing ] around key words which you want to link to other pages. Make sure you makes your links as specific as possible. For example if a sentence contained the phrase anterior spinal artery syndrome, the link should be to anterior spinal artery syndrome not anterior or artery or syndrome.  For more information on how to create links click here.
- Remember to follow the same format and capitalization of letters  as outlined in the template below.

# Patient Presentation
- Here case should be described in detail as it is presented in the morning reports.
- It should include symptoms at presentation, and the history of present illness.
- It should include medications and supplements currently being taken by the patient.
- A review of systems may be included here.

# Patient History
- In this section, describe the patients past medical history, past hospitalizations, past surgeries.
- The history of illness in family members can also be included here.

# Physical Exam
- Include vital signs here.
- Include pertinent postives and pertinent negatives seen on physical examination.

# Diagnostic Approach
- In this section you may describe the diagnostic approach such as laboratory studies, imaging and other diagnostic studies.]Describe how the diagnostic approach works to rule out various diagnoses in the differential diagnosis list.

# Laboratory and Imaging Findings
- Include pertinent laboratory findings here.
- Include findings seen on imaging, and results of other diagnostic studies here.

# Diagnosis and Management
- Describe the diagnosis here, and how the diagnosis was made.
- Describe the treatment here, and if any prophylactic measures are used to prevent complications of the condition.
Cassie's law

# Overview
Cassie's law describes the effective contact angle c for a liquid on a composite surface . The law explains how simply roughing up a surface increases the apparent surface angle. The law is stated as:
where by 1 is the contact angle for component 1 with areal fraction 1 and 2 is the contact angle for component 2 with areal fraction 2 present in the composite material. This equation takes on special meaning when in a 2-component system one component is air with a contact angle of 180. With cosine(180) = -1, the equation reduces to:
which implies that with a small 1 and a large 1 it is possible to create surfaces with a very large contact angle. Cassie's research pointed out that the water repelling quality of ducks is due to the very nature of the composite formed between air and feather and not by other causes such as the presence of exceptional proofing agents like oils. Water striders also exploit this phenomenon. Artificial superhydrophobic materials such as nanopin film exist in the laboratory that also make use of this law.
Catharanthus
Catharanthus (Madagascar Periwinkle) is a genus of eight species of herbaceous perennial plants, seven endemic to the island of Madagascar, the eighth native to the Indian subcontinent in southern Asia.
- Catharanthus coriaceus Markgr. Madagascar.
- Catharanthus lanceus (Bojer ex A.DC.) Pichon. Madagascar.
- Catharanthus longifolius (Pichon) Pichon. Madagascar.
- Catharanthus ovalis Markgr. Madagascar.
- Catharanthus pusillus (Murray) G.Don. Indian subcontinent.
- Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. Madagascar.
- Catharanthus scitulus (Pichon) Pichon. Madagascar.
- Catharanthus trichophyllus (Baker) Pichon. Madagascar.

# Uses and cultivation
The species are self-propagating from seed; the seeds require a period of total darkness to germinate. Cuttings from mature plants will also root readily.
One species, C. roseus, has been widely cultivated and introduced, becoming an invasive species in some areas.

# Pharmacological uses
C. roseus has gained interest from the pharmaceutical industry; the alkaloids vincristine and vinblastine from its sap have been shown to be an effective treatment for leukaemia. Although the sap is poisonous if ingested, some 70 useful alkaloids have been identified from it. In Madagascar, extracts have been used for hundreds of years in herbal medicine for the treatment of diabetes, as hemostatics and tranquilizers, to lower blood pressure, and as disinfectants. The extracts are not without their side effects, however, which include hair loss.

## Vinca alkaloids
Vinca alkaloids are anti-mitotic and anti-microtubule agents. They are nowadays produced synthetically and used as drugs in cancer therapy and as immunosuppressive drugs. These compounds are vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine and vinorelbine. Periwinkle extracts and derivatives, such as vinpocetine, are also used as nootropic drugs.
Catharanthus lanceus contains up to 6% yohimbine in its leaves.
Cefoperazone

# Overview
Cefoperazone is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, marketed by Pfizer under the name Cefobid, and also marked by Pharco B International under the name Cefazone and also marketed by Sigmatec Pharmaceuticals under the name Cefoperazone. It is one of few cephalosporin antibiotics effective in treating Pseudomonas bacterial infections which are otherwise resistant to these antibiotics.
Cefina-SB is a combination of sulbactam and cefoperazone. Cefoperazone exerts its bactericidal effect by inhibiting the bacterial cell wall synthesis, and sulbactam acts as a beta-lactamase inhibitor, to increase the antibacterial activity of cefoperazone against beta-lactamase-producing organisms. In some countries, the combination is sold as Sulperazone. Gepach International markets this combination of cefoperazone with sulbactam under the brand name Bacperazone.In India and SriLanka (Cefoperazone-Sulbactam) is manufacterd by Pfizer under the brand name of Magnex/Magnex-Forte depending on the Cefoperazone-Sulbactam ratio.

# Spectrum of bacterial susceptibility
Cefoperazone has a broad spectrum of activity and has been used to target bacteria responsible for causing infections of the respiratory and urinary tract, skin, and the female genital tract. The following represents MIC susceptibility data for a few medically significant microorganisms.
- Haemophilus influenzae: 0.12 - 0.25 g/ml
- Staphylococcus aureus: 0.125 - 32 g/ml
- Streptococcus pneumoniae: 0.007 - 1 g/ml

# Adverse effects
Cefoperazone contains an N-methylthiotetrazole (NMTT or 1-MTT) side chain. As the antibiotic is broken down in the body, it releases free NMTT, which can cause hypoprothrombinemia (likely due to inhibition of the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase) and a reaction with ethanol similar to that produced by disulfiram (Antabuse), due to inhibition of aldehyde dehydrogenase.
Cell therapy
Cell therapy describes the process of introducing new cells into a tissue in order to treat a disease. Cell therapies often focus on the treatment of hereditary diseases, with or without the addition of gene therapy.
There are many potential forms of cell therapy:
- The transplantation of stem cells that are autologous (from the patient) or allogeneic (from another donor).
- The transplantation of mature, functional cells.
- The application of modified human cells that are used to produce a needed substance.
- The xenotransplantation of non-human cells that are used to produce a needed substance. For example, treating diabetic patients by introducing insulin-producing pig cells directly into their muscle.
Increasingly, mesenchymal stem cells are being proposed as agents for cell-based therapies, due to their plasticity, established isolation procedures, and capacity for ex vivo expansion.
Cementoblast

# Overview
A cementoblast is a biological cell that forms from the follicular cells around the root of a tooth, and whose biological function is cementogenesis, which is the creation of cementum (the hard tissue that covers the root of the tooth).
Cementoblasts lay down the organic matrix of cementum which later gets mineralised by minerals from oral fluids. Thus the cementoblasts lay down collagen and secrete osteocalcin and sialoprotein. They possess all the organelles associated with protein synthesis such as RER and Golgi apparatus.
The mechanism of differentiation of the cementoblasts is controversial but circumstantial evidence suggests that an epithelium or epithelial componenet may cause dental follicle cells to differentiate into cementoblasts, characterised by an increase in length.
The initially formed cementum in coronal two-thirds of the root is acellular, but when the cementoblasts get trapped in lacunae in their own matrix like bone cells, the cementum is called cellular or secondary cementum and is present only in the apical third of the root.
Once in this situation, the cementoblasts lose their secretory activity and become cementocytes.
Cervical rib

# Overview
A cervical rib is a supernumerary (extra) rib which arises from the seventh cervical vertebra. It is a congenital abnormality located above the normal first rib.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
A cervical rib is present in only about 1 in 200 (0.5%) of people; in even rarer cases, an individual may have not one but two cervical ribs.

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
The presence of a cervical rib can cause a form of thoracic outlet syndrome due to compression of the brachial plexus or subclavian artery.  Compression of the brachial plexus may be identified by weakness of the muscles around the muscles in the hand, near the base of the thumb.  Compression of the subclavian artery  is often diagnosed by finding a positive Adson's sign on examination, where the radial pulse in the arm is lost during abduction and external rotation of the shoulder.
- Cervical rib chest X-ray
Chaetophobia

# Overview
Chaetophobia is fear of hair, a type of specific phobia. Sufferers fear may be associated with human hair and/or animal hair. They fear people or animals with an excess amount of hair. They may also fear the hair on their own body. Some only fear detached or loose hair and do not mind attached hair. The term chaetophobia comes from the Greek  - khaite, meaning "loose, flowing hair" and   - phobos, meaning "fear".)

# Causes
As with most phobias this fear could be the result of a negative experience with hair and/or a hairy person. The anxiety starts when the person remembers an experience whenever they are near a person with an excess amount of hair. Hair loss can be a trigger to this phobia, such as men going bald.

## Fear
Some sufferers fear the hair on their own bodies because they think it is dirty or unattractive. They may fear things such as dandruff or Headlouse|head lice. This phobia is thought to be a spin-off of germaphobia, the fear of germs. They become obsessed with removing every hair on their body. This fear is often hygiene-related and sufferers feel uncomfortable in environments such as salons where hair is detached and on the ground. Some fear loose hair in their food or on furniture even if it is their own.

# Treatment
Intensive therapy and/or medication may have an effect on the anxiety side of the phobia. As with most phobias support groups and self relaxation techniques are some times effective in helping with the fear.
Chapped lips

# Overview
Chapped lips is a condition whereby the lips become dry and possibly cracked. It may be caused by the evaporation of moisture.

# Treatments
Chapstick can often provide temporary relief, though it should not be used extensively.
Avoid licking your lips. Saliva evaporates quickly, leaving lips drier than before you licked them.
Chemometrics
Chemometrics is the application of mathematical or statistical methods to chemical data.
The International Chemometrics Society (ICS) offers the following definition:
Chemometric research spans a wide area of different methods which can be applied in chemistry. There are techniques for collecting good data (optimization of experimental parameters, design of experiments, calibration, signal processing) and for getting information from these data (statistics, pattern recognition, modeling, structure-property-relationship estimations).
Chemometrics tries to build a bridge between the methods and their application in chemistry.

# Applications
In spectroscopy, the applications of chemometrics is most often in calibration. Calibration is achieved by using the spectra as multivariate descriptors to predict concentrations of constituents of interest using statistical approaches such as Multiple Linear Regression, Principal components analysis and Partial Least Squares. Other popular chemometry techniques include approaches for ab initio prediction of number of components, noise reduction and multivariate curve resolution.