Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Celiac plexus
The celiac plexus (also known as the solar plexus) is a complex network of nerves (a plexus) located in the abdomen.

# Structure
The celiac plexus is located near where the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and renal arteries branch from the abdominal aorta. It is behind the stomach and the omental bursa and in front of the crura of the diaphragm, on the level of the first lumbar vertebra, L1.
The plexus is formed (in part) by the greater and lesser splanchnic nerves of both sides, and also parts of the right vagus nerve.
The celiac plexus proper consists of the celiac ganglia with a network of interconnecting fibers.  The aorticorenal ganglia are often considered to be part of the celiac ganglia, and thus, part of the plexus.

# Related plexuses
The celiac plexus includes a number of smaller plexuses:
- Hepatic plexus
- Splenic plexus
- Gastric plexuses
- Pancreatic plexus
- Suprarenal plexus
Other plexuses that are derived from the celiac plexus:
- Renal plexus
- Testicular plexus / ovarian plexus
- Superior mesenteric plexus
- Inferior mesenteric plexus

# Clinical significance
The celiac plexus is often popularly referred to as the solar plexus, generally in the context of a blow to the stomach.  In many of these cases, it is not the celiac plexus itself being referred to, but rather the region where it is located.   A blow to the stomach can upset this region.  This can cause the diaphragm to spasm, resulting in difficulty in breathing  a sensation commonly known as "getting the wind knocked out of you". A blow to this region can also affect the celiac plexus itself, possibly interfering with the functioning of the viscera, as well as causing great pain.
A celiac plexus block by means of fluoroscopically guided injection is sometimes used to treat intractable pain from cancers such as pancreatic cancer.

# The solar plexus in religion and mysticism
According to Hindu beliefs, the solar plexus chakra is "the center of etheric-psychic intuition: a vague or non-specific, sensual sense of knowing; a vague sense of size, shape, and intent of being." As such, some psychics recommend "listening" to it since it may help out in making better decisions in one's life on many different levels.
Cell junction

# Overview
A cell junction is a structure within a tissue of a multicellular organism. Cell junctions are especially abundant in epithelial tissues. They consist of protein complexes and provide contact between neighbouring cells, between a cell and the extracellular matrix, or they build up the paracellular barrier of epithelia and control the paracellular transport.
In vertebrates, there are three major types of cell junctions:
- Adherens junctions and Desmosomes
- Gap junctions
- Tight junctions
Invertebrates have several other types of specific junctions, for example Septate junctions or the CeAJ (C. elegans apical junction).

# Cell junction molecules
The molecules responsible for creating cell junctions include various cell adhesion molecules.
Cephalic vein

# Overview
In human anatomy, the cephalic vein is a superficial vein of the upper limb.
It communicates with the basilic vein via the median cubital vein at the elbow and is located in the superficial fascia along the anterolateral surface of the biceps brachii muscle.
Superiorly the cephalic vein passes between the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles (deltopectoral groove) and through the deltopectoral triangle, where it empties into the axillary vein.
It is often visible through the skin, and its location in the deltopectoral groove is fairly consistent, making this site a good candidate for cannulation.

# Additional images
- Cross-section through the middle of the forearm.
- The veins on the dorsum of the hand.
- The deep veins of the upper extremity.

# External link
- Template:SUNYAnatomyLabs
- Template:SUNYRadiology
Cephalization
Cephalization is an evolutionary trend, whereby nervous tissue, over many generations, becomes concentrated toward one end of an organism. This process eventually produces a head region with sensory organs.
Cephalization is intrinsically connected with a change in symmetry. It accompanied the move to bilateral symmetry made in flatworms, with ocelli and pinnae placed in the head region. The cephalization/bilateral symmetry combination allowed animals to have sensory organs facing the direction of movement, allowing a more focused assessment of the environment into which they are moving.  In addition to a concentration of sense organs, all animals from annelids on also place the mouth in the head region. This process is also tied to the development of an anterior brain in the chordates from the notochord.  A notable exception to the trend of cephalization throughout evolutionary advancement is phylum Echinodermata, which, although having a bilateral ancestor, as evidenced by their embryology, develop into a pentaradial animal with no concentrated neural ganglia or sensory head region.  However, some echinoderms have developed bilateral symmetry secondarily.
In neuroembryology, neural induction of the ectoderm forms a neural tube which undergoes cephalization to form initially 3, then 5 vesicles as a developing embryo. It is the internalized ectoderm which goes on to become the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and epidermis.
Channelopathy

# Overview
Channelopathies are diseases caused by disturbed function of ion channel subunits or the proteins that regulate them.  These diseases may be either congenital (often resulting from a mutation or mutations in the encoding genes) or acquired (often resulting from autoimmune attack on an ion channel).
There are a large number of distinct dysfunctions known to be caused by ion channel mutations.  The genes for the construction of ion channels are highly conserved amongst mammals and one condition, hyperkalemic periodic paralysis, was first identified in the descendants of Impressive, a pedigree race horse.
The channelopathies of human skeletal muscle include hyper-, hypo- and normokalemic (high, low and normal potassium blood concentrations) periodic paralysis, myotonia congenita and paramyotonia congenita.

# Types
- Alternating hemiplegia of childhood
- Bartter syndrome
- Brugada syndrome
- Congenital hyperinsulinism
- Cystic fibrosis
- Episodic Ataxia
- Erythromelalgia
- Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus
- Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
- Hypokalemic periodic paralysis
- Long QT syndrome
- Malignant hyperthermia
- Migraine
- Myasthenia Gravis
- Myotonia congenita
- Neuromyotonia
- Nonsyndromic deafness
- Paramyotonia congenita
- Periodic paralysis
- Retinitis pigmentosa
- Romano-Ward syndrome
- Short QT syndrome
- Timothy syndrome
Charcot joint

# Overview
Bone and joint changes secondary to loss of sensation, as first described by Charcot in 1868. There are 2 major theories regarding the neuropathic joint.

# Pathophysiology
- Neurotramatic theory: the loss of normal proprioception and sensation leads to recurrent trauma, resulting in joint destruction and degeneration. Continued walking on an insensitive joint results in instability and degeneration, sublaxation, and destruction.
- Neurovascular theory: neurally mediated reflex hyperemia causes osteoclastic bone resorption.
- Characteristic associations:
5-15% of patients with diabetes and 20-25% of patients with syringomyelia have Charcot joint.
Shoulder - Syringomyelia
Hip  Syphilis and Spinal dysraphism
Knee  Syphilis and Diabetes
Foot and ankle  Diabetes
Spine  Spinal dysraphism
- 5-15% of patients with diabetes and 20-25% of patients with syringomyelia have Charcot joint.
- Shoulder - Syringomyelia
- Hip  Syphilis and Spinal dysraphism
- Knee  Syphilis and Diabetes
- Foot and ankle  Diabetes
- Spine  Spinal dysraphism

# Causes
- Common causes include diabetes, steroids, alcoholism, trauma, infection, amyloid, tabes dorsalis,  syringomyelia, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord compression/malformations, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, and connective tissue diseases.
- Hypertrophic changes are caused by upper motor neuron lesions while atrophic changes are due to peripheral nerve injuries.

# Diagnosis
The imaging findings are as follows:
Plain films are typically sufficient to diagnose Charcot joint, but MR or nuclear medicine studies may be used to exclude septic arthritis.
Neuropathic joints usually follow one of these characteristic forms, or a combination of the 2:
- The hypertrophic joint: joint destruction and fragmentation, osseous sclerosis, and osteophyte formation, similar in appearance to osteoarthritis.
- The atrophic joint: osseous resorption, similar in appearance to surgical amputation or infection.
Radiographic findings in the early stage:
- Joint effusion
- Joint space narrowing
- Soft tissue calcification
- Minimal subluxation
- Preservation of bone density (unless infected)
Radiographic findings in the late stage (i.e. The 6 Ds)
- Increased Density (Subchondral sclerosis)
- Destruction
- Debris (Intra-articular loose bodies)
- Dislocation
- Distention
- Disorganization
Upper extremity changes are less common than weight bearing joints, and are typically due to a syrinx.
MRI can demonstrate soft tissue edema, dislocation, destruction, marrow edema, effusion, and loss of bone definition.
Charles's law
In thermodynamics and physical chemistry, Charles's law is a gas law and specific instance of the ideal gas law, which states that:
The law was first published by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he referenced unpublished work by Jacques Charles from around 1787. This reference has led to the law being attributed to Charles. The relationship had been anticipated by the work of Guillaume Amontons in 1702. Charles's Law, Boyle's law, and Gay-Lussac's Law form the combined gas law. The three gas laws in combination with Avogadro's law can be generalized by the ideal gas law.

# Derivation
The formula for the law is:
where:
In other more thermodynamics-based definitions, the relationship between the fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure is inversely proportional to the temperature applied to the system, which can be further used by stipulating a system where \alpha represents cubic expansivity of a gas, with \theta representing the temperature measured of the system in Kelvins:
To maintain the constant, k, during heating of a gas at fixed pressure, the volume must increase. Conversely, cooling the gas decreases the volume.  The exact value of the constant need not be known to make use of the law in comparison between two volumes of gas at equal pressure:
Therefore, as temperature increases, the volume of the gas increases.
Theoretically as a gas reaches absolute zero the volume will also reach a point of zero.
This law is an example of direct variation.
Charles Stent
Charles Stent (1807-1885) was a nineteenth-century English dentist notable for his advances in the field of denture making.
In 1847, Edwin Truman introduced gutta-percha as a material for making dental impressions; however, this was unsatisfactory for several reasons, including its tendency to distort upon removal from the patient's mouth, and to shrink upon cooling. In 1856, Stent added several other materials to the gutta-percha, notably stearine, which markedly improved the plasticity of the material as well as its stability. He also added talc as an inert filler to give more body to the material, and red colouring.
The medical device called a stent derives its name from him.
Charles Thomas Stent was born at Royal Crescent, Brighton, on the 17th October 1807. He was the 6th son of William and Hannah (nee Jenkin) Stent. He had 2 sons, Charles Robert and Howard and a daughter, Fanny. Later in life, Charles Robert added his mother's (Caroline) maiden name of Osborn, to his. Caroline outlived all her children and died in 1915 aged 92 years.
Charles Thomas and his wife Caroline are buried in Brompton Cemetery, London.
Child poverty
Child poverty concerns poverty of people under the age of 18.

# Cause
- Poor, failed, or absence of an infrastructure, lack of opportunities.
- Government corruption.
- Lack of social integration.
- Crime.
- Natural disasters.
- Substance abuse, such as alcoholism and drug abuse.
- Natural factors such as climate or environment.
- Overpopulation. Note that population growth slows or even become negative as poverty is reduced due to the demographic transition.
- Lack of education.
- Lack of social skills.
- Exploitation of the poor by the rich.
- Cultural causes, which attribute poverty to common patterns of life, learned or shared within a community. For example, some have argued that Protestantism contributed to economic growth during the industrial revolution.
- Individual beliefs, actions and choices.
- Mental illness and disability, such as Autism, and Schizophrenia.
- Geographic factors, for example fertile land and access to natural resources.
- Disease, specifically Diseases of poverty: AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis and others overwhelmingly afflict the poor, which perpetuate poverty by diverting individual, community, and national health and economic resources from investment and productivity.  Further, many tropical nations are affected by diseases like Malaria and Schistosomiasis that are not present in temperate climates.
- Inadequate nutrition in childhood in poor nations may lead to physical and mental stunting.
- Discrimination of various kinds, such as age discrimination, gender discrimination, racial discrimination.
- Inadequate income.

# Effects of child poverty
Some possible effects of child poverty, some which may also be causations of poverty as mentioned above, thus conforming what's known as a "poverty cycle" and complicating the subject even further:
- Human trafficking
- Diseases and disabilities; low health care services
- High crime rate
- Increased suicides
- Increased risk of political violence; such as terrorism, war and genocide
- Homelessness
- Lack of opportunities for employment
- Low literacy
- Increased susceptibility to death from natural disasters.
- Increased discrimination
- Lower life expectancy
- Drug abuse

# Debates about poverty
The underlying causes of poverty and the elimination thereof are a controversial, politicized issue. Advocates of a libertarian view may look to structural factors that prevent economic growth such as poorly protected property rights, lacking credit system, crime, corruption, rent seeking, and harmful regulation which prevent economic efficiency.
Those with more left wing views may see poverty as the result of different systemic factors. For instance, they may consider that poverty is caused by lack of opportunity (particularly in education), and that it is often the lack of government intervention which results in more poverty. They tend to believe that alleviating poverty is a matter of social justice and that it is the responsibility of the wealthy to help those in need.
Most agree that education is part of the solution. If people waited until they could afford to have children, child poverty would be greatly reduced.
Chiral ligand
In chemistry a chiral ligand is a specially adapted ligand used for asymmetric synthesis. This ligand is an enantiopure organic compound which combines with a metal center by chelation to form a asymmetric catalyst. This catalyst engages in a chemical reaction and transfers its chirality to the reaction product which as a result also becomes chiral. In an ideal reaction one equivalent of catalyst can turn over many more equivalents of reactant which enables the synthesis of a large amount of a chiral compound from achiral precursors with the aid of a very small (often expensive) chiral ligand.
The first such ligand, the diphosphine DiPAMP was developed by in 1968 by William S. Knowles (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2001)  and ultimately used in the industrial production of L-DOPA.

# Privileged ligands
Many thousands of chiral ligands have been prepared and tested since then but only several compound classes have been found to have a general scope. These ligands are therefore called privileged ligands  . Important members depicted below are BINOL, BINAP, TADDOL, DIOP, BOX and DuPhos, all available as enantiomeric pairs.
Other members are Salen and the cinchona alkaloids. Many of these ligands posses C2 symmetry which limits the number of possible reaction pathways and thereby increasing enantioselectivity.

# Chiral fence
Chiral ligands do their magic by asymmetric induction somewhere along the reaction coordinate. The image depicted on the right gives a general idea how a chiral ligand may induce an enantioselective reaction. The ligand (in green) has C2 symmetry with its nitrogen, oxygen or phosphorus atoms hugging a central metal atom (in red). In this particular ligand the right side is sticking out and its left side points away. The substrate in this reduction is benzophenone and the reagent (in blue) a hydride ion. In absence of the metal and the ligand the re face approach of the hydride ion gives the (S)-enantiomer and the si face approach the (R)-enantiomer in equal amounts (a racemic mixture like expected). The ligand/metal presence changes all that. The carbonyl group will now coordinated with the metal and due to the steric bulk of the phenyl group it will only be able to do so with its si face exposed to the hydride ion with in the ideal situation exclusive formation of the (R) enantiomer. The re face will simple hit the chiral fence . Note that when the ligand is replaced by its mirror image the other enantiomer will form and that a racemic mixture of ligand will once again yield a racemic product. Also note that if the steric bulk of both carbonyl substituents is very similar the strategy will fail.

# Chiral counterions
In a novel concept, so-called chiral ions team up with traditional cationic catalysts in asymmetric synthesis as demonstrated in this allene hydroxyalkoxylation in which the active catalyst is a salt of  gold(I) and a phosphate of a chiral binaphthol  :
Chlorobenzene

# Overview
Chlorobenzene is an aromatic organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5Cl. It is a colorless, flammable liquid first made in 1851 by reacting phenol and phosphorus pentachloride.

# Uses
Chlorobenzene has been used in the manufacture of certain pesticides, most notably DDT by reaction with chloral (trichloroacetaldehyde). It once found use in the production of phenol. Today the major use of chlorobenzene is as an intermediate in the production of nitrochlorobenzenes and diphenyl oxide, which are important in the production of commodities such as herbicides, dyestuffs, and rubber. Chlorobenzene is also used as a high-boiling solvent in organic synthesis as well as many industrial applications.

# Synthesis
Chlorobenzene is prepared by chlorination of benzene, usually in the presence of a catalytic amount of Lewis acid such as ferric chloride:
Because chlorine is electronegative, PhCl exhibits decreased susceptibility to attack by other electrophiles. For this reason, the chlorination process produces only small amounts of dichloro- and trichlorobenzenes.
Chlorphenesin

# Overview
Chlorphenesin (Maolate, Musil) is a centrally acting muscle relaxant used to treat muscle pain and spasms. Chlorphenesin is no longer used for this purpose in most developed nations due to the availability of much safer spasmolytics such as benzodiazepines.
Other central effects include sedation, anxiolysis, and dizziness. It also has antifungal and some antibacterial properties and is thus classified as an antifungal for topical use by the WHO.

# Safety
The major adverse effect from this preservative on skin is allergic contact sensitivity. Systemic intoxication from transdermal use has not been observed, although the FDA discourages its use as an ingredient in nipple cream for nursing mothers.
Cholangiogram

# Overview
A percutaneous transhepatic cholangiogram (PTCA) is an x-ray of the bile ducts, the tubes that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder and small intestine.
The test is performed in a radiology department by a radiologist.
You will be asked to lie on your back on the x-ray table. The health care provider will clean the upper right side of your belly area and then apply a numbing medicine.
X-rays are used to help the health care provider locate your liver and bile ducts. A long, thin, flexible needle is then inserted through the skin into the liver. The health care provider injects dye, called contrast medium, into the bile ducts. Contrast helps highlight certain areas they can be seen better. More x-rays are taken as the dye flows through the bile ducts into the small intestine. This can be seen on a nearby video monitor.

# Sources
Cholesteatoma

# Overview
Cholesteatoma is a destructive and expanding sac in the middle ear and/or mastoid process.

# Causes
There are two types: congenital and acquired. Acquired cholesteatomas can be caused by a tear or retraction of the ear drum.
Usually cholesteatomas in adults are acquired through the above reasons.  Less commonly the disease may be congenital, when it grows from birth behind the eardrum. Congenital cholesteatomas are more often found in the anterior aspect of the ear drum, in contrast to acquired cholesteatomas that usually arise from the pars flaccida region of the ear drum in the posterior-superior aspect of the ear drum.
Both the acquired as well as the congenital types of the disease can affect the facial nerve that reaches from the brain to the face and leads through the inner and middle ear and leaves at the forward tip of the mastoid bone, and then rises to the front of the ear and extends into the upper and lower face.

# Presentation
The patient may have a recurrent ear discharge. Granulation tissue and a discharge (through a marginal perforation of the ear drum) may be seen on examination. A cholesteatoma cyst consists of desquamating (peeling) layers of scaly or keratinised (horny) layers of epithelium, which may also contain cholesterol crystals. Often the debris is infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
If untreated, a cholesteatoma can eat into the three small bones located in the middle ear (the malleus, incus and stapes, collectively called ossicles), which can result in nerve deterioration, deafness, imbalance and vertigo. It can also affect and erode, through the enzymes it produces, the thin bone structure that isolates the top of the ear from the brain, as well as lay the covering of the brain open to infection with serious complications.
A history of ear infection or flooding of the ear during swimming should be taken seriously and investigated as cholesteatoma should be considered a possible outcome.

# Symptoms
Common symptoms of cholesteatoma may include: Hearing loss, discharge from the ear (usually brown/yellow) with a strong odor, bleeding from the ear, dizziness, vertigo, balance disruption, ear ache, headaches or tinnitus. There can also be facial nerve weakness.

# Prognosis
Even after careful microscopic surgical removal, 10% to 20% of cholesteatomas may recur, which then require follow-up checks and/or treatment.

# Tumor or not?
The status of cholesteatomas as tumors is currently unresolved. There is some evidence to support the hypothesis that cholesteatomas are low-grade tumors  however, recent studies have failed to show consistent DNA instability in cholesteatomas.