Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Phrenic nerve
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# Overview
The phrenic nerve arises from the third, fourth, and fifth cervical spinal nerves (C3-C5) in humans. It arises from the fifth, sixth and seventh cervical spinal nerves (C5-7) in most domestic animals.

# Function
The phrenic nerve is made up mostly of motor nerve fibres for producing contractions of the diaphragm. In addition, it provides sensory innervation for many components of the mediastinum and pleura, as well as the upper abdomen, especially the liver and gall bladder.

# Path
Both phrenic nerves run from C3, C4 and C5 along the anterior scalene muscle deep to the carotid sheath.
- The right phrenic nerve passes over the brachiocephalic artery, posterior to the subclavian vein, and then crosses the root of the right lung and then leaves the thorax by passing through the vena cava hiatus opening in the diaphragm at the level of T8. The right phrenic nerve passes over the right atrium.
- The left phrenic nerve passes over the left ventricle and pierces the diaphragm separately.
Both these nerves supply motor fibres to the diaphragm and sensory fibres to the fibrous pericardium, mediastinal pleura and diaphragmatic peritoneum.
The pericardiacophrenic artery and vein(s) travel with the phrenic nerve.

# Clinical relevance
Pain arising from structures served by the phrenic nerve is often "referred" to other somatic regions served by spinal nerves C3-C5. For example, a subphrenic abscess (beneath the diaphragm) might cause a patient to feel pain in the right shoulder.
Irritation of the phrenic nerve (or the tissues supplied by it) leads to the hiccup reflex. A hiccup is a spasmodic contraction of the diaphram, which pulls air against the closed folds of the larynx.
The phrenic nerve must be identified during thoracic surgery and preserved. It passes anterior to the hilum of the corresponding lung, and therefore can be identified easily. Severing the phrenic nerve will paralyse that half of the diaphragm. Breathing will be made more difficult but will continue provided the other nerve is intact.

# Additional images
- Transverse section of thorax, showing relations of pulmonary artery.
- The arch of the aorta, and its branches.
- Superficial dissection of the right side of the neck, showing the carotid and subclavian arteries.
- The right brachial plexus with its short branches, viewed from in front.
Pierre Potain
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Pierre Charles Edouard Potain (July 19, 1825 - January, 5 1901) was a French cardiologist who was born in Paris. For much of his career he was associated with Necker Hospital in Paris. He was an assistant to Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud (1796-1881), and regarded Bouillaud as a major influence in his study of cardiology.
Potain made several contributions involving cardiovascular disease and his testing of cardiac-related matters. Some of the tests included analysis of jugular venous waves, heart gallop rhythm research, blood pressure testing and auscultatory analysis. In 1889 he was credited for making modifications to the sphygmomanometer, a device used to measure blood pressure that had been recently invented by Samuel Siegfried Carl von Basch (1837-1905).
The term Potain's sign is an extension of percussion dullness over the aortic arch from the manubrium to the third costal cartilage on the right-hand side of the body.
Potain's name is also associated with several other eponymous medical terms; the following terms are rarely used today and are for historical purposes only.
- Potain's disease: pulmonary edema
- Potain's solution: diluent used in a procedure to count red blood cells
- Potain's syndrome:  dyspepsia with expansion of the right ventricle, and an increase of pulmonary auscultation.

# Written works
- Des lesions des ganglions lymphatiques visceraux. Paris, Remquet, 1860.
- De la Succession des mouvements du coeur, refutation des opinions de M. Beau, lecon faite a l'Hotel-Dieu. Paris: impr. de H. Plon, 1863
- Note sur les dedoublements normaux des bruits du coeur, presentee a la Societe medicale des hopitaux, dans la seance du 22 juin 1866, par le Dr Potain,. Paris: impr. de F. Malteste, 1866.
- Des mouvements et des bruits qui se passent dans les veines jugulaires. Bull. Soc. Med. Hop. Paris (Memoires), 1867, 2 ser., 4, 3-27.
- Du Rhythme cardiaque appele bruit de galop, de son mecanisme et de sa valeur semeiologique, note presentee a la Societe medicale des hopitaux de Paris Paris: A. Delahaye, 1876. Tambien en : Bull. Soc. Med. Hop. Paris (Memoires), (1875), 1876, 12, 137-66.
- Des Fluxions pleuro-pulmonaires reflexes d'origine utero-ovarienne. Paris: impr. de Chaix, 1884.
- Du sphygmomanometre et de la mesure de la pression arterielle chez l'homme a l'etat normale et pathologique. Arch. Physiol. Nom. Path., 5 ser., 1, 556-69.
- Derniere lecon de M. le professeur Potain. Paris: impr. de J. Gainche, 1900.*
- La Pression arterielle de l'homme a l'etat normal et pathologique Paris: Masson, 1902.

# Reference
- Google-translated article from Historiadelamedicina.org
de:Pierre Potain
Pili annulati
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# Overview
Pili annulati (also known as "Ringed hair") is a peculiar disease in which the hair seems banded by alternating segments of light and dark color when seen in reflected light.:767:640
Pilomatricoma

# Overview
Pilomatricoma, also known as a calcifying epithelioma of Malherbe, Malherbe calcifying epithelioma, and Pilomatrixoma, is a benign skin tumor derived from the hair matrix.:670

# Histologic features
Pilomatricomas consist of anucleate squamous cells (called "ghost cells"), benign viable squamous cells and multi-nucleated giant cells.  The presence of calcifications is common.

# Pathogenesis
Pilomatricoma is associated with high levels of beta-catenin caused by either a mutation in the APC gene or beta-catenin gene. These high levels of beta-catenin can aid cell proliferation, inhibit cell death, and ultimately lead to cancer.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Pilomatricoma. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Pilomatricoma. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Pilomatricoma. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Perforanting pilomatricoma. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Perforanting pilomatricoma. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Perforanting pilomatricoma. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Perforanting pilomatricoma. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
Pisiform bone
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# Overview
The pisiform bone (also called pisiform or lentiform bone) is a small knobbly, pea-shaped wrist bone.
The pisiform bone is found in the proximal row of the carpus. It is located where the ulna (inner bone of the forearm) joins the carpus (wrist). It articulates only with the triquetral.
It is a sesamoid bone.
The pisiform bone may be known by its small size, and by its presenting a single articular facet. It is situated on a plane anterior to the other carpal bones and is spheroidal in form.
The etymology derives from the Latin pisum which means "pea."

# Surfaces
Its dorsal surface presents a smooth, oval facet, for articulation with the triangular: this facet approaches the superior, but not the inferior border of the bone.
The volar surface is rounded and rough, and gives attachment to the transverse carpal ligament, and to the Flexor carpi ulnaris and Abductor digiti quinti.
The lateral and medial surfaces are also rough, the former being concave, the latter usually convex.
Pivmecillinam

# Overview
Pivmecillinam (INN) or amdinocillin pivoxil (USAN, trade names Selexid, Penomax and Coactabs) is an orally active prodrug of mecillinam, an extended-spectrum penicillin antibiotic. Pivmecillinam is the pivaloyloxymethyl ester of mecillinam. Neither drug is available in the United States.
Pivmecillinam is only considered to be active against Gram-negative bacteria, and is used primarily in the treatment of lower urinary tract infections. In the Nordic countries, it has been widely used in that indication since the 1970s. It has been proposed as the first-line drug of choice for empirical treatment of acute cystitis. It has also been used to treat paratyphoid fever.

# Adverse effects
The adverse effect profile of pivmecillinam is similar to that of other penicillins. The most common side effects of mecillinam use are rash and gastrointestinal upset, including nausea and vomiting.
Prodrugs that release pivalic acid when broken down by the body  such as pivmecillinam, pivampicillin and cefditoren pivoxil  have long been known to deplete levels of carnitine. This is not due to the drug itself, but to pivalate, which is mostly removed from the body by forming a conjugate with carnitine. Although short-term use of these drugs can cause a marked decrease in blood levels of carnitine, it is unlikely to be of clinical significance; long-term use, however, appears problematic and is not recommended.
Plant cuticle
Plant cuticles are a protective waxy covering produced only by the epidermal cells  of leaves, young shoots and all other aerial plant organs without periderm.   The cuticle tends to be thicker on the top of the leaf, but is not always thicker in xerophytic plants living in dry climates than in mesophytic plants from wetter climates, despite a persistent myth to that effect.
The cuticle is composed of an insoluble cuticular membrane impregnated by and covered with soluble waxes. Cutin, a polyester polymer composed of inter-esterified straight-chain hydroxy acids which are cross-linked by ester and epoxide bonds, is the best-known structural component of the cuticular membrane. The cuticle can also contain a non-saponifiable hydrocarbon polymer known as Cutan. The cuticular membrane is impregnated with cuticular waxes and covered with epicuticular waxes, which are mixtures of hydrophobic aliphatic compounds, hydrocarbons with chain lengths typically in the range C16 to C36.
The plant cuticle is one of a series of innovations, together with stomata, xylem and phloem and intercellular spaces in stem and later leaf mesophyll tissue, that plants evolved more than 450 million years ago during the transition between life in water and life on land. Together, these features enabled plant shoots exploring aerial environments to conserve water by internalising the gas exchange surfaces, enclosing them in a waterproof membrane and providing a variable-aperture control mechanism, the stomatal guard cells, which regulate the rates of transpiration and CO2 exchange.
In addition to its function as a permeability barrier for water and other molecules, the micro and nano-structure of the cuticle confer specialised surface properties that prevent contamination of plant tissues with external water, dirt and microorganisms. Many plants, such as the leaves of the sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) exhibit ultra-hydrophobic and self-cleaning properties that have been described by Barthlott and Neinhuis (1997). The lotus effect has potential uses in biomimetic technical materials.
"The waxy sheet of cuticle also functions in defense, forming a physical barrier that resists penetration by virus particles, bacterial cells, and the spores or growing filaments of fungi".
Platensimycin
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Platensimycin is a member of a previously unknown class of antibiotics, which acts by blocking enzymes involved in the of the condensation steps in fatty acid biosynthesis, which bacteria need to biosynthesise cell membranes (-ketoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein (ACP)) synthase I/II (FabF/FabB). Other enzymes in this pathway have similarly been proven antibiotic targets for example FabI, the enoyl-ACP (acyl carrier protein) reductase, that is inhibited by isoniazid and related compounds and the antiseptic agent triclosan.  It is an experimental new drug in preclinical trials in an effort to combat MRSA in a mouse model. The newly discovered natural product inhibitor was first isolated from a strain of Streptomyces platensis by the Merck group.
Recently, a first total synthesis of racemic platensimycin has been published. Its structure consists of a 3-amino-2,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid polar part linked through an amine bond to a lipophilic pentacyclicketolide.
Pollicization
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# Overview
Pollicization is a plastic surgery technique in which a thumb is created from an existing finger. Typically this consists of surgically migrating the index finger to the position of the thumb in patients who are either born without a functional thumb (most common) or in patients who have lost their thumb traumatically and are not amenable to other preferred methods of thumb reconstruction such as toe-to-hand transfers.
During pollicization the index finger metacarpal bone is cut and the finger is rotated approximately 120 to 160 degrees and replaced at the base of the hand at the usual position of the thumb.  The arteries and veins are left attached.  If nerves and tendons are available from the previous thumb these are attached to provide sensation and movement to the new thumb ("neopollux").  If the thumb is congenitally absent other tendons from the migrated index finger may be shortened and rerouted to provide good movement.
The presence of an opposable thumb is considered important for manipulation of most objects in the physical world.  Children born without thumbs often adapt to the condition very well with few limitations therefore the decision to proceed with pollicization lies with the child's parents with the recommendation of their surgeon.  Persons who have grown to adulthood with functional thumbs and then lost a thumb find it highly beneficial to have a thumb reconstruction, not only from a functional but from a mental and emotional standpoint.
Another case for pollicization is where someone is born with a hand which has five fingers, but the radialmost finger is an ordinary finger and not a thumb.
Polymer blend
A polymer blend, polymer alloy, or polymer mixture is  a member of a class of materials analogous to metal alloys, in which two or more polymers are blended together to create a new material with different physical properties. 
Polymer blends can be broadly divided into three categories: miscible, partially miscible and immiscible blends. The latter is by far the most populous group.

# Notes
-   Gert R. Strobl (1996). The Physics of Polymers  Concepts for Understanding Their Structures and Behavior. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-60768-4..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em} Section 3.2 Polymer Mixtures
Pores of Kohn
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The Pores of Kohn are pores between adjacent alveoli, or interalveolar connections. They function as a means of collateral ventilation; that is, if the lung is partially deflated, ventilation can occur to some extent through these pores. The pores also allow the passage of other materials such as fluid and bacteria.
The Pores of Kohn take their name from the German physician Hans Kohn  who first described them in 1893 .
Porokeratosis

# Overview
Porokeratosis is a specific disorder of keratinization that is characterized histologically by the presence of a cornoid lamella, a thin column of closely stacked, parakeratotic cells extending through the stratum corneum with a thin or absent granular layer.:532

# Types
Porokeratosis may be divided into the following clinical types: :532
- Plaque-type porokeratosis (also known as "Classic porokeratosis" and "Porokeratosis of Mibelli") is characterized by skin lesions that start as small, brownish papules that slowly enlarge to form irregular, annular, hyperkeratotic or verrucous plaques.:533:566 Sometimes they may show gross overgrowth and even horn-like structures may develop.  Skin malignancy, although rare, is reported from all types of porokeratosis. Squamous cell carcinomae has been reported to develop in Mibelli's type porokeratosis over partianal areas involving anal mucosa. This was the first report mentioning mucosal malignancy in any form of porokeratosis.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Porokeratosis of mibelli. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Disseminated superficial porokeratosis is a more generalized processes and involves mainly the extremities in a bilateral, symmetric fashion.:533  In about 50% of cases, skin lesions only develop in sun-exposed areas, and this is referred to as disseminated superficial actinic porokeratosis:533
- Porokeratosis palmaris et plantaris disseminata is characterized by skin lesions that are superficial, small, relatively uniform, and demarcated by a distinct peripheral ridge of no more than 1mm in height.:534:567:1668
- Linear porokeratosis is characterized clinically skin lesions are identical to those of classic porokeratosis, including lichenoid papules, annular lesions, hyperkeratotic plaques with central atrophy, and the characteristic peripheral ridge.:567:1668
- Punctate porokeratosis is a skin condition associated with either classic porokeratosis or linear porokeratosis types of porokeratosis, and is characterized by multiple, minute, and discrete punctate, hyperkeratotic, seed-like skin lesions surrounded by a thin, raised margin on the palms and soles.:535:1668
- Porokeratosis plantaris discreta is a skin condition that occurs in adults, with a 4:1 female preponderance, characterized by a sharply marginated, rubbery, wide-based papules.:213  It is also known as "Steinberg's lesion". It was characterized in 1970.

# Pathology
Porokeratosis has a characteristic histomorphologic feature known as a cornoid lamella.