Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Weak acid
- Acid-base extraction
- Acid-base reaction
- Acid-base physiology
- Acid-base homeostasis
- Dissociation constant
- Acidity function
- Buffer solutions
- pH
- Proton affinity
- Self-ionization of water
- Acids:
Lewis acids
Mineral acids
Organic acids
Strong acids
Superacids
Weak acids
- Lewis acids
- Mineral acids
- Organic acids
- Strong acids
- Superacids
- Weak acids
- Bases:
Lewis bases
Organic bases
Strong bases
Superbases
Non-nucleophilic bases
Weak bases
- Lewis bases
- Organic bases
- Strong bases
- Superbases
- Non-nucleophilic bases
- Weak bases
A weak acid is an acid that does not ionize in a solution to a significant extent; that is, if the acid was represented by the general formula HA, then in aqueous solution a significant amount of undissociated HA still remains. Weak acids in water dissociate as
\mathrm{ HA_{(aq)} \, \leftrightarrow \, H^+\,_{(aq)} +\, A^-\,_{(aq)} }.
The equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products are related by the Acidity constant expression, (Ka):
\mathrm{ K_a\, =\, \frac {}{} }
The greater the value of Ka, the more the formation of H+ is favored, and the lower the pH of the solution.  The Ka of weak acids varies between 1.810-16 and 55.5.  Acids with a Ka less than 1.810-16 are weaker acids than water.  Acids with a Ka of greater than 55.5 are strong acids and almost totally dissociate when dissolved in water. The vast majority of acids are weak acids. Organic acids are a large subset of weak acids. Common household weak organic acids include acetic acid found in vinegar, and citric acid found in lemons; weak mineral acids include boric acid used as an antiseptic and eyewash and phosphoric acid that appears in many soft drinks.
White Ash
The White Ash (also called Biltmore ash, Biltmore white ash or Cane Ash) (Fraxinus americana) is one of the largest of the ash genus Fraxinus, growing to 35 m (115 ft) tall. It is native to eastern North American hardwood forests, found in mesophytic forests from Quebec to northern Florida. The wood is white, strong, and straight-grained. The name White Ash apparently derives from the glaucous undersides of the leaves. The leaves are 20-30 cm long, pinnately compound with 7 (occasionally 5 or 9) leaflets, 6-13 cm (2-5 in) long. They turn yellow, red, or purple in the fall. Cultivars, which have superior fall color, include 'Autumn Applause' and 'Autumn Purple'.
This tree, like all ashes, is dioecious, with male and female flowers being born on separate trees. Flowering occurs in early spring after 30-55 growing degree days. The fruit when fully formed is a samara 3-5 cm long, the seed 1.5-2 cm long with a pale brown wing 1.5-3 cm long, and can be blown a good distance from the parent tree.
White ash trees have an average natural lifespan of 100 years.
It is the timber of choice for production of baseball bats and tool handles.  The wood is also favorable for furniture and flooring. White Ash is also a food plant for the larvae of several Lepidoptera species - see List of Lepidoptera which feed on Ashes.
The White Ash is  similar in appearance to the Green Ash, making identification difficult. The lower sides of the leaves of White Ash are lighter-colored than their upper sides, and the outer surface of the twigs of White Ash may be flaky or peeling. Green Ash leaves are similar in color on upper and lower sides, and twigs are smoother. Also, these species tend to occupy different habitat niches, with White Ash found in moist upland sites and Green Ash in wet forests of floodplains or swamps, although there is some overlap in habitat distribution.
Wrap rage
Wrap rage (or wrapping rage or package rage) is the common name for heightened levels of anger, frustration and violence resulting from the inability to open hard-to-remove packaging.
In 2006, Consumer Reports magazine officially recognized the "wrap rage" phenomenon when it created the Oyster Awards for the products with the hardest-to-open packaging. A story in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette about "wrap rage" was featured on The Colbert Report when host Stephen Colbert (character)|Stephen Colbert tried to use a knife to remove a new calculator from its packaging, to no avail.
Tools and implements used in attempts to open packages while under the influence of wrap rage are typically applied in a reckless and unsafe manner, and with the use of excessive force.
Wrap rage may result in minor injuries, such as cuts, sprains and bruises to the fingers and hands or strains to the shoulder muscle caused by exerting excessive efforts in attempting to open packages.  In addition to personal injuries, wrap rage can result in damages to the goods (e.g. to instruction manuals, CDs or warranty cards) or other items nearby at the products eventual opening.  Merely opening some blister packs will render the contents un-returnable as stores insist on receiving returned goods in a packaged condition - impossible if the blister pack has to be opened by force.
Zomepirac

# Overview
Zomepirac is an orally effective NSAID that has antipyretic actions. It was developed by  McNeil Pharmaceutical and approved by the FDA in 1980 and sold as the sodium salt, zomepirac sodium, under the brand name Zomax.  Due to its clinical effectiveness, it was preferred by doctors in many situations and obtained a large share of the analgesics market;  however, it was subsequently withdrawn in March 1983 due to its tendency to cause serious anaphylaxis in an unpredictable subset of the patient population.

# Indications
Zomepirac was indicated for the management of mild to severe pain.  Multiple clinical trials demonstrated zomepirac to be more effective than aspirin or codeine alone and to be as effective as analgesic combinations containing codeine or other opioids.  Zomepirac provided analgesia comparable with usual intramuscular doses of morphine in postoperative pain and that with long-term use, neither tolerance to its analgesic effect nor psychological or physical dependence had been demonstrated.

# Chemical structure
Zomepirac is the sodium salt of 5-(4-chlorobenzoyl)-1,4 dimethyl-1H-pyrrole-2-acetate dihydrate.  It is a pyrrole-acetic acid which is structurally related to tolmetin.

# Mechanism of action
It is a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor.

# Toxicity
Zomepirac does not cause anaphylaxis directly, but it is metabolised by UGT to a reactive glucuronide, which binds irreversibly to plasma albumin.
Retinene

# Overview
The Retinenes (Retinene1 and Retinene2) are chemical derivatives of the dietary supplement vitamin A (see retinol) formed through oxidation reactions.
Retinene1 is better known as retinaldehyde or simply retinal and is fundamental in the transduction of light into visual signals in the photoreceptor level of the retina (known as the visual cycle).  Retinene2 is more formally known as dehydroretinaldehyde.
The energy of impinging photons will convert retinaldehyde from an 11-cis isomer into an all-trans form.  In the retina, this conversion induces a conformational change in the surrounding photopsin protein pigment, leading to signaling through the G protein transducin. Retinaldehyde also forms a part of bacteriorhodopsin, a light-induced proton pump found in some archaea.
Experimentally, it is possible to replace 11-cis retinaldehyde by perfusing retinal tissue preparations with retinaldehyde derivatives.  Selective modification of the retinaldehyde structure, particularly the density of electrons in the -orbitals, can lead to insights into the interaction between the retinaldehyde moiety and the surrounding pigment protein.
2-Pyrone

# Overview
2-Pyrone (-pyrone or pyran-2-one) is an unsaturated cyclic chemical compound with the molecular formula C5H4O2.  It is isomeric with 4-pyrone.
2-Pyrone is used in organic synthesis as a building block for more complex chemical structures because it may participate in a variety of cycloaddition reactions to form bicyclic lactones.  For example, it readily undergoes Diels-Alder reactions with alkynes producing, upon loss of carbon dioxide, substituted benzenes.. The Gogte Synthesis (1938) is a method for the alkylation of certain pyrones with acid chlorides.
2-Pyrone also forms the the core structure of a variety of natural organic compounds.  For example, the coumarins are an important class of compounds which are benzo-fused derivatives of 2-pyrone.
- 4-Pyrone
- Coumarin
2C-B-BZP
2C-B-BZP is a research chemical and stimulant of the piperazine family.

# Chemistry
2C-B-BZP is 2-bromo-4,5-dimethoxy-benzylpiperazine.  It is related to BZP and shares the ring-substitution pattern of the psychedelic phenethylamine 2C-B, although 2C-B-BZP is not a phenethylamine itself.

# Dosage
Reported doses are mainly in the 100-200 mg range.

# Effects
2C-B-BZP produces stimulant effects that last 3-6 hours, depending on the dose. Despite its structural similarity to 2C-B it does not produce psychedelic effects as the binding groups are in the wrong position to activate the 5HT2A receptor. 2C-B-BZP is also said by several sources to increase the effects of other compounds when combined. Side effects include headaches and nausea, similar to other piperazine derivatives used recreationally.

# Legality
2C-B-BZP is unscheduled and uncontrolled in the United States, but possession and sales of 2C-B-BZP could possibly be prosecuted under the Federal Analog Act because of its structural similarities to 2C-B or BZP. 2C-B-BZP is said to be illegal to posses, use or sale in Japan where it used to be sold in local smartshops.

# Pharmacology
The pharmacology of 2C-B-BZP is unknown.

# Dangers
The toxicity of 2C-B-BZP is not known, although Benzylpiperazine (BZP), which is chemically related, has known toxicity.

# Popularity
2C-B-BZP is unknown on the black market, though it is available from research chemical vendors that operate on the internet.  It is more common in South Africa than Europe and North America.
2C-B-FLY
2C-B-FLY is a psychedelic phenethylamine of the 2C family.  It was first synthesized by Aaron P. Monte, and sometimes used as an entheogen.

# Chemistry
2C-B-FLY is 8-bromo-2,3,6,7-benzo-dihydro-difuran-ethylamine.  The full name of the chemical is 2-(8-bromo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrofurobenzofuran-4-yl)ethanamine.
In theory, dihydrodifuran analogues of any of the 2Cx / DOx family of drugs could be made, and would be expected to show similar activity to the parent compound. So in the same way that 2C-B-FLY is the dihydrodifuran analogue of 2C-B, the 8-iodo equivalent 2C-I-FLY would be the dihydrodifuran analogue of 2C-I, and the 8-methyl equivalent 2C-M-FLY would be the dihydrodifuran analogue of 2C-D.
Other related compounds can also be produced, where the alpha carbon of the ethylamine chain is methylated, the amphetamine derivative 3C-B-FLY would be made, this compound being the dihydrodifuran analogue of DOB, and would also be the unsaturated equivalent of Bromo-DragonFLY.
Where only one methoxy group of a 2Cx drug is cyclised into a dihydrofuran ring, the resulting compound is known as a "hemifly", and when an unsaturated furan ring is used the compound is known as a "hemi-dragonfly". A large family of compounds can thus be derived, many of which can be predicted to be active hallucinogens based on the known structure-activity relationships of these drugs, although most of these compounds have not yet been made and tested.
File:2C-B-FLY SAR.png

# Dosage
Alexander Shulgin lists a dosage of 2C-B-FLY at 10 mg orally.
However, various other information reveals that 2C-B-FLY is active as low as 1 mg.

# Effects
2C-B-FLY produces psychedelic effects that last 6-8 hours, or up to 12 hours in larger doses.

# Legality
2C-B-FLY is unscheduled and uncontrolled in the United States, but possession and sales of 2C-B-FLY could probably be prosecuted under the Federal Analog Act because of its structural similarities to 2C-B.

# Pharmacology
The hallucinogenic effect of 2C-B-FLY is mediated by its partial agonistic activity at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, but 2C-B-FLY also has a high binding affinity for the 5-HT2B and  5-HT2C serotonin receptor.

# Dangers
The toxicity of 2C-B-FLY is not known.

# Popularity
2C-B-FLY is unknown on the black market, though it is available from research chemical vendors that operate on the internet.
4-HO-DET
4-HO-DET, also known as 4-hydroxy-diethyl-tryptamine, CZ-74, or ethocin, is a hallucinogenic drug and psychedelic compound of moderate duration. 4-HO-DET is a substituted tryptamine, structurally related to psilocin and 4-HO-DIPT.

# Analogs
The acetic acid ester of 4-HO-DET is known as 4-AcO-DET or ethacetin. The phosphoric acid ester of 4-HO-DET is known as 4-phosphoryloxy-DET, CEY-19, or ethocybin.

# History
4-HO-DET received the lab code CZ-74 in the late 1950s by the inventors of the substance, Albert Hofmann and Franz Troxler. The substance was used together with its phosporyloxy-analog CEY-19 in human clinical trials in the 1960s by the German researchers Hanscarl Leuner and G. Baer.

# Dosage
10-25mg is the usual oral dosage for 4-HO-DET, while the acetate and phosphate esters are said to require a slightly higher dosage.

# Effects
Ethocin produces entheogenic effects similar to LSD and psilocybin.  Some users have reported unpleasant anxiety and stimulation with this drug, while other accounts label the experience as being much milder than LSD or psilocybin.
Psilocin
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# Overview
Psilocin,(4-HO-DMT) sometimes called psilocine or psilotsin, is a psychedelic (hallucinogenic) mushroom alkaloid. It is found in most psychedelic mushrooms together with its close congener psilocybin. Psilocin is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
Psilocin is almost identical to the chemical structure of the chemical of another known hallucinogen, bufotenin.  The only difference is the position of the hydroxyl (OH-) group on the benzene ring  in psilocin, the hydroxyl group is at the 4-position, while in bufotenin it is at the 5-position.

# History
The Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann and the laboratory assistant Hans Tscherter from Sandoz isolated psilocin and its phosphate ester psilocybin from Psilocybe mushrooms in 1959 guided by self-administration.

# Chemistry
Psilocin can be obtained by dephosphorylation of natural psilocybin under strongly acidic or under alkaline conditions (hydrolysis). One synthetic route uses the Speeter-Anthony tryptamine synthesis starting from 4-hydroxyindole.
Psilocin is relatively unstable in solution due to its phenolic OH group. Under alkaline conditions in the presence of oxygen it immediately forms bluish and dark black degradation products. Similar products are also formed under acidic conditions in the presence of oxygen and Fe3+ ions (Keller's reagent, FeCl3 / MeOH / HCl). Psilocin is an amine and forms salts with acids  that are usually more stable upon storage. Psilocin base can be evaporated by heating.

# Pharmacology
Psilocybin is rapidly dephosphorylated in the body to psilocin which then acts as a partial agonist at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor in the brain where it mimics the effects of serotonin (5-HT). Psilocin is an 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A/2C agonist.
48, XXYY

# Overview
48, XXYY syndrome  is a sex chromosome  anomaly.
It was previously considered to be a variation of Klinefelter's  syndrome.  It is still  considered a part of the syndrome by some definitions.

# Incidence
It affects one in every  18,000-40,000 male births. 

# Presentation
Common features include tall  stature, gynecomastia,  truncal obesity, skin ulcers, and a craniofacial dysmorphism described  as a "pugilistic" facial appearance.

# History
The  first published report of a boy with a 48,XXYY karyotype was by Sylfest  Muldal and Charles H. Ockey in Manchester, England in 1960. 
It  was found in a 15-year-old mentally challenged boy who had signs of  Klinefelter syndrome; eventually, it appeared that he didn't have the  Klinefelter Syndrome but, as shown above, the XXYY syndrome.
4S Trial

# Objective
The Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) is a multicenter clinical trial that was performed in 1990s in Scandinavia. The objective of the study was to assess effect of a cholesterol-lowering drug called simvastatin on mortality and morbidity in a group of 4444 patients with coronary heart disease, aged between 35 and 70 years.

# Methods
The Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) enrolled 4444 patients with known CAD (angina pectoris or previous myocardial infarction) and serum cholesterol  levels between 212 and 309 mg/dL. Patients were randomly assigned to either simvastatin (20 to 40 mg/day) or placebo and were followed-up for a median period of 5.4 years.

# Results
- Total cholesterol reduced by 25%
- LDL-C levels reduced by 35%
- Mean HDL-C improved by 8%
- Mortality rate was lower in the simvastatin group compared with that in the placebo group (8% vs 12%)
- Significant reductions in major coronary events (19 versus 28 percent)
The patients exhibited moderate hypercholesterolemia, between 5.5 and 8.0 mmol/l.
The trial showed that treatment of patients suffering from coronary heart disease with simvastatin had a lowering effect on mortality and morbidity.
2223 patients were assigned placebo and 2221 were assigned simvastatin treatment for a mean period of 5.4 years.  There was a 30% relative reduction in the risk of death with simvastatin treatment.  The absolute CHD-mortality was reduced from 8.5% to 5.0%, making the number needed to treat around 30 (thirty patients would need to be treated to prevent one death).  Additionally there was no excess morbidity of non-cardiac deaths from causes like cancer or suicide, a concern that has occasionally arisen in respect to the statins.
The treatment of 100 patients for six years would prevent four deaths of the disease and seven non-fatal myocardial infarcts.
The 4S study turned out to be a milestone in cardiology and evidence-based medicine - it was clearly proven that treatment with statins saved lives of patients with coronary heart disease.  A host of other large multicenter clinical trials followed that paved way to widespread use of this class of pharmaceuticals.
However, it should be noted that no trial of statin in primary prevention (people without symptomatic coronary artery disease or diabetes) has shown an overall health benefit.

# Conclusion
The study showed that long-term treatment with simvastatin is safe and improves survival in CAD patients.
Retinoid

# Overview
The retinoids are a class of chemical compounds that are related chemically to vitamin A. Retinoids are used in medicine, primarily due to the way they regulate epithelial cell growth.
Retinoids have many important and diverse functions throughout the body including roles in vision, regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation, growth of bone tissue, immune function, and activation of tumor suppressor genes.
Research is also being done into their ability to treat skin cancers. Currently 9-cis retinoic acid may be used topically to help treat skin lesions from Kaposi's sarcoma.

# Types
There are three generations of Retinoids:
- First generation retinoids: which include retinol, retinal, tretinoin (Retin-A), isotretinoin and alitretinoin.
- Second generation retinoids: which include etretinate and its metabolite acitretin.
- Third generation retinoids: which include tazarotene and bexarotene.

# Structure
The basic structure of the retinoid molecule consist of a cyclic end group, a polyene side chain and a polar end group.  The conjugated system formed by alternating C=C double bonds in the polyene side chain are responsible for the color of retinoids (typically yellow, orange, or red). Hence, many retinoids are chromophores. Alternation of side chains and end groups creates the various classes of retinoids.
First and Second generation retinoids are able to bind with several retinoid receptors due to the flexibility imparted by their alternating single and double bonds.
Third generation retinoids are less flexible than First and Second generation retinoids and therefore, interact with fewer retinoid receptors.

# Uses
Retinoids are used in the treatment of many diverse diseases and are effective in the treatment of a number of dermatological conditions such as inflammatory skin disorders, skin cancers, disorders of increased cell turnover(e.g. psoriasis), and photoaging.
Common skin conditions treated by retinoids include acne and psoriasis.

# Toxicity
Toxic effects occur with prolonged high intake (in children 25,000-500,000 IU daily). A medical sign of chronic poisoning is the presence of painful tender swellings on the long bones. Anorexia, skin lesions, hair loss, hepatosplenomegaly, papilloedema, bleeding, general malaise, pseudotumor cerebri, and death may also occur.
Chronic overdose also causes an increased liability of biological membranes and of the outer layer of the skin to peel.
Recent research has suggested a role for retinoids in cutaneous adverse effects for a variety of drugs including the Antimalarial drug proguanil. It is proposed that drugs such as proguanil act to disrupt retinoid homeostasis.
Abl gene

# Overview
Abelson murine leukemia viral oncogene homolog 1 also known as ABL1 is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the ABL1 gene (previous symbol ABL) located on chromosome 9. c-Abl is sometimes used to refer to the version of the gene found within the mammalian genome, while v-Abl refers to the viral gene.

# Function
The ABL1 proto-oncogene encodes a cytoplasmic and nuclear protein tyrosine kinase that has been implicated in processes of cell differentiation, cell division, cell adhesion, and stress response.  Activity of ABL1 protein is negatively regulated by its SH3 domain, and deletion of the SH3 domain turns ABL1 into an oncogene.  The t(9;22) translocation results in the head-to-tail fusion of the BCR and ABL1 genes, leading to a fusion gene present in many cases of chronic myelogenous leukemia. The DNA-binding activity of the ubiquitously expressed ABL1 tyrosine kinase is regulated by CDC2-mediated phosphorylation, suggesting a cell cycle function for ABL1.  The ABL1 gene is expressed as either a 6- or a 7-kb mRNA transcript, with alternatively spliced first exons spliced to the common exons 2-11.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in the ABL1 gene are associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML).  In CML, the gene is activated by being translocated within the BCR (breakpoint cluster region) gene on chromosome 22.  This new fusion gene, BCR-ABL, encodes an unregulated, cytoplasm-targeted tyrosine kinase that allows the cells to proliferate without being regulated by cytokines. This, in turn, allows the cell to become cancerous.
This gene is a partner in a fusion gene with the BCR gene in the Philadelphia chromosome, a characteristic abnormality in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and rarely in some other leukemia forms. The BCR-ABL transcript encodes a tyrosine kinase, which activates mediators of the cell cycle regulation system, leading to a clonal myeloproliferative disorder. The BCR-ABL protein can be inhibited by various small molecules.  One such inhibitor is imatinib mesylate, which occupies the tyrosine kinase domain and inhibits BCR-ABL's influence on the cell cycle.  Second generation BCR-ABL tyrosine-kinase inhibitors are also under development
to inhibit BCR-ABL mutants resistant to imatinib.