Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Brachial artery
The brachial artery is the major blood vessel of the upper arm.
It is a continuation of the axillary artery and it originates from the lower margin of teres major muscle and continues down the arm, until it reaches the cubital fossa at the elbow. It then ends by dividing into the radial and ulnar arteries which run down the forearm. In some individuals, the bifurcation occurs much earlier and the ulnar and radial arteries extend through the upper arm.
The brachial artery has several branches along its course. These supply the muscles of the upper arm, such as biceps brachii muscle and triceps brachii muscle, and contribute to important anastomotic networks of the elbow and (as the axillary artery) the shoulder.
The pulse of the brachial artery is palpable on the anterior aspect of the elbow and, with the use of a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) often used to measure the blood pressure.

# Branches
- Profunda brachii artery (also known as the deep brachial artery)
- Superior ulnar collateral artery
- Inferior branch
- Radial artery (a terminal branch)

# Additional images
- Cross-section through the middle of upper arm.
- The axillary artery and its branches.
- The radial and ulnar arteries.
- Ulnar and radial arteries. Deep view.
- The deep veins of the upper extremity.
- The right brachial plexus (infraclavicular portion) in the axillary fossa; viewed from below and in front.
- Front of right upper extremity, showing surface markings for bones, arteries, and nerves.

# External link
- Dissection at mvm.ed.ac.uk
- Image at umich.edu - pulse
- Template:EMedicineDictionary
Brachial plexus

# Overview
The brachial plexus is an arrangement of nerve fibres, running from the spine, specifically from above the fifth cervical vertebra to underneath the first thoracic vertebra (C5-T1). It proceeds through the neck, the axilla (armpit region) and into the arm.

# Function
- The brachial plexus is responsible for cutaneous and muscular innervation of the entire upper limb, with two exceptions: the trapezius muscle innervated by the spinal accessory nerve and an area of skin near the axilla innervated by the intercostobrachialis nerve.
- This function may be impaired by tumor growth of the Apical region of either Lung.
- Therefore, brachial plexus lesions can lead to severe functional impairment.

# Anatomy
One can remember the order of brachial plexus elements by way of the mnemonic, "Read The Damn Cadaver Book" - Roots, Trunks, Divisions, Cords, Branches or - Roots, Trunks, Divisions, Cords, Collateral/Pre-terminal Branches, and (Terminal) Branches.
- The five roots are the five anterior rami of the spinal nerves, after they have given off their segmental supply to the muscles of the neck.
- These roots merge to form three Trunks:
Superior or Upper (C5-C6)
Middle (C7)
Inferior or Lower (C8-T1)
- Superior or Upper (C5-C6)
- Middle (C7)
- Inferior or Lower (C8-T1)
- Each trunk then splits in two, to form six Divisions:
Anterior division of the superior, middle and inferior trunks
Posterior division of the superior, middle and inferior trunks
- Anterior division of the superior, middle and inferior trunks
- Posterior division of the superior, middle and inferior trunks
- These six divisions will re-group to become the three Cords. The cords are named by their position in respect to the axillary artery.
The posterior cord is formed from the three posterior divisions of the trunks (C5-T1).
The lateral cord is the anterior divisions from the upper and middle trunks (C5-C7).
The medial cord is simply a continuation of the lower trunk (C8-T1).
- The posterior cord is formed from the three posterior divisions of the trunks (C5-T1).
- The lateral cord is the anterior divisions from the upper and middle trunks (C5-C7).
- The medial cord is simply a continuation of the lower trunk (C8-T1).
- The branches are listed below. Most branch off of the cords, but a few branch (indicated in italics) directly off of earlier structures. The five in bold are considered "terminal branches".

# Diagram

## Specific branches

# Additional images
- Superficial dissection of the right side of the neck, showing the carotid and subclavian arteries.
- The axillary artery and its branches.
- Cutaneous nerves of right upper extremity. Posterior view.
- Diagram of segmental distribution of the cutaneous nerves of the right upper extremity. Posterior view.
- The right sympathetic chain and its connections with the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic plexuses.
- Side of neck, showing chief surface markings.
Branchial pouch

# Overview
In the development of vertebrate animals, Pharyngeal or branchial pouches form on the endodermal side between the branchial arches, and pharyngeal grooves (or clefts) form from the lateral ectodermal surface of the neck region to separate the arches. The pouches line up with the clefts, and these thin segments become gills in fish.

# The pouches

## First pouch
This is the only pouch in which the endoderm and ectoderm remain close together, as the tympanic membrane.  There is minimal mesoderm in the tympanic membrane.
- The endoderm lines the future auditory tube, middle ear, mastoid antrum, and inner layer of the tympanic membrane.
- The ectoderm lines the future external acoustic meatus and outer layer of the tympanic membrane.
- Mesoderm  remains as the middle portion of the tympanic membrane, where the endoderm of the first pharyngeal pouch and the ectoderm of the first pharyngeal cleft have met.

## Second pouch
- Contributes to the middle ear, tonsils, supplied by the facial nerve.

## Third pouch
- The third pouch possesses Dorsal and Ventral wings. Derivatives of Dorsal include the inferior parathyroid glands, while the ventral wings fuse to form the cytoreticular cells of the thymus. The main nerve supply to the derivatives of this pouch is Cranial Nerve IX, glossopharyngeal nerve.

## Fourth pouch
- Derivatives include the superior parathyroid gland and parafollicular C-Cells of the thyroid gland.

## Fifth pouch
- Rudimentary structure, becomes part of the fourth pouch contributing to thyroid C-cells.
Brassinosteroid
Brassinosteroids (BR) are a group of steroidal plant hormones. Brassinolide was the first of these steroid compounds discovered in 1973, when it was shown that pollen from Brassica napus could promote stem elongation and cell divisions and that the biologically active molecule was a steroid that the authors called Brassins. Since their discovery over 70 BR compounds have been isolated from plants
The BR is biosynthesised from campesterol, the biosynthetic pathway was elucidated  by Japanese researchers and later show to be correct through the analysis of BR biosynthesis mutants in Arabidopsis, tomato and peas. The sites for BR synthesis in planta have not been experimentally demonstrated. One well-supported hypothesis is that all tissues produce BRs, since BR biosynthetic and signal transduction genes are expressed in a wide range of plant organs, and short-distance activity of the hormones also supports this. Experiments have shown that long distance transport is possible and flows in an acropetal direction, but it is not known if this movement is biologically relevant.
BRs have been shown to be involved in numerous plant processes:
- Promotes cell expansion and cell elongation; works with auxin to do so
- It has an unclear role in cell division and cell wall regeneration
- Promotes vascular differentiation; BR signal transduction has been studied during vascular differentiation
- Is necessary for pollen elongation for pollen tube formation
- Accelerates senescence in dying tissue cultured cells; delayed senescence in BR mutants supports that this action may be biologically relevant
- Can provide some protection to plants during chilling and drought stress
Breslow's depth

# Overview
In medicine, Breslow's depth is used as a prognostic factor in melanoma of the skin. It is a description of how deeply tumor cells have invaded.

# History
Depth of invasion was first reported as a prognostic factor in melanoma by the surgeon Dr. A. Breslow in 1970. In recognition of his contribution, the depth of invasion of melanoma is referred to by the eponym Breslow's depth.
Subsequent studies confirmed and refined the role of depth of invasion in the prognosis of malignant melanoma. Currently, Breslow's depth is included in the AJCC staging guidelines for melanoma as a major prognostic factor.

# Measurement
Breslow's depth is most accurately measured by evaluating the entire tumor via an excisional biopsy. Determination from specimens obtained using other biopsy techniques, such as a wedge or punch biopsy, are less accurate. Breslow's depth cannot be calculated from a shave biopsy that only contains a portion of the tumor because it lead to an underestimation of its thickness.
Breslow's depth is determined by using an ocular micrometer at a right angle to the skin to directly measure the depth to which tumor cells have invaded the skin. Breslow's depth is measured from the granular layer of the epidermis down to the deepest point of invasion (sometimes involving detached nests of cells).

# Prognostic importance
Breslow's depth is one of the cornerstones of the current AJCC TNM staging of malignant melanoma. A large study validated the importance of Breslow's depth as one of the three most important prognostic factors in melanoma (the others being T stage and ulceration). Breslow's depth also accurately predicted the risk for lymph node metastasis, with deeper tumors being more likely to involve the nodes.
The above studies showed that depth was a continuous variable correlating with prognosis. However, for staging purposes, the most recent AJCC guidelines use cutoffs of 1 mm, 2 mm, and 4 mm to divide patients into stages.
Survival figures from British Association of Dermatologist Guidelines 2002

# Clark's level
Clark's levels is a related staging system, often used in conjunction with Breslow's depth, which depends on multiple anatomical landmarks in the skin. In fact, Clark's level was the primary factor in earlier AJCC staging schemae for melanoma. However, with further study, it has been shown that Clark's level has a lower predictive value, is less reproducible, and is more operator-dependent as compared with Breslow's depth. Thus, in the current (2002) AJCC staging system, Clark's level has prognostic significance only in patients with very thin (Breslow depth <1 mm) melanomas.
Bridging ligand
A bridging ligand is an atom or a polyatomic entity that connects two or more metal centres in a complex. In naming a complex that includes a bridging ligand, the bridging ligand is preceded by "."
Virtually all ligands are known to bridge, with the exception of amines and ammonia.  Particularly common bridging ligands are:
- OH,
- S2,
- NH2
- CO
- Halides
- Hydride
- Thiolates and alkoxides
- Cyanide

# Polyfunctional ligands
Polyfunctional ligands can attach to metals in many ways and thus can bridge metals in diverse ways, including sharing of one atom or using several atoms. Examples of such polyatomic ligands are the oxoanions CO32 and the related Carboxylate,  PO43, and the polyoxometallates.
Bromo-DragonFLY

# Overview
Bromo-DragonFLY, also known as ABDF, is a psychedelic hallucinogenic drug somewhat related to the phenethylamine family. Bromo-DragonFLY is considered an extremely potent hallucinogen, only slightly less potent than LSD with a normal dose in the region of 200g to 800g, and it has an extremely long duration of action. It is not illegal anywhere in the world at this time (except in Sweden, where it is classified as an narcotic) although it may be considered a controlled substance analogue under US and Australian drug laws. Bromo-DragonFLY has a stereocenter and R-(-)-bromo-DragonFLY is the more active stereoisomer.

# Pharmacology
The hallucinogenic effect of bromo-DragonFLY is mediated by its agonist activity at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor. Bromo-DragonFLY also has a high binding affinity for the 5-HT2B and  5-HT2C serotonin receptor. User reports of the effects of bromo-DragonFLY suggest that while the effects are very long lasting, they tend to be somewhat milder than those of traditional hallucinogens such as LSD, suggesting that while bromo-DragonFLY is a full agonist at the 5HT2A receptor, it may not be activating the intracellular signalling pathways following receptor binding as effectively as LSD.

# History
Bromo-DragonFLY was first synthesized by Matthew A. Parker in the laboratory of David E. Nichols in 1998.

### Deaths
Bromo-DragonFLY can sometimes be found on "blotters" (small bits of paper containing the substance) reminiscent of the most commonly found form of LSD, thus making it difficult to identify which substance it is carrying. Erowid reports two news stories, one in Sweden and one in Norway, about deaths possibly involved with bromo-dragonFLY.
Erowid Bromo-Dragonfly vault
Buffon's needle
In mathematics, Buffon's needle problem is a question first posed in the 18th century by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon:
Using integral geometry, the problem can be solved to get a Monte Carlo method to approximate .

# Solution
The problem in more mathematical terms is: Given a needle of length l dropped on a plane ruled with parallel lines t units apart, what is the probability that the needle will cross a line?
Let x be the distance from the center of the needle to the closest line, let  be the acute angle between the needle and the lines, and let t\ge l.
The probability density function of x between 0 and t /2 is
The probability density function of  between 0 and /2 is
The two random variables, x and , are independent, so the joint probability density function is the product
The needle crosses a line if
Integrating the joint probability density function gives the probability that the needle will cross a line:
For n needles dropped with h of the needles crossing lines, the probability is
which can be solved for  to get
Now suppose t . In this case, integrating the joint probability density function, we obtain:
where m(\theta)  is the minimum between
(l/2)\sin\theta and t/2 .
Thus, performing the above integration, we see that,
when t ,
the probability that the needle will cross a line is

# Lazzarini's estimate
Mario Lazzarini, an Italian mathematician, performed the Buffon's needle experiment in 1901.  Tossing a needle 3408 times, he attained the well-known estimate 355/113 for , which is a very accurate value, differing from  by no more than 3107.  This is an impressive result, but is something of a cheat.
Lazzarini chose needles whose length was 5/6 of the width of the strips of wood.  In this case, the probability that the needles will cross the lines is 5/3.  Thus if one were to drop n needles and get x crossings, one would estimate  as
 is very nearly 355/113; in fact, there is no better rational approximation with fewer than 5 digits in the numerator and denominator.  So if one had n and x such that:
-r equivalently,
-ne would derive an unexpectedly accurate approximation to , simply because the fraction 355/113 happens to be so close to the correct value.  But this is easily arranged.  To do this, one should pick n as a multiple of 213, because then 113n/213 is an integer; one then drops n needles, and hopes for exactly x = 113n/213 successes.
If one drops 213 needles and happens to get 113 successes, then one can triumphantly report an estimate of  accurate to six decimal places.  If not,  one can just do  213 more trials and hope  for  a total of 226 successes; if not, just repeat as necessary.    Lazzarini performed 3408 = 213  16 trials, making it seem likely that this is the strategy he used to obtain his "estimate".
Bunion overview

# Overview
A bunion (hallux valgus) is a sometimes painful structural deformity of the bones and the joint between the foot and big toe.
A bunion is an enlargement of bone or tissue around the joint at the base of the big toe (metatarsophalangeal joint). The big toe may turn in toward the second toe (displacement), and the tissues surrounding the joint may be swollen and tender.
Today the term usually is used to refer to the pathological bump on the side of the great toe joint.  The bump is the swollen bursal sac and/or an osseous (bony) deformity that has grown on the mesophalangeal joint (where the first metatarsal bone and hallux meet).
The term "hallux valgus" or "hallux abducto valgus" are the most commonly-used medical terms associated with a bunion deformity, where "hallux" refers to the great toe, "valgus" refers to the abnormal rotation of the great toe commonly associated with bunion deformities, and "abducto" refers to the abnormal drifting or inward leaning of the great toe towards the second toe, which is also commonly associated with bunion disorders.
C19orf44 (gene)
Chromosome 19 open reading frame 44 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C19orf44 gene.
 C19orf44 is an uncharacterized protein with an unknown function in humans. C19orf44 is non-limiting implying that the protein (and gene) exists in other species besides human. The protein contains one domain of unknown function (DUF) that is highly conserved throughout its orthologs. This protein is most highly expressed in the testis and ovary, but also has significant expression in the thyroid and parathyroid. Other names for this protein include: LOC84167.

# Gene
The entire gene is 25,416 base pairs in length, and has an unprocessed mRNA that is 3,446 nucleotides in length. It contains 10 exons that code for a 657 amino acid protein. There are 7 splice variants that exist for C19orf44.

## Locus
C19orf44 is located on the nineteenth chromosome on 19p13.11.

# Protein

## Primary Sequence
C19orf44 has a molecular weight of 71,343 Da, and an isoelectric point of 5.52. The amino acid sequence for C19orf44 was found to be serine rich using tools on EMBL-EBI. Additionally, there is a domain of unknown function (DUF) located from amino acid 474 to 641.

## Post-translational modifications
C19orf44 has experimentally determined phosphorylation sites at the S114 and S213 positions. Other predicted post-translational modifications were found using tools on ExPASy and are shown in the protein illustration below. N-terminal acetylation is predicted at S3. There is also a predicted sumoylation motif from amino acid 212 to 221.

## Localization
C19orf44 is predicted to be localized in the nucleus or cytosol.

# Expression
C19orf44 is shown to be expressed at low levels in various tissues throughout the body as shown by NCBI's EST Profile. It most highly expressed in the testis and ovary, but also has significant expression in the thyroid and parathyroid. C19orf44 is expressed in all stages of development, except for in infants. There is an increased expression of C19orf44 in a developing fetus.

# Homology and Evolution

## Orthologs
Orthologs of C19orf44 have been found in most mammals and a select few other vertebrates and invertebrates. Multiple sequence alignments using ClustalW provided evidence that the DUF in C19orf44 is highly conserved in its orthologs. The table below represents a small selection of the orthologs found using NCBI Blast.

## Paralogs
There are no paralogs for C19orf44 in Homo sapiens.

# Interacting Proteins
C19orf44 has been found to interact with various proteins from the two-hybrid screening method. Interactions with Hsp90 co-chaperone (CDC37), and spermatid associated protein (SPERT) have been found.
CYREN (protein)
Cell cycle regulator of non-homologous end joining is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CYREN gene.
It prevents classical non-homologous end joining, a method of repair of double-stranded DNA breaks. This protein is therefore important in regulating DNA repair.
When alternatively spliced, is predicted to produce three different micropeptides.
- MRI-1 was previously found to be a modulator of retrovirus infection.
- MRI-2 may be important in non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) of DNA double strand breaks. In Co-Immunoprecipitation experiments, MRI-2 bound to Ku70 and Ku80, two subunits of Ku, which play a major role in the NHEJ pathway.
- MRI-3
Cadmium sulfide

# Overview
Cadmium sulfide is a chemical compound with the formula CdS.  It exists in nature as two different minerals, greenockite and hawleyite.
Greenockite forms hexagonal crystals with the wurtzite structure.  It has a yellowish colour with specific gravity of 4.7 and Mohs hardness of 3.8.  Hawleyite has the sphalerite (zinc blende) structure.
Synthetic cadmium pigments based on cadmium sulfide are valued for their good thermal stability in many polymers, for example in engineering plastics.  By adding selenium in its formula its possible to obtain colors ranging from a greenish yellow to red violet pigment.  The weather resistance for this pigment is 8 in full tone, which means that it is a good pigment for UV.
Cadmium sulfide is a direct bandgap semiconductor with a bandgap of 2.42 eV.  It has useful properties for optoelectronics, being used in both photosensitive and photovoltaic devices. One simple use is as a photoresistor whose electrical resistance changes with incident light levels.
Mixed with zinc sulfide, cadmium sulfide acts as a phosphor with long afterglow.
Cadmium sulfide was used as a pigment in paints as far back as 1819, although it wasn't big on any market until the mid-nineteenth century because of how rare the substance is.  Most cadmium sulfide used in paints is manufactured in laboratories through chemical means in modern times.
Painters like Claude Monet liked this pigment because it had a nice, cool shade of yellow, good for outdoor-type paintings.
Calcium citrate

# Overview
Calcium citrate is the calcium salt of citric acid.  It is commonly used as a food additive (E333), usually as a preservative, but sometimes for flavor.  In this sense, it is similar to sodium citrate.  Calcium citrate is also used as a water softener because the citrate ions can chelate unwanted metal ions. Calcium citrate is also found in some dietary calcium supplements.

# Chemical properties
Like citric acid, calcium citrate has a sour taste.  Like other salts, however, it also has a salty taste.  For this reason, citrates such as sodium and calcium citrate are commonly known as sour salt.

# Production
Calcium citrate is an intermediate in the isolation of citric acid from the fermentation process by which citric acid is produced industrially. The citric acid in the broth solution is neutralized by calcium hydroxide, precipitating insoluble calcium citrate. This is then filtered off from the rest of the broth and washed to give clean calcium citrate.
The calcium citrate thus produced may be sold as-is, or it may be converted to citric acid using dilute sulfuric acid.

# Biological role
Calcium citrate supplements may increase aluminum toxicity. Patients with renal disease are at an increased risk of toxicity.
Bioavailability is 2.5 times higher than calcium carbonate. For this reason, patients who have undergone the Roux-en-Y variety of weight-loss surgery (also known as gastric bypass) are usually instructed to take calcium citrate as a dietary supplement.
Calcium lactate

# Overview
Calcium lactate is a white crystalline salt made by the action of lactic acid on calcium carbonate. It is used in foods (as a baking powder) and given medicinally. Its E number is E327.
Calcium lactate is often found in aged cheeses.  Small crystals of it precipitate out when lactic acid is converted into a less soluble form by the bacteria active during the ripening process.
In medicine, calcium lactate is most commonly used as an antacid and also to treat calcium deficiencies.  Calcium lactate can be absorbed at various pHs and does not need to be taken with food for absorption for these reasons.
Calcium lactate is added to sugar-free foods to prevent tooth decay. When added to chewing gum containing xylitol, it increases the remineralization of tooth enamel. It is also added to fresh-cut fruits such as cantaloupes to keep them firm and extend their shelf life, without the bitter taste caused by calcium chloride, which can also be used for this purpose.