Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Benfluorex

# Overview
Benfluorex is an anorectic and hypolipidemic agent that is structurally related to fenfluramine patented and manufactured by a French pharmaceutical company Servier. Two clinical studies have shown it may improve glycemic control and decrease insulin resistance in people with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. However, Servier is suspected of having marketed Mediator (benfluorex) at odds with the drug's medical properties.

# Drug withdrawn
On 18 December 2009, the European Medicines Agency (EMEA) recommended the withdrawal of all medicines containing benfluorex in the European Union, because their risks, particularly the risk of heart valve disease (fenfluramine-like cardiovascular side-effects), are greater than their benefits. Thus Frachon et al. showed a significantly higher prevalence of unexplained valvular heart disease in patients taking benfluorex compared to controls. and Weill et al. looked at over 1 million diabetic patients demonstrating a higher hospitalization rate in benfluorex takers for valvular heart disease.
In France the medication had been marketed as by Servier as an adjuvant antidiabetic under the name Mediator. The drug was on the market between 1976 and 2009 and is thought to have caused between 500  2,000 deaths. The drug was also used in Spain (trade name, Modulator), Portugal and Cyprus.
Fenfluramine, a related drug, had been withdrawn from the market in 1997 after reports of heart valve disease, pulmonary hypertension, and development of cardiac fibrosis. This side effect is mediated by the metabolite norfenfluramine on 5HT2B receptors of heart valves (Rothman et al., Circulation 2000), leading to a characteristic pattern of heart failure following proliferation of cardiac fibroblasts on the tricuspid valve. Both fenfluramine and benfluorex form norfenfluramine as a metabolite. This side effect led to the withdrawal of fenfluramine as an anorectic drug worldwide, and later to the withdrawal of benfluorex in Europe.
Benzamycin
Benzamycin is topical gel composed of 5% benzoyl peroxide and 3% erythromycin. Developed and manufactured by Dermik Laboratories, its main usage is to fight acne. Benzamycin is a prescription medication.
Side effects include dry skin, stinging, redness, and itchy rash (urticaria).
Recommended usage is 2 times per day, once in the morning and once in the evening, or as prescribed by your doctor. The affected area should be washed with soap and warm water, rinsed, and gently dried before applying the gel. Using an oil-free face moisturizer in conjunction with Benzamycin is recommended.
On March 30, 2004 a generic form of Benzamycin was released by pharmaceutical company Atrix Laboratories.
Article on Biospace.com regarding generic Benzamycin
In the UK, Benzamycin is made by Schwarz Pharma. Production of Benzamycin has now stopped, for a predicted six months, whilst Schwarz Pharma look for an alternative manufacturer.
Bicifadine
Bicifadine is a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) developed by DOV Pharmaceutical. It has been developed as an analgesic and is currently under development for the treatment of various pain conditions. Phase III trials were completed in 2006 for treating chronic low back pain, and the drug is currently being tested to assess its efficacy in treating pain associated with osteoarthritis, acute post-surgical pain, neuropathic pain and pain associated with dental surgery.
Bicifadine represents a novel class of drug using a non-opioid, non-NSAID mechanism for the treatment of pain, which should have less abuse potential than opioid drugs. It is not the first SNRI used for pain treatment, as the older drug duloxetine has previously been approved for the treatment of neuropathic pain, and also some atypical opioid drugs such as tramadol and the newer agent tapentadol exhibit some reuptake inhibition properties that contribute to their therapeutic effects.
Preliminary results suggest that bicifadine has an analgesic efficacy slightly stronger than codeine and approximately equivalent to tramadol, although side effects such as nausea and headache were more common with bicifadine than with tramadol.
Bifeprunox
Bifeprunox is a novel atypical antipsychotic agent which, along with SLV313, aripiprazole and SSR-181507 combines minimal D2 receptor agonism with 5-HT receptor  agonism. 
Bifeprunox has a novel mechanism of action. Conventional antipsychotics are classed into typical and atypical. The typical antipsychotics, such as chlorpromazine and haloperidol are potent D2 receptor antagonists. The atypical antipsychotics started with clozapine, these are classified as multireceptor interacting compounds, acting as an agonist towards 5-HT1A and an antagonist towards D2 receptors among other 5-HT and DA receptors. Bifeprunox and other novel atypical antipsychotics will instead of antagonizing D2 receptors, will act as partial agonists, as well as agonists towards 5-HT1A receptors. 
An NDA for Bifeprunox was filed by the US FDA in January, 2007. The FDA rejected the application in August, 2007. In the EU, Bifeprunox is still in Phase III clinical trials.
Bifluoride
The bifluoride, or hydrogen(difluoride), ion is the species HF2.  This centrosymmetric triatomic anion features the strongest known hydrogen bond, with an FH length of 114 pm and a bond strength of >155 kJ mol1. A molecular orbital diagram reveals the atoms to be held together by a 3-center 4-electron bond. Hydrogen(difluoride) is written as one word because it is an anion. Hydrogen difluoride would imply an electrically neutral compound, HF2, which does not exist.

# Salts
Some HF2 salts are common, examples include potassium hydrogen fluoride, KHF2, and .  In fact many salts claimed to be anhydrous sources of fluoride (e.g. tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride) contain this anion.

# Autodissociation of pure HF
The bifluoride ion also contributes to the unusually high auto-protolysis constant of liquid anhydrous hydrofluoric acid, which autodissociates in a manner similar to the self-ionization of water.  This equilibrium can be denoted as
However, both the  H+ and F ions are solvated by HF, so a better descriptive equation is
Big killer
In public health, a big killer is a disease or other major cause of loss of human life.
For an alternative list, see List of causes of death by rate

# World Health Organization deaths

## By disease, conditions
- Ischaemic heart disease  7,208,000; 13%
- Cerebrovascular disease 5,509,000; 10%
- Lower respiratory tract infection 3,884,000; 7%
- HIV/AIDS 2,777,000; 5%
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2,748,000; 5%
- Perinatal conditions (low birthweight, birth asphyxia, birth trauma) 2,462,000; 4%
- Diarrhoeal diseases 1,798,000; 3%
- Tuberculosis 1,566,000; 3%
- Malaria 1,272,000; 2%
- Trachea/bronchus/lung cancers 1,243,000; 2%
- Road traffic accidents 1,192,000; 2%
- Childhood diseases (pertussis, polio, diphtheria, measles, tetanus) 1,124,000; 2%
- Diabetes mellitus 988,000; 2%
- Other unintentional injuries (besides road traffic accidents, poisoning, falls, fires, drowning) 923,000; 2%
- Hypertensive heart disease 911,000; 2%
- Self-inflicted injuries (suicide) 873,000; 2%
- Stomach cancer 850,000; 2%
- Cirrhosis of the liver 786,000; 1%
- Nephritis/nephrosis 677,000; 1%
- Colon/rectal cancer 622,000; 1%
- Liver cancer 618,000; 1%
- Violence 559,000; 1%
- Breast cancer 477,000; 1%
- Esophageal cancer 446,000; 1%
- Inflammatory heart disease 404,000; 1%
- Alzheimer and other dementias 397,000; 1%
- Falls 392,000; 1%

## By category
- Cardiovascular diseases:  16 733 000 27%
- Infectious and parasitic diseases:  10 904 000 19%
- Malignant neoplasms: 7,121,000 13%
- Respiratory infections: 3,963,000 7%
- Respiratory diseases: 3,702,000 7%
- Unintentional injuries: 3,551,000 6%
- Perinatal conditions: 2,462,000 4%
- Digestive diseases: 1,968,000 4%
- Intentional injuries: 1,618,000 3%
- Neuropsychiatric disorders: 1,112,000 2%
- Diabetes mellitus: 988,000 2%
- Diseases of the genitourinary system: 848,000 2%
- Maternal conditions: 510,000 1%
- Congenital abnormalities: 493,000 1%
- Nutritional deficiencies: 485,000 1%
- Nutritional/endocrine disorders: 485,000 1%
Source: The World Health Report - 2004 Annex Table 2 Deaths - World Health Organization
Biogenesis
Biogenesis is the process of lifeforms producing other lifeforms, e.g. a spider lays eggs, which develop into spiders.
The term is also used for the assertion that living matter can only be generated by other living matter, in contrast to the hypotheses of abiogenesis which hold that life can arise from non-life under suitable circumstances, although these circumstances still remain unknown.
Until the 19th century, it was commonly believed that life frequently arose from non-life under certain circumstances, a process known as spontaneous generation.  This belief was due to the common observation that maggots or mold appeared to arise spontaneously when organic matter was left exposed. It was later discovered that under all these circumstances commonly observed, life only arises from the replication of other living organisms.
A second meaning of biogenesis was given by the French Jesuit priest, scientist and philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin to mean the origin of life itself due to an inherent drive of matter towards higher consciousness, an extension of the now disproven orthogenesis hypothesis.

# Law of biogenesis
Pasteur's (and others) empirical results were summarized in the phrase, Omne vivum ex vivo (or Omne vivum ex ovo), Latin for "all life  from  egg".  This is sometimes called "law of biogenesis" and shows that modern organisms do not spontaneously arise in nature from non-life.
The law of biogenesis is not to be confused with Ernst Haeckel's Biogenetic Law.   
No cellular life has ever been observed to arise from non-living matter.  The construction of viable viruses capable of infection and evolution from abiotic material has been reported; however, considerable debate still exists regarding if viruses are actually alive.  Various other experiments into the possibility and potential mechanisms of abiogenesis have also been reported.
Biomimicry
Biomimicry (from bios, meaning life, and mimesis, meaning to imitate) is a relatively new science that studies nature, its models, systems, processes and elements and then imitates or takes creative inspiration from them to solve human problems sustainably.
In her 1997 book, "Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature" (ISBN 0-06-053322-6), author Janine M. Benyus introduces biomimicry, presents examples, and explains why the field is important now. She writes, "Our planet-mates (plants, animals and microbes) have been patiently perfecting their wares for more than 3.8 billion years ... turning rock and sea into a life-friendly home.  What better models could there be?"
The book lists numerous examples of people who are studying nature's achievements, including photosynthesis, natural selection, and self-sustaining ecosystems, among others. Benyus then explains how those researchers use the inspirations found in nature to emulate "life's genius" for the purpose of improving manufacturing processes, creating new medicines, changing the way people grow food, or harnessing energy.

# Examples
One example is the attempt to learn from and emulate the incredible ability of termites to maintain virtually constant temperature and humidity in their Sub-Saharan Africa homes despite an outside temperature variation from 3 C to 42 C (35 F at night to 104 F during the day.)  Project TERMES (Termite Emulation of Regulatory Mound Environments by Simulation) scanned a termite mound, created 3-D images of the mound structure and provided the first ever glimpse of construction that may likely change the way we build our own buildings.  The Eastgate Centre, a mid-rise office complex in Harare, Zimbabwe, (highlighted in this Biomimicry Institute case-study) stays cool without air conditioning and uses only 10% of the energy of a conventional building its size.
Another example is modeling the echolocation of bats in darkness and adapting that functionality into a cane for the visually impaired.  Research performed at the University of Leeds (in the UK) led to the UltraCane, a product manufactured, marketed and sold by Sound Foresight Ltd.
Bipyridine

# Overview
Bipyridines form a family of chemical compounds with the formula (C5H4N)2.  They are derived by the coupling of two pyridine rings.  Six isomers of bipyridine exist.  Two isomers are prominent: 2,2'-bipyridine is a popular ligand in coordination chemistry and 4,4'-bipyridine is a precursor to the herbicide paraquat.  The bipyridines are colourless solids, which are soluble in organic solvents and slightly soluble in water.
Inamrinone and Milrinone are used occasionally for short term. They inhibit phosphodiesterase by increasing cAMP, exerting positive inotropy and causing vasodilation. Amrinone causes thrombocytopenia; Milrinone decreases survival in heart failure.

# 2,2'-Bipyridine
2,2'-Bipyridine is a chelating ligand that forms complexes with most transition metal ions.  Many of these complexes have distinctive optical properties and some are of interest for analysis. Also see bipyridyl.
2,2'-Bipyridine is used in the manufacture of Diquat. Diquat's toxicity is due to a similar mechanism to paraquat.

# 4,4'-Bipyridine
4,4'-Bipyridine (4,4'-bipy) is mainly used as a precursor to N,N'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium 2+, known as paraquat.  This species is electroactive, and its toxicity arises from the ability of this dication to interrupt biological electron transfer.  Because of its structure, 4,4'-bipyridine can bridge between metal centres to give coordination polymers.
de:Bipyridine
Birth mass

# Overview
Birth mass is the mass of a baby at its birth. It has direct links with the gestational age at which the child was born and can be estimated during the pregnancy by measuring fundal height. A baby born within the normal range of mass for that gestational age is known as appropriate for gestational age (AGA). Those born above or below that range have often had an unusual rate of development  this often indicates complications with the pregnancy that may affect the baby or its mother. 
The incidence of birth mass being outside of the AGA is influenced by the parents in numerous ways, including:
- Genetics
- The health of the mother, particularly during the pregnancy
- Environmental factors, including exposure of the mother to secondhand smoke, pp. 198205
- Other factors, like multiple births, where each baby is likely to be outside the AGA, one more so than the other
There have been numerous studies that have attempted, with varying degrees of success, to show links between birth mass and later-life conditions, including diabetes, obesity, tobacco smoking and intelligence.

# Conditions
Associated conditions include:
- Large for gestational age
- Small for gestational age

# Influence on adult life
Studies have been conducted to investigate how a person's birth mass can influence aspects of their future life. This includes theorised links with obesity, diabetes and intelligence.

## Obesity
A baby born small or large for gestational age (either of the two extremes) is thought to have an increased risk of obesity in later life.
GH therapy at a certain dose induced catch-up of lean body mass (LBM). However percentage body fat decreased in the GH-treated subjects. Bone mineral density SDS measured by DEXA increased significantly in the GH-treated group compared to the untreated subjects, though there is much debate over whether or not SGA (small for gestational age) is significantly adverse to children to warrant inducing catch-up.

## Diabetes
Babies that have a low birth mass are thought to have an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes in later life.

## Intelligence
Some studies have shown a direct link between an increased birth mass and an increased intelligence quotient.
Birth rate
In demography, natality, or rather the crude birth rate (CBR) of a population is the number of childbirths per 1,000 people per year.  It can be mathematically represented by CBR = \frac{n}{p}{1000} where n is the number of childbirths in that year, and p is the current population. This figure is combined with the crude death rate to produce the rate of natural population growth (natural in that it does not take into account net migration).
Another indicator of fertility is frequently used:  the total fertility rate  average number of children born to each woman over the course of her life.  In general, the total fertility rate is a better indicator of (current) fertility rates because unlike the crude birth rate it is not affected by the age distribution of the population.
Fertility rates tend to be higher in less economically developed countries and lower in more economically developed countries.

# Other methods of measuring birth rate
General fertility rate (GFR)  This measures the number of births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 45.
Standardised birth rate (SBR)  This compares the age-sex structure to a hypothetical standard population.
Total fertility rate (TFR)  The mean number of children a woman is expected to bear during her child-bearing years. It is also independent of the age-sex structure of the population.

# Factors affecting birth rate
- Pro-natalist policies and Anti-natalist policies from government
- Abortion rates
- Existing age-sex structure
- Social and religious beliefs - especially in relation to contraception
- Female literacy levels
- Economic prosperity (although in theory when the economy is doing well families can afford to have more children in practice the higher the economic prosperity the lower the birth rate).
- Poverty levels  children can be seen as an economic resource in developing countries as they can earn money.
- Infant Mortality Rate  a family may have more children if a country's IMR is high as it is likely some of those children will die.
- Urbanization
- Homosexuality - homosexual men and women most commonly do not become mothers and fathers, decreasing the number of births per year.
- Typical age of marriage
- Pension availability
- Conflict
Bitolterol

# Overview
Bitolterol mesylate (Tornalate) is a 2-adrenergic receptor agonist used for the relief of bronchospasm in conditions such as asthma and COPD. In these disorders there is a  narrowing of the airways (bronchi and their ramifications) that carry air to the lungs. Muscle spasm and inflammation within the bronchi get worse this narrowing. Bitolterol relaxes the smooth muscles  present continuously around the bronchi and bronchioles facilitating the flow of air through them.
Bitolterol has a rapid onset of action (25 minutes) and may last up to 68 hours.
The drug, alone or in co-administration with theophylline, doesn't show cardiotoxic effect.
The USA Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved bitolterol in December 1984. The drug was withdrawn from the market by Elan Pharmaceuticals in 2001.
Blindsight

# Overview
Blindsight is a phenomenon in which people who are perceptually blind in a certain area of their visual field demonstrate some response to visual stimuli, without any qualitative experience ('qualia'). In Type 1 blindsight subjects have no awareness whatsoever of any stimuli, but yet are able to predict, at levels significantly above chance, aspects of a visual stimulus, such as location, or type of movement, often in a forced-response or guessing situation. Type 2 blindsight is when subjects have some awareness of, for example, movement within the blind area, but no visual percept, or quale. This may be caused by, for example, the person being aware of their eyes' tracking motion which will function normally. Blindsight is caused by injury to the part of the brain responsible for vision.

# Pathophysiology
Visual processing in the brain goes through a series of stages. Destruction of the first visual cortical area, primary visual cortex (or V1 or striate cortex) leads to blindness in the part of the visual field that corresponds to the damaged cortical representation. The area of blindness - known as a scotoma - is in the visual field opposite the damaged hemisphere and can vary from a small area up to the entire hemifield.
Although individuals with damage to V1 are not consciously aware of stimuli presented in their blind field, Lawrence Weiskrantz and colleagues showed in the early 1970s that if forced to guess about whether a stimulus is present in their blind field, some observers do better than chance. This ability to detect stimuli that the observer is not conscious of can extend to discrimination of the type of stimulus (for example, whether an 'X' or 'O' has been presented in the blind field). This general phenomenon has been dubbed "blindsight".
It is unsurprising from a neurological viewpoint that damage to V1 leads to reports of blindness. Visual processing occurs in the brain in a hierarchical series of stages (with much crosstalk and feedback between areas). As V1 is the first cortical area in this hierarchy, any damage to V1 severely limits visual information passing from the retina, via the LGN and then V1, to higher cortical areas. However, the route from the retina through V1 is not the only visual pathway into the cortex, though it is by far the largest; it is commonly thought that the residual performance of people exhibiting blindsight is due to preserved pathways into the extrastriate cortex that bypass V1. What is surprising is that activity in these extrastriate areas is apparently insufficient to support visual awareness in the absence of V1.
Blindsight may be thought of as a converse of the form of anosognosia known as Anton's syndrome, in which there is full cortical blindness along with the confabulation of visual experience.
Notable medical fiction authors including Robin Cook write extensively on this condition . Other medical fiction authors include Tess Gerritsen; Brett Chatz; Patricia Cornwell and Michael Palmer.Template:ClarifymeTemplate:Specify
Blood cell

# Overview
A blood cell (also called blood corpuscle) is any cell of any type normally found in blood.  In mammals, these fall into three general categories:
- Red blood cells
- White blood cells
- Platelets
Together, these three kinds of blood cells sum up for a total 45% of blood tissue (55% is plasma).

# Disorders
A decrease in number of blood cells is called cytopenia. An increase, on the other hand, is called polycythemia.