Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Arthralgia

# Overview
Arthralgia (from Greek arthro-, joint + -algos, pain) literally means joint pain;   it is a symptom of injury, infection, illnesses in particular arthritis or an allergic reaction to medication.
According to MeSH, the term arthralgia should only be used when the condition is non-inflammatory, and the term arthritis should be used when the condition is inflammatory.

# Causes
The causes of arthralgia are varied and range from, a joints perspective, degenerative and destructive processes such as osteoarthritis and sports injuries to inflammation of tissues surrounding the joints (e.g. bursitis, a painful inflammation of bursa, fluid filled sacks around the joints). 

## Common Causes
- Behcet's disease
- Chikungunya virus
- Crohn's disease
- Dengue fever
- Gout
- Osteoarthritis
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- Rheumatic fever
- Ross river virus
- Lupus erythematosus
- Tenosynovitis
- Ulcerative colitis
- Medication like terconazole

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Diagnosis involves interviewing the patient and performing physical exams. When attempting to establish the cause of the arthralgia, the emphasis is on the interview.  The patient is asked questions intended to narrow the number of potential causes. Given the varied nature of these possible causes, the questions may strike the uninitiated as irrelevant.  For example the patient may be asked about dry mouth, light sensitivity, rashes or a history of seizures.  
Answering yes or no to any of these questions limits the number of possible causes and guides the doctor toward the appropriate exams and lab tests.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
Treatment depends on specific underlying cause. The underlying cause will be treated first and foremost. The treatments may include immunosuppressants for immune system dysfunction, antibiotics when an infection is the cause, and discontinuing medication when an allergic reaction is the cause. When treating the primary cause, pain management may still play a role in treatment. The extent of its role varies depending on the specific cause of the arthralgia. Pain management may include stretching exercises, over the counter pain medications, prescription pain medication, or other treatments deemed appropriate for the symptoms.

## Surgery
Joint replacement surgery is done for severely damaged joints.
Acrophobia

# Overview
Acrophobia (from Greek Template:Polytonic, meaning "summit") is an extreme or irrational fear of heights. It belongs to a category of specific phobias, called space and motion discomfort that share both similar etiology and options for treatment.
Acrophobia can be dangerous, as sufferers can experience a panic attack in a high place and become too agitated to get themselves down safely. Some acrophobics also suffer from urges to throw themselves off high places, despite not being suicidal.
"Vertigo" is often used, incorrectly, to describe the fear of heights, but it is more accurately described as a spinning sensation, which may be caused by looking down from a high place, as well as by some other stimuli. Vertigo is qualified as height vertigo when referring to dizziness triggered by heights.

# Etiology
Traditionally, acrophobia has been attributed, like other irrational fears, to conditioning or a traumatic experience involving heights.  Recent studies have cast doubt on this explanation; fear of falling, along with fear of loud noises, is one of the most commonly suggested inborn or non-associative fears. The newer non-association theory is that fear of heights is an evolved adaptation to a prehistory where falls posed a significant danger.  The degree of fear varies and the term phobia is reserved for those at the extreme end of the spectrum. It has been argued by researchers that fear of heights is an instinct found in many mammals, including domestic animals and human beings. There have been experiments showing toddler babies and cats of various ages being terrified of venturing onto a glass floor with a view of a few meters of 'fall-space' below it. An extreme fear however can interfere with the challenges of everyday life, such as climbing up a flight of stairs or a ladder, or standing on a chair, table, (etc.).
A possible contributing factor is dysfunction in maintaining balance. In this case the anxiety is both well founded and secondary.  The human balance system integrates proprioceptive, vestibular and nearby visual cues to reckon position and motion. As height increases visual cues recede and balance becomes poorer even in normal people.  However most people respond by shifting to more reliance on the proprioceptive and vestibular branches of the equilibrium system.
An acrophobic, on the other hand, continues to overrely on visual signals whether because of inadequate vestibular function or incorrect strategy.  Locomotion at a high elevation requires more than normal visual processing. The visual cortex becomes overloaded resulting in confusion. Some proponents of the alternative view of acrophobia warn that it may be ill-advised to encourage acrophobics to expose themselves to height without first resolving the vestibular issues. Research is underway at several clinics.
Actigraphy

# Overview
Actigraphy is a method of activity and sleep study achieved by mounting a small actigraph unit on a patient for an extended period of time. The unit itself typically includes a small accelerometer and continually records the movements it undergoes. When the data is later read to a computer it can be analysed and used in the study of circadian rhythm and wake-sleep patterns.
It usually involves subjects to wear an actigraph to measure gross motor activity. Motor activity usually under test is that of the wrist, measured by an actigraph in a wrist-watch-like package. Actigraphs measure day-to-day activity of an individual, recording movement being made during waking and sleeping hours.
Actigraphy is useful for assessing daytime sleepiness in situations where a laboratory sleep latency test is not appropriate. Actigraphy is used to clinically evaluate insomnia, circadian rhythm sleep disorders, excessive sleepiness and restless leg syndrome. It is also used in the assessing of the effectiveness of pharmacologic, behavioural, phototherapeutic or chronotherapeutic treatments for these disorders.
Actigraphy has not traditionally been used in routine diagnosis of sleep disorders but is increasingly being employed in sleep clinics to replace full polysomnography. The technique is much more extensively used in academic research and is being increasingly employed in new drug clinical trials where sleep quality is seen as a good indicator of quality of life.
Models of Actigraphs vary widely in size and features and can be expanded to include sensors which monitor light, sound, temperature, parkinsonian tremor, allow for subjective user input or which allow for the recording of a full EEG data stream.
Acting out

# Overview
Acting out is a psychological term meaning to perform an action to express (often subconscious) emotional conflicts. The acting done is usually anti-social and may take the form of acting on the impulses of an addiction (eg. drinking, drug taking or shoplifting) or in a means designed (often unconsciously or semi-consciously) to garner attention (eg. throwing a tantrum or behaving promiscuously).
The action performed is usually destructive to self or others and may inhibit the development of more constructive responses to the feelings. The term is used in sexual addiction treatment, psychotherapy, criminology and parenting.
Acting out painful feelings may be contrasted with expressing them in ways more helpful to the sufferer, e.g. by talking cure| talking out, expressive therapy, psychodrama or mindfulness| mindful awareness of the feelings. Developing the ability to express one's conflicts safely and constructively is an important part of impulse control, personal development and self-care.
Ad libitum
Ad libitum is Latin for "at one's pleasure"; often shortened to 'Ad lib' (as an adjective or adverb), or 'ad-lib' (as a verb or noun). There is a less commonly used synonym, a bene placito.

# Biology
Ad libitum is also used in psychology and biology to refer to the "free-feeding" weight of an animal, as opposed, for example, to the weight after a restricted diet. For example, "The rat's ad libitum weight was about 320 grams." In nutritional studies, this phrase denotes providing an animal free access to feed or water thereby allowing the animal to self-regulate intake according to its biological needs. For example, "Rats were given ad libitum access to food and water."
In biological field studies it can also mean that information or data was obtained spontaneously without a specific method.
Medical prescriptions may use the abbreviation ad lib. to indicate "freely" or that as much as one desires should be used.
ca:Ad libitum
cs:Ad libitum
de:Ad libitum
et:Ad libitum
it:Ad libitum
no:Ad lib
sv:Ad libitum
Adamantane

# Overview
Adamantane (tricyclodecane) is a colourless, crystalline compound with a camphor-like odour.  With a formula C10H16, it is a cycloalkane and also the simplest diamondoid.  Adamantane was discovered in petroleum in 1933. Its name derived from the Greek adamantinos (relating to steel or diamond), due to its diamond-like structure. Adamantane is the most stable isomer of C10H16.

# Synthesis
Adamantane was first synthesised by Prelog in 1941. A more convenient method was found by Schleyer in 1957, from dicyclopentadiene by hydrogenation followed by acid-catalysed skeletal rearrangement.

# Uses
Adamantane itself enjoys few applications since it is merely an unfunctionalised hydrocarbon.  It is used in some dry etching masks. It is also used in some polymer formulations.
In solid-state NMR spectroscopy, adamantane is a common standard for chemical shift referencing.
In dye lasers, adamantane may be used to extend the life of the gain medium; it cannot be photoionised under atmosphere because its absorption bands lie in the vacuum-ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Photoionization energies have been determined recently for adamantane as well as for several bigger diamondoids.

# Adamantane derivatives
Adamantane derivatives are useful in medicine, e.g. amantadine, memantine and rimantadine. Condensed adamantanes or diamondoids have been isolated from petroleum fractions, where they occur in small amounts.  These species are of interest as molecular approximations of the cubic diamond framework, terminated with C-H bonds. 1,3-Dehydroadamantane is a member of the propellane family.
Due to its stability, specific steric properties and conformational rigidity, the 1-adamantyl group is a (bulky) substituent in organic and organometallic chemistry. Some of the first persistent carbenes featured adamantyl substituents.

# Adamantane analogues
Many molecules adopt cage structures with adamantanoid structures.  Particularly useful compounds with this motif include P4O6, As4O6, P4O10 (= (PO)4O6), P4S10 (= (PS)4S6), and N4(CH2)6.
Ameloblast

# Overview
Ameloblasts are cells that deposit enamel, the hard outer most layer that forms the chewing surface.
Ameloblasts are cells which secrete the enamel proteins enamelin and amelogen which will later mineralise to form enamel on teeth, the strongest substance in the human body. Each Ameloblast is approximately 4 micrometers in diameter, 40 micrometers in length and has a hexagonal cross section. The secretory end of the ameloblast ends in a six sided pyramid like projection known as the Tomes' process. The angulation of the Tomes' process is significant in the orientation of enamel rods.
Ameloblasts are derived from oral epithelium tissue of ectodermal origin. Their differentiation is a result of signalling from the ectomesenchymal cells of the dental papilla. The ameloblasts will only become fully functional after the first layer of dentine has been formed, as such dentine is a precursor to enamel.
Ameloblasts control ionic and organic compositions of enamel.  They adjust their secretory and re absorptive activities to maintain favorable conditions for biomineralization.
Adenomyoma

# Overview
Adenomyoma is a form of adenomyosis that forms a mass or growth around the tissue of the inner uterus.
Usually occurs in women over 30 who have carried a pregnancy to term.
Conversely, it rarely occurs in women who have not carried to term.
Most cases of adenomyosis are non-symptomatic.
Adinazolam

# Overview
Adinazolam (marketed under the brand name Deracyn) is a benzodiazepine derivative, and more specifically, a triazolobenzodiazepine (TBZD). It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative, and antidepressant properties. Adinazolam was developed by Dr. Jackson B. Hester, who was seeking to enhance the antidepressant properties of alprazolam, which he also developed. Adinazolam was never FDA approved and never made available to the public market.

# Indications
Adinazolam is indicated as a treatment for depression and anxiety.

# Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics
Adinazolam binds to peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors that interact allosterically with GABA receptors as an agonist to produce inhibitory effects.

# Metabolism
Adinazolam was reported to have active metabolites in the August 1984 issue of The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. The main metabolite is N-desmethyladinazolam. NDMAD has an approximately 25-fold high affinity for benzodiazepine receptors as compared to its precursor, accounting for the benzodiazepine-like effects after oral administration. (REF1) Multiple N-dealkylations lead to the removal dimethyl-aminoethyl side chain, leading to the difference in its potency. (REF5) The other two metabolites are alpha-hydroxyalprazolam and estazolam. In the August 1986 issue of that same journal, Sethy, Francis and Day reported that proadifen inhibited the formation of N-desmethyladinazolam.
Adrenalone

# Overview
Adrenalone is an adrenergic agonist used as a topical vasoconstrictor and hemostatic. Formerly, it was also used to prolong the action of local anesthetics. It is the ketone form of epinephrine (adrenaline). Contrary to epinephrine, adrenalone mainly acts on alpha-1 adrenergic receptors, but has little affinity for beta receptors. The drug is largely obsolete, being superseded by other hemostatics such as thrombin, fibrinogen, and vasopressin analogues.

# Contraindications and interactions
Adrenalone does not stop bleeding from large blood vessels. It is not approved for systemic use. Combination with antithrombotics is not useful because they contravene the action of adrenalone.

# Side effects
Vasoconstriction by adrenalone may lead to local necrosis.

# Pregnancy and lactation
Adrenalone passes into breast milk, but adverse effects are unlikely because of its very low systemic resorption.

# Chemical properties
Adrenalone is a derivative of epinephrine, having the alcohol function replaced with a ketone. As a consequence, it is not optically active any more.
Solubility in water, ethanol and diethyl ether is low. The substance is typically used in form of the hydrochloride, a white crystalline powder which tastes bitter and slightly acidic, and is soluble in water (1:8) and 94% ethanol (1:45). The melting point of the hydrochloride is 243 C (469.4 F).

# Pharmacology
After local application, only traces of adrenalone are found in the blood, which is partly a consequence of the vasoconstriction caused by the drug via alpha-1 adrenergic receptors. In an (unspecified) pharmacological model, hypertensive (blood pressure increasing) action has been found to be about 0.5% that of epinephrine at equivalent plasma concentrations. Therefore, systemic effects are unlikely.
Like epinephrine, adrenalone is metabolised by catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT), yielding 3O-methyladrenalone, which in turn is N-demethylized by monoamine oxidase (MAO). Alternatively, it can first undergo metabolization by MAO and then by COMT; in both cases, the resulting 3O-methyl-N-demethyladrenalone is conjugated to sulfate or glucuronide and excreted by the kidney. No reduction to epinephrine has been observed in vivo.
Adventitia

# Overview
Adventitia is the outermost connective tissue covering of any organ, vessel, or other structure.
For example, the connective tissue that surrounds an artery is called the tunica adventitia because it is considered extraneous to the artery.
To some degree, its role is complimentary to that of the serosa, which also provides a layer of tissue surrounding an organ. In the abdomen, whether an organ is covered in adventitia or serosa depends upon whether it is peritoneal or retroperitoneal:
- peritoneal organs are covered in serosa (a layer of mesothelium, the visceral peritoneum)
- retroperitoneal organs are covered in adventitia (loose connective tissue)
In the gastrointestinal tract, the muscularis externa is bounded in most cases by serosa. However, at (the thoracic esophagus, ascending colon, descending colon and the rectum), the muscularis externa is instead bounded by adventitia. (The muscularis externa of the duodenum is bounded by both tissue types.)
The connective tissue of the gallbladder is covered by adventitia where the gallbladder bounds the liver, but by serosa for the rest of its surface.
Aerophagia
Synonyms and keywords: aerophagy

# Overview
Aerophagia is a condition that occurs when a person swallows too much air, which goes to the stomach.

# Pathophysiology
Aerophagia can occur without any act of swallowing.  A Ukrainian study showed that in people with cervical disease, inhaling also caused air to go down into the esophagus and stomach.  The study recommends cervical spine therapy as a method of treatment.  Aerophagia is not uncommon in psychiatric disorders.  In one case , aerophagia was successfully treated with thorazine, a typical antipsychotic sometimes used to treat hiccups.

# Causes
- Anxiety
- Carbonated drinks
- Cervical spine disease
- Psychiatric conditions

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
It causes gas bloating of the abdomen and frequent belching. It may cause pain, too, which sometimes is difficult to diagnose.
Aftershave
Aftershave is a lotion, gel, or liquid used mainly by men after they have finished shaving. It may contain an antiseptic agent such as alcohol to prevent infection from cuts as well as numb damaged skin, a perfume to enhance scent, and a moisturizer to soften the skin. An alcohol-based, fragrance-free astringent can be used as an aftershave. It is said that the alcohol in the aftershave closes pores in the skin and prevents irritation ("razor burn").
Aftershaves are also sometimes mistakenly referred to as Eau de Cologne.
Noted brands include Brut, Global Gillette, Lynx, Adidas, Crabtree & Evelyn  and Old Spice.  Many fashion designer houses lend their names to brands of aftershave, including Hugo Boss, Comme des Garcons, Tommy Hilfiger, Marc Jacobs, Calvin Klein, Lacoste, Jil Sander, and Vera Wang.
Aftershave-like substances were used in ancient Egyptian times to clean and deodorize a dead body before it was soaked in natron and wrapped in linen bandages.

# Other brands
- Hai Karate
de:Rasierwasser
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nl:Aftershave
fi:Partavesi
sv:Rakvatten
Agaricales
The order Agaricales, also known as gilled mushrooms (for their distinctive gills), or euagarics, contains some of the most familiar types of mushrooms. The order has about 4,000 identified species, or one quarter of all known homobasidiomycetes. They range from the ubiquitous common mushroom to the deadly destroying angel and the hallucinogenic fly agaric to the bioluminescent jack-o-lantern mushroom.

# Classification
Some notable fungi with gill-like structures, such as chanterelles, have long been recognised as being substantially different from usual Agaricales. Interestingly, molecular studies are showing other groups as being more divergent than previously thought, such as the genera Russula and Lactarius belonging to a separate order Russulales, and other gilled fungi, including such species as Paxillus involutus and Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca showing a closer affinity with Boletes in the order Boletales.
Also, some other quite distinctive fungi, the puffballs and the Beefsteak fungus have been recently been shown lie within the Agaricales.
The term agaric had traditionally referred to Agaricales, which were defined as exactly those fungi with gills. Given the discoveries described above, those two categories are not synonymous (although there is a very large overlap between the two groups).

# Distribution and habitat
Agarics are ubiquitous, being found across all continents. Although all are terrestrial, their habitats include all types of woodland and grassland, varying largely from one species to another.

# Characteristics
Basidiocarps of the agarics are typically fleshy, with a stipe, often called a stem or stalk, a pileus (or cap) and lamellae (or gills), where basidiospores are stored. This is indeed the stereotyped structure of what we would call a mushroom or toadstool.

# Life cycle
The agarics' life cycle is very much representative of the basidiomycetes. Clamp connections are present in the dikaryons of several species, but that is not always the case. The agarics always have their basidiospores ejected from the basidium into the area between gill edges. The spores are then let fall to the ground or carried by the wind.
Liver spot

# Overview
Liver spots are blemishes on the skin associated with aging and exposure to ultra-violet radiation from the sun. They are also known as age spots, sun spots, lentigos, or senile/solar lentigines. They range in color from light brown to black and are located in areas most often exposed to the sun, particularly the hands, face, shoulders, arms and forehead. In spite of their name, liver spots are not related to the liver, rather to the liver colouration of the spots.
From the age of 40 onwards, the skin is less able to regenerate from sun exposure and liver spots are very common in this older age group, particularly in those who enjoy being out in the sunshine. They have been known to proliferate in some individuals under emotional distress.
In the vast majority of cases, liver spots pose no threat and no treatment is necessary. In a very small number of cases, they have been known to obscure the detection of skin cancer.
Some people consider these spots unsightly and wish to have them removed for cosmetic reasons. This can be done by cryotherapy or laser treatment.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Liver spot. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Liver spot. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Liver spot. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
Agmatinase
In enzymology, an agmatinase (EC 3.5.3.11) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are agmatine and H2O, whereas its two products are putrescine and urea.
This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, those acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds other than peptide bonds, specifically in linear amidines. The systematic name of this enzyme class is agmatine amidinohydrolase. Other names in common use include agmatine ureohydrolase, and SpeB. This enzyme participates in urea cycle and metabolism of amino groups.

# Genetics
In humans, the enzyme is encoded by the AGMAT gene.

# Structural studies
As of late 2007, 5 structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes 1GQ6, 1GQ7, 1WOG, 1WOH, and 1WOI.

# Inhibitors
- Piperazine-1-carboxamidine
Ajmalicine
Ajmaline is a class Ia antiarrhythmic agent.  It is often used to bring out typical findings of ST elevations in patients suspected of having Brugada syndrome.
The compound was first isolated by Salimuzzaman Siddiqui in 1931  from the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina. He named it Ajmaline, after Hakim Ajmal Khan, one of the most illustrious practitioners of Unani medicine in South Asia.

# Notes
-  Siddiqui, S.; Siddiqui, R. H. (1931). J. Indian Chem. Soc. 8: 66780.
-  Ahmed Nasim Sandilvi (2003), Salimuzzaman Siddiqui: pioneer of scientific research in Pakistan. Daily Dawn. 12 April, 2003. Retrieved on 19 July 2007.
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