Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Anisodus
Anisodus is a genus of flowering plant in the family Solanaceae.  It is native to China, Tibet, India, Bhutan, and Nepal.
One species, A. tanguticus (Chinese: ; pinyin: shan langdang), is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine.

# Species
- Anisodus acutangulus C. Y. Wu & C. Chen
Anisodus acutangulus var. acutangulus
Anisodus acutangulus var. breviflorus C. Y. Wu & C. Chen
- Anisodus acutangulus var. acutangulus
- Anisodus acutangulus var. breviflorus C. Y. Wu & C. Chen
- Anisodus carniolicoides (C. Y. Wu & C. Chen) D'Arcy & Z. Y. Zhang
- Anisodus luridus Link
- Anisodus mariae Pascher
- Anisodus tanguticus (Maximowicz) Pascher
Ankyrins

# Overview
Ankyrins are a family of proteins that mediates the attachment of integral membrane proteins to the cytoskeleton.
Ankyrin 1, was first discovered in the erythrocytes but also later found to be expressed in the brain and muscles. In erythrocytes, Ankyrin 1 links membrane receptor CD44 to inositol triphosphate and the cytoskeleton.
Ankyrin contains three functional domains: a conserved N-terminal ankyrin repeat domain (ARD) consisting of 2224 tandem repeats of 33 amino acids, a spectrin binding domain and a variably sized C-terminal regulatory domain.
Ankyrin was discovered by Dr. G. Vann Bennett (M.D., PhD.) in 1976.
Perineum

# Overview
In human anatomy, the perineum, also called the "taint", "grundel" or "gooch", is generally defined as the surface region in both males and females between the pubic symphysis and the coccyx.
A diamond-shaped area on the inferior surface of the trunk which includes the anus and, in females, the vagina.  Its definition varies: it can refer to only the superficial structures in this region, or it can be used to include both superficial and deep structures.
The perineum corresponds to the outlet of the pelvis.
The anogenital distance is a measure of male feminisation measuring the distance between the anus and the base of the penis. Studies show that the perineum is twice as long in males as in females. The AGD in males may be shortened through exposure to phthalates found in some plastics.

# Boundaries
Its deep boundaries are as follows:
- in front: the pubic arch and the arcuate ligament of the pubis
- behind: the tip of the coccyx
- on either side: the inferior rami of the pubis and Ischium, and the sacrotuberous ligament
In Alfred Kinsey's 1967 report, he concluded that the perineum was one of the 6 key errogenous zones for males.

# Triangles
A line drawn transversely across in front of the ischial tuberosities divides the space into two triangles:

## Perineal fascia
The terminology of the perineal fascia can be confusing, and there is some controversy over the nomenclature.  This stems from the fact that there are two parts to the fascia, the superficial and deep parts, and each of these can be subdivided into superficial and deep parts.
The layers and contents are as follows, from superficial to deep:
- 1) Skin
- 2) superficial perineal fascia: Subcutaneous tissue divided into two layers: (a) A superficial fatty layer, and (b) Colles' fascia, a deeper, membranous layer.
- 3) deep perineal fascia and muscles:
- 4) fascia and muscles of pelvic floor (levator ani, coccygeus)

## Areas of the perineum
The region of the perineum can be considered a distinct area from pelvic cavity, with the two regions separated by the pelvic diaphragm.  The following areas are thus classified as parts of the perineal region:
- perineal pouches: superficial and deep (see above for details)
- Ischioanal fossa - a fat filled space
Anal canal
Pudendal canal - contains internal pudendal artery and the pudendal nerve.
- Anal canal
- Pudendal canal - contains internal pudendal artery and the pudendal nerve.

# Riding
This area can become extremely sore among inexperienced bicyclists, horseback riders, motocross riders, and even ATV'ers.

# Additional images
- Diameters of inferior aperture of lesser pelvis (female).
- The perineum. The integument and superficial layer of superficial fascia reflected.
- Muscles of the female perineum.
- The superficial branches of the internal pudendal artery.
- The posterior aspect of the rectum exposed by removing the lower part of the sacrum and the coccyx.
- Stages in the development of the external sexual organs in the male and female.
Myelitis
Please Take Over This Page and Apply to be Editor-In-Chief for this topic: 
There can be one or more than one Editor-In-Chief. You may also apply to be an Associate Editor-In-Chief of one of the subtopics below. Please mail us  to indicate your interest in serving either as an Editor-In-Chief of the entire topic or as an Associate Editor-In-Chief for a subtopic. Please be sure to attach your CV and or biographical sketch.

# Overview
Myelitis is a disease involving swelling of the spinal cord, which disrupts central nervous system functions linking the brain and limbs.

# Symptoms and signs
Symptoms vary by region of the CNS affected.
- fever
- headaches
- tingling
- Bladder dysfunction (loss of bladder control)
- pain
- Meningeal signs may develop
- (central or peripheral paresis
- Numbness; Altered sensation, Sensorimotor paralysis below the level of the inflammation (Absent tendon reflexes below the level of the inflammation), loss of feeling
- Leg weakness
- Arm weakness
- Paresthesia
- Back pain
- Leg pain
- Arm pain
- Bowel dysfunction
- Muscle spasms
- Malaise
- Anorexia
- Leg paresthesia
- Urinary retention
- Sexual dysfunction
- Fecal incontinence
- Abdominal muscle paralysis

# Diagnosis
- Spinal MRI
- Myelography

# Differential Diagnosis of Causes of Myelitis

## Infections
- Certain viruses - causing viral myelitis:
- Herpesvirus
- Polio virus
- HIV
- Syphilis

## Myelitis as a complication
Other conditions that might have Myelitis as a complication might be potential underlying conditions. The list of conditions listing Myelitis as a complication includes:
- Gnathostoma Infection
- Poxviridae disease

## Myelitis as a symptom
- Bing-Neel syndrome

# Prognosis
Untreated myelitis may rapidly lead to a permanently damaged spinal cord.
Apoplast
Within a plant, the apoplast is the free diffusional space outside the plasma membrane. It is interrupted by the Casparian strip in roots, air spaces between plant cells and the cuticula of the plant.
Structurally, the apoplast is formed by the continuum of cell walls of adjacent cells as well as the extracellular spaces, forming a tissue level compartment comparable to the symplast.  The apoplastic route facilitates the transport of water and solutes across a tissue or organ. This process is known as apoplastic transport.
The apoplast is important for all the plant's communication to its environment. The main carbon source (carbon dioxide) needs to be solubilized in the apoplast before it is to be taken up by chloroplasts and consumed during photosynthesis. In the roots, ions diffuse into the apoplast of the epidermis before being taken up into the symplast by specific ion channels and being pulled by the plant's transpiration stream, which also occurs completely within the boundaries of the apoplast. Similarly, all gaseous molecules emitted and received by plants such as plant hormones and other pheromones must pass the apoplast. The apoplast is also a site for cell-to-cell communication. During local oxidative stress, hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion can diffuse through the apoplast and transport a warning signal to neighbouring cells. In addition, a local alkalinization of the apoplast due to such a stress can travel within minutes to the rest of the plant body via the xylem and trigger systemic acquired resistance.

# Notes
- Apoplast was previously defined as "everything but the symplast, consisting of cell walls and spaces between cells in which water and solutes can move freely". However, since solutes can neither freely move through the air spaces between plant cells nor through the cuticula, this definition has been changed. When referring to "everything outside the plasma membrane", the term "extracellular space" is in use.
- The word apoplasm is also in use with similar meaning as apoplast, although less common.
Apoplexy

# Overview
Apoplexy is an old-fashioned medical term, which can be used to mean 'neurological impairment' or 'hemorrhage'. It can be used non-medically to mean a state of extreme rage. The word derives from the Greek word for 'seizure', apoplexia (Template:Polytonic), in the sense of being struck down.

# Neurological Impairment
Apoplexy has been used as a synonym for "stroke" because many stroke patients lose consciousness during the acute stage of the vascular compromise (either through bleeding or ischemia).

# Historical Meaning of the Word
Historically, the word "apoplexy" was also used to describe any sudden death that began with a sudden loss of consciousness, especially one where the victim died within a matter of seconds after losing consciousness. Those reading historical documents should take into consideration the possibility that the word "apoplexy" may be used to describe the symptom of sudden loss of consciousness immediately preceding death and not an actual verified disease process. Sudden cardiac deaths, ruptured cerebral aneurysms, certain ruptured aortic aneurysms, and even heart attacks may have been misdiagnosed as apoplexy in the distant past.

# Hemorrhage
The term 'apoplexy' is used to describe bleeding within internal organs.  In such usage it is coupled with an adjective describing the site of the bleeding.  For example, bleeding within the pituitary gland is called pituitary apoplexy, and bleeding within the adrenal glands can be called adrenal apoplexy.
In both pituitary and adrenal apoplexy, the word apoplexy refers to both hemorrhage with the gland and to accompanying neurological problems such as confusion, headache, and impairment of consciousness.

# Non-medical Usage
Colloquially, particularly in the adjective form apoplectic, apoplexy means furious, enraged, or upset to the point of being unable to deal with a situation rationally or diplomatically.

# Related Chapters
- Transient ischemic attack
- Stroke
da:Apopleksi
ko:
it:Apoplessia
CME Category::Cardiology
Pamabrom
Pamabrom is a diuretic product included in retail drugs available in over-the-counter medications.  The active diuretic ingredient is 8-bromotheophylline.
It is also available in combination with acetaminophen (paracetamol) for menstrual relief. The acetaminophen helps reduce menstrual pains and the pamabrom reduces associated bloating. It's available in a number of products from various larger brands under different names, such as Midol Maximum Strength Teen Formula, Women's Tylenol Menstrual Relief and  Pamprin Maximum Strength Menstrual Pain Relief Multi-Symptom. The dosages are essentially the same for each brand, including generic drug store varieties.
The acetaminophen/pamabrom combination is also marketed as a pain reliever for pain associated with back ache, headache, and muscle ache and can be used as a mild muscle relaxant.
Arsenite
The arsenite ion is H2AsO3, or similar.
An arsenite (compound) is a compound that contains this ion.
The arsenite ion may be formed from arsenic trioxide by adding base. Arsenite has a valency of 3 and is also known as trivalent arsenic.
Its white odorless crystals are toxic and very soluble in water. It occurs in nature as arsenolite and claudetite and is also a by-product of metal smelting. Its main use is in producing copper chrome arsenate to treat timber. It is also used for arsenic pesticides, glass production, pharmaceuticals and non-ferrous alloys.

# Addendum
The definition above is incomplete.  In fields that commonly deal with groundwater chemistry, arsenite commonly refers to As2O3 and sodium arsenite refers to NaAsO2. Sodium arsenite is used in the water gas shift reaction to remove carbon dioxide.
Artifact
Artifact or artefact may refer to:
- Artifact (archaeology), any object made or modified by a human culture, and later recovered by an archaeological endeavor
- Artefact (band)  black metal band from France
- Artifact (band), a band from Norway
- Artifact (error), an error or misrepresentation introduced by a technique and/or technology
- Artifact (fantasy), in the fantasy genre, is usually a magical object so powerful that it cannot be duplicated or destroyed by ordinary means
- Artifact (medical imaging), misrepresentations of tissue structures seen in medical images
- Artifact (observational), any perceived distortion or other data error caused by the instrument of observation
- Artifact (software development), one of many kinds of tangible byproduct produced during the development of software
- The Artifact (Eureka), a fictional object appearing in the TV series Eureka
- Compression artifact, data compression artifact in computer science, resulting from lossy data compression
- Cultural artifact, a human-made object which gives information about the culture of its creator and users
- Digital artifact, a visible defect in a digital photo or video picture
- Iatrogenic artifact, a disease made up by doctors
- Social artifact, a product of individuals or groups (social beings) or of their social behavior
- Sonic artifact, in sound and music production, sonic material that is accidental or unwanted, resulting from the editing of another sound
- Virtual artifact, objects in the digital environment
Aspergum
Aspergum (generic name Aspirin Gum-Oral) is the United States trademark name for an analgesic chewing gum, whose active ingredient is aspirin.
Such acetylsalicylic-acid chewing gum typically contains a dose of 227 mg (312 grains) of aspirin, and is available in cherry and orange flavors.  The aspirin in the gum delivers qualities that may assist in areas such as analgesic, salicylate, anti-inflammatory, pain, arthritis, and fever. The Aspergum trademark is currently owned by Insight Pharmaceuticals, the same company that produces the aspirin and caffeine based Anacin.

# History
Medicated chewing gum containing aspirin was first sold in the United States in 1924. In December 1927, Frank M. Dillard (inventor of Feenamint) and William C. Nalle formed the Dillard-Nalle company and sought U.S. trademark protection for Aspergum. Dillard-Nalle then began selling their Dellard's Aspergum in the United States in 1928. it was an early example of a functional gum - chewing gum as a drug delivery system.
It was significant in the recognition of aspirin's antithrombotic effect, when general practitioner Lawrence Craven reported in 1953 that patients who chewed Aspergum as an analgesic after tonsillectomy tended to bleed more easily. As a result of Dr. Craven's discovery through Aspergum in the 1950s, physicians themselves now often take low-dose aspirin to prevent heart attacks and strokes and emergency rooms routinely give aspirin to patients who they suspect may be experiencing a heart attack.
In June 1993, Farmades spa of Rome, Italy began manufacturing Aspergum Confetti Gommosi Masticabili for sale in Italy.
People have adopted their own uses for the gum. For example, in her 1997 book Streisand, Academy Award-winning American singer Barbra Streisand relates a story of how she filled in the gap caused by the removal of two front teeth with Aspergum when she began her career.
In 1998, Gumtech announced that it was to produce Aspergum for Schering-Plough HealthCare Products.
Asystole

# Overview
Asystole is a state of no cardiac electrical activity, hence no contractions of the myocardium and no cardiac output or blood flow. Asystole is one of the conditions required for a medical practitioner to certify death.
In asystole, the heart will not respond to defibrillation because it is already depolarized, however some emergency physicians advocate a trial of defibrillation in case the rhythm is actually fine ventricular fibrillation, although little evidence exists to support the practice. Asystole is usually a confirmation of death as opposed to a heart rhythm to be treated, although a small minority of patients are successfully resuscitated, if the underlying cause is identified and treated immediately.

# Causes

## Common Causes
Possible underlying causes include the Hs and Ts.
- Hypovolemia
- Hypoxia
- Acidosis
- Hypothermia
- Hyperkalemia or Hypokalemia
- Hypoglycemia
- Cardiac Tamponade
- Tension pneumothorax
- Thrombosis
- Myocardial infarction
- Thrombosis
- Pulmonary embolism
- Cardiogenic shock
- Degeneration of the sinoatrial or atrioventricular nodes
- Ischemic stroke

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Acidosis
- Beta blockers
- Cardiac tamponade
- Cardiogenic shock
- Degeneration of the sinoatrial or atrioventricular nodes
- Drowning
- Drug overdose
- Hyperkalemia
- Hypokalemia
- Hypoglycemia
- Hypothermia
- Hypovolemia
- Hypoxia
- Ischemic stroke
- Lightning strike
- Myocardial infarction
- Pacemaker failure
- Pulmonary embolism
- Tension pneumothorax
- Thrombosis
- Trauma

# Diagnosis

## Electrocardigram
Shown below are EKGs depicting asystole.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
It is important to exclude fine ventricular fibrillation in the patient presumed to have asystole. If VF is present, then cardioversion should be performed.
While the heart is asystolic, there is no blood flow to the brain unless CPR or internal cardiac massage (when the chest is opened and the heart is manually compressed) is performed, and even then, it is still a small amount. After many emergency treatments have been applied but the heart is still unresponsive, it is time to consider pronouncing the patient dead. Even in the rare case that a rhythm should reappear, if asystole has persisted for fifteen minutes or more the brain will have been deprived of oxygen long enough to cause brain death.

# Related Chapters
- Cardiac arrest
- Myocardial infarction
- Ventricular fibrillation
Ataxin-2
Ataxin-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ATXN2 gene. Mutations in ATXN2 cause spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2).

# Protein structure
Ataxin-2 contains the following protein domains:
- Two LSm domains, which likely allow it to bind RNA
- A PAM2 motif, predicted to associate with the poly(A)-binding protein
- A polyglutamine tract in some species (located near the amino terminal in primates and between the LSm domains in insects)
A potential transcript variant, missing an internal coding exon, has been described; however, its full-length nature is not certain.

# Species, tissue, and subcellular distribution
ATXN2 is conserved across eukaryotes. Most vertebrates have two orthologs of the gene (called ATXN2 and ATXN2L in humans), with the exception of birds which only have one. Plant species have two to six ATXN2 orthologs.
ATXN2 is ubiquitously expressed in different tissues. Within individual cells, it localizes to the Golgi apparatus and stress granules.

# Function
Ataxin-2 is involved in regulating mRNA translation through its interactions with the poly(A)-binding protein. It is also involved in the formation of stress granules and P-bodies, which also play roles in RNA regulation.

# Clinical significance

## Spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2)
The polyglutamine tract in human ataxin-2 is unstable and can expand as it is transmitted across generations.  Normal alleles usually have 22 or 23 repeats, but can contain up to 31 repeats. Longer expansions can cause spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2), a fatal progressive genetic disorder in which neurons degenerate in the cerebellum, inferior olive, pons, and other areas. Symptoms of SCA2 include ataxia (a loss of coordinated movements), parkinsonism, and dementia in some cases. The disease allele usually contains 34-52 CAG repeats, but can contain as few as 32 or more than 100, and can expand in size when transmitted to successive generations. How the polyglutamine expansion in ataxin-2 leads to these symptoms is unknown.

## Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
In 2010, work from Aaron Gitler and Nancy Bonini at the University of Pennsylvania discovered that intermediate-size CAG repeat expansions are significantly associated with risk for developing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease).
Atopaxar

# Overview
Atopaxar (previously known as E5555) is a potent and orally-active PAR-1 inhibitor that was developed by Eisai. Compared with vorapaxar, atopaxar is a synthetic agent with a shorter elimination half-life and a primary gastrointestinal metabolism. This small molecule inhibits the binding of thrombin either at or very close to the tethered ligand-binding site and available evidence indicates that atopaxar may have potential anti-inflammatory properties. The drug is currently not commercially available.

# Phase II of Atopaxar: the LANCELOT studies
The phase II of atopaxar included 4 clinical trials conducted in patients with atherothrombosis, 2 studies in Japanese subjects and 2 in subjects of non-Japanese ethnicity.
The J-LANCELOT studies were conducted in Japanese patients with NSTEACS (n = 241) and high-risk CAD (n = 263) respectively. All patients were treated with aspirin. Patients were assigned to 1 of 4 groups: atopaxar 50, 100, or 200 mg or matching placebo for a 12- (ACS patients) or 24-weeks (CAD patients) duration. The primary end-point was the occurrence of bleeding classified against the CURE scale and the TIMI scale. The incidence of major bleeding with either scales was very low and similar between atopaxar and placebo while the occurrence of any TIMI bleeding was numerically higher with the highest atopaxar doses. The incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) was low overall and no cardiovascular death was reported. Overall, 13 MACEs were observed in the ACS study and 5 in the CAD study with a numerical reduction in atopaxar treated patients observed in both studies. The platelet substudy showed that, after stimulation with 15 M of TRA peptide, platelet aggregation inhibition reached > 90% with 100 mg and 200 mg of atopaxar while the inhibition provided by the 50 mg dose was 50-60% in CAD patients and only 20-50% in ACS patients. A dose-dependent increase in liver function abnormalities was observed in both studies in atopaxar treated patients (especially in patients on dual antiplatelet therapy), and also, a prolongation of the QTc interval.
Recently, it was presented the LANCELOT ACS trial, where atopaxar was tested in 603 patients with NSTEACS of non-Japanese ethnicity as a 400-mg loading dose followed by a daily dose of 50 mg, 100 mg, or 200 mg for 12 weeks or matching placebo in addition to aspirin and, in > 75% of patients, dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and a thienopyridine. The study showed a similar incidence of bleeding between the 3 doses of atopaxar and placebo and a favorable trends for efficacy indicated by a reduction in Holter-detected ischemia. The study however, like the Japanese studies, showed a dose-dependent increase in liver-function enzymes and a prolongation of the QTc interval at the highest doses.
Auer rod
Auer rods can be seen in the leukemic blasts of Acute Myeloid Leukemia.  Auer rods are clumps of azurophilic granular material that form elongated needles seen in the cytoplasm of leukemic blasts.  They are composed of fused lysosomes and contain peroxidase, lysosomal enzymes, and large crystalline inclusions.

# Diagnosis
Auer rods are classically seen in myeloid blasts of M1, M2, M3, and M4 acute leukemias.
They are also used to distinguish the pre-leukemia Myelodysplastic Syndromes: Refractory Anemia with Excess Blasts 2 (which has Auer rods) from RAEB 1 (which does not).

## Pathology
- Bone marrow aspirate showing acute myeloid leukemia with Auer rods in several blasts
- AML - Auer Rods, DIC
- AML with Auer Rods

# Eponym
These cytoplasmic inclusions were named by John Auer, an American physiologist (1875-1948).

# Reference
-  Auer J. Some hitherto undescribed structures found in the large lymphocytes of a case of acute leukaemia. Am J Med Sci 1906;131:1002-1015.