Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Persistent cloaca

# Overview
A persistent cloaca is a complex anorectal and genitourinary malformation, in which the rectum, vagina, and urinary tract meet and fuse, creating a single common channel.  

# Diagnosis
Diagnosis of a female with cloaca should be suspected in a female born with an imperforate anus and small looking genitalia. The diagnosis can be made clinically. Failure to identify a cloaca as being present in a newborn may be dangerous as more than 90% have associated urological problems. The goal for treatment of a female born with cloaca is to achieve bowel control, urinary control, and sexual function, which includes menstruation, intercourse, and possibly pregnancy. Cloacas probably occur in 1 in 20,000 live births.

# Presentation
Cloacas appear in a wide spectrum of variation in females born with the malformation. The single orifice, called a common channel, may occur varying in length from 1 to 10cm. The length of the common channel can be used to judge prognostic outcomes and technical challenges during surgical repair. A common channel less than 3cm in length usually have a good sphincter muscles and a well developed sacrum.

# Treatment
The prognostic outcomes for this type of cloaca are good for bowel control and urinary function.  The surgical repair for this type of cloaca can usually be done by performing posterior sagittal approach without opening of the abdomen. A common channel longer than 3 cm in length usually have poor sphincter muscles and a poor sacrum, suggesting a prognostic outcome for bowel control and urinary function to be less likely. Common channels longer than 3cm are generally considered more complex and more technically challenging in surgical repair.
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Cockayne syndrome

# Overview
Cockayne syndrome (or "Weber-Cockayne syndrome", or "Neill-Dingwall Syndrome") is a rare, autosomal recessive disorder characterized by growth failure, impaired development of the nervous system, abnormal sensitivity to sunlight (photosensitivity), and premature aging. Hearing loss and eye abnormalities (pigmentary retinopathy) are other common features, but problems with any or all of the internal organs are possible. It is named after English physician Edward Alfred Cockayne (1880-1956).

# Forms of Cockayne syndrome
- CS Type I, or the classic form, is characterized by normal fetal growth with the onset of abnormalities in the first two years of life.  Impairment of vision, hearing, and the central and peripheral nervous system progressively degenerate until death in the first or second decade of life.
- CS Type II, otherwise known as connatal CS, involves very little neurological development after birth.  Death usually occurs by age 7.
- CS Type III is rare and is characterized by late onset.  It is milder than Type I and Type II.
- Xeroderma-pigmentosum-Cockayne syndrome (XP-CS) occurs when an individual also suffers from Xeroderma pigmentosum, another DNA repair disease.  Some symptoms of each disease are expressed.
The condition is also classified genetically as follows:
- Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) 216400 (TYPE A)
- Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) 133540 (TYPE B)
- Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) 216411 (TYPE C)

# Causes
Mutations in the ERCC6 and ERCC8 genes cause Cockayne syndrome. The proteins made by the ERCC8 and ERCC6 genes are involved in repairing damaged DNA by the transcription-coupled repair mechanism, particularly the DNA in active genes. If either tr the ERCC6 gene is altered, DNA damage is not repaired. As this damage accumulates, it can lead to malfunctioning cells or cell death, and the signs and symptoms of Cockayne syndrome.

# Physical appearance
Small head size, short stature, sunken eyes, "aged" look.
Cognitive liberty
Cognitive liberty is the freedom to be the absolute sovereignty of the individuals own consciousness.  It is an extension of the concepts of freedom of thought and self-ownership.
The nonprofit Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics defines cognitive liberty as "the right of each individual to think independently and autonomously, to use the full spectrum of his or her mind, and to engage in multiple modes of thought."
An individual who enjoys cognitive liberty is free to alter the state of their consciousness using any method they choose, including but not limited to meditation, yoga, psychoactive drugs, prayer, etc. Such an individual would also never be forced to change their consciousness against their will. So, for example, a child who is forced to consume Ritalin as a prerequisite for attending public school, does not enjoy cognitive liberty, nor does an individual who is forced to take anti-psychotics in order to be fit to stand trial, nor an individual who faces criminal charges and punishment for changing the state of their consciousness by consuming a mind-altering drug, although other explanations for criminalization of some drugs do not fit this argument.
Timothy Leary has summarized this concept by postulating two new commandments for the molecular age:
- Thou shalt not alter the consciousness of thy fellow men.
- Thou shalt not prevent thy fellow man from changing his or her own consciousness. 
The primary proponents of this philosophy in the United States are the American Civil Liberties Union and the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics.
Type-III collagen

# Overview
Collagen, type III, alpha 1 (Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV, autosomal dominant), also known as COL3A1, is a human gene.
This gene encodes a fibrillar collagen that is found in extensible connective tissues such as skin, lung, and the vascular system, frequently in association with type I collagen. Mutations in this gene are associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV, and with aortic and arterial aneurysms. Although alternate transcripts have been detected for this gene, they are the result of mutations; these mutations alter splicing, often leading to the exclusion of multiple exons.
Type-III collagen is a fibrous scleroprotein in bone, cartilage, tendon, bone marrow stroma  and other connective tissue; yields gelatin on boiling.
Scleroprotein is a simple protein found in horny and cartilaginous tissues and in the lens of the eye.
Collateralization
In medicine, collateralization, also vessel collaterlization and blood vessel collateralization, is the growth of a blood vessel or several blood vessels that serve the same end organ or vascular bed as another blood vessel that cannot adequately supply that end organ or vascular bed sufficiently.
It is considered a normal response to hypoxia and may be induced, under some circumstances, by exercise. It is considered to be protective.

# Coronary collateralization
Coronary collateralization is influenced by diabetes mellitus and occlusion of the LAD and acute MI.

# Relation to angiogenesis
Collateraliztion differs from angiogensis in that several blood vessels supply one vascular bed and these vessels are maintained (one does not involute/regress).
Connecting tubule
In the kidney, the collecting tubule (CNT, or junctional tubule, or arcuate renal tubule) is a tubular segment of the renal collecting duct system that connects the distal convoluted tubule to the cortical collecting duct.

# Classification
Many sources include the connecting tubule as part of the collecting duct system. However, the embryological origin is more similar to the nephron than it is to the rest of the collecting duct (which derives from the ureteric bud), and other sources therefore classify the connecting tubule with the nephron.

# Naming
Some connecting tubules, usually associated with juxtamedullary nephrons, arch upwards before reaching the cortical collecting ducts. It is this "arcuate" feature which gives the tubule its alternate name.

# Function
It participates in the regulation of water and electrolytes, including sodium, and chloride.
The CNT is sensitive to both isoprotenerol (more so than the cortical collecting ducts) and antidiuretic hormone (less so than the cortical collecting ducts), the latter largely determining its function in water reabsorption.
Common iliac vein

# Overview
In human anatomy, the common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins and together, in the abdomen at about the level of the umbilicus, form the inferior vena cava.  They drain blood from the pelvis and lower limbs.
Both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries.

# Additional images
- Diagram showing completion of development of the parietal veins.
- The ven cav and azygos veins, with their tributaries.
- The veins of the right half of the male pelvis.
- Scheme showing relative positions of primary lymph sacs.
Conocybe cyanopus
Conocybe cyanopus is a member of the genus Conocybe which contains the hallucinogenic compound psilocybin.  It is formerly known as Pholiotina cyanopoda, Conocybe cyanopoda, and Galerula cyanopus.

# Description
Conocybe cyanopus is a small saprophytic mushroom with a conic to broadly convex cap which is smooth and colored ocher to cinnamon brown. It is usually less than 25 mm across and the margin is striate, often with fibrous remnants of the partial veil.   The gills are adnate and close, colored cinnamon brown with whitish edges near the margin, darkening in age.   The spores are cinnamon brown, smooth and ellipsoid with a germ pore, measuring 8 x 5 micrometres.  The stem is smooth and fragile, whitish at the bottom and brownish at the top,  2-4 cm long, 1 to 1.5 mm thick, and is equal width for most of the length, often swelling at the base.  The stem lacks an annulus (ring) and the base usually stains blue.
The cap color lightens when it dries, turning a tan color.

# Distribution and habitat
Conocybe cyanopus often grows in lawns, fields, grassy areas. Rare.
It is known to occur in cool climates of North America and Europe but is probably more widely distributed.

# Edibility
Hallucinogenic, containing psilocin, psilocybin, and baeocystin. This mushroom contains between 0.5 to 1.0 percent psilocybin. Most mycologists recommend against eating this mushroom because it is easy to mistake for poisonous species.
Dosage:
mg/g psilocybin 9.3-4.5
mg/g psilocin .7-.00
mg/g baeocystin .3-1
Contrast (vision)

# Overview
Contrast is the difference in visual properties that makes an object (or its representation in an image) distinguishable from other objects and the background. In visual perception of the real world, contrast is determined by the difference in the color and brightness of the object and other objects within the same field of view. Because the human visual system is more sensitive to contrast than absolute luminance, we can perceive the world similarly regardless of the huge changes in illumination over the day or from place to place.
One measure of contrast is Michelson contrast, calculated using the formula
where L_{max} is the maximum luminance and L_{min} is the minimum luminance value.
The human contrast sensitivity function shows a typical band-pass shape peaking at around 4 cycles per degree with sensitivity dropping off either side of the peak. This tells us that the human visual system is able to detect gratings of 4 cycles per degree at a lower contrast than at any other spatial frequency.
The high-frequency cut-off represents the optical limitations of the visual system's ability to resolve detail and is typically about 60 cycles per degree. The high-frequency cut-off is related to the packing density of the retinal photoreceptor cells: a finer matrix can resolve finer gratings.
The low frequency drop-off is due to lateral inhibition within the retinal ganglion cells. A typical retinal ganglion cell presents a centre region with either excitation or inhibition and a surround region with the opposite sign. By using coarse gratings, the bright bands fall on the inhibitory as well as the excitatory region of the ganglion cell resulting in lateral inhibition and account for the low-frequency drop-off of the human contrast sensitivity function.
For example, in the case of graphical computer displays, contrast depends on the properties of the picture source or file and the properties of the computer display, including its variable settings. For some screens the angle between the screen surface and the observer's line of sight is also important.
Contrast is also the difference between the color or shading of the printed material on a document and the background on which it is printed, for example in optical character recognition.

# Alternative Formulas
It is important to note that there are many possible definitions of contrast. Some include color; others do not. Travnikova laments, "Such a multiplicity of notions of contrast is extremely inconvenient. It complicates the solution of many applied problems and makes it difficult to compare the results published by different authors."
Copper aspirinate
Copper(II) aspirinate is an aspirin chelate of copper(II) cations (Cu2+).  It is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis.

# Preparation
Copper aspirinate can be prepared by several methods.  In one route of preparation, an excess of acetylsalicylic acid is dissolved in aqueous sodium carbonate.  Sodium hydroxide is not suitable for this purpose, because it will hydrolyse acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) into salicylic acid and sodium acetate.
The resulting solution is then filtered to remove any undissolved acetylsalicylic acid and is mixed with a solution containing Cu2+ cations (copper(II) sulfate is suitable), precipitating bright blue crystals of copper aspirinate immediately.  The crystals can then be filtered from solution, washed, and recrystallized.  An excess of acetylsalicylic acid is used in the first step, because it eliminates the possibility of unreacted carbonate anions precipitating the copper in this step.

# Medicinal Use
Copper aspirinate has been proven effective as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis.

# Other Uses
The use of copper aspirinate as a pigment in PVC and Polystyrene has also been investigated.
Copper deficiency
Synonyms and keywords:

# Overview
Copper deficiency can cause a syndrome of anemia or pancytopenia and a neurodegeneration in humans or other mammals.  The neurodegenerative syndrome of copper deficiency has been recognized for some time in ruminant animals, in which it is commonly known as swayback.  Affected animals develop ataxia and spasticity.
Cases of human anemia caused by copper deficiency are rare, but have been known of for many years.  More recently, a syndrome similar to ruminant swayback has been seen.  Affected persons develop progressive spasticity, ataxia, and a neuropathy.  This may be accompanied by anemia as well.  The clinical syndrome is nearly identical to subacute combined degeneration, a long-recognised and relatively common condition caused by vitamin B12 deficiency.
Copper deficiency in ruminants can be caused by copper-poor grazing lands or copper-poor feed.  In humans, copper deficiency can occur through copper-deficient parenteral nutrition or as a result of gastric bypass surgery. The recommended daily intake of elemental copper for an adult is 0.9 mg daily and typical American diets may be deficient in copper. Zinc competes with copper for absorption by the gut.  Chronic excessive zinc consumption, such as may occur in those who overuse denture adhesive compounds, can cause copper deficiency.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Copper Deficiency from other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

## Age

## Gender

## Race

# Risk Factors

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria

## Symptoms

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy

## Surgery

## Prevention
Corneal dystrophy

# Overview
Human corneal dystrophies is a group of disorders, characterised by a noninflammatory, inherited, bilateral opacity of the transparent front part of the human eye called the cornea. There is a number of rare forms varying in expression and degree of vision loss.
The International Committee for Classification of Corneal Dystrophies (IC3D) was established in 2005 and created a new classification system employing the latest data of molecular biology an genetics.

# List
- Fuchs' dystrophy
- Macular corneal dystrophy
- Reis-Bucklers corneal dystrophy (CDB1)
- Thiel-Behnke dystrophy (CDB2)
- Meesmann juvenile epithelial corneal dystrophy (MECD, Stocker-Holt dystrophy, OMIM 122100)
- Gelatinous drop-like corneal dystrophy
- Subepithelial mucinous corneal dystrophy
- Lisch epithelial dystrophy
- Granular corneal dystrophy type I
- Granular corneal dystrophy type II (also Avellino corneal dystrophy)
- Lattice corneal dystrophy type I
- Lattice corneal dystrophy type II
- Fleck dystrophy
- Schnyder corneal dystrophy
- Posterior amorphous corneal dystrophy
- Congenital stromal dystrophy (CSCD)
- Posterior polymorphous dystrophy type 1
- Posterior polymorphous dystrophy type 2
- Posterior polymorphous dystrophy type 3
- Congenital endothelial dystrophy type 1 (CHED1)
- Congenital endothelial dystrophy type 2 (CHED2)
- X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy
- Epithelial basement membrane dystrophy (OMIM 121820), called a corneal dystrophy but in reality this condition is not inherited in the majority of cases, representing a non-specific reaction to a variety of corneal insults.

# Other conditions affecting cornea
- Keratoconus
- Keratoglobus
Corneal tattooing
Corneal tattooing is a form of cosmetic surgery applied to the cornea, used to improve the visual look of the eye, improve vision or reduce the effects of scarring.
The technique was first described by Galen, who burnt the cornea with a heated stilleto, and applied either a iron or copper mixture, thereby making the cornea more transparent. In the 19th century, modern techniques were introduced to recreate the colour of the iris stroma, using Indian ink. Further research looked into the ways of stabilizing the pigment, and ways to apply these pigments to the eye.
BME, a magazine that deals with all kinds of body modifications, has in July 2007 covered this procedure as a way of decorative tattooing.
Coronary arteries

# Overview
The coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle itself.  Although blood fills the chambers of the heart, the muscle tissue of the heart, or myocardium, is so thick that it requires coronary blood vessels to deliver blood deep into it.  There are two primary arteries supplying the heart, the left coronary artery and the right coronary artery.  These two epicardial coronary arteries course along the surface of the heart and this is why they are called "epicardial" (on top of the heart) arteries.  Smaller arteries dive deep into the heart muscle and are called subendocardial coronary arteries.  The cardiac veins are the vessels that remove the deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle and return it to the right atrium.

# Coronary Arteries
There are two primary arteries supplying the heart, the left coronary artery (LCA) and the right coronary artery (RCA).  The heart is supplied by these two arteries and their branches in such a way that the LCA supplies mainly the left ventricle, whereas the RCA supplies the right atria and ventricle, the SA node, the inferior wall and posterior interventricular septum, and posteromedial papillary muscle in 85 % of the cases.

## Right Coronary Artery
The right coronary artery (RCA) originates above the right cusp of the aortic valve.  It travels down the right atrioventricular groove, towards the crux of the heart.  In addition to supplying blood to the right ventricle (RV), the RCA supplies 25% to 35% of the left ventricle (LV).

## Left Coronary Artery
The left coronary artery normally arises from the aortic sinus above the left cusp of the aortic valve.  This artery supplies the majority of the blood flow to the left ventricle, the pumping chamber of the heart.  In fact, the LCA supplies the posterolateral side of the left ventricle as well as the anterior part of the left ventricle which includes the anterolateral myocardium, the apex, the anterior interventricular septum and the anterolateral papillary muscle.
The origin of the left coronary artery is called the left main coronary artery, and it bifurcates into the following two main branches:
- Left anterior descending artery
- Left circumflex artery

## Coronary Artery Dominance
The dominance of coronary circulation is determined by the type of arteries that supply the posterior and inferior wall of the left ventricle.  The artery that supplies the posterior descending artery (PDA) and the posterolateral artery (PLA) determines the coronary dominance.  Approximately 60% of the general population are right-dominant, 25% are co-dominant, and 15% are left-dominant.
Download WikiDoc slides for coronary arteries here:
Coronary artery anatomy

# Classification of Segmental Coronary Anatomy
In order to objectively characterize the location of coronary obstructions, the coronary artery segments must be identified.  Shown below is a classification scheme used by the PERFUSE Study Group that lists all the segments of the LCA and the RCA in terms of corresponding number, label, location and anatomic description. Slides developed by WikiDoc correspond to table given below.