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Foramen ovale
There are multiple structures in the human body with the name foramen ovale (plural: foramina ovalia; Latin for "oval hole"):
- In the fetal heart, the foramen ovale (heart) is a shunt from the right to left atrium.
- At the base of the skull, the foramen ovale (skull) is in the greater wing of the sphenoid bone in the middle cranial fossa and transmits the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve, otic ganglion, accessory meningeal artery, lesser petrosal nerve and emissary veins.
Fractionation
Fractionation is a separation process in which a certain quantity of a mixture (solid, liquid,  solute or suspension) is divided up in a large number of smaller quantities (fractions) in which the composition changes according to a gradient. Fractions are collected based on differences in a specific property of the individual components. Common trait in fractionations is the need to find an optimum between the amount of fractions collected and the desired purity in each fraction. Fractionation makes it possible to isolate more than two components in a mixture in a single run. This property sets it apart from other separation techniques.
Fractionation is widely employed in many branches of science and technology. Mixtures of liquids and gases are separated by fractional distillation by difference in boiling point. Fractionation of components also takes place in column chromatography by a difference in affinity between stationary phase and the mobile phase. In fractional crystallization and fractional freezing chemical substances are fractionated based on difference in solubility at a given temperature. In cell fractionation, cell components are separated by difference in mass.
Fractionation is also used for culinary purposes, as palm oil and palm kernel oils are fractionated to produce oils of different viscosities, that may be used for different purposes.

# Plasma protein fractionation
Plasma proteins are separated by using the inherent differences of each protein. Fractionation involves changing the conditions of the pooled plasma (e.g., the temperature or the acidity) so that proteins that are normally dissolved in the plasma fluid become insoluble, forming large clumps, called precipitate. The insoluble protein can be collected by centrifugation. One of the very effective ways for carrying out this process is the addition of alcohol to the plasma pool while simultaneously cooling the pool. This process is sometimes called cold alcohol fractionation or ethanol fractionation. It was described by and bears the eponym of Dr Edwin J. Cohn.  This procedure is carried out in a series of steps so that a single pool of plasma yields several different protein products, such as albumin and immune globulin. Human serum albumin prepared by this process is used in some vaccines among other uses.

# Fractionation as cancer treatment
Fractionation also refers to a method of treating cancer with radiation therapy. When the total dose of radiation is divided into several, smaller doses over a period of several days, there are fewer toxic effects on healthy cells. This maximizes the effect of radiation on cancer and minimizes the negative side effects.
Frank Pittman
Frank Smith Pittman, III, M.D. (1935 - ) is an American psychiatrist and author.  He writes a regular column, "Ask Dr. Frank", which used to appear in Psychology Today.
He is a "widely quoted author" of Man enough: fathers, sons and the search for masculinity and Private Lies: Infidelity and Betrayal of Intimacy.  He is also author of books Grow Up!: How Taking Responsibility Can Make You a Happy Adult, and Turning Points: Treating Families in Transition and Crisis.
Dr. Pittman is based out of Atlanta, Georgia, where he practices family therapy.  He has been active as a psychiatrist and practicing family therapist since 1962.  Both of Dr. Pittman's daughters are psychologists.

# Education
- Research, Community Mental Health, Family Therapy, Denver, Colorado, from a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health
- Medical Residency, psychiatry, Emory University

# Publications

## Books
- Turning Points: Treating Families in Transition and Crisis, Frank Pittman, M.D., A Norton Professional Book, (Hardcover), W. W. Norton & Company; 1st ed edition, May 1987, ISBN 0393700402 , ISBN 978-0393700404
- Private Lies: Infidelity and Betrayal of Intimacy, Frank Pittman, M.D., W. W. Norton & Company; Reprint edition November 1990, ISBN 0393307077 , ISBN 978-0393307078
- Mentiras Privadas (Spanish edition), Amorrortu Editores, September 1994, ISBN 950518543X , ISBN 978-9505185436
- Man enough: fathers, sons and the search for masculinity, Frank Pittman, M.D., Perigee Trade; Reprint edition October 1, 1994, ISBN 0399518835 , ISBN 978-0399518836
- Grow Up!: How Taking Responsibility Can Make You a Happy Adult, Golden Guides from St. Martin's Press , ISBN 1582380406 , ISBN 978-1582380407 , July 30, 1999

## Articles
More scholarly articles, Google Scholar
- "Ask Dr. Frank", column, Psychology Today, March/April 1994 issue
- "Ask Dr. Frank", Psychology Today, May/June 1994 issue

## Presentations
- "What are Men for, Anyway?", Reno, Nevada, June 28, 2003, Keynote Address, Smart Marriages Conference
- Response to "The Death of 'Till Death Us Do Part': "Marriage in the 20th Century", July, 2002, Keynote Address, Smart Marriages Conference
- Myth and Ritual in American Life, A Sloan Center for Working Families, "Ritual Function and Family Dysfunction: The Therapist's View", Emory University
Frankie Trull
Frankie Trull  is an American science advocate, lobbyist and educator.
Trull attended Boston University in the 1970s then worked at Tufts University while studying for a Master's Degree in sociology. At Tufts she was among the founding members of the Research Animal Alliance, which later became the National Association for Biomedical Research, a group advocating the use of animals in biomedical research and aiming "to represent member institutions in national policy making that affects the use of animals in research, education, and product-safety testing." 
In 1981, to advance public understanding and "challenge the untruths 
put forth by animal rights activists",  Trull founded the Foundation for Biomedical Research, the largest group advocating the use of animals in biomedical research in the USA.  Currently serving as president of the foundation, she is an outspoken critic of direct action against those using animals for research. In 2005 Trull compared the tactics of the Animal Liberation Front to those of a "classic terrorist organisation" and described ALF activists as "unbelievably mean-spirited people who operate under this delusion that they are on a higher moral ground than the rest of us." 
Trull has been honored by the Society for Neuroscience, and received the 2005 Award for Education in Neuroscience from the Association of Neuroscience Departments and Programs. In her citation, she was praised for her work in promoting "policies that do not hamper the important work using animals in a humane and sensitive manner to advance biomedical research." 
According to The Chronicle of Higher Education, Trull owns 16 horses, 4 cats, and a dog, which she consider '"members of  family."
Frans Wackers
Frans J. Th. Wackers, MD is doctor and research scientist in the field of nuclear cardiology.

# Education and positions held
- M.D., Ph.D., University of Amsterdam, Netherlands (1970)
- Military service, The Netherlands (1970-1972)
- Internal Medicine Residency, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1972-1974)
- Cardiology Fellow, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1974-1977)
- Cardiology Faculty, Yale University School of Medicine (1977-1981)
- Cardiology Faculty, University of Vermont College of Medicine (1981-1984)
- Rejoined Cardiology Faculty, Yale University School of Medicine (1984 to present)

# Affiliations
- Fellow of the American College of Cardiology
- Fellow of the American Heart Association, Council on Clinical Cardiology
- Founding member and Fellow of the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology (President, 1994-1995)
- Founding member and Fellow of the Society of Nuclear Medicine (President of Cardiovascular Council, 1992-1995)
- Founding member and Fellow of the European Society of Cardiology
- Founding member of the Certification Council of Nuclear Cardiology (President, 1996-1997)
- Founding member of the Intersocietal Commission for Accreditation of Nuclear laboratories (1997-2005)
Dr. Wackers also co-chaired the 6th and 7th International Conference of Nuclear Cardiology in Florence and Lisbon.

# Publications
He is/was on the Editorial Board of the Journal of the American College of Cardiology, the American Journal of Cardiology, and Journal of Nuclear Cardiology.
He has published more than 295 articles on nuclear cardiology and clinical cardiology.

# Awards
- Rescar Award of the University of Maastricht, The Netherlands (1988)
- Herrman Blumgart Award of the Society of Nuclear Medicine, New England Chapter (1995)
- Homi Baba Award of the Indian Nuclear Cardiological Society (1997)
- Eugene Drake Award of the American Heart Association, New England Affiliate (1999)
- Distinguished Service Award of the Society of Nuclear Cardiology (1999)
- Third Mario Verani Memorial Lecturer of the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology (2004)
- Wenckebach Lecturer of the Netherlands Society of Cardiology (2005).

# Notes
-  Frans J. Th. Wackers, M.D Citation for all education and positions held
Franz Volhard
Franz Volhard (May 2, 1872 - May 24, 1950) was a German internist who was born in Munich. He studied medicine in Bonn, Strasbourg, and Halle. His instructors included Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm Pfluger (1829-1910), Bernhard Naunyn (1839-1925), Oswald Schmiedeberg (1838-1921), and Joseph von Mering (1849-1908). In 1905 he became head of the medical department at the city hospital in Dortmund, and in 1908 director of the Krankenanstalt in Mannheim. Afterwards he was a professor at Halle an der Saale (1918) and Frankfurt am Main (1927).
Volhard made several important contributions in the fields of cardiology and nephrology. He is especially remembered for his collaboration with pathologist Karl Theodor Fahr (1877-1945) in Mannheim concerning research of kidney diseases. The two physicians created a classification system of renal disorders, in which they made the differentiation between degenerative (nephroses), inflammatory (nephritides) and arteriosclerotic (scleroses) diseases. With Fahr he published a classic monograph on Bright's disease called Die Bright'sche Nierenkrankheit, Klinik, Pathologie und Atlas.
Volhard recognized that constrictive pericarditis was a treatable condition, and as a result of his research with Viktor Schmieden (1874-1945), it led to the first pericardectomy for constrictive pericarditis. Volhard also performed extensive studies regarding renovascular hypertension and uremia. Regarding uremia, he divided associated symptoms into two criteria called "true uremia" and "pseudo-uremia". Pseudo-uremia was described as having symptoms of independent origin, such as cases involving elevated arterial blood pressure.
In 1903, Volhard was credited with the discovery of lipase in the heart and kidney. He also developed a method of preserving cardiac specimens via a process of dehydration and the application of hot paraffin. In Berlin, the Franz-Volhard-Klinik is named after him.
French inhale
The French inhale is a trick one can perform while smoking. One takes a deep drag, then while the mouth is open and smoke is wafting out, one inhales through the nose, thus inhaling the smoking drifting from the mouth.
Some people refer to this trick as an Irish Waterfall because the smoke appears to be flowing uphill (a reference to the old jokes that anything Irish is backwards).
This trick is often performed in conjunction with the smoke ring.
Fritz Lipmann
Fritz Albert Lipmann (June 12 1899  July 24 1986) was a German-American biochemist and a co-discoverer in 1945 of coenzyme A. For this, together with other research on coenzyme A, he was awarded half the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1953.
Lipmann was born in Konigsberg, Germany to a Jewish family.
Lipmann studied medicine at the University of Konigsberg, Berlin, and Munich, graduating in Berlin in 1924. He returned to Konigsberg to study chemistry under Professor Hans Meerwein. In 1926 he joined Otto Meyerhof at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, Berlin, for his Ph.D. thesis. After that he followed Meyerhof to Heidelberg to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research.
From 1939 lived and worked in the USA. From 1949 to 1957 he was professor of biological chemistry at Harvard Medical School. From 1957 onwards, he taught and conducted research at Rockefeller University, New York City. He was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1966.
Frontal sinus
The frontal sinuses, situated behind the superciliary arches, are rarely symmetrical, and the septum between them frequently deviates to one or other side of the middle line.
Their average measurements are as follows: height, 3 cm.; breadth, 2.5 cm.; depth from before backward, 2.5 cm.
Each opens into the anterior part of the corresponding middle meatus of the nose through the frontonasal duct which traverses the anterior part of the labyrinth of the ethmoid. These structures then open into the hiatus semilunaris in the middle meatus.
The mucuous membrane in this sinus is innervated by the supraorbital nerve and supplied by the supraorbital artery and anterior ethmoidal artery.
Absent at birth, they are generally fairly well developed between the seventh and eighth years, but only reach their full size after puberty.

# Additional images
- Frontal bone. Inner surface.
- Medial wall of left orbit.
- Lateral wall of nasal cavity.
- Sagittal section of nose mouth, pharynx, and larynx.
- Outline of bones of face, showing position of air sinuses.
Functio laesa
Functio laesa is a term used in medicine to refer to a loss of function or a disturbance of function.
It was identified as the fifth sign of acute inflammation by Galen, who added it to the four signs identified by Celsus (tumor, rubor, calor, and dolor).
The attribution to Galen is not undisputed. Origination of the phrase has also been ascribed to Thomas Sydenham and Rudolf Virchow.
Fundal height

# Overview
Fundal height, or MacDonald's rule, is a measure of the size of the uterus used to assess fetal growth and development. It is measured from the top of the pubic bone to the top of the uterus in centimeters. It should match the fetus' gestational age in weeks within 1 to 3 cm, e.g., a pregnant woman's uterus at 22 weeks should measure 19 to 25 cm.

# Interpretation
A shorter measure can happen for one of the following reasons:
- Fetus descent into the pelvis, seen normally two to four weeks before delivery
- Error in estimated date of conception
- Fetus is healthy but physically small
- Oligohydramnios
- Fetus positioned sideways
- Breech birth
- Small for gestational age
On the other side, a longer measure can be caused by:
- Twins, or more
- Error in estimated date of conception
- Fetus is healthy but physically large
- Polyhydramnios
- Large for gestational age
- Hydatidiform Mole
As a pregnancy approaches its end, the fundal height will become less accurate.
It is very important that the patient's fundal height be measured and properly recorded by their OB/GYNE or midwife on every prenatal visit. Measuring the fundal height is an indicator of proper fetal growth and amniotic fluid development.
Fundic glands

# Overview
The fundus glands (or fundic glands, or gastric glands) are found in the body and fundus of the stomach.
They are simple tubes, two or more of which open into a single duct.

# Pathology
Fundic gland polyposis is a medical syndrome where the fundus of the stomach develops many polyps.

# Types of cells

# Additional images
- A fundus gland. A. Transverse section of gland.
- Layers of stomach wall
Funny current
Funny current (or funny channel, or If) refers to a specific current in the heart. It is called "funny" because it has effects opposite to those of most other heart currents.
If is a mixed Na+K+ inward current activated by hyperpolarization and modulated by the autonomic nervous system. It is one of the most important ionic currents for regulating pacemaker activity in the sinoatrial (SA) node.
Most channels are activated through depolarization, but in the SA node and AV node, the channel becomes activated through hyperpolarization, at approximately -40mV.
Funny currents have been associated with cyclic-nucleotide-gated channels.

# Clinical significance
Drugs such as ivabradine are intended to inhibit the funny current, and thus slow down the heart rate. Ivabradine selectively inhibits the pacemaker If current in a dose-dependent manner.
Fusel alcohol
Fusel alcohols, also sometimes called fusel oils, or potato oil in Europe, are higher order (more than two carbons) alcohols formed by fermentation and present in cider, mead, beer, wine, and spirits to varying degrees. The term fusel is  German for bad liquor.

# Composition and taste
The compounds involved are chiefly:
- 1-propanol
- 2-propanol
- butanol (various isomers)
- amyl alcohol
- furfural
Excessive concentrations of these fractions may cause off flavours, sometimes described as "spicy," "hot," or "solvent-like."  Some beverages, such as whiskey, Siwucha and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of fusel alcohols as part of the flavour profile.  In other beverages, such as vodka and lagers, the presence of fusel alcohols is considered a fault. Very high concentrations  usually caused by incompetent distillation  can cause acute illness, including headaches, nausea, vomiting, clinical depression, or coma. Such a liquor may be referred to as rotgut.

# Formation and removal
Fusel alcohols are formed when fermentation occurs:
- at higher temperatures,
- at lower pH,
- when yeast activity is limited by low nitrogen content.
During distillation, fusel alcohols are concentrated in the "tails" at the end of the distillation run. They have an oily consistency, which is noticeable to the distiller, hence the other name fusel oil. If desired, these heavier alcohols can be almost completely separated in a reflux still. Freeze distillation, on the other hand, does not remove fusel alcohols.
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GMP reductase
GMP reductase EC 1.7.1.7 (Guanosine 5'-monophosphate oxidoreductase ) is an enzyme that catalyses the irreversible and NADPH-dependent reductive deamination of GMP into IMP.
NADPH + guanosine 5-phosphate = NADP+ + inosine 5-phosphate + NH3
It converts nucleobase, nucleoside and nucleotide derivatives of G to A nucleotides, and maintains intracellular balance of A and G nucleotides.
In melanocytic cells, GMP reductase gene expression may be regulated by MITF.
Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is a process by which diploid or haploid precursor cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes. Depending on the biological life cycle of the organism, gametogenesis occurs by meiotic division of diploid gametocytes into various gametes or by mitotic division of haploid gametogenous cells. For example, plants produce gametes through mitosis in gametophytes. The gametophytes grow from haploid spores after sporic meiosis. The existence of a multicellular, haploid phase in the life cycle between meiosis and gametogenesis is also referred to as alternation of generations.

# Gametogenesis in animals
Animals produce gametes directly through meiosis in organs called gonads. Males and females of a species that reproduces sexually have different forms of gametogenesis:
- spermatogenesis (male)
- oogenesis (female)

## Stages
However, before turning into gametogonia, the embryonic development of gametes is the same in males and females.

### Common path
Gametogonia are usually seen as the initial stage of gametogenesis. However, gametogonia are themselves successors of primordial germ cells. During early embryonic development, primordial germ cells (PGCs) from the dorsal endoderm of the yolk sac migrate along the hindgut to the gonadal ridge. They multiply by mitosis and once they have reached the gonadal ridge they are called gametogonia. Gametogonia are not longer the same between males and females.

### Individual path
From gametogonia, male and female gametes develop differently - males by spermatogenesis and females by oogenesis. However, by convention, the following pattern is common for both:

# Gametogenesis in gametangia
Fungi, algae and primitive plants form specialized haploid structures called gametangia where gametes are produced through mitosis. In some fungi, for example zygomycota, the gametangia are single cells on the end of hyphae and acting as gametes by fusing into a zygote. More typically, gametangia are multicellular structures that differentiate into male and female organs:
- antheridium (male)
- archegonium (female)

# Gametogenesis in flowering plants
In flowering plants, the male gamete is produced inside the pollen grain through the division of a generative cell into two sperm nuclei. Depending on the species, this can occur while the pollen forms in the anther or after pollination and growth of the pollen tube. The female gamete is produced inside the embryo sac of the ovule.
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Ganglion cyst

# Overview
A ganglion cyst (also known as a bible bump) is a swelling that often appears on or around joints and tendons in the hand or foot. The size of the cyst can vary over time, often becoming more inflamed if irritated. It is most frequently located around the wrist and on the fingers.

# Cause
The exact cause of the formation of ganglion cysts is still unknown. They are believed to be caused by overuse of a specific joint, which results in the degeneration of the surrounding fibrous tissue and the development of a cystic structure. The cyst contains clear fluid similar to synovial fluid. They are most often found around the wrist joint, which accounts for 90% of all ganglion cysts.
A common misconception is that ganglion cysts are due to pockets of the synovium protruding from the joint capsule. However, this would not account for the toughness of the cyst.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Ganglion cyst. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Ganglion cyst. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Ganglion cyst. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Ganglion cyst. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Ganglion cyst. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Ganglion cyst. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Ganglion cyst. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.

# Treatment
Frequently, the cysts will disappear over time. In cases of small cysts that do not cause other symptoms, no other treatment is necessary.
If a ganglion cyst is symptomatic, it can be managed by aspiration or excision. Aspiration of the cyst is the simpler of the two procedures, but cysts recur in approximately 50% of cases. With surgery, the recurrence rate is reduced to only 5 to 10% and complications rarely develop.  Recurrence rates are lower when the hand or finger is immobilized for 1 to 2 weeks.
Arthroscopy of the wrist is becoming a viable alternative to open excision of ganglion cysts. During arthroscopy, the origin of the cyst can be seen. No immobilization is needed after arthroscopy.

## Traditional method
One traditional method of treating a ganglion cyst was to strike the lump with a large, heavy book, causing the cyst to rupture and drain into the surrounding tissues.  Since even the poorest households usually possessed a Bible, it was most commonly used, which led to the nicknaming of ganglion cysts as "Bible Bumps" or "Gideon's Disease". This method of treatment is effective, but is no longer recommended, as patients risk damaging the surrounding area around the cyst.

# Epidemiology
Ganglion cysts occur most often in the 2060 age group and are three times more common in women.