Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Hydroamination
The hydroamination reaction is the addition an N-H bond across the C=C or CC bonds of an alkene or alkyne. This is a highly atom economical method of preparing substituted amines that are attractive targets for organic synthesis and the pharmaceutical industry     .
The hydroamination reaction is approximately thermodynamically neutral; there is a high activation barrier due to the repulsion of the electron-rich substrate and the amine nucleophile. The reaction also has a high negative entropy, making it unfavorable at high temperatures. As a result, catalysts are necessary for this reaction to proceed. 
Despite substantial effort, the development of a general catalytic process for this reaction remains elusive. Progress has been reported on the hydroamination of alkynes and alkenes using lanthanides and late transition metals. Although there have been many reports of the catalytic hydroamination reaction with group IV metals, there are far fewer describing enantioselective catalysis.
Titanium and zirconium complexes catalyze inter-molecular hydroamination of alkynes and allenes.  Both stoichiometric and catalytic variants were initially examined with zirconocene bis(amido) complexes. Titanocene amido and sulfonamido complexes catalyze the intra-molecular hydroamination of aminoalkenes via a  cycloaddition that forms the corresponding azametallacyclobutane, as illustrated in Figure 1. Subsequent protonolysis by incoming substrate gives the -vinyl-pyrrolidine (1) or tetrahydropyridine (2) product.  There is substantial experimental and theoretical evidence for the proposed imido intermediate and mechanism with neutral group IV catalysts.
Hydrogen cycle
For the nuclear fusion process producing helium from hydrogen see Proton-proton chain reaction
Hydrogen is one of the constituents of water. It recycles as in other biogeochemical cycles. It is actively involved with the other cycles like the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle and sulfur cycle as well.
Anaerobic fermentation of organic substances to carbon dioxide and methane is a collaborative effort involving many different biochemical reactions, processes and species of microorganisms. One of these many processes that occur is termed "interspecies hydrogen transfer". This process has been described as integral to the symbiosis between certain methane-producing bacteria (methanogens) and nonmethanogenic anaerobes. In this symbiosis, the nonmethanogenic anaerobes degrade the organic substance and produce -among other things- molecular hydrogen (H2). This hydrogen is then taken up by methanogens and converted to methane via methanogenesis. One important characteristic of interspecies hydrogen transfer is that the H2 concentration in the microbial environment is very low. Maintaining a low hydrogen concentration is important because the anaerobic fermentative process become increasingly thermodynamically unfavorable as the partial pressure of hydrogen increases.
Hypervalinemia
Hypervalinemia (occasionally called valinemia) is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorder in which urinary and serum levels of the branched-chain amino acid valine are elevated, without related elevation of the branched-chain amino acids leucine and isoleucine.
It is caused by a deficiency of the enzyme valine transaminase.
Presenting in infancy, symptoms include lack of appetite, vomiting, dehydration, hypotonia and failure to thrive.
Hypocitraturia
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# Overview
Hypocitraturia, a low amount of citrate in the urine, is an important risk factor for kidney stone formation.

# Classification
Hypocitraturia usually is defined as citrate excretion of less than 320 mg/day, but this definition has been challenged as inadequate for recurrent stone formers.
- Severe hypocitraturia: citrate excretion of < 100 mg/day
- Mild-to-moderate hypocitraturia: citrate excretion of 100-320 mg/day
Other definitions;
- Urine citrate level < 220 mg/day for both men and women, regardless of age, or
- Urine citrate level < 115 mg/day in men and < 200 mg/day in women.

# Pathophysiology
Citrate in the urine has long been recognized as an inhibitor of calcium salt crystallization. Citrate is the dissociated anion of citric acid, a weak acid that is both ingested in the diet and produced endogenously in the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
The mean urinary citrate excretion is 640 mg/d in healthy individuals.
Hypoosmolality

# Overview
Hyposmolality or hypoosmolality is the condition especially of a bodily fluid of having abnormally low osmolality.

# Physiology of Osmolality
Plasma osmolality is a function of the ratio of body solute to body water. Plasma osmolality is regulated by changes in water balance. Water intake is derived primarily from three sources:
- Ingested water
- Water contained in food
- Water produced from oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Water losses occur in the urine and stool, as well as evaporation from the skin and respiratory tract. Alterations in plasma osmolality of as little as 1% - 2% are sensed by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. These receptors initiate mechanisms that affect water intake (via thirst) and water excretion (via antidiuretic hormone ADH) to return plasma osmolality to normal.
Hosch reaction
The Hosch reaction (also known as the Hoesch reaction or Houben-Hoesch reaction) is an organic reaction in which a nitrile reacts with an arene compound to form a aryl ketone. the reaction is a type of Friedel-Crafts acylation with hydrochloric acid and a Lewis acid catalyst.
An example is the synthesis of   1-(2,4, 6-Trihydroxyphenyl)ethanone from phloroglucinol :
A ketimine is isolated as an intermediate reaction product. The attacking electrophile is possibly  a species of the type R-C+=NHCl-. The arene must be electron-rich i.e. phenol or aniline type.  A related reaction is the Gattermann reaction in which hydrocyanic acid not a nitrile is used.
The reaction is named after Kurt Hoesch  and J. Houben  who reported about this new reaction type in respectively 1915 and 1926.
I-cell disease
Synonyms and keywords: mucolipidosis II; ML II

# Overview
Inclusion-cell (I-cell) disease is so named because waste products, thought to include carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, accumulate into masses known as inclusion bodies. When tissues are examined under a microscope, the detection of inclusion bodies often provides a diagnosis of the disease.

# Pathophysiology
I-cell disease is caused by a defect in mannose phosphorylation of lysosomal enzymes. Without mannose-6-phosphate to target them to the lysosomes, the enzymes are transported from the endoplasmic reticulum to the extracellular space.  It can be associate with GNPTA.

# Diagnosis
ML II is a particularly severe form of ML that resembles one of the mucopolysaccharidoses called Hurler syndrome. Some physical signs, such as abnormal skeletal development, coarse facial features, and restricted joint movement, may be present at birth. Children with ML II usually have enlargement of certain organs, such as the liver or spleen, and sometimes even the heart valves. Affected children often fail to grow and develop in the first months of life. Delays in the development of their motor skills are usually more pronounced than delays in their cognitive (mental processing) skills. Children with ML II eventually develop a clouding on the cornea of their eyes and, because of their lack of growth, develop short-trunk dwarfism (underdeveloped trunk). These young patients are often plagued by recurrent respiratory tract infections, including pneumonia, otis media (middle ear infections), and bronchitis. Children with ML II generally die before their seventh year of life, often as a result of congestive heart failure or recurrent respiratory tract infections.
Interleukin 16
Pro-interleukin-16 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL16 gene. This gene was discovered in 1982 at Boston University by Dr. David Center and Dr. William Cruikshank.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a pleiotropic cytokine that functions as a chemoattractant, a modulator of T cell activation, and an inhibitor of HIV replication. The signaling process of this cytokine is mediated by CD4. The product of this gene undergoes proteolytic processing, which is found to yield two functional proteins. The cytokine function is exclusively attributed to the secreted C-terminal peptide, while the N-terminal product may play a role in cell cycle control. Caspase 3 is reported to be involved in the proteolytic processing of this protein. Two alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been reported.
Interleukin 16 (IL-16) is a cytokine that is released by a variety of cells (including lymphocytes and some epithelial cells) that has been characterized as a chemoattractant for certain immune cells expressing the cell surface molecule CD4.
IL-16 was originally described as a factor that could attract activated T cells in humans, it was previously called lymphocyte chemoattractant factor (LCF).  Since then, this interleukin has been shown to recruit and activate many other cells expressing the CD4 molecule, including monocytes, eosinophils, and dendritic cells.
The structure of IL-16 was determined following its cloning in 1994. This cytokine is produced as a precursor peptide (pro-IL-16) that requires processing by an enzyme called caspase-3 to become active.  CD4 is the cell signaling receptor for mature IL-16.

# Interactions
Interleukin 16 has been shown to interact with:
- GRIN2A,
- GRIN2D,
- KCNJ10,
- KCNJ15,
- Kir2.1,
- PPP1R12A, and
- PPP1R12B.
Ictal headache
Ictal headaches are headaches associated with seizure activity. They may occur either before (pre-ictal) or after (post-ictal) a seizure, and in rare circumstances during a seizure. Many cases of ictal headache may be misdiagnosed as migraine with aura, or even cluster headache. However, while these conditions usually involve just one side of the head (are unilateral), an ictal headache may be centrally situated or cover the entirety of the head.
Severity of ictal headaches can vary from a slight pressure or "cloud" to an intensity far beyond migraine. Some have called it a "suicide headache" in the worst instances. Temporary blindness may also occur in some cases.
Ictal headaches can often be controlled with anticonvulsants.
Symptoms besides headache may be either present or absent, and may include unusual thoughts or experiences. In these cases it is especially important to obtain a correct diagnosis. Many people with these experiences are accidentally diagnosed with conditions such as psychosis or schizophrenia and given antipsychotic medications, which may actually increase seizure activity.
An EEG is recommended to detect other signs of epilepsy. Even when an EEG does not prove determinative, anticonvulsants may be a first line of treatment if these symptoms are present with headache.
Image analysis

# Overview
Image analysis is the extraction of meaningful information from images; mainly from digital images by means of digital image processing techniques.  Image analysis tasks can be as simple as reading bar coded tags or as sophisticated as identifying a person from their face.
Computers are indispensable for the analysis of large amounts of data, for tasks that require complex computation, or for the extraction of quantitative information.  On the other hand, the human visual cortex is an excellent image analysis apparatus, especially for extracting higher-level information, and for many applications  including medicine, security, and remote sensing  human analysts still cannot be replaced by computers.  For this reason, many important image analysis tools such as edge detectors and neural networks are inspired by human visual perception models.

## Computer image analysis
Computer image analysis largely contains the fields of computer or machine vision, and medical imaging, and makes heavy use of pattern recognition, digital geometry, and signal processing.  This field of computer science developed in the 1950s at academic institutions such as the MIT A.I. Lab, originally as a branch of artificial intelligence and robotics.
It is the quantitative or qualitative characterization of two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) digital images. 2D images are, for example, to be analyzed in computer vision, and 3D images in medical imaging. The field was established in the 1950s -- 1970s, for example with pioneering contributions by
Azriel Rosenfeld, Herbert Freeman, Jack E. Bresenham, or King-Sun Fu.

## Digital image analysis
The applications of digital image analysis are continuously expanding through all areas of science and industry, including:
- medicine
- microscopy
- remote sensing
- astronomy
- defense
- materials science
- manufacturing
- security
- robotics
- document processing
- assay plate reading

## Object-based image analysis
Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) is a sub-discipline of geoinformation science devoted to partitioning remote sensing (RS) imagery into meaningful image-objects, and assessing their characteristics through spatial, spectral and temporal scale.
Each of these application areas has spawned separate subfields of digital image analysis, with a large collection of specialized algorithms and concepts -- and with their own journals, conferences, technical societies, and so on.
Immersion foot
Immersion foot, archaically trench foot, is a medical condition caused by prolonged exposure of the feet to damp and cold. It was a particular problem for soldiers in trench warfare during the winters of World Wars I and  II and in the Vietnam conflict.
Immersion foot occurs when feet are cold and damp while wearing constricting footwear.  Unlike frostbite, immersion foot does not require freezing temperatures and can occur in temperatures up to 60 Fahrenheit (about 16 Celsius). Immersion foot can occur with as little as twelve hours' exposure. Affected feet become numb and then turn red or blue. As the condition worsens, they may swell. Advanced immersion foot often involves blisters and open sores, which lead to fungal infections; this is sometimes called jungle rot. If left untreated, immersion foot usually results in gangrene, which can require amputation. If immersion foot is treated properly, complete recovery is normal, though it is marked by severe short-term pain when feeling is returning. Like other cold injuries, immersion foot leaves sufferers more susceptible to it in the future.
Immersion foot is easily prevented by keeping the feet warm and dry, and changing socks frequently when the feet cannot be kept dry. British soldiers in World War I were advised to keep multiple pairs of clean socks on hand, and change them at least three times daily. During World War I,  trench soldiers were provided with whale grease and told to apply it to their feet to reduce the prevalence of this condition; the idea was to make the feet waterproof. It was also discovered that a key measure was regular foot inspections by officers.
Trench foot made an unwelcome reappearance in the British Army during the Falklands War, in 1982. The causes were the cold, wet conditions and the DMS boot, which was insufficiently waterproof. Large numbers of soldiers were incapacitated by the condition; there were rumours that, if the war had not ended when it did, the British advance would have stopped.
Lobe (anatomy)
In anatomy, a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension that can be determined without the use of a microscope (at the gross anatomy level.) This is in contrast to a lobule, which is a clear division only visible histologically.  
In practice, this division can be somewhat subjective. For example, it can be difficult to precisely distinguish between a interlobar duct and a interlobular duct.
Furthermore, the distinction is not universally accepted, and some sources simply consider a lobule to be a small lobe.

# Examples of lobes
- The four lobes of the human cortex
the frontal lobe
the parietal lobe
the occipital lobe
the temporal lobe
- the frontal lobe
- the parietal lobe
- the occipital lobe
- the temporal lobe
- The three lobes of the human cerebellum
the flocculonodular lobe
the anterior lobe
the posterior lobe
- the flocculonodular lobe
- the anterior lobe
- the posterior lobe
- the earlobe
- lobes of the lung
Right lung: superior, middle, inferior
Left lung: superior and inferior
- Right lung: superior, middle, inferior
- Left lung: superior and inferior
- the liver
Left lobe of liver
Right lobe of liver
Quadrate lobe of liver
Caudate lobe of liver
- Left lobe of liver
- Right lobe of liver
- Quadrate lobe of liver
- Caudate lobe of liver
- the kidney
Renal lobe and cortical lobule
- Renal lobe and cortical lobule
Interleukin 28
Interleukin-28 (IL-28) is a cytokine that comes in two isoforms, IL-28A and IL-28B, and plays a role in immune defense against viruses, including the induction of an "antiviral state" by turning on Mx proteins, 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase as well as ISGF3G (Interferon Stimulated Gene Factor 3). IL-28A and IL-28B belong to the type III interferon family of cytokines and are highly similar (in amino acid sequence) to IL-29.  Their classification as Interferons is due to their ability to induce an antiviral state, while their additional classification as cytokines is due to their chromosomal location as well as the fact that they are encoded by multiple exons, as opposed to a single exon, as most type-I IFNs are.

# Discovery
IL-28 was discovered in 2002 by Zymogenetics using a genomic screening process in which the entire human genome was scanned for putative genes.  Once these genes were found, a second scan was performed to look specifically for cytokines.  Both IL-28 and IL-29 were found in humans using this type of analysis.

# Structure
IL-28 genes are located near IL-29 on chromosome 19 in humans. The two isoforms of IL-28 (IL-28A and IL-28B) are 96% homologous. Differences in function between the two forms remains unclear.
The receptor for IL-28 is composed of a unique IL-28 Receptor Alpha chain which pairs with the IL-10 Receptor Beta chain, leading many to classify IL-28 as an IL-10-like family member.

# Function
IL-28 has also been shown to play a role in the adaptive immune response, as its inclusion as an immunoadjuvant during small animal vaccination lead to augmented antigen-specific Interferon Gamma release as well as an increased cytotoxic potential in CD8+ T cells.

# Clinical significance
Addition of IL-28 to vaccination results in 100% protection from a lethal H1N1 Influenza challenge in a small animal model when it was paired with an Influenza vaccine that protected only 50% of the time without IL-28.
Studies of IL-28B in non-human primate models of vaccination confirmed the small animal models, leading to an increase in Interferon Gamma production and CD8+ T cell activity in the form of cytotoxicity in an HIV vaccine study. Scientists have credited this link to explain why some people infected with HSV-1 experience cold sores, while others do not.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) near the IL28B gene predicts response to hepatitis C treatment with interferon and ribavirin. The SNP was identified in a genome-wide association study (GWAS) and is to date the best example of a successful GWAS hit that is clinically relevant.
Interleukin 18
Interleukin-18 (IL18, also known as interferon-gamma inducing factor) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the IL18 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a proinflammatory cytokine.

# Function
IL-18 is a cytokine that belongs to the IL-1 superfamily and is produced by macrophages and other cells. IL-18 works by binding to the interleukin-18 receptor, and together with IL-12 it induces cell-mediated immunity following infection with microbial products like lipopolysaccharide (LPS).  After stimulation with IL-18, natural killer (NK) cells and certain T cells release another important cytokine called interferon- (IFN-) or type II interferon that plays an important role in activating the macrophages or other cells.
The combination of this cytokine and IL12 has been shown to inhibit IL-4 dependent IgE and IgG1 production, and enhance IgG2a production in B cells. IL-18 binding protein (IL18BP) can specifically interact with this cytokine, and thus negatively regulate its biological activity.

# Clinical significance
Apart from its physiological role, IL-18 is also able to induce severe inflammatory reactions, which suggests its role in certain inflammatory disorders.
Endometrial IL-18 receptor mRNA and the ratio of IL-18 binding protein to interleukin 18 are significantly increased in adenomyosis patients in comparison to normal people, indicating a role in its pathogenesis.
IL-18 has been implicated as an inflammatory mediator of Hashimoto's thyroiditis, the most common  cause of autoimmune hypothyroidism.  IL-18 is up regulated by interferon-gamma.
IL-18 has also been found to increase the Alzheimer's disease-associated amyloid-beta production in human neuron cells.
Interleukin 19
Interleukin 19 (IL19) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL19 gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a cytokine that belongs to the IL-10 cytokine subfamily. This cytokine is found to be preferentially expressed in monocytes. It can bind the interleukin-20 receptor complex and lead to the activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). A similar cytokine in mouse is reported to up-regulate the expression of IL6 and TNF-alpha and induce apoptosis, which suggests a role of this cytokine in inflammatory responses. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding the distinct isoforms have been described.
Interleukin-19 is a cytokine that belongs to the IL-10 family of cytokines along with several other interleukins including IL-10, IL-20, IL-22, IL-24, IL-26, and several virus-encoded cytokines.  It signals through the same cell surface receptor (IL-20R) that is used by IL-20 and IL-24. The IL-19 gene is expressed in resting monocytes and B cells. It is up-regulated in monocytes following stimulation with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), lipopolysaccharide, or Pam3CSK4. and
Interleukin 20
Interleukin 20 (IL20) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL20 gene. Interkeukin 20 also includes other cytokines, including IL-19, IL-20, IL-22, IL-24, and IL-26. Based on common structural and functional properties of IL-20's receptors and target cells, these cytokines constitute the same subfamily, IL-20.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a cytokine structurally related to interleukin 10 (IL-10). This cytokine has been shown to transduce its signal through signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in keratinocytes. A specific receptor for this cytokine is found to be expressed in skin and upregulated dramatically in psoriatic skin, suggesting a role for this protein in epidermal function and psoriasis.
Interleukin-20 (IL-20) is a protein belonging to the IL-10 family of cytokines. IL-20 is produced by activated keratinocytes and monocytes and transmits an intracellular signal through two distinct cell-surface receptor complexes on keratinocytes and other epithelial cells.  IL-20 regulates proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes during inflammation, particularly inflammation associated with the skin. In addition, IL-20 also causes cell expansion of multipotential hematopoietic progenitor cells.

# Anti IL-20
Anti-IL-20 monoclonal antibodies have been researched as clinical candidates for the treatment or prevention of psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, and stroke.