Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Chemical patent
A chemical patent or pharmaceutical patent is a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceuticals industry. Strictly speaking, in most jurisdictions, there are essentially no differences between the legal requirements to obtain a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceutical fields, in comparison to obtaining a patent in the other fields, such as in the mechanical field. A chemical patent or a pharmaceutical patent is therefore not a sui generis right, i.e. a special legal type of patent.
Patents are particularly important in the pharmaceuticals industry where they are used to protect the large investments that are necessary to develop drugs. Patent protection has a huge bearing on the commercial success of a company. Patents are a core instrument used in the competition between "originator companies" and "generic companies", and between originator companies.
Patents in the chemical or pharmaceutical industry are also an important source of technical and bibliographic information.  Chemical patents are different from other sources of technical information because of the generic, Markush structures contained within them, named after the inventor Eugene Markush who won a claim in the US in 1925 to allow such structures to be used in patent claims.  These generic structures are used to make the patent claim as broad as possible.
Chemical symbol

# Overview
A chemical symbol is an abbreviation or short representation of the name of a chemical element, generally assigned in relation to its Latin name. Natural elements all have symbols of one or two letters; some man-made elements have temporary symbols of three letters.
Chemical symbols are listed in the periodic table and are used as shorthand and in chemical equations, e.g.,
Because chemical symbols are often derived from the Latin or Greek name of the element, they may not bear much similarity to the common Englis name, e.g., Na for sodium (Latin natrium) and Au for gold (Latin aurum).
In China, each chemical element is assigned an ideograph as its symbol; most of them have been explicitly created for this purpose.
Chemical symbols may also be changed to show if one particular isotope of an atom that is specified, as well as to show other attributes such as ionization and oxidation state of a chemical compound.
Examples of families
- Alkali Metals
- Alkaline Earth Metals
- Transition Metals
- Halogen Gases
- Inert Gases (Noble Gases)
Examples of physical properties
- Density
- Boiling Point 212 degrees F
- Melting Point
- Conductivity
- Heat Capacity
Examples of chemical properties:
- Valence
- Reactivity
- Radioactivity
For complete listings of the chemical elements and their symbols, see:
- List of elements by symbol
- List of elements by name
- List of elements by number
- Periodic table of the elements
Thoracic cavity

# Overview
The thoracic cavity (or chest cavity) is the chamber of the human body (and other animal bodies) that is protected by the thoracic wall (thoracic cage and associated skin, muscle, and fascia).

# Components
Structures within the thoracic cavity include:
- structures of the cardiovascular system, including the heart and great vessels, which include the thoracic aorta, the pulmonary artery and all its branches, the superior and inferior vena cava, the pulmonary veins, and the azygos vein
- structures of the respiratory system, including the trachea, bronchi and lungs
- structures of the digestive system, including the esophagus,
- endocrine glands, including the thymus gland,
- structures of the nervous system including the paired vagus nerves, and the paired sympathetic chains,
- lymphatics including the thoracic duct.
It contains three potential spaces lined with mesothelium: the paired pleural cavities and the pericardial cavity. The mediastinum comprises those organs which lie in the centre of the chest between the lungs.

# Boundaries
The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The thoracic inlet is the upper limit of the thoracic cavity, formed by the manubrium in front, the first ribs laterally, and the spine posteriorly.

# Clinical significance
If the pleural cavity is breached from the outside, as by a bullet wound or knife wound, a pneumothorax, or air in the cavity, may result. If the volume of air is significant, one or both lungs may collapse, which requires immediate medical attention.
Chi-square test

# Overview
A chi-square test is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test statistic has a chi-square distribution when the null hypothesis is true, or any in which the probability distribution of the test statistic (assuming the null hypothesis is true) can be made to approximate a chi-square distribution as closely as desired by making the sample size large enough.
Specifically, a chi-square test for independence evaluates statistically significant differences between proportions for two or more groups in a data set.
- Pearson's chi-square test, also known as the Chi-square goodness-of-fit test, commonly referred to as the chi-square test
- Yates' chi-square test also known as Yates' correction for continuity
- Mantel-Haenszel chi-square test
- Linear-by-linear association chi-square test

# Significance and effect size
In the social sciences, the significance of the chi-square statistic is often given in terms of a p value (e.g., p = 0.05). It is an indication of the likelihood of obtaining a result (0.05 = 5%). As such, it is relatively uninformative. A more helpful accompanying statistic is phi (or Cramer's phi, or Cramer's V). Phi is a measure of association that reports a value for the correlation between the two dichotomous variables compared in a chi-square test (2  2). This value gives you an indication of the extent of the relationship between the two variables. Cramer's phi can be used for even larger comparisons. It is a more meaningful measure of the practical significance of the chi-square test and is reported as the effect size.

# Chi-square test for contingency table
A chi-square test may be applied on a contingency table for testing a null hypothesis of independence of rows and columns.

# Chi Square Calculator
Chimera (virus)

# Overview
A chimera virus is defined by the United States Department of Agriculture Center for Veterinary Biologics as a "new hybrid microorganism created by joining nucleic acid fragments from two or more different microorganisms in which each of at least two of the fragments contain essential genes necessary for replication."  The term chimera already referred to an individual organism whose body contained cell populations from different zygotes or an organism that developed from portions of different embryos.

# Also see
- Ebola
- smallpox

# In fiction
In Mission: Impossible II, the pharmaceutical corporation BioCyte engineered a chimera virus in order to create a need for the vaccine Bellerophon, which they had also created.  The vaccine is only effective within twenty hours of exposure.
In the PlayStation 3 game, Resistance: Fall of Man, the main character fights against Chimera.  Chimera are alien-like creatures that infect humans with a type of mutated chimera virus and turn them into more Chimera.
Levobupivacaine

# Overview
Levobupivacaine (rINN) (Template:PronEng) is a local anaesthetic drug belonging to the amino amide group. It is the S-enantiomer of bupivacaine. Levobupivacaine hydrochloride is commonly marketed by AstraZeneca under the trade name Chirocaine.

# Clinical use
Compared to bupivacaine, levobupivacaine is associated with less vasodilation and has a longer duration of action. It is approximately 13 per cent less potent (by molarity) than racemic bupivacaine.

## Indications
Levobupivacaine is indicated for local anaesthesia including infiltration, nerve block, ophthalmic, epidural and intrathecal anaesthesia in adults; and infiltration analgesia in children.

## Contraindications
Levobupivacaine is contraindicated for IV regional anaesthesia (IVRA).

## Adverse effects
Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are rare when it is administered correctly. Most ADRs relate to administration technique (resulting in systemic exposure) or pharmacological effects of anesthesia, however allergic reactions can rarely occur.
Systemic exposure to excessive quantities of bupivacaine mainly result in central nervous system (CNS) and cardiovascular effects  CNS effects usually occur at lower blood plasma concentrations and additional cardiovascular effects present at higher concentrations, though cardiovascular collapse may also occur with low concentrations. CNS effects may include CNS excitation (nervousness, tingling around the mouth, tinnitus, tremor, dizziness, blurred vision, seizures) followed by depression (drowsiness, loss of consciousness, respiratory depression and apnea). Cardiovascular effects include hypotension, bradycardia, arrhythmias, and/or cardiac arrest  some of which may be due to hypoxemia secondary to respiratory depression. (Rossi, 2006)
Cholecalciferol

# Overview
Cholecalciferol is a form of Vitamin D, also called vitamin D3. 
It is structurally similar to steroids such as testosterone, cholesterol, and cortisol (though vitamin D3 itself is a secosteroid).
1g of pure vitamin D3 is 40 000 000 (40x106) IU, or in other words, one IU is 0.025 g.

# Forms
Cholecalciferol has several forms:
- Calciol , is an inactive, unhydroxylated form of vitamin D3)
- calcidiol (also called 25-hydroxyvitamin D3), is the blood calcium form
- calcitriol (also called 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3), is the active form of D3.

# Metabolism
7-Dehydrocholesterol is the precursor of vitamin D3 and only forms the vitamin after being exposed to UV radiation. This creates calciol.
After exposure to the sun, calciol is sent to the liver to be hydroxylated where it becomes Calcidiol.
Next, it is sent to the kidney and once again hydroxylated becoming Calcitriol.  Calcitriol is the active hormone form of vitamin D3, for this reason vitamin D is often referred to as a prohormone.

# As food fortification
Cholecalciferol is the form of vitamin D normally added during fortification of foods.  Cholecalciferol is produced industrially by the irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol extracted from lanolin found in sheep's wool.  In products where animal products are not desired, the alternative is to use ergocalciferol (also known as vitamin D2) derived from the fungal sterol ergosterol.

## Dose
While the absorption of cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol is approximately equivalent in healthy individuals, vitamin D3 is three to ten  times more potent than vitamin D2, and has more prolonged effects. However, the human body cannot tolerate intake of as much vitamin D3 per day compared to the body's upper-limit intake of vitamin D2, limiting the overall efficacy of taking vitamin D3 supplements as opposed to vitamin D2 supplements despite vitamin D3's higher potency. The current standard is to recommend equivalent doses of vitamin D2 as vitamin D3, but with regard to the mentioned mechanisms it has been suggested that instead, the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) or International Units (IU) of vitamin D2 and D3 should be changed to recommend approximately 10 times more daily intake for vitamin D2 than vitamin D3.
For a current and illustrated discussion on this topic see:
Tavera-Mendoz, Luz E. & White, John H. (2007, November).  Cell Defenses and the Sunshine Vitamin.  Scientific American, pp.62-72.

# Stability
Cholecalciferol is very sensitive to UV radiation and will rapidly, but reversibly break down to form supra-sterols, which can further irreversibly convert to tachysterol.
Chorionic villi

# Overview
Chorionic villi are villi that sprout from the chorion in order to give a maximum area of contact with the maternal blood.
Embryonic blood is carried to the villi by the branches of the umbilical arteries, and after circulating through the capillaries of the villi, is returned to the embryo by the umbilical veins.
Thus, the villi are part of the border between maternal and fetal blood during pregnancy.

# Development
The chorion undergoes rapid proliferation and forms numerous processes, the chorionic villi, which invade and destroy the uterine decidua and at the same time absorb from it nutritive materials for the growth of the embryo.
They undergo several stages, depending on their composition.
Until about the end of the second month of pregnancy the villi cover the entire chorion, and are almost uniform in size, but after this they develop unequally.

# Relations
The villi can also be classified by their relations:

## Floating villi
These villi are found floating freely in the intervillous space. They exhibit a bi-layered epithelium consisting of cytotrophoblasts with overlaying syncytium (syncytiotrophoblast).

## Anchoring (stem) villi
These villi act to stablise mechanical integrity of the placental-maternal interface.

# Tissue composition and cell types
The bulk of the villi consist of connective tissues in which blood vessels are found. Most of the cells in the connective tissue core of the villi are fibroblasts. Macrophages known as Hofbauer cells are also present.

# Additional images
- Section through the embryo.
- Transverse section of a chorionic villus.
- Primary chorionic villi. Diagrammatic.
Primary chorionic villi. Diagrammatic.
- Secondary chorionic villi. Diagrammatic.
Secondary chorionic villi. Diagrammatic.
- Human embryo of about fourteen days, with yolk-sac.
Chorioretinitis

# Overview
Chorioretinitis is an inflammation of the choroid and retina of the eye. It is also known as Choroid retinitis.

# Symptoms
The symptoms are the presence of floating black spots and blurry vision.

# Causes
Chorioretinitis is often caused by a toxoplasmosis infection and mostly affects young children.

# Treatment
It is treated with a combination of corticosteroids and antibiotics.
Chromaffin cell

# Overview
Chromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found in the medulla of the adrenal gland (suprarenal gland - located above the kidneys) and in other ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system. They are derived from the embryonic neural crest.
In the fifth week of (human) fetal development, neuroblast cells migrate from the neural crest to form the  sympathetic chain and preaortic ganglia. The cells migrate a second time to the adrenal medulla. Chromaffin cells also settle near the sympathetic ganglia, vagus nerve, paraganglia, and carotid arteries. In lower concentrations, extra-adrenal chromaffin cells also reside in the bladder wall, prostate, and behind the liver.

# Function
Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are innervated by the splanchnic nerve and secrete epinephrine, norepinephrine, and enkephalin into the bloodstream. As such, they play an important role in the fight-or-flight response. They are also referred to as granules and this is where the enzyme dopamine-hydroxylase catalyzes the conversion of dopamine to noradrenaline. Distinct N and E cell forms exist (also Na and A cells in British nomenclature - noradrenaline and adrenaline); the former produce norepinephrine, the latter arise out of N cells through interaction with glucocorticoids, and convert norepinephrine into epinephrine.

# Nomenclature
These cells are so-named because they can be visualized by staining with chromium salts. Chromaffin salts oxidize and polymerize catecholamines to form a brown color, most strongly in the cells secreting noradrenaline.
(The enterochromaffin cells cells are so named because of their histological similarity to chromaffin cells (they also stain yellow when treated with chromium salts), but their function is quite different.)
Group 6 element
A Group 6 element is one in the series of elements in group 6 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of the transition metals chromium  (Cr), molybdenum  (Mo), tungsten  (W), and seaborgium  (Sg).
"Group 6" is the new IUPAC name for this group; the old style name was "group VIA" in the old European system or "group VIB" in the old US system.  Group 6 must not be confused with the group with the old-style group names of either VIB (European system) or VIA (US system); that group is now called group 16.

# Biological occurrences
Group 6 is notable in that it contains some of the only elements in periods 5 and 6 with a known role in the biological chemistry of living organisms: molybdenum is common in enzymes of many organisms, and tungsten has been identified in an analogous role in enzymes from some archaea, such as Pyrococcus furiosus. In contrast, and unusually for a first-row d-block transition metal, chromium appears to have few biological roles, although it is thought to form part of the glucose metabolism enzyme in some mammals.
ar:  
ast:Elementos del grupu 6
ca:Grup 6 de la taula periodica
cs:6. skupina
de:Chromgruppe
eo:Elemento de grupo 6
ko:6 
it:Elementi del gruppo 6
lmo:Grupp 6 de la taula periodica
nl:Chroomgroep
nn:Gruppe 6
sk:6. skupina
sr:6.   
sh:6. grupa hemijskih elemenata
th: 6
Chrysolaminarin
Chrysolaminarin is a linear polymer of (13) linked glucose units. It used to be known as leucosin. Chrysolaminarin is arguably one of the most common biopolymers in the world with cellulose being the other.

# Function
Chrysolaminarin is a storage polysaccharide typically found in photosynthetic heterokonts. It is used as a carbohydrate food reserve by phytoplankton such as Bacillariophyta (similar to the use of laminarin by brown algae) .
Chrysolaminarin is stored inside the cells of these organisms dissolved in water and encapsuled in vacuoles whose refractive index increases with chrysolaminarin content. In addition, heterokont algae use oil as a storage compound. Besides energy reserve, oil helps the algae to control their buoyancy .
Chvostek's sign

# Overview
The Chvostek's sign (also Weiss sign) is one of the signs of tetany seen in hypocalcemia. It refers to an abnormal reaction to the stimulation of the facial nerve. When the facial nerve is tapped at the angle of the jaw, the facial muscles on the same side of the face will contract momentarily (typically a twitch of the nose or lips) because of hypocalcaemia (ie from hypoparathyroidism, pseudohypoparathyroidism, hypovitaminosis D) with resultant hyperexcitability of nerves. Though classically described in hypocalcemia, this sign may also be encountered in respiratory alkalosis, such as that seen in hyperventilation, which actually causes decreased serum Ca++ with a normal calcium level due to a shift of Ca++ from the blood to albumin which has become more negative in the alkalotic state.
It was first described by Frantisek Chvostek, an Austrian physician in 1876, and later independently by Nathan Weiss in 1883.
The Trousseau sign of latent tetany is also often used to detect early tetany.
Chvostek's Sign seen in tetany and sometimes in anxiety states.
In modern medical era, the utility of Chvostek's sign has diminished with the development of serum calcium level assessments. However, the sign may still be helpful as crude determinations of the neuromuscular excitability that occurs in patients with hypocalcemia.

# Differential Diagnosis
In alphabetical order:   
- Hyperventilation
- Hypocalcemia
- Hypomagnesemia
- Hypoparathyroidism

# Physical Examination and Appearance of the Patient
- Evaluation of Chvostek' Sign: A= The Chvostek I phenomenon and B= The Chvostek II phenomenon
- Appearance of a patient with Chvostek's Sign

# Laboratory Findings
Hypocalcemia

# Treatment
Calcium repletion.
Chytridiomycota
Chytridiomycota is a phylum of the Fungi kingdom. The name refers to the chytridium (from the Greek chytridion, meaning "little pot"): the structure containing unreleased spores.  In older classifications, chytrids (except the recently established order Spizellomycetales) were placed in the Class Phycomycetes under the Subdivision Myxomycophyta of the Kingdom Fungi. Also, in an older and more restricted sense (not used here), the term "chytrids" referred just to those fungi in the order Chytridiales.
The chytrids are the most primitive of the fungi and are mostly saprobic (degrading chitin and keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic (mostly found in fresh water). There are approximately 1,000 chytrid species, in 127 genera, distributed among 5 orders.
Both zoospores and gametes of the chytrids are mobile by their flagella, one whiplash per individual. The thalli are coenocytic and usually form no true mycelium (having rhizoids instead). Some species are unicellular.
Some chytrid species are known to kill amphibians in large numbers. The actual process, however, is unknown. The infection is referred to as chytridiomycosis. Decline in frog populations led to the discovery of chytridomycosis in 1998 in Australia and Panama. Chytrids may also infect plant species; in particular, maize-attacking and alfalfa-attacking species have been described. Synchytrium endobioticum is an important potato pathogen.
Cicely Saunders
Dame Cicely Mary  Saunders, OM, DBE (June 22 1918 in Barnet, Hertfordshire, England  July 14 2005 at St Christopher's Hospice, South London, England) was a prominent Anglican nurse, physician and writer, involved with many international universities.
She is best known for her role in the birth of the hospice movement, emphasizing the importance of palliative care in modern medicine.
St. Christopher's Hospice, the world's first purpose-built hospice, in 1967. The hospice was founded on the principles of combining expert pain and symptom relief with holistic care to meet the physical, social, psychological and spiritual needs of its patients and those of their family and friends.
She also succeeded in engaging the support of Albertine Winner, the deputy chief medical officer at the Ministry of Health at the time. Later, Dame Albertine Winner would become chairwoman of St. Christopher's.
In 1965 Saunders was made an Officer of the British Empire. In 1979 she was further elevated by knighthood to DBE and became known as Dame Cicely Saunders. In 1981 Dame Cicely was awarded the Templeton Prize, the world's richest annual prize awarded to an individual.
In 1989 Dame Cicely was appointed to the Order of Merit by Queen Elizabeth II. In 2001 she received the world's largest humanitarian award - the Conrad N. Hilton Humanitarian Prize, worth 700,000 - on behalf of St Christopher's. On April 25, 2005, another () portrait of her was unveiled at the National Portrait Gallery.
She was a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, a Fellow of the Royal College of Nursing and a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
She died of cancer at the age of 87 in 2005, at the hospice she herself had founded.
Dame Cicely was one of the subjects of Prime Minister Gordon Brown's book: Courage: Eight Portraits.

# Titles and honours

## Shorthand titles
- Miss Cicely Saunders (June 22 1918  January 1 1965)
- Miss Cicely Saunders, OBE (January 1 1965  December 31 1979)
- Dame Cicely Saunders, DBE (December 31 1979  November 30 1989)
- Dame Cicely Saunders, OM, DBE (November 30 1989  July 14 2005)

## Honours
- Dame Commander of the British Empire (elevated from Officer)
- Member of the Order of Merit