Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Ammeter
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes, hence the name. The word "ammeter" is commonly misspelled or mispronounced as "ampmeter" or "ameter" by some.
The earliest design is the D'Arsonval galvanometer or moving coil ammeter. It uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in a magnetic field. The voltage drop across the coil is kept to a minimum to minimize resistance across the ammeter in any circuit into which it is inserted.
Moving iron ammeters use a piece or pieces of iron which move when acted upon by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of (usually heavy gauge) wire. This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed to the moving coil ammeter, which works on direct current only).
To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with the meter. Most of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter. This allows the meter to measure large currents. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt has a full-scale deflection (FSD) of 50 mV, so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of 50 mV when carrying their full rated current.
Zero-center ammeters are used for applications requiring current to be measured with both polarities, common in scientific and industrial equipment. Zero-center ammeters are also commonly placed in series with a battery. In this application, the charging of the battery deflects the needle to one side of the scale (commonly, the right side) and the discharging of the battery deflects the needle to the other side.
Digital ammeter designs use an analog to digital converter (ADC) to measure the voltage across the shunt resistor; the digital display is calibrated to read the current through the shunt.
Since the ammeter shunt has a very low resistance, mistakenly wiring the ammeter in parallel with a voltage source will cause a short circuit, at best blowing a fuse, possibly damaging the instrument and wiring, and exposing an observer to injury. In AC circuits, a current transformer converts the magnetic field around a conductor into a small AC current, typically either 1 or 5 Amps at full rated current, that can be easily read by a meter. In a similar way, accurate AC/DC non-contact ammeters have been constructed using Hall effect magnetic field sensors. A portable hand-held clamp-on ammeter is a common tool for maintenance of industrial and commercial electrical equipment, which is temporarily clipped over a wire to measure current.

# Ammeter Schematic Symbol
The ammeter symbol (A) is shown in the diagram.
Ampoule
An ampoule (also ampule) is a small glass sealed vial which is used to contain or preserve a fluid.

# Historically
Historically ampoules were used to contain a small sample of a person's blood after death, which was entombed alongside them in many Christian catacombs.  It was originally believed that only martyrs were given this burial treatment, but many believe that it was a widely-practised tradition.

# Famous Ampoules
In Naples, a centuries-old ritual takes place every year on the 19th of September: the Blood Miracle of San Gennaro. An ampoule, dating back to the year 305, filled with the blood of Saint Gennaro, bishop of Benevento, is placed next to his bust in the Naples Cathedral. After intense prayers by the parenti di San Geranno, the blood in the ampoule liquifies. The earliest records of this phenomenon date back to 313.

# Modern usage
Modern ampoules are most commonly used to contain pharmaceutical hypodermic solutions or high purity chemicals that must be protected from air.  They are hermetically sealed by melting the thin top with an open flame, and are designed with a (1) scoring around the neck (2) break ring around the neck or (3) a small cut on the neck. When pressure is applied, the top will break off and the medicine can be reached.
After opening the ampoule, the solution is filtered to remove any glass fragments which may have fallen in the solution when the ampoule was opened.
- Pharmaceutical ampoules
- Pharmaceutical ampoules
- A collection of ancient ampoules

# Production
Ampoules are produced from tubing glass. Tubes are inserted in a carrousel and heat is applied. By applying the right amount of heat and using gravity the shape of the ampoule is achieved. As many parameters will influence the production process vision systems are introduced in the carrousel and on the end of the production line.
de:Ampulle (Behalter)
he:
nl:Ampul (medisch)
Amylose
Amylose (CAS# 9005-82-7) is a planar polymer of glucose linked mainly by (14) bonds. It can be made of several thousand glucose units. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylopectin.
The (14) bonds promote the formation of a helix structure.  The structural formula of amylose is pictured at right.  The number of repeated glucose subunits (n) can be many thousands (usually in the range of 300 to 3000).
Amylose starch is less readily digested than amylopectin; however, it takes up less space so is preferred for storage in plants: it makes-up about 30% of the stored starch in plants. The digestive enzyme amylase works on the ends of the starch molecule, breaking it down into sugars.
Iodine molecules fit neatly inside the helical structure of amylose, binding with the starch polymer that absorbs certain known wavelengths of light. Hence, a common test for starch is to mix it with a small amount of yellow iodine solution. In the presence of amylose, a blue-black color will be observed. The intensity of the color can be tested with a colorimeter, using a red filter to discern the concentration of starch present in the solution.
High-amylose varieties of rice have a much lower glycemic load, which could be beneficial for diabetics.
Ankyrin
Ankyrins are a family of proteins that mediate the attachment of integral membrane proteins to the spectrin-actin based membrane cytoskeleton. Ankyrins have binding sites for the beta subunit of spectrin and at least 12 families of integral membrane proteins. This linkage is required to maintain the integrity of the plasma membranes and to anchor specific ion channels, ion exchangers and ion transporters in the plasma membrane. The name is derived from the Greek word for "fused".

# Structure
Ankyrins contain four functional domains: an N-terminal domain that contains 24 tandem ankyrin repeats, a central domain that binds to spectrin, a death domain that binds to proteins involved in apoptosis, and a C-terminal regulatory domain that is highly variable between different ankyrin proteins.

# Membrane protein recognition
The 24 tandem ankyrin repeats are responsible for the recognition of a wide range of membrane proteins. These 24 repeats contain 3 structurally distinct binding sites ranging from repeat 1-14. These binding sites are quasi-independent of each other and can be used in combination. The interactions the sites use to bind to membrane proteins are non-specific and consist of: hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic interactions. These non-specific interactions give ankyrin the property to recognise a large range of proteins as the sequence doesn't have to be conserved, just the properties of the amino acids. The quasi-independence means that if a binding site is not used, it won't have a large effect on the overall binding. These two properties in combination give rise to large repertoire of proteins ankyrin can recognise.

# Subtypes
Ankyrins are encoded by three genes (ANK1, ANK2 and ANK3) in mammals. Each gene in turn produces multiple proteins through alternative splicing.

## ANK1
The ANK1 gene encodes the AnkyrinR proteins. AnkyrinR was first characterized in human erythrocytes, where this ankyrin was referred to as erythrocyte ankyrin or band2.1.  AnkyrinR enables erythrocytes to resist shear forces experienced in the circulation. Individuals with reduced or defective ankyrinR have a form of hemolytic anemia termed hereditary spherocytosis. In erythrocytes, AnkyrinR links the membrane skeleton to the Cl/HCO3 anion exchanger.
Ankyrin 1 links membrane receptor CD44 to the inositol triphosphate receptor and the cytoskeleton.
It has been suggested that Ankyrin 1 interacts with KAHRP (shown via selective pull-downs, SPR and ELISA).

## ANK2
Subsequently, ankyrinB proteins (products of the ANK2 gene) were identified in brain and muscle. AnkyrinB and AnkyrinG proteins are required for the polarized distribution of many membrane proteins including the Na+/K+ ATPase, the voltage gated Na+ channel and the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger.

## ANK3
AnkyrinG proteins (products of the ANK3 gene) were identified in epithelial cells and neurons. A large-scale genetic analysis conducted in 2008 shows the possibility that ANK3 is involved in bipolar disorder.
Anna O.
Anna O. was the pseudonym of a patient of Josef Breuer, who published her case study in his book Studies on Hysteria, written in collaboration with Sigmund Freud.
Anna O was, in fact, Bertha Pappenheim (1859-1936), an Austrian-Jewish feminist and the founder of the Judischer Frauenbund, treated by Breuer for severe cough, paralysis of the extremities on the right side of her body, and disturbances of vision, hearing, and speech, as well as hallucination and loss of consciousness. She was diagnosed with hysteria. Freud implies that her illness was a result of the grief felt over her father's real and physical illness that later led to his death.
Her treatment is regarded as marking the beginning of psychoanalysis. Breuer observed that whilst she experienced 'absences' (a change of personality accompanied by confusion), she would mutter words or phrases to herself. In inducing her to a state of hypnosis, Breuer found that these words were "profoundly melancholy phantasies...sometimes characterized by poetic beauty". Free Association came into being after Anna/Bertha decided  (with Breuer's input) to end her hypnosis sessions and merely talk to Breuer, saying anything that came into her mind.  She called this method of communication "chimney sweeping", and this served as the beginning of free association.
Anna's/Bertha's case also shed light for the first time on the phenomenon called transference, where the patient's feelings toward a significant figure in his/her life are redirected onto the therapist. By transference, Anna imagined to be pregnant with the doctor's baby. She experienced nausea and all the pregnancy symptoms. After this incident, Breuer stopped treating her.
Historical records since showed that when Breuer stopped treating Anna O. she was not becoming better but progressively worse. In fact she was ultimately institutionalised: "Breuer told Freud that she was deranged; he hoped she would die to end her suffering".
She later recovered over time and led a productive life: the West German government issued a postage stamp in honour of her contributions to the field of social work.
According to current research, "examination of the neurological details suggests that Anna suffered from complex partial seizures exacerbated by drug dependence." In other words, her illness was not, as Freud suggested, psychological, but neurological. Many believe that Freud misdiagnosed her, and she in fact suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy, and many of her symptoms, including imagined smells, are common symptoms of types of epilepsy. 
Pappenheim under her real name translated the diary of her ancestor Gluckel of Hameln.
Anoikis
Anoikis (Greek: homelessness) is a form of apoptosis which is induced by anchorage-dependent cells detaching from the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM). Usually cells stay close to the tissue to which they belong since the communication between proximal cells as well as between cells and ECM provide essential signals for growth or survival. When cells are detached from the ECM, i.e. there is a loss of normal cell-matrix interactions, they may undergo anoikis. However, metastatic tumor cells may escape from anoikis and invade other organs.

# Anoikis in metastasis
The mechanism by which invading tumor cells survive the anoikis process remains largely unknown. Recent findings suggest that the protein TrkB, best known for its role in the nervous system, might be involved together with its ligand, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). It seems that TrkB could make tumor cells resistant to anoikis by activating phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling cascade.
In squamous cell carcinoma, researchers have found that anoikis resistance can be induced through hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) activating BOTH extracellular signalling-receptor kinase (ERK) and PI3K.
Aphakia
Aphakia is the absence of the lens of the eye, due to surgical removal, a perforating wound or ulcer, or congenital anomaly. It causes a loss of accommodation, hyperopia, and a deep anterior chamber. Complications include detachment of the vitreous or retina, and glaucoma.
Aphakic people are reported to be able to see ultraviolet wavelengths that are normally excluded by the lens. This may have had an effect on the colors perceived by artist Claude Monet, who had cataract surgery in 1923.

# Treatment
Aphakia could be corrected by wearing glasses, contact lenses or by implant of an artificial  lens (pseudo-phakia).
Estrone
Estrone (also oestrone) is an estrogenic hormone secreted by the ovary.
Estrone is one of the three estrogens, which also include estriol and estradiol. Estrone is the least prevalent of the three hormones, estradiol being prevalent almost always in a female body, estriol being prevalent primarily during pregnancy. Estrone is relevant to health and disease due to its conversion to estrone sulfate, a long-lived derivative of estrone. Estrone sulfate acts as a pool of estrone which can be converted as needed to the more active estradiol.

# Synthesis
Estrone is synthesized via aromatase from androstenedione, a derivative of progesterone. The conversion consists of the de-methylation of C-19 and the aromaticity of the 'A' ring. This reaction is similar to the conversion of testosterone to estradiol.

# Additional images
- Androstenedione converting to estrone.
- Steroidogenesis
Arbidol
Arbidol) is an antiviral drug manufactured by Masterlek in Moscow, Russia.
Chemically, Arbidol features an indole core, functionalized at all positions but one with different substituents.

# Uses
It is an alternative to Tamiflu (manufactured by Roche Pharmaceuticals) used in the fight against avian influenza. Its antiviral inhibitory effect is still being tested and the current results range from being well accepted in pharmaceutical industry to accepted with a dose of suspicion.
The drug has mainly been tested in Russia and China, and has been shown to be effective against avian flu, suggesting it might be a more affordable and cost-effective drug than the widely used Tamiflu.
There is some evidence that it may be more effective at preventing infections from RNA viruses than from DNA viruses.
It has also been investigated as a candidate drug against hepatitis C.

# Mechanism of action
The drug exhibits immunomodulation as well as a specific anti-influenza action against the influenza A  and influenza B viruses.
It prevents contact between the virus and host cells and penetration of virus particles into the cell by inhibiting the fusion  of the virus lipid shell to the cell membranes. 
It possesses interferon inducing action, by stimulating the humoral reaction and the phagocytic function of macrophages.

# Dosage forms
The drug is manufactured in the form of tablets and capsules, each tablet containing Arbidol as its active ingredient (50 mg and 100 mg).

# Pharmacokinetics and usage
Side effects in children include sensitization to the drug. No known overdose cases have been reported and allergic reactions are limited to people with hypersensitivity.
Arc eye

# Overview
Arc eye, also known as arc flash, welder's flash, corneal flash burns, or flash burns, is a painful ocular condition sometimes experienced by welders who have failed to use adequate eye protection.  It can also occur due to light from tanning beds, light reflected from snow (known as snow blindness), water or sand.  The intense ultraviolet light emitted by the arc causes a superficial and painful keratitis.
Symptoms tend to occur a number of hours after exposure and typically resolve spontaneously within 36 hours. The sensation has been described as having sand poured into the eyes.
This phenomenon results from intense levels of illumination by ultraviolet light, different than that of more common over-illumination found in many factories and offices.

# Signs
- Intense lacrimation
- Blepharospasm
- Photophobia
- Fluorescein dye staining will reveal corneal ulcers under blue light
- Constricted pupils note: this symptom may last as long as 96 to 128 hours in some cases.

# Management
- Instill topical anaesthesia
- Inspect the cornea for any foreign body
- Patch the worse of the two eyes and prescribe analgesia
- Topical antibiotics in the form of eye drops or eye ointment or both should be prescribed for prophylaxis against infection
Arkopal
Arkopal is a non-ionic surfactant consisting of a hydrophobic 9-carbon atom alkyl tail connected to a phenol molecule, that is in turn connected to an ethyleneglycol chain. The length of this ethylene glycol chain is given by the code for the amphiphile Arkopal-N60 means, for example, that there are on average 6 ethylene glycol units connected to the phenol. The average means there are molecules with more and with less ethylene glycols, this is due to the chemical synthesis. therefore, it has a polydispersity. It is an industrial surfactant and widely used.
names:                         ethoxylated nonylphenol; (nonylphenoxy)polyethyleneoxide
CAS-number:                    9016-45-9
molecular weight:              variable (oligomeric)
Toxicity (LD50, rat, oral)     4 g/kg

# Uses
It is used as additive in crop protection, lowering surface tension and thereby increasing the effectiveness of the pesticide, and it is used as detergent, for example in oil drilling fluids.
Atresia
Atresia is a condition in which a body orifice or passage in the body is abnormally closed or absent.
Examples of atresia include:
- Biliary atresia
- Ovarian follicle atresia, atresia refers to the degeneration and subsequent resorption of one or more immature ovarian follicles.
- Vaginal atresia - congenital occlusion of the vagina or subsequence adhesion (sticking together) of the walls of the vagina occluding it.
- Esophageal atresia - affects the alimentary tract causing the esophagus to end before connecting normally to the stomach.
- Choanal atresia - blockage of the back of the nasal passage, usually by abnormal bony or soft tissue.
- Anorectal atresia - malformation of the opening between the rectum and anus.
- Pulmonary atresia - malformation of the pulmonary valve in which the valve orifice fails to develop.
- Aural atresia (see Microtia) - a congenital deformity of the pinna (outer ear).
- Intestinal atresia - malformation of the intestine
Auxilin
Putative tyrosine-protein phosphatase auxilin is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DNAJC6 gene.

# Function
DNAJC6 belongs to the evolutionarily conserved DNAJ/HSP40 family of proteins, which regulate molecular chaperone activity by stimulating ATPase activity. DNAJ proteins may have up to 3 distinct domains: a conserved 70-amino acid J domain, usually at the N terminus, a glycine/phenylalanine (G/F)-rich region, and a cysteine-rich domain containing 4 motifs resembling a zinc-finger domain (Ohtsuka and Hata, 2000).

# Structure
The protein tyrosine phosphatase domain and C2 domain pair of auxilin, located near the N-terminus of the polypeptide, constitute a superdomain, a tandem arrangement of two or more nominally unrelated domains that form a single heritable unit. The phosphatase domain belongs to the auxilin subfamily of lipid phosphatases and is predicted to be catalytically inactive.
Azulene
Azulene is an organic compound whose molecules contain 10 carbons and 8 hydrogens and consist of a five-membered ring fused to a seven-membered ring. It is a monoterpene. It is an isomer of naphthalene but its physical properties are quite different. Naphthalene is a white crystalline solid whereas azulene, whose name is derived from the Spanish word azul, meaning "blue", is a dark blue crystalline solid used in many cosmetics. Azulene has a long history dating back to the 15th century as the azure-blue distillate obtained by steam distillation of Chamomile. The compound was discovered and named in 1863 by Septimus Piesse in azure-blue distillates from other sources such as yarrow and wormwood. Lavoslav Ruzicka solved the structure for this compound and the first organic synthesis followed in 1937 by Placidus Plattner.

# Derivatives
Vetivazulene or 4,8-dimethyl-2-isopropylazulene is obtained from vetiver oil. Guaiazulene or 1,4-dimethyl-7-isopropylazulene occurs naturally as a constituent of guaiac wood oil.

# Structure
Azulene consists of a fused cyclopentadiene ring and a cycloheptatriene ring and is an isomer of naphthalene. Azulene is 10 pi electron system just like cyclodecapentaene and does have aromatic properties even though it is not a single ring system like benzene. The peripheral bonds have similar lengths and only the shared bond in the middle is a single bond. The stability gain from aromaticity is half of that of naphthalene. The molecule can be considered a fusion product of a 6 pi electron cyclopentadienyl anion which is aromatic and the likewise aromatic 6 pi electron tropylium cation. The observed dipole moment of 1.0 Debye is consistent with this picture.

# Organic synthesis
For many years not many synthetic routes existed to azulene and the compound was therefore expensive. A recent contribution takes cycloheptatriene as starting material .
In naphthazulenes, a naphthalene ring is condensed with the 1,2-position of an azulene ring. In one such system  deformation from planarity is found similar to that of tetrahelicene.