Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Vital capacity
Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that a person can exhale after maximum inhalation.
It can also be the maximum volume of air that a person can inhale after maximum exhalation.
A person's vital capacity can be measured by a spirometer which can be a wet or regular spirometer. In combination with other physiological measurements, the vital capacity can help make a diagnosis of underlying lung disease.
Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after first filling the lungs to their maximum extent and then expiring to the maximum extent (about 4600 milliters). It equals the inspiratory reserve volume plus the tidal volume plus the expiratory reserve volume.
Deacon process
The Deacon process was a secondary process used during the manufacture of alkalis (the initial end product was sodium carbonate) by the Leblanc process.  Hydrogen chloride gas was converted to chlorine gas which was then used to manufacture a commercially valuable bleaching powder, and at the same time the emission of waste hydrochloric acid was curtailed.  To some extent this technically sophisticated process superseded the earlier manganese dioxide process.
Invented by Henry Deacon in 1874. The process was based on this reaction:
The reaction takes place at about 400 to 450 C in the presence of a copper chloride (CuCl2) catalyst. Three companies developed commercial processes for producing chlorine based on the Deacon reaction:
- The Kel-Chlor process developed by the M.W. Kellogg Company in the United States.
- The Shell-Chlor process developed by the Shell Oil Company in the Netherlands.
- The MT-Chlor process developed by the Mitsui Toatsu Company in Japan.
The Deacon process is now outdated technology. Most chlorine today is produced by using electrolytic processes.
However, recent developments with new catalysts based on Ruthenium(IV) oxide were developed by Sumitomo  and the first detailed mechanistic study can be found in J. Catal. 255, 29 (2008).

# Leblanc-Deacon process
The Leblanc-Deacon process is a modification of the Leblanc process.  The Leblanc process was notoriously environmentally unfriendly, and resulted in some of the first Air and Water pollution acts.  In 1874, Henry Deacon had devised a process to reduce HCL emissions as mandated by the Alkali Act.  In this process, hydrogen chloride is oxidized by oxygen over a copper chloride catalyst, resulting in the production of chlorine.  This was widely used in the paper and textile industries as a bleaching agent, and as a result sodium carbonate was no longer the primary product of these plants, and henceforth sold at a loss.
Host (biology)
In biology, a host is an organism that harbors a virus or parasite, or a mutual or commensal symbiont, typically providing nourishment and shelter.  In botany, a host plant is one that supplies food resources and substrate for certain insects or other fauna. Examples of such interactions include a cell being host to a virus, a legume plant hosting helpful nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and animals as hosts to parasitic worms, e.g. nematodes.

# Classification
A primary host or definitive host is a host in which the parasite reaches maturity and, if applicable, reproduces sexually. A secondary host or intermediate host is a host that harbors the parasite only for a short transition period, during which (usually) some developmental stage is completed. For trypanosomes, the cause of sleeping sickness, humans are the primary host, while the tsetse fly is the secondary host. Cestodes (tapeworms) and other parasitic flatworms have complex life-cycles, in which specific developmental stages are completed in a sequence of several different hosts.
A paratenic host is similar to an intermediate host, only that it is not needed for the parasite's development cycle to progress. There are also reservoir hosts. These are animals that host a human pathogen while it isn't infecting humans, and are used by the disease as a source of maintenance. A single reservoir host may be reinfected several times. The difference between a paratenic and reservoir host is that the latter is a primary host, whereas paratenic hosts serve as "dumps" for non-mature stages of a parasite which they can accumulate in high numbers.
A dead-end host is an intermediate host that does generally not allow transmission to the definite host, thereby preventing the parasite from completing its development. For example, humans are dead-end hosts for Echinococcus canine tapeworms. As infected humans are not usually eaten by dogs, foxes etc., the immature Echinococcus - although it causes serious disease in the dead-end host - is unable to infect the primary host and mature.

# Host range
The host range or host specificity of a parasite is the collection of hosts that an organism can utilize as a partner. In the case of human parasites, the host range influences the epidemiology of the parasitism or disease. For instance, the production of antigenic shifts in Influenza A virus can result from pigs being infected with the virus from several different hosts (such as human and bird). This co-infection provides an opportunity for mixing of the viral genes between existing strains, thereby producing a new viral strain. An influenza vaccine produced against an existing viral strain might not be effective against this new strain, which then requires a new influenza vaccine to be prepared for the protection of the human population.
Decompensation
Decompensation is the functional deterioration of a previously working structure or system. Decompensation may occur due to fatigue, stress, illness, or old age. When a system is "compensated", it is able to function despite stressors or defects. Decompensation describes an inability to compensate for these deficiencies. It is a general term commonly used in medicine to describe a variety of situations.
For example, cardiac decompensation may refer to the failure of the heart to maintain adequate blood circulation, after long-standing (previously compensated) vascular disease (see heart failure).
In psychiatry, decompensation is the deterioration of mental health in a patient with previously maintained psychiatric illness, leading to a diminished ability to think and carry on daily activities. This includes loss of memory, both long term and short.
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Deconditioning
Deconditioning is adaptation of an organism to less demanding environment, or, alternatively, the decrease of physiological adaptation to normal conditions. Decondition may result from decreased physical activity, prescribed bed rest, orthopedic casting, paralysis, aging, etc.
 A particular interest in the study of deconditioning is in aerospace medicine, to diagnose, fight, and prevent adverse effects of the conditions of space flight.
Deconditioning due to decreased physical effort results in muscle loss, including heart muscles.
Deconditioning due to lack of gravity or non-standard gravity action (e.g., during bed rest) results in abnormal distribution of body fluids.
Dehydroemetine

# Overview
Dehydroemetine is a synthetically produced antiprotozoal agent similar to emetine in its anti-amoebic properties and structure (they differ only in a double bond next to the ethyl substituent), but it produces fewer side effects. In the United States, it is manufactured by Roche.

# Mechanism
Its exact mechanism is not known, but in vitro it inhibits translocation.

# Uses
It is distributed by the Center for Disease Control on a compassionate use basis as an investigational drug for the treatment of metronidazole-resistant amoebiasis. 

## Amoebic infections
Some examples of the use of dehydroemetine in the treatment of amoebic infections include:
- In 1993, the successful treatment of cutaneous amebiasis in a 7-year old girl with dehydroemetine and metronidazole in Mexico.
- A double-blind study of oral dehydroemetine in the treatment of amoebiasis performed at St. Mary's Hospital, Catholic Medical College, Seoul, Republic of Korea in 1973-1974 showed dehydroemetine treatment was effective. A total of 60 patients were treated, 20 with dehydroemetine, 20 with Tiberal, and 20 with metronidazole. One-fourth of the patients treated with dehydroemetine reported adverse reactions, compared to 20% with other drugs, but no patient discontinued therapy due to the reaction. In all three cases, the drug therapy resulted in clearance of the infection, defined as negative results through an O&P exam, in all but 1-2 patients.
- A 1979 study of 27 patients treated with dehydroemetine and various other drugs suggested all drug combinations were successful at treating amoebic liver abscesses.
- A 1986 in vitro study compared the effects of dehydroemetine, metronidazole, ornidazole, and secnidazole on Entamoeba histolytica. Metronidazole was found to be most effective, and the other three drugs were of similar effectiveness.

## In other diseases
A 1980 report described the use of dehydroemetine in treatment of herpes zoster, a condition which can produce painful neurological symptoms. The study involved 40 patients, all of whom were over 60, and compared dehydroemetine treatment to another drug. The study reported patients treated with dehydroemetine experienced relief of neuralgia with no changes in cardiovascular functions.
Dehydroemetine has been investigated as a treatment for Leishmania infection.
Demeclocycline

# Overview
Demeclocycline (marketed as Declomycin, Declostatin, and Ledermycin) is a tetracycline antibiotic derived from a strain of Streptomyces aureofaciens.

# Uses
It is officially indicated for the treatment of various types of bacterial infections. It is used as an antibiotic in the treatment of Lyme disease, acne, and bronchitis.  Resistance, though, is gradually becoming more common, and demeclocycline is now rarely used for infections.
It is widely used (though off-label in many countries) in the treatment of hyponatremia (low blood sodium concentration) due to the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) when fluid restriction alone has been ineffective. Physiologically, this works by reducing the responsiveness of the collecting tubule cells to ADH.
The use in SIADH actually relies on a side effect; demeclocycline induces nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (dehydration due to the inability to concentrate urine). The use of demeclocycline in SIADH was first reported in 1975, and, in 1978, a larger study found it to be more effective and better tolerated than lithium carbonate, the only available treatment at the time. Demeclocycline has since been the drug of choice for treating SIADH, although it may be superseded as vasopressin receptor antagonists, such as tolvaptan, become available.

# Contraindications
Like other tetracyclines, demeclocycline is contraindicated in children and pregnant or nursing women. All members of this class interfere with bone development and may discolour teeth.

# Side effects and interactions
These are similar to those of other tetracyclines. Skin reactions with sunlight have been reported. Demeclocycline is unique in that it is the only tetracycline known to cause nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.
Tetracyclines bind to cations, such as calcium, iron (when given orally), and magnesium, rendering them insoluble and inabsorbable for the gastrointestinal tract. Demeclocycline should not be taken with food (particularly milk and other dairy products) or antacids.

# Mechanism of action
As with related tetracycline antibiotics, demeclocycline acts by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit to inhibit binding of aminoacyl tRNA which impairs protein synthesis by bacteria. It is bacteriostatic (it impairs bacterial growth, but does not kill bacteria directly).
It is not completely understood why demeclocycline impairs the action of antidiuretic hormone, but is thought to block the binding of the hormone from its receptor.
Dental sealant
Dental sealants are a dental treatment consisting of applying a plastic material to one or more teeth, for the intended purpose of preventing dental caries (cavities) or other forms of tooth decay.

# Development
Since the 1970s, in the United States, the incidence of tooth decay on the smooth surfaces of teeth has declined, in part because of fluoridation becoming widespread in public water supplies as well as improved dental hygiene among the public.  However, because the teeth in the back of the mouth (molars and premolars) have numerous pits and fissures on their biting surfaces, certain areas of these teeth are often difficult to clean even with vigorous tooth-brushing.  To remedy this, research into dental sealants began in the 1960s and by the early 1970s, the first generation of sealants became available and were approved by the FDA.

# Application
Dental sealants are usually applied in a dentist's office.  The dentist or assistant first cleans and dries the tooth to be treated, then paints a thin layer of liquid plastic material on the pits and fissures of the tooth.  After application of the plastic liquid, blue spectrum natural light is shined on the applied material for a few seconds to cure the plastic.  Alternatively, some brands of sealants self-cure via a chemical process.
After curing, the plastic becomes a hard, thin layer covering the treated portions of the tooth.  Despite the incredible pressures effected on teeth during chewing each day, dental sealants may remain effective for five years or longer, although sealants do wear naturally and may become damaged over time.  Bacteria and food particles may eventually become entrapped under the dental sealants, and can thus cause decay in the very teeth intended to be protected.
Dental syringe

# Overview
A dental syringe is a syringe used by dentists for the injection of an anesthetic. It consists of a breech-loading syringe fitted with a sealed cartridge containing anesthetic solution.
The ancillary tool (generally part of a dental engine) used to supply either water or air to the oral cavity for the purpose of cleaning debris away from the area the dentist is working on, is also referred to as a dental syringe.
A 3-way syringe has separate internal channels supplying air, water or a mist of air and water, created by combining the pressurized air with the waterflow. The syringe tip can be separated from the main body and replaced when necessary.
Depigmentation

# Overview
The definition of depigmentation is the lightening of the skin, or loss of pigment. Depigmentation of the skin can be caused by a number of local and systemic conditions. The pigment loss can be partial (injury to the skin) or complete (caused by vitiligo). It can be temporary (from tinea versicolor) or permanent (from albinism).
Most commonly, depigmentation of the skin is linked to people who suffer with vitiligo. These individuals, if they so decided to complete the lightening process, would apply a topical cream containing the organic compound monobenzone to remove the remaining pigment. The brand drug incorporating 20% monobenzone is Benoquin, made by ICN.
Increasingly, people who are not afflicted with the disease vitiligo have been experimenting with lower concentrations of self compounded mono creams in the hope of lightening their skin tone evenly.
An alternate method of lightening is to use the chemical mequinol over an extended period of time. Both monobenzone and mequinol produce dramatic whitening of the skin, but react very differently.
For stubborn pigmented lesions the Q-switched ruby laser, cryotherapy or TCA peels can be used to ensure the skin remains pigment free.
Mequinol leaves the skin looking extremely pale however, tanning is still possible. Monobenzone applied topically completely removes pigment in the long term and vigorous sun-safety needs to be adhered to for life.
People using monobenzone without previously having vitiligo do so because standard products containing hydroquinone or other lightening agents are not effective for their skin and due to price and active ingredient strength. However, monobenzone is not recommended for skin conditions other than vitiligo.
Depolarization
In biology, depolarization is a decrease in the absolute value of a cell's membrane potential. Thus, changes in membrane voltage in which the membrane potential becomes less positive or less negative are both depolarizations. The rising and falling phases of an action potential are often imprecisely called depolarization and hyperpolarization, respectively.
In the study of membrane potentials, particularly in the field of action potentials, depolarization has taken on an informal, technically incorrect meaning. For action potentials, a major concern is changes in membrane potential from the resting potential. For understanding the action potential, the resting potential is more important than the mathematically significant potential of zero. The resting potential, by convention, has a negative value. The initial depolarization during the rising phase of an action potential is in the  direction from the negative resting potential towards the positive membrane potential that will be the peak of the action potential. In discussing action potentials, this direction of change in membrane potential (from negative to positive) is "the depolarizing direction from the resting potential". In discussing action potentials, this is often shortened to "the depolarizing direction", or, simply, "depolarization".
As described at the top of this page, depolarization is any change in membrane potential that changes the value of the membrane potential to be closer to zero. However, a membrane potential that grows from a small positive value to a more positive value (i.e. becoming more polarized) is technically hyperpolarizing, making the vernacular usage of the term depolarization incorrect for the part of the rising phase of the action potential when the value of the membrane potential is positive (0 millivolts to +40 millivolts in the figure). Despite it being technically incorrect, text books often use the vernacular definition of "depolarization" (membrane potential change in the depolarizing direction from the resting potential) in their descriptions of electrophysiology.
Dermatographic
Dermatographic urticaria (also known as dermographism, dermatographism or "skin writing") is a skin disorder seen in 45% of the population and is one of the most common types of urticaria, in which the skin becomes raised and inflamed when stroked or rubbed with a dull object.

# Presentation
The symptoms are thought to be caused by mast cells in the surface of the skin releasing histamines without the presence of antigens, due to the presence of a weak membrane surrounding the mast cells. The histamines released cause the skin to swell in the affected areas.
This weak membrane easily and rapidly breaks down under physical pressure causing an allergic-like reaction, generally a red wheal (welt) to appear on the skin. It can often be confused with an allergic reaction to the object causing a scratch, when in fact it is the act of being scratched that causes a wheal to appear. These wheals are a subset of urticaria (hives) that appear within minutes, accompanied by a sensation of burning, and itchiness. The first outbreak of urticaria can lead to others on body parts not directly stimulated, scraped or scratched. In a normal case the swelling will reduce itself with no treatment within 15-30 minutes, but in extreme cases, itchy red wheals may last anywhere from a few hours to days.
On March 14, 2008, ABC News presented a report on an artist with dermatographism who uses her skin as her medium. 

# Causes
Dermatographism can be caused by stress, tight or abrasive clothing, watches, glasses, energetic kissing, heat, cold, or anything that causes stress to the skin or the patient.  In many cases it is merely a minor annoyance, but in some rare cases symptoms are severe enough to impact a patient's life.

# Treatment
It can be treated by antihistamines which prevents the histamine from causing the reaction, or cromoglycate, which prevents the histamine from being released. The underlying cause of dermographism is not known, and can last for many years without relief. 95% of chronic cases are never solved. Sometimes the condition goes away, sometimes it stays forever. It is not a life threatening disease and is not contagious (transferable to other persons).
Not taking hot baths or showers may help if it is generalized (all over) and possibly for localized (in a specific area) If not taking showers helps, you may have a condition called shower eczema. If it mainly affects your head you may have psoriasis. In rare cases, allergy tests may uncover substances the patient is allergic to. Using biodegradable or hypo-allergenic soaps and laundry supplies may help.
Dermatophyllum

# Overview
Dermatophyllum is a genus of three or four species of shrubs and small trees in the subfamily Faboideae of the pea family, Fabaceae. The genus is native to southwestern North America from western Texas to New Mexico and Arizona in the United States, and south through Chihuahua, Coahuila and Nuevo Leon in northern Mexico. Members of the genus are commonly known as mescalbean, mescal bean or frijolito. One of the common names of Dermatophyllum secundiflorum is Texas mountain laurel, although the name mountain laurel also refers to the very dissimilar and unrelated genus Kalmia (family Ericaceae) and the name laurel refers generally to plants in the unrelated order Laurales.
Although still commonly treated in the genus Sophora, recent genetic evidence has shown that the mescalbeans are only distantly related to the other species of Sophora.Heenan PB, Dawson MI, Wagstaff SJ. |

# Species
Dermatophyllum comprises the following species:
- Dermatophyllum arizonicum (S.Watson) VincentArizona Mescalbean (Arizona, Chihuahua)
subsp. arizonicum (S.Watson) Vincent
subsp. formosum (Kearney & Peebles) Vincent (Arizona)
- subsp. arizonicum (S.Watson) Vincent
- subsp. formosum (Kearney & Peebles) Vincent (Arizona)
- Dermatophyllum gypsophilum (B.L. Turner & A.M. Powell) VincentGuadalupe Mescalbean (Southern New Mexico, western Texas, Coahuila)
- Dermatophyllum guadalupense (B.L. Turner & A.M. Powell) B.L.Turner
- Dermatophyllum juanhintonianum (B.L. Turner) B.L. Turner
- Dermatophyllum secundiflorum (Ortega) Gandhi & RevealTexas Mescalbean (Texas, New Mexico, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon)
- Dermatophyllum purpusii (Brandegee) Vincent

# Description
Dermatophyllum spp. grow to tall, with a trunk up to  in diameter, often growing in dense thickets that grow from basal shoots. The leaves are evergreen, leathery, long, pinnate with 5-11 oval leaflets, long and broad. The flowers, produced in spring, are fragrant, purple, typical pea-flower in shape, borne in erect or spreading racemes long. The fruit is a hard, woody seedpod long, containing 1-6 oval bright red seeds  long and in diameter.
All parts of the mescalbeans are very poisonous, containing the alkaloid cytisine (not mescaline, as suggested by the name). The seeds or other parts of the plant have been reported to have been used as a hallucinogen by some Native American people, but this is uncertain, due to confusion over names. The symptoms of cytisine poisoning are very unpleasant, including nausea and seizures; as little as one seed can be fatal.