Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Peruvian pepper
Peruvian Pepper (Schinus molle, also known as California pepper tree, molle, pepper tree, pepperina, Peruvian mastictree and Peruvian peppertree) is a tree or shrub that grows to between 5 and 18 m tall. It is native to the Peruvian Andes (molle comes from the Quechua word for the tree, molli).
The upper branches of the tree tend to droop. The tree's pinnately compound leaves measure 10-30 cm long and are made up of 15 or more leaflets. The plant is dioeceous, with small white flowers borne profusely in axillary clusters. The fruit is a small, leathery, pink/red, spherical drupe 5-8 mm diameter, carried in dense clusters of hundreds of berries. The bark, leaves and berries are all very aromatic.

# Cultivation and uses
The tree is cultivated as a decorative plant in parts of North America, in south-east Queensland in Australia, and in Mediterranean coastal regions. It naturalises in all these places, and is considered an invasive species in many subtropical regions. The pink/red berries, although not a true pepper (Piper), are, like the berries of its close relative, the Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), sold as "pink peppercorns". Volatile terpenes are present in the berries, and can irritate the mucous membranes of sensitive people, so moderation is advised in using the berries as a condiment.
The Inca used the sweet outer part of ripe fruit to make drink. Berries were rubbed carefully to avoid mixing with the bitter inner parts, the mix strained and then left for a few days to produce a refreshing and wholesome drink. It was also boiled down for syrup or mixed with maize to make nourishing gruel.

# Notes
-  Coe, p. 186-187
Pharmacometrics
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Pharmacometrics uses models based on pharmacology, physiology and disease for quantitative analysis of interactions between drugs and patients. This involves pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and disease progression with a focus on populations and variability,
Phobia overview
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# Overview
A phobia (from Greek: , phobos, "fear"), is an irrational, intense, persistent fear of certain situations, activities, things, or persons.  The main symptom of this disorder is the excessive, unreasonable desire to avoid the feared subject. When the fear  is beyond one's control, or if the fear is interfering with daily life, then a diagnosis under one of the anxiety disorders can be made. 
Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term) are the most common form of anxiety disorders.

# Historical Perspective
Phobia is also used in a non-medical sense for aversions of all sorts. These terms are usually constructed with the suffix -phobia. A number of these terms describe negative attitudes or prejudices towards the named subjects. See Non-clinical uses of the term below.

# Causes
It is generally accepted that phobias arise from a combination of external events and internal predispositions. In a famous experiment, Martin Seligman used classical conditioning to establish phobias of snakes and flowers. The results of the experiment showed that it took far fewer shocks to create an adverse response to a picture of a snake than to a picture of a flower, leading to the conclusion that certain objects may have a genetic predisposition to being associated with fear.
Many specific phobias can be traced back to a specific triggering event, usually a traumatic experience at an early age. Social phobias andagoraphobia have more complex causes that are not entirely known at this time. It is believed that heredity, genetics, and brain chemistry combine with life-experiences to play a major role in the development of anxiety disorders and phobias.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination
Signs of phobia include elevated blood pressure and rapid heart rate
Phosphonic acid

# Overview
In inorganic chemistry, phosphonic acid is a phosphorus oxoacid with a formula of H3PO3, more commonly known as phosphorous acid.  It exists in solution as two tautomers, the major one being HP(O)(OH)2 and the minor one P(OH)3.  The former is sometimes termed phosphonic acid, with the latter designated as phosphorous acid.  Sometimes confusingly, both these names are also used to refer to H3PO3 in general, i.e. both tautomers.
In organic chemistry, a phosphonic acid is a compound with the general formula RP(O)(OH)2.
An example of an organic phosphonic acid is Foscarnet.
An oligophosphonic acid refers to a few molecules of phosphonic acid condensed into a molecule with the loss of water.
A general formula for such oligophosphonic acids is (HPO)nOn-1(OH)2, where n = 2, 3, 4, etc., oligo-. A polyphosphonic acid can have dozens of such phosphonic acid units condensed in a row with the loss of H2O for each unit added on.
An example that incorporates triphosphonic acid: ethane-1,1,2-triphosphonic acid. In some phosphonic anhydrides (RPO2)3, R can be tBu, 2-methylphenyl, 2,4,6-trimethylphenyl.
- Diphosphonic acid
- Tautomers of H3PO3:phosphonic acid (left)phosphorous acid (right)
- The general structure of an organic phosphonic acid
Pineocytoma MRI

# Overview
There are no MRI findings associated with .
OR
 MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of . Findings on MRI suggestive of/diagnostic of  include , , and .
OR
There are no MRI findings associated with . However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of , which include , , and .

# MRI
There are no MRI findings associated with .
OR
 MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of . Findings on MRI suggestive of/diagnostic of  include:
OR
There are no MRI findings associated with . However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of , which include:

## MRI
- Brain MRI may be diagnostic of pineocytoma.
- Features on MRI suggestive of pineocytoma include:
Pityriasis alba

# Overview
Pityriasis alba is a common skin condition mostly occurring in children and usually seen as dry, fine scaled, pale patches on their faces. It is self limiting and usually only requires use of moisturiser creams.
The condition is so named for the fine scaly appearance initially present (pityriasis) and the palor of the  patches that develop (whilst "alba" is Latin for white, the patches in this condition are not totally depigmented).

# Aetiology
There is no specific known cause for this condition, but any dermatitis inflammation of the skin may heal leaving pale skin, as may excessive use of corticosteroid creams used to treat episodes of eczema. The hypopigmentation is due to both reduced activity of melanocytes with fewer and smaller melanosomes.
The condition is most often seen in children between the ages of 3 and 16 years and is more common in males than females.
It possibly occurs more frequently in those of light-skin, but is more apparent in those of darker complexion.
Up to a third of US school children may at some stage get this condition. Single point prevalence studies from India have shown variable rates from 8.4%,
to 31%.
Other studies have shown prevalence rates in Brazil of 9.9%,
Egypt 13.49%,
Romania 5.1%,
Turkey 12% where higher rates were seen in those with poor socioeconomic conditions,
and just 1% in school children in Hong Kong.

# Symptoms and signs
The dry scaling appearance is most noticeable during the winter as a result of dry air inside people's homes. During the summer, tanning of the surrounding normal skin makes the pale patches of pityriasis alba more prominent.
Individual lesions develop through 3 stages and sometimes are itchy:
- Raised and red - although the redness is often mild and not noticed by parents
- Raised and pale
- Smooth flat pale patches
Lesions are round or oval, of 0.5-2 cm in size although may be larger if they occur on the body (up to 4cm), and usually number from 4 or 5 to over 20. The patches are dry with very fine scales. They most commonly occur on the face (cheeks), but in 20% appear also on the upper arms, neck, or shoulders.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Pityriasis alba. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Pityriasis alba. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.

# Treatment
No treatment is required and the patches in time will settle.
The redness, scale and itch if present may be managed with simple emollients and sometimes hydrocortisone, a weak steroid, is also used.
As the patches of pityriasis alba do not darken normally in sunlight, effective sun protection helps minimise the discrepancy in colouration against the surrounding normal skin. Cosmetic camouflage may be required.
Tacrolimus has been reported as speeding resolution.
In exceptionally severe cases PUVA therapy may be considered.

# Prognosis
The patches of PA may last from 1 month to 10 years, but commonly on the face last a year or more.
Poisson's ratio
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When a sample of material is stretched in one direction, it tends to contract (or rarely, expand) in the other two directions.  Poisson's ratio (), named after Simeon Poisson, is a measure of this tendency.  Poisson's ratio is the ratio of the relative contraction strain, or transverse strain (normal to the applied load), divided by the relative extension strain, or axial strain (in the direction of the applied load).  The Poisson's ratio of a stable material cannot be less than -1.0 nor greater than 0.5 due to the requirement that the shear modulus and bulk modulus have positive values. Most materials have  between 0.0 and 0.5.  Cork is close to 0.0, most steels are around 0.3, and rubber is almost 0.5. A perfectly incompressible material deformed elastically at small strains would have a Poisson's ratio of exactly 0.5.  Some materials, mostly polymer foams, have a negative Poisson's ratio; if these auxetic materials are stretched in one direction, they become thicker in perpendicular directions.
Assuming that the material is compressed along the axial direction:
where

# Generalized Hooke's law
For an isotropic material, the deformation of a material in the direction of one axis will produce a deformation of the material along the other axes in three dimensions. Thus it is possible to generalize Hooke's Law into three dimensions:
where

# Volumetric change
The relative change of volume V/V due to the stretch of the material can be calculated using a simplified formula (only for small deformations):
where

# Width change
If a rod with diameter (or width, or thickness) d and length L is subject to tension so that its length will change by L then its diameter d will change by (the value is negative, because the diameter will decrease with increasing length):
The above formula is true only in the case of small deformations; if deformations are large then the following (more precise) formula can be used:
where

# Orthotropic materials
For Orthotropic material, such as wood in which Poisson's ratio is different in each direction (x, y and z axis) the relation between Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio is described as follows:
\frac{\nu_{zx}}{E_z} = \frac{\nu_{xz}}{E_x} \qquad
\frac{\nu_{yz}}{E_y} = \frac{\nu_{zy}}{E_z} \qquad
where

# Poisson's ratio values for different materials
Pontine flexure
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# Overview
The pontine flexure is a bend in the axis of the embryological central nervous system (the neuraxis). This flexure marks the junction between the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The division of the rhombencephalon (the early hindbrain) into the metencephalon and the myelencephalon occurs at the 7th week of development. In the mature brain, the metencephalon forms the pons and cerebellum, whilst the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata.

# Other Flexures
The cephalic flexure (also known as the midbrain flexure) bends the neuraxis at the junction of the midbrain and hindbrain. This flexure develops by the 5th week of gestation.
The cervical flexure bends the neuraxis between the brain and the spinal cord. It also develops by the 5th week of gestation.

# See Also
- embryo
- ectoderm
- neural tube
Position effect
Position effect is the effect on the expression of a gene when its location in a chromosome is changed, often by translocation.  This has been well described in Drosophila with respect to eye color and is known as position effect variegation (PEV).
The phenotype is well characterised by unstable expression of a gene that results in the red eye coloration.  In the mutant flies the eyes typically have a mottled appearance of white and red sectors.  These phenotypes are often due to a chromosomal translocation such that the color gene is now close to a region of heterochromatin.  The heterochromatin can spread stochastically and switch off the color gene resulting in the white eye sectors.
Position effect is also used to describe the variation of expression exhibited by identical transgenes that insert into different regions of a genome.  In this case the difference in expression is often due to enhancers that regulate neighboring genes.  These local enhancers can also effect the expression pattern of the transgene.  Since each transgenic organism has the transgene in a different location each transgenic organism has the potential for a unique expression pattern.
Postictal state

# Overview
The postictal state is the altered state of consciousness that a person enters after experiencing an epileptic seizure, such as those occurring with frontal lobe epilepsy. It usually lasts between 5 and 30 minutes, but sometimes longer in the case of larger or more severe seizures and is characterized by drowsiness, confusion, nausea, hypertension, headache or migraine and other disorienting symptoms. Additionally, emergence from this period is often accompanied by amnesia or other memory defects. It is during this period that the brain recovers from the trauma of the seizure.
While the post-ictal period is considered to be the period shortly after a seizure where the brain is still recovering from the seizure, the ictal period is considered to be the seizure itself, and the interictal period to be the period between seizures, when brain activity is normal.

# Classification
The duration of the postictal state and the symptoms experienced in the postictal state vary from person to person and are also heavily dependant on the type of seizure experienced. There is no noticeable postictal period for atonic seizures or absence seizures, and sufferers can get back to their normal life immediately after a seizure.
Other forms of seizure will have a varying postictal state, depending on which part of the brain was affected and how severe the seizure was. A person who has just had a tonic-clonic seizure will invariably be deeply asleep for 5-30 minutes following the seizure, after which they may wake to find themselves confused and drowsy, often accompanied by a headache or migraine. In some, this passes after only a few minutes. In others, these symptoms may remain for several hours or the rest of the day. Some will return to sleep as soon as they can.
Focal seizures such as simple partial seizures will often have a short postictal period, lasting only a few minutes. This is usually manifested by confusion and drowsiness and with complex-partial seizures. Some people will also fall unconscious as with a tonic-clonic seizure.
Pott's fracture
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Pott's fracture, also known as Potts syndrome I and Dupuytren fracture, is an archaic term loosely applied to a variety of bimalleolar ankle fractures.  The injury is caused by a combined abduction external rotation from an eversion force.  This is a fracture of the fibula near the ankle, often accompanied by a break of the medial malleolus of the tibia or rupture and displacement of the internal lateral ligament.
The bimalleolar fractures are less likely to be arthritic than trimalleolar fractures.

# History
English physician Percivall Pott experienced this injury in 1765 and described his clinical findings in a paper published in 1769. 
The term "Dupuytren fracture" refers to the same mechanism, and it is named for Guillaume Dupuytren.
Power therapies
Power Therapy (also known as alphabet therapies) is a term applied to a set of therapies, usually for treating anxiety and trauma, that proponents say are at the cutting edge of psychiatry and psychology because of a stated efficacy and efficiency in being superior to traditional treatments . Examples of such treatments are: Thought Field Therapy (TFT; Callahan, 1995; Gallo, 1995), Emotional Freedom Therapy (EFT; Craig, 1997), Traumatic Incident Reduction
(TIR; Gerbode, 1985, 1995), and VKD (VisualKinesthetic Dissociation).

# History
Power therapies were developed through the early 1970s, became more popular in the 1980s and have diverged and merged into a set of therapies run by various usually commercial bodies.  Each of these therapies have slightly different approaches, some are stated to be like biofeedback assisted dianetics, some use eye movements, and some using the tapping of energy meridians. They are usually taught through expensive courses and according to Singer and Lalich (1997:167) are offered to consumers as fast, easy, and seemingly magical ways to provide psychological treatment.

# Specific approaches
Power therapies follow an eclectic approach, drawing from a wide variety of sources. The meridian based power therapies tend to be used in combination with traditional eastern philosophies or approaches, though their use of the term "energy" is often mixed with modern notions of quantum physics. Thus often vitalistic in nature, the theories proposed to support and guide power therapies tend to have a New age following.

# Scientific testing
To date there is little evidence for the efficacy of any power therapy, and there is no evidence that any power therapy is any more effective than traditional therapies. The empirical or controlled studies on power therapies that have been conducted have tended to indicate non-specific effects such as placebo (Herbert et al 2000).

# Criticism
According to Singer and Lalich (1997:167) the methods are spread using several techniques. One is to start a certification program soon after conjuring up a new procedure and another is to seduce customers with rash promises and endorsements from acolytes and sycophants. Singer and Lalich (1997:195) advise that if your therapist is saying I dont understand it but it sure does work your possibly in for trouble. Or if hes answering your questions with a lot of jargon you dont understand, insist on straightforward explanations. Or is shes telling you that its tried and true, do some independent research and find out what the critics are saying. In many cases such fad therapies are promoted by people who are (1) imposing an agenda that may not fit your needs and (2) abandoning testing and science. Well meaning as they may be, remember, its your emotions and your pocketbook that are being played with.
Vasoconstrictor
A vasoconstrictor, also vasopressor or simply pressor, is any substance that acts to cause vasoconstriction (narrowing of the lumena of blood vessels) and usually results in an increase of the blood pressure. (The opposite process, vasodilation, is the opening of blood vessels. )
Many vasoconstrictors also cause pupil dilation.

# Uses
Vasoconstrictors are used in medicine to treat hypotension and as topical decongestants.

# Mechanism
Many vasoconstrictors act on specific receptors, such as vasopressin receptors or adrenoreceptors.

# Causes
Vasoconstrictors are also used clinically to increase blood pressure or to reduce local blood flow. Exposure to moderately high levels of stress also induces vasoconstriction.
Vasoconstriction also occurs in superficial blood vessels of warm-blooded animals when their ambient environment is cold; this process diverts the flow of heated blood to the center of the animal, preventing the loss of heat.

# Examples of vasoconstrictors
Vasoconstrictors include systemic and topical. For example, pseudoephedrine is available systemic (i.e. orally ingested tablets like Sudafed), and topical (such as nose sprays like phenylephrine Neo-synephrine, and eye drops for pupil dilation purposes)
- Adenosine triphosphate
- Amphetamines
- Antihistamines
- Asymmetric dimethylarginine
- Bright light
- Catecholamines
- Cocaine
- Cold (water, air, etc.)
- Decongestants
- Elevated sound levels
- Endothelin
- Ergine
- LSD
- Methylphenidate
- Neuropeptide Y
- Norepinephrine
- Phenylephrine
- Pseudoephedrine
- Psilocybin
- Stimulants
- Tetrahydrozoline hydrochloride (in eye drops)
- Thromboxane
Primary isolate

# Overview
Primary isolate is a pure microbial or viral sample that has been obtained from an infected individual, rather than grown in a laboratory.  In chemistry and bacteriology, the verb isolate means to obtain a pure chemical, bacteriological or viral sample.  The noun 'isolate' refers to the sample itself.
According to the 'Bulletin of Experimental Treatments for AIDS, Year-End, 1999'  glossary, a primary isolate is "HIV taken from an infected individual, as opposed to that grown in a laboratory."
Primary isolate is also used to describe functions available with certain pipeline valves used in the petroleum and natural gas industries: "DFB Series Integral Block & Bleed Ball Valve...A range of flanged ball valves with the option of Primary Isolate, Primary Isolate & Vent & Primary & Secondary Isolate & Vent."
Primary nursing
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# Overview
Primary nursing is a method of nursing practice which emphasizes continuity of care by having one nurse (often teamed with a nursing assistant) provide complete care for a small group of inpatients within a nursing unit of a hospital. The "primary nurse" is responsible for coordinating all aspects of care for the same group of patients throughout their stay in a given area.
This is distinguished from the practice of team nursing or functional nursing by dividing duties by patient rather than by function (i.e. passing medications, doing treatments, etc.)