Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Dental porcelain
Dental porcelain (also known as dental ceramic) is a porcelain used by a dental technician to create biocompatible lifelike crowns and bridges for the dentist.
The dentist will usually specify a shade of porcelain, corresponding to a set of bottles in the lab containing the porcelain powder. A common shade system used is the Vita guide. The powder corresponding to the dentine base is mixed with water, and then fired. Further layers are built up to mimic the natural translucency of the enamel of the tooth. Often the porcelain is fused to a semi-precious metal or precious metal such as gold, for extra strength.  Many new systems use an aluminium oxide or zirconium oxide; zirconia core.
Recent developments in dental CAD-CAM technology have required specialized porcelains formed into sintered blocks.
Dental porcelain is generally regarded as biologically inert. However, other toxicities may exist from some of the accessory materials, and the fillings may increase wear on opposing teeth.
Dentigerous cyst
A dentigerous cyst is an odontogenic cyst - thought to be of developmental origin - associated with the crown of an unerupted (or partially erupted) tooth. The cyst cavity is lined by epithelial cells derived from the reduced  enamel epithelium of the tooth forming organ. Regarding its pathogenesis, it has been suggested that the pressure exerted by an erupting tooth on the follicle may obstruct venous flow inducing accumulation of exudate between the reduced enamel epithelium and the tooth crown.
In addition to the developmental origin, some authors have suggested that periapical inflammation of non-vital deciduous teeth in proximity to the follicles of unerupted permanent successors may be a factor for triggering this type of cyst formation.
Histologically a normal dental follicle is lined by enamel epithelium, whereas a dentigerous cyst is lined by non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.  Since the dentigerous cyst develops from follicular epithelium it has more potential for growth, differentiation and degeneration than a radicular cyst.  Occasionally the wall of a dentigerous cyst may give rise to a more ominous mucoepidermoid carcinoma.  Due to the tendency for dentigerous cysts to expand rapidly, they may cause pathological fractures of jaw bones.
The usual radiographic appearance is that of a well-demarcated radiolucent lesion attached at an acute angle to the cervical area of an unerupted tooth. The border of the lesion may be radiopaque. The radiographic differentiation between a dentigerous cyst and a normal dental follicle is based merely on size. Radiographically, a dentigerous cyst should always be differentiated from a normal dental follicle. Dentigerous cysts are the most common cysts with this radiographic appearance.
zh-min-nan:Ham-khi long-cheng
Dentin dysplasia
Dentin dysplasia is a genetic disorder of teeth, commonly exhibiting an autosomal dominant inheritance. It is characterized by presence of normal enamel but atypical dentin with abnormal pulpal morphology. There are two types.  Type I is the radicular type, and type II is the coronal type.  In the radicular type, the roots of teeth are shorter than normal and the pulp chamber may be nearly gone.  The pulp chamber is sometimes described as having a "crescent shaped" appearance.  In the coronal type, the pulps are enlarged and are described as having a "thistle tube" appearance, in permanent dentition. In the deciduous dentition, coronal dentin dysplasia bears a resemblance to Dentinogenesis Imperfecta type II.
Radiographic Features
Type 1: Roots are short, blunt and conical. In deciduous teeth, pulp chambers and root canals are completely obliterated in permanent they may be cresent shaped.
Type 2: The pulp chamber of the deciduous teeth become obliterated in deciduous teeth. While in permanent teeth, large pulp chamber is seen in coronal portion of the tooth - referred to as thistle tube appearance.Pulp stones may be found.
Histologic Features
Type 1: Normal dentinal tubule formation is blockedand new dentin forms around obstacles...known as lava flowing around boulders.
Dermatan sulfate

# Overview
Dermatan sulfate is a glycosaminoglycan (formerly called a mucopolysaccharide) found mostly in skin, but also in blood vessels, heart valves, tendons, and lungs.
It is also referred to as chondroitin sulfate B,  although it is no longer classified as a form of chondroitin sulfate by most sources.

# Function
Dermatan sulfate may have roles in coagulation, cardiovascular disease, carcinogenesis, infection, wound repair, and fibrosis.

# Pathology
Dermatan sulfate accumulates abnormally in several of the mucopolysaccharidosis disorders.
An excess of Dermatan Sulfate in the Mitral Valve is characteristic of myxomatous degeneration of the leaflets leading to redundancy of valve tissue and ultimately, Mitral Valve Prolapse (into the Left Ventricle) and insufficiency.  This chronic prolapse occurs mainly in women over the age of 60, and can predispose the patient to mitral annular calcification and eccentric (volume dependent or dilated) hypertrophy and eventually Left Heart failure if untreated. Also used to treat sun burns.

# See Also
- iduronic acid
Dermatopathology
Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of surgical pathology interested in skin diseases. Dermatopathologists work in close association with dermatologists. In fact, many doctors master both specialties.
Dermatopatholgy is the study of skin disease at a microscopic level. It encompasses both the diagnosis of individual patients through the examination of skin biopsies, and the study of the causes, or pathogenesis of skin diseases at the cellular level.
Dermatologists recognize most skin diseases based on their appearance, distribution on the body and behaviour with time. Occasionally, these criteria are not enough and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope. This microscopic examination reveals the histology of the disease and clarifies the diagnosis. Occasionally, additional testing needs to be performed on skin samples, such as immunofluorescence, electron microscopy or flow cytometry.
One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is the high number of different skin diseases. There are an estimated 1500 different rashes and skin tumors, including variants, and not one doctor who has seen them all. Therefore, dermatology and dermatopathology are among the most complex specialties of Medicine.
Certification in dermatopathology in the United States requires the completion of four years of medical school, followed by residency training of three years in either dermatology or anatomic pathology.  Following that, an additional one to two years of dermatopathology training are completed. For trainees with a background in Pathology, the training includes the equivalent of 6 months of clinical dermatology, and for those whose training is in Dermatology, six months of training in Pathology are requisite. Dermatopathology is considered the most competitive fellowship in Pathology. In the United States, he(she) is first certified by the American Board of Pathology or dermatology, then obtains subspecialty board certification in dermatopathology. Since 2003, the International Board of Dermatopathology certifies candidates from countries other than the United States by a test given in Europe.
Descending colon

# Overview
The descending colon of humans passes downward through the left hypochondrium and lumbar regions, along the lateral border of the left kidney.
At the lower end of the kidney it turns medialward toward the lateral border of the psoas muscle, and then descends, in the angle between psoas and quadratus lumborum, to the crest of the ilium, where it ends in the sigmoid colon.
The peritoneum covers its anterior surface and sides, and therefore the descending colon is described as retroperitoneal. (The transverse colon and sigmoid colon, which are immediately proximal and distal, are intraperitoneal). Its posterior surface is connected by areolar tissue with the lower and lateral part of the left kidney, the aponeurotic origin of the transversus abdominis, and the quadratus lumborum.
It is smaller in caliber and more deeply placed than the ascending colon. It has a mesentery in 33% of people, and is therefore more frequently covered with peritoneum on its posterior surface than the ascending colon (which has a mesentery in 25% of people). However, it is less likely to undergo volvulus than the ascending colon.
In front of it are some coils of small intestine.

# Additional images
- Intestines
- Schema
- Horizontal disposition of the peritoneum in the lower part of the abdomen.
- Transverse section through the middle of the first lumbar vertebra, showing the relations of the pancreas.
- The relations of the kidneys from behind.
- Digestive system
Diastematomyelia

# Overview
Diastematomyelia is an uncommon congenital anomaly characterized pathologically by sagittal clefting of the spinal cord or filum terminale, with each half of the spinal cord being surrounded by a dural sac.
This disorder is usually caused by either a fibrous bony septum or an osteocartilaginous septum.
Diastematomyelias are most frequently found in the lumbar spine, followed by the thoracic region.
Some form of an associated congenital anomaly, or dysraphism, of the vertebral column is a constant feature.

# Diagnosis

## MRI
(Images courtesy of RadsWiki)
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
- Diastematomyelia
Dibutylphthalate

# Overview
Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks. It is soluble in various organic solvents, e.g. in alcohol, ether and benzene.  DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide.

# Legislative control

## European Union
The use of this substance in cosmetics, including nail polishes, is banned in the European Union under Directive 76/768/EEC 1976.
The use of DBP has been restricted in the European Union for use in children's toys since 1999.

## United States
DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 (1986) list of suspected teratogens in November 2006.  It is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in some nail polishes; all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006.
DBP was permanently banned in children's toys, in concentrations of 1000 ppm or greater, under section 108 of the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008 (CPSIA).

# Production
DBP is produced by the reaction of n-butanol with phthalic anhydride.  It is or was produced in the United States by Eastman Chemical Company, but the company announced in March 2011 that it would end production and exit the DBP and DEP (diethyl phthalate) market in December 2011.
With the exodus of all domestic producers the nearest supply option for DBP for U.S. customers is Miami Chemical, a company in Plantation, Florida which imports material from manufacturing partners located in South America.

# Exposure
Based on urine samples from people of different ages, the European Commission Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER) concluded that total exposures to individual phthalates in the general population are below tolerable daily intakes (TDI), except in the case of DBP for which efforts to further reduce exposures are needed.

# Biodegradation
The white rot fungus Polyporus brumalis degrades DBP.
Dicobalt edetate

# Overview
Dicobalt edetate is the coordination compound with the approximate formula Co2(EDTA)(H2O)6.
Solutions of this solid have been used in Europe as an antidote to cyanide poisoning.
It is a derivative of the (non-natural) amino acid ethylenediaminetetraacetate.

# Structure
The compound is polymeric in the crystalline form.  Half of the Co2+ ions are bound to the EDTA2 and the other Co2+ ions are bound to four water ligands as well as carboxylate ligands on the 2 entity. In aqueous solution, depolymerization occurs to give 2 and 2+ ions, each of which is kinetically labile and has a high affinity for cyanide.  Oxidants would convert the 2 into , which would be unreactive toward cyanide because this complex would be "inert."
Diet (nutrition)

# Overview
In nutrition, the diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. Dietary habits are the habitual decisions an individual or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat. Although humans are omnivores, each culture holds some food preferences and some food taboos. Individual dietary choices may be more or less healthy. Proper nutrition requires the proper ingestion and equally important, the absorption of vitamins, minerals, and fuel in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Dietary habits and choices play a significant role in health and mortality, and can also define cultures and play a role in religion.

# Traditional diet
"Traditional diet" is a term for a diet that was considered normal in a given location prior to the advent of industrial agriculture and the general availability of fresh foreign food. In particular, the term may refer to the diet of native populations such as the Native Americans, Khoisan and Australian Aborigines.
Traditional diets vary with availability of local resources, such as fish in coastal towns or grains in farming towns, as well as with cultural and religious customs and taboos. In some cases, the crops and domestic animals that characterize a traditional diet have been replaced by modern high-yield crops, and are no longer available. The slow food movement attempts to counter this trend and to preserve traditional diets.

# Religious and cultural dietary choices
Some cultures and religions have restrictions concerning what foods are acceptable in their diet. For example, only Kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, and Halal foods by Islam.

# Individual dietary choices
Many individuals choose to limit what foods they eat for reasons of health, morality, environmental impact, or other factors. Additionally, many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees; see vegetarianism, veganism, fruitarianism, living foods diet, and raw foodism.

# Diets for weight management
In a meta-analysis of 11 randomized controlled trials that compared low fat versus low carbohydrate diets, low fat diets achieved greater reduction in low density lipoprotein but less weight loss and less increase in high density lipoprotein.
A particular diet may be chosen to seek weight gain, weight loss, sports training, cardio-vascular health, avoidance of cancers, food allergies and for other reasons.  Changing a subject's dietary intake, or "going on a diet", can change the energy balance and increase or decrease the amount of fat stored by the body.  Some foods are specifically recommended, or even altered, for conformity to the requirements of a particular diet.  These diets are often recommended in conjunction with exercise.

## Eating disorders
An eating disorder is a mental disorder that interferes with normal food consumption. Eating disorders often affect people with a negative body image.

# Diet table
Diethylcathinone

# Overview
Diethylcathinone (also called Diethylpropion and Amfepramone), is a sympathomimetic stimulant drug marketed as an appetite suppressant. It is sold under the brand name Tenuate or Tenuate Dospan, and may also be known as Amfepramone. 
The popular antidepressant, Wellbutrin (bupropion) is an analogue of this chemical. Both diethylpropion and bupropion have a stimulant effect on the CNS.

# Pharmacology
Its mechanism of action is similar to other appetite suppressants such as sibutramine, phentermine and dextroamphetamine. Chemically, it is the N,N-diethyl analog of cathinone and dimethylcathinone. Diethylpropion is manufactured in 25 mg tablets and 75 mg controlled-release tablets (Tenuate, Tepanil Ten-Tab). Diethylpropion is classified as a Schedule IV controlled substance in the United States.
It is also used in the treatment of migraine (off-label).

# Contraindications
- Hypersensitivity to sympathomimetic amines
- Advanced arteriosclerosis or symptomatic cardiovascular disease
- Moderate or severe hypertension
- Hyperthyroidism
- History of drug abuse
- MAO inhibitor use (within 14 days)

# Side effects
- Pulmonary hypertension
- Stroke
- Psychosis
- Tachycardia, hypertension, arrhythmia, chest pain
- Xerostomia, metallic taste
- Changes in libido, gynecomastia, menstrual irregularities
- Blurred vision
- Nausea/vomiting, constipation, abdominal cramps
- Bone marrow depression, agranulocytosis, leukopenia
- Tremor
- Euphoria, agitation, nervousness, restlessness, dizziness, anxiety, headache, mental depression, seizures
- Rash, hives, alopecia, ecchymosis
- Changes in libido, impotence
Digamma function
In mathematics, the digamma function is defined as the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function:
It is the first of the polygamma functions.

# Relation to harmonic numbers
The digamma function, often denoted also as 0(x), 0(x) or \digamma (after the shape of the obsolete Greek letter  digamma), is related to the harmonic numbers in that
where Hn is the n 'th harmonic number, and  is the Euler-Mascheroni constant. For half-integer values, it may be expressed as
\sum_{k=1}^n \frac{2}{2k-1}

# Integral representations
It has the integral representation
This may be written as
which follows from Euler's integral formula for the harmonic numbers.

# Taylor series
The digamma has a rational zeta series, given by the Taylor series at z=1. This is
which converges for |z|\zeta(n) is the Riemann zeta function. This series is easily derived from the corresponding Taylor's series for the Hurwitz zeta function.

# Newton series
The Newton series for the digamma follows from Euler's integral formula:
where \textstyle{s \choose k} is the binomial coefficient.

# Reflection formula
The digamma function satisfies a reflection formula similar to that of the Gamma function,

# Recurrence formula
The digamma function satisfies the recurrence relation
Thus, it can be said to "telescope" 1/x, for one has
where  is the forward difference operator. This satisfies the recurrence relation of a partial sum of the harmonic series, thus implying the formula
where \gamma is the Euler-Mascheroni constant.
More generally, one has
\left( \frac{1}{k}-\frac{1}{x+k} \right)

# Gaussian sum
The digamma has a Gaussian sum of the form
\sin \left( \frac{2\pi nm}{k}\right) \psi \left(\frac{n}{k}\right) =
\zeta\left(0,\frac{m}{k}\right) = -B_1 \left(\frac{m}{k}\right) = 
\frac{1}{2} - \frac{m}{k}
for integers 0. Here, (s,q) is the Hurwitz zeta function and B_n(x) is a Bernoulli polynomial.  A special case of the multiplication theorem is
and a neat generalization of this is
in which it is assumed that q is a natural number, and that 1-qa is not.

# Gauss's digamma theorem
For positive integers m and k (with m < k), the digamma function may be expressed in terms of elementary functions as
-\frac{\pi}{2}\cot\left(\frac{m\pi}{k}\right)
+2\sum_{n=1}^{\lfloor (k-1)/2\rfloor}
\cos\left(\frac{2\pi nm}{k} \right)
\ln\left(\sin\left(\frac{n\pi}{k}\right)\right)

# Special values
The digamma function has the following special values:
Digestive system

# Overview
The digestive system is the organ system that breaks down and absorbs nutrients that are essential for growth and maintenance.
The digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, (intestines), rectum, and anus.
This page contains links to all the parts of the digestive system.
Digestive enzyme
Digestive enzymes are enzymes in the alimentary tract that break down  food so that the  organism can absorb it. The main sites of action are the oral cavity, the stomach, the duodenum and the jejunum. They are secreted by different glands: the salivary glands, the glands in the stomach, the pancreas, and the glands in the small intestines.

# Oral cavity
In the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete ptyalin. It is a type of -amylase, which digests starch into small segments of multiple sugars and into individual soluble sugars. Secreted by small and large salivary glands.
Salivary glands also secrete lysozyme, which kills bacteria but is not classified as a digestive enzyme.

# Esophagus
There are no digestive enzymes secreted in the esophagus.

# Stomach
The enzymes that get secreted in the stomach are called gastric enzymes. These are the following:
- Pepsin is the main gastric enzyme. As it breaks proteins into smaller peptide fragments, it is a peptidase.
- Gelatinase, degrades type I and type V gelatin and type IV and V collagen, which are proteoglycans in meat.
- Gastric amylase degrades starch, but is of minor significance.
- Gastric lipase is a tributyrase by its biochemical activity, as it acts almost exclusively on tributyrin, a butter fat.

# Small intestine

## Pancreatic enzymes
The pancreas is the main digestive gland in our body. It secretes the enzymes:
- Trypsin, is a peptidase, that breaks down peptides in the small intestine.
- Chymotrypsin, also a peptidase
- Steapsin, degrades triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.
- Carboxypeptidase, splits peptide fragments into individual amino acids. It is a protease.
- Several elastases that degrade the protein elastin and some other proteins.
- Several nucleases that degrade nucleic acids, like DNAase and RNAase
- Pancreatic amylase that, besides starch, glycogen and cellulose, degrades most other carbohydrates.
- Bile from the liver, which emulsifies fat, allowing more efficient use of lipases in the duodenum; in converting lipids to their component fatty acid and glycerol molecules

## Proper small intestine enzymes
- Several peptidases.
- The jejunum and ileum secretes a juice called succus entericus which contains the following:
Six types of enzymes degrade disaccharides into monosaccharides:
- Sucrase, which breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose
- Maltase, which breaks down maltose into glucose.
- Isomaltase, which breaks down maltose and isomaltose
- Lactase, which breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose
- Intestinal lipase, which breaks down fatty acids
- Erepsin, also a protein-digesting enzyme
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Dihydroetorphine
Dihydroetorphine is a potent analgesic drug (painkiller), which is used mainly in China. It is a derivative of the more well-known opioid etorphine, which is used as a very potent veterinary painkiller and anesthetic medication, primarily for the sedation of large animals such as elephants, giraffes and rhinos.
Dihydroetorphine is a semi-synthetic opioid, used mainly as a strong painkiller for humans. It is several thousand times stronger than morphine (between 1000x and 12000x more potent depending what method is used for comparison), although it is poorly absorbed when taken orally. Sublingual forms of dihydroetorphine are used in China at doses ranging from 20 to 180g, and are reported to cause strong analgesia and relatively mild side effects compared to other opioids, although all the usual opioid side effects such as dizziness, sedation, nausea, constipation, and respiratory depression can occur. Transdermal patches of dihydroetorphine have also been developed.
Dihydroetorphine is considered to be somewhat less addictive than many other opioids, and is also sometimes used in China as a substitute maintenance drug for opioid addicts, in a similar way to how the related drug buprenorphine is used in western nations.