Sandbox: Dr.Reddy
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# Overview

# Historical Perspective
 was first discovered by , a , in /during/following .
The association between  and  was made in/during .
In ,  was the first to discover the association between  and the development of .
In ,  mutations were first implicated in the pathogenesis of .
There have been several outbreaks of , including -----.
In ,  was developed by  to treat/diagnose .

# Classification
There is no established system for the classification of .
OR
 may be classified according to  into  subtypes/groups: , , , and .
OR
 may be classified into  subtypes based on , , and .
 may be classified into several subtypes based on , , and .
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Based on the duration of symptoms,  may be classified as either acute or chronic.
OR
If the staging system involves specific and characteristic findings and features:
According to the , there are  stages of  based on the , , and . Each stage is assigned a  and a  that designate the  and .
OR
The staging of  is based on the .
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There is no established system for the staging of .

# Pathophysiology
The exact pathogenesis of  is not fully understood.
OR
It is thought that  is the result of / is mediated by / is produced by / is caused by either , , or .
OR
 is usually transmitted via the  route to the human host.
OR
Following transmission/ingestion, the  uses the  to invade the  cell.
OR
 arises from s, which are  cells that are normally involved in .
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The progression to  usually involves the .
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The pathophysiology of  depends on the histological subtype.

# Causes
- Fecal Incontinence may be caused due to the following:   
Anal sphincter dysfunction/damage
Rectal prolapse
Surgical procedures of the rectum and anus may lead to muscle or nerve injuries. Anorectal surgical procedures such as hemorrhoidectomy, fistula surgery and sphincterotomy. 
Impaired rectal sensation
Rectocele
Damage to the nerves
Diarrhea
Inflammatory bowel disease
Constipation
Hemorrhoids
Neurologic abnormalities such as multiple sclerosis and pudendal neuropathy
Decreased compliance of the rectum
- Anal sphincter dysfunction/damage
- Rectal prolapse
- Surgical procedures of the rectum and anus may lead to muscle or nerve injuries. Anorectal surgical procedures such as hemorrhoidectomy, fistula surgery and sphincterotomy. 
- Impaired rectal sensation
- Rectocele
- Damage to the nerves
- Diarrhea
- Inflammatory bowel disease
- Constipation
- Hemorrhoids
- Neurologic abnormalities such as multiple sclerosis and pudendal neuropathy
- Decreased compliance of the rectum

# Differentiating Fecal incontinence from Other Diseases
- Fecal incontinence must be differentiated from other diseases such as:
Crohn's disease
Acute diarrhea
Chronic diarrhea
Traveler's diarrhea
Colorectal cancer
Ulcerative colitis
Fistulae
- Crohn's disease
- Acute diarrhea
- Chronic diarrhea
- Traveler's diarrhea
- Colorectal cancer
- Ulcerative colitis
- Fistulae

# Epidemiology and Demographics
- The prevalence of fecal Incontinence is approximately 2000-3000 per 100,000 individuals worldwide. 
- In the US, the prevalence of fecal Incontinence is similar in women and men and increases with age, with the prevalence of 8900 per 100,000 individuals in women and 7700 per 100,00 individuals in men. 
- In the US, fecal Incontinence affects 2600 per 100,000 individuals in the age group of 20 to 29 years and in elderly people up to 15,300 per 100,000 individuals who are over the age of 70 years. 
- There is no racial predilection to fecal Incontinence.

# Risk Factors
- Common risk factors in the development of Fecal incontinence include:     
Age factor: Mostly seen in middle-age and older adult population.
Gender: Females are more likely to have fecal incontinence when compared to men. The major risk factor being the complications during childbirth that damage the anal sphincter and injure the pelvic floor muscles and nerves such as:
Episiotomy
Forceps delivery
Prolonged second stage of labor
Occipitoposterior presentation of the fetus
Pelvic floor injury resulting in significant tears and higher birth-weight of the infant
Nerve injury/neuropathy: Damage to the pudendal nerve/pudendal neuropathy
Alzheimer's disease and Dementia: Fecal incontinence is usually seen in individuals with Alzheimer's disease(advanced stage) and Dementia.
Multiple sclerosis
Anorectal congenital abnormalities
Radiation therapy of the pelvis
Rectal prolapse
Hormone therapy: In post-menopausal women, fecal incontinence may be due to hormonal therapy.
- Age factor: Mostly seen in middle-age and older adult population.
- Gender: Females are more likely to have fecal incontinence when compared to men. The major risk factor being the complications during childbirth that damage the anal sphincter and injure the pelvic floor muscles and nerves such as:
Episiotomy
Forceps delivery
Prolonged second stage of labor
Occipitoposterior presentation of the fetus
Pelvic floor injury resulting in significant tears and higher birth-weight of the infant
- Episiotomy
- Forceps delivery
- Prolonged second stage of labor
- Occipitoposterior presentation of the fetus
- Pelvic floor injury resulting in significant tears and higher birth-weight of the infant
- Nerve injury/neuropathy: Damage to the pudendal nerve/pudendal neuropathy
- Alzheimer's disease and Dementia: Fecal incontinence is usually seen in individuals with Alzheimer's disease(advanced stage) and Dementia.
- Multiple sclerosis
- Anorectal congenital abnormalities
- Radiation therapy of the pelvis
- Rectal prolapse
- Hormone therapy: In post-menopausal women, fecal incontinence may be due to hormonal therapy.

# Screening
- There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for fecal incontinence.
- However, a physician should rule out the symptoms in conditions which may pose as risk factors for developing fecal incontinence.

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
- If left untreated, patients with Fecal incontinence may progress to develop complications such as:
Pain and itching in the anal region leading to rashes and ulcers
Social withdrawal
Emotional distress
Depression
Insomnia
- Pain and itching in the anal region leading to rashes and ulcers
- Social withdrawal
- Emotional distress
- Depression
- Insomnia
- Prognosis: Prognosis is generally excellent/good/poor, and the 1/5/10-year mortality/survival rate of patients with  is approximately %.

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Study of Choice
- Reliable scoring systems for the assessment of fecal incontinence based on symptoms and the response received as a result of interventions are: 
The American Medical System Score
The Vaizey Score
The Wexner Score
- The American Medical System Score
- The Vaizey Score
- The Wexner Score

## History and Symptoms
- A thorough and detailed history is crucial while obtaining a history from a patient experiencing fecal incontinence. 
- The history taking should be focused mainly on obstetrical and surgical history apart from medication history and other associated medical conditions if any. 
- Symptoms should be categorized based on the onset, duration, severity and the type of incontinence. 
- Soiling of undergarments is a common symptom observed in individuals with fecal incontinence wherein stains of stool are observed on the undergarments.
- Symptoms of fecal incontinence vary acoording to the type of incontinence such as the urge fecal incontinence and passive fecal incontinence.
- Symptoms in individuals with urge fecal incontinence, the patient realizes the need to defecate but lacks control over it and may pass the stool even before reaching the restoom.  
- Symptoms in individuals with passive fecal incontinence, the patient doesn't realize nor does have control over the passage of stools and hence it happens without their knowledge.

## Physical Examination
- Physical examination includes:
Inspection of the perianal area: To check for anocutaneous reflex (anal wink sign). Absence of this reflex indicates nerve damage.
Digital rectal examination: It is done to evaluate for anal pathology and assess anal resting tone.
- Inspection of the perianal area: To check for anocutaneous reflex (anal wink sign). Absence of this reflex indicates nerve damage.
- Digital rectal examination: It is done to evaluate for anal pathology and assess anal resting tone.
- Procedures that may help in determining the underlying cause of fecal incontinence such as:
Colonoscopy
Sigmoidoscopy
Anoscopy
- Colonoscopy
- Sigmoidoscopy
- Anoscopy

## Laboratory Findings
Stool testing may be helpful in determining the underlying cause of diarrhea.

## Electrocardiogram
There are no ECG findings associated with fecal incontinence.

## X-ray
There are no x-ray findings associated with fecal incontinence.

## Ultrasound/MRI
- Ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging may be helpful in the diagnosis of fecal incontinence. An ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging may be helpful in determining the underlying abnormalities of the pelvic floor muscles, structural abnormalities of the anal sphincter and abnormalities of the wall of the rectum.

## Other Diagnostic Studies
- Anorectal manometry may be helpful in the diagnosis of fecal incontinence. This procedure helps in determining the anal sphincter tone and also the sensation and reflexes of the rectum.
- Balloon expulsion test may be more helpful in determining defecation disorders in the elderly patients who sufffer from fecal incontinence secondary to fecal impaction.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
- Medical management of fecal incontinence involves medical therapy along with supportive measures that are focused at symptom control and also resolving the underlying conditions such as the stool consistency, rectal prolapse and other underlying associated medical conditions, if any.
- The first-line of management inn case of the affected patients would be the streamlining of conservative measures. Symptom control approach that includes dietary modification along with behavioral modification, usage of pads, skin care and pharmacotherapy. The patients in whom behavioral changes are suggested, should be made aware of the gastrocolic reflex.
- Dietary habits have to be assessed inorder to minimize the negative impacts of the food on stool consistency and volume.
- Inclusion of fiber rich foods or supplements may help in minimizing loose stools but, such foods should be used cautiously in patients with baseline formed stools, because the softer consistency and increased volume of the stools may result in the symptoms getting deteriorated.
- Medical therapy includes the use of drugs such as diphenoxylate/atropine, loperamide, cholestyramine, ondansetron, and/or amitriptyline. In order to reduce diarrhea and slightly increase the internal sphincter tone, diphenoxylate/atropine or loperamide are frequently used. Amitriptyline may also be used as an alternative for treating diarrhea, and it may also be used to reduce rectal urgency.
- In order to reduce episodes of incontinence in patients with fecal impaction and overflow incontinence, enema is suggested to facilitate stool elimination and reduce the stool load. 
- Supportive measures such as perianal skin care with barrier creams and restraining from over-the-counter topical creams without prescription.
- Physical therapy and biofeedback may help strengthen pelvic floor and sphincter muscles as they serve as exercises thereby helping the muscles to recordinate. 

## Surgery
Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of .
OR
Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with . Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either , , and 
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The mainstay of treatment for  is medical therapy. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either , , and/or .
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The feasibility of surgery depends on the stage of  at diagnosis.
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Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for .

## Primary Prevention
- Effective measures for the primary prevention of Fecal incontinence include:
Avoid constipation by exercising regularly and maintaining healthy food habits by drinking plenty water and including foods rich in fiber in the diet
Avoiding straining or forceful defecation which may effect the anal sphincter and damage the related muscles and nerves which may lead to fecal incontinence.
Treating Diarrhea by managing the underlying cause such as the gastrointestinal infection.
In cases of fecal incontinence related to pregnancy, pelvic floor muscle training may help in prevention and reversal of the condition following the first year of delivery.  
Elimination of interventions such as episiotomy, lateral sphincterotomy, and anal sphincter stretch in women may be helpful in preventing fecal incontinence. 
- Avoid constipation by exercising regularly and maintaining healthy food habits by drinking plenty water and including foods rich in fiber in the diet
- Avoiding straining or forceful defecation which may effect the anal sphincter and damage the related muscles and nerves which may lead to fecal incontinence.
- Treating Diarrhea by managing the underlying cause such as the gastrointestinal infection.
- In cases of fecal incontinence related to pregnancy, pelvic floor muscle training may help in prevention and reversal of the condition following the first year of delivery.  
- Elimination of interventions such as episiotomy, lateral sphincterotomy, and anal sphincter stretch in women may be helpful in preventing fecal incontinence. 

## abcd
- American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) Spleen Trauma Classification: 
- WSES Spleen Trauma Classification for adult and pediatric patients:
- Non-operative management: 
- Operative management: 

# Follow-up
Short- and long-term follow-up: 
- Diagnostic procedures: 
- Stage grouping of pancreatic cancer:
- TNM classification for pancreatic cancer: 
- Types of Pancreatic Intraepithelial Neoplasia (PanIN):
- Risk factors for Pancreatic Cancers:
- Risk Factors and Inherited Syndromes associated with Pancreatic Cancer:

# Sydney system for grading of chronic gastritis

# Classification Gastritis

# The table below differentiates Gastritis from other conditions
Risk factors of VTE may be categorized in to modifiable, non-modifiable, temporary and other risk factors.
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# Differentiating Thyroid adenoma from other Diseases
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# Overview

# Topic