Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Cordotomy
Cordotomy (or chordotomy) is a surgical procedure that disables selected pain-conducting tracts in the spinal cord, in order to achieve loss of pain and temperature perception. This procedure is commonly performed on patients experiencing severe pain due to cancer or other diseases for which there are currently no cure. Anterolateral cordotomy is effective for relieving unilateral, somatic pain while bilateral cordotomies may be required for visceral or bilateral pain.
Cordotomy is usually done percutaneously with fluoroscopic guidance while the patient is under local anesthesia. Open cordotomy, which requires a laminectomy, is often risky for patients with poor medical conditions, but may be required if percutaneous cordotomy is not feasible or an attempt has failed.
Cordotomy is now used exclusively for pain due to cancer where treatment to level 3 of the World Health Organisation analgesic ladder has proved ineffective. Cordotomy is especially indicated for pain due to mesothelioma (asbestos-related lung cancer).
A number of alternative surgical procedures have evolved in the 20th century; these include:
"Commissural myelotomy", with limited rostro-caudal range; it produces bilateral analgesia (Armour 1927; Hitchcock 1970; 74).
"Limited midline myelotomy" for the treatment of pelvic visceral cancer pain (Gildenberg and Hirshberg, 1984).
Recently, Dr. Elie D. Al-Chaer and his colleagues discovered a new pathway in the spinal cord relatively specific for visceral pain - the pain that originates from visceral organs such as the colon, the bladder and the pancreas. The new pathway is located in the posterior columns, traditionally believed to mediate light touch and kinesthesia. This discovery led to a paradigm shift in our understanding of pain pathways and in the approach to treat intractable visceral pain. As a result, "punctate midline myelotomy" was introduced around the world as a new surgical procedure for the treatment of visceral pain residual to cancer and refractory to conventional treatment.
Chromatid
A chromatid is one of two identical copies of DNA making up a chromosome that are joined at their centromeres, for the process of nuclear division (mitosis or meiosis). The term is used so long as the centromeres remain in contact. When they separate (during anaphase of mitosis and anaphase 2 of meiosis), the strands are called daughter-chromosomes. The tips of the chromatid are called telomeres. They are there to prevent the ends of the chromosome from attaching to other chromosomes. It has been said that after repeated cell replication, the telomeres get shorter resulting in cell death. This means that the way telomeres work could determine the lifespan of a cell. However this has not been proven.
In other words, a chromatid is "one-half of a replicated chromosome".  It should not be confused with the ploidy of an organism, which is the number of homologous versions of a chromosome.

# Quantity
In humans, for example, there are normally 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell. N=23. However, the quantity of chromatids is various 46. It can be either 4N, 2N or 1N. The latter is only seen in haploid gametes, with only one of each homologous chromosome pair. Such are created in gametogenesis.

## 4N
In a cell with 4N chromatids, there are 23 chromosome pairs (46 chromosomes), and each chromosome has 2 chromatids. Thus, there are 92 chromatids in each cell (4xN) which occurs during anaphase 2 of meiosis.

## 2N
Immediately after a mitosis, where a cell has divided in two, but not yet duplicated its DNA, there are still 23 chromosome pairs (46 chromosomes). However, each chromosome only has one chromatid. Thus there are 46 chromatids (2xN)
Alternatively, a haploid cell with two chromatids per chromosome also has 46 chromatids. However, this doesn't occur naturally in humans.

## 1N
Immediately after meiosis, each cell, called a gamete, only has half the amount of chromosomes (23 chromosomes). Furthermore, each chromosome only has one chromatid. Thus, there are 23 chromatids (1xN)

# Etymology
The term chromatid was proposed by McClung (1900) for each of the four threads making up a chromosome-pair during meiosis.  It was later used also for mitosis.
The term derives from the Greek chroma (colour); for the derivation of -id, see diploid.
Trisomy 9
Synonyms and keywords:

# Overview
Trisomy 9 is a chromosomal disorder caused by having three copies (trisomy) of chromosome number 9. It can appear with or without mosaicism.

# Symptoms
Symptoms vary, but usually result in dysmorphisms in the skull, nervous system, and mental retardation. Dysmorphisms in the heart, kidneys, and musculoskeletal system may also occur.

# Diagnosis

## Laboratory Findings
Trisomy 9 can be detected prenatally with chorionic villus sampling and cordocentesis, and can be suggested by obstetric ultrasonography.
Because trisomy 9 may appear with mosaicism, it is suggested that doctors take samples from multiple tissues when karyotyping for diagnosis.
Cigarillo
A cigarillo (Spanish for "cigarette", pronounced "see-gah-ree-yoh" in Spanish and "see-gah-ree-loh" in English) is a short, narrow cigar.  Unlike cigarettes, cigarillos are wrapped not in paper but in whole-leaf tobacco.  Cigarillos also usually contain fewer additives (though often more than real cigars).  Cigarillos can be found for purchase alone or in packs, and are sometimes made without filters. The filtered cigarillos are sometimes called "little cigars". Unlike a cigarette, they are not meant to be inhaled but rather smoked like a cigar.
Generally, a cigarillo usually contains about 3 grams of tobacco, the length varies from between 7 to 10 cm (70 to 100 mm) and the diameter is between 0.5 to 0.8 cm (or 5 to 8 mm). Comparatively, a cigarette contains less than 1 gram of tobacco  and is less than 12 cm in length and 1cm in diameter.
Cigarillos are often machine made. This allows the price to be lower than if they were hand made. They are not produced in as large a quantity as cigarettes but cigarillos are often seen by passionate cigar smokers as a lower quality product. As cigarillos are often smoked in quantities similar to cigarettes (between 5 and 10 per day), storage of them in humidors is not usually necessary.
Cigarillos are also known in Europe as a 'Seven Minute Cigar'. This due to the fact that they can be smoked in seven minutes and are often seen as an alternative not only to cigarettes but also where someone does not have enough time to smoke a full cigar.
To improve their image, cigarillos can often be found in ornamentally designed tins. Manufacturers explain this offers more protection for the product against crushing but it also gives a better image and allows better targeted advertising to people who are conscious of other people seeing what they are smoking.
In the United States popular consumer brands include Swisher Sweets, Black and Mild, White Owl, Optimo, and Winchester, while in the United Kingdom they include Hamlets and Cafe Creme. Inexpensive cigarillos are often identified using a brand name rather than the term cigarillo.
In Europe, cigarillos and thin panatelas (a long slender cigar) are relatively more popular with female smokers.  One reason may be that it is still socially unacceptable, or at least surprising, to see women smoke larger cigars.

# Health concerns
As is the case with other tobacco products, cigarillos are a health risk to those who smoke them. In Europe, they are subject to the same laws which require manufacturers to place a health warning on a percentage of the packaging.
As cigarillos are not meant to be inhaled, they are seen as a healthier alternative to cigarettes. Health authorities around the world still warn smokers of the risk they pose due to smoke being in the mouth.

# Taxation
In the United States, cigarillos (and cigars) are taxed at a lower rate than cigarettes. The federal tax on cigarettes is 39 cents a pack where as cigarillos are 4 cents per pack of 20. Large cigars have a federal tax of 5 cents maximum per cigar. . Some states have no tax on cigarillos.
Cinnoline
Cinnoline is an aromatic heterocyclic compound with the formula C8H6N2 (CAS# ).  It is isomeric with phthalazine. Alternative name: benzopyridazine.

# Properties
The free base can be obtained as an oil by treatment of the hydrochloride with base.  It co-crystallizes with one molecule of ether as white silky needles, (m.p. 24-25 C) upon cooling etherial solutions. The free base melts at 39C. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate and leaves a sharp irritation for some time. Cinnoline derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin carboxylic acid, which is formed by digesting orthophenyl propiolic acid diazo chloride with water. Oxycinnolin carboxylic acid on heating gives oxycinnoline, melting at 225 C, which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin. This substance is reduced by iron filings and sulfuric acid to dihydrocinnolin.

# Discovery and synthesis
The compound was first obtained in impure form by cyclization of the alkyne o-C6H4(NH2)CCCO2H in water to give 4-hydroxycinnoline-3-carboxylic acid.  This material could be decarboxylated and the hydroxyl group reductively removed to give the parent heterocycle. This reaction is called the Richter cinnoline synthesis   Improved methods exist for its synthesis.  It can be prepared by dehydrogenation of dihydrocinnoline with freshly precipitated mercuric oxide.  It can be isolated as the hydrochloride. 
Cinnolines are cinnoline derivatives. A classic organic reaction for synthesizing cinnolines is the Widman-Stoermer synthesis , a ring-closing reaction of an -vinyl- aniline with hydrochloric acid and sodium nitrite:
The sodium nitrite is first converted to nitrous acid which then forms the electrophilic intermediate dinitrogen trioxide. The next intermediate is the stable Nitrosamine with goes on to lose water forming the diazonium salt which then reacts with the vinyl group in the ring-closing step. A conceptually related reaction is the Bamberger triazine synthesis towards triazines.
Another cinnoline method is the Borsche cinnoline synthesis.
Cisternae

# Overview
A cisterna (plural cisternae) comprises a flattened membrane disk that makes up the Golgi apparatus. A typical Golgi has anywhere from 3 to 7 cisternae stacked upon each other like a stack of dinner plates, but there are usually around 6.  The cisternae carry Golgi enzymes to help or to modify cargo proteins traveling through them destined for other parts of the cell.
The cisternae also carry structural proteins important for its maintenance as a flattened membrane and its stacking upon each other.
The earliest cisternae are called the cis-cisternae, followed by the medial cisternae, then the trans-cisternae (as they move away from the endoplasmic reticulum).
The formation of new cisternae is often called the cis-Golgi network and at the end of the Golgi where transport to other parts of the cell occurs is called the trans-Golgi network. Both are thought to be specialized cisternae leading in and out of the Golgi apparatus.
Cisternae may also refer to flattened regions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
nl:Cistern
Claw hand

# Overview
Claw hand is a condition that causes curved or bent fingers. This makes the hand appear like the claw of an animal. Claw hand can be something that someone is born with (congenital) or that they develop because of certain disorders, such as nerve injury.

# Causes
- Congenital abnormality
- Leprosy
- Nerve damage in the arm
- Scarring after a severe burn of the hand or forearm

# Diagnosis
The following tests may be performed:
- Electromyography (EMG)
- Nerve conduction studies

# Treatment
Treatment depends on the cause. It may include:
- Splinting
- Surgery to fix problems that may be contributing to the claw hand, such as nerve problems, tendon abnormalities, or scar tissue
- Therapy to straighten the fingers

# Source
Medline Plus
Pes cavus
Pes cavus is a medical term for a somewhat unusual condition of the foot, or pes,  due to a fixed plantar flexion of the foot. The resulting configuration is a highly arched footgiving the condition its more common name, high archeswhich is the opposite of a flat foot and somewhat less common.
As with certain cases of flat feet, pes cavus may be painful due to metatarsal compression; however, high arches particularly if they are flexible or properly cared-formay be an asymptomatic condition and in fact beneficial to the person.
People with pes cavus sometimesthough not alwayshave difficulty finding shoes that fit and may require support in their shoes. Children with high arches who have difficulty walking may wear specially-designed insoles, which are available in various sizes and can be made to order.
High arches may be hereditary or acquired, and the underlying cause may be neurological, orthopedic or neuromuscular.  Pes cavus is oftentimesbut not alwaysconnected through Hereditary Motor and Sensory Neuropathy Type 1 (Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease) and Friedreich's Ataxia; many other cases of pes cavus are natural.

# Treatment
Surgical treatment is only initiated if there is severe pain, as the available operations can be difficult. Otherwise, high arches may be handled with care and proper treatment.
de:Knickfu
nl:Holvoet
Clidinium
Clidinium (generally found as the bromide salt, clidinium bromide) is an anticholinergic drug. It may help symptoms of cramping and abdominal/stomach pain by decreasing stomach acid, and slowing the intestines. It is commonly prescribed in combination with chlordiazepoxide using the brand name Librax.
Clidinium is an effective anticholinergic agent with activity approximating that of atropine sulfate against spasms induced by acetylcholine in isolated intestinal strips. On oral administration in mice it proved an effective antisialagogue in preventing salivation induced by pilocarpine. Spontaneous intestinal motility in both rats and dogs is reduced following oral dosing with 0.1 to 0.25 mg/kg. Potent cholinergic ganglionic blocking effects (vagal) are produced with intravenous usage in anesthetized dogs.
Oral doses of 23 mg/kg to dogs produced signs of nasal dryness and slight pupillary dilation. In two other species, monkeys and rabbits, doses of 5 mg/kg, po, given three times daily for 5 days did not produce apparent secretory or visual changes.

# Toxicity
The oral LD50 of a single dose of clidinium bromide is 860 + 57 mg/kg, as determined in mice observed over a period of 5 days following dosage.
Clinomics
Clinomics is the study of -omics data along with its associated clinical data. The term -omics generally refers to a study of biology.  As an example, genomics is the study of the entire genome of an organism and was the first -omics term.
As personalized medicine advances, clinomics will be a bridge between basic biological data and its effect on human health.  As an example, there have been studies of the genes expressed in certain cancer tissues as a way of classification of the cancer and the putative best form of treatment.
Already we know that certain genes such as BRCA1 are associated with a higher probability of developing breast cancer.  Clinomics takes the next step by looking at not only the genetics of the patient, but also such data as mRNA, metabolites, and proteins associated with a patient and a disease.
Clitorism

# Overview
Clitorism (/Template:IPA/), from the German "Clitorismus", in turn from the Greek kleitoris + ismos, is the female counterpart of priapism. A long continued, painful condition in the female with recurring erection of the clitoris. The word is also used to describe an abnormal enlargement of the clitoris.

# Signs and symptoms
'Clitorism is painful, much like priapism is for men.  Men and women alike may feel ashamed of seeking medical attention; especially men, since the condition is much more visible.

# Treatment
Clitorism is nearly impossible to treat since the female genitals are mostly on the inside.

# See Also
Vaginismus
Cobalt-60
Cobalt-60 (60Co) is a radioactive isotope of cobalt, with a half life of 5.27 years.  60Co decays by negative beta decay to the stable isotope nickel-60 (60Ni).  In the process of decay, 60Co emits one electron with an energy of up to 315 keV and then two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV, respectively.
One gram of 60Co contains approximately 50 curies (1.85 terabecquerels) of radioactivity.  With a point source at a range of 1 m, this amount of 60Co would give a person a radiation dose of 0.5 sievert (50 rem) per hour.
60Co has seven main beneficial uses:
- As a tracer for cobalt in chemical reactions,
- Sterilization of medical equipment,
- Radiation source for medical radiotherapy,
- Radiation source for industrial radiography,
- Radioactive source for leveling devices and thickness gauges,
- As a radioactive source for food irradiation and blood irradiation, and
- As a radioactive source for laboratory use.
The creation of 60Co is an important step in nucleosynthesis.  Without the 60Co step, no elements from number 27 through 83 would be created in supernovas.   Artificial 60Co is created by bombarding a 59Co target with a slow neutron source, usually 252Cf moderated through water to slow the neutrons down, or in a nuclear reactor such as CANDU, where adjuster rods usually made of steel are instead made of Co-59.  60Co is also the active isotope in a so-called cobalt bomb, a form of nuclear weapon.

# Excretion
After entering a living mammal (such as a human), most of the 60Co gets excreted in feces. A small amount is absorbed by liver, kidneys, and bones, where the prolonged exposure to gamma radiation can cause cancer.

# Incidents
Accidental mixing of radioactive sources containing cobalt with metal scrap can result in production of radioactive steel. An example was the radiation accident from December 6 1983 in Mexico, where a discarded radiation therapy source caused contamination of 5,000 metric tons of steel.  Another example of Co-60 contamination is the March 1, 2008 incident at the Italian port of La Spezia, where a cargo ship from China was found to contain 30 tons of steel contaminated by 60Co.
Cofilin-2
Cofilin 2 (muscle) also known as CFL2 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the CFL2 gene.

# Function
Cofilin is a widely distributed intracellular actin-modulating protein that binds and depolymerizes filamentous F-actin and inhibits the polymerization of monomeric G-actin in a pH-dependent manner. Cofilin-2 is a member of the AC group of proteins that also includes cofilin-1 (CFL1) and destrin (DSTN), all of which regulate actin-filament dynamics. The CFL2 gene encodes a skeletal muscle-specific isoform localized to the thin filaments, where it exerts its effect on actin, in part through interactions with tropomyosins.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in the CFL2 gene are associated with nemaline myopathy. Deficiency of cofilin-2 may result in reduced depolymerization of actin filaments, causing their accumulation in nemaline bodies, minicores, and, possibly concentric laminated bodies.
Cofilin 1
Cofilin 1 (non-muscle; n-cofilin), also known as CFL1, is a human gene, part of the ADF/cofilin family.
Cofilin is a widely distributed intracellular actin-modulating protein that binds and depolymerizes filamentous F-actin and inhibits the polymerization of monomeric G-actin in a pH-dependent manner. It is involved in the translocation of actin-cofilin complex from cytoplasm to nucleus.
One group reports that reelin signaling leads to serine3-phosphorylation of cofilin-1, and this interaction may play a role in the reelin-related regulation of neuronal migration.

# Interactions
Cofilin 1 has been shown to interact with HSPH1 and LIMK1.
Colostrum
Colostrum (also known as beestings or first milk) is a form of milk produced by the mammary glands in late pregnancy and the few days after giving birth.
Human and bovine colostrums are thick, sticky and yellowish. In humans, it  has high concentrations of nutrients and antibodies, but it is small in quantity.
Colostrum is high in carbohydrates, high in protein, high in antibodies, and low in fat (as human newborns may find fat difficult to digest). Newborns have very small digestive systems, and colostrum delivers its nutrients in a very concentrated low-volume form. It has a mild laxative effect, encouraging the passing of the baby's first stool, which is called meconium.  This clears excess bilirubin, a waste product of dead red blood cells which is produced in large quantities at birth due to blood volume reduction, from the infant's body and helps prevent jaundice.
Colostrum contains large numbers of antibodies called "secretory immunoglobulin" (IgA) that help protect the mucous membranes in the throat, lungs, and intestines of the infant.  Leukocytes are also present in large numbers; these begin protecting the infant from harmful viruses and bacteria.  Ingesting colostrum establishes beneficial bacteria in the digestive tract.
Premature babies tend to fare better on human colostrum than commercial infant formulas. Ambesh Patel is made of colostrum. Human milk contains special components, called growth modulators, that help the premature baby's digestive system adjust to oral feedings (Davies 1989). Research (Schlanler 1999b; Gross and Slagle 1993; Lucas 1987; Lucas 1984) indicate that premature babies fed formula tend to vomit more and continue tube feeding longer than those fed human colostrum and breast milk.
Bovine colostrum is sometimes used by humans as a dietary supplement. It has been attributed with curative powers and used as an ingredient in food dishes for the ill or invalid (Davidson, 1999). Purified bovine colostrum extract is also sometimes used in protein supplements used by athletes and bodybuilders.
Colostrum can start as early as the second trimester for some women.
Colostrum is also called "Palethi" in Punjabi. (more citation needed)
Coltsfoot
Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) is a plant in the family Asteraceae.
It has been used medicinally as a cough suppressant. The name "tussilago" itself means "cough suppressant."  The plant has been used since at least historical times to treat lung ailments such as asthma as well as various coughs by way of smoking. Crushed flowers supposedly cured skin conditions, and the plant has been consumed as a food item.
Coltsfoot is a perennial herbaceous plant that spreads by seeds and rhizomes. Tussilago is often found in colonies of dozens of plants. The flowers, which superficially resemble dandelions, appear in early spring before dandelions. Leaves do not appear usually until after the seeds are set. The plant is typically between 10 - 30cm.
Coltsfoot is native to several locations in Europe and Asia. It is also a common plant in North America and South America where it has been introduced, most likely by settlers as a medicinal item. The plant is often found in waste and disturbed places and along roadsides and paths. In some areas it is considered an invasive species.
Coltsfoot is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including The Gothic and Small Angle Shades.  The Coltsfoot is also worked by the honey bee (apis mellifera mellifera), this species provided a lot of pollen for the honey bee.
Other common names include Ass's foot, Bull's foot, Butterbur, Coughwort, Farfara, Foal's foot, Foalswort, Horse Foot and Winter heliotrope.