Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Shoulder arthritis

# Overview
Shoulder arthritis can be one of three types of arthritis in the glenohumeral joint of the shoulder.  The glenohumeral joint is a ball-and-socket joint, which relies on cartilage to move smoothly and to operate normally.

# Forms
One of the three forms of shoulder arthritis is osteoarthritis.  Osteoarthritis is the gradual wearing down of the joint cartilage that occurs predominantly in elderly people, and sometimes as the result of overuse in athletes.  Post-traumatic arthritis happens after a significant trauma is sustained by the joint, ruining the cartilage.  This could be the result of a car accident or after repeated trauma.  Rheumatoid arthritis is a disease where the body attacks its own cartilage and destroys it.  In each of these cases, cartilage is getting destroyed

# Symptoms
The main symptom of shoulder arthritis is pain; this is due to the grinding of the bones against each other because of the lack of cartilage.  Pain usually occurs in the front of the shoulder and is worse with motion.  People with shoulder arthritis will also experience moderate to sever weakness, stiffness developing over many years, and the inability to sleep on the affected shoulder.

# Diagnosis
Diagnosis is simple; usually the doctor can tell if you have shoulder arthritis by your symptoms, but he will most likely also take an x-ray or MRI.

# Treatment
Treatment of shoulder arthritis is usually aimed at reducing pain; there is no way to replace lost cartilage except through surgery. Pain medicines available over the counter can be prescribed by the doctor, but another form of treatment is cryotherapy, which is the use of cold compression.  Some vitamin supplements have been found to prevent further deterioration; glucosamine sulphate is an effective preserver of cartilage.  Another way to prevent the further loss of cartilage would be to maintain motion in the shoulder, because once you lose it, its hard to regain.  Steps to reduce extreme pain in cases of bad shoulder arthritis can involve the doctor giving injections directly into the shoulder, or even shoulder surgery.

# Cryotherapy
Cryotherapy is a very old form of pain relief. It is the treatment of pain and inflammation by reducing the skin temperature, and it can also significantly reduce swelling. For shoulder arthritis, cryotherapy is a sling that would fit over the shoulder and, with the use of a hand pump to circulate water, would keep the affected area cool.
Skeletal fluorosis

# Overview
Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease exclusively caused by excessive consumption of fluoride.

# Causes
Common causes of fluorosis include inhalation of fluoride dusts/fumes by workers in industry, use of coal as an indoor fuel source (a common practice in China), consumption of fluoride from drinking water, and consumption of fluoride from the drinking of tea, particularly brick tea.
In some areas, skeletal fluorosis may be endemic. In India, the most common cause of fluorosis is fluoride-laden water derived from deep borewells.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
While fluorosis is most severe and widespread in the two largest countries - India and China - UNICEF estimates that "fluorosis is endemic in at least 25 countries across the globe. The total number of people affected is not known, but a conservative estimate would number in the tens of millions." 

## Skeletal fluorosis in China and India
In China, the World Health Organization recently estimated that 2.7 million people have the crippling form of skeletal fluorosis, while in India, 17 of its 32 states have been identified as "endemic" areas, with an estimated 66 million people at risk and 6 million people seriously afflicted.
According to scientific surveys, skeletal fluorosis in India and China occurs when the fluoride concentration in water exceeds 1 part per million (ppm), and has been found to occur in communities with only 0.7 part per million.
The Chinese government now considers any water supply containing over 1 ppm fluoride a risk for skeletal fluorosis.

## Skeletal fluorosis in the United States
In the United States, an average of 1 ppm of fluoride is intentionally added to water supplies for water fluoridation. The Maximum Contaminant Level (as established by the US Environmental Protection Agency) is 4 ppm.

# Diagnosis

## Skeletal fluorosis phases
Smoker's melanosis
Smoker's melanosis is characterized by flat, irregular hyperpigmentation of the connective tissue underlying the oral mucosa resulting from tobacco smoking. Basal cells and macrophages in the underlying connective tissue contain unusual amounts of melanin, which creates the darker pigmentation. Macrophages are unable to degrade all of the melanin, a phenomenon known as melanin incontinence. 

# Incidence/Prevalence
A study in Sweden showed that 21.5% of smokers and 3% of nonsmokers had lesions that could be classified as smoker's melanosis.

# Causes
Smoking is the cause in most cases, although similar hyperpigmentations can sometimes be seen in nonsmokers.

# Treatment and Prognosis
The lesion usually disappears if the patient stops smoking. If it does not disappear, however, a biopsy can be used to verify the diagnosis. Smoker's melanosis is benign and does not develop into cancer.
Snowflake children
Snowflake children is a term used by organizations that promote the adoption of embryos left over from in vitro fertilization to describe children that result, where  the children's parents were not the original cell donors.  These embryos are transferred to infertile couples via embryo adoption, although the legal process of taking ownership of an embryo differs from that of traditional adoption.  According to a CBS News article dated July 28, 2005, the term "Snowflake" was coined by the first agency to provide the transfer service, Nightlight Christian Adoptions.  Ninety-nine children have been born from this program. 
Members of the Nightlight Christian Adoptions, the Embryo Adoption Awareness Campaign, and others now also use the term for the frozen embryos themselves.
While the term "Snowflake babies" has been used to describe babies born in this manner, the first snowflake children are no longer babies.  According to the CBS News article, the first snowflake baby, Hannah, was born in 1998 to Marlene and John Strege.
President George W. Bush has made public appearances together with snowflake children while speaking about his support for adult stem cell research and his opposition to embryonic stem cell research.

# Criticism of the term
Members of the Nightlight Christian Adoptions and the Embryo Adoption Awareness Campaign use the term "snowflake baby" as a synonym for any embryo that has been frozen.  However, some pro-choice groups believe that use of the term, and the related term "embryo adoption," are controversial.
Social cognitivism
In psychology, social cognitivism is a learning theory based on the ideas that people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to understanding personality.  In the book "Educational Psychology: Developing Learners" (2003) author Jeanne Ellis Ormrod lists the main principles of social cognitivism:
- People learn by observing others.
- Learning is an internal process that may or may not change behavior.
- People behave in certain ways to reach goals.
- Behavior is self-directed (as opposed to the behaviorist thought that behavior is determined by environment.)
- Reinforcement and punishment have unpredictable and indirect effects on both behavior and learning.
Teachers play the role as model in a child's learning acquisition.  Teachers model both material objectives and underlying curriculum of virtuous living.  Teachers should also be dedicated to the building of high self-efficacy levels in their students by recognizing their accomplishments.
The theorists most commonly associated with social cognitivism are Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel.
Categorization and Association are two fundamental concepts involved in stereotyping.
Categorization- we tend to group people on the basis of easily identifiable characteristics such as age, race, and gender. This can happen outside of our awareness (Devine, 1989).
Association- When we stereotype, we usually have sets of traits that go together, that is, are associated with groups of people.
Ways of thinking leading to stereotyping...
The representative-ness heuristic:
Our categorizations are based on the extent to which someones behavior represents a category we have of various social groups.
Example:  Is someone who is White, wealthy, and tough on crime a Republican or a Democrat?
The availability heuristic:
We attempt to bring to mind examples of behaviors of people, and the easier we can imagine such examples, the more likely we will think those behaviors will occur.  
Example:  If the only African American people who are portrayed in the media are criminals, then those who have little contact may vastly overestimate the number of African American criminals in the general population.
Sodium perchlorate
Sodium perchlorate is a perchlorate of sodium and has the formula NaClO4.  Sodium perchlorate melts with decomposition at 480 C.  Its heat of formation is -382.75 kJ mol-1. It is a white crystalline solid. It is hygroscopic. It is soluble in water and in alcohol. It usually comes as the monohydrate, which has a rhombic crystal structure.

# Uses
The present major use of perchlorate salts is as oxidizers in solid propellants such as NASA's solid rocket boosters. The potassium salt was first used and quickly followed by what is now the more important salt, ammonium perchlorate. Lithium perchlorate, which has the highest weight percentage of oxygen of all compounds, has been tested as an oxidizer in solid propellants, but has not found favor with propellant manufacturers due to its hygroscopicity.
Sodium perchlorate itself finds only minimal use in pyrotechnics because it is hygroscopic; ammonium and potassium perchlorates are preferred. They are made by double decomposition from a solution of sodium perchlorate and potassium or ammonium chlorides.
It is also used in standard DNA extraction and hybridization reactions in molecular biology.

# Synthesis
Sodium perchlorate is manufactured by anodic oxidation of sodium chloride or sodium chlorate at high current density, with platinum (or in some cases, lead dioxide, manganese dioxide, and possibly magnetite and cobalt oxide) anodes and graphite, steel, nickel, or titanium cathodes.
Sodium picosulfate
Sodium picosulfate (INN, also known as sodium picosulphate) is a contact laxative used as a treatment for constipation or to prepare the large bowel before colonoscopy or surgery.
It is sold under the trade names Dulcolax, Laxoberal, Picolax, Guttalax and several others.

# Side effects
The most common side effects of picosulfate are abdominal cramps and diarrhea.
The use of sodium picosulfate has also been associated with certain electrolyte disturbances, such as hyponatremia and hypokalemia.
Sodium thiocyanate
Sodium thiocyanate is the chemical compound with the formula NaSCN.  This colourless deliquescent salt is one of the main sources of the thiocyanate anion.  As such, it is used as a precursor for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other specialty chemicals.  Thiocyanate salts are typically prepared by the reaction of cyanide with elemental sulfur:
NaSCN crystallises in an orthorhombic cell.  Each Na+ center is surrounded by three sulfur and three nitrogen ligands provided by the triatomic thiocyanate anion.

# Applications in chemical synthesis
NaSCN is employed to convert alkyl halides into the corresponding alkylthiocyanates.  Closely related reagents include ammonium thiocyanate and potassium thiocyanate, which has twice the solubility in water.  Treatment of isopropyl bromide with NaSCN in hot ethanolic solution affords isopropyl thiocyanate (b.p. 146151 C).  Protonation of NaSCN affords isothiocyanic acid, S=C=NH (pKa = -1.28).  This species is generated in situ from NaSCN; it adds to organic amines to afford derivatives of thiourea.
Urethral sphincter

# Overview
The urethral sphincter is a collective name for the muscles used to control the flow of urine from the urinary bladder. These muscles surround the urethra, so that when they contract, the urethra is closed.  The muscles originate at the pubic ramus with the insertion point at the median raphe. The function of the sphincter urethrae is controlled by the Pudendal nerve to constrict the urethra.  There are actually two urethral sphincters in the human body:
- The internal sphincter muscle of urethra: located at the bladder's proximal inferior end is the junction of the urethra with the urinary bladder. The muscle is made of smooth muscle, so therefore it is under involuntary control. This is the primary muscle for constricting the release of urine.
- The external sphincter muscle of urethra: located at the bladder's distal inferior end is secondary sphincter to control the flow of urine through the urethra. Unlike the internal sphincter muscle, the external sphincter is made of skeletal muscle, so therefore it is under voluntary control. This is the secondary muscle to serve as backup.

# Gender differences
Despite common misconceptions, human males do not have stronger urethral sphincter muscles than females, nor are there any noticeable capacity differences in the bladders. Anatomically, females have to urinate more frequently because their bladders share space with the uterus and vagina in the anterior wall, which causes the involuntary interior sphincter muscle to give off the nerve impulses more frequently even when the bladder is not at capacity.  In males the bladder lies posteriorly against the rectum, where it does not share space with any reproductive organs.

# Function
In addition to the internal and external sphincters, in males the urethra extends to the end of the penis, where it opens up to the outside.
Both sexes can use the levator ani, the voluntary muscle of the pelvic floor, to control urination.  In females this muscle may be damaged, particularly by pregnancy, leading to weakness of the sphincter mechanism, and stress incontinence. Kegel exercises are a form of exercise intended to strengthen the pelvic floor muscles. They are also known as Pelvic Floor Muscle Training.
de:Musculus urethralis
Sphingosine kinase
Sphingosine kinase (SphK) is a conserved lipid kinase that catalyzes formation sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) from the precursor sphingolipid sphingosine. Sphingolipid metabolites, such as ceramide, sphingosine and sphingosine-1-phosphate, are lipid second messengers involved in diverse cellular processes.  There are two forms of SphK, SphK1 and SphK2.  SphK1 is found in the cytosol of eukaryotic cells, and migrates to the plasma membrane upon activation.  SphK2 is localized to the nucleus.

# Function
S1P has been shown to regulate diverse cellular processes.  It has been characterized as a lipid signaling molecule with dual function.  On one hand, it exerts its actions extracellularly by binding to the five different S1P receptors that couple to a variety of G-proteins to regulate diverse biological functions, ranging from cell growth and survival to effector functions, such as proinflammatory mediator synthesis. On the other hand, it appears to act as an intracellular second messenger, although the relevant molecular target(s) to which it binds within cells remains to be discovered. The role of S1P in various functions of cells and tissues is established, including regulation of cell survival and motility, angiogenesis, and inflammatory responses. Sphingosine kinases (SphKs) types 1 and 2, the two enzymes identified so far in mammals that produce S1P by ATP-dependent phosphorylation of sphingosine, have therefore received considerable interest.

# Sphingolipid metabolism
Sphingolipids are ubiquitous membrane constituents of all eukaryotic cells. In general, the term sphingolipid (SL) refers to any of a number of lipids consisting of a head group attached to the 1-OH of ceramide (Cer). Ceramides consist of a sphingoid base, commonly referred to as a long-chain base (LCB), which is N-acylated. De novo synthesis of LCBs begins with the condensation of palmitoyl CoA with serine, forming 3-ketosphinganine (Fig. 1). This product is then reduced to sphinganine, also known as dihydrosphingosine (dihydro-Sph; 2-amino-l,3-dihydroxy-octadecane). A 14 to 26-carbon fatty acid chain is then added in an amide linkage with the 2-amino group, forming dihydroceramide (dihydro-Cer). A head group, such as phosphocholine or a carbohydrate, can now be added to the 1-OH, forming a sphingolipid, although most sphingolipids of higher eukaryotes contain further modifications of the LCB.

# Popular culture
During "100,000 Airplanes", a third season episode of The West Wing, sphingosine kinase is fictitiously described as "the enzyme believed to control all signal pathways to cancer growth." Learning of it inspires the protagonist of the series, President Josiah Bartlet, to consider launching an Apollo program to cure cancer.
Spindle checkpoint
The spindle checkpoint also called Mitotic checkpoint or M Phase cell cycle checkpoint, is a cell cycle checkpoint that blocks the entry of a cell undergoing mitosis into anaphase until all chromosomes are properly attached to the meiotic or mitotic spindle.  To achieve proper segregation, the two kinetochores on the sister chromatids must be attached to opposite spindle poles.  Only this pattern of attachment will ensure that each daughter cell receives one copy of the chromosome.
The spindle checkpoint is an active signal produced by improperly attached kinetochores.  Unattached kinetochores trigger the spindle checkpoint.  When sister kinetochores are properly attached to opposite spindle poles, forces in the mitotic spindle generate tension at the kinetochores.  Kinetochores that are attached to the mitotic spindle but that are not under tension also trigger the spindle checkpoint.  The mechanism by which kinetochores detect attachment and tension is unclear.
The spindle checkpoint blocks anaphase entry by inhibiting the anaphase-promoting complex.
Standard of living
The standard of living refers to the quality and quantity of goods and services available to people, and the way these goods and services are distributed within a population.  It is generally measured by standards such as income inequality, poverty rate, real (i.e. inflation adjusted) income per person. Other measures such as access and quality of health care, educational standards and social rights are often used as well. Examples are access to certain goods (such as number of refrigerators per 1000 people), or measures of health such as life desires. It is the ease by which people living in a time or place are able to satisfy their wants.
The idea of a 'standard' may be contrasted with the quality of life, which takes into account not only the material standard of living, but also other more intangible aspects that make up to human life, such as leisure, safety, cultural resources, social life, mental health, environmental quality issues etc.  More complex means of measuring well-being must be employed to make such judgments, and these are very often political, thus controversial. Even among two nations or societies that have similar material standards of living, quality of life factors may in fact make one of these places more attractive to a given individual or group.
However, there can be problems even with just using numerical averages to compare material standards of living, as opposed to, for instance, a Pareto index (a measure of the breadth of income or wealth distribution).  Standards of living are perhaps inherently subjective.  As an example, countries with a very small, very rich upper class and a very large, very poor lower class may have a high mean level of income, even though the majority of people have a low "standard of living".  This mirrors the problem of poverty measurement, which also tends towards the relative. This illustrates how distribution of income can disguise the actual Standard of living.
There are many factors being considered before measuring standard of living.  Some factors are gross domestic product, the per capita income, population, infrastructural development, stability (political and social), and many other indicators.
Stationary process
In the mathematical sciences, a stationary process (or strict(ly) stationary process or strong(ly) stationary process) is a stochastic process whose joint probability distribution does not change when shifted in time or space. As a result, parameters such as the mean and variance, if they exist, also do not change over time or position.
Stationarity is used as a tool in time series analysis, where the raw data are often transformed to become stationary, for example, economic data are often seasonal and/or dependent on the price level.  Processes are described as trend stationary if they are a linear combination of a stationary process and one or more processes exhibiting a trend.  Transforming this data to leave a stationary data set for analysis is referred to as de-trending.

# Definition
Formally, let X_t be a stochastic process and let F_{X_{t_1},\ldots, X_{t_k}}(x_{t_1}, \ldots, x_{t_k}) represent the cumulative distribution function of the joint distribution of X_t at times t_1, \ldots, t_k. Then, X_t is said to be stationary if, for all k, for all \tau, and for all t_1, \ldots, t_k,

# Examples
As an example, white noise is stationary. However, the sound of a cymbal crashing is not stationary because the acoustic power of the crash (and hence its variance) diminishes with time.
An example of a discrete-time stationary process where the sample space is also discrete (so that the random variable may take one of N possible values) is a Bernoulli scheme. Other examples of a discrete-time stationary process include autoregressive and moving average signals.

# Weak or wide-sense stationarity
A weaker form of stationarity commonly employed in signal processing is known as weak-sense stationarity, wide-sense stationarity (WSS), second-order stationarity or covariance stationarity. WSS random processes only require that 1st and 2nd moments do not vary with respect to time. Any strictly stationary process which has a mean and a covariance is also WSS.
So, a continuous-time random process x(t) which is WSS has the following restrictions on its mean function
and correlation function
The first property implies that the mean function mx(t) must be constant. The second property implies that the correlation function depends only on the difference between t_1 and t_2 and only needs to be indexed by one variable rather than two variables. Thus, instead of writing,
we usually abbreviate the notation and write
When processing WSS random signals with linear, time-invariant (LTI) filters, it is helpful to think of the correlation function as a linear operator. Since it is a circulant operator (depends only on the difference between the two arguments), its eigenfunctions are the Fourier complex exponentials. Additionally, since the eigenfunctions of LTI operators are also complex exponentials, LTI processing of WSS random signals is highly tractableall computations can be performed in the frequency domain. Thus, the WSS assumption is widely employed in signal processing algorithms.