Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Camazepam

# Overview
Camazepam is a benzodiazepine psychoactive drug, marketed under the brand names Albego, Limpidon and Paxor. It is the dimethyl carbamate ester of temazepam, a metabolite of diazepam. While it possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, skeletal muscle relaxant and hypnotic properties it differs from other benzodiazepines in that its anxiolytic properties are particularly prominent but has comparatively limited anticonvulsant, hypnotic and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.

# Pharmacology
Camazepam, like others benzodiazepines, produce a variety of therapeutic and adverse effects by binding to the benzodiazepine receptor site on the GABAA receptor and modulating the function of the GABA receptor, the most prolific inhibitory receptor within the brain. The GABA chemical and receptor system mediates inhibitory or calming effects of camazepam on the nervous system.
Compared to other benzodiazepines, it has reduced side effects such as impaired cognition, reaction times and coordination. which makes it best suited as an anxiolytic because of these reduced sides effects.
Animal studies have shown camazepam and its active metabolites possess anticonvulsant properties.
Unlike other benzodiazepines it does not disrupt normal sleep patterns. Camazepam has been shown in animal experiments to have a very low affinity for benzodiazepine receptors compared to other benzodiazepines. Compared to temazepam, camazepam has shown roughly equal anxiolytic properties, and less anticonvulsant, sedative and motor-impairing properties.

# Pharmacokinetics
Following oral administration, camazepam is almost completely absorbed into the bloodstream, with 90 percent bioavailability achieved in humans. 
In the human camazepam is metabolised into the active metabolite temazepam. Studies in dogs have shown that the half-life of the terminal elimination phase ranged from 6.4 to 10.5 h.

# Medical uses
Camazepam is indicated for the short-term treatment of insomnia and anxiety. As with other benzodiazepines, its use should be reserved for those patients in which the sleep disorder is severe, disabling or causes marked distress.

# Adverse effects
With higher doses such as 40 mg of camazepam, impairments similar to those caused by other benzodiazepines manifest as disrupted sleep patterns and impaired cognitive performance.  Skin disorders have been reported with use of camazepam however. Camazepam is believed to increase attention.

# Contraindications
Use of camazepam is contraindicated in subjects with known hypersensitivity to drug or allergy to other drugs in the benzodiazepine class or any excipients contained in the pharmaceutical form.
Use of camazepam should be avoided or carefully monitored by medical professionals in individuals with the following conditions: myasthenia gravis, severe liver deficiencies (e.g., cirrhosis), severe sleep apnea, pre-existing respiratory depression or cronic pulmonary insufficiency.
Cand.med.
Candidatus medicin (male), Candidata medicin (female), abbreviated cand. med. is a academic degree awarded in Denmark and Norway following a six year medical school education. The education is offered at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, University of Bergen, University of Oslo and University of Troms.
Following the education, candidates are permitted to work as rotation doctor, first at a hospital for one year and then six months as a general practitioner. After the rotation service, the candidate may receive formal qualifications as a medical doctor.
The first Norwegian to receive this degree was Carl Schultz in 1817. Along with the cand. med. vet., cand. psychol. and cand. theol. it is the only Latin title to survive the "Quality Reform" in Norway.
no:Candidatus medicin
Carbenoid
In chemistry a carbenoid is a reactive intermediate that shares reaction characteristics with a carbene . In the Simmons-Smith reaction the carbenoid intermediate is a zinc / iodine complex that takes the form of
This complex reacts with an alkene to form a cyclopropane just as a carbene would do.
Carbenoids appear as intermediates in many other reactions. In one system a carbenoid chloroalkyllithium reagent is prepared in situ from a sulfoxide and t-BuLi which reacts by an insertion reaction into the C-B bond of a pinacol boronic ester .
The enantiopurity of the chiral sulfoxide is preserved in the ultimate product after oxidation of the boronic ester to the alcohol indicating that a true carbene was never involved in the sequence.
Carbon-12
Carbon-12 is the most abundant of the two stable isotopes of the element carbon, accounting for 98.89% of carbon; it contains 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons.
Carbon-12 is of particular importance as it is used as the standard from which  atomic masses of all nuclides are measured: its mass number is by definition 12.

# History
Prior to 1959 both the IUPAP and IUPAC tended to use oxygen to define the mole, the chemists defining the mole as the number of atoms of oxygen which had mass 16 g, the physicists using a similar definition but with the oxygen-16 isotope only. The two organizations agreed in 1959/1960 to define the mole as:
This was adopted by the CIPM (International Committee for Weights and Measures) in 1967, and in 1971 it was adopted by the 14th CGPM (General Conference on Weights and Measures).
In 1980 the CIPM clarified the above definition, defining that the carbon-12 atoms are unbound and in their ground state.
Carbon-13

# Detection by NMR spectroscopy
Because of its nuclear spin properties, this isotope responds to a resonant radio frequency (RF) signal. The absorption and emission of the RF signal by the nuclei can be monitored and detected using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy. This is a technique that gives information on the identity and number of atoms adjacent to other atoms in said molecule, thereby giving clues to the structure of an organic molecule.  Since 12C has zero spin, it does not give an NMR signal, and since only 1% of the atoms in a molecule are 13C, it is unlikely that carbon-carbon coupling is seen. Acquiring a 13C NMR spectrum can take from a couple of minutes to hours because many scans have to be summed together in order to have results distinguishable from background noise.
In biological NMR proteins can be deliberately labelled with 13C (and usually nitrogen-15) to facilitate structure determination. This is achieved by growing microorganisms genetically engineered to express the protein on a growth medium with 13C labeled glucose as the only carbon source. In this way proteins with a 13C content of almost 100% can be produced.

# Detection by mass spectroscopy
A mass spectrogram of an organic compound will usually contain a small peak of one mass unit greater than the apparent molecular ion peak (M). This is known as the M+1 peak and originates due to the presence of 13C atoms. A molecule containing one carbon atom will be expected to have an M+1 peak of approximately 1.1% of the size of the M peak as 1.1% of the carbon atoms will be 13C rather than 12C. Similarly a molecule containing two carbon atoms will be expected to have an M+1 peak of approximately 2.2% of the size of the M peak, as there is double the previous likelihood that a molecule will contain a 13C atom.
In the above the mathematics and chemistry have been simplified, however it can be used effectively to give the number of carbon atoms for small to medium sized organic molecules. In the following formula the result should be rounded to the nearest integer:
C = \frac{100Y}{1.1X}
C = number of C atoms   X = amplitude of the M ion peak   Y = amplitude of the M+1 ion peak
13C-enriched compounds are used in the research of metabolic processes by means of mass spectroscopy. Such compounds are safe because they are non-radioactive. In addition, 13C is used to quantitate proteins (quantitative proteomics). One important application is `stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture  (SILAC).
Sestamibi

# Overview
Sestamibi is a radiopharmaceutical used in nuclear medicine imaging. It is also known as methoxyisobutylisonitrile or MIBI. The radioisotope attached to the sestamibi molecule is technetium-99m, forming 99Tcm-sestamibi (or Tc99m MIBI).

# Uses
Its main use is for imaging the myocardium (heart muscle). It is also used in the work-up of primary hyperparathyroidism to identify parathyroid adenomas, for radioguided surgery of the parathyroid and in the work-up of possible breast malignancies.

## Cardiac imaging
Technetium-99m sestamibi is a lipophilic cation which, when injected intravenously into a patient, distributes in the myocardium proportionally to the myocardial blood flow. As opposed to Thallium-201, MIBI does not undergo significant redistribution. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging of the heart is performed using a gamma camera to detect the gamma rays emitted by the technetium-99m sestamibi as it decays. Two sets of images are acquired. For one set, the Tc99m MIBI is injected whilst the patient is at rest and then the myocardium is imaged. In the second set, the patient is stressed either by exercising on a treadmill or pharmacologically. The Tc99m MIBI is injected at peak stress and then imaging is performed . The resulting two sets of images are compared with each other to distinguish ischaemic from infarcted areas of the myocardium. This imaging technique is also known as myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI).

## Parathyroid imaging
In hyperparathyroidism, one or more of the four parathyroid glands have developed a benign tumor called an adenoma. The affected gland takes up Tc99m MIBI following an intravenous injection. The patient's neck is imaged with a gamma camera to show the tumor.

## Breast imaging
Tc99m MIBI is also used in the evaluation of breast nodules. Malignant breast tissues concentrate MIBI to a much greater extent and more frequently than benign disease. As such, limited characterization of breast anomalies is possible. Scintimammography has the highest specificity for breast cancer of any imaging test, but its sensitivity is too low to allow for routine use.

## Radioguided surgery of the parathyroids
Following the administration of Tc99m MIBI it collects in overactive parathyroid glands. During surgery, the surgeon can use a probe sensitive to gamma rays to locate the overactive parathyroid before removing it.
Carnosine
Carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine) is a dipeptide of the amino acids beta-alanine and histidine. It is highly concentrated in muscle and brain tissues.
A small 2002 study reported that carnosine improved on a measure of socialization and receptive vocabulary in children with autism. Improvement in this study could have been due to maturation, educational interventions, placebo effect, or other confounds that were not addressed in the study design. Supplemental carnosine may increase corticosterone levels, which can explain the hyperactivity sometimes seen in high doses. Researchers in Australia, Britain, and Russia have also shown that carnosine has a number of antioxidant properties that may be beneficial.
Carnosine has been proven to scavenge ROS (radical oxygen species) as well as alpha-beta unsaturated aldehydes formed from peroxidation of cell membrane fatty acids during oxidative stress. It can oppose glycation and it can chelate divalent metal ions.
While a small number of studies have produced evidence of beneficial effects of N-acetyl carnosine in treating cataracts of the eyes, these and other ophthamological benefits have not been proven. Britain's  Royal College of Ophthamologists assert that neither safety nor efficacy have been sufficiently demonstrated to recommend its use as a topical treatment for cataracts.
Typical vegetarian diets are thought to be lacking in carnosine, but whether this has a detrimental effect on vegetarians is controversial.
Safflower
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L. ) is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual, usually with many long sharp spines on the leaves. Plants are 30 to 150 cm tall with globular flower heads (capitula) and commonly, brilliant yellow, orange or red flowers which bloom in July.  Each branch will usually have from one to five flower heads containing 15 to 20 seeds per head. Safflower has a strong taproot which enables it to thrive in dry climates, but the plant is very susceptible to frost injury from stem elongation to maturity.

# Uses
Traditionally, the crop was grown for its seeds, and used for colouring and flavouring foods and making red (carthamin) and yellow dyes, especially before cheaper aniline dyes became available, and in medicines. For the last fifty years or so, the plant has been cultivated mainly for the vegetable oil extracted from its seeds. In April 2007 it was reported that genetically modified safflower has been bred to create insulin.
Safflower oil is flavorless and colorless, and nutritionally similar to sunflower oil. It is used mainly as a cooking oil, in salad dressing, and for the production of margarine. It may also be taken as a nutritional supplement. INCI nomenclature is Carthamus tinctorius.
Safflower flowers are occasionally used in cooking as a cheaper substitute for saffron, and are thus sometimes referred to as "bastard saffron."  Safflower seed is also used quite commonly as an alternative to sunflower seed in birdfeeders, as squirrels do not like the taste of it.
There are two types of safflower that produce different kinds of oil: one high in monounsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid) and the other high in polyunsaturated fatty acid (linoleic acid). Currently the predominant oil market is for the former, which is lower in saturates than olive oil, for example.
Safflower oil is also used in painting in the place of linseed oil, particularly with white, as it does not have the yellow tint which linseed oil possesses.
Lana is a strain of Safflower that grows in the southwestern United States, most notably Arizona and New Mexico.

# History
Safflower is one of humanity's oldest crops. Chemical analysis of ancient Egyptian textiles dated to the Twelfth dynasty identified dyes made from safflower, and garlands made from safflowers were found in the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamun. John Chadwick reports that the Greek name for safflower occurs many times in Linear B tablets, distinguished into two kinds: a white safflower, which is measured, and red which is weighed. "The explanation is that there are two parts of the plant which can be used; the pale seeds and the red florets."
Safflower was also known as carthamine in the 19th century. It is a minor crop today, with about 600,000 tons being produced commercially in more than sixty countries worldwide. India,  United States, and Mexico are the leading producers, with Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, China, Argentina and Australia accounting for most of the remainder.

# Diseases
Castoreum
Castoreum is the name given to the exudate from the castor sacs of the mature North American Beaver Castor canadensis and the European Beaver, Castor fiber. Within the zoological realm, castoreum is the yellowish secretion of the castor sac in combination with the beaver's urine, used during scent marking of territory. Both male and female beavers possess a pair of castor sacs and a pair of anal glands located in two cavities under the skin between the pelvis and the base of the tail. The castor sacs are not true glands (endocrine or exocrine) on a cellular level, hence references to these structures as preputial glands or castor glands are misnomers.
Today, it is used in trapping, as a tincture in some perfumes, or touted as an aphrodisiac.

# Castoreum in Perfume
In perfume-making, the term castoreum is more liberally applied to denote the resinoid extract resulting from the dried and alcohol tinctured beaver castor (www.hyraceum.com). The dried beaver castor sacs are generally aged for two or more years to mellow and for their raw harshness to dissipate. In perfumery, castoreum has largely been used as an animalic note suggesting leather, compounded with other ingredients including top, middle, and base notes as a composition. Some classic perfumes incorporating castor are Emeraude, Coty Chanel Cuir de Russie, Magie Noire, Lancome Caractere, Hechter Madame, Carven, Givenchy III, Shalimar, and many "leather" themed compositions. Twenty four compounds known to be constituents of beaver castoreum were individually screened for pheremonal activity. These are the phenols 4-ethylphenol and 1,2-dihydroxybenzene and the ketones acetophenone and 3-hydroxyacetophenone.  Five additional compounds noted are 4-methyl-1,2-dihydroxybenzene, 4-methoxyacetophenone, 5-methoxysalicylic acid, salicylaldehyde, and 3-hydroxybenzoic acid.

# Medicinal Use of Castoreum
Although modern medical use of castoreum is rare, the dried pair of scent glands (the "castors") may still be worth more than a beaver pelt itself. Castoreum appeared in the materia medica until the 1700s, used to treat many different ailments, including headache, fever, and hysteria. The Romans believed the fumes produced by burning castoreum could induce an abortion; Paracelsus thought it could be used in the treatment of epilepsy; and medieval beekeepers used it to increase honey production.
Castoreum, an anal gland secretion, appears to be used by beavers to mark their territory.
Castoreum is also used in small amounts to contribute to the flavor and odor of cigarettes.
Catalepsy
Catalepsy is a condition characterized by muscular rigidity, fixity of posture and decreased sensitivity to pain.
Professionals once believed this disorder was the result of (controllable) mental states that had no basis in physiology. Researchers now know, however, that catalepsy does not appear of  its own accord; instead, it often manifests as one in a constellation of symptoms caused by disorders that have physical causes. Catalepsy can be produced by conditions as varied as Parkinson's disease and epilepsy, for example. Catalepsy is also a characteristic symptom of cocaine withdrawal, and schizophrenia treatment with typical anti-psychotics.
Symptoms include: rigid body, rigid limbs, limbs staying in same position when moved, no response, loss of muscle control, and slowing down of bodily functions, such as breathing.
In some cases, isolated cataleptic instances can also be precipitated by extreme emotional shock.
Catalepsy is also a term used by hypnotists to refer to the state of making a hypnotised subject's arm, leg or back rigid. "Arm catalepsy" is often a pre-hypnotic test performed prior to an induction into a full trance.

# Literary depictions
In Alexander Dumas' novel The Count of Monte Cristo, the Abbe Faria suffered from fits of Catalepsy from time to time.
In George Eliot's novel Silas Marner, the main character Silas Marner frequently suffers from catalepsic fits and seizures. It is not mentioned if they are caused by any of the aforementioned factors.
In Edgar Allan Poe's The Premature Burial, the narrator suffers from catalepsy. He fears being mistakenly declared dead and buried alive, and goes to great lengths to prevent this.
In Edgar Allan Poe's Fall of the House of Usher, Madeline Usher suffers from catalepsy. She is buried alive by her unstable brother Rodderick.
In Arthur Conan Doyle's The Resident Patient, a doctor attempts to treat catalepsy with amyl nitrite
Cathartic

# Overview
In medicine, a cathartic is a substance which accelerates defecation.
This is in contrast to a laxative, which is a substance which eases defecation, usually by softening the stool. It is possible for a substance to be both a laxative and a cathartic. However, agents such as psyllium seed husks increase the bulk of the stool.
Cathartics such as sorbitol are sometimes used in response to poisoning.
As an adjective, cathartic means psychotherapeutic, healthful, emotionally beneficial; releasing; emotionally purging: viewing art or listening to music may be a kind of cathartic experience.
In general cathartics are;
- causing emptying of the bowels.
- an agent that empties the bowels.
- producing emotional catharsis.
- bulk cathartic  one stimulating bowel evacuation by increasing fecal volume.
- lubricant cathartic  one that acts by softening the feces and reducing friction between them and the intestinal wall.
- saline cathartic  one that increases fluidity of intestinal contents by retention of water by osmotic forces and indirectly increases motor activity.
- stimulant cathartic  one that directly increases motor activity of the intestinal tract.
Corrosive
A corrosive substance is one that will destroy or irreversibly damage another substance with which it comes in contact. The main hazards to people include damage to eyes, skin and tissue under the skin, but inhalation or ingestion of a corrosive substance can damage the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts.
A low concentration of a corrosive substance is usually an irritant. Corrosion of non-living surfaces such as metals is a distinct process. For example, a water/air electrochemical cell corrodes iron to rust. In the Globally Harmonized System, both rapid corrosion of metals and chemical corrosion of skin qualify for the "corrosive" symbol.
Common corrosives are strong acids and strong bases, or concentrated solutions of certain weak acids and weak bases. Their action on living tissue is based on acid-base catalysis of ester and amide hydrolysis. Both corrosive acids and corrosive bases are able to defat skin by catalyzing the hydrolysis of fats, which are chemically esters). Proteins are chemically amides, which can also be hydrolyzed by acid-base catalysis. Strong acids and bases denature proteins  and also hydrate easily.  Hydration removes water from the tissue and is significantly exothermic. For example, concentrated sulfuric acid causes thermal burns in addition to chemical burns.
There are also more specific corrosives. Hydrofluoric acid, for example, is initially painless but easily permeates tissue to selectively attack bone. Although zinc chloride solutions are also regularly acidic (by the Brnsted definition), the zinc cation also specifically attacks hydroxyl groups as a Lewis acid. This explains the ability of zinc chloride solutions to react with cellulose and corrode through paper and silk.
The word 'corrosion' is derived from the latin verb corrode which means 'to gnaw' indicating how these substance seem to 'gnaw' their way through the flesh.

# Corrosive substances
Common corrosive chemicals are classified into:
- Acids
- Strong acids  the most common are sulfuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (H2SO4, HNO3 and HCl, respectively).
- Some concentrated weak acids, for example acetic acid
- Solutions of Lewis acids with specific reactivity, e.g. solutions of zinc chloride
- Bases
- Caustics or alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH)
- Alkali metals in the metallic form (e.g. elemental sodium) and hydrides of alkali and alkaline earth metals hydrate to give caustics
- Some concentrated weak bases, such as ammonia when anhydrous or in a concentrated solution
- Dehydrating agents such as phosphorus pentoxide, calcium oxide, anhydrous zinc chloride, also elemental alkali metals
- Electrophilic halogens: elemental fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, and electrophilic salts such as sodium hypochlorite or N-chloro compounds such as chloramine-T; halide ions are not corrosive
- Organic halides and organic acid halides such as acetyl chloride and benzyl chloroformate
- Acid anhydrides
- Some organic materials such as phenol ("carbolic acid")
- Extremely electrophilic reagents such as dimethyl sulfate