Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Albert Hyman
Albert S. Hyman, (1893 - 1972), a New York cardiologist, together with his brother Charles, constructed in 1930-1932 an electro-mechanical device which was one of the earliest artificial pacemakers. The device was, reportedly, tested on experiment animals and at least one human patient.
The first artificial pacemaker was invented by Australian anaesthesiologist Dr Mark C Lidwell, and was used by him to resuscitate a newborn baby at the Crown Street Women's Hospital, Sydney, in 1926. However it was Hyman who used and popularised the term "artificial pacemaker", which remains in use to this day.
Lidwell did not patent his invention and chose to remain anonymous for many years to avoid public controversy, and Hyman's machine did not gain general acceptance from the medical community, which opposed him in his attempts to popularise the use of his version of the invention.
Alfacalcidol

# Overview
Alfacalcidol (or 1-hydroxycholecalciferol) is an analogue of vitamin D used for supplementation in humans and as a poultry feed additive.
Alfacalcidol has a weaker impact on calcium metabolism and parathyroid hormone levels than calcitriol, however alfacalcidiol has significant effects on the immune system, including regulatory T cells. It is considered to be a more useful form of vitamin D supplementation, mostly due to much longer half-life and lower kidney load. It is the most commonly prescribed vitamin D metabolite for patients with end stage renal disease, given that impaired renal function alters the ability to carry out the second hydroxylation step required for the formation of the physiologically active form of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Alfacalcidol is an active vitamin D3 metabolite, and therefore does not require the second hydroxylation step in the kidney. 
Used as a poultry feed additive, it prevents tibial dyschondroplasia and increases phytate bioavailability.OR
Alginic acid

# Overview
Alginic acid (algine, alginate) is a viscous gum that is abundant in the cell walls of brown algae.

# Structure
Chemically, it is a linear copolymer with homopolymeric blocks of (1-4)-linked -D-mannuronate (M) and its C-5 epimer -L-guluronate (G) residues, respectively, covalently linked together in different sequences or blocks.
The monomers can appear in homopolymeric blocks of consecutive G-residues (G-blocks), consecutive M-residues (M-blocks), alternating M and G-residues (MG-blocks) or randomly organized blocks.

# Forms
Commercial varieties of alginate are extracted from seaweed, including the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, Ascophyllum nodosum and various types of Laminaria.
Alginate absorbs water quickly, which makes it useful as an additive in dehydrated products such as slimming aids, and in the manufacture of paper and textiles.  It is also used for waterproofing and fireproofing fabrics, as a gelling agent, for thickening drinks, ice cream and cosmetics, and as a detoxifier that can absorb poisonous metals from the blood. Alginate is also produced by certain bacteria, notably Azotobacter species.
Alginate ranges from white to yellowish brown, and takes filamentous, grainy, granular, and powdered forms. It is insoluble in water and organic solvents, and dissolves slowly in basic solutions of sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide and trisodium phosphate.

# Uses
Alginate is used in various pharmaceuticals preparations such as Gaviscon, Bisodol, Asilone. Alginate is used extensively as a mold-making material in dentistry, prosthetics, lifecasting, and in textiles. It is also used in the food industry, for thickening soups and jellies. Calcium alginate is used in different types of medical products, including burn dressings that promote healing and which can be removed with less pain than conventional dressings.
Also, due to alginate's biocompatibility and simple gelation with divalent cations such as Ca 2+, it is widely used for cell immobilization and encapsulation.
Alginic acid (alginato) is also used in culinary arts, most notably in the "Esferificacion" (Sphereification) techniques of Ferran Adria of Barcelona's El Bulli, in which natural juices of fruits and vegetables are encapsulated in bubbles that "explode" on the tongue when consumed.
Algor mortis
Algor mortis (Latin: algorcoolness; mortisof death) is the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature, although external factors can have a significant influence.
A measured rectal temperature can give some indication of the time of death. Although the heat conduction which leads to body cooling follows an exponential decay curve, it can be approximated as a linear process: between 1 and 1.5 Fahrenheit per hour until the body nears ambient temperature.
The Glaister equation , for example, is (98.4 F  rectal temperature) / 1.5, giving hours elapsed since death.
As decomposition occurs the internal body temperature tends to rise again.
Ali Haghighi
Dr. Ali Haghighi is a biochemist with Natural Balance Pet Foods in Pacoima, California. Dr. Haghighi received his Ph.D. in biochemistry at Cleveland State University.

# Career
Dr. Haghighi developed an ELISA-based diagnostic assay for Polygenetics, Inc. of Mountain View, California using Cavilink polymers. These polymers have cavities ranging in size from 1 to over 30 micrometers. Spheres can be custom manufactured with a wide variety of monomers including styrenes, methacrylates, acrylamides and many others.
Haghighi also teaches medical assistant certification for the State of California. Haghighi is also a professor of sciences in surgical technology as well as a criminalist for the California Department of Justice.
Haghighi was brought to Natural Balance in the wake of the 2007 pet food recalls involving products made by Menu Foods totaling over 50 brands. Natural Balance issued a voluntary nationwide recall for foods containing venison, brown rice, green pea canned chicken, lamb, beef, and fish stating that "some production batches of these products may contain melamine."
Allen's test
Synonyms and keywords: Allen test

# Overview
In medicine, Allen's test, is used to test blood supply to the hand. It is performed prior to radial arterial blood sampling or cannulation.

# Historical Perspective
It is named after Edgar Van Nuys Allen.

# The Allen's Test
- The hand is elevated and the patient/person is asked to make a fist for about 30 secs.
- Pressure is applied over the ulnar and the radial arteries so as to occlude both of them.
- Still elevated, the hand is then opened. It should appear blanched (pallor can be observed at the finger nails).
- Ulnar pressure is released and the color should return in 7 secs.
Inference: Ulnar artery supply to the hand is sufficient and it is safe to cannulate/prick the radial.
If color does not return or returns after 7 seconds, then the ulnar artery supply to the hand is not sufficient and the radial artery therefore cannot be safely pricked/cannulated.

# Anatomical Basis
The hand is normally supplied by blood from the ulnar and radial arteries. The arteries undergo anastomosis in the hand. Thus, if the blood supply from one of the arteries is cut off, the other artery can supply adequate blood to the hand. A minority of people lack this dual blood supply.

# Significance
An uncommon complication of radial arterial blood sampling / cannulation is disruption of the artery (obstruction by clot), placing the hand at risk of ischemia. Those people who lack the dual supply are at much greater risk of ischemia. The risk can be reduced by performing Allen's test beforehand. People who have a single blood supply in one hand often have a dual supply in the other, allowing the practitioner to take blood from the side with dual supply.
The utility of the Allen's test is questionable, and no direct correlation with reduced ischemic complications of radial artery cannulation have ever been proven.  In 1983, Slogoff and colleagues reviewed 1,782 radial artery cannulations and found that 25% of them resulted in complete radial artery occlusion, without apparent adverse effects.  A number of reports have been published in which permanent ischemic sequelae occurred even in the presence of a normal Allen's test.  In addition, the results of Allen's tests do not appear to correlate with  distal blood flow as demonstrated by fluorescein dye injections or photoplethysmography.
Modifications to the test have been proposed to improve reliability.
Allylprodine
Allylprodine is an opioid analgesic that is an analogue of prodine. It was developed in the 1970s during research into the related drug pethidine.
Allylprodine is more potent as an analgesic than other similar drugs such as -prodine, due to the allyl group binding to an additional amino acid target in the binding site on the -opioid receptor. It is also stereoselective, with one isomer being much more active.
Allylprodine produces similar effects to other opioids, such as analgesia and sedation, along with side effects such as nausea, itching, vomiting and respiratory depression which may be harmful or fatal.
alpha-Pinene
-Pinene is an organic compound of the terpene class, one of two isomers of pinene.  It is an alkene and it contains a reactive four-membered ring.  It is found in the oils of many species of many coniferous trees, notably the pine.  It is also found in the essential oil of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis).  Both enantiomers are known in nature; 1S,5S- or ()--pinene is more common in European pines, whereas the 1R,5R- or (+)--isomer is more common in North America.  The racemic mixture is present in some oils such as eucalyptus oil.

# Chemical properties

## General reactivity
The four-membered ring in -pinene 1 makes it a reactive hydrocarbon, prone to skeletal rearrangements such as the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement.  For example, attempts to perform hydration or hydrogen halide addition with the alkene functionality typically lead to rearranged products. of under acidic conditions.  With concentrated sulfuric acid and ethanol the major products are terpineol 2 and its ethyl ether 3, while glacial acetic acid gives the corresponding acetate ester 4. With dilute acids, terpin hydrate 5 becomes the major product.
With one molar equivalent of anhydrous HCl, the simple addition product 6a can be formed at low temperature in the presence of ether, but it is very unstable.  At normal temperatures, or if no ether is present, the major product is bornyl chloride 6b, along with a small amount of fenchyl chloride 6c.  For many years 6b (also called "artificial camphor") was referred to as "pinene hydrochloride", until it was confirmed as identical with bornyl chloride made from camphene.  If more HCl is used, achiral 7 (dipentene hydrochloride) is the major product along with some 6b.  Nitrosyl chloride followed by base leads to the oxime 8 which can be reduced to "pinylamine" 9.  Both 8 and 9 are stable compounds containing an intact four-membered ring, and these compounds helped greatly in identifying this important component of the pinene skeleton.
A variety of reagents such as iodine or PCl3 cause aromatisation, leading to p-cymene 10.
Some general reactions of alpha-pinene
Alpha carbon
The alpha carbon in organic chemistry refers to the first carbon after the carbon that attaches to the functional group (the carbon is attached at the first, or alpha, position). By extension, the second carbon is the "beta"-carbon,  and so on.  This nomenclature can also be applied to the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbons.  A hydrogen attached to an alpha carbon is called an "alpha-hydrogen" (-hydrogen), a hydrogen on the beta-carbon is a beta-hydrogen, and so on.
This naming standard is sometimes considered to be not in compliance with IUPAC nomenclature (which encourages that carbons be identified by number, not by Greek letter); but it nonetheless remains very popular, particularly because it is useful in identifying the relative location of carbons to other functional groups (often a carbonyl).
-carbon is also a term that applies to proteins and amino acids. It is the backbone carbon next to the carbonyl carbon. Therefore, reading along the backbone of a typical protein would give a sequence of carbonyl C, -C, N, carbonyl C, -C, N, and so on (when reading in the C to N direction). The -carbon is where the different substituents attach to each different amino acid. That is, the groups hanging off the chain at the -carbon are what give amino acids their diversity. These groups give the -carbon its stereogenic properties for every amino acid except for glycine. Therefore, the -carbon is a stereocenter for every amino acid except glycine.
The -carbon of an amino acid is significant in protein folding. When describing a protein (which is a chain of amino acids), one often approximates the location of each amino acid as the location of its -carbon. In general, -carbons of adjacent amino acids in a protein are about 3.8 angstroms (380 picometers) apart.
The -carbon is important for enol and enolate based carbonyl chemistry as well. Chemical transformations effected by the conversion to either an enolate or enol generally lead to the -carbon acting as a nucleophile becoming, for example, alkyated in the presence of primary haloalkane. An exception is in reaction with silyl- chlorides, -bromides, and -iodides, where the oxygen acts as the nucleophile to produce silyl enol ether.
In ketones (a type of carbonyl) with acidic alpha hydrogen atoms on either side of the carbonyl carbon, selectivity of deprotonation may be achieved under select conditions. At low temperatures (-78C, i.e. dry ice bath), in aprotic solvents, and with bulky non-equilibrating bases (e.g. LDA) the "kinetic" proton may be removed. The "kinetic" proton is the one which is sterically most accessible. Under thermodynamic conditions (warmer temperatures, weak base, and protic solvent) equilibrium is established between the ketone and the two possible enolates, the enolate favoured is termed the "thermodynamic" enolate and is favoured because of its lower energy level than the other possible enolate. Thus, by choosing the "correct" conditions to generate an enolate one can increase the yield of the desired product and minimize the formation of the undesired product.
Alpha effect
The alpha effect refers to the increased nucleophilicity of a molecule due to the presence of an adjacent (alpha) atom with lone pair electrons . The molecule does not necessarily exhibit increased basicity compared with a similar molecule without the adjacent, electron donating atom. The effect is well established with many theories to explain the effect but without a clear winner.  The effect was first observed by Jencks and Carriuolo in 1960   in a series of chemical kinetics experiments involving the reaction of the ester p-nitrophenyl acetate with a range of nucleophiles. Regular nucleophiles such as the fluoride anion, aniline, pyridine, ethylene diamine and the phenolate ion were found to have pseudo first order reaction rates corresponding to their basicity as measured by their pKa. Other nucleophiles however reacted much faster than was what to expected based on this criterium alone. These include the hypochlorite ion, ethanolamine and the hydroperoxide anion.
In 1962 Edwards and Pearson (the latter of HSAB theory fame) introduced the phrase alpha effect for this anomaly. he offered the suggestion that the effect was caused by a transition state (TS) stabilization effect: on entering the TS the free electron pair on the nucleophile moves away from the nucleus causing a partial positive charge which can be stabilized by an adjacent lone pair as for instance happens in any carbocation. 
Over the years many additional theories have been put forward attempting the effect. A ground state stabilizing effect assumes that the alpha lone-pair and nucleophilic electron pair destabilize each other by electronic repulsion thereby increasing the ground state and making it more reactive. Stabilization of the transition state is possible by assuming some TS free radical character or assuming that the TS has more advanced nucleophile-substrate bond formation. The polarizability of the nucleophile or involvement of intramolecular catalysis also plays a role. One recent in silico contribution did find a correlation between the alpha effect and the so-called deformation energy which is the electronic energy required to bring the two reactants together in the transition state. 
The alpha effect is also dependent on solvent but not in a predictable way: it can increase or decrease with solvent mix composition or even go through a maximum .
Alu sequence
An Alu sequence is a short stretch of DNA originally characterized by the action of the Alu restriction endonuclease.  Alu sequences of different kinds occur in large numbers in primate genomes. In fact, Alu sequences are the most abundant mobile elements in the human genome. They are derived from the small cytoplasmic 7SL RNA, a component of the signal recognition particle. The event, when a copy of the 7SL RNA became a precursor of the Alu sequence, took place in the genome of an ancestor of Supraprimates.
Alu insertions have been implicated in several inherited human diseases, including various forms of cancer, as discussed later in this article.
The study of Alu sequences has also been important in elucidating
human population genetics and the evolution of primates, including the evolution of humans.
The Alu endonuclease is so-named because it was isolated from Arthrobacter luteus.

# The Alu family
The Alu family is a family of polymorphisms in the Human genome. Alu sequences are about 300 base pairs long and are therefore classified as short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) amongst the class of repetitive DNA elements.
There are over one million Alu sequences interspersed throughout the human genome, and it is estimated that about 10% of the mass of the human genome consists of Alu sequences. However less than 0.5% are polymorphic 
The recognition sequence of the Alu endonuclease is 5' AG/CT 3'; that is, the enzyme splits the DNA segment between the guanine and cytosine residues.
Alu sequences are retrotransposons and look like DNA copies made from RNA polymerase III-encoded RNAs.
Alu sequences in primates form a fossil record that is relatively easy to decipher because Alu sequence insertion events have a characteristic signature that is both easy to read and faithfully recorded in the genome from generation to generation.  The study of Alu sequences thus reveals details of ancestry
because individuals will only share a particular Alu sequence insertion if they have a common sexual ancestor.
Most human Alu sequence insertions can be found in the corresponding positions in the genomes of other primates, but about 7,000 Alu insertions are unique to humans.
The sequence known as Alu PV92, located in Chromosome 16, can either be present or absent (although the majority of people don't have the sequence), leading to three different genotypes:
- Presence, Presence
- Presence, Absence
- Absence, Absence

# Alu insertions and human disease
Alu insertions are sometimes disruptive and can result in inherited disorders.However, most Alu insertions act like markers since they may segregate with a diseased allele, but the presence of the Alu does not mean that the person will definitely get the disease.
The first report of Alu-mediated recombination causing a prevalent,
inherited predisposition to cancer was a 1995 report 
about hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer .
In the review article referenced below , the authors
report that the following human diseases have been linked with Alu insertions:
- Breast cancer
- Ewing's sarcoma
- Familial hypercholesterolemia
- Hemophilia
- Neurofibromatosis
- Diabetes mellitus type II
Amdinocillin

# Overview
Mecillinam (INN) or amdinocillin (USAN) is an extended-spectrum penicillin antibiotic that binds specifically to penicillin binding protein 2 (PBP2), and is only considered to be active against Gram-negative bacteria. It is used primarily in the treatment of urinary tract infections, and has also been used to treat typhoid and paratyphoid fever. Because mecillinam has very low oral bioavailability, an orally active prodrug was developed: pivmecillinam. Neither drug is available in the United States.

# Medical uses
Mecillinam is used in the treatment of infections due to susceptible gram-negative bacteria, especially urinary tract infections which are most commonly caused by Escherichia coli. Mecillinam is active against most pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria, except Pseudomonas aeruginosa and some species of Proteus. Several studies have also found it to be as effective as other antibiotics for treating Staphylococcus saprophyticus infection, though it is Gram-positive, possibly because mecillinam reaches very high concentrations in urine.
Worldwide resistance to mecillinam in bacteria causing urinary tract infection has remained very low since its introduction; a 2003 study conducted in 16 European countries and Canada found resistance to range from 1.2% (Escherichia coli) to 5.2% (Proteus mirabilis). Another large study conducted in Europe and Brazil obtained similar results  95.9% of E. coli strains, for instance, were sensitive to mecillinam.

# Adverse effects
The adverse effect profile of mecillinam is similar to that of other penicillins. Its most common side effects are rash and gastrointestinal upset, including nausea and vomiting.

# History
With the codename FL 1060, mecillinam was developed by the Danish pharmaceutical company Leo Pharmaceutical Products (now LEO Pharma). It was first described in the scientific literature in a 1972 paper.
Ameloblastin
Ameloblastin (abbreviated AMBN and also known as Sheathlin or Amelin) is an enamel matrix protein that in humans is encoded by the AMBN gene.

# Function
Ameloblastin, also known as amelin, is a gene-specific protein found in tooth enamel. Although less than 5% of enamel consists of protein, ameloblastins comprise 510% of all enamel protein. This protein is formed by ameloblasts during the early secretory to late maturation stages of amelogenesis. Although not completely understood, the function of ameloblastins is believed to be in controlling the elongation of enamel crystals and generally directing enamel mineralization during tooth development.
Other significant proteins in enamel are amelogenins, enamelins, and tuftelins.
This gene encodes the nonamelogenin enamel matrix protein ameloblastin. The encoded protein may be important in enamel matrix formation and mineralization. This gene is located in the calcium-binding phosphoprotein gene cluster on chromosome 4. Mutations in this gene may be associated with dentinogenesis imperfecta and autosomal dominant amelogenesis imperfecta. .

# Clinical significance
Mutations in AMBN cause amelogenesis imperfecta.