Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Polysorbate 20
Polysorbate 20 (commercially also known as Tween 20) is a polysorbate surfactant whose stability and relative non-toxicity allows it to be used as a detergent and emulsifier in a number of domestic, scientific, and pharmacological applications.  It is a polyoxyethylene derivative of sorbitan monolaurate, and is distinguished from the other members in the Tween range by the length of the polyoxyethylene chain and the fatty acid ester moiety.  The commercial product contains a range of chemical species.

# Food applications
Tween is used as a wetting agent in flavored mouth drops such as Ice Drops, helping to provide the spreading feeling of the other ingredients like SD alcohol and mint flavor.
The World Health Organization has suggested acceptable daily intake limits of 0-25 mg of polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters per kg body weight.

# Biological applications
In the biological sciences, Tween 20 has a broad range of applications. For example, it is used:
- to stabilize purified protein derivative (PPD) solution used in skin testing for tuberculosis exposure
- as a blocking agent in immunoassays, such as Western blots and ELISAs.
- as a solubilizing agent of membrane proteins
- for lysing mammalian cells, at a concentration of 0.05% to 0.5% v/v.
- can be dissolved in Tris-Buffered Saline or Phosphate buffered saline at dilutions of 0.05% to 0.5% v/v and used as a washing solution for immunoassays.

# Pharmaceutical applications
Tween is used as in pharmaceutical applications to stabilize emulsions and suspensions.

# Industrial and domestic applications
The Clorox-made cleaning solution used by the iRobot Scooba floor-washing robot lists Tween 20 as one of its major ingredients on its MSDS.

# Data
Tween 20's cmc is 8.0410-5 M at 21C.
Popliteal vein
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# Overview
The popliteal vein course runs along side the popliteal artery but carries the blood from the knee joint and muscles in the thigh and calf back to the heart.
Its origin is defined by the junction of the posterior tibial vein and anterior tibial vein.
It drains the peroneal vein before reaching the knee joint and turns into the femoral vein when leaving the adductor canal (also known as Hunter's canal).
The popliteal artery extends from the femoral artery behind the popliteal fossa which is the space behind the knee.

# Additional images
- The small saphenous vein. Popliteal vein is labeled at top.
- The popliteal vein.
Rathke's pouch

# Overview
In embryogenesis, Rathke's pouch is a depression in the roof of the developing mouth in front of the buccopharyngeal membrane. It gives rise to the anterior pituitary, a part of the endocrine system.

# Development
The pouch eventually loses its connection with the pharynx giving rise to the anterior pituitary. The anterior wall of Rathke's pouch proliferates, filling most of the pouch to form pars distalis and pars tuberalis. The posterior wall forms pars intermedia.
In some organisms (humans being a notable exception), the proliferating anterior wall does not fully occupy Rathke's pouch, leaving a remnant (Rathke's cleft) between the pars distalis and pars intermedia.

# Clinical significance
Rathke's pouch may also persist as cysts (craniopharyngioma) within the pars intermedia.

# Eponym
It is named for Martin Rathke.
Prato reaction
The Prato reaction in fullerene chemistry describes the functionalization of fullerenes and nanotubes with azomethine ylides in a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition. The amino acid sarcosine reacts with paraformaldehyde when heated at reflux in toluene to an ylide which reacts with a double in a 6,6 ring position in a fullerene in a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition to yield a N-methylpyrrolidine derivative or pyrrolidinofullerene or pyrrolidino3,4:1,2 fullerene in 82% yield.
This method is also used in the functionalization of single wall nanotubes . When the amino acid is modified with a glycine chain the resulting nanotubes are soluble in common solvents such chloroform and acetone. Another characteristic of the treated nanotubes is their larger aggregate dimensions compared to untreated nanotubes.
Just as in other fullerene reactions like the Bingel reaction or Diels-Alder reactions this reaction can be reversed. A thermal retro-cycloaddition of a pyrrolidinofullerene with a strong dipolarophile such as maleic acid and a catalyst such as Wilkinson's catalyst or copper triflate in 1,2-dichlorobenzene at reflux 8 to 18 hours regenerates the pristine C60 fullerene . The dipolarophile is required in a 30 fold excess and traps the ylide driving the reaction to completion. The N-methyl-pyrrolidine derivative reacts poorly (5% yield) and for a successful reaction the nitrogen ring also requires substitution in the -position with methyl, phenyl or carboxylic ester groups.
In an alternative method a nanotube addition is performed with the N-oxide of trimethylamine and LDA  at reflux in tetrahydrofuran with an efficiency of 1 functional group in 16 nanotube carbon atoms. When the amine also carries an aromatic group such as pyrene the reaction takes place even at room temperature because this group preorganizes itself to the nanotube surface prior to reaction by pi stacking.
In one application a liquid fullerene is obtained when the pyrrolidone substituent is a 2,4,6-tris(alkyloxy)phenyl group  although a small amount of solvent is still required.
Propyl gallate
Propyl gallate, or propyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate is an ester formed by the condensation of gallic acid and propanol.  It is an antioxidant added to foods containing oils and fats to prevent oxidation.  As a food additive, it is used under the E number E310.

# Description
Propyl gallate is an anti-oxidant. It protects against oxidation by hydrogen peroxide and oxygen free radicals, in a catalytic manner similar to superoxide dismutase.

# Uses
Propyl gallate is used to protect oils and fats in products from oxidation.
It is used in foods, cosmetics, hair products, adhesives, and lubricants.
Protein THEMIS
Protein THEMIS is a protein that in humans is encoded by the THEMIS gene.

# Function
This protein plays a regulatory role in both positive and negative T cell selection during late thymocyte development. The protein functions through T-cell antigen receptor signaling, and is necessary for proper lineage commitment and maturation of T-cells.

# The name
THEMIS is an acronym for thymocyte-expressed-molecule. Themis is also the name of a Titan in Greek mythology who weighed the fates of humans, an apt choice since the protein is important in deciding the fate of the T cell during development.
Proxymetacaine

# Overview
Proxymetacaine (INN) or proparacaine (USAN) is a topical anesthetic drug of the aminoester group.

# Indications and usage
Proxymetacaine hydrochloride ophthalmic solution (eye drops) is indicated for procedures such as tonometry, gonioscopy, removal of foreign bodies, or other similar procedures requiring topical anesthesia of the cornea and conjunctiva.

# Warnings
Proxymetacaine is for topical ophthalmic use only, and it is specifically not intended for injection. Prolonged use of this or any other topical ocular anesthetic may produce permanent corneal opacification with accompanying visual loss.

# Mechanism of action
Proxymetacaine is believed to act as an antagonist on voltage-gated sodium channels to affect the permeability of neuronal membranes; how this inhibits pain sensations and the exact mechanism of action of proxymetacaine are, however, unknown.

# How supplied
Proxymetacaine is available as its hydrochloride salt in ophthalmic solutions at a concentration of 0.5%. Although it is no longer on patent, it is still marketed under the trade names Alcaine, Ak-Taine, and others.
Prunus spinosa
Prunus spinosa (Blackthorn) is a species of Prunus native to Europe, western Asia, and locally in northwest Africa.
It is a deciduous large shrub or small tree growing to 5 m tall, with blackish bark and dense, stiff, spiny branches. The leaves are oval, 24.5 cm long and 1.22 cm broad, with a serrated margin. The flowers are 1.5 cm diameter, with five slightly creamy-white petals; they are produced shortly before the leaves in early spring, and are hermaphroditic and insect-pollinated. The fruit, called a "sloe" (slae, in the Scots language) is a drupe 1012 mm diameter, black with a pale purple-blue waxy bloom, ripening in autumn; it is thin-fleshed, with a very strongly astringent flavour when fresh.
It is frequently confused with the related Prunus cerasifera, particularly in early spring when the latter starts flowering somewhat earlier than P. spinosa. They may be distinguished by flower colour, creamy white in P. spinosa, pure white in P. cerasifera. They can also be distinguished in winter by the more shrubby habit with stiffer, wider-angled branches of P. spinosa, and in summer by the relatively narrower leaves of P. spinosa, more than twice as long as broad.

# Ecology
The foliage is sometimes eaten by the larvae of Lepidoptera including Emperor Moth, Common Emerald, November Moth, Pale November Moth, Mottled Pug, Green Pug, Brimstone Moth, Feathered Thorn, Brown-tail, Yellow-tail, Short-cloaked Moth, Lesser Yellow Underwing, Lesser Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing, Double Square-spot and the Black and Brown Hairstreaks.

# Cultivation and uses
The fruit is similar to a small damson or plum, suitable for preserves, but too tart and astringent for eating, unless deeply frozen, as is practiced in eastern Europe. In rural Britain so-called sloe gin is made from them, though this is not a true gin but a liqueur. In Navarra, Spain, patxaran is a popular liqueur made with sloes. Sloes can also be made into jam and, if preserved in vinegar, are similar in taste to Japanese umeboshi.
It is extensively planted for hedging and for cover for game birds. The small thorns of the plant are relatively common causes of minor wounds in livestock, and these wounds often suppurate until the thorn is expelled or removed.
Straight blackthorn stems have traditionally been made into walking sticks, and in Ireland for making shillelaghs, a club-like weapon.
The species is locally naturalised in New Zealand and eastern North America.
A "sloe-thorn worm" used as fishing bait is mentioned in the 15th century work, The Treatyse of Fishing with an Angle, by Juliana Berners.
The expression "sloe-eyed" for a person with dark eyes comes from the fruit, and is first attested in A.J.Wilson's 1867 novel Vashti.
Pseudoaneurysm

# Overview
A pseudoaneurysm, also known as a false aneurysm, is an outpouching of a blood vessel involving a defect in the two innermost tissue layers (tunica intima and media). The outermost layer (adventia) may be intact, or alternatively, all three layers may be damaged, with bleeding contained by a blood clot or surrounding structures. True aneurysms in contrast, are vascular outpouchings containing all three tissue layers.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
Given the increase in invasive cardiac procedures, damage to all three layers is the more common source of pseudoaneurysm in modern medical settings. Damage to the two innermost layers is more commonly seen following trauma to a vessel. Femoral pseudoaneurysms may complicate up to 8% of vascular interventional procedures.

# Pseudoaneuryms of Structures other than Blood Vessels: Left Ventricular Pseudoaneurysms
A pseudoaneurysm may also occur in a chamber of the heart following myocardial damage due to ischemia or trauma. An pseudoaneurysm of the left ventricle is a potentially lethal complication from a heart attack. After a heart attack, the left ventricular wall of the heart, may rupture.
Although aneurysms and left ventricular aneurysms may involve any wall segment, aneurysms in the posterolateral wall are frequently due to pseudoaneurysms. In contrast, the most common location for a true left ventricular aneurysm involves the apex of the heart.

# Diagnosis
Patient #1: Gastroduodenal artery pseudoaneurysm
- Angiogram
- Post Embolization CT

## Ultrasound
- Yin-yang sign: Swirling blood flow pattern within a cystic structure.
- To-and-fro flow: to represents blood entering the pseudoaneurysm in systole and fro represents blood exiting the pseudoaneurysm during diastole.

# Treatment
Small pseudoaneurysms can spontaneously clot, while others need definitive treatment. Surgery is considered the gold-standard treatment, although is not without risk in patients with severe cardiovascular disease. Less invasive treatment options, such as Duplex ultrasound-guided compression and percutaneous thrombin injection are available, however, evidence of their efficacy is somewhat limited.

## Prevention
External compression, either manual or device usually do not prevent the pseudoaneurysm from forming once the tunica intima has been damaged.
Pseudodiarrhea
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Pseudodiarrhea, formerly known as hyperdefecation, is defined as increased stool frequency (more than three times daily) with a normal daily stool weight of less than 300 g (Fine and Schiller, 1999).
Pseudodiarrhea is often associated with rectal urgency and accompanies irritable bowel syndrome, hyperthyroidism, and anorectal disorders such as proctitis.  Patients with rectal obstruction (e.g., from fecal impaction, obstruction due to a vaginal pessary) may also present with pseudodiarrhea, since only liquid stool can make it through (Chou and Yu, 2003; Tatar and Trivedi, 2005).
Pseudodiarrhea may be more common than chronic diarrhea and should always be considered in patients complaining of chronic diarrhea.
Pulmonary mass

# Overview
Pulmonary mass (also known as lung mass) is generally defined as any area of pulmonary opacification that measures more than 30 mm in the lung. Pulmonary mass can be benign or malignant. On the other hand, pulmonary nodule is defined as a relatively well defined round or oval pulmonary parenchymal lesion equal or smaller than 30 mm in diameter. Pulmonary nodule can be classified into 2 categories: solitary or multiple.

# Classification
For more details about each specific type of condition, click on the links in blue in the algorithm below.
In order to distinguish pulmonary mass from solitary pulmonary nodule, click here.
Quintuple bond
A quintuple bond in chemistry is an unusual type of chemical bond first reported in 2005 for a dichromium compound. Single bonds, double bonds, and triple bonds are commonplace in chemistry. Quadruple bonds are rarer but occur especially for Cr, Mo, W, and Re, e.g. 4- and 2- .2  In a quintuple bond, 10 electrons participate in bonding between the two metal centers, allocated as 244. In some cases metal-metal bonding is facilitated by ligands that link the two metal centers and reduce the intermolecular distance.  In contrast, the chromium dimer with quintuple bonding is stabilized by bulky 2,6-phenyl ligands or simply terphenyl ligand. The species is stable up to 200 C. The chromium-chromium quintuple bond has been analyzed with multireference ab-initio and DFT methods , which were also used to elucidate the role of the terphenyl ligand, in which the flanking aryls were shown to interact very weakly with the chromium atoms, causing only a small weakening of the quintuple bond. A 2007 theoretical study identified two global minima for quintuple bonded RMMR compounds: a trans-bent molecular geometry and surprisingly another trans-bent geometry with the R substituent in a bridging position. 
Also in 2005, a quintuple bond was postulated to exist in the hypothetical uranium molecule U2 based on computational chemistry. Diuranium compounds are rare but do exist such as the U2Cl82- anion.
In 2007 the shortest ever metal to metal bond (1.8028 A) was reported to exist also in a compound containing a quintuple chromium-chromium bond.
R-flurbiprofen
R-flurbiprofen is the single enantiomer of the racemate NSAID flurbiprofen. This compound is currently in clinical trials for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, and has been assigned the trade name tarenflurbil. At therapeutic concentrations, this molecule lacks anti-inflammatory activity, and does not inhibit either cyclooxygenase 1 (COX-1) or cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) enzymes. Only the S-enantiomers of arylpropionic acid NSAIDS can potently inhibit COX, whereas the R-enantiomers exert almost no COX activity. R-flurbiprofen is inefficiently converted into S-flurbiprofen, with 1.5% of the R-enantiomer undergoing bioinversion to the S-form.
Although this compound lacks activity against COX, studies have shown that this drug  is a potent reducer of levels of Beta amyloid, the main constituent of amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease, and therefore there was interest in this drug as a therapeutic agent. Myriad Genetics is running the largest ever Alzheimer's drug treatment trial using R-flurbiprofen . The company is conducting a Phase III clinical trial with R-flurbiprofen (FlurizanTM, MPC-7869) in order to determine if this compound can slow the progression of Alzheimer's disease . A Phase II clinical trial in 207 subjects with mild to moderate AD was completed in 2006. Patients were split into three treatment groups, receiving placebo, 400 or 800 mg R-flurbiprofen twice daily for a year. Result from this trial showed that the drug was well tolerated, and positive trends were observed with the 800 mg twice-daily dose in patients with mild Alzheimer's disease.
A subgroup of patients that were diagnosed with mild disease, and had high plasma drug levels had significantly less decline in 2 primary behavioral outcomes (Activities of Daily Living scale (ADCS-ADL) and Global Function (CDR-SB)). Approximately 80 patients enrolled in the optional follow-on study showed continuing benefits with R-flurbiprofen, with increasing positive trends over this period for all primary outcomes after 24 months. On March 5, 2007 Myriad reported final results of the two-year trial, showing that 42% of approximately 80 patients showed improvement or no decline in one or more of the three primary endpoints of cognition, global function and activities of daily living, compared to a typical 10% of patients on placebo. Although this patient data is impressive and suggests that this drug may slow or halt progression of mild Alzheimer's disease, this results will require replication in a larger patient population.
The ongoing Phase III clinical study is evaluating 800 mg R-flurbiprofen twice daily versus placebo for 18 months exclusively in 1800 patients with mild Alzheimer's disease. This trial is scheduled to conclude in February 2008 with results reported in the summer.
REVERSAL Trial

# Objective
To compare the effects of pravastatin and atorvastatin on coronary artery plaque burden and progression by intensive lipid lowering.

# Methods
Reversal of Atherosclerosis with Aggressive Lipid Lowering  was a multicentered, randomized, double- blinded trial wherein 654 patients received the study drug. IVUS examinations were performed at baseline and after 18 months of treatment in 502 patients. Patients randomly received either 40 mg pravastatin or 80 mg of atorvastatin.

# Results
The mean LDL-C levels reduced from 150 to 110 mg/dL in the pravastatin group and to 79 mg/dL in the atorvastatin. Percentage change in atheroma volume showed a significantly lower progression rate in the atorvastatin (intensive) group compared to the pravastatin group.

# Conclusion
In patients with coronary artery disease, atorvastatin reduced progression of coronary atherosclerosis compared with pravastatin.
Real-time fMRI

# Overview
In neuroimaging neuroscience, real-time fMRI, broadly speaking, is a type of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in which reconstruction of the raw data obtained by the brain scanner is done while the scan is happening.  
In brain scanning, this allows individuals who are undergoing the scan to see the patterns of brain activation which they are generating in one or more regions of interest.
The theory behind this practice is that since areas of the brain are active when a person does, thinks, or experiences particular activities, and relatively inactive when they are doing, thinking or experiencing unrelated activities, the signals from those areas can be used like the global signals of biofeedback to target specific symptoms.  
The awareness of localized brain activation patterns made possible by this technology have been used in clinical populations by researchers including Christopher deCharms and others at Omneuron, Inc.  and at Stanford University to investigate whether patients can use these signals to decrease the symptoms of social anxiety disorder and chronic pain, with some success reported at neuroscience meetings.  
Other research groups, notably the creators of TurboBrainVoyager, a commercial software package which allows this real-time reconstruction of data, have used it in proof of concept applications to play pong using only their brains.
To date, only blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) fMRI imaging has been used in real-time applications, which adds a delay of approximately 2-5 seconds to the signal due to the physiological delay of the hemodynamic response.
In the future, other methods of fMRI which do not rely on a secondary messenger like blood flow may reduce the delay and allow truly instantaneous signal generation.