Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Dental calculus
In dentistry, calculus or tartar refers to calcified deposits on the teeth, formed by the continuous presence of dental plaque.  Its rough surface provides an ideal medium for further plaque formation, threatening the health of the gingiva. Calculus absorbs unaesthetic stains far more easily than natural teeth.
Calculus accumulations occur in the absence of adequate oral care. Once formed, it is generally too firmly adherant to teeth to be removed with anything available to an individual at home; patients with calculus must therefore visit their dental professionals so that the calculus can be removed with ultrasonic tools and specialized sharp instruments.

# Clinical significance
Plaque accumulation causes the gingiva to become irritated and inflamed, and this is referred to as gingivitis.  When the gingiva become so irritated that there is a loss of the connective tissue fibers that attach the gums to the teeth and bone that surrounds the tooth, this is known as periodontitis.  Because dental plaque is the sole cause of periodontitis, it is referred to as the primary etiology.  Plaque that remains in the oral cavity long enough will eventually calcify and become calculus.  Calculus is detrimental to gingival health because it serves as a trap for increased plaque formation and retention; thus, calculus, along with everything else that causes a localized build-up of plaque, is referred to as a secondary etiology of periodontitis.
Calculus can form both along the gumline, where it is referred to as supragingival ("above the gum"), and within the narrow sulcus that exists between the teeth and the gingiva, where it is referred to as subgingival ("below the gum").  Calculus formation can result in a number of clinical manifestations, including bad breath, receding gums and chronically inflamed gingiva.
When plaque is supragingival, the bacterial content consists mostly of aerobic bacteria, or those bacteria which utilize and can survive in an environment containing oxygen.  Subgingival plaque, however, is composed mainly of anaerobic bacteria, or those bacteria which cannot exist in an environment containing oxygen.  Anaerobic bacteria are especially dangerous to the gingiva and the gingival fibers that attach the teeth to the gums, leading to periodontitis.  Almost all individuals with periodontitis exhibit considerable subgingival calculus deposits.  These anaerobic bacteria have been linked to cardiovascular disease and pre-term low birth weight babies, but there is no conclusive evidence yet that periodontitis is a significant risk factor for either of these two conditions.

# Prevention
The best way to prevent the build up of calculus is through twice daily toothbrushing and flossing and regular cleaning visits based on a schedule recommended by the dental health care provider.  Calculus accumulates more easily in some individuals, requiring more frequent brushing and dental visits.  There are also some external factors that facilitate the accumulation of calculus, including smoking and diabetes.
Dental pellicle
It is a protein film that forms on the surface enamel by selective binding of glycoproteins from saliva.
It is protective to the tooth from the acids produced by oral microorganisms after consuming the available carbohydrates.
It is also a means for the microorganisms to attach to the tooth and form what is called Dental plaque.
The salivary pellicle is a layer of negatively charged salivary glycoproteins that adhere to the enamel of tooth surfaces, allowing cariogenic bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface.
Dermatoglyphics
Dermatoglyphics (from ancient Greek derma = "skin", glyph = "carving") is the scientific study of fingerprints. The term was coined by Dr. Harold Cummins, the father of fingerprint analysis. All primates have ridged skin, and it can also be found on the paws of certain mammals and on the tails of some monkey species. In humans, dermatoglyphs are present on fingers, palms, toes, and soles, and give insight into a critical period of embryogenesis, between 4 weeks and 5 months, when the architecture of the major organ systems is developing.

# Genetic disorders
Unusual dermatoglyphic patterns often relate to genetic disorders. One study of foetuses with chromosomal abnormalities showed that the dermatoglyphic patterns were delayed by more than two weeks.
- Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome): People with Down syndrome have mainly ulnar loops, and a significantly different angle between the triradia a, t and d (the 'adt angle'). Other differences often include a single transverse palmar crease ("Simian line") (in 50%), and patterns in the hypothenar and interdigital areas, lower ridge counts along digital midlines, especially in little fingers, which corresponds to finger shortening in those with Down's syndrome. There is less variation in dermatoglyphic patterns between people with Down syndrome than between controls, and dermatoglyphic patterns can be used to determine correlations with congenital heart defects in individuals with Down syndrome by examining the left hand digit ridge count minus the right hand digit ridge count, and the number of ridges on the fifth digit of the left hand.
- Turner syndrome: Predominance of whorls, although the pattern frequency depends on the particular chromosomal abnormality.
- 47, XXY (Klinefelter's syndrome): Excess of arches on digit 1, more frequent ulnar loops on digit 2, overall fewer whorls, lower ridge counts for loops and whorls as compared with controls, and significant reduction of the total finger ridge count.
- Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome): Excess of arches on fingertips and single transverse palmar creases in 60%.
- Trisomy 18 (Edward's syndrome) 6 - 10 arches on fingertips and single transverse palmar creases in 30%.
- Cri du chat (5p-): Excess of arches on fingertips and single transverse palmar creases in 90%.
- Noonan syndrome: Increased frequency of whorls on fingertips, and the axial triradius t, as in Turner syndrome, is more often in position t' or t" than in controls.

# Trivia
Dermatoglyphics, misconjugatedly and uncopyrightable are the longest English words with no repeated letters.
Desoxypipradrol
Desoxypipradrol, also known as 2-(diphenylmethyl)piperidine or 2-DPMP, is a long-acting stimulant drug.
Desoxypipradrol was developed by the pharmaceutical company Ciba-Geigy (now called Novartis) in the 1950s, and researched for applications such as the treatment of narcolepsy and ADHD, however it was dropped from development after an alternative drug methylphenidate was developed by the same company. Methylphenidate was felt to be the superior drug for treating ADHD due to its shorter duration of action and more predictable pharmacokinetics, and while desoxypipradrol was researched for other applications such as to facilitate rapid recovery from anaesthesia  its development was not continued.
In more recent times there has been some interest in the use of desoxypipradrol as a legal recreational drug, as its activity profile means it could potentially be used as a stimulant as an alternative to illegal drugs such as amphetamines; however its very long duration of action (as long as 24 hours or longer if booster doses are taken) makes it unlikely to be successful for this application, as prominent side effects such as insomnia and anorexia are likely to outweigh any positive effects. However several reports of recreational use has surfaced on bulletin boards focusing on drug use.
Potentially desoxypipradrol could also be useful for its original application of treating attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, considering that the short half-life of common treatments such as methylphenidate and dexamphetamine has led to the development of long-acting delayed release formulations of these drugs; however if desoxypipradrol attracts any significant attention as a drug of abuse it is likely to quickly become illegal and fade back into obscurity, and this may well be the likely fate of this compound. Desoxypipradrol is not specifically listed as an illegal drug in any country at the present time, but its structural similarity to the illegal drug pipradrol makes it possible that it would be considered a controlled substance analogue in several countries such as Australia and New Zealand.
Deviated septum

# Overview
A deviated septum is a common physical disorder of the nose, involving a displacement of the nasal septum.

# Causes
It is most frequently caused by impact trauma, such as by a blow to the face.  It can also be a congenital disorder.

# Presentation
The nasal septum is the membranous ridge of cartilage in the nose that separates the nasal cavity into the two nostrils.  Normally, the septum lies centrally, and thus the nasal passages are symmetrical. A deviated septum is an abnormal condition in which the top of the cartilaginous ridge leans to the left or the right, causing obstruction of the affected nasal passage. The condition can result in poor drainage of the sinuses, leading to frequent infections or the growth of nasal polyps. Patients can also complain of difficulty breathing easily, or of sleeping disorders such as snoring or sleep apnea.
It is common for nasal septa to depart from the exact centerline; the septum is only considered deviated if the shift is substantial or is adversely affecting the patient. Many people with a deviation are unaware they have it until some discomfort is produced. But by itself a deviated septum can go undetected for years and thus be without any real need for correction.

# Treatment
In most cases a deviated septum can be corrected with a minor surgical procedure known as a septoplasty, which enters through the nostrils and cuts away the obtruding matter. The surgery is performed quickly but the patient may take several days to recover.
Diabetes Health
Diabetes Health magazine, published by King's Publishing in California, United States, is one of the US's biggest magazines focusing on diabetes and the complications that are the every day concern of people with this disease and also their families and friends.

# History
After starting a mail-order diabetes supply business in 1989, the company realized that customers needed information as well as supplies. Soon Diabetes on the Dial, a radio show featuring interviews of world-class experts in the field of diabetes, was born. The demand for transcripts of the broadcasts lead to the company publishing a monthly magazine, originally named Diabetes Interview, now named Diabetes Health.
Published continuously for 14 years, Diabetes Health magazine provides articles about living with diabetes.
ha ha ha funny
Diabetology Ltd
Diabetology Ldt is a biopharmaceutical company based in Saint Helier, Jersey.
It was founded in November 2002 and is developing oral drugs for the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

# Products
Currently the company doesn't have a marketed product, though its pipeline includes one drug that has recently completed phase II clinical development, one in phase II clinical development, and one in pre-clinical development.
Diagnosis codes
In medicine, Diagnostic codes are used to group and identify diseases, disorders, symptoms, and medical signs, and are used to measure morbidity and mortality.

# Commonly used diagnosis coding systems
- ICD-9-CM (volumes 1 and 2 only. Volume 3 contains Procedure codes)
- ICD-10
- ICPC-2 (Also includes reasons for encounter (RFE), Procedure codes and process of care)
- NANDA
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or DSM-IV (psychiatric disorders only)
- Mendelian Inheritance in Man (genetic diseases only)
- SNOMED (D axis)
Diastasis recti

# Overview
Diastasis recti is a disorder defined as a separation of the rectus abdominis muscle into right and left halves. 

# Epidemiology
- Normally, the two sides of the muscle are joined at the linea alba at the midline. Diastasis of this muscle occurs principally in two populations: newborns and pregnant women.
- In the newborn, the rectus abdominis is not fully developed and may not be sealed together at midline. Diastasis recti is more common in premature and African American newborns.
- In pregnant or postpartum women, the defect is caused by the stretching of the rectus abdominis by the growing uterus.
- It is more common in multiparous women due to repeated episodes of stretching. When the defect occurs during pregnancy, the uterus can sometimes be seen bulging through the abdominal wall beneath the skin. 

# Clinical presentation
A diastasis recti appears as a ridge running down the midline of the abdomen from the xiphoid process to the umbilicus. It becomes more prominent with straining and may disappear when the abdominal muscles are relaxed. The medial borders of the right and left halves of the muscle may be palpated during relaxation. 

# Diagnosis
The condition can be diagnosed by physical exam, and a ventral hernia may be ruled out using ultrasound.

# Treatment
No treatment is necessary for women while they are still pregnant. Complications include development of an umbilical or ventral hernia in children, which is rare and can be corrected with surgery. 
(Images courtesy of Charlie Goldberg, M.D., UCSD School of Medicine and VA Medical Center, San Diego, California)
- Separation of rectus abdominus muscles which occasionally occurs in older patients and or those with weakening of the abdominal musculature.
- The midline hernia can be made      more apparent by any maneuver that increases intra-abdominal pressure as demonstrated above.
Dichlorocarbene
Dichlorocarbene is a carbene commonly encountered in organic chemistry. This reactive intermediate with chemical formula CCl2 is easily available by reaction of chloroform and a base such as potassium t-butoxide  or sodium hydroxide dissolved in water. A phase transfer catalyst for instance benzyltriethylammonium bromide is added to facilitate the migration of the hydroxide in the organic phase. Dichlorocarbene reacts with alkenes in a formal cycloaddition to form geminal dichlorocyclopropanes which can subsequently be reduced to proper cyclopropanes or hydrolyzed to a cyclopropanone in a gem halide hydrolysis. The preparation of dichlorocarbene from chloroform and its utility in synthesis was discovered by William von Eggers Doering in 1954  based on functionalizion of cyclohexene. A Geuther in 1862 was the first to propose dichlorocarbene.

# Related reactions
The  Doering-LaFlamme carbon chain extension describes the conversion of alkenes to allenes (a chain extension) with magnesium or sodium metal through initial reaction of the alkene with dichlorocarbene. The same sequence is incorporated in the Skattebl rearrangement to cyclopentadienes.  Dichlorocarbene also features in the Reimer-Tiemann reaction. Closely related is the more reactive dibromocarbene CBr2.
KRAIG :)

# Synthetic methods
Other dichlorocarbene precursors are ethyl trichloracetate when reacted with  sodium in methanol  and phenyl(trichloromethyl)mercury by thermal decomposition 
. Dichlorodiazirine is an experimental dichlorocarbene precursor . It is stable in the dark at room temperature and decomposes into the carbene and nitrogen gas by photolysis.
The reaction mechanism for the formation of dichloroaziridine is depicted below:
Dichlorocarbene can also be obtained by reaction of carbon tetrachloride with elemental magnesium with ultrasound chemistry . This method is tolerant to esters and carbonyl compounds because it does not involve strong base.
Dichloromethane
Synonyms and keywords: methylene chloride

# Overview
Dichloromethane (DCM) or methylene chloride is the chemical compound with the formula CH2Cl2. It is a colorless, volatile liquid with a moderately sweet aroma. It is widely used as a solvent, the general view being that it is one of the less harmful of the chlorocarbons, and it is miscible with most organic solvents.

# Historical perspective
Dichloromethane was first prepared in 1840 by the French chemist Henri Victor Regnault, who isolated it from a mixture of chloromethane and chlorine that had been exposed to sunlight.

# Production
Industrially, dichloromethane is produced by reacting either methyl chloride or methane with chlorine gas at 400500 C. At these temperatures, both methane and methyl chloride undergo a series of reactions producing progressively more chlorinated products.
The output of these processes is a mixture of methyl chloride, dichloromethane, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride. These compounds are separated by distillation.

# Uses
It is widely used as a
- Paint stripper
- Degreaser.
- In the food industry, it was previously used to decaffeinate coffee and to prepare extracts of hops and other flavorings, but most companies no longer use it.
- Chemical welding of  certain plastics
- Used as an aerosol spray propellant and as a blowing agent for polyurethane foams.
- Used as a fumigant pesticide for stored strawberries and grains
Other uses
- Used in Christmas lights called bubble lights
- Used as a farming tool in Eastern and Central America as a gene adaptation tool.
Often sold under the brand name of "EMA Plastic Weld" it is also used extensively in the modelmaking industry for joining plastic components together - it is commonly referred to as "Di-clo".

# Toxicity
Dichloromethane is the least toxic of the simple chlorohydrocarbons, but it is not without its health risks as its high volatility makes it an acute inhalation hazard.
- Dichloromethane is also metabolised by the body to carbon monoxide potentially leading to carbon monoxide poisoning.
- Prolonged skin contact can result in the dichloromethane dissolving some of the fatty tissues in skin, resulting in skin irritation or chemical burns.
- It may be carcinogenic, as it has been linked to cancer of the lungs, liver, and pancreas in laboratory animals.
- Dichloromethane crosses the placenta. Fetal toxicity in women who are exposed to it during pregnancy however has not been proven.
- In animal experiments it was fetotoxic at doses that were maternally toxic but no teratogenic effects were seen.
In many countries products containing dichloromethane must carry labels warning of its health risks.
Low QRS voltage
Synonyms and keywords: low volts; low voltage; low QRS; reduced voltage; Reduced QRS voltage; low voltage QRS complexes; diminished QRS; diminished QRS voltage; diminished voltage; Low amplitude QRS complexes; low voltage on the EKG; low volts

# Overview
Low QRS voltage is a non-specific electrocardiographic finding in which the voltage (the height) of the QRS complexes is reduced.

# Definitions of Low QRS Voltage:
- If the total amplitude above and below the isoelectric line is < 5 mm in all 3 standard leads.
- An average voltage in the limb leads of < 5 mm with an average of < 10 mm in the chest leads.
- Should be at least 5 mm in V1 and V6 , 7 mm in V2 and V5 and 9 mm in V3 and V4.

# Pathophysiology of Low QRS Voltage
Low voltage on the ECG tracing generally comes from either Low Power within the myocardium or Low Conduction from the heart to the ECG leads. There are three general processes that contribute to low QRS voltage:
- Damping of the electrical signal due to excess air (emphysema, COPD), fluid (pericardial effusion, pericardial constriction, pleural effusion), edema (anasarca), fat (obesity), or amyloid cardiomyopathy
- Electrically inert myocardium due to a loss of viable myocardium such as in myocardial infarction and Chagas disease]]
- Infiltration of the myocardium (myxedematous, Chagas disease)

# Causes of Low QRS Voltage
The presence of low voltage on the EKG should prompt an evaluation to rule out life threatening emergencies such as cardiac tamponade or a large pericardial effusion.  These two diagnoses are suggested by the presence of tachycardia and electrical alternans along with the low QRS voltage.  In alphabetical order the differential diagnosis includes:
- Alcoholic cardiomyopathy
- Amyloidosis
- Anasarca
- Dilated cardiomyopathy
- Beriberi heart disease
- Cardiomyopathy
- Chagas disease
- Diffuse coronary artery disease
- Congestive heart failure
- Constrictive pericarditis
- COPD
- Dilated cardiomyopathy
- Generalized edema and pedal edema
- Emphysema
- Hemochromatosis
- Hypothermia
- Hypothyroidism
- Ischemic cardiomyopathy
- Prior myocardial infarction
- Myocarditis
- Myxedema
- Obesity
- Pericardial effusion
- Pneumothorax
- Rejection after heart transplantation
- Restrictive cardiomyopathy
- Sarcoidosis
- Scleroderma
- Tamponade
- Technical error in the settings on the ECG apparatus (sensitivity should be at 10 mm/mV)

# Electrocardiographic Examples
Discontinuation
Discontinuation is to quit a procedure, and has different meanings for a treatment of an individual and a whole brand of a drug product:
- Dincontinuation of a treatment is to stop taking a drug. There are several reasons for discontinuation, e.g.:
The ailment or reason it was taken has disappeared.
The adverse effects overweight the desired effects.
Other, better, alternatives are available.
- The ailment or reason it was taken has disappeared.
- The adverse effects overweight the desired effects.
- Other, better, alternatives are available.
- Discontinuation for drug products is when a product's manufacture and/or support are stopped by the company that makes the product. This is usually due to low sales, but it does not mean the product never sold well. Many high selling products eventually see a drop in sales and eventual discontinuation, usually after being superseded by a superior product.
Dolichol kinase
In enzymology, a dolichol kinase (EC 2.7.1.108) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are CTP and dolichol, whereas its two products are CDP and dolichyl phosphate.
This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, to be specific, those transferring phosphorus-containing groups (phosphotransferases) with an alcohol group as acceptor.  The systematic name of this enzyme class is CTP:dolichol O-phosphotransferase. This enzyme is also called dolichol phosphokinase.  This enzyme participates in N-glycan biosynthesis.
In humans dolichol kinase is encoded by the DOLK gene.

# Function
Dolichyl monophosphate is an essential glycosyl carrier lipid for C- and O-mannosylation and N-glycosylation of proteins and for biosynthesis of glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors in endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Dolichol kinase catalyzes CTP-mediated phosphorylation of dolichol, the terminal step in de novo dolichyl monophosphate biosynthesis.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in DOLK cause a subtype of the congenital disorders of glycosylation, DOLK-CDG (CDG-Im).
Donor offspring
A donor offspring, or donor conceived person, is conceived via the donation of sperm (sperm donation) or ova (egg donation), or both, either from two separate donors or from a couple.  In the case of embryo donation, the conceiving parents are a couple.
A donor conceived person might never learn their true conception origins, because information about their biological parent(s) is not recorded on the birth certificate. This is compounded by the fact that only a small proportion (av. 10%) of donor conceived people are informed of the nature of their conception by the recipient parent(s). Donor conceived people may have many half siblings as a result of the same person's donations.
The voices of donor conceived people are starting to be heard around the world. Most donor conceived people who are born from anonymous donation wish to have more information about their biological parent/s, so that they are able to complete their personal history. The majority of donor conceived people (those who know about their conception) disagree with anonymous donation of any sort.
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 8 states that;
"1. States Parties undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve his or her identity, including nationality, name and family relations as recognized by law without unlawful interference.
2. Where a child is illegally deprived of some or all of the elements of his or her identity, States Parties shall provide appropriate assistance and protection, with a view to re-establishing speedily his or her identity."
Donor conceived people should have the same rights as others to access information about their genetic history.