Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Pradofloxacin

# Overview
Pradofloxacin (trade name Veraflox) is a 3rd generation enhanced spectrum veterinary antibiotic of the fluoroquinolone class. It was developed by Bayer HealthCare AG, Animal Health GmbH, and received approval from the European Commission in April 2011 for prescription-only use in veterinary medicine for the treatment of bacterial infections in dogs and cats.

# History
Pradofloxacin was first discovered by chemists at Bayer in 1994 and patented in 1998. The name pradofloxacin was issued in December 2000 by the World Health Organization. Following submission for marketing authorisation to the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in 2004, the application was refused in 2006, prompting further studies.
Having reviewed the additional studies, the EMA Committee for Medicinal Products for Veterinary Use (CVMP) recommended granting marketing authorisation of pradofloxacin by consensus in February 2011. Marketing authorisation of pradofloxacin was granted by the European Commission in April 2011.

# Mechanism of action
The primary mode of action of fluoroquinolones involves interaction with enzymes essential for major DNA functions such as replication, transcription and recombination. The primary targets for pradofloxacin are the bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV enzymes. Reversible association between pradofloxacin and DNA gyrase or DNA topoisomerase IV in the target bacteria results in inhibition of these enzymes and rapid death of the bacterial cell. The rapidity and extent of bacterial killing are directly proportional to the drug concentration.
As a result, pradofloxacin is active against a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria including anaerobic bacteria.

# Indications
As with all prescription veterinary medicine, advice on the use of pradofloxacin should always be sought from a suitably qualified veterinarian.

## Dogs
Pradofloxacin was formerly indicated for the treatment of:
- wound infections and superficial and deep pyoderma caused by susceptible strains of the Staphylococcus intermedius group (including S. pseudintermedius),
- acute urinary tract infections caused by susceptible strains of Escherichia coli and the Staphylococcus intermedius group (including S. pseudintermedius) and
- as adjunctive treatment to mechanical or surgical periodontal therapy in the treatment of severe infections of the gingiva and periodontal tissues caused by susceptible strains of anaerobic organisms, for example Porphyromonas spp. and Prevotella spp.
but has since been shown to cause bone marrow suppression (resulting in severe neutropenia and thrombocytopenia) in dogs and is no longer recommended for use. 

## Cats
Pradofloxacin is indicated for the treatment of:
- acute infections of the upper respiratory tract caused by susceptible strains of Pasteurella multocida, Escherichia coli and the Staphylococcus intermedius group (including S. pseudintermedius).
- wound infections and abscesses caused by susceptible strains of Pasteurella multocida and the Staphylococcus intermedius group (including S. pseudintermedius) .
Premedication
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# Overview
Premedication refers to a drug treatment given to a patient before a (surgical or invasive) medical procedure. These drugs are typically sedative or analgesic.
Premedication before chemotherapy for cancer often refers to special drug regimens (usually 3 drugs, eg dexamethasone, diphenhydramine and omeprazole) given to a patient hours or minutes before the chemotherapy to avert hypersensitivity reactions (allergic reactions).
de:Pramedikation
Prenatal care

# Overview
'Prenatal care' refers to the medical care recommended for women before and during pregnancy. The aim of good prenatal care is to detect any potential problems early, to prevent them if possible (through recommendations on adequate nutrition, exercise, vitamin intake etc), and to direct the woman to appropriate specialists, hospitals, etc. if necessary. The availability of routine prenatal care has played a part in reducing maternal death rates and miscarriages as well as birth defects, low birth weight, and other preventable infant problems in the developed world.
While availability of prenatal care has considerable personal health and social benefits, socioeconomic problems prevent its universal adoption in many developed as well as developing nations.
Studies in Canada and the United States have shown that communities in rural areas as well as minorities are less likely to have available prenatal care and also have higher rates of infant mortality and miscarriage.
One prenatal practice is for the expecting mother to consume vitamins with at least 400 mcg of folic acid to help prevent neural tube defects.
Prenatal care generally consists of:
- monthly visits during the first two trimesters (from week 1-28)
- biweekly from 28 to week 36 of pregnancy
- weekly after week 36 (delivery at week 38-40)

# Physical examinations
Physical examinations generally consist of:
- collection of (mother's) medical history
- checking (mother's) blood pressure
- (mother's) height and weight
- pelvic exam
- (mother's) blood and urine tests
- discussion with caregiver

# Ultrasound
Obstetric ultrasounds are most commonly performed during the second trimester at approximately week 20. Ultrasounds are considered relatively safe and have been used for over 35 years for monitoring pregnancy.
Among other things, ultrasounds are used to:
- Diagnose pregnancy (uncommon)
- Check for multiple fetuses
- Determine the sex of the fetus
- Assess possible risks to the mother (e.g., miscarriage, blighted ovum, ectopic pregnancy, or a molar pregnancy condition)
- Check for fetal malformation (e.g., club foot, spina bifida, cleft palate, clenched fists)
- Determine if an intrauterine growth retardation condition exists
- Note the development of fetal body parts (e.g., heart, brain, liver, stomach, skull, other bones)
- Check the amniotic fluid and umbilical cord for possible problems
- Determine due date (based on measurements and relative developmental progress)
Generally an Ultrasound is ordered whenever an abnormality is suspected or along a schedule similar to the following:
- 7 weeks - confirm pregnancy, ensure its neither molar or ectopic, determine due date
- 13-14 weeks (some areas) - evaluate the possibility of Down Syndrome
- 18-20 weeks - see the expanded list above
- 34 weeks (some areas) - evaluate size, verify placental position
Septum primum

# Overview
The cavity of the primitive atrium becomes subdivided into right and left chambers by a septum, the septum primum, which grows downward into the cavity.

# Pathophysiology

## Gross Pathology
- Atrial Septal Defect, Septum Primum; View from Right Atrium (a 4 month old baby)
- Atrial Septal Defect, Septum Primum; Also Cleft in Anterior Cusp of Mitral Valve
Primula veris
Primula veris (Cowslip; syn. Primula officinalis Hill) is a flowering plant in the genus Primula. The species is native throughout most of temperate Europe and Asia, and although absent from more northerly areas including much of north-westScotland, it reappears in northernmost Sutherland and Orkney.
It is a low growing herbaceous perennial plant with a rosette of leaves 5-15 cm long and 2-6 cm broad. The deep yellow flowers are produced in the spring between April and May; they are in clusters of 10-30 together on a single stem 5-20 cm tall, each flower 9-15 mm broad.  Red-flowered plants do occur, very rarely.
It is frequently found on more open ground than Primula vulgaris (Primrose) including open fields, meadows, and coastal dunes and clifftops. It is often included in wild-flower seed mixes used to landscape motorway banks and similar civil engineering earth-works where it may be seen in dense stands.
It may be confused with the closely related Primula elatior (Oxlip) which has a similar general appearance although the Oxlip has larger, pale yellow flowers more like a Primrose, and a corolla tube without folds.
Cowslip is a favourite food of wild rabbits.

# Folklore and herbalism
It is used medicinally as a diuretic, an expectorant, and an antispasmodic, as well as for the treatment of headaches, whooping cough, tremors, and other conditions. However it can have irritant effects in people who are allergic to it
Cowslips were made into wine, and also to flavour conventional wines.
An ancient name for the plant is "paigle" (origin unknown). Another name, herb Peter, derives from the tale of St. Peter dropping the keys to the Gates of Heaven, with the cowslip springing from the spot.
In the nineteenth century, cowslips were used as a garland on maypoles.
The Cowslip is the county flower of four counties in England, these are Essex, Northamptonshire, Surrey, and Worcestershire.
Pristinamycin

# Overview
Pristinamycin (INN), also spelled pristinamycine, is an antibiotic used primarily in the treatment of staphylococcal infections, and to a lesser extent streptococcal infections. It is a streptogramin group antibiotic, similar to virginiamycin, derived from the bacterium Streptomyces pristina spiralis. It is marketed in Europe by Sanofi-Aventis under the trade name Pyostacine.
Pristinamycin is a mixture of two components that have a synergistic antibacterial action. Pristinamycin I is a macrolide, and results in pristinamycin having a similar spectrum of action to erythromycin. Pristinamycin II is a depsipeptide.

# Clinical use
Despite the macrolide component, it is effective against erythromycin-resistant staphylococci and strepcococci.  Importantly, it is active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Its usefulness for severe infections, however, may be limited by the lack of an intravenous formulation owing to its poor solubility. Nevertheless it is sometimes used as an alternative to rifampicin+fusidic acid or linezolid for the treatment of MRSA.
The lack of an intravenous formulation led to the development of the pristinamycin-derivative quinupristin/dalfopristin, which may be administered intravenously for more severe MRSA infections.
Proarrhythmia
Proarrhythmia is a new or more frequent occurrence of pre-existing arrhythmias, paradoxically precipitated by antiarrhythmic therapy, which means it is a side-effect associated with the administration of some existing antiarrhythmic drugs, as well as drugs for other indications.  In other words, it is a tendency of antiarrhythmic drugs to facilitate emergence of new arrhythmias.

# Types of Proarrhythmia
According to the Vaughan Williams (VW) Classification of antiarrhythmic drugs, there are 3 main types of Proarrhythmia during treatment with various antiarrhythmic drugs for Atrial Fibrillation or Atrial flutter:

## Ventricular proarrhythmia
- Torsade de pointes (VW type IA and type III drugs)
- Sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia (usually VW type IC drugs)
- Sustained polymorphic ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation without long QT (VQ types IA, IC, and III drugs)

## Atrial proarrhythmia
- Conversion of atrial fribrillation to flutter (usually VW type IC drugs or amiodarone).  May be a desired effect.
- Increase of defibrillation threshold (a potential problem with VW type IC drugs)
- Provocation of recurrence (probably VW types IA, IC and III drugs).  It is rare.

## Abnormalities of conduction or impulse formation
- Sinus node dysfunction, atrioventricular block (almost all drugs)
- Accelerate conduction over accessory pathway (digoxin, intravenous verapamil, or diltiazem)
- Acceleration of ventricular rate during atrial fibrillation (VW type IA and type IC drugs).

# Increased risk
- Presence of structural heart disease, especially LV systolic dysfunction.
- Class IC agents.
- Increased age.
- Females.

# Clinical pointers

## Class IA drugs
- Dose independent, occurring at normal levels.
- Follow QT interval, keep ms.

## Class IC drugs
- May be provoked by increased heart rate.
- Exercise stress tests after loading.

## Class III drugs
- Dose dependent.
- Follow bradycardia, prolonged QT closely.
Pronunciation
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# Overview
Pronunciation refers to:
- the way a word or a language is usually spoken
- the manner in which someone utters a word
A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as:
- the area in which they grew up
- the area in which they now live
- if they have a speech defect
- their ethnic group
- their social class
- their education

# Linguistic terminology
People are counted as units of sound (phones) that they use in their language. The branch of linguistics which studies these units of sound is phonetics. Phones which play the same role are grouped together into classes called phonemes; the study of these is phonemics or phonematics or phonology.
Prostatectomy
Steven C. Campbell, M.D., Ph.D.

# Overview
A prostatectomy is the surgical removal of all or part of the prostate gland. Abnormalities of the prostate, such as a tumour, or if the gland itself becomes enlarged for any reason, can restrict the normal flow of urine along the urethra.

# Prostatectomy
There are several forms of the operation:
- Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP): a cystoscope is passed up the urethra to the prostate, where the surrounding prostate tissue is excised. This is a common operation for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and outcomes are excellent for a high percentage of  these patients (80-90%). A more refined and safer operation is by means of a holmium high powered "red" laser. This technique has been well documented as being the only laser operation that is of higher standard than the "old" TURP operation.
- Open prostatectomy: A surgical procedure involving a skin incision and enucleation of the prostatic adenoma, through the prostatic capsule (RPP-retropubic prostatectomy) or through the bladder (SPP-suprapubic prostatectomy). Reserved for extremely large prostates.
- Laparoscopic:  a laparoscopic or four small incisions are made in the abdomen, and the entire prostate is removed sparing nerves more easily damaged by a retropubic or suprapubic approach.  Laparoscopic prostatectomy has more advantages than the radical perineal or retropubic operation and is more economical than the robot assisted technique.
- Robotic-assisted prostatectomy:  Laparoscopic robotic arms are controlled by a surgeon.  The robot gives the surgeon much more dexterity than conventional laparoscopy while offering the same advantages over open prostatectomy: much smaller incisions, less pain, less bleeding, less risk of infection, faster healing time, and shorter hospital stay..  While the cost of such procedures is high, costs are declining rapidly .
- Radical perineal prostatectomy: an incision is made in the perineum, midway between rectum and scrotum, and the prostate is removed. Radical prostatectomy is one of the key treatments for prostate cancer.
- Radical retropubic prostatectomy: an incision is made in the lower abdomen, and the prostate removed, by going behind the pubic bone (retropubic).  Radical prostatectomy is one of the key treatments for prostate cancer.
- Transurethral plasmakinetic vaporization prostatectomy (TUPVP).
Proventil HFA
Synonyms / Brand Names:

# Dosing and Administration
General treatment
For treatment of acute episodes of bronchospasm or prevention of asthmatic symptoms, the usual dosage for adults and children 4 years of age and older is two inhalations repeated every 4 to 6 hours. More frequent administration or a larger number of inhalations is not recommended. In some patients, one inhalation every 4 hours may be sufficient. Each actuation of Proventil HFA Inhalation Aerosol delivers 108 mcg of albuterol sulfate (equivalent to 90 mcg of albuterol base) from the mouthpiece. It is recommended to prime the inhaler before using for the first time and in cases where the inhaler has not been used for more than 2 weeks by releasing four test sprays into the air, away from the face.
For more information on dosing please refer to Instructions for administration
FDA Package Insert Resources
Indications, Contraindications, Side Effects, Drug Interactions, etc.
Calculate Creatine Clearance
On line calculator of your patients Cr Cl by a variety of formulas.
Convert pounds to Kilograms
On line calculator of your patients weight in pounds to Kg for dosing estimates.
 Publication Resources
Recent articles, WikiDoc State of the Art Review, Textbook Information
Trial Resources
Ongoing Trials, Trial Results
Guidelines & Evidence Based Medicine Resources
US National Guidelines, Cochrane Collaboration, etc.
Media Resources
Slides, Video, Images, MP3, Podcasts, etc.
Patient Resources
Discussion Groups, Handouts, Blogs, News, etc.
International Resources
en Espanol

# FDA Package Insert Resources
Indications
Contraindications
Side Effects
Drug Interactions
Precautions
Overdose
Instructions for Administration
How Supplied
FDA label
FDA on Proventil HFA
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# Publication Resources
Most Recent Articles on Proventil HFA
Review Articles on Proventil HFA
Articles on Proventil HFA in N Eng J Med, Lancet, BMJ
Textbook Information on Proventil HFA
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# Trial Resources
Ongoing Trials with Proventil HFA at Clinical Trials.gov
Trial Results with Proventil HFA
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# Guidelines & Evidence Based Medicine Resources
US National Guidelines Clearinghouse on Proventil HFA
Cochrane Collaboration on Proventil HFA
Cost Effectiveness of Proventil HFA
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# Media Resources
Powerpoint Slides on Proventil HFA
Images of Proventil HFA
Podcasts & MP3s on Proventil HFA
Videos on Proventil HFA
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# Patient Resources
Patient Information from National Library of Medicine
Patient Resources on Proventil HFA
Discussion Groups on Proventil HFA
Patient Handouts on Proventil HFA
Blogs on Proventil HFA
Proventil HFA in the News
Proventil HFA in the Marketplace
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# International Resources
Proventil HFA en Espanol
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Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
Purdue Pharma
Purdue Pharma L.P., is privately-held pharmaceutical company founded by physicians. It is located in Stamford, Connecticut.
Purdue is best known for painkillers, but they have also branched into other areas such as oncology and nutraceuticals.
In its early years, Purdue was known for its antiseptic product, Betadine Solution, and its Senokot laxatives.  Today, it is best known for its products for the treatment of pain; MS Contin Tablets and OxyContin Tablets.

# Prescription drug abuse
Purdue has also been involved in measures against prescription drug abuse, particularly of its well known Oxycontin brand. In 2001, Connecticut Attorney General Richard Blumenthal issued a statement urging Purdue to take action regarding abuse of Oxycontin. Blumenthal noted that while Purdue seemed sincere, there was little action being taken beyond "cosmetic and symbolic steps." After Purdue announced plans to reformulate the drug, Blumenthal noted that this would take time, and that "Purdue Pharma has a moral, if not legal, obligation to take effective steps now that address addiction and abuse even as it works to reformulate the drug." The company has since implemented a comprehensive program designed to assist in detection of the illegal trafficking and abuse of prescription drugs without compromising patient access to proper pain control.
In May 2007, the company pleaded guilty to misleading the public about Oxycontin's risk of addiction. Purdue Pharma, its president, top lawyer, and former chief medical officer agreed to pay $634.5 million in fines for claiming the drug was less addictive and less subject to abuse than other pain medications.
Puumala virus
- Puumala virus is a species of hantavirus, and causes nephropathia epidemica. It is common in northern Europe and Russia.
- The bank vole acts as a reservoir for the virus, and nephropathia epidemica therefore peaks at the same time the population of these voles, typically every 3 to 4 years. Farmers are often exposed to the droppings of these animals and are therefore more commonly infected.
- The virus was found and named in 1980 by two Finnish researchers Markus Brummer-Korvenkontio and Antti Vaheri.
- Puumala is a municipality in Finland.

# Clinical Manifestations
Nephropathia epidemica is a virus-infection caused by the Puumala virus. The incubation period is three weeks. It has a sudden onset with fever, headache, backpain and gastrointestinal symptoms, but sometimes worse symptoms such as internal hemorrhaging and it can even lead to death. It is more mild than the haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome that can be observed in other parts of the world. 80% of infected individuals are asymptomatic or develop only mild symptoms, and the disease does not spread from human to human.  The bank vole is the reservoir for the virus, which is contracted from aerosolized droppings.
This infection is known as myyrakuume in Finland (Mole fever) as the virus can spread to humans from dust that the virus has spread to from moles and mice. In Sweden it is known as sorkfeber (Vole fever). In Norway it is called "musepest" (mouse plague).
fi:Puumala-virus
Quadrate bone
The quadrate bone is part of the skull in most tetrapods, including amphibians, sauropsids ("reptiles"), birds and early synapsids. In these animals it connects to the quadratojugal and squamosal in the skull, and forms part of the jaw joint (the other part is the articular bone at the rear end of the lower jaw).
In snakes, the quadrate bone has become elongated and very mobile, and contributes greatly to their ability to swallow very large prey items.
In mammals the articular and quadrate bones have migrated to the middle ear and are known as the malleus and incus. In fact paleontologists regard this modification as the defining characteristic of mammals.
Quantum yield

# Overview
The quantum yield of a radiation-induced process is the number of times that a defined event  occurs per photon absorbed by the system. Thus, the quantum yield is a measure of the efficiency with which absorbed light produces some effect.
For example, in a chemical photodegradation process, when a molecule falls apart after absorbing a light quantum, the quantum yield is the number of destroyed molecules divided by the number of photons absorbed by the system. Since not all photons are absorbed productively, the typical quantum yield will be less than 1.
Quantum yields greater than 1 are possible for photo-induced or radiation-induced chain reactions, in which a single photon may trigger a long chain of transformations. One example is the reaction of hydrogen with chlorine, in which a few hundred molecules of hydrochloric acid are typically formed per quantum of blue light absorbed.
In optical spectroscopy, the quantum yield is the probability that a given quantum state is formed from the system initially prepared in some other quantum state. For example, a singlet to triplet transition quantum yield is the fraction of molecules that, after being photoexcited into a singlet state, cross over to the triplet state. The fluorescence quantum yield is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed.