Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Terpin hydrate
Terpin hydrate is an expectorant, commonly used to loosen mucus in the setting of acute or chronic bronchitis, and related conditions. It is derived from sources such as oil of turpentine, oregano, thyme and eucalyptus. Though it was quite popular in the USA since the late nineteenth century, it was banned by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the 1990s due to lack of proof of efficacy.

# History
Terpin hydrate was first physiologically investigated by Lepine in 1855. He reported that it acted upon the mucous membranes and also the nervous system in a manner similar to the oil of turpentine.
The following preparations of Terpin hydrate were available in the USA in 1907 (Taken from The Dispensatory Of The United States Of America. Nineteenth Edition. By Dr. Geo. B.Wood And Dr. Franklin Bache. Based Upon The Eighth Decennial Revision Of The United States Pharmacopoeia Issued June 1, 1907):
- Elixir of Terpin Hydrate
- Elixir of Terpin Hydrate with Codeine
- Elixir of Terpin Hydrate with Heroin

# Uses
Terpin hydrate is an expectorant, commonly used in the treatment of acute and chronic bronchitis. It is commonly formulated with an antitussive (e.g., codeine) as a combined preparation.

# Pharmacologic mechanisms of action
A humectant and expectorant, terpin hydrate works directly on the bronchial secretory cells in the lower respiratory tract to liquefy and facilitate the elimination of bronchial secretions. It also exerts a weak antiseptic effect on the pulmonary parenchyma.

# Indications
The preparation is used in acute and chronic bronchitis; pneumonia; bronchiectases; chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; infectious and inflammatory diseases of the upper respiratory tract.

# Dosage and administration
The recommended dose is 85 to 170 milligrams, 3 or 4 times daily.

# Adverse reactions
depression of the respiration, sedation, coordination disorders, constipation, urinary retention. Long-term administration of the preparation leads to drug dependence (codeine-dependence).
The side effects of this drug are related to its high alcohol content (42 percent). If enough ETH is consumed it will produce significant CNS depression.

# Currently available expectorants in the USA
Currently, guaifenesin (Glyceryl Guaiacolate) is the only agent approved by the FDA for use as an expectorant in the USA. Formerly used expectorants like ammonium chloride, beechwood creosote, benzoin preparations, camphor, eucalyptol/eucalyptus oil, iodines, ipecac syrup, menthol/peppermint oil, pine tar preparations, potassium guaiacolsulfonate, sodium citrate, squill preparations, terpin hydrate, tolu and turpentine oil, must be reformulated.
Tetracosactide

# Overview
Tetracosactide (marketed under the brand name Synacthen) is a synthetic analogue consisting of the first 24 amino acids of the naturally occurring adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). It is known to be used as a doping agent to increase the secretion of glucocorticoids by adrenal glands.

# Pharmacology
In the normal situation, ACTH is released from the pituitary gland at the base of the brain. It acts on the adrenal glands to stimulate the production of steroid hormones (glucocorticoids). If the adrenal glands are healthy, a single injection of tetracosactide results in a rise in blood cortisol (hydrocortisone) concentrations in 30 minutes. If the adrenal glands appear not to be working then tetracosactide injection can be given to check whether the problem is due to diseased or damaged adrenals or due to lack of pituitary ACTH.

# Uses
This medication is used for diagnostic purposes only (e.g. in short synacthen test). It is suitable for treatment of adrenal insufficiency of central origin.
As well as its legitimate medical applications, it has been widely reported that Synacthen has also been used as an illegal performance enhancing drug by professional cyclists.
It has been used in the treatment of infantile spasms.
Tetramethyltin
Tetramethyltin is an organometallic compound with the formula (CH3)4Sn. This liquid, one of the simplest organotin compounds, is useful for transition-metal mediated conversion of acid chlorides to methyl ketones and aryl halides to aryl methyl ketones.

# Synthesis and structure
Tetramethyltin is synthesized by reaction of the Grignard reagent methylmagnesium iodide, with SnCl4,  which is synthesized by reacting tin metal with chlorine gas.
In tetramethyltin, the metal surrounded by four methyl groups in a tetrahedral structure is a heavy analogue of neopentane.

# Applications

## Precursor to methyltin compounds
Tetramethyltin is a precursor to trimethyltin chloride (and related methyltin halides), which are precursors to orther organotin compounds. These methyltin chlorides are prepared via the so-called Kocheshkov redistribution reaction.  Thus, SnMe4 and SnCl4 are allowed to react at temperatures between 100 C and 200 C to give Me3SnCl as a product:
A second route to trimethyltin chloride utilizing tetramethyltin involves the reaction of mercury (II) chloride to react with SnMe4.
A variety of methyltin compounds are used as precursors for stabilizers in PVC. Di- and trimercapto tin compounds are used to inhibit the dehydrochlorination, which is the pathway for photolytic and thermal degradation of PVC.

## Surface functionalization
Tetramethyltin decomposes in the gas phase at about 277 C (550 K) Me4Sn vapor reacts with silica to give Me3Sn-grafted solid.
This reaction is also possible with other alkyl substituents. In a similar process, tetramethyltin has been used to functionalize certain zeolites at temperatures as low as -90 C.

# Applications in organic synthesis
In organic synthesis, tetramethyltin undergoes palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions with acid chlorides to give methyl ketones:
Thoracic aorta

# Overview
The thoracic aorta is contained in the posterior mediastinal cavity.
It begins at the lower border of the fourth thoracic vertebra where it is continuous with the aortic arch, and ends in front of the lower border of the twelfth thoracic vertebra, at the aortic hiatus in the diaphragm where it becomes the abdominal aorta.
At its commencement, it is situated on the left of the vertebral column; it approaches the median line as it descends; and, at its termination, lies directly in front of the column.
The vessel describes a curve which is concave forward; as the branches given off from it are small, its diminution in size is insignificant.

# Relations
It is in relation, anteriorly, from above downward, with the root of the left lung, the pericardium, the esophagus, and the diaphragm; posteriorly, with the vertebral column and the hemiazygos veins; on the right side, with the azygos vein and thoracic duct; on the left side, with the left pleura and lung.
The esophagus, with its accompanying plexus of nerves, lies on the right side of the aorta above; but at the lower part of the thorax it is placed in front of the aorta, and, close to the diaphragm, is situated on its left side.

# Branches

## Branches before thoracic aorta
The initial part of the aorta, the ascending aorta, rises out of the left ventricle, from which it is separated by the aortic valve. The two coronary arteries of the heart arise from the aortic root, just above the cusps of the aortic valve.
The aorta then arches back over the right pulmonary artery. Three vessels come out of the aortic arch, the brachiocephalic artery, the left common carotid artery, and the left subclavian artery. These vessels supply blood to the head, neck, thorax and upper limbs.

## Branches of thoracic aorta
The aorta gives off several paired branches as it descends in the thorax.  These includes the
- bronchial arteries
- esophageal arteries
- posterior intercostal arteries

# Additional images
- Transverse section of thorax, showing relations of pulmonary artery.
- The arch of the aorta, and its branches.
Thoracic plane
The thoracic plane is a plane used to divide the mediastinum into a superior mediastinum and inferior mediastinum.
This plane runs through the level of the sternal angle, (which is the joint between the manubrium and body of the sternum), between the intervertebral disc of T4 and T5. 
The superior mediastinum extends superiorly above this plane, while the inferior mediastinum extends inferiorly. The inferior mediastinum is further divided into the posterior, middle and anterior compartments of the mediatinum.

# Significant findings at the level of the thoracic plane:
1. The start (where the aortic arch comes out of the heart) and end of the arch of the aorta (where the arch of the aorta becomes the descending aorta)
2. The upper margin of the superior vena cava 
3. The crossing of the thoracic duct
4. The bifurcation of the trachea 
5. The bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk
6. The level of the Sternal Angle
7. The level of Rib 2 where it attaches to the sternum
8. The body of vertebrae T4
Throat culture

# Overview
A throat culture is a laboratory diagnostic test to find a bacterial or fungal infection in the throat. A sample swabbed from the throat is put in a special cup (culture) that allows infections to grow. If an infection grows, the culture is positive. The type of infection is found using a microscope, chemical tests, or both. If no infection grows, the culture is negative.
Examples of infections that may be found during a throat culture include:
- Candida albicans
This fungus causes thrush, an infection of the mouth and tongue and sometimes of the throat. See a picture of thrush in the mouth.
- Group A streptococcus
This bacteria can cause strep throat, scarlet fever, and rheumatic fever. If strep throat is likely, a test called a rapid strep test (or quick strep) may be done before a throat culture. With a rapid strep test, results are ready in 10 minutes instead of 1 to 2 days with a throat culture. If the rapid strep test results are positive, antibiotics can be started immediately. A throat culture is more accurate than the rapid strep test. The rapid strep test can give false-negative results even when strep bacteria are present. When the results of a rapid strep test are negative, many health professionals recommend doing a throat culture to make sure that strep throat is not present.
- Neisseria meningitidis
This bacteria can cause meningitis. If bacteria grows in the culture, other tests may be done to check which antibiotic will treat the infection best. This is called susceptibility or sensitivity testing.

# Why it is done
A throat culture may be done to:
- Find the cause of a sore throat. Most sore throat infections are caused by a virus. A throat culture shows the difference between a bacterial infection and a viral infection. Finding the organism that is causing the infection can guide treatment.
- Check a person who may not have any symptoms of infection but who carries bacteria that can spread to others. This person is called a carrier.

# How to prepare
The patient does not need to do anything before having this test. The health professional should know if the patient has recently taken any antibiotics.

# How it is done
The patient will be asked to tilt her/his head back and open her/his mouth as wide as possible. The health professional will press the tongue down with a flat stick (tongue depressor) and then examine the mouth and throat. A clean swab will be rubbed over the back of the throat, around the tonsils, and over any red areas or sores to collect a sample.
The sample may also be collected using a throat washout. For this test, the patient will gargle a small amount of salt water and then spit the fluid into a clean cup. This method gives a larger sample than a throat swab and may make the culture more reliable.
Tissue culture
Tissue culture is the growth of tissues and/or cells separate from the organism. This is typically facilitated via use of a liquid, semi-solid, or solid growth media, such as broth or agar. Tissue culture commonly refers to the culture of animal cells and tissues, while the more specific term plant tissue culture is used for plants.

# Historical usage
In 1885 Wilhelm Roux removed a portion of the medullary plate of an embryonic chicken and maintained it in a warm saline solution for several days, establishing the basic principle of tissue culture.
In 1907 the zoologist Ross Granville Harrison demonstrated the growth of frog nerve cell processes in a medium of clotted lymph.

# Modern usage
In modern usage, "tissue culture" generally refers to the growth of eukaryotic cells in vitro. It is often used interchangeably with cell culture to specifically describe the in vitro culturing of mammalian cells.
However, "tissue culture" can also be used to refer to the culturing of tissue pieces, i.e. explant culture or whole organs, i.e. organ culture.
Tongue disease
Tongue diseases can be congenital or acquired.
The condition of the tongue provide information about many other conditions, as in strawberry tongue.
Assessment of the tongue has historically been an important part of a medical examination.
Examples include:
- White tongue: White spots and patches or coating of the tongue are a symptom of several medical conditions:
Antibiotics side effect
Oral candidiasis
Dehydration
Leukoplakia
Keratosis pharyngis
Jaundice - causes a yellow tongue
"Lie Bumps" - small dots usually on tip of tongue
- Antibiotics side effect
- Oral candidiasis
- Dehydration
- Leukoplakia
- Keratosis pharyngis
- Jaundice - causes a yellow tongue
- "Lie Bumps" - small dots usually on tip of tongue
- Glossitis (tongue inflammation)
- Hypoglossia - congenitally short tongue
- Macroglossia
The tongue is examined and observed diagnostically in traditional Chinese medicine. A painful tongue may be an indication of several underlying serious medical conditions
Toxic headache
A toxic headache is the least common type of vascular headache that usually comes from a fever from acute illnesses such as measles, mumps, pneumonia and tonsillitis. Common hazards in our environment also cause toxic headaches with exposure. These include chemicals, fumes, pollution, allergens and other health hazards. These toxins can be found in our communities, workplaces, and homes.
A chemical factor from the outside or inside of your body can result in a toxic headache. Internal body sources are harder to identify, but usually arise when an organ fails to function properly. When this happens, in the bowels, liver or kidneys for example, the body builds up toxicity because waste products are not being removed as they should. The increase in toxicity levels may cause a headache. To treat these headaches, the organ dysfunction must be corrected to eliminate toxic waste.
Toxic headaches are considered an environmental illness when it is caused by exposure to a toxin. These headaches can be caused by exposure to toxic chemicals, including lead, insecticides, organophosphate pesticides, chemical solvents, acetaldehyde from alcohol (a hangover), carbon tetrachloride, and some household cleaners. This often happens through destabilizing the magnesium metabolism of the cell, which triggers a cascade of biological and neurological reactions, culminating in a migraine, toxic headache, or worse (such as neurological damage). The effect of alcohol can be magnified by "congeners" from alcohol fermentation.
Several common chemicals are toxic headache culprits. Nitrite compounds dilate blood vessels, causing dull and pounding headaches with repeat exposure. Nitrite is found in dynamite, heart medicine and it is a chemical used to preserve meat. Poisons, like carbon tetrachloride, insecticides and lead can cause headaches with exposure also. Ingesting lead paint or having contact with lead batteries can cause headaches.
Caffeine can be used to cure a headache by constricting dilated arteries. However, caffeine is also a chemical headache inducer for individuals who ingest lots of caffeine and are trying to cut back. Toxic shock syndrome can lead to headaches due to the staphylococcus aureus bacteria infection. Headaches are also a symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning. Toxic and polluted air can lead to toxic headaches with constant exposure.
Toxic headaches are treated by determining the cause of the headache and treating or removing it. But often the cause of a toxic headache is unknown because symptoms depend on the environmental or bodily cause. Symptoms may not appear for years or they can become gradually with more exposure. Many times the source of the headache will not be recognized until your symptoms continue or they only appear at specific places or times. Toxic headaches due to environmental causes are usually diagnosed by taking an exposure history, listing details about the places you frequent most days. Treatments vary based on symptoms and the cause of the headache.
Tracheomalacia

# Overview
Tracheomalacia is a condition characterized by flaccidity of the tracheal support cartilage which leads to tracheal collapse especially when increased airflow is demanded.

# Classification
There are three types:
- Type 1  congenital, sometimes associated with tracheo-esophageal fistula
- Type 2  extrinsic compression sometimes due to vascular rings
- Type 3  acquired due to chronic infection or prolonged intubation or inflammatory conditions like relapsing polychondritis

# Presentation
The trachea normally dilates slightly during inspiration and narrows slightly during expiration. These processes are exaggerated in tracheomalacia, leading to airway collapse on expiration. The usual symptom of tracheomalacia is expiratory stridor or laryngeal crow.

# Treatment
Some cases require surgery. Tracheostomy and tracheal stents have been used.
Traube's space
Traube's (semilunar) space is an anatomic region of some clinical importance. It's a crescent-shaped space, encompassed by the lower edge of the left lung, the anterior border of the spleen, the left costal margin and the inferior margin of the left lobe of the liver. Thus, its surface markings are respectively the left sixth rib, the left anterior axillary line, and the left costal margin.

# Percussion for splenomegaly
The normal human spleen measures about 125 millimeters in length, and splenomegaly is an important clinical sign. There are 2 possibilities to evaluate splenomegaly in the clinical examination: percussion and palpation. Percussion can be done in this space.
Underneath Traube's space lies the stomach, which produces a tympanic sound on percussion (medicine). If percussion over Traube's space produces a dull tone, this indicates splenomegaly. Assessing this may be more difficult in obese patients.
In 1993, a systematic review by the Rational Clinical Examination found that percussion over Traube's space  yields:
- sensitivity = 62%
- specificity = 72%
Specificity may be higher if the patient has not eaten in the last two hours.

# Eponym
It is named for Ludwig Traube, although it was first described by his pupil in 1868. Another method was described by Donald O. Castell in 1967 (Castell's sign).
Triceps reflex
The triceps reflex, a deep tendon reflex, is a reflex as it elicits involuntary contraction of the triceps brachii muscle.  It is initiated by the Cervical (of the neck region) spinal nerve  7 nerve root (the small segment of the nerve that emerges from the spinal cord). The reflex is tested as part of the neurological examination to assess the  sensory and  motor pathways within the C7 and C8 spinal nerves.

# Testing
The test is performed by tapping the tendonA tendon is a strip or sheet of connective tissue that transmits the force generated by the contraction of muscle to the bone by attaching with it. Thus, in simple words, a tendon attaches a muscle to a bone with the sharp end of a reflex hammer while the forearm is hanging loose at a right angle to the arm. A sudden contraction of the triceps muscle causes extension. A straightening at the elbow joint) of the forearm, and indicates a normal reflex.

# Reflex arc
The arc involves the  stretch receptors in the triceps tendon, from where the information travels through the C7 nerve root to the spinal cord, and the motor signal for contraction returns back through the radial nerve. A reflex arc is the path in the nervous system through which the sensory information (stimulationsudden stretching of the triceps tendon in this case) travels to the spinal cord in form of an action potential through a sensory neuron, and comes in contact with a motor neuron at a  synapse, which also carries an action potential back to the muscle of origin and results in its (triceps's) contraction. Note that the contact between the sensory and motor neurons does not require immediate involvement of the brain making it involuntary, though the sensation of stretch (as the hammer hits the skin and tendon beneath) and contraction of the muscle are both sent to the brain making the subject aware of the entire testing procedure.

# Test indicators
- Normal: There are no problems detected.
- Absence of a reflex (areflexia): If no reflex is elicited then it is essential to try again with reinforcement, with the patient clenching his or her teeth just as the reflex hammer strikes.
- Hyper-reflexia (a response far larger than considered normal): Indicates a potential upper motor neurone lesion.

# Absence of reflex
An absence of reflex can be an indicator of several medical conditions: Myopathy, neuropathy, spondylosis, sensory nerve disease, neuritis, potential lower motor neurone lesion, or poliomyelitis.
Other medical problems that may cause irregular reflexes include Hyperthyroidism.
Trimethylsilyl
A trimethylsilyl group (abbreviated TMS) is a functional group in organic chemistry. This group consists of three methyl groups bonded to a silicon atom , which is in turn bonded to the rest of a molecule. This structural group is characterized by chemical inertness and a large molecular volume which makes them useful in a number of applications.
A trimethylsilyl group bonded to a methyl group forms tetramethylsilane, which is abbreviated as TMS as well.
Compounds with trimethylsilyl groups are not normally found in nature. Chemists sometimes use a trimethylsilylating reagent to derivatize rather non-volatile compounds such as certain alcohols, phenols, or carboxylic acids by substituting a trimethylsilyl group for a hydrogen in the hydroxyl groups on the compounds. This way trimethylsiloxy groups are formed on the molecule. Trimethylsilyl groups on a molecule have a tendency to make it more volatile, often making the compounds more amenable to analysis by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry. Such derivatizations are often done on a small scale in special vials.
When attached to certain functional groups in a reactant molecule, trimethylsilyl groups may also be used as temporary protecting groups during chemical synthesis or some other chemical reactions.
In an NMR spectrum, signals from atoms in trimethylsilyl groups in compounds will commonly have chemical shifts close to the tetramethylsilane reference peak at 0 ppm. Also compounds, such as high temperature silicone "stopcock" grease, which have polysiloxanes (often called silicones) in them will commonly show peaks from their methyl groups (attached to the silicon atoms) having NMR chemical shifts close to the tetramethylsilane standard peak, such as at 0.07 ppm in CDCl3.
Otherwise very reactive molecules can be isolated when enveloped by bulky trimethylsilyl groups. This effect can be observed in tetrahedranes.

# Super silyl groups
Related to trimethylsiliyl groups are so-called super silyl groups of which there exist two varieties: A silicon group connected to three trimethylsilyl groups makes a tri(trimethylsilyl)silyl group (TTMSS or TMS3Si) and a silicon group connected to three tert-butyl groups. The TTMSS group was proposed in 1993 by Hans Bock. With a van der Waals volume of up to 7 cubic angstrom it surpasses the related TIPS group (around 2)   and one potential application is its use as a temporary substituent promoting asymmetric induction for example in this diastereoselective one-pot reaction involving two sequential Mukaiyama aldol reactions :