Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Inlays and onlays

# Overview
In dentistry, an inlay is a filling consisting of a solid substance (as gold or porcelain) fitted to a cavity in a tooth and cemented into place.

# Inlays
Sometimes, a tooth is treatment planned to be restored with an intracoronal restoration, but the decay or fracture is so extensive that a direct restoration, such as amalgam or composite, would compromise the structural integrity of the restored tooth by possibly undermining the remaining tooth structure or providing substandard opposition to occlusal (i.e. biting) forces. In such situations, an indirect gold restoration may be indicated, such as the gold inlay shown below.  When gold is used, the tooth-to-restoration margin may be finished and polished to such a super-fine line of contact that recurrent decay will be all but impossible. It is for this reason that some dentists recommend gold as the restorative material of choice for pretty much any and all restorations. While these restorations might be ten times the price of direct restorations, the superiority of gold as a restoration in terms of resistance to occlusal forces, protection against recurrent decay, precision of fabrication, marginal integrity, proper contouring for gingival (tissue) heath, ease of cleansing and many other aspects of restorative quality offers an excellent alternative to the direct restoration. For this reason, some patients request gold restorations so they can benefit from its wide range of advantages even when an amalgam or composite will suffice.  The only true disadvantage of gold is the higher cost.

# Onlays
Additionally, when decay or fracture incorporate areas of a tooth that make amalgam or composite restorations essentially inadequate, such as cuspal fracture or remaining tooth structure that undermines perimeter walls of a tooth, a gold onlay might be indicated. Similar to an inlay, a gold onlay is an indirect restoration which incorporates a cusp or cusps by covering or onlaying the missing cusps. All of the benefits of a gold inlay are present in the onlay restoration. The onlay allows for conservation of tooth structure when the alternative is to totally eliminate cusps and perimeter walls for restoration with a crown. Because onlays have a very long margin (i.e. the line of tooth-to-restoration contact is much longer than that of a crown because of the many turns and curves that an onlay makes in contacting the tooth), some dentists feel that an onlay is a fundamentally inferior restoration. This is because it is primarily the marginal adaptation of any dental restoration that will decide whether or not it will successfully remain in the mouth without exhibiting recurrent decay. The increase in marginal length consequently provides a further likelihood of failure.

# Materials and fabrication
When inlays and onlays are made out of gold, they are fabricated using the lost-wax technique.
Inlays and onlays can also be made out of porcelain and some other forms of ceramic, and the use of CAD/CAM technology can also be implemented.
Integral geometry
In mathematics, the term integral geometry is used in two ways, which, although related, imply different views of the content of the subject.

# Cases
The more traditional usage is that of Santalo and Blaschke. It follows from the classic theorem of Crofton expressing the length of a plane curve as an expectation of the number of intersections with a random line. 
Here the word 'random' must be interpreted as subject to correct symmetry considerations.
There is a sample space of lines, one on which the affine group of the plane acts. A probability measure is sought on this space, invariant under the symmetry group. If, as in this case, we can find a unique such invariant measure, that solves the problem of formulating accurately what 'random line' means; and expectations become integrals with respect to that measure. (Note for example that the phrase 'random chord of a circle' can be used to construct some paradoxes.)
We can therefore say that integral geometry in the sense of Santalo, is the application of probability theory (as axiomatized by Kolmogorov) in the context of the Erlangen programme of Klein. The content of the theory is effectively that of invariant (smooth) measures on (preferably compact) homogeneous spaces of Lie groups; and the evaluation of integrals of differential forms arising.
A very celebrated case is the problem of Buffon's needle: drop a needle on a floor made of planks and calculate the probability the needle lies across a crack. Generalising, this theory is applied to various stochastic processes concerned with geometric and incidence questions.
One of the most interesting theorems in this form of integral geometry is Hadwiger's theorem.
The more recent meaning of integral geometry is that of Israel Gelfand. It deals more specifically with integral transforms, modelled on the Radon transform. Here the underlying geometrical incidence relation (points lying on lines, in Crofton's case) is seen in a freer light, as the site for an integral transform composed as pullback onto the incidence graph and then push forward.
Integrin alpha 11
Integrin alpha-11 is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the ITGA11 gene.
This gene encodes an alpha integrin. Integrins are heterodimeric integral membrane proteins composed of an alpha chain and a beta chain. This protein contains an I domain, is expressed in muscle tissue, dimerizes with beta 1 integrin in vitro, and appears to bind collagen in this form. Therefore, the protein may be involved in attaching muscle tissue to the extracellular matrix. Alternative transcriptional splice variants have been found for this gene, but their biological validity is not determined.
According to one study, ITGA11 expression is increased in the anterior stroma of corneal buttons excised from the eyes affected by keratoconus.
Intercalated disc

# Overview
An intercalated disc is an undulating double membrane separating adjacent cells in cardiac muscle fibers. Intercalated discs support synchronized contraction of cardiac tissue.  They can easily be visualized by a longitudinal section of the tissue.
Three types of membrane junctions exist within an intercalated discfascia adherens, macula adherens, and gap junctions.
- Fascia adherens are anchoring sites for actin, and connects to the closest sarcomere.
- Macula adherens stop separation during contraction by binding intermediate filaments joining the cells together also called a desmosome.
- Gap junctions allow action potentials to spread between cardiac cells by permitting the passage of ions between cells, producing depolarization of the heart muscle.
When observing cardiac tissue through a microscope, intercalated discs are an identifying feature of cardiac muscle.
Intercostal space
The intercostal space is the space between two ribs (Lat. costa). Since there are 12 ribs on each side, there are 11 intercostal spaces.

# Importance of intercostal space
Because the chest is protected by the rib cage, the intercostal spaces are important access points in medicine, for example:
- access for surgical procedures, e.g. resection of (part of) the lung (pneumonectomy), or insertion of a chest tube, performance of pericardiocentesis
- penetrating trauma of the thorax
- for percussion and auscultation of underlying structures, e.g. sites for heart auscultation, percussion in Traube's space, etc.

# Structures in intercostal space
- several kinds of intercostal muscle
- intercostal arteries and associated veins
- lymphatics
- nerves

# Order of components
Comprehensive insight in the anatomy of the intercostal spaces is mandatory for everyone who practices medicine. One particular concept is that the neurovascular bundle has a strict order: V-A-N, or vein-artery-nerve, from top to bottom (as illustrated). This neurovascular bundle runs high in the intercostal space: therefore, the intercostal space should be penetrated as low as possible by invasive procedures.
In reference to the muscles of the thoracic wall, the intercostal nerves and vessels run just behind the internal intercostal muscles: therefore, they are generally covered on the inside by the parietal pleura, except when they are covered by the innermost intercostal muscles, subcostal muscles or the transversus thoracis muscle.
Intermediate host

# Overview
In parasitology, an intermediate host is an organism inside which a parasite does not sexually reproduce.  It may grow or reproduce asexually, but there is no exchange of genetic material between individuals. The definitive host is the host in which the parasite reproduces sexually. For example, the broad fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum develops in fish for part of its life cycle but only reproduces sexually when it is in a mammalian digestive tract, so its intermediate host is the fish and its definitive host is the mammal.
As the life cycles of many parasites are not well understood, sometimes the "more important" organism is arbitrarily defined as definitive, and this designation may continue even after it is determined to be incorrect. For example, sludge worms are sometimes considered "intermediate hosts" for whirling disease, even though it is known that the parasite causing the disease reproduces sexually inside them.
In Trichinella spiralis, the roundworm that causes trichinosis, a host has both reproductive adults in its digestive tract and immature juveniles in its muscles, and is therefore considered both an intermediate host and a definitive host.
Internal bleeding
Synonyms and keywords: Internal bleed

# Overview
Internal bleeding is bleeding occurring inside the body.
Internal bleeds are usually called hemorrhages, even though the term is general to all kinds of bleeds. A hemorrhage can occur near the colon due to large bowel movements.
A minor case of internal bleeding is ecchymosis (a bruise): blood expands under the skin, causing discoloration.

# Causes
It may be caused by high blood pressure (by causing blood vessel rupture) or other forms of injury, especially high speed deceleration occurring during an automobile accident, which can cause organ rupture. Also, internal bleeding can be caused by hitting or running against a sharp object in that area. Some diseases may also cause internal bleeding, such as the Filovirus Ebola. This infection, together with similar infections such as the Marburg virus, is fortunately rare.
The most common cause of internal bleeding is carcinoma (cancer), either of the gastro-intestinal tract or of the lung, or more rarely of other organs such as the prostate, pancreas or kidney. Peptic ulceration and non-malignant inflammatory conditions of the colon (large bowel) remain, at least in the high-stress environment of Western Society, significant and indeed increasingly common conditions.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Depending on where it occurs (e.g. brain, stomach, lungs), internal bleeding can be a serious medical emergency, potentially causing death if not given a proper treatment quickly.
Internal bleeding can be serious for two reasons:
- The blood can compress organs and cause their dysfunction (as can occur in hematoma).
- When it does not stop spontaneously, the loss of blood will cause hemorrhagic shock, which can lead to brain damage and death.

# Diagnosis
Medical investigation is necessary to identify internal bleeding.  The external signs are general signs of hypovolemic shock (see the article about shock for more information).
Testicular artery

# Overview
The testicular artery (the male gonadal artery, also called the internal spermatic arteries in older texts) is a branch of the abdominal aorta that supplies blood to the testis.  It is a paired artery, with one for each of the testes.
It is the male equivalent of the ovarian artery. Because the testis is found in a different location than that of its female equivalent, it has a different course than the ovarian artery.
They are two slender vessels of considerable length, and arise from the front of the aorta a little below the renal arteries.
Each passes obliquely downward and lateralward behind the peritoneum, resting on the Psoas major, the right spermatic lying in front of the inferior vena cava and behind the middle colic and ileocolic arteries and the terminal part of the ileum, the left behind the left colic and sigmoid arteries and the iliac colon.
Each crosses obliquely over the ureter and the lower part of the external iliac artery to reach the abdominal inguinal ring, through which it passes, and accompanies the other constituents of the spermatic cord along the inguinal canal to the scrotum, where it becomes tortuous, and divides into several branches.
Two or three of these accompany the ductus deferens, and supply the epididymis, anastomosing with the artery of the ductus deferens; others pierce the back part of the tunica albuginea, and supply the substance of the testis.
The internal spermatic artery supplies one or two small branches to the ureter, and in the inguinal canal gives one or two twigs to the Cremaster.

# Additional images
- Testicular artery of a bull (steer).
- The veins of the right half of the male pelvis.
- Spermatic veins.
- The relations of the viscera and large vessels of the abdomen.
- Transverse section through the left side of the scrotum and the left testis.
International SOS
International SOS provides medical assistance, healthcare, security and risk management services to private organisations and governments. Founded in 1985 as AEA International, International SOS now has 5000 employees, and carries out approximately one million medical and security interventions a year, including around 12,000 evacuations and repatriations 

# Organization
International SOS has nine regional centres  in Jakarta, Johannesburg, London, Moscow, Paris, Philadelphia, Singapore, Sydney and Tokyo  as well as a network of alarm centers. The centers are staffed by physicians, operations managers, multilingual coordinators and logistics support personnel. Approximately 35 percent of the organizations total workforce are medical professionals.

# History
AEA International was founded in 1985 by Pascal Rey-Herme and Arnaud Vaissie. The organisation focused specifically on providing medical care and consulting services to multinational companies operating in Asia Pacific. Over the following decade, the company grew from its base in Singapore and Indonesia into a pan-Asian corporation, creating operating companies in Hong Kong, Australia, Japan and mainland China. In 1995, AEA International launched subsidiaries in France and the USA. The organization was renamed International SOS in 1998. 

# References and footnotes
Intestinal villus

# Overview
Intestinal villi (singular: villus) are tiny, finger-like structures that protrude from the wall of the intestine and have additional extensions called microvilli  (singular: microvillus) which protrude from epithelial cells lining villi.  They increase the absorptive area of the intestinal wall. It is important that the food is absorbed at a considerably fast rate so as to allow more food to be absorbed.(If the process is too slow, the concentration of the blood in the blood vessels and the food will be equal, thus, diffusion will not occur.)Digested nutrients (including sugars and amino acids) pass into the villi through diffusion. Circulating blood then carries these nutrients away. 

# Function
In all humans, the villi and microvilli together increase intestinal absorptive surface area 30-fold and 600-fold, respectively, providing exceptionally efficient absorption of nutrients in the lumen. This increases the surface area of the intestine to around the area of a small parking lot or a tennis court.
There are also enzymes on the surface for digestion. Villus capillaries collect amino acids and simple sugars taken up by the villi into the blood stream. Villus lacteals collect absorbed fatty acids.

# Homologue of alveolus
Villi serve the same purpose as the alveoli in the lungs. Both increase surface area, which helps to increase the transfer rate of nutrients into the blood through diffusion, although alveoli also transfer wastes out. Alveoli transfer carbon dioxide out and oxygen into the bloodstream, while villi transfer digested food in.

# Additional images
- different stages of Coeliac Disease
Intravenous fluid

# Intravenous Fluid
There are two types of fluids that are used for intravenous drips; crystalloids and colloids. Crystalloids are aqueous solutions of mineral salts or other water-soluble molecules. Colloids contain larger insoluble molecules, such as gelatin; blood itself is a colloid.
The most commonly used crystalloid fluid is normal saline, a solution of sodium chloride at 0.9% concentration, which is close to the concentration in the blood (isotonic). Ringer's lactate or Ringer's acetate (ASERING, patented brandname of Otsuka Indonesia) is another isotonic solution often used for large-volume fluid replacement. A solution of 5% dextrose in water, sometimes called D5W, is often used instead if the patient is at risk for having low blood sugar or high sodium. The choice of fluids may also depend on the chemical properties of the medications being given.
Intravenous fluids must always be sterile.

## Crystalloid Fluids
Ringer's lactate also has 28 mmol/L lactate, 4 mmol/L K+ and 3 mmol/L Ca2+.
Ringer's acetate (ASERING) also has 28 mmol/L acetate, 4 mmol/L K+ and 3 mmol/L Ca2+.
Inversion therapy
Inversion therapy involves hanging upside down or at an inverted angle to use gravity to naturally decompress the joints of the body. In particular, it is often advertised as a relief for back pain.  However, it is rarely regarded as a serious treatment for back pain.
Hanging in this way, as with gravity boots or inversion tables, causes each joint in the body to be loaded in an equal and opposite manner to standing.
Proponents claim that inversion therapy is particularly beneficial for the spine in that it relieves pressure on the discs and nerve roots; this in turn allows discs to recover lost moisture and to return to their original shape, decreasing the pressure they can exert on nerves. Skeptics note that pressure is also relieved when lying down in bed.
Advertisements also claim that it stimulates circulation, improves posture, strengthens ligaments, increases oxygen flow to the brain and increases flexibility.
People who have heart disease, high blood pressure, eye diseases (such as glaucoma), or are pregnant are at higher risk for the dangers related to inversion therapy and should consult their doctors about it first, and would have to progress very slowly starting at very light levels of inversion. The first time anyone tries inversion therapy with gravity, he (or she) should be sure to have someone standing by, in case assistance is required to get out of the apparatus, or if health problems are experienced. With the use of swivel tables for inversion, this is no longer necessary as unlocking the table and putting your arms down by your sides will quickly right the invertor, though having an observer present in case of unconciousness is still a good idea.

# Trivia
- TV star Rosie O'Donnell has said that she uses inversion therapy to treat depression.
- Used by Richard Dean Anderson's title character in the 1980s television series MacGyver.
Iron(III) sulfate
Iron(III) sulfate, is a compund of Iron and sulfate (made of sulfur and oxygen atoms). The compound is different from the more common Iron(II) sulfate in that the ratio of sulfate ions to iron ions is larger.
Usually yellow, it is a rhombic crystalline salt and soluble in water at room temperature. It is used in dyeing as a mordant, and as a coagulant for industrial wastes. It is also used in pigments, and in pickling baths for aluminum and steel.  Medically it is used as an astringent and styptic.
Ferric sulfate is produced on a large scale by reacting sulfuric acid with a hot solution of ferrous sulfate, using an oxidizing agent (such as nitric acid or hydrogen peroxide).
In sewage plants it is used to assist in settling minute particles of untreated sewage in tank water.
Isopropyl acetate
Isopropyl acetate is an ester, an organic compound which is the product of condensation of acetic acid and isopropanol.  It is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic fruity odor.
Isopropyl acetate is a solvent with a wide variety of manufacturing uses that is miscible with most other organic solvents, and moderately soluble in water.  It is used as a solvent for cellulose, plastics, oil and fats.  It is a component of some printing inks and perfumes.
Isopropyl acetate decomposes slowly on contact with steel when exposed to air producing acetic acid and isopropanol. It reacts violently with oxidizing materials and it attacks many plastics.
James Winterstein
James F. Winterstein  Is a Chiropractor,  who was born April 8, 1963 to Arno Fredrick Winterstein and Ada Amanda Wagner, in Copperas Cove, TX. Dr. Winterstein is notable for becoming President of National University of Health Sciences, as well as his considerable contributions to the field of Chiropractic Radiology. He was married to Diane Bochmann, in 1963, until her passing in 2002, and they had four children. In 2010, he re-married, to the former Cynthia Sportelli.

# Biography
Dr. Winterstein attended the local schools, and became a Radiological technologist while serving in the US Army (1961-1964). After his discharge he attended what was then called National College of Chiropractic, and received his  DC degree  in 1968, graduating cum laude.
He completed a residency  program in Radiology at National College of Chiropractic, and was Board Certified in that specialty in June 1970.  As he was already a Radiologic technologist, he was employed at the college's clinic in Lombard, IL while a Radiologic Resident, and upon earning his Diplomate, was retained as clinic director for the Lombard clinic for the college. In 1971 he was promoted to the position of Chairman of the Diagnostic Imaging department for National College.
Entering private practice in 1968, he ran his own office until 1985, when the college asked him to work full time as Chief of Clinic's Staff, where he remained 1986, when he was installed as President of the college. During his distinguished tenure, National College attained University status and became National University of Health Sciences.

# Career
- 1964 - Received his  Radiologic Technologist certification.
- 1968-1985 - Private Practice of Chiropractic
- 1970 - Diplomate, American Chiropractic Board of Radiology (DACBR).
- 1971 - Chairman- Department of Diagnostic Imaging, National College of Chiropractic.
- 1983 - President - American Chiropractic College of Radiology
- 1985 - Chief of Clinics Staff.
- 1986 - President of National College of Chiropractic.
- 1992 - President - Council on Chiropractic Education - USA.
- 2004 - Chairman of the Board,Council on Chiropractic Education - USA.
Plus awards and citations for contributions to the Profession, far too numerous to list.