Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Angiokeratoma

# Overview
Angiokeratoma is benign cutaneous injury of capillaries, resulting in small lesions on the skin, typically having a red to blue color and characterized by hyperkeratosis.

# Classification
Angiokeratoma may be classified as:
- Angiokeratoma of Mibelli (also known as "Mibelli's angiokeratoma," "Telangiectatic warts") consists of 1- to 5-mm red vascular papules, the surfaces of which become hyperkeratotic in the course of time.:589 The disease is named after Italian dermatologist Vittorio Mibelli (1860-1910).
- Angiokeratoma of Fordyce (also known as "Angiokeratoma of the scrotum and vulva," though not to be confused with Fordyce's spots) is a skin condition characterized by red to blue papules on the scrotum or vulva.
- Solitary angiokeratoma is a small, bluish-black, warty papule that occurs predominantly on the lower extremities.:590
- Verrucous vascular malformation (also known as "Angiokeratoma circumscriptum naeviforme") is a malformation of dermal and subcutaneous capillaries and veins, a congenital vascular malformation, which, over time, a verrucous component appears.:584

# Diagnosis

### Physical Examination
Lower Extremity
- Solitary angiokeratoma. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Solitary angiokeratoma. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Solitary angiokeratoma. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Solitary angiokeratoma. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Circumscriptum. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.{{Cite
- Angiokeratoma Of The Scrotum  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Angiokeratoma Of The Scrotum  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Angiokeratoma Of The Scrotum  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Angiokeratoma Of The Scrotum  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
Anita Harding

# Overview
Anita Harding (September 17, 1952 - September 11, 1995) was a British neurologist.
Anita Harding made several significant contributions especially in the field of inherited neurologic disorders. Her major achievements are the classification of the peripheral neuropathies and hereditary ataxias, the first identification of a mitochondrial DNA mutation in human disease and the identification of trinucleotide repeats in degenerative neurologic diseases (e.g. Huntington's disease). She has also worked extensively on the population genetics of disorders with ethnic distribution.
She died of cancer at the age of 42 just before she was to take up the Chair in Clinical Neurology at the Institute of Neurology in Queen Square, London.  On learning of her terminal condition she is said to have responded impishly, 'At least I won't have to buy Windows 95'.
In 1995 she was posthumously awarded the Association of British Neurologists Medal for her contributions to the science of neurology.
Anita Roberts

# Overview
Anita B. Roberts, (April 3, 1942  May 26, 2006) was a molecular biologist who made pioneering observations of a protein, TGF beta, that is critical in healing wounds and bone fractures and that has a dual role in blocking or stimulating cancers. Roberts was the 49th most-cited scientist in the world and the second most-cited female scientist as of 2005.
Roberts was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where she grew up. She attended Oberlin College and earned her doctorate in biochemistry from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1968. After postdoctoral work at Harvard Medical School, Dr. Roberts joined the National Cancer Institute in 1976. From 1995 to 2004, she served as Chief of the institute's , and continued her research until her death in 2006.
In the early-1980s, Dr. Roberts and her colleagues at the National Cancer Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland began to experiment with the protein, called T.G.F.-beta, short for transforming growth factor beta.
Dr. Roberts isolated the protein from bovine kidney tissue and compared her results with T.G.F.-beta taken from human blood platelets and placental tissue. Institute researchers then began a series of experiments to determine the protein's characteristics. They discovered that it helps play a central role in signaling other growth factors in the body to heal wounds and fractures speedily.
T.G.F.-beta was later shown to have an effect on regulation of the heartbeat and the response of the eye to aging.
In later research, Dr. Roberts and others found that T.G.F.-beta inhibits the growth of some cancers while stimulating growth in advanced cancers, including cancers of the breast and lung.
Dr. Roberts was a former president of the Wound Healing Society. In 2005, she was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
In an ironic twist of fate, after over 25 years of cancer research, Roberts was diagnosed with stage IV gastric cancer in March 2004. She received a degree of fame in the cancer community for her blog, detailing her daily struggles with the disease. She died on May 26, 2006.

# Awards and Recognition
Dr. Roberts has been the recipient of several awards for her contributions to the field of science. These include:
- FASEB Excellence in Science Award - 2005
- Leopold Griffuel Prize
- Komen Brinker Award for Scientific Distinction - 2005
Anthracycline

# Overview
Anthracyclines are a class of chemotherapeutic agents based upon samine and tetra-hydro-naphthacene-dione. These compounds are used to treat a wide range of cancers, including (but not limited to) leukemias, lymphomas, and breast, uterine, ovarian, and lung cancers.

# Examples
Available agents include:
- Daunorubicin
- Daunorubicin (liposomal)
- Doxorubicin
- Doxorubicin (liposomal)
- Epirubicin
- Idarubicin
- Mitoxantrone
Anthracyclines technically are also antibiotics, although their high toxicity precludes their use as such.

# Mechanism of action
Anthracyclines inhibit DNA and RNA synthesis by intercalating between base pairs of the DNA/RNA strand, thus preventing the replication of rapidly-growing cancer cells.
They also create iron-mediated free oxygen radicals that damage the DNA and cell membranes.
Anthracyclines are also capable if inhibiting topoisomerase II enzymes, preventing DNA from relieving torsional stress during replication.

# Cardiotoxicity
As well as many of the expected adverse reactions of chemotherapeutic agents, anthracyclines are notorious for causing cardiotoxicity. This cardiotoxicity may be caused by many factors, which may include interference with the ryanodine receptors of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in the heart muscle cells, free radical formation in the heart or from buildup of metabolic products of the anthracycline in the heart.  The cardioxicity often presents as EKG changes and arrhythmias, or as a cardiomyopathy leading to congestive heart failure (sometimes presenting many years after treatment).  This cardiotoxicity is related to a patient's cumulative lifetime dose.  A patient's lifetime dose is calculated during treatment, and anthracycline treatment is usually stopped (or at least re-evaluated by the oncologist) upon reaching the maximum cumulative dose of the particular anthracycline.
There exists evidence that the affect of cardiotoxicity increases in long term survivors, from 2% after 2 years to 5% after 15 years. 
Dexrazoxane is a cardioprotectant agent that is sometimes used to reduce the risk of cardiotoxicity.  Liposomal formulations of daunorubicin and doxorubicin have been approved that appear to be somewhat less toxic to cardiac tissue.
Antisense RNA
Antisense RNA (aRNA) is single-stranded RNA that is complementary to a messenger RNA (mRNA) strand transcribed within a cell. Antisense RNA may be introduced into a cell to inhibit translation of a complementary mRNA by base pairing to it and physically obstructing the translation machinery. This effect is therefore stoichiometric. An example of naturally occurring mRNA antisense mechanism is the hok/sok system of the E.coli R1 plasmid. Antisense RNA has long been thought of as a promising technique for disease therapy; the only such case to have reached the market is the drug fomivirsen.
Historically, the effects of antisense RNA have often been confused with the effects of RNA interference, a related process in which double-stranded RNA fragments called small interfering RNAs trigger catalytically mediated gene silencing, most typically by targeting the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) to bind to and degrade the mRNA. Attempts to genetically engineer transgenic plants to express antisense RNA instead activate the RNAi pathway, although the processes result in differing magnitudes of the same downstream effect, gene silencing. Well-known examples include the Flavr Savr tomato and two cultivars of ringspot-resistant papaya.
Antisense RNA is a relative term to sense RNA. These two terms basicly mean that both RNAs are complementary to each other (i.e. antisense RNA is complementary to sense RNA).
Sympatholytic

# Overview
A sympatholytic is a medication which inhibits the functioning of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). They are used as antihypertensives.
They mainly comprise antiadrenergic agents, but also anticholinergics in the case of the nicotinic antagonist, since nicotinic receptors relay the signals of the SNS across the ganglia.

# Antiadrenergic
Antiadrenergic agents inhibit the signals of adrenaline and noradrenaline. They are mainly adrenergic antagonists, inhibiting adrenergic receptors, but there are exceptions: clonidine is an adrenergic agonist on the 2 receptor, since this receptor is located presynaptically to inhibit further release of adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Other ways of inhibiting adrenergic signaling is by catecholamine synthesis blocking, e.g. by methyltyrosine. Reserpine works by inhibiting transport into synaptic vesicles of noradrenaline by inhibiting the VMAT transporter.

## In hypotension
Many antiadrenergic agents used as antihypertensives include:
- centrally acting:
Clonidine (2 agonist)
Guanfacine (2 agonist)
Methyldopa (2 agonist)
Moxonidine (imidazoline receptor agonist)
Rescinnamine (ACE inhibitor)
Reserpine (VMAT inhibitor)
Rilmenidine (imidazoline receptor agonist)
- Clonidine (2 agonist)
- Guanfacine (2 agonist)
- Methyldopa (2 agonist)
- Moxonidine (imidazoline receptor agonist)
- Rescinnamine (ACE inhibitor)
- Reserpine (VMAT inhibitor)
- Rilmenidine (imidazoline receptor agonist)
- ganglion-blocking
Mecamylamine (34 nicotinic receptor inhibitor)
Trimethaphan (ganglion type receptor inhibitor)
- Mecamylamine (34 nicotinic receptor inhibitor)
- Trimethaphan (ganglion type receptor inhibitor)
- peripherally acting
Prazosin (1 antagonist)
Guanethidine (Magnesium-ATPase inhibitor)
Indoramin (1 antagonist)
Doxazosin (alpha blocker)
- Prazosin (1 antagonist)
- Guanethidine (Magnesium-ATPase inhibitor)
- Indoramin (1 antagonist)
- Doxazosin (alpha blocker)
Antiflatulent
An antiflatulent agent is a drug used for the alleviation or prevention of excessive intestinal gas, i.e. flatulence.

# Mechanisms of Action
For the alleviation of flatulence, an antifoaming agent such as simethicone may be taken orally. This agent will coalesce the smaller gas bubbles into larger bubbles, thereby easing the release of gas within the gastrointestinal tract via burping or flatulence.
For the prevention of flatulence, an enzyme-based dietary supplement may be helpful. Substances indigestible by humans are usually present in foods associated with flatulence.  When these substances reach the large intestine intact, they may be fermented by intestinal bacteria, thereby causing gas production.  These enzyme-based dietary supplements work by breaking down these indigestible substances and preventing these substances from reaching the large intestine intact.  These supplements are usually taken with foods associated with flatulence. It is important to take the appropriate enzyme with the appropriate food. When consuming beans and other vegetables high in complex carbohydrates, it may be helpful to take a product that contains alpha-galactosidase, such as Beano. Additionally, for individuals with lactose intolerance, taking a lactase-containing product with lactose-containing foodstuffs may reduce flatulence.

# Members

## Antifoaming Agents
- Simethicone

## Enzyme-based Dietary Supplements
- Beano
- Lactase (brand Lactaid)

## Herbal Antiflatulents
- Epazote is claimed to have antiflatulent properties, and is used in traditional Mexican cuisine for this reason.
Antipokhmelin
Antipokhmelin is a Russian tablet that helps to prevent or overcome the negative effects of alcohol consumption and hangover. The main ingredient is succinic acid, also found in amber. It is marketed as RU-21 in the US and UK. Claims of effectiveness are based primarily on anecdotal evidence, and there have been  no known placebo controlled double blind studies published in peer reviewed scientific journals.
RU-21 was developed by Prof. Eugene Mayevski at the Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics (division of the Russian Academy of Sciences), where the product was also clinically tested. Further tests were conducted at the Russian Ministry of Public Health. The tests confirmed the effects of RU-21 on the body's ability to metabolize alcohol. The legend behind the product's history attributes the development of RU-21 to the KGB. An urban legend surrounding RU-21 is that KGB operatives sought a chemical compound that would allow them to drink heavily with suspected Western intelligence agents, in the Soviet Union or the West, and not get drunk. At the same time, according to the legend, the Western agent would become intoxicated and (hopefully) reveal secrets to the KGB agent, who would simply be pretending to be drunk and in fact be perfectly lucid. The legend states that while this did not work, KGB agents discovered that the tablet did have an unpredicted side-effect; the apparent ability to lessen a hangover. While there is some truth to this legend (the KGB did conduct some alcohol-related tests involving key ingredients in RU-21, most notably the Succinic Acid), KGB has no role in commercializing this product.
After its successful launch in the USA, RU-21 quickly gained international distribution and became somewhat of a cultural phenomenon. While there were no articles published in peer-reviewed journals, RU-21 has achieved recognition among consumers through word-of-mouth and also through strong endorsements from publications, such as GQ, Rolling Stone and NY Post. 
According to the latest rumors, the brand is being acquired by a larger company that plans to market a new formula under the brand RU-21.
sv:KGB (bakfyllemedel)
Antispasmodic

# Overview
An antispasmodic (synonym: spasmolytic) is a drug that suppresses smooth muscle contraction, especially in tubular organs. The effect is to prevent spasms of the stomach, intestine or urinary bladder.

# Examples
Both dicyclomine and hyoscyamine are antispasmodic due to their anticholinergic action. Both of these drugs have general side effects and can worsen gastroesophageal reflux disease.
Peppermint oil has been traditionally used as an antispasmodic, and a review of studies on the topic found that it "could be efficacious for symptom relief in IBS" (as an antispasmodic) although more carefully controlled studies are needed. A later study showed it is an effective antispasmodic when test-applied topically to the intestine during endoscopy.
The flower Liatris, also called blazing star, has also been used as an antispasmodic.  Another old common name for this plant is Colic Root, alluding to its medicinal use as an antispasmodic for the intestines.
Antonio Gotto
Dr. Antonio Gotto is Dean of Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University. Prior to accepting the deanship in 1994, Dr. Gotto was chairman of the department of internal medicine at Baylor College of Medicine for twenty years, where he collaborated extensively with Michael DeBakey. As a cardiologist, Dr. Gotto is best known for his research into lipids. As an administrator at Cornell, Gotto has presided over an enormous growth at Cornell, an affiliation with Houston's Methodist Hospital when it separated from Baylor, and a deepening of Cornell's longime affiliation with New York Hospital after it merged with Columbia Presbyterian to become New York-Presbyterian Hospital.
After obtaining his bachelor's degree from Vanderbilt, Dr. Gotto attended Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar. He graduated from Vanderbilt's medical school.
Among other appointments, Dr Gotto chairs the Committee on Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases (CCMD), a multifaceted educational initiative dedicated to creating continuing medical education (CME) programs that underscore the importance of managing cardiovascular and metabolic diseases 
He is married with three girls and lives in New York City and Houston, TX.
Aortic arches

# Overview
The aortic arches are a series of six paired embryological vascular structures which give rise to several major arteries. They are ventral to the dorsal aorta.

# Specific arches

## Arches 1 and 2
The first and second arches disappear early, but the dorsal end of the second gives origin to the stapedial artery, a vessel which atrophies in humans but persists in some mammals. It passes through the ring of the stapes and divides into supraorbital, infraorbital, and mandibular branches which follow the three divisions of the trigeminal nerve. The infraorbital and mandibular arise from a common stem, the terminal part of which anastomoses with the external carotid.
On the obliteration of the stapedial artery this anastomosis enlarges and forms the internal maxillary artery, and the branches of the stapedial artery are now branches of this vessel.
The common stem of the infraorbital and mandibular branches passes between the two roots of the auriculotemporal nerve and becomes the middle meningeal artery; the original supraorbital branch of the stapedial is represented by the orbital twigs of the middle meningeal.

## Arch 3
The third aortic arch constitutes the commencement of the internal carotid artery, and is therefore named the carotid arch.

## Arch 4
The fourth right arch forms the right subclavian as far as the origin of its internal mammary branch; while the fourth left arch constitutes the arch of the aorta between the origin of the left carotid artery and the termination of the ductus arteriosus.

## Arch 5
The fifth arch disappears on both sides.

## Arch 6
The sixth right arch disappears; the sixth left arch gives off the pulmonary arteries and forms the ductus arteriosus; this duct remains pervious during the whole of fetal life, but is obliterated a few days after birth.
His showed that in the early embryo the right and left arches each gives a branch to the lungs, but that later both pulmonary arteries take origin from the left arch.

# Additional images
- Diagram showing the origins of the main branches of the carotid arteries.
Apex predator

# Overview
Apex predators (also alpha predators, superpredators, or top-level predators) are predators that, as adults, are not normally preyed upon in the wild in significant parts of their range. Apex predator species are often at the end of long food chains, where they have a crucial role in maintaining the health of ecosystems.

# Definition
The term has been defined in terms of trophic levels. Trophic levels are "hierarchical strata of a food web characterized by organisms which are the same number of steps removed from the primary producers." Primary, secondary, tertiary, and higher level consumers occupy successive trophic levels. One study of marine food webs defined apex predators as greater than trophic level four. In land environments with far shorter food chains, for example, lions preying upon zebras which eat grass illustrate that a superpredator may be an animal at the third trophic level.

# Ecological role
That apex predators affect prey species' population dynamics is clear. Research has shown, for instance, that where two competing species are in an ecologically unstable relationship, apex predators tend to create stability if they prey upon both. Inter-predator relationships are also affected by apex status. Non-native fishes, for example, have been known to devastate formerly dominant predators. One lake manipulation study found that when the non-native smallmouth bass was removed, lake trout, the suppresed native apex predator, diversified its prey selection and increased its trophic level.
Effects on wider ecosystem characteristics, such as plant ecology, have been debated, but there is evidence of a significant impact by apex predators: introduced arctic foxes, for example, have been shown to turn subarctic islands from grassland into tundra through predation on seabirds. Such wide-ranging effects on lower levels of an ecosystem are termed trophic cascades. The removal of top-level predatorsoften through human agencycan radically cause (or disrupt) trophic cascades.
ApoA-1 Milano
A naturally-occurring mutated strain of the apoA-1 protein found in human HDL. First identified by Cesare Sirtori in Milan, it has been shown to significantly reduce arterial plaque.
Discovered by accident, the mutation was found to be present in about 3.5% of a tiny village called Limone sul Garda in northern Italy. It has been traced to a mutation in a single man living in the village in the 1700s.
Due to its enormous apparent efficacy, some have speculated that development of synthetic apoA-1 Milano may be a key factor in eradicating coronary heart disease.
No drugs are currently commercially available based on apoA-1 Milano. Rights to apoA-1 Milano were acquired in 2003 by Pfizer. Clinically known as ETC-216, Pfizer has not moved trials forward, posssibley because the drug must be administred intravenously, thus limiting its application as compared to oral medications.