Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Cystercosis

# Background
Cystercosis is a rare and recently recognized disease that affects the human nervous system.

# Etiology
Cystercosis is caused by consuming the larval form of the parasitic tapeworm Taenia solium.  The larvae eventually affect the muscles and brain, and moving larvae can be detected in the affected person's eyes.  In the brain, the larvae can severely damage the frontal lobe and cause personality changes.
The disease has been found in a small number of patients in Mexico.  It is not directly contagious between humans; it apparently spreads when people eat fruit and vegetables that have been contaminated with pig feces.
However, it is extremely rare in First World countries like the U.S., which have strict laws that forbid farmers from allowing pigs to graze in fields where food is grown.

# Incubation
The period of incubation for cystercosis is unclear.  It can take from two weeks to ten years for a person to fully develop the disease.

# Symptoms
The most common symptom among patients of this disease is mood swings. These might lead people who suffer cystercosis to act strange during certain days. It is recommended that one visit a doctor if one, or a close friend or relative, has visited Mexico and eaten fruits or vegetables there and begin to act in an improper or out of place manner.
On 8 December 2004, Kevin Keogh, the chief financial officer of the city of Phoenix, Arizona, died from a bizarre stunt thought to have been induced by cystercosis (he had contracted it while traveling in Mexico two years earlier).  He climbed onto the roof of his moving car after setting the cruise control to around 50 miles per hour.  He then "surfed" on the top of his car, then jumped and fell to his death.

# Treatment
As with all serious brain damage, there is no direct treatment available for cystercosis.  Patients are sometimes given antidepressants to help with the mood swings and psychotherapy to help them resist irrational impulses.
Cystic acne
Cystic acne, also known as nodulocystic acne, is a severe form of acne wherein acne develops into small cysts. Acne cysts are not true cysts in the sense that they are not abnormal dilations of skin structure, but rather nodules of inflammation. Although not uncommon, it is rarer than other types of acne. Like other forms, it is caused by an excess buildup of sebum in the pores and, contrary to popular belief, is not caused by, nor is it affected by, hygiene or the lack thereof. A common treatment for cystic acne is Isotretinoin, which cures most acne in about 90% of patients.
Cystic acne can affect the face, chest, back, shoulders and, occasionally, upper arms. Like pimples, which are more common, cysts are usually filled with a white pus-like substance. They are usually several centimeters in diameter, and can be quite painful.
If cystic acne is not treated early on, especially with antibiotics along with a topical cream, some degree of scarring will occur. This can be quite severe depending on the case. Although many scars can be treated, scars on the body often do not respond as well as those on the face. In most cases, it is unlikely that all scars can be removed. After cysts have mostly healed, macules, or "pseudo scars" may form. Macules are red patches of skin, sometimes raised slightly, where cysts used to be, and may resemble cysts in their appearance. They are sometimes known as "pseudo scars" because they resemble scars, but unlike true ones, macules usually only last up to six months and leave no permanent scar.
Cystic duct

# Overview
The cystic duct is the short duct that joins the gall bladder to the common bile duct. It usually lies next to the cystic artery.  It is of variable length.  It contains a 'spiral valve', which does not provide much resistance to the flow of bile.

# Function
Bile can flow in both directions between the gallbladder and the common hepatic duct and the (common) bile duct.
In this way, bile is stored in the gallbladder in between meal times and released after a fatty meal.

# Clinical significance
During a cholecystectomy, the cystic duct is clipped two or three times and a cut is made between the clips, freeing the gallbladder to be taken out.

# Additional images
- The gall-bladder and bile ducts laid open.
- The portal vein and its tributaries.
Diglyceride

# Overview
A diglyceride, more correctly known as a diacylglycerol, is a glyceride consisting of two fatty acid chains covalently bonded to a glycerol molecule through ester linkages.
Shown on the right is 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol but diacylglycerol can have many different combinations of fatty acids attached at the C-1 and C-2 positions.

# Food Additive
Mono- and Diacylglycerols are common food additives used to blend together certain ingredients, such as oil and water, which would not otherwise blend well.
The commercial source may be either animal (cow- or hog-derived) or vegetable, derived primarily from soy bean and canola oil. They may also be synthetically produced. They are often found in bakery products, beverages, ice cream, chewing gum, shortening, whipped toppings, margarine, and confections.

# Function

## Activate PKC
In biochemical signaling, diacylglycerol (DAG) functions as a second messenger signaling lipid, a resultant of a reaction conducted by enzyme phospholipase C (PLC) (a membrane-bound enzyme) that, through the same reaction, produces inositol triphosphate (IP3). Although inositol triphosphate (IP3) diffuses into the cytosol, diacylglycerol (DAG) stays close to the plasma membrane, due to its hydrophobic properties. IP3 stimulates the release of calcium ions from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, whereas DAG is still membrane-associated and activates protein kinase C (PKC). However, for DAG to activate PKC, there needs to be a cytosolic increase in calcium ions, which is accomplished by IP3.
Diacylglycerol can be mimicked by phorbol esters.
Further reading: function of PKC

## Other
In addition to activating PKC, diacylglycerol has a number of other functions in the cell:
- a source for prostaglandins
- a precursor of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol
- an activator of a subfamily of TRPC (Transient Receptor Potential Canonical) cation channels, TRPC3/6/7.

# Metabolism
Synthesis of diacylglycerol begins with glycerol-3-phosphate, which is derived primarily from dihydroxyacetone phosphate, a product of glycolysis (usually in the cytoplasm of liver or adipose tissue cells). Glycerol-3-phosphate is first acylated with acyl-coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) to form lysophosphatidic acid, which is then acylated with another molecule of acyl-CoA to yield phosphatidic acid. Phosphatidic acid is then de-phosphorylated to form diacylglycerol.
Diacylglycerol is a precursor to triacylglycerol (triglyceride), which is formed in the addition of a third fatty acid to the diacylglycerol under the catalysis of diglyceride acyltransferase.
Since diacylglycerol is synthesized via phosphatidic acid, it will usually contain a saturated fatty acid at the C-1 position on the glycerol moiety and an unsaturated fatty acid at the C-2 position. 

# Additional images
- PIP2 cleavage to IP3 and DAG initiates intracellular calcium release and PKC activation.
DARS (gene)
Aspartyl-tRNA synthetase, cytoplasmic is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DARS gene.
Aspartyl-tRNA synthetase (DARS) is part of a multienzyme complex of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases.  Aspartyl-tRNA synthetase charges its cognate tRNA with aspartate during protein biosynthesis.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in DARS have been identified as the cause of leukoencephalopathy, hypomyelination with brain stem and spinal cord involvement and leg spasticity (HBSL).
Dalcetrapib

# Overview
Dalcetrapib or JTT-705 is a CETP inhibitor which was being developed by HoffmannLa Roche until May 2012.  The drug was aimed at raising the blood levels of "good cholesterol" (cholesterol carried in HDL particles, aka HDL-C).  Prevailing observations indicate that high HDL levels correlate with better overall cardiovascular health, though it remains unclear whether raising HDL levels consequently leads to an increase in cardiovascular health.

# Development and Research
A 24 week clinical trial showed that dalcetrapib did increase HDL-C levels, supporting the agent's desired effect.  Further, the dal-PLAQUE phase IIb trial found evidence of plaque reduction.  Plaque reduction is an anticipated observation following an increase in HDL.
As of 2010 five phase II trials had started and there was no evidence of the raised blood pressure seen with torcetrapib.
dal-VESSEL phase IIb trial found no evidence of flow-mediated dilatation improvement.  A 17% increase of Lp-PLA2 mass level was noted.  Lp-PLA2 is associated with coronary heart disease and stroke.
dal-OUTCOMES phase III trial passed its first interim review in July, 2011, however, development was halted on May 7, 2012 due to a lack of clinically meaningful efficacy. The results of dal-OUTCOMES III were published in November, 2012.
Hypersomnia

# Overview
Hypersomnia is excessive amount of sleepiness. Hypersomnia is characterized by recurrent episodes of Excessive Daytime Sleepiness or prolonged nighttime sleep. Different from feeling tired due to lack of or interrupted sleep at night, persons with hypersomnia are compelled to nap repeatedly during the day, often at inappropriate times such as at work, during a meal, or in conversation. These daytime naps usually provide no relief from symptoms. Patients often have difficulty waking from a long sleep, and may feel disoriented.  Other symptoms may include anxiety, increased irritation, decreased energy, restlessness, slow thinking, slow speech, loss of appetite, hallucinations, and memory difficulty. Some patients lose the ability to function in family, social, occupational, or other settings.
Hypersomnia may be caused by another sleep disorder (such as narcolepsy or sleep apnea), dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system, or drug or alcohol abuse. In some cases it results from a physical problem, such as a tumor, head trauma, or injury to the central nervous system. Certain medications, or medicine withdrawal, may also cause hypersomnia. Medical conditions including multiple sclerosis, depression, encephalitis, epilepsy, or obesity may contribute to the disorder. Some people appear to have a genetic predisposition to hypersomnia; in others, there is no known cause. Hypersomnia typically affects adolescents and young adults, although the most common causes of the condition for the two age cohorts differ.

# Diagnosis
An adult is considered to have hypersomnia if he or she sleeps more than 10 hours per day on a regular basis for at least two weeks.

# Causes
Hypersomnia can be caused by genetics (heredity), brain damage, and disorders such as clinical depression, uremia and fibromyalgia. Hypersomnia can also be a symptom of other sleep disorders such as narcolepsy, sleep apnea, and restless leg syndrome.
People who are overweight may be more likely to suffer from hypersomnia. This can often exacerbate weight problems as excessive sleeping decreases metabolic energy consumption, making weight loss more difficult.
Another possible cause is an infection of mononucleosis, as several instances of  hypersomnia have been found to arise immediately after such an infection (Dr. Givan, MD, Riley Hospital).
In some instances, the cause of the hypersomnia cannot be determined; in these cases, it is considered to be idiopathic  hypersomnia or if accompanied by metaphagia and hypersexual behavior may be due to Klein-Levin syndrome as a diagnosis of exclusion.

# Treatment
Treatment is symptomatic in nature. Stimulants, such as amphetamine, methylphenidate, and modafinil, may be prescribed. Other drugs used to treat hypersomnia include clonidine, levodopa, bromocriptine, antidepressants, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Changes in behavior (for example avoiding night work and social activities that delay bed time) and diet may offer some relief. Patients should avoid alcohol and caffeine.
Photophobia
Synonyms and keywords: Light sensitivity; Vision-light sensitive; Eyes-sensitivity to light

# Overview
Photophobia (also light sensitivity) or fear of light, is a symptom of excessive sensitivity to light and the aversion to sunlight or well-lit places. In medical terms, it is not fear, but an experience of discomfort or pain to the eyes due to light exposure.

# Pathophysiology
Light sensitivity is usually due to too much light entering the eye, which causes over stimulation of the photoreceptors in the retina and subsequent excessive electric impulses to the optic nerve. This leads to a reflex aversion to light, and discomfort or pain. 
Too much light can enter the eye if it is damaged, such as with corneal abrasion and retinal damage, or if a pupil(s) is unable to normally constrict (seen with damage to the oculomotor nerve).

# Causes
Patients may develop photophobia as a result of several different medical conditions related to the eye or the nervous system.
- Albinism
- Anticholinergic drugs may cause photophobia by paralyzing the iris sphincter muscle.
- Aphakia
- Burns to the eye
- Cataracts
- Chiari malformation
- Chikungunya
- Conjunctivitis
- Conjunctivitis
- Corneal abrasion
- Corneal ulcer
- Cystinosis
- Drugs such as Atropine, Cyclopentolate, Hydroxypropyl cellulose, Doxercalciferol, Metipranolol, Nabilone, Nilutamide, Nitisinone, Pramipexole, Travoprost, Trimethadione
- Encephalitis
- Encephalitis
- Eye disease, injury, or infection such as chalazion, episcleritis, glaucoma, keratoconus
- Hangover
- Idiopathic anterior uveitis/iritis
- Influenza
- Iritis
- Keraconjunctivitis sicca (dry eye)
- Lightly pigmented eye
- Meningitis
- Migraines
- Mydriatic use
- Retinal detachment
- Subarachnoid haemorrhage

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
Patients with photophobia will avert their eyes from direct light (sunlight and room lights), or may seek the shelter of a dark room or wear sunglasses.
- Pain in the eye
- Headache
- Nausea
- Neck stiffness
- Blurred vision
- Sore or wound in eye
- Redness
- Itching
- Swelling
- Dizziness
- Numbness or tingling elsewhere in the body
- Changes in hearing
Photophobia is also a behavior demonstrated by insects or other animals which seek to stay out of the light.

## Physical Examination

### Eye
- Swelling
Plasminogen
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# Overview
Plasminogen is the precurser of plasmin, converts fibrin to soluble products.   

# Differential Diagnosis
Deficiency
- Acquired
- DIC
- Fibrinolytic therapy
- Hyperfibrinolysis
- Physiologic in newborns
- Severe liver damage
- Hereditary
Increased
- Acute-phase-reaction
- Diabetes Mellitus
- Oral Contraceptives
- Pregnancy
Demecolcine

# Overview
Demecolcine, also known as colcemid, is a drug used in chemotherapy.It is closely related to the natural alkaloid colchicine with the replacement of the acetyl group on the amino moiety with methyl, but it is less toxic. It depolymerises microtubules and limits microtubule formation (inactivates spindle fibre formation), thus arresting cells in metaphase and allowing cell harvest and karyotyping to be performed.
During cell division Demecolcine inhibits mitosis at metaphase by inhibiting spindle formation. Medically Demecolcine has been used to improve the results of cancer radiotherapy by synchronising tumour cells at metaphase, the radiosensitive stage of the cell cycle. 
In animal cloning procedures Demecolcine makes an ovum eject its nucleus, creating space for insertion of a new nucleus.

# Mechanism of Action
Demecolcine is a microtubule-depolymerizing drug like vinblastine. It acts by two distinct mechanisms. At very low concentration it binds to microtubule plus end to suppress microtubule dynamics. Recent study has found at  higher concentration colcemid  can promote microtubule detachment from microtubule organizing center. Detached microtubules with unprotected minus end depolymerizes with time. Cytotoxicity of the cells seems to correlate better with microtubule detachment. Lower concentration affects microtubule dynamics and cell migration.
Dendralenes
Dendralenes are discrete acyclic cross-conjugated polyenes. The simplest dendralene is butadiene (1) or dendralene followed by dendralene (2), dendralene (3) and dendralene (4) and so forth.
The name dendralene is pulled together from the words dendrimer, linear and alkene. The higher dendralenes are of scientific interest because they open up a large array of new organic compounds from a relatively simple precursor especially by Diels-Alder chemistry. Their cyclic counterparts are aptly called radialenes.
One synthetic route to dendralene starts from chloroprene. This compound is converted to a Grignard reagent by action of magnesium metal which is then reacted with copper(I) chloride to an organocopper intermediate which is in turn dimerized in an oxidative coupling reaction to the butadiene dimer with copper(II) chloride.

# Diels-Alder reactions
dendralene shows a tandem Diels-Alder reaction with the dienophile N-methyl-maleimide or NMM. Complete site selectivity is possible with the addition of the lewis acid methyldichloroaluminium. With one set of premixing and 2 equivalents of NMM the central diene group is targeted to the monoadduct 3. With another set and a larger amount of dienophile the terminal groups react and the reaction proceeds from the monoadduct to the trisadducts 2 and 2b.
Dennis Bray
Dr. Dennis Bray is an active emeritus professor at University of Cambridge. His group is also part of the Oxford Centre for Integrative Systems Biology. After a first career in Neurobiology, working on cell growth and movement, Dennis Bray moved in Cambridge to develop computational models of cell signaling, in particular in relation to bacterial chemotaxis.
On November 3, 2006, he was awarded the Microsoft European Science Award for his work on chemotaxis of E. coli. 

# Books
- Essential Cell Biology (2003) (with Bruce Alberts, Karen Hopkin, Alexander Jonhson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, Peter Walter) ISBN-10: 081533480X, ISBN-13: 978-0815334804
- Cell Movements: From Molecules to Motility (2000) ISBN-10: 0815332823, ISBN-13: 978-0815332824
- Essential Cell Biology: An Introduction to the Molecular Biology of the Cell (1997) (with Bruce Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, Peter Walter) ISBN-10: 0815329717, ISBN-13: 978-0815329718
- Molecular Biology of the Cell (1994) (with Bruce Alberts, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, James D. Watson) ISBN-10: 0815319274, ISBN-13: 978-0815319276
- Cell Movements (1992) ISBN-10: 0815307179, ISBN-13: 978-0815307174
- Molecular Biology of the Cell (1989) (with Bruce Alberts, Keith Roberts, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff) ISBN-10: 0824036956, ISBN-13: 9780824036959
Dequalinium

# Overview
Dequalinium is a quaternary ammonium cation commonly available as the dichloride salt. The bromide, iodide, acetate, and undecenoate salts are known as well. Dequalinium chloride is the active ingredient of several medications:
Dequadin an antiseptic and disinfectant. It is a topical bacteriostat. It is used in wound dressings and mouth infections and may also have antifungal action. It may cause skin ulceration.
Fluomizin, vaginal tablets containing 10 mg dequalinium chloride, are used for treating vaginal bacterial conditions (i.e. Bacterial Vaginosis).
The dequalinium dication is symmetrical, containing two quaternary quinolinium units linked by a dodecylene chain.

# Applications
Dequalinium salts may be used to treat malaria. As dequalinium chloride, it can be used in lozenges to cure sore throats however while this is effective in vitro, it is not effective in cases of streptococci infections
Dermorphine
Dermorphine is a hepta-peptide that sometimes is found in human blood and urine.
It is a highly potent mu-agonist, originally isolated from the skin of the South American frog Phyllomedusa sauvaei. This peptide is quite difficult for the body to break down, and is thought to cause or worsen mental illness.
Where dermorphine comes from is still a mystery, but it is clear that its source is microbial. The reason for this is that one of the amino acids in this peptide is not among the 20 encoded by DNA and cannot be produced by higher organisms. The guess is that bacteria or molds are responsible.
- Structure of dermorphine: H-Tyr-D-Ala-Phe-Gly-Tyr-Pro-Ser-NH2
- Chemical formula: C40H50N8O10
- Molecular weight: 802.9 g/mol
Desiccation

# Overview
Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying.  A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains such a state in its local vicinity in a moderately-well sealed container.

# Science

## Desiccator
In science, a desiccator is a heavy glass or plastic container used in practical chemistry for making or keeping small amounts of material very dry. The material is placed on a shelf, and a drying agent or desiccant, such as dry silica gel or anhydrous sodium hydroxide, is placed below the shelf.
Often some sort of humidity indicator is included in the desiccator to show, by color changes, the level of humidity.  These indicators are in the form of indicator plugs or indicator cards.  The active chemical is cobalt chloride (CoCl2).  Anhydrous cobalt chloride is blue.  When it bonds with two water molecules, (CoCl22H2O), it turns purple. Further hydration results in the pink hexaaquacobalt(II) chloride complex 2+.

# Biology and ecology
In biology and ecology, desiccation refers to the drying out of a living organism, such as when aquatic animals are taken out of water, or when plants are exposed to sunlight or drought.  Ecologists frequently study and assess various organisms' susceptibility to desiccation.

# Broadcasting
In broadcast engineering, a desiccator may be used to pressurize the feedline of a high-power transmitter. Because it carries very high electrical power levels from the transmitter to the antenna, the feedline must have a good dielectric.  Because it must also be lightweight so as not to overload the radio tower, air is often used as the dielectric.  Since moisture can condense in these lines, desiccated air or nitrogen gas is pumped in.  This pressure also keeps water or other dampness from coming in the line at any point along its length.
Desmoplasia

# Overview
In medicine, desmoplasia refers to the formation of adhesions or fibrosis (fibrosis refers to scar tissue) in the vascular stroma of a neoplasm. It is usually used in the description of desmoplastic small round cell tumors.

# Historical Perspective
Desmoplasia originates from the Greek desmos (meaning fetter or band) and plasia (meaning to form).

# Pathophysiology

## Gross Pathology
Usually you only see desmoplasia with malignant neoplasms, which can evoke a fibrosis response by invading healthy tissue.

## Microscopic Pathology
Infiltrating metastatic ductal carcinomas of the breast often have a scirrous, stellate appearance caused by desmoplastic formations.