Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Yeast display
Yeast display (or yeast surface display) is a technique used in the field of protein engineering. The yeast display technique was first published by the laboratory of Professor K. Dane Wittrup.  The technology was sold to Abbott Laboratories in 2001.
A protein of interest is displayed as a fusion to the Aga2p protein on the surface of yeast.  The Aga2p protein is naturally used by yeast to mediate cell-cell contacts during yeast cell mating. As such, display of a protein via Aga2p projects the protein away from the cell surface, minimizing potential interactions with other molecules on the yeast cell wall. The use of magnetic separation and flow cytometry in conjunction with a yeast display library is a highly effective method to isolate high affinity protein ligands against nearly any receptor through directed evolution.

# Advantages and disadvantages of yeast display
Advantages of yeast display over other in vitro evolution methods include eukaryotic expression and processing, quality control mechanisms of the eukaryotic secretory pathway, minimal avidity effects, and quantitative library screening through magnetic separation combined with fluorescent-activated cell sorting (FACS).
Disadvantages include smaller mutagenic library sizes compared to alternative methods and differential glycosylation in yeast compared to mammalian cells. It should be noted that these disadvantages have not limited the success of yeast display for a number of applications, including engineering the highest monovalent ligand-binding affinity reported to date for an engineered protein (Boder, E.T. 2000)
Competing methods for protein evolution in vitro are phage display, ribosome display, bacterial display, and mRNA display.

# Citations
- Boder, E.T., Wittrup, K.D.; Nat. Biotech., 1997, 15, 553-57.
- Boder, E.T., Wittrup, K.D.;  Biotechnol. Prog., 1998, 14, 55-62.
- Boder E.T., Midelfort K.S., Wittrup K.D.; Proc Nat Acad Sci, 2000, 97(20):10701-10705.
- Graff, C.P., Chester, K., Begent, R., Wittrup, K.D.; Prot. Eng. Des. Sel., 2004, 17, 293-304.
- Feldhaus M, Siegel R.; Methods in Molecular Biology 263:311-332 (2004).
- Weaver-Feldhaus JM, Lou J, Coleman JR, Siegel RW, Marks JD, Feldhaus MJ.  FEBS Lett. 2004 Apr 23;564(1-2):24-34. PMID: 15094038

# Notes
-  First yeast display publication
Ziac overdose

# Overdosage topics
General
Manifestations
Treatment
- Bradycardia
- Hypotension, Shock
- Heart Block(second or third degree)
- Bronchospasm

## General
There are limited data on overdose with ZIAC. However, several cases of overdose with
bisoprolol fumarate have been reported (maximum: 2000 mg). Bradycardia and/or
hypotension were noted. Sympathomimetic agents were given in some cases, and all
patients recovered. Return to top

## Manifestations
The most frequently observed signs expected with overdosage of a beta-blocker are
bradycardia and hypotension. Lethargy is also common, and with severe overdoses,
delirium, coma, convulsions, and respiratory arrest have been reported to occur.
Congestive heart failure, bronchospasm, and hypoglycemia may occur, particularly in
patients with underlying conditions. With thiazide diuretics, acute intoxication is rare.
The most prominent feature of overdose is acute loss of fluid and electrolytes. Signs and
symptoms include cardiovascular (tachycardia, hypotension, shock), neuromuscular
(weakness, confusion, dizziness, cramps of the calf muscles, paresthesia, fatigue,
impairment of consciousness), gastrointestinal (nausea, vomiting, thirst), renal (polyuria,
-liguria, or anuria ), and laboratory findings (hypokalemia,
hyponatremia, hypochloremia, alkalosis, increased BUN [especially in patients with renal
insufficiency]). Return to top

## Treatment
If overdosage of ZIAC (bisoprolol fumarate and hydrochlorothiazide) is suspected,
therapy with ZIAC should be discontinued and the patient observed closely. Treatment is
symptomatic and supportive; there is no specific antidote. Limited data suggest bisoprolol
fumarate is not dialyzable; similarly, there is no indication that hydrochlorothiazide is
dialyzable. Suggested general measures include induction of emesis and/or gastric lavage,
administration of activated charcoal, respiratory support, correction of fluid and
electrolyte imbalance, and treatment of convulsions. Return to top

## Bradycardia
Administer IV atropine. If the response is inadequate, isoproterenol or
another agent with positive chronotropic properties may be given cautiously. Under some
circumstances, transvenous pacemaker insertion may be necessary. Return to top

## Hypotension, Shock
The patients legs should be elevated. IV fluids should be
administered and lost electrolytes (potassium, sodium) replaced. Intravenous glucagon
may be useful. Vasopressors should be considered. Return to top

## Heart Block(second or third degree)
Patients should be carefully monitored and treated
with isoproterenol infusion or transvenous cardiac pacemaker insertion, as appropriate.
Congestive Heart Failure: Initiate conventional therapy (ie, digitalis, diuretics,
vasodilating agents, inotropic agents). Return to top

## Bronchospasm
Administer a bronchodilator such as isoproterenol and/or aminophylline.
Hypoglycemia: Administer IV glucose.
Surveillance: Fluid and electrolyte balance (especially serum potassium) and renal
function should be monitored until normalized. Return to top
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
100% English
100% English was a Channel 4 television programme shown in November 2006 in the United Kingdom. It looked at the genetic makeup of English people who considered themselves to be ethnically English and found that while all had an ethnic makeup similar to people of European descent, a minority discovered genetic markers from North Africa and the Middle East from several generations before they were born.  The presenter was Andrew Graham-DixonThe test results were interpreted by DNAPrint Genomics, based in Sarasota, Florida.
The concept of the show was to:
Take eight people - all of whom are convinced they are 100% English. Then submit a sample of their DNA to a series of state-of-the-art tests... Lord Tebbit, Garry Bushell and Carol Thatcher are among the participants who have agreed to place their genetic make-up under the microscope.. 
Gary Bushell, who appeared on the show in good-faith, later criticised the slant of the programme and the portrayal of English people. On his website he stated: "Only Nazis, and it appears C4, think of national identity in terms of racial purity... Besides, you could apply the same tests to the French or Italians and get similar results, but no-one questions their right to nationhood."
Bushell also criticised DNAPrint Genomics stating their tests had a 28% error margin for European DNA and that the same DNA sample often produced radically different results. He also stated that most anthropologists disagreed with DNAPrint Genomic's racial classifications and questioned the reliability of the markers that they had used to designate African DNA.
A-a gradient

# Overview
The Alveolar-arterial gradient (A-a gradient), is used to compare the causes of hypoxemia.

## A-a Gradient Equation
A - a gradient = PAO2 - PaO2
Where:
PAO2 = alveolar PO2 (calculated from the alveolar gas equation)
PaO2 = arterial PO2 (measured in arterial blood)

## The Alveolar Gas Equation
PAO2 = PIO2 - PACO2/R
Where:
PIO2 = FIO2 x (760 mmHg - 47mmHg)  = inspired O2 
       - FIO2 = 21% at sea level atmospheric pressure = 0.21
       - 760 mmHg = atmospheric pressure at sea level
       - 47 mmHg = H2O pressure
PACO2 = arterial PCO2 measured in plasma
R = respiratory exchange ratio or respiratory quotient = 0.8 under normal conditions

## Values and Meaning
The normal A-a gradient is < 10 mmHg, but can range from 5-20 mmHg in a normal individual. An increased A-a gradient suggests a diffusion defect, V/Q (ventilation/perfusion) defect, or right-to-left shunt.
AANAT (gene)
AANAT is a gene that encodes an enzyme aralkylamine N-acetyltransferase. It is the key regulator of day-night cycle (circadian rhythm). It is found in all animals. In humans it is present on chromosome 17, in chimpanzees chromosome 17, in mouse and sheep chromosome 11, in rat chromosome 10, and in chicken chromosome 18.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the acetyltransferase superfamily. It is the penultimate enzyme in melatonin synthesis and controls the night/day rhythm in melatonin production in the vertebrate pineal gland. Melatonin is essential for the function of the circadian clock that influences activity and sleep. This enzyme is regulated by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation that promotes its interaction with 14-3-3 proteins and thus protects the enzyme against proteasomal degradation.

# Clinical significance
This gene may contribute to numerous genetic diseases such as delayed sleep phase syndrome.
AFREGS Trial

# Objective
To study the angiographic and clinical effects of increasing HDL levels with pharmacologic treatment.

# Methods
The Air Force Regression Study (AFREGS) was a randomized, double- blinded, placebo controlled trial with 143 patients younger than 76 years of age with low HDL levels and angiographically evident coronary artery disease. These patients were randomly allocated to the gemfibrozil, niacin, cholestyramineand corresponding placebo, with aggressive dietary and lifestyle intervention at baseline. They were then followed up for a period of 30 months for clinical events which includes hospitalization for angina, myocardial infarction, transient ischemic attack and stroke, death and other cardiovascular procedures.

# Results
- The pharmacologically treated group had a 20% decrease in total cholesterol, 36% increase in HDL cholesterol, 26% decrease in LDL cholesterol and a 50% reduction in triglyceride levels compared to the placebo group.
- Focal coronary stenosis showed an increase of 1.4% in the placebo and a decrease of 0.8% in the drug group.
- 26% of patients in the placebo group reached a composite cardiovascular event end point whereas the same was seen in 13% of patients in the drug group.

# Conclusion
Pharmacologic regimens aimed at raising HDL cholesterol levels improved the cholesterol levels, slowed the progression of stenosis, and prevents cardiovascular events in some who exercise regularly and are on a low-fat diet.
Alkaptonuria

# Overview
Alkaptonuria (black urine disease, alcaptonuria or ochronosis) is a rare inherited genetic disorder of tyrosine metabolism. This is an autosomal recessive trait that is caused by a defect in the enzyme homogentisic acid oxidase (EC 1.13.11.5).  The enzyme normally breaks down a toxic tyrosine byproduct, homogentisic acid (also called alkapton), which is harmful to bones and cartilage and is excreted in urine.

# Symptoms
A distinctive characteristic of alkaptonuria is that ear wax exposed to air turns red or black (depending on diet) after several hours because of the accumulation of homogentisic acid. Similarly, urine exposed to air can become dark; this is useful for diagnosising young children using diapers. It is also possible to develop a black discoloration of the nails. In adulthood, but usually not before age forty, persons suffering from alkaptonuria develop progressive arthritis (especially of the spine), due to the long-term buildup of homogentisate in bones and cartilage. The urine is malodorous.

# Diagnosis
Presumptive diagnosis can be made by adding sodium or potassium hydroxide to urine and observing the formation of a dark brown to black pigment on the surface layer of urine within 30 minutes to 1 hour. Diagnosis can be confirmed by demonstrating the presence of homogentisic acid in the urine. This may be done by paper chromatography and thin-layer chromatography.

# Treatment
Prevention is not possible and the treatment is aimed at ameliorating symptoms. Reducing intake of the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine to the minimum required to sustain health (phenylalanine is an essential amino acid) can help slow the progression of the disease.

# History
Alkaptonuria was one of the four diseases described by Sir Archibald Edward Garrod, as being the result of the accumulation of intermediates due to metabolic deficiencies. He linked ochronosis with the accumulation of alkaptans in 1902, and his views on the subject were summarised in a 1908 Croonian lecture at the Royal College of Physicians. While Garrod identified it as a recessive condition, its genetic basis was not elucidated until 1996, when it was linked to HGO mutations.
Paracentesis

# Overview

# Paracentesis
For detailed approaching on performing paracentesis watch the video below;

# Overview
Paracentesis is a medical procedure used for a number of reasons:
- to relieve abdominal pressure from ascites
- to diagnose spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and other infections (e.g. abdominal TB)
- to diagnose metastatic cancer
- to diagnose blood in peritoneal space in trauma
- to puncture tympanic membrane for eg. to take bacterial swab from middle ear

# Paracentesis for Ascites
The procedure is often done in doctors office or an out-patient clinic. In an expert's hands, it is very safe, although there is a very small risk of introducing an infection, causing excessive bleeding or perforating a loop of bowel.
During the procedure, patients are asked to lie down and expose their abdomen. After cleaning the side of abdomen with an antiseptic solution, physicians will numb a small area of skin and then insert a fairly large-bore needle (along with a plastic sheath) 2 to 5 cm to reach the peritoneal (ascitic) fluid. The needle is then removed, leaving the plastic sheath behind to allow drainage of the fluid. The fluid can be drained by gravity or by connection to a vacuum bottle. Up to 10 litres of fluid may be drained during the procedure. If fluid drainage is more than 5 litres, patients may receive intravenous serum albumin (25% albumin, 8g/L) to prevent hypotension (low blood pressure).
The procedure generally is not painful; patients require no sedation. As long as they are not very dizzy and maintain their blood pressure after the procedure, they can go home afterwards.

# Ascitic fluid analysis
The serum-ascities albumin gradient can help determine the cause of the ascites.
The ascitic white blood cell count can help determine if the ascites is infected.

# Contraindications
Mild hematologic abnormalities do not increase the risk of bleeding. The risk of bleeding may be increased if:
- prothrombin time > 21 seconds
- international normalized ratio >  1.6
- platelet count < 50,000 per cubic millimeter.
Olivary body

# Overview
In anatomy, the olivary bodies or simply olives (Latin oliva and olivae, singular and plural, respectively) are a pair of prominent oval structures in the medulla oblongata, the lower portion of the brainstem.  They contain the olivary nuclei.

# External anatomy
The olivary body is located on the anterior surface of the medulla lateral to the pyramid, from which it is separated by the antero-lateral sulcus and the fibers of the hypoglossal nerve.
Behind, it is separated from the postero-lateral sulcus by the ventral spinocerebellar fasciculus. In the depression between the upper end of the olive and the pons lies the vestibulocochlear nerve.
In humans, it measures about 1.25 cm. in length, and between its upper end and the pons there is a slight depression to which the roots of the facial nerve are attached.
The external arcuate fibers wind across the lower part of the pyramid and olive and enter the inferior peduncle.

# Olivary nuclei
The olivary nuclei consist of the following nuclei:
- The inferior olivary nucleus.
- The medial accessory olivary nucleus lies between the inferior olivary nucleus and the pyramid, and forms a curved lamina, the concavity of which is directed laterally. The fibers of the hypoglossal nerve, as they traverse the medulla, pass between the medial accessory and the inferior olivary nuclei.
- The dorsal accessory olivary nucleus is the smallest, and appears on transverse section as a curved lamina behind the inferior olivary nucleus.
- The superior olivary nucleus is considered part of the pons.

# Additional images
- Schematic representation of the chief ganglionic categories (I to V).
- Superficial dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view.
- Deep dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view.
- Deep dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view.
- Deep dissection of brain-stem. Ventral view.
- Section of the medulla oblongata at about the middle of the olive.
- Diagram showing the course of the arcuate fibers.
- The formatio reticularis of the medulla oblongata, shown by a transverse section passing through the middle of the olive.
- Dissection showing the projection fibers of the cerebellum.
Acheiropodia

# Overview
Acheiropodia, also known as Horn Kolb Syndrome, Acheiropody and Aleijadinhos (Brazilian type), is an autosomal recessive disorder that results in hemimelia, a lack of formation of the distal extremities.
This is a congenital defect which consists of bilateral amputations of the distal upper and lower extremities, as well as aplasia of the hands and feet. It was first discovered and is prevalent almost exclusively in Brazil.

# Genetics
It has been associated with a mutation in the LMBR1 gene.
File:Autorecessive.svg
Adiponitrile
Adiponitrile is the chemical compound with the formula (CH2)4(CN)2. This dinitrile is an important precursor to the polymer nylon 6.6.
Because of the industrial value of adiponitrile, many routes have been developed for its synthesis.  In one method, acrylonitrile is dimerized via electrosynthesis:
It has also been prepared by the nickel-catalysed hydrocyanation of butadiene:
Adiponitrile can be hydrogenated to 1,6-diaminohexane and hydrolysed to adipic acid.
Adson's sign

# Overview
Adson's sign is seen during abduction and external rotation at the shoulder, where there is loss of the radial pulse in the arm.  It can be a sign of thoracic outlet syndrome.  Thoracic outlet obstruction may be caused by a number of abnormalities, including degenerative or bony disorders, trauma to the cervical spine, fibromuscular bands, vascular abnormalities, and spasm of the anterior scalene muscle. Symptoms are due to compression of the brachial plexus and subclavian vasculature, and consist of complaints ranging from diffuse arm pain to a sensation of arm fatigue, frequently aggravated by carrying anything in the ipsilateral hand or doing overhead work such as window cleaning.
As cited in the literature the Adson's sign is loss of radial pulse while turning the head to the contralateral side, slightly elevating the chin and breathing in.

# Causes

## Common Causes
- Thoracic outlet syndrome

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Thoracic outlet syndrome

## How to perform Adson's Test?
With the patient in a sitting position, hands resting on thighs, the examiner palpates both radial pulses as The patient rapidly fills the lungs by deep inspiration and, with breath held, hyperextends the neck and turns the head toward the 'affected' side. If the radial pulse on that side is decidedly or completely obliterated, the result is considered positive.
Agranulocyte
Agranulocytes are a category of white blood cells characterised by the absence of granules in their cytoplasm.
There are two types of agranulocytes:
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes.
Lymphocytes are much more common in the lymphatic system, and include the so-called "natural killer T-cells". The blood has three types of lymphocytes: B cells, T cells and natural killer cells. B cells make antibodies that bind to pathogens to enable their destruction. CD4+ (helper) T cells co-ordinate the immune response (they are what becomes defective in an HIV infection). CD8+ (cytotoxic) T cells and natural killer cells are able to kill cells of the body that are infected by a virus. T cells are crucial to the immune response because they possess a unique 'memory' system which allows them to remember past invaders and prevent disease when a similar invader is encountered again.
Monocytes share the "vacuum cleaner" (phagocytosis) function of neutrophils, but are much longer lived as they have an additional role: they present pieces of pathogens to T cells so that the pathogens may be recognized again and killed, or so that an antibody response may be mounted. Monocytes are also known as macrophages after they migrate from the bloodstream and enter tissue.
Other white blood cells which are not agranulocytes are mainly the granulocytes neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.

# Additional images
- Blood cell lineage
Air trapping

# Overview
Air trapping (or gas trapping) is an abnormal retention of air in the lungs after expiration. It is observed in obstructive lung diseases such as asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The cause is obstruction such that the patient is unable to expel air completely.
Air trapping is a cause of obstructive pattern spirometry results, leading to an elevated residual volume. Air trapping is often incidentally diagnosed on computed tomography (CT) scanning. The only way to absolutely differentiate air trapping from emphysema is by taking expiratory images. On expiratory films, retained hyperlucent gas will be visualised in cases of air trapping.
Air trapping represents poorly aerated lung, but on its own is clinically benign. It is is a common problem for smokers who dive. On diving the lung volume collapses and pushes air into the poorly aerated regions. On arising from a deep depth, these air-trapped areas of lung expand. This places great pressure on the lung tissue which can rupture.
Akira Makino

# Early life
Makino was born in 1922, in a small town in Osaka Prefecture.  At the start of World War II, he was assigned to the navy's No. 33 patrol.  In August of 1944, at the age of 22, he was transferred to an air base in Zamboanga on Mindanao Island, in the Philippines.

# Human Experiments
According to Makino, experimentation on about 30 prisoners was carried out between December 1944 and February 1945.  The prisoners included women and children, as well as two Filipino men suspected of spying for the United States.  On these prisoners, Makino performed operations including amputations, abdominal dissections and other experiments.  In his interview with the Kyodo News Agency, he described, in particular, his experience with the two Filipino men suspected of spying.  He said he had sedated the men by placing ether-soaked cloth over their mouths, and then was instructed to study their livers after making an incision with a surgical knife.  Makino stated that, at the time, he thought it was a "horrible" thing that he was doing, but that he was too scared to refuse orders because he would have been killed for disobeying.

# Revelation
After remaining silent for decades, Makino decided to reveal everything to the public in 2006.  It is believed that Makino's account is the first of its kind from a Japanese veteran concerning human experimentation in Southeast Asia during World War II.  Initially he faced severe opposition from his wartime friends, but he decided to come forward with anyway.  In his controversial revelation, Makino said, "We should not repeat such miseries again.  I want to tell the truth about the war, even if it is to only one person or two."
Alan Heldman
Alan W. Heldman, M.D. (1962-) is an American interventional cardiologist.
Heldman graduated from Harvard College, University of Alabama School of Medicine, and completed residency and fellowship training at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.  He held positions on the faculty of Johns Hopkins from 1995 to 2007. In 2007 he became Clinical Chief of Cardiology at the University of Miami, Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine.
He published one of the first studies showing that a drug-coated stent (now known as a drug-eluting stent) could prevent restenosis1.  His research interests include delivery of stem cells to the heart for repair of myocardial infarction2.
His clinical interests include high risk and complex coronary intervention, and treatment of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, including with alcohol septal ablation3.