Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Gorham's disease
Gorham's disease is a rare congenital disorder characterized by proliferation of vascular channels that cause massive destruction of bone matrix. 
The disease was first described by Gorham et al. in 1954.

# Etiology
The etiology of the disease remains unclear, but there is no evidence of underlying malignancy or infection.

# Signs and symptoms
The presentation of the disease varies considerably, and a high index of suspicion is needed to reach an early diagnosis.
Dull musculoskeletal pain and progressive weakness is typical, with a protracted but progressive development of symptoms.
Involvement of the thoracic skeleton may cause mediastinal involvement resulting in pericardial or pleural effusions.

# Treatment
Therapeutical measures mainly focus on limiting the progression of the disease, and medical treatment options include the following:
- Radiation therapy
- Bisphsphonates (Anti-osteoclastic effect)
- ALPHA-Interferon
Surgical removal of lesions and various reconstructive/supportive procedures as well as prosthesis are of value, however bone grafts tend to be of limited effect as they are often quickly resobed.
Additional treatment required for the correction of mediastinal complications include pleurodesis, pleurectomy, thoracic duct ligation.
Gq alpha subunit
Gq protein (Gq, or Gq/11) is a heterotrimeric G protein subunit that activates phospholipase C (PLC). PLC in turn hydrolyzes Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to diacyl glycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP3) signal transduction pathway.  DAG acts as a second messenger that activates Protein Kinase C (PKC) and IP3 helps in phosphorylation of some proteins.

# Naming
There has been much debate about the naming of the Gq. In the initial identification of the protein, it was named G alpha 42, because it runs at 42 kDa on SDS-PAGE. Although, already identified by Micheal Strathmann and Mel Simon, shared the sequence thus naming it G alpha q. However, the "q" in the name is arbitrarily named and does not stand for anything in particular. This nomenclature came from Micheal Strathmann and Mel Simon after their discovery of the protein class in 1989. Essentially, the q designation comes from the fact that Michael Strathmann couldn't use the front end of the alphabet "because those early letters were already reserved for some classes of subunits, the Gz designation had been taken, and Gx seemed too obvious -- and so Gq." Rumors suggest that Gq was named referencing the style magazine GQ.

# Function
Gq proteins are class of G proteins which work to activate phospholipase C (PLC), participating in a variety of cellular signaling pathways.
The Gq protein works by activating PLC.  PLC then cleaves a phospholipid. In the process, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) is cleaved into diacyl glycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). DAG remains bound to the membrane, and IP3 is released as a soluble structure into the cytosol. IP3 then diffuses through the cytosol to bind to IP3 receptors, particularly calcium channels in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These channels are specific to calcium and only allow the passage of calcium to move through. This causes the cytosolic concentration of calcium to increase, causing a cascade of intracellular changes and activity.
In addition, calcium and DAG together work to activate PKC, which goes on to phosphorylate other molecules, leading to altered cellular activity.

# Examples of GPCR partners
From modulatory neurotransmitter receptors (amine receptors belonging to rhodopsin family), Gq has been shown to be pre-coupled with Gq-coupled receptors physically and is functionally coupled to e.g. the G-protein coupled receptors:
- 5-HT2 serotonergic receptors
- Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor
- Vasopressin type 1 receptors: 1A and 1B
- Angiotensin II receptor type 1
- Calcitonin receptor
- Histamine H1 receptor
- Metabotropic glutamate receptor, Group I
- M1, M3, and  M5 muscarinic receptors
- Trace amine-associated receptor 1
It has been shown that Gq proteins are preassembled (pre-coupled) with Gq-coupled receptors (such as M3 receptor. The common polybasic domain in the C-tail of Gq-coupled receptors is necessary for the receptor-G protein preassembly.

# Genes
- GNAQ, GNA11, GNA14, GNA15
Grading (tumors)

# Overview
In pathology, grading is a measure of the progress of tumors and other neoplasms.  Some pathology grading systems apply only to malignant neoplasms (cancer);  others apply also to benign neoplasms.
Pathology grading systems are used to classify neoplasms in terms of how abnormal the cells appear microscopically and what may be the outcome in terms of rate of growth, invasiveness, and dissemination. Cancer is a disorder of excessive cell growth, hence cancer cells often are poorly differentiated. The grade reflects the degree of cellular differentiation and refers to how much the tumor cells resemble or differ from the normal cells of the same tissue type.
An important part of evaluating a cancer is to determine its histologic grade.  Grade is a marker of how differentiated a cell is.  Grade is rated numerically (Grade 1-4) or descriptively (e.g., "high grade" or "low grade").  The higher the numeric grade, the more "poorly differentiated" is the cell, and it is called "high grade".  A low grade cancer has a low number and is "well-differentiated."  Grade is most commonly given on a three-tier scale.  A cancer that is very poorly differentiated is called anaplastic.  Tumors may be graded on four-tier, three-tier, or two-tier scales, depending on the institution and the tumor type.
The most commonly used system of grading is as per the guidelines of the American Joint Commission on Cancer. As per their standards, the following are the grading categories.
- GX                Grade cannot be assessed
- G1                Well differentiated (Low grade)
- G2                Moderately differentiated (Intermediate grade)
- G3                Poorly differentiated (High grade)
- G4                Undifferentiated (High grade)
Grading systems are also different for each type of cancer.
The Gleason system used to grade the adenocarcinoma cells in prostate cancer is the most famous. This system uses a grading score ranging from 2 to 10. Lower Gleason scores describe well-differentiated less aggressive tumours.
Other systems include the Bloom-Richardson system (breast cancer) and the Fuhrman system (kidney cancer).
The tumor grade, along with the staging, is used to develop an individual treatment plan and to predict the patient's prognosis.

# Examples of grading schemes

# Related chapters
- TNM#Other parameters
- Tumor kinds that have their own grading system:
Teratoma
- Teratoma

# Resources
- National Cancer Institute
- CancerWeb
- unice.fr
de:Grading
Medical grafting

# Overview
In medicine, grafting is a surgical procedure to transplant tissue without a blood supply.  The implanted tissue must obtain a blood supply from the new vascular bed or otherwise die.

# Types of grafting
The term is most commonly applied to skin grafting, however many tissues can be grafted: skin, bone, nerves, tendons, and cornea are the tissue commonly grafted today.

## Skin grafting
Skin grafting is often used to treat skin loss due to a wound, burn, infection, or surgery. In the case of damaged skin, it is removed, and new skin is grafted in its place.  Skin grafting can reduce the course of treatment and hospitalization needed, and can also improve function and appearance.

## Bone grafting
Bone grafting is used in dental implants, as well as other instances.  The bone may be autologous, typically harvested from the iliac crest of the pelvis, or banked bone.
Grapefruit juice
Grapefruit juice is the fruit juice from grapefruits. It is rich with Vitamin C and ranges from sweet-tart to very sour. Variations include white grapefruit, pink grapefruit and ruby red grapefruit juice.

# Drug interactions
Grapefruit juice, and grapefruit in general, is a potent inhibitor of the Cytochrome_P450 enzyme CYP3A4, which can impact the metabolism of a variety of drugs, increasing their bioavailability. In some cases, this can lead to a fatal interaction with drugs like Astemizole. The effect of grapefruit juice with regard to drug absorption was originally discovered in 1989. However, the effect became well-publicized after being responsible for a number of deaths due to overdosing on medication.
Recently some researchers have shown that furanocoumarins rather than flavinoids may be the ingredients causing the various drug interactions. 
Drugs that may be affected include midazolam, ciclosporin, lovastatin, simvastatin, pravastatin, felodipine, sildenafil (Viagra) and caffeine, as well as a number of antihistamines including astemizole and terfenadine. 
An easy way to tell if a medication may be affected by grapefruit juice is by researching whether another known CYP3A4 inhibitor drug is already contraindicated with the drug in question.  Examples of such known CYP3A4 inhibitors include cisapride (Propulsid), erythromycin, itraconazole (Sporanox), ketoconazole (Nizoral), and mibefradil (Posicor).
The flavonoid existing in highest concentration in grapefruit juice is naringin, which in humans is metabolized to naringenin.  Other flavonoids exist in grapefruit juice in lower concentrations as well.  Orange juice does not contain naringin in as high a concentration, instead containing hesperetin.  It is sometimes recommended as a substitute. Juice of limes and Seville oranges can also inhibit drug metabolism, however, as can apple juice with some drugs. 

# Breast cancer link
A recent study published in the July 2007 edition of the British Journal of Cancer reported that eating grapefruit every day could raise the risk of developing breast cancer by almost a third.  The Study found that in the test subjects, 50,000 post-menopausal women, eating just a quarter of a grapefruit daily raised the risk by up to 50%.  It is believed that the fruit boosts the levels of estrogen, which in turn increases the risk of developing the disease.
Trapezium (bone)

# Overview
The trapezium bone (greater multangular bone) is a carpal bone, in what is commonly referred to as the wrist.
The trapezium is distinguished by a deep groove on its palmar surface. It is situated at the radial side of the carpus, between the scaphoid and the first metacarpal bone.
The etymology derives from the Greek trapezion which means "irregular quadrilateral;" literally, "a little table," from trapeza meaning table. Also, from tra- "four" and peza "foot" or "edge."

# Surfaces
The superior surface is directed upward and medialward; medially it is smooth, and articulates with the scaphoid; laterally it is rough and continuous with the lateral surface.
The inferior surface is oval, concave from side to side, convex from before backward, so as to form a saddle-shaped surface for articulation with the base of the first metacarpal bone.
The dorsal surface is rough.
The palmar surface is narrow and rough. At its upper part is a deep groove, running from above obliquely downward and medialward; it transmits the tendon of the Flexor carpi radialis, and is bounded laterally by an oblique ridge. This surface gives origin to the Opponens pollicis and to the Abductor and Flexor pollicis brevis; it also affords attachment to the transverse carpal ligament.
The lateral surface is broad and rough, for the attachment of ligaments.
The medial surface presents two facets; the upper, large and concave, articulates with the trapezoid; the lower, small and oval, with the base of the second metacarpal.

# Tubercle of trapezium
The tubercle of trapezium is a anatomic tubercle, where sometimes abductor pollicis brevis muscle attaches.
Lamin B receptor
Lamin-B receptor is a protein, and in humans, it is encoded by the LBR gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the ERG4/ERG24 family. It localizes to the inner membrane of the nuclear envelope and anchors the lamina and the heterochromatin to the membrane. It may mediate the interaction between chromatin and lamin B. Mutations of this gene has been associated with autosomal recessive HEM/Greenberg skeletal dysplasia. Alternative splicing occurs at this locus and two transcript variants encoding the same protein have been identified.

# Clinical significance
There is evidence tying it to Greenberg dysplasia and Pelger-Huet anomaly.

# Interactions
Lamin B receptor has been shown to interact with CBX3 and CBX5. LBR also interacts with long non-coding RNA XIST in mouse cells and potentially assist the spreading XIST across X chromosome.
Group 10 element
A Group 10 element is one in the series of elements in group 10 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, which consists of the transition metals nickel  (Ni), palladium  (Pd), platinum  (Pt), and darmstadtium (Ds)

# Properties
Group ten metals are white to light grey in color, and possess a high luster, a resistance to tarnish(oxidation) at STP, are highly ductile, and enter into oxidation states of +2 and +4, with +1 being seen in special conditions. The existence of a +3 state is debated, as the state could be an illusory state created by +2 and +4 states.  Theory suggests that group 10 metals may produce a +6 oxidation state under precise conditions, but this remains to be proven conclusively in the laboratory.

# Applications
The group ten metals share several uses.  These include:
- Decorative purposes, in the form of jewelry and electroplating
- Catalysts in a variety of chemical reactions
- Metal Alloys
- Electrical components, due to their predictable changes in electrical resistivity with reguard to temperature.
- Superconductors, as components in alloys with other metals.
ar:  
ca:Grup 10 de la taula periodica
cs:10. skupina
eo:Elemento de grupo 10
ko:10 
it:Elementi del gruppo 10
lmo:Grupp 10 de la taula periodica
sk:10. skupina
sr:10.   
sh:10. grupa hemijskih elemenata
th: 10
Group 12 element
A group 12 element is one in the series of elements in group 12 (IUPAC style) in the periodic table, consisting of transition metals which are zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury  (Hg), and ununbium (Uub). When compared with other groups of transitional metals, this group of elements has both relatively low melting points and boiling points, and both decrease down the group; the most obvious example is mercury, which is in liquid state under normal room temperature.
The reason for this group having a liquid metal (mercury) and other low-melting elements has partly to do with the electron configuration of mercury, and also with relativistic effects . The electron configuration of mercury is  4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 6s2. The last shell labeled 6s is completely full, and is noticeably closer to the nucleus than what would be expected if relativistic effects were not taken into account.  The positive charge of the nucleus is so high that some of the electrons in the atoms are moving very fastfast (for the sake of argument considering electrons as particles not as waves) enough that special relativity has to be taken into account in predicting their movement. Their mass increases and the size and energies of the s-orbital decreases as a function of velocity.
The combination of these two factors results in a rather tightly bound outer shell of electrons for mercury. Hence, mercury cannot form particularly strong metal-metal bonds. The result is an element which is liquid at room temperature. In fact because of its inert outer electrons mercury vapor behaves like a noble gas and has been called pseudohelium. This is in contrast with gold and thallium, which are beside mercury on the periodic table but are solids.
Group 12 elements are also relatively resistant to corrosion, and can be used to cover baser metals like iron galvanizing (using zinc) or electroplating (using cadmium).
Grover's disease
Synonyms and keywords: Transient acantholytics dyskeratosis (TAD).

# Overview
Grover's disease, or Transient Acantholytic Dyskeratosis (TAD), is a common skin disease characterized by small red, bumpy spots.

# Symptoms
Grover's disease often starts quite suddenly. It results in very itchy spots on the central back, mid chest and occasionally elsewhere. Frequently, it follows sweating or some unexpected heat stress.
Symptoms of Grover's disease are characterized by an itchy eruption that may last an average of 10-12 months. It is characterized by papules and papulovesicles with excoriations occurring on the chest, back, lower sternum, arms, and thighs.  Grover's Disease is mainly seen in males over the age of forty and the papules are found on the mid chest most often.
Sometimes the features of Grover's are found in people who do not itch or have a conspicuous rash.  Most of the people with Grover's who visit a dermatologist, however, itch a lot.

# Diagnosis
Grover's may be suspected by its appearance, but since it has such a characteristic appearance under the microscope a shave skin biopsy is often performed. Once confirmed, most cases of Grover's disease last six to twelve months (which is why it was originally called "transient"). Unfortunately it may last much longer.

# Physical examination

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# Treatment
The most important thing about Grovers disease treatment is to remain cool, as further sweating will induce more itchy spots. Minor outbreaks can be controlled with prescription strength topical cortisone creams. More troubling eruptions usually clear up after taking Accutane or Tetracycline pills for one to three months. If these fail or the outbreak is severe, PUVA phototherapy treatments, antifungal pills and cortisone injections are alternatives.
Sometimes, Grover's disease can be complicated by the development of dermatitis. The cause of Grover's is unknown But it also may arise in quite dry skin. Many affected individuals are sun damaged.
Gs alpha subunit
The Gs alpha subunit (Gs, Gs, or Gs protein) is a heterotrimeric G protein subunit that activates the cAMP-dependent pathway by activating adenylyl cyclase. It is one of the three main families of G proteins: Gi/Go,  Gq, and Gs. A mnemonic for remembering this subunit is to look at the first letter  (Gs = Adenylate Cyclase stimulator).

# Receptors
The G protein-coupled receptors that couple to this kind of G-protein include:
- 5-HT receptors types 5-HT4 and 5-HT7
- ACTH receptor a.k.a. MC2R
- Adenosine receptor types A2a and A2b
- Arginine vasopressin receptor 2
- -adrenergic receptors types 1, 2 and 3
- Calcitonin receptor
- Calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor
- Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor
- Dopamine receptors D1-like family (D1 and D5)
- FSH-receptor
- Gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor
- Glucagon receptor
- Growth-hormone-releasing hormone receptor
- Histamine H2 receptor
- Luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor
- Melanocortin receptor: MC1R, MC2R (a.k.a. ACTH receptor), MC3R, MC4R, MC5R
- Parathyroid hormone receptor 1
- Prostaglandin receptor types D2 and I2
- Secretin receptor
- Thyrotropin receptor
- Trace amine-associated receptor 1

# Function
The general function of Gs is to activate adenylyl cyclase, which, in turn, produces cAMP, which, in turn activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Further effects of Gs are thus found in function of cAMP-dependent protein kinase.
It provides a step in signal transduction. Amplification of the signal occurs for instance because the receptor activates several Gs. However, each Gs activates only one adenylate cyclase.
Hemopneumothorax
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# Overview
Hemopneumothorax is a medical term describing the combination of two conditions: pneumothorax, or air in the chest cavity, and hemothorax (also called hmothorax), or blood in the chest cavity. The resulting condition is a serious state wherein respiration is repressed. The blood and air fill the pleural space, the space between the lung and the chest wall, putting pressure on the lung.  This can cause the lung to collapse and be unable to fill with air (unilateral hemopneumothorax).  In the most serious of cases, both lungs may collapse (bilateral hemopneumothorax).  Death follows if respiration is inhibited enough.

# Treatment
Treatment for this condition is exactly the same as for its separate states, by tube thoracostomythe insertion of a chest drain through an incision made between the ribs, into the intercostal space. Commonly, surgery is needed to close off whatever injuries caused the bleeding into the lung cavity and also whatever injuries caused the air to enter the cavity (e.g stabbing, broken ribs, etc.)
Hanhart syndrome
Synonyms and keywords: Richner-Hanhart syndrome; tyrosinaemia type 2; tyrosine aminotransferase deficiency; palmoplantar ectodermal dysplasia type 5

# Overview
Richner Hanhart Syndrome, also called Richner Syndrome and Hanhart Syndrome, is a rare autosomal recessive disorder due to a deficiency in enzyme tyrosine amino transferase. It is named for Ernst Hanhart and 
Hermann Richner, who independently reported it in 1947 and 1938, respectively.

# Pathophysiology

## Genetics
Richner Hanhart Syndrome occurs from a deficiency of the enzyme tyrosine amino transferase (TAT). TAT is located on chromosome 16q22.1-q 22.3.

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
Symptoms of Richner Hanhart Syndrome include ocular lesions and palmo-plantar hyperkeratosis. Eye symptoms develop from two weeks of age and include redness, lacrimation and photophobia. Tyrosine crystals in the cornea  cause corneal clouding with coneal opacities, corneal scarring and dendritic ulcers. In the first year of life, the patient will show skin conditions like nonpruritic hyperkeratotic papules and plaques on the palms and soles. Mental retardation affects less than 50% of all cases. Patients will have high levels of tyrosine in the urine.

# Treatment
Dietary restriction of amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine is an effective  treatment for people with Richner Hanhart Syndrome.
Health in Uganda
As a developing country, health indicators in Uganda lag behind the rest of the world. Recent statistics show that life expectancy at birth in Uganda is around 49 years. Child mortality (death before the age of 5 years) occurred in 140 of every 1000 births. Total health expenditure as a percentage of GDP was 7.4% in 2002.
Uganda was hit very hard by the outbreak of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in East Africa. In the early 1990s, 13% of Ugandan residents had HIV; this had fallen to 4.1% by the end of 2003, the most effective national response to AIDS of any African country (see AIDS in Africa).
In 2003, the Ugandan Ministry of Public Health has reported an outbreak of cholera in Bundibugyo district, with most cases located along the Semliki and Lamia rivers.
Uganda is home to the Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI) considered one of the most 
advanced viral research facilities in East Africa.