Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Lime (mineral)

# Overview
Lime is a general term for various naturally occurring minerals and materials derived from them, in which carbonates, oxides and hydroxides of calcium predominate.
These materials are used in large quantities as building and engineering materials (including limestone products, concrete and mortar) and as chemical feedstocks, among other uses.  Lime industries and the use of many of the resulting products date from prehistoric periods in both the Old World and the New World.
The rocks and minerals from which these materials are derived, typically limestone or chalk, are composed primarily of calcium carbonate. They may be cut, crushed or pulverized and chemically altered.  "Burning" (calcination) converts them into the highly caustic material quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO) and, through subsequent addition of water, into the less caustic (but still strongly alkaline) slaked lime or hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), the process of which is called slaking of lime.
When the term is encountered in an agricultural context, it probably refers to  agricultural lime. Otherwise it most commonly means slaked lime, as the more dangerous form is usually described more specifically as quicklime or burnt lime.

# Lime production process
- Limestone is extrated from quarries or mines.
- Part of the extracted stone, selected according to its chemical composition and granulometry, is calcinated at about 1000C in different types of kiln, fired by such fuels as natural gas, coal, fuel oil, lignite, etc..
Quicklime is produced according to the reaction : CaCO3 + heat --> CaO + CO2
- Quicklime can be hydrated, i.e. combined with water.
Hydrated lime is produced according to the reaction : CaO + H2O --> Ca(OH)2
Lingual artery

# Course
The lingual artery arises from the external carotid between the superior thyroid and facial artery.
It first runs obliquely upward and medialward to the greater cornu of the hyoid bone.
It then curves downward and forward, forming a loop which is crossed by the hypoglossal nerve, and passing beneath the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus it runs horizontally forward, beneath the Hyoglossus, and finally, ascending almost perpendicularly to the tongue, turns forward on its lower surface as far as the tip, under the name of the deep lingual artery (profunda linguae).

# Additional images
- Diagram showing the origins of the main branches of the carotid arteries.
- The internal carotid and vertebral arteries. Right side.
- Coronal section of tongue, showing intrinsic muscles.
Liprin-alpha-1
Liprin-alpha-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PPFIA1 gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the LAR protein tyrosine phosphatase-interacting protein (liprin) family. Liprins interact with members of LAR family of transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatases, which are known to be important for axon guidance and mammary gland development. This protein binds to the intracellular membrane-distal phosphatase domain of tyrosine phosphatase LAR, and appears to localize LAR to cell focal adhesions. This interaction may regulate the disassembly of focal adhesion and thus help orchestrate cell-matrix interactions. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been described.

# Interactions
Protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, f polypeptide (PTPRF), interacting protein (liprin), alpha 1 has been shown to interact with:
- ERC2,
- GIT1,
- GRIP2,
- PPFIBP1,
- PPP2R5D,
- PTPRD,
- PTPRF,  and
- PTPRS.
Liquid bandage
Liquid bandage is a topical skin treatment for minor cuts and sores that is sold by several companies. The products are mixtures of chemicals which create a polymeric layer which binds to the skin. Ingredients to a liquid bandage typically include pyroxylin and 8-Hydroxyquinoline, dissolved in alcohol. Some brands also include an antiseptic ingredient although the alcohol and other ingredients may serve the same purpose. Liquid bandage has also been used to treat skin tags.
Nexcare brand liquid bandage contains Hexamethyldisiloxane, isooctane, acrylate terpolymer, and polyphenylmethylsiloxane.
The primary ingredient of some brands, including the Band-Aid brand, is a form of cyanoacrylate, better known as "super glue".

# Recent Developments
A novel type of liquid bandage would incorporate amino acids to form peptide links directly with the skin. This product has potential to reduce bleeding during and after surgery.
Lobelia erinus
Lobelia erinus (known by the English names Annual lobelia, Edging lobelia, Garden lobelia or Trailing lobelia) is a cool season annual that will grow throughout zones 2 - 11, and comes in several varieties.  Some of the better known varieties are "Riviera", "Blue Moon", "Fountain" and "Cascade".  Flowers prefer full shade.
For gardens, they should be started indoors before the last frost and transplanted outdoors after all danger of frost has passed.
Mature flowers will grow to a height of 6 inches.  Plants should be spaced 6 inches to 9 inches apart.
Blooming is from mid summer to late fall, and in some areas will bloom into early winter.
Lucid interval

# Overview
In emergency medicine, a lucid interval is a temporary improvement in a patient's condition after a traumatic brain injury, after which the condition deteriorates.  A lucid interval is especially indicative of an epidural hematoma.  After the injury, the patient is momentarily dazed or knocked out, and then becomes relatively lucid for a period of time which can last minutes or hours. Thereafter there is rapid decline as the blood collects within the skull, causing a rise in intracranial pressure, which damages brain tissue. In addition, some patients may develop "pseudoaneurysms" after trauma which can eventually burst and bleed, a factor which might account for the delay in loss of consciousness.
Because a patient may have a lucid interval, any head trauma should be regarded as a medical emergency and warrants emergency medical treatment even if the patient is conscious.
Delayed cerebral edema, a very serious and potentially fatal condition in which the brain swells dramatically, may follow a lucid interval that occurs after a minor head trauma.
Lucid intervals may also occur in conditions other than traumatic brain injury, such as heat stroke and the postictal phase after a seizure in epileptic patients.
Lupus vulgaris
Synonyms and keywords: Tuberculosis luposa

# Overview
Lupus vulgaris are painful cutaneous tuberculosis skin lesions with nodular appearance, most often on the face around nose, eyelids, lips, cheeks and ears.:335 The lesions may ultimately develop into disfiguring skin ulcers if left untreated.

# Historical Perspective
In the 19th century, the chronic and progressive nature of this disease was particularly marked: it remained active for ten years, twenty years, or even longer and, proved resistant to all treatment until the breakthrough by Niels Ryberg Finsen using a form of "concentrated light radiation" now known as Photobiomodulation which won him a Nobel Prize.
Queen Alexandra of Great Britain, (18441925), consort to Edward the VII, as the inscription on the bronze statue of her at the London Hospital, notes, "Introduced to England the Finsen light cure for Lupus, and presented the first lamp to this hospital".
The term "lupus" to describe an ulcerative skin disease dates to the late thirteenth century, though it was not until the mid-nineteenth that two specific skin diseases were classified as Lupus erythematosus and Lupus vulgaris. The term "lupus" may derive from the rapacity and virulence of the disease; a 1590 work described it as "a malignant ulcer quickly consuming the neather parts; ... very hungry like unto a woolfe".

# Pathophysiology
- Lupus vulgaris often develops due to inadequately treated pre-existing tuberculosis. It may also develop at site of BCG vaccination. 
- It begins as painless reddish-brown nodules which slowly enlarge to form irregularly shaped red.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Lupus vulgaris. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Lupus vulgaris. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Lupus vulgaris. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Lupus vulgaris. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Lupus vulgaris. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.

## Microscopic Pathology
Histologically, it shows well-formed granulomas with necrotic centers in dermis.

# Differentiating Lupus vulgaris from other Diseases
The condition should be distinguished from:
- Basal cell carcinoma
- Sarcoidosis
- Discoid lupus erythomatosus
- Leprosy
- Deep fungal infection

# Complications
In long standing scarred lesion, squamous cell carcinoma can develop.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

### Diascopy
On diascopy, it shows characteristic "apple-jelly" color.

### Biopsy
Biopsy will reveal tuberculoid granuloma with few bacilli.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
A dermatologist or general physician usually administers combination therapy of drugs used for tuberculosis, such as Rifampicin, Isoniazid and Pyrazinamide (possibly with either streptomycin or ethambutol).
Luxatio erecta
Luxatio erecta is inferior shoulder dislocation. This dislocation usually occurs when a direct axial force is applied to a fully abducted arm or when a hyperabduction force leads to leverage of the humeral head across the acromion, resulting in inferior dislocation of the humerus.
- Luxatio erecta is uncommon, accounting for 1 - 2% of shoulder dislocations.
- In luxatio erecta, the inferior capsule almost always is torn.
- Associated bony injuries include fractures of the greater tuberosity, acromion, clavicle, coracoid process, and glenoid rim.
- Brachial plexus and axillary artery injuries are possible serious complications.
- Long-term complications include adhesive capsulitis and recurrent subluxations or dislocations.

# Diagnostic Findings
- The humeral head is dislocated inferiorly to a subcoracoid position.
- The superior aspect of the humeral head does not contact the inferior aspect of the glenoid rim, and the arm is held over the patient's head in a fixed abducted position.
- An associated fracture of the greater tuberosity may be present.

# See Also
- Anterior shoulder dislocation
- Posterior shoulder dislocation
Lymphangiogram

# Overview
A lymphangiogram is a medical test, whereby pictures of the lymphatic system taken with X-rays after a special dye is injected to outline the lymph nodes and blood vessels.  It is performed in a hospital radiology department or in the health care provider's office by an X-ray technician.
This test is not used as often because of the adoption of CT scan and the PET scan technologies.

# Procedure
- A needle or catheter is inserted into a lymphatic channel in either the foot or arm, and a contrast medium is injected into the body at a very slow rate (approximately 60 to 90 minutes for all the contrast medium to be injected).
- A fluoroscope is used to follow the dye as it spreads through the lymphatic system through the legs, into the groin, and along the back of the abdominal cavity.
- Once the contrast medium is injected, the catheter is removed, and the incisions are stitched and bandaged.  X-rays are taken of the legs, pelvis, abdomen, and chest areas.  The next day, another set of X-rays may be taken.
- If a site of cancer (breast or melanoma) is being studied to evaluate spreading, a mixture of blue dye and a radioactive tracer is injected next to the mass. Special cameras detect the spread of tracer along lymph channels to outlying nodes.
- A surgeon will then use the visible blue dye or radioactivity within nodes to guide biopsy within adjacent tissues (such as the arm pit for breast cancer) to determine possible routes of cancer spread.

# Resources
- About lymphangiogram (National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health)
Wolman disease
Synonyms and keywords: Lysosomal acid lipase deficiency

# Overview
Wolman disease (also known as Wolmans disease, Wolmans syndrome, and acid lipase deficiency) is a rare severe lipid storage disease that is usually fatal at a very young age.
Both males and females are affected by this severe disorder.

# Causes
This autosomal recessive disorder is marked by accumulation of cholesteryl esters (normally a transport form of cholesterol) and triglycerides (a chemical form in which fats exist in the body) that can build up significantly and cause damage in the cells and tissues.

# Presentation
Infants are normal and active at birth but quickly develop progressive mental deterioration, hepatosplenomegaly (enlarged liver and grossly enlarged spleen), distended abdomen, gastrointestinal problems including steatorrhea (excessive amounts of fats in the stools), jaundice, anemia, vomiting and calcium deposits in the adrenal glands, causing them to harden.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination
- Hepatomegaly
- Splenomegaly

## Abdominal x-ray
- The vast majority of radiologic findings reported in the literature are limited to the characteristically enlarged, calcified adrenal glands noted on conventional radiographs.
- Although there are multiple causes of adrenal gland calcifications, only Wolman disease results in enlarged, calcified adrenal glands that maintain their normal triangular configuration.
Images shown below are courtesy of RadsWiki

# Prognosis
In the past, there has been no specific treatment for Wolman disease, although a single case patient has seen a complete, sustained remission after a bone marrow transplant, and if the results can be duplicated, this approach may become standard in the future.
Patients with anemia may require blood transfusions. In some patients, the enlarged spleen must be removed to improve cardiopulmonary function. Restricting ones diet does not prevent lipid buildup in cells and tissues.

# Eponym
Wolman disease is named after Moshe Wolman.
MERRF syndrome

# Overview
MERRF syndrome (or Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged Red Fibers) is a mitochondrial disease.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

## Presentation
It involves the following characteristics:
- progressive myoclonic epilepsy
- clumps of diseased mitochondria accumulate in the subsarcolemmal region of the muscle fiber and appear as "ragged-red fibers" when muscle is stained with modified Gomori trichrome stain
- short stature

# Pathophysiology

# Causes
The MERRF syndrome is caused by a maternally-inherited mutation at position 8344 in the mitochondrial genome. This point mutation disrupts the mitochondrial gene for tRNA-Lys and so disrupts synthesis of proteins essential for oxidative phosphorylation.
Genes involved include MT-TK, MT-TL1, MT-TH, MT-TS1, MT-TS2, and MT-TF.

# Differentiating MERRF syndrome from Other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria

## History and Symptoms

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy

## Surgery

## Prevention
Male lactation
The phenomenon of male lactation in   humans has become more common in recent years due to the use of medications that stimulate a man's mammary glands. Though boys and men have nipples, many are unaware that they also have mammary glands. Ordinarily there is so little mammary tissue that it is unnoticeable; if the male breasts develop visibly, the condition is called gynecomastia. Under the appropriate hormonal stimulusthat nature provides to human females when they become pregnant and give birththe mammary glands of human males can also produce milk. The volume of milk produced is low relative to that of a lactating female. Male lactation has, in some cases, commenced without hormonal treatments as well.  Newborn baby boys (and girls) can occasionally produce milk because of the intense hormones involved in their mother's pregnancy and the hours of childbirth; this is called witch's milk.
Male lactation is most commonly caused by hormonal treatments given to men suffering from prostate cancer. Female hormones are used to slow the production of cancerous prostate tissue, but the same hormones also stimulate the mammary glands. Male-to-female transsexuals may also produce milk due to the hormones they take to reshape their bodies. It can occasionally be a side effect of antipsychotic medication. Extreme stress combined with demanding physical activity and a shortage of food has also been known to cause male lactation.  The phenomenon was first studied in survivors of the liberated Nazi concentration camps after World War II. Some American POWs returning from the Korean and Vietnam Wars also experienced male lactation.
It is also possible for males (and females) to induce lactation through constant massage and simulated 'sucking' of the nipple over a long period of time (months).
The phenomenon of male lactation occurs in some non-human species, notably the Dayak fruit bat (Dyacopterus spadiceus), and the lactating males may assist in the nursing of their infants. In addition, male goats are known to lactate on occasion.
Spontaneous male lactation and even nursing have occasionally been observed in humans.
In Why Is Sex Fun?, Jared Diamond reports of male and female cancer patients being treated with estrogen who proceeded to lactate when injected with prolactin, and suggests that mechanical stimulation of male breasts, by releasing prolactin, could result in lactation. He also mentions teenage boys lactating after self stimulation of their nipples.
Marceli Nencki
Wilhelm Marceli Nencki (1847-1901) was a famous Polish chemist and doctor.

# Work
Nencki's main scientific interest concentrated on urea synthesis, the chemistry of purines and biological oxidation of aromatic compounds. He was also interested in the structure of proteins, enzymatic processes in the intestine and bacterial biochemistry. One of his achievements was for example demonstration that urea is formed in the organism from amino acids rather than being preformed on a protein molecule and that it is accompanied by binding of carbon dioxide.
He proposed that the synthesis of fatty acids proceeds stepwise, by a gradual condensation of two-carbon-atom fragments and that oxidation of fatty acids occurs by splitting into two-carbon units.
Among Nencki's greatest achievements was his study on the chemical structure of haemoglobin. He identified haemopyrrole among degradation products of haemoglobin and showed its identity with one of the products obtained by Leon Marchlewski from chlorophyll.
Markov process
A Markov process, named after the Russian mathematician Andrey Markov, is a mathematical model for the random evolution of a memoryless system. Often the property of being 'memoryless' is expressed such that conditional on the present state of the system, its future and past are independent.
Mathematically, the Markov process is expressed as for any n and t_1
Often, the term Markov chain is used to mean a discrete-time Markov process.  Also see continuous-time Markov process.
Mathematically, if X(t), t > 0, is a stochastic process, the Markov property states that
Markov processes are typically termed (time-) homogeneous if
and otherwise are termed (time-) inhomogeneous (or (time-) nonhomogeneous).  Homogeneous Markov processes, usually being simpler than inhomogeneous ones, form the most important class of Markov processes.
In some cases, apparently non-Markovian processes may still have Markovian representations, constructed by expanding the concept of the 'current' and 'future' states. For example, let X be a non-Markovian process. Then define a process Y, such that each state of Y represents a time-interval of states of X, i.e. mathematically,
If Y has the Markov property, then it is a Markovian representation of X. In this case, X is also called a second-order Markov process. Higher-order Markov processes are defined analogously.
An example of a non-Markovian process with a Markovian representation is a moving average time series.
Maura Buchanan
Maura Buchanan is a British nurse who has been president of the Royal College of Nursing since 2006.
She began a nursing career with a BA and RGN from Glasgow Caledonian University and then worked as a Research Assistant at Glasgow University. She specialised in neurosurgical nursing. She earned a Postgraduate diplomas in Clinical Neurosciences and Health Law.
In 1993 she moved to Oxford to become Senior Nurse at the John Radcliffe Hospital. Before being elected president of the Royal College of Nursing she held several roles within the organisation including; Chair of RCN Congress (19982002).
Maxakalisaurus
Maxakalisaurus is the name given in August 2006 to the fossils of a titanosaurid dinosaur genus, found in Brazil, 45 Km near the city of Prata, in the state of Minas Gerais in 1998. It was closely related to Saltasaurus, a sauropod considered unusual because it had evolved apparently defensive traits, including bony plates on its skin and vertical plates along its spine; such osteoderms have also been found for Maxakalisaurus.
The genus name is derived from the tribe of the Maxakali; Topa is one of their divinities.
The Maxakalisaurus fossil was about 13 meters (43.3 feet) long, with an estimated weight of 9 tons, although, according to paleontologist Alexander Kellner, it could reach a length of approximately 20 meters (65 feet). It had a long neck and tail, ridged teeth (unusual among sauropods) and lived about 80 million years ago. Because sauropods seem to have lacked significant competition in South America, they evolved there with greater diversity and more unusual traits than elsewhere in the world.
"This is the biggest dinosaur yet described in Brazil," said Alexander Kellner, lead author of the scientific description. "We have found the bones of what appear to be larger dinosaurs, but we still haven't been able to put them together for scientific descriptions."
Meconium ileus

# Overview
Meconium found in the intestine of a newborn, consisting of succus entericus (bile salts, bile acids, and debris from the intestinal mucosa) Meconium is normally evacuated within 6 hours of birth or earlier. Meconium ileus occurs with meconium becomes inspissated and obstructs the distal ileum. It is usually a manifestation of cystic fibrosis. It is usually understood as synonymous with cystic fibrosis until proven otherwise. Approximately 20% of infants with cystic fibrosis present with meconium ileus at birth. It may also be seen with pancreatic atresia or stenosis of the pancreatic duct. It may rarely occur without cystic fibrosis or pancreatic abnormality in cases likely related to gut immaturity (more favorable outcome). Further complications include ileal atresia or stenosis, ileal perforation, meconium peritonitis, and volvulus with or without pseudocyst formation. It is more common in white populations. It affects both sexes almost equally.

## Imaging Findings
- Prenatal ultrasound findings associated with meconium ileus include polyhydramnios, fetal ascites, peritoneal wall calcifications, and intraabdominal cysts.
- Meconium is normally invisible radiographically.
- Occassionally, has a mottled appearance on radiographs during the first 2 days of life.
- Classically, a paucity or absence of air-fluid levels and a "bubbly" appearance of distended intestinal loops on radiographs.
- Microcolon seen on barium enema.
- Characteristic findings often not seen, and thus relatively unreliable.
Patient #1
Patient #2
Patient #3
Meconium ileus must be differentiated from other diseases that cause a failure to pass meconium or abdominal distension in infants, including meconium plug syndrome, small left colon syndrome, and congenital hypothyroidism.

# Related Chapters
- Meconium
- Meconium plug syndrome