Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Lung volumes
Lung volumes refer to physical differences in lung volume, while lung capacities represent different combinations of lung volumes, usually in relation to respiration and exhalation.
The average pair of human lungs can hold about 6 liters of air, but only a small amount of this capacity is used during normal breathing.
Breathing mechanism in mammals is called "tidal breathing". Tidal breathing means that air goes into the lungs the same way that it comes out.

# Factors affecting lung volume
Several factors affect lung volumes, some that can be controlled and some that can not. These factors include:
A person who is born and lives at sea level will develop a slightly smaller lung capacity than a person who spends their life at a high altitude. This is because the atmosphere is less dense at higher altitude, and therefore, the same volume of air contains fewer molecules of all gases, including oxygen. In response to higher altitude, the body's diffusing capacity increases in order to be able to process more air.
When someone living at or near sea level travels to locations at high altitudes (eg. the Andes, Denver, Colorado, Tibet, the Himalayas, etc.) they can develop a condition called altitude sickness because their lungs cannot respirate sufficiently in the thinner air.

# Measurement and values
These values vary with the age and height of the person; the values that follow are for a 70 kg (154 lb), average-sized adult male :
The tidal volume, vital capacity, inspiratory capacity and expiratory reserve volume can be measured directly with a spirometer. Determination of the residual volume can be done by radiographic planemetry, body plethysmography, closed circuit dilution and nitrogen washout.
These are the basic elements of a ventilatory pulmonary function test. The results (in particular FEV1/FVC and FRC) can be used to distinguish between restrictive and obstructive pulmonary diseases:

# Other
The largest human lung capacity recorded is that of British rower Peter Reed at 11.68 litres, roughly twice that of an average person.
Expressivity

# Overview
Expressivity refers to variations of a phenotype in genetics.  The term is used to qualitatively characterize the variance or extent of the phenotype.  For example a quantitative trait - like body height - might have large variance and therefore can make prediction of the phenotype difficult.  Like penetrance in most instances expressivity is related to an allele or a mutation or more generally a genotype.  In these instances expressivity denotes how well the phenotype can be predicted, given the genotype.

# Expressivity
Expressivity is a term used in genetics to refer to variations in a phenotype among individuals carrying a particular genotype.   The term can be used to characterize qualitatively or quantitatively the extent of phenotypic variation given a particular genotype.  The term is analogous to the severity of a condition in clinical medicine.  For example, the volume of blood ejected from the pumping heart with each contraction, relative to the total amount of blood contained in the heart's chamber can be quantified by echocardiography and is called the ejection fraction.  If a specific genotype is associated with the development of congestive heart failure, the expressivity would be represented by the range of ejection fractions seen in patients that have that genotype.  As a more qualitative example, the "blue" gene might have an expressivity of 25% for individuals that express the "blue" gene and appear light blue, and 75% for individuals that express the "blue" gene and appear dark blue.  Expressivity is measured only when there is 100% penetrance.
This differs from penetrance, which refers to the likelihood of the gene generating its associated phenotype at all, as determined by the proportion of individuals with a given genotype who also possess the associated phenotype.  In contrast, expressivity refers to the influence of an expressed gene at the level of particular individuals.

# Variable expressivity
Variable expressivity occurs when a phenotype is expressed to a different degree among individuals with the same genotype. For example, individuals with the same allele for a gene involved in a quantitative trait like body height might have large variance (some are taller than others), making prediction of the phenotype from a particular genotype alone difficult.  The expression of a phenotype may be modified by the effects of aging, other genetic loci, or environmental factors.  Another example is neurofibromatosis, where patients with the same genetic mutation show different signs and symptoms of the disease.
F11 receptor
Junctional adhesion molecule A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the F11R gene. It has also been designated as CD321 (cluster of differentiation 321).

# Function
Tight junctions represent one mode of cell-to-cell adhesion in epithelial or endothelial cell sheets, forming continuous seals around cells and serving as a physical barrier to prevent solutes and water from passing freely through the paracellular space. The protein encoded by this immunoglobulin superfamily gene member is an important regulator of tight junction assembly in epithelia. In addition, the encoded protein can act as (1) a receptor for reovirus, (2) a ligand for the integrin LFA1, involved in leukocyte transmigration, and (3) a platelet receptor. Multiple transcript variants encoding two different isoforms have been found for this gene.

# Interactions
F11 receptor has been shown to interact with MLLT4, CASK and Tight junction protein 1.
Faget's sign
Synonyms and keywords: pulse-temperature deficit; relative bradycardia

# Overview
Faget's sign refers to a significant pulse-temperature deficit relative to the degree of fever.

# Historical Perspective
Feget's sign is named after Jean Charles Faget, who characterized the unusual constellation of fever and bradycardia in 1859.

# Pathophysiology
Physiologically, fever is accompanied by tachycardia rather than bradycardia.  For every degree of temperature elevation in degrees Fahrenheit, there is a commensurate increase in pulse rate of 10 beats per minute. This physiologic relationship between temperature and pulse rate is known as Liebermeister's rule (Table 1).  When fever is associated with bradycardia, it is referred to as Faget's sign.

# Clinical Significance
Abnormalities in the pulse-temperature relationship may be indiscernible when the body temperature falls below 102F.  Relative bradycardia should not be applied to patients with paced rhythms or advanced AV block or to those taking beta-blockers. Digoxin, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers do not affect pulse-temperature relationships as do beta-blockers.
Relative bradycardia may aid differential diagnosis in selected clinical contexts.  Faget's sign may be used to discriminate Legionella pneumophila from Mycoplasma pneumoniae in community-acquired pneumonias.  When relative bradycardia is associated with fever of unknown origin, certain non-infectious causes including central nervous system lesions, lymphomas, drug fever, factitious fever, and beta-blockers should be considered in addition to the infectious etiologies (Table 2).

# Causes

## Common Causes
- Brucellosis
- Chlamydia
- Colorado tick fever virus
- Coxiella burnetii
- Dengue Fever
- Drug fever
- Legionella
- Leptospirosis
- Leishmaniasis
- Mycoplasma
- Psittacosis
- Tularemia
- Typhoid fever
- Yellow Fever

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Anaphylaxis
- Atypical pneumonia
- Babesiosis
- Beta blocker
- Brucellosis
- Campylobacter fetus
- Central nervous system lesion
- Chagas disease
- Chlamydia
- Chlamydophila psittaci
- Colorado tick fever virus
- Coxiella burnetii
- Cyclic neutropenia
- Cytomegalovirus mononucleosis
- Dengue fever
- Drug fever
- Ehrlichia canis
- Enteric fever
- Factitious fever
- Francisella tularensis
- Group A streptococcus
- Guanarito virus
- Junin virus
- Legionnaires' disease
- Leishmaniasis
- Leptospirosis
- Listeria monocytogenes
- Lymphoma
- Machupo virus
- Malaria
- Murine typhus
- Mycoplasma
- Orientia tsutsugamushi
- Plasmodium vivax
- Q fever
- Rickettsia typhi
- Rickettsiosis
- Rocky mountain spotted fever
- Salmonella enterica
- Typhoid fever
- Viral hemorrhagic fever
- Yellow fever
Renal fascia
The kidney and the adipose capsule are enclosed in a sheath of fibrous tissue continuous with the subperitoneal fascia, and named the renal fascia (also known as Gerota's fascia after the Romanian anatomist Dimitrie Gerota).
At the lateral border of the kidney the renal fascia splits into an anterior and a posterior layer.
- The anterior layer is carried medialward in front of the kidney and its vessels, and is continuous over the aorta with the corresponding layer of the opposite side.
- The posterior layer extends medialward behind the kidney and blends with the fascia on the Quadratus lumborum and Psoas major, and through this fascia is attached to the vertebral column.
Above the suprarenal gland the two layers of the renal fascia fuse, and unite with the fascia of the diaphragm; below they remain separate, and are gradually lost in the subperitoneal fascia of the iliac fossa.
The renal fascia is connected to the fibrous tunic of the kidney by numerous trabecul, which traverse the adipose capsule, and are strongest near the lower end of the organ.
Behind the fascia renalis is a considerable quantity of fat, which constitutes the paranephric body.
The kidney is held in position partly through the attachment of the renal fascia and partly by the apposition of the neighboring viscera.

# Layers
The renal fascia relates to the other layers in the following manner (moving from innermost to outermost):
- renal cortex
- renal capsule
- perinephric fat (or "perirenal fat")
- renal fascia
- paranephric fat (or "pararenal fat")
- peritoneum (anteriorly), and transversalis fascia (posteriorly)
Fate mapping
Fate mapping is a technique that is used to show how a cell or tissue moves and what it will become during normal development.  Fate mapping was developed by Walter Vogt as a means by which to trace the development of specific regions of the early embryo. To do this, Vogt used agar chips impregnated with vital dyes.
A fate map is a representation of the developmental history of each cell in the body of an adult organism.  Thus, a fate map traces the products of each mitosis from the single-celled zygote to the multi-celled adult.  The process of fate mapping was developed by Walter Vogt.
The fate map of vulval development in C. elegans has been completely characterized at a molecular level.  In an adult C. elegans, the vulva is the egg-laying organ that consists of only 22 cells.  The differentiation and division of these Px.p cells is dictated by the anchor cell through a morphogen gradient of LIN-3.  Mapping each cell's fate was accomplished by studying mutants and through tissue grafts.
File:Celegansfatemap.jpg
Fatty streak
Fatty streak, though composed of macrophage white blood cells, not fat, is the term generally given to the earliest stages of atheroma, as viewed at autopsy, looking at the inner surface of arteries, without magnification. It is not visible by current technologies in living humans, even by IVUS, the imaging technology with the highest spatial resolution for visualizing artery walls in vivo.
The fatty streak is the first grossly visible lesion in the development of atherosclerosis. It appears as an irregular off white to yellow-white discoloration near the luminal surface of the artery. Actually the streaks are not fat, but small collections of monocyte-derived macrophages located beneath the inner, endothelial layer of arteries. The fatty streak mainly consists of foamy appearing macrophage cells, sometimes with some additional T lymphocytes, aggregated platelets, localized smooth muscle cells, etc.
The macrophage cells, under a microscope, have a foamy-like appearance because of large collections of membrane bound vesicles within their cytoplasm. Since cholesterol within cells resides primarily within the cell membranes, the large accumulation of membranes results in an elevated local content of membrane bound cholesterol and other fats.
En-mass the foamy macrophages usually have an off white to yellow-white color and were named because they were thought to "look like" (gross, non-microscopic perspecitive) "streaks of fat" against the otherwise quite red/pink muscular tissue background forming the wall of arteries.
Femoral vein

# Overview
In the human body, the femoral vein is a blood vessel that accompanies the femoral artery in the femoral sheath. It begins at the adductor canal (also known as Hunter's canal) and is a continuation of the popliteal vein.  It ends at the inferior margin of the inguinal ligament, where it becomes the external iliac vein.

# Drainage
Several large veins drain into the femoral vein:
- popliteal vein
- profunda femoris vein
- great saphenous vein

# Clinical significance
Occlusion of the femoral vein can be life-threatening.
The practice of delivering recreational drugs intravenously using the femoral vein is relatively common amongst injecting drug users (IDUs).

# Use of the term superficial femoral vein
The term superficial femoral vein is not recognized as a legitimate anatomic term.
However, some specialist physicians (e.g. radiologists, vascular surgeons) use the term superficial femoral vein for the distal part of the femoral vein to:
- differentiate the femoral vein segments before and after the profunda femoris vein joins with it, and
- differentiate the distal segment of the femoral vein from the deep femoral vein (profunda femoris vein), which is paired with the profunda femoris artery.
Usage of this term is discouraged by many physicians because it leads to confusion among general medical practitioners.
The femoral vein is considered a deep vein, unlike the adjective superficial suggests and has led some physicians to falsely conclude it is a superficial vein, which has resulted in patients (with deep vein thrombosis) being denied efficacious thrombolytic therapy.

# Additional images
- Structures surrounding right hip-joint.
- Cross-section through the middle of the thigh.
- Femoral sheath laid open to show its three compartments.
- The femoral artery.
- The spermatic cord in the inguinal canal.
Fencamfamine

# Overview
Fencamfamine (Glucoenergan, Reactivan) is a stimulant which was developed in the 1960s as an appetite suppressant, but was later withdrawn for this application due to problems with dependence and abuse. It is around half the potency of dexamphetamine, and is prescribed at a dose of 10-60mg, although abusers of the drug tend to rapidly develop tolerance and escalate their dose. Reactivan is still rarely used for treating depressive day-time fatigue, lack of concentration and lethargy, particularly in individuals who have chronic medical conditions, as its favourable safety profile makes it the most suitable drug in some cases.
Legal Status: Schedule IV (USA)

# Pharmacology
Fencamfamine acts as an indirect dopamine agonist. It releases dopamine by a similar mechanism to amphetamines, but is 10x less potent than dexamphetamine at producing this effect. The main mechanism of action is instead inhibition of dopamine reuptake, more similar to that of methylphenidate. Also unlike amphetamines, fencamfamine does not inhibit the action of monoamine oxidase enzymes and so is somewhat safer. Some experiments also suggest a role for opioid receptors in the activity of fencamfamine, as low doses can cause paradoxical sedation, and some effects of the drug are blocked by naloxone.

# Side effects
Side effects include: dry mouth, loss of appetite, restlessness and tremor.

# Contraindications
Contraindications: should not be used in patients with heart disease, angina, glaucoma, thyrotoxicosis or in patients being treated with monoamine oxidase inhibitors.
Fenfluramine
Fenfluramine is a drug that was part of the Fen-Phen anti-obesity medication (the other drug being phentermine). Also known as Pondimin, fenfluramine was introduced on the U.S. market in 1973. It is the racemic mixture of two enantiomers, dexfenfluramine and levofenfluramine. It is designed to increase the level of the neurotransmitter serotonin, a chemical that regulates mood, appetite and other functions. Fenfluramine causes the release of serotonin by disrupting vesicular storage of the neurotransmitter, and reversing serotonin transporter function. The end result is a feeling of fullness and loss of appetite.
The drug was withdrawn from the U.S. market in 1997 after reports of heart valve disease and pulmonary hypertension, including a condition known as cardiac fibrosis. After the US withdrawal of fenfluramine, it was also withdrawn from other markets around the world.
The distinctive valvular abnormality seen with fenfluramine is a thickening of the leaflet and chordae tendinae. Roth suggested a mechanism by which fenfluramine damaged the valves. Heart valves also have serotonin receptors, which regulate their growth. He reported that fenfluramine and its active metabolite norfenfluramine stimulated the serotonin receptors 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). In particular norfenfluramine is a potent agonist (stimulant) of 5-HT2B receptors. These receptors are plentiful in human cardiac valves and appear to be essential for normal cardiac development. Roth suggested that the mechanism by which fenfluramine causes damage is through inappropriately stimulating the valve cells to divide. This valve damage is found in other drugs that act on 5-HT2B receptors.
Ferrihydrite
Ferrihydrite is a ubiquitous iron oxyhydroxide mineral.  Its chemical formula is generally presented as Fe5HO84H2O, also written as 5Fe2O39H2O or as Fe2O32FeOOH2.6H2O . It is found throughout soil and water systems  and is important to many industrial applications  . It can even be found within many living organisms, including humans In particular, it is found in the iron core of the ferritin protein, with serves as an intra-cellular iron storage.
Two types of material are commonly called ferrihydrite: 2-line ferrihydrite (sometimes termed protoferrihydrite) and 6-line ferrihydrite. The distinction refers to the number of X-ray diffraction lines in their respective X-ray patterns. While 6-line ferrihydrite has been classified as a mineral by the IMA since 1973  , its structure is still a subject of debate. The less crystalline 2-line ferrihydrite, on the other hand, is not considered a mineral. Compared to most minerals, both 2-line and 6-line ferrihydrite show very broad diffraction lines.
Ferrihydrite only exists as a nanomaterial, showing crystals 2-4 nanometers wide for 2-line ferrihydrite and 5-6 nanometers wide for 6-line ferrihydrite  .
With its high surface area per volume , ferrihydrite is a very reactive mineral. It can interact, either by surface adsorption or by co-precipitation, with a number of environmentally important chemical species, including arsenic, heavy metals like lead or mercury, phosphate, as well as many organic molecules.
Ferrihydrite is a metastable mineral. It is known to be a precursor of more crystalline minerals like hematite and goethite .
Ferrosilicon
Ferrosilicon, or ferrosilicium, is a ferroalloy an alloy of iron and silicon with between 15 and 90% silicon.  It contains a high proportion of iron silicides. Its melting point is about 1200 C to 1250 C with a boiling point of 2355 C. It also contains about 1 to 2% of calcium and aluminium.
Ferrosilicon is used in steelmaking and foundries as a source of silicon in production of carbon steels, stainless steels, and other ferrous alloys for its deoxidizing properties, to prevent loss of carbon from the molten steel (so called blocking the heat); ferromanganese, spiegeleisen, silicides of calcium, and many other materials are used for the same purpose. It can be used to make other ferroalloys. Ferrosilicon is also used for manufacture of silicon, corrosion-resistant and high-temperature resistant ferrous silicon alloys, and silicon steel for electromotors and transformer cores. In manufacture of cast iron, ferrosilicon is used for inoculation of the iron to accelerate graphitization. In arc welding, ferrosilicon can be found in some electrode coatings.
Ferrosilicon is a basis for manufacture of prealloys like magnesium ferrosilicon (FeSiMg), used for modification of melted malleable iron; FeSiMg contains between 3-42% of magnesium and small amounts of rare earth metals. Ferrosilicon is also important as an additive to cast irons for controlling the initial content of silicon.
In contact with water, ferrosilicon may slowly produce hydrogen.
Ferrosilicon is produced by reduction of silica or sand with coke in presence of scrap iron, millscale, or other source of iron. Ferrosilicons with silicon content up to about 15% are made in blast furnaces lined with acid fire bricks. Ferrosilicons with higher silicon content are made in electric arc furnaces. An overabundance of silica is used to prevent formation of silicon carbide. Microsilica is a useful byproduct.
The usual formulations on the market are ferrosilicons with 15, 45, 75, and 90% of silicon. The remainder is iron, with about 2% of other elements like aluminium and calcium.
Its CAS number is Template:CASREF.
A mineral perryite is similar to ferrosilicon, with its composition Fe5Si2.
Ferrosilicon is used by the military to quickly produce hydrogen for balloons by the ferrosilicon method. The chemical reaction uses sodium hydroxide, ferrosilicon, and water. The generator is small enough to fit a truck and requires only a small amount of electric power, the materials are stable and not combustible, and they do not generate hydrogen until mixed.
The melting point and density of ferrosilicon is dependent on its silicon content.
Ferulic acid
Ferulic acid is an organic compound that is an abundant phenolic phytochemical found in plant cell walls.  It is a derivative of trans-cinnamic acid.  As a component of lignin, ferulic acid is a precursor in the manufacture of other aromatic compounds.

# Occurrence in nature
Ferulic acid, together with dihydroferulic acid, is a component of lignocellulose, serving to crosslink the lignin and polysaccharides, thereby conferring rigidity to the cell walls. It is found in seeds of plants such as in rice, wheat, and oats, as well as in coffee, apple, artichoke, peanut, orange and pineapple.  It can be extracted from wheat bran and maize bran using concentrated alkali.  Biosynthesis of ferulic acid is by the action of the enzyme O-methyl transferase on caffeic acid Template:Ref label.

# Bio-medical considerations
Ferulic acid, like many phenols, is an antioxidant in the sense that it is reactive toward free radicals such as reactive oxygen species (ROS).  ROS and free radicals are implicated in DNA damage, cancer, accelerated cell aging.   Animal studies and in vitro studies suggest that ferulic acid may have direct antitumor activity against breast cancer Template:Ref label and liver cancer Template:Ref label. Ferulic acid may have pro-apoptotic effects in cancer cells, thereby leading to their destruction Template:Ref label.  Ferulic acid may be effective at preventing cancer induced by exposure to the carcinogenic compounds benzopyrene Template:Ref label and 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide Template:Ref label.  Note that these are not randomized controlled trials done with human participants, and therefore, the results of these studies may not be directly applicable to human use.
If added to a topical preparation of ascorbic acid and vitamin E, ferulic acid may reduce oxidative stress and formation of thymine dimers in skin Template:Ref label.

# Applications

## As a precursor to vanillin
Ferulic acid, being highly abundant, may be useful as a precursor in the manufacturing of vanillin, a synthetic flavoring agent often used in place of natural vanilla extract Template:Ref label.  However, biotechnological processes may be the most efficient method to use ferulic acid as a precursor Template:Ref label, and as such, research is still ongoing.

## Mass spectrometry
It is used as a matrix for proteins in MALDI mass spectroscopy analyses. Template:Ref label