Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Furazolidone

# Overview
Furazolidone is a nitrofuran antibacterial. It is marketed by Roberts Laboratories under the brand name Furoxone and by GlaxoSmithKline as Dependal-M. Diafuron, medaron

# Uses
Furazolidone has been used in human and veterinary medicine. It has a broad spectrum of activity being active against
- Gram positive
Clostridium perfringens
Corynebacterium pyogenes
Streptococci
Staphylococci
- Clostridium perfringens
- Corynebacterium pyogenes
- Streptococci
- Staphylococci
- Gram negative
Escherichia coli
Salmonella dublin
Salmonella typhimurium
- Escherichia coli
- Salmonella dublin
- Salmonella typhimurium
- Protozoa
Giardia lamblia
Eimeria species
Histomonas meleagridis
- Giardia lamblia
- Eimeria species
- Histomonas meleagridis

## Use in humans
In humans it has used to treat diarrhoea and enteritis caused by bacteria or protozoan infections. It has been used to treat traveler's diarrhoea, cholera and bacteremic salmonellosis.
Use in treating Helicobacter pylori infections has also been proposed.
Furazolidone is also used for giardiasis (due to Giardia lamblia), though it is not a first line treatment.
As for all medicines the most recent local recommendations for its use should be always be followed. The usual dose is:
- Adult: 100 mg 4 times daily. Usual duration: 2-5 days, up to 7 days in some patients or 10 days for giardiasis.
- Child: 1.25 mg/kg 4 times daily, usually given for 2-5 days or up to 10 days for giardiasis.

## Use in animals
As a veterinary medicine, furazolidone has been used with some success to treat salmonids for Myxobolus cerebralis infections.
It has also been used in aquaculture.
Since furazolidone is a nitrofuran antibiotic, its use in food animals is currently prohibited by the FDA under the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act, 1994.

## Use in laboratory
It is used to differentiate micrococci and staphylococci.

# Mechanism
It is believed to work by crosslinking of DNA.

# Side effects
Furazolidone is no longer available in the US. Though an effective antibiotic when all others fail, against extremely drug resistant infections, it has many side effects, and as with other nitrofurans generally, minimum inhibitory concentrations also produce systemic toxicity (tremors, convulsions, peripheral neuritis, gastrointestinal disturbances, depression of spermatogenesis.) Nitrofurans are recognized by FDA as mutagens/carcinogens, and can no longer be used since 1991.
GHB receptor
The -hydroxybutyrate (GHB) receptor (GHBR), originally identified as GPR172A, is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that binds the neurotransmitter and psychoactive drug -hydroxybutyric acid (GHB).

# History
The existence of a specific GHB receptor was predicted by observing the action of GHB and related compounds that primarily act on the GABAB receptor, but also exhibit a range of effects which were found not to be produced by GABAB activity, and so were suspected of being produced by a novel and at the time unidentified receptor target. Following the discovery of the "orphan" G-protein coupled receptor GPR172A, it was subsequently found to be the GHB receptor whose existence had been previously predicted. The rat GHB receptor was first cloned and characterised in 2003 followed by the human receptor in 2007.

# Function
The function of the GHB receptor appears to be quite different from that of the GABAB receptor. It shares no sequence homology with GABAB, and administration of mixed GHB/GABAB receptor agonists along with a selective GABAB antagonist or selective agonists for the GHB receptor which are not agonists at GABAB, do not produce a sedative effect, instead causing a stimulant effect followed by convulsions at higher doses, thought to be mediated through increased Na+/K+ current and increased release of dopamine and glutamate.

# Ligands

## Agonists
- 1,4-Butanediol
- 3-Hydroxycyclopent-1-enecarboxylic acid (HOCPCA)
- 4-(p-Chlorobenzyl)-GHB
- -Butyrolactone (GBL)
- -Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB)
- -Hydroxyvaleric acid (GHV; 4-methyl-GHB)
- -Valerolactone (GVL)
- trans-Hydroxycrotonic acid (T-HCA)
- Aceburic acid
- NCS-356 (4-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-hydroxy-but-2-enoic acid, CAS# 430440-66-7)
- NCS-435 (4-(p-methoxybenzyl)-GHB)
- UMB66
- UMB68
- UMB72
- UMB86

## Antagonists
- Gabazine (SR-95531)
- NCS-382

## Unknown/unclear
- (R)-4--GHB]]
- Amisulpride
- Levosulpiride
- Prochlorperazine
- Sulpiride
- Sultopride
Respirometer
A respirometer is a device used to measure the rate of respiration of a living organism by measuring its rate of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. They allow investigation into how factors such as age or the effect of light affect the rate of respiration.
A simple respirometer designed to measure oxygen uptake or CO2 release consists of a sealed container with the living specimen together with a substance to absorb the carbon dioxide given off during respiration, such as soda lime pellets or cotton wads soaked with potassium hydroxide. The oxygen uptake is detected by displacement of manometric fluid in a thin glass U-tube connected to the container. When the organism takes in oxygen it gives off an equal volume of carbon dioxide. As this is absorbed by the soda lime, air is sucked in from the U-tube to keep the pressure constant, displacing the liquid. The rate of change gives a direct and reasonably accurate reading for the organism's rate of respiration.
As changes in temperature or pressure can also affect the displacement of the manometric fluid, a second respirometer identical to the first except with a dead specimen (or something with the same mass as the specimen in place of the organism) is sometimes set up. Subtracting the displacement of the second respirometer from the first allows for control of these factors.
Gas constant

# Overview
The gas constant (also known as the molar, universal, or ideal gas constant, usually denoted by symbol R) is a physical constant which is featured in a large number of fundamental equations in the physical sciences, such as the ideal gas law and the Nernst equation.  It is equivalent to the Boltzmann constant, but expressed in units of energy (i.e. the pressure-volume product) per kelvin per mole (rather than energy per kelvin per particle).
Its value is:
The two digits in parentheses are the uncertainty (standard deviation) in the last two digits of the value.
The gas constant occurs in the simplest equation of state, the ideal gas law, as follows:
where:
The gas constant has the same units as specific entropy.

## Relationship with the Boltzmann constant
The Boltzmann constant kB (often abbreviated k) may be used in place of the gas constant by working in pure particle count, N, rather than number of moles, n, since
where N_A is Avogadro's number.
For example, the ideal gas law in terms of Boltzmann's constant is PV=Nk_BT\,\!.

## Specific gas constant
The specific gas constant of a gas or a mixture of gases (\bar{R}) is given by the universal gas constant, divided by the molar mass (M) of the gas/mixture.
It is common to represent the specific gas constant by the symbol R. In such cases the context and/or units of R should make it clear as to which gas constant is being referred to. For example, the equation for the speed of sound is usually written in terms of the specific gas constant.
The specific gas constant of dry air is

# US Standard Atmosphere
The US Standard Atmosphere, 1976 (USSA1976) defines the Universal Gas Constant as:
The USSA1976 does recognize, however, that this value is not consistent with the cited values for the Avogadro constant and the Boltzmann constant.  This disparity is not a significant departure from accuracy, and USSA1976 uses this value of R for all the calculations of the standard atmosphere.  When using the ISO value of R, the calculated pressure increases by only 0.62 pascals at 11,000 meters (the equivalent of a difference of only 0.174 meters  or 6.8 inches) and an increase of 0.292 pascals at 20,000 meters (the equivalent of a difference of only 0.338 meters  or 13.2 inches).
Gender-blind
Gender-blind (or unisex) is a term describing activities undertaken and services provided without regard to the gender of those who participate.

# Choice of words
Unisex is an older term, and a misnomer meaning "one sex". Some feel it carries the connotation of being duo-sex, (which would mean two at the same time) and many being afraid to use the more appropriate term, bisex, because of the sexual connotations. Whereas, gender-blind goes against most tenets of heteronormativity, by not looking at gender at all.

# The National Student Genderblind Campaign
In 2006 the National Student Genderblind Campaign was created as a collaborative grass-roots organization intended to educate college students, administrators, and others throughout the country. The NSGC advocates for the implementation of gender-inclusive dorm room and bathroom options.
The goal of the gender-blind dorm policy campaign is to allow roommates to be assigned without regard to any persons sex. The backers of the proposal claim it would allow transgender people and people who do not accept gender labels to live in more comfortable settings than may otherwise be possible in single-sex housing. They also claim it is a good policy for heterosexuals who otherwise couldn't live with their partners while at the university.
In December 2006, the National Student Genderblind Campaign found itself in national controversy after receiving what it claimed to be biased and negligent coverage by Boston's Fox 25 News. The controversy triggered a formal press statement released nationally and an appearance on Fox News Channel's "Heartland" show with John Kasich on December 16, 2006.
Gene cluster
A gene cluster is a set of two or more genes that serve to encode for the same or similar products. Because populations from a common ancestor tend to possess the same varieties of gene clusters, they are useful for tracing back recent evolutionary history. Because of this, they were used by Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza to identify ethnic groups within Homo sapiens and their closeness to each other.
An example of a gene cluster is the Human -globin gene cluster, which contains five functional genes and one non-functional gene for similar proteins. Hemoglobin molecules contain any two identical proteins from this gene cluster, depending on their specific role.
As according to the recent finding seem to suggest the evolutionary pathway and the diversion in the genes.
Gideon Rodan
Dr. Gideon Alfred Rodan (born June 14, 1934 in Bucharest, Romania; died January 1 2006 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania) was an American biochemist and osteopath.
Rodan studied at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel.
He researched the deformation of bone cells. His most notable work was about Osteoporosis. Rodan researched the connection between osteoblasts and osteoclasts and helped to analyse and describe the two. In the 1990s, Rodan, now director of the department for bone biology and osteoporosis at the Merck Research Laboratories, helped to created a compound to block osteoblast-mediated bone-resorption. This compound became known as Alendronate or Fosamax. In further works he examined the role of steroid in bone metabolism and the communication between bones and hormones.
From 1970 to 1985, Gideon Rodan taught at the University of Connecticut School of Dental Medicine until he swithched over to Merck. In 1987, Rodan became president of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. He was the editor of the book Principles of Bone Biology (1996).
Gideon Rodan died on January 1, 2006 of cancer.
de:Gideon Rodan
Giemsa stain
Giemsa stain, named after Gustav Giemsa, an early malariologist, is used for the histopathological diagnosis of malaria and other parasites. It is a mixture of methylene blue and eosin. The stain is usually prepared from commercially available Giemsa powder. It is specific for the phosphate groups of DNA and attaches itself to regions of DNA where there are high amounts of adenine-thymine bonding. Giemsa stain is used in Giemsa banding, commonly called G-banding, to stain chromosomes and often used to create a karyotype. It can identify chromosomal aberrations such as translocations and interchanges.
Giemsa stain is also a differential stain. It can be used to study the adherence of pathogenic bacteria to human cells. It differentially stains human and bacterial cells pink and purple respectively. It can be used for histopathological diagnosis of malaria and some other spirochete and protozoan blood parasites. Also used in Wolbach's tissue stain.
Giemsa stain is a classical blood film stain for peripheral blood smears and bone marrow specimens. Erythrocytes stain pink, platelets show a light pale pink, lymphocyte cytoplasm stains sky blue, monocyte cytoplasm stains pale blue, and leukocyte nuclear chromatin stains magenta.
Giemsa stain is also used to visualize chromosomes.
A thin film of the specimen on a microscope slide is fixed in pure methanol for 30 seconds, by immersing it or by putting a few drops of methanol on the slide. The slide is immersed to a freshly prepared 5% Giemsa stain solution for 20-30 minutes (in emergencies 5-10 minutes in 10% solution can be used), then flushed with tap water and left dry.
Glacial Milk
Glacial Milk is Innovative Technologies Corporation of America's brand of liquid nutritional supplements.
This brand includes the following bottled products:
- Complete Nutrition
- NONI Complete
- Coral Calcium Plus
- JOINT FORMULA Plus
- Hair of the Dog
- CARB CRUSHER
The company participates in Sam's Club roadshows, offering samples of these liquids to store customers and allowing customers to buy these products in the store during the roadshow.
These products have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
Glottal stop
The glottal stop or voiceless glottal plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is Template:IPA.  The glottal stop is the sound made when the vocal cords are pressed together to stop the flow of air and then released; for example, the break separating the syllables of the interjection uh-oh.  While this segment is not a phoneme in English, it is present in nearly all dialects of English as an allophone of /t/.  Some foreign language learning texts (e.g. Arabic) spend considerable space explaining this sound (in non-technical terms) to English speakers, although most English speakers make this consonant easily and daily.
In the traditional Romanization of many languages, such as Arabic, the glottal stop is transcribed with an apostrophe, , and this is the source of the IPA letter Template:IPA. In many Polynesian languages which use the Latin alphabet, however, the glottal stop is written with a reversed apostrophe,  (called okina in Hawaiian), which, confusingly, is also used to transcribe the ayin Arabic and is the source of the IPA character for the voiced pharyngeal fricative .

# Features
Features of the glottal stop:
- Its manner of articulation is plosive or stop, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract.
- Its place of articulation is glottal which means it is articulated by the vocal folds.
- Its phonation type is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth.
- Because it is pronounced in the throat; without a component in the mouth, the central/lateral dichotomy does not apply.
- The airstream mechanism is pulmonic egressive, which means it is articulated by pushing air out of the lungs and through the vocal tract, rather than from the glottis or the mouth.

# Occurrence
Stearic acid

# Overview
Stearic acid (IUPAC systematic name: octadecanoic acid) is one of the useful types of saturated fatty acids that come from many animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is a waxy solid, and its chemical formula is CH3(CH2)16COOH. Its name comes from the Greek word stear (genitive: steatos), which means tallow.  The term stearate is applied to the salts and esters of stearic acid.

# Production
Stearic acid is prepared by treating animal fat with water at a high pressure and temperature, leading to the hydrolysis of triglycerides. It can also be obtained from the hydrogenation of some unsaturated vegetable oils. Common stearic acid is actually a mix of stearic acid and palmitic acid, although purified stearic acid is available separately.

# Uses
Stearic acid is useful as an ingredient in making candles, soaps, plastics, oil pastels and cosmetics, and for softening rubber. Stearic acid is used to harden soaps, particularly those made with vegetable oil.
Stearic acid is also used as a parting compound when making plaster castings from a plaster piece mold or waste mold and when making the mold from a shellacked clay original. In this use, powdered stearic acid is dissolved in water and the solution is brushed onto the surface to be parted after casting.
Esters of stearic acid with ethylene glycol, glycol stearate and glycol distearate are used to produce a pearly effect in shampoos, soaps, and other cosmetic products. They are added to the product in molten form and allowed to crystalize under controlled conditions.
In fireworks, stearic acid is often used to coat metal powders such as aluminium and iron. This prevents oxidation allowing compositions to be stored for longer.
It is used along with simple sugar or corn syrup as a hardener in candies.

# Reactions
Stearic acid undergoes the typical reactions of saturated carboxylic acids, notably reduction to stearyl alcohol, and esterification with a range of alcohols.

# Metabolism
An isotope labeling study in humans concluded that the fraction of dietary stearic acid oxidatively desaturated to oleic acid was 2.4 times higher than the fraction of palmitic acid analogously converted to palmitoleic acid. Also, stearic acid was less likely to be incorporated into cholesterol esters. These findings may indicate that stearic acid is less unhealthy than other saturated fatty acids.
Gonadotropin
Gonadotropins are protein hormones secreted by gonadotrope cells of the pituitary gland of vertebrates.
Gonadotropin is sometimes abbreviated Gn. The British spelling is gonadotrophin.

# Types
The two principal gonadotropins are luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Both hormones consist of two peptide chains, an alpha chain and a beta chain, linked by disulfide bonds. LH and FSH share nearly identical alpha chains, while the beta chain provides specificity for receptor interactions.
A third human gonadotropin is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), produced by the placenta during pregnancy.

# Mechanism
Gonadotropin receptors are embedded in the surface of the target cell membranes and coupled to the G-protein system. Signals triggered by binding to the receptor are relayed within the cells by the cyclic AMP second messenger system.
Gonadotropins are released under the control of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the arcuate nucleus and preoptic area of the hypothalamus. The gonads  testes and ovaries  are the primary target organs for LH and FSH. The gonadotropins affect multiple cell types and elicit multiple responses from the target organs. As a simplified generalization, LH stimulates the Leydig cells of the testes and the theca cells of the ovaries to produce testosterone (and indirectly estradiol), while FSH stimulates the spermatogenic tissue of the testes and the granulosa cells of ovarian  follicles.

# Diseases
Gonadotropin deficiency due to pituitary disease results in hypogonadism, which can lead to infertility. Treatment include administered gonadotropins, which therefore work as fertility medication. Such can either by produced by extraction and purification from urine or it can be produced by recombinant DNA.
Failure or loss of the gonads usually results in elevated levels of LH and FSH in the blood, since the pituitary gland tries to compensate for the insufficient gonads.
Gouy balance
The Gouy balance is a simple technique for measuring the magnetic susceptibility of metals or metal complexes. This method was invented by the French scientist Louis Georges Gouy (19 February 1854 - 27 January 1926).
A long, cylindrical sample that is to be tested is suspended from a balance, partially entering between the poles of a magnet. The balance measures the apparent change in the mass of the sample as it is repelled or attracted by the region of high magnetic field between the poles. Some commercially available balances have a port at its base for this application.

# Notes
-  Saunderson, A. (1968). "A permanent magnet Gouy balance". Physics Education. 3: 272273. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/3/5/007..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Graeme Clark
Professor Graeme Clark AC AO (born 16 August 1935) pioneered the multiple-channel cochlear implant which has brought hearing and speech understanding to tens of thousands of people with severe-to-profound hearing loss in more than 80 countries. He is the founder of the Bionic Ear  Institute, which has a Cooperative Research Centre agreement with Cochlear Limited.
He was also appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia, made a Fellow of the Royal Society, and has won numerous awards including the Australian Father Of The Year award in 2004 and the Centenary Medal in 2003.
Clark was born 16 August, 1935 in Camden, New South Wales to Colin M Clark and Dorothy May Thomas. He was educated at Sydney Boys High School, The Scots College and the University of Sydney.
Granule cell

# Overview
In neuroscience, granule cells refer to tiny neurons (a type of cell) that are around 10 micrometres in diameter.  Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum, layer 4 of cerebral cortex, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, and in the olfactory bulb.
While anatomically similar, granule cells in different brain regions are functionally diverse.  For instance, olfactory bulb granule cells are GABAergic and axonless, while granule cells in the dentate gyrus have glutamatergic projection axons.  Interestingly, these two populations of granule cells are also the only major neuronal populations that undergo adult neurogenesis, while cerebellar and cortical granule cells do not.
Cerebellar granule cells account for nearly half of the neurons in the central nervous system. Granule cells receive excitatory input from mossy fibers originating from pontine nuclei. Cerebellar granule cells send parallel fibers up through the Purkinje layer into the molecular layer where they branch out and spread through Purkinje cell dendritic arbors. These parallel fibers form thousands of excitatory synapses with Purkinje cells.
Layer 4 granule cells of the cerebral cortex receive driving inputs from thalamus and convey driving inputs largely to supragranular layers 2-3, but also to infragranular layers of the cerebral cortex.