Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Bouba/kiki effect
The Bouba/Kiki Effect was discovered by German-American psychologist Wolfgang Kohler in 1929. In psychological experiments, first conducted on the island of Tenerife, Kohler showed forms similar to those shown at the right, and found a strong preference to pair the jagged shape with the word "takete" and the rounded shape with the word "baluba" ("maluma" in the 1947 version). In 2001, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and Edward Hubbard repeated Kohler experiment using the words "kiki" and "bouba" and asked large numbers of subjects "Which of these shapes is bouba and which is kiki?"  In tests conducted with both English and Tamil speakers, 95% to 98% picked the curvy shape as bouba and the jagged one as kiki, suggesting that the human brain is somehow able to extract abstract properties from the shapes and sounds.  Recent work by Daphne Maurer and colleagues has shown that even children as young as 2.5 (too young to read) show this effect.
Ramachandran and Hubbard suggest that the kiki/bouba effect has implications for the evolution of language, because it suggests that the naming of objects is not completely arbitrary. The rounded shape may most commonly be named bouba because the mouth makes a more rounded shape to produce that sound while a more taut, angular mouth shape is needed to make the sound kiki. The sounds of a K are harder and more forceful than those of a B, as well.  The presence of these "synesthesia-like mappings" suggest that this effect might be the neurological basis for sound symbolism, in which sounds are non-arbitrarily mapped to objects and events in the world.
Interestingly, individuals afflicted with autism do not show this effect. Where average people agree with the typical result 90% of the time, autistics only agree 60% of the time.
Boutonneuse fever
Synonyms and keywords: Kenya tick typhus; Marseilles fever; Mediterranean spotted fever; Rickettsia conorii; fievre boutonneuse; Boutonneuese fever

# Overview
Boutonneuse fever is a fever as a result of a Rickettsial infection caused by the bacterium Rickettsia conorii and transmitted by the dog tick Riphicephalus sanguineus. Boutonneuse fever is endemic in many countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.  It has an incubation period of 7 days.  Symptoms include fever, joint pain, chills, headache, and photophobia. On physical examination a black crust (tache noire) in the place of the tick bite may be seen.  Diagnosis is made with serologic methods, either the classic Weil Felix test (agglutination of Proteus OX strains ), either ELISA or immunofluorescence assays.  The mainstay of therapy for Boutonneuse fever is antimicrobial therapy.

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
- Chills
- Fever
- Myalgias
- Joint pains
- Headache
- Photophobia

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- A black crust (tache noire) forms in the place of the tick bite.
- Around the 4th day of the illness an exanthem appears, first macular and then maculopapular and sometimes petechial.

## Laboratory Findings
The diagnosis is made with serologic methods, either the classic Weil Felix test (agglutination of Proteus OX strains ), either ELISA or immunofluorescence assays.

# Treatment

## Antimicrobial Regimen
- Boutonneuese fever
- 1. Adult
- Preferred regimen (1): Doxycycline 200 mg PO bid for 1 day
- Preferred regimen (2): Doxycycline 200 mg  or 100 mg PO bid for 2-5 days
- Alternative regimen (1): Josamycin 1g q8h for 7 days
- Alternative regimen (2):Ciprofloxacin
- 2. Children
- Preferred regimen (Children <100 lbs): Doxycycline 2.2 mg/kg PO bid
- Preferred regimen (Children >100lbs): Doxycycline 200 mg PO bid in one day and 200 mg bid/qid or 100 mg bid for 2-5 days
- Alternative regimen (Children <8 years) (1): Josamycin 2.2mg/kg q12h for 5 days
- Alternative regimen (Children <8 years) (2): Clarithromycin 15 mg/ kg in bid for 7 days AND Azithromycin 10 mg/kg/day qd for 3 days

# Related Chapters
- Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Naegleria fowleri

# Overview
Naegleria fowleri (also known as the brain eating amoeba) is a ubiquitous, free living amoeba typically grows contaminated, warm (2535 C / 7795 F), fresh water (e.g. lakes or hot springs). It belongs to a group called the Percolozoa or Heterolobosea. N. fowleri is transmitted to the humans through the nose when individuals swim/dive in lakes. Drinking contaminated water, however, does not result in transmission. N. fowleri causes primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a rare disease whereby N. fowleri invades the human central nervous system through the cibriform plate and causes fulminant fatal meningoencephalitis in the majority of cases.

# Taxonomy
- Phylum = Percolozoa
- Class = Heterolobosea
- Order = Schizopyrenida
- Family = Vahlkampfiidae
- Genus = Naegleria
- Species = N. fowleri
- Binomial = Naegleria fowleri

# Biology
Shown below is an the life cycle of N. fowleri:
- N. fowleri grows ideally at 42 C (108 F), but it can tolerate temperatures as high as 45 C (113 F).
- There are 3 morphological stages in the life cycle of Naegleria fowleri:
- Trophozoite: 10-30 mu - Infective stage characterized by the presence of contractile vacuoles. It reproduces by binary fission. It uses pseudopods structure to ingest other organisms, red blood cells, and white blood cells.
- Flagellate: A temporary stage when the organism is exposed to changes in pH (e.g. from culture to distilled water).
- Cyst: 7-14 m - A resistant stage whereby the organism is protected by a dense cell wall that can tolerate harsh environments, such as cold weather or states of low nutrition. Cysts may be transmitted to the human host and transformed into trophozoites.

# Structure
- N. fowleri is a facultatively aerobic, heterotrophic organism.
- In its trophozoite form, it may appear either ameboid or flagellated.
- It contains the following structures for survival and growth:
- Mitochondria
- Pseudopods
- Flagella
- Contractile vacuoles

# Tropism
- N. fowleri invades the central nervous system (highly oxygenated environment) and causes meningoencephalitis.
- N. fowleri is transmitted to humans via the nasal cavity into the cribriform plate.
- It invades the subarachnoid spaces by migrating along the mesaxonal of unmyelinated olfactory nerves.
- When it reaches the subarachnoid space, it may then disseminate to other tissues of the central nervous system.
- It migrates along the mesaxonal spaces of unmyelinated

# Natural Reservoir
- The natural reservoir of N. fowleri are typically fresh water lakes and hot springs.
- N. fowleri has also been isolated from:
- Soil
- Swimming pools
- Home showers
- Sewers
- Cooling towers
Branching process
In probability theory, a branching process is a Markov process that models a population in which each individual in generation n produces some random number of individuals in generation n + 1, according to a fixed probability distribution that does not vary from individual to individual.  Branching processes are used to model reproduction; for example, the individuals might correspond to bacteria, each of which generates 0, 1, or 2 offspring with some probability in a single time unit.  Branching processes can also be used to model other systems with similar dynamics, e.g., the spread of surnames in genealogy or the propagation of neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
A central question in the theory of branching processes is the probability of ultimate extinction, where no individuals exist after some finite number of generations.  It is not hard to show that, starting with one individual in generation zero, the expected size of generation n equals n where  is the expected number of children of each individual.  If  is less than 1, then the expected number of individuals goes rapidly to zero, which implies ultimate extinction with probability 1 by Markov's inequality.  Alternatively, if  is greater than 1, then the probability of ultimate extinction is less than 1 (but not necessarily zero; consider a process where each individual either dies without issue or has 100 children with equal probability).  If  is equal to 1, then ultimate extinction occurs with probability 1 unless each individual always has exactly one child.  See also Galton-Watson process.
In theoretical ecology, the parameter  of a branching process is called the basic reproductive rate.
Breast prostheses
Breast prostheses are breast forms intended to simulate breasts. There are a number of materials and designs. The most common construction is silicone gel in a plastic skin.

# Mastectomy use
Their primary use is as an alternative to, or a stopgap measure until, plastic surgery to reconstruct a breast after mastectomy - usually a consequence of cancer.,

# Cross-dressing use
Many male to female cross-dressers use breast prostheses in order to create the illusion of female breasts. They are sometimes combined with cleavage enhancement techniques when used with clothing with low necklines.

# Shapes
Different shapes of prostheses are used to suit the extent of breast tissue removal or the shape of a crossdresser's chest. Asymmetric breast forms (see photo) incorporate an extension towards the armpit to replicate the shape of the tail of Spence, while symmetric (triangle or teardrop) prostheses do not incorporate that extension.

# See Also
- Breast
- Cleavage enhancement
- Mastectomy
- Tail of Spence

# References and external links
-   Use of Prostheses
-   Breast Prostheses
Bromopyruvic acid

# Overview
Bromopyruvic acid, or bromopyruvate, is a synthetic brominated derivative of pyruvic acid.  It is being studied as a potential treatment for certain types of cancer.  Initial studies in laboratory animals by Young Hee Ko at Johns Hopkins University showed that bromopyruvic acid is effective at eliminating aggressive liver tumors.
According to the Warburg hypothesis, unlike normal tissues that derive most of their energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by metabolizing glucose in the mitochondria, aggressive cancers obtain much of their ATP by metabolizing glucose directly to lactic acid.  The mechanism of action of bromopyruvic acid involves interruption of this latter process by the inhibition of the enzyme hexokinase II, due to the fact that the bromopyruvic acid is similar in chemical structure to lactic acid.
Further study demonstated that when 19 rats with advanced cancers (generated by seeding with hepatocellular carcinoma cells) were treated with bromopyruvic acid, the cancers were eradicated without apparent toxicity or recurrence in all treated animals.  Another study reported that intraarterial delivery of bromopyruvic acid directly to the site of a tumor, followed by systemic delivery only when necessary, represents a new strategy for stopping the growth of liver and other cancers, while minimizing toxic side effects.
While pre-clinical studies have been promising, human clinical trials to study the effectiveness of bromopyruvic acid have not yet begun. One obstacle to further development of bromopyruvic acid as a pharmaceutical treatment for cancer is that since bromopyruvic acid is not a novel chemical compound, it is not patentable.  Without the exclusivity allowed by patent protection, there is little prospect for recovery of the high financial investment needed for conducting the clinical trials required by worldwide regulatory agencies for approval of pharmaceutical drugs.
Pericardial fluid
Pericardial fluid is secreted by the serous membrane on the pericardious sac on the outside of the heart. The pericardial cavity contains between 15 and 50ml of pericardial fluid. It is similar to the serous fluid that is found in the brain for cushioning and ability to move semi-freely.
A pericardial effusion is the presence of excessive pericardial fluid. While small effusions occur in many clinical scenarios and are not necessarily dangerous, large and rapidly accumulating effusions may cause cardiac tamponade, a life-threatening complication.
Ben-Horin et al (2005) studied the composition of pericardial fluid in patients undergoing open heart surgery. They found it was relatively rich in lactate dehydrogenase, low in protein and high in lymphocytes and monocytes. They state that these findings may alter diagnostic criteria for abnormal effusions.

# Reference
- Ben-Horin S, Shinfeld A, Kachel E, Chetrit A, Livneh A. The composition of normal pericardial fluid and its implications for diagnosing pericardial effusions. Am J Med 2005;118:636-40. PMID 15922695.
Bulboid corpuscle

# Overview
The bulboid corpuscles (end-bulbs of Krause) are cutaneous receptors in the human body.
The end-bulbs of Krause were named after German anatomist Wilhelm Krause (1833-1910).

# Function
They have the ability to detect low-frequency vibration.

# Structure
They are minute cylindrical or oval bodies, consisting of a capsule formed by the expansion of the connective-tissue sheath of a medullated fiber, and containing a soft semifluid core in which the axis-cylinder terminates either in a bulbous extremity or in a coiled-up plexiform mass.

# Location
End-bulbs are found in the conjunctiva of the eye (where they are spheroidal in shape in man, but cylindrical in most other animals), in the mucous membrane of the lips and tongue, and in the epineurium of nerve trunks.
They are also found in the penis and the clitoris, and have received the name of genital corpuscles; in these situations they have a mulberry-like appearance, being constricted by connective-tissue septa into from two to six knob-like masses.
In the synovial membranes of certain joints, e. g., those of the fingers, rounded or oval end-bulbs occur, and are designated articular end-bulbs.
Bulbous buttercup
Bulbous Buttercup, (Ranunculus bulbosus) is a perennial weed of the Buttercup Family.  It has attractive yellow flowers, and deeply divided, three-lobed long-petioled basal leaves.  Bulbous buttercup is known to form tufts.
The stems are 20-60 cm tall, erect, branching, and slightly hairy flowering  .  There are alternate and sessile leaves on the stem.  The flower forms at the apex of the stems, and is shiny and yellow with 5-7 petals .  The flowers are 1.5-3 cm wide.  The plant blooms from April to July.
Bulbous buttercup gets its name from its distinctive perennating organ, a bulb-like swollen underground stem or corm, which is situated just below the soil surface.  After the plant dies in heat of summer, the corm survives underground through the winter.
Although the presence of a corm distinguishes 'Ranunculus bulbosus from some other species of buttercup such as Ranunculus acris, the species also has distinctive reflexed sepals.  Other common names for bulbous buttercup include: St. Anthony's turnip, blister flower, and bulbous crowfoot.

# Cultivation and uses
Bulbous buttercup grows in lawns, pastures and fields in general, preferring nutrient-poor, well-drained soils.  Although it doesn't generally grow in proper crops or improved grassland, it is  often found in hay fields  and in coastal grassland.  The native range of Ranunculus bulbosus is Western Europe between about 60oN and the Northern Mediterranean coast. It grows in both the eastern and western parts of North America, as an introduced weed. HDRA Weed management
Buttercups contain poisons  1% glycoside ranunculin in corm, and are avoided by livestock.  Note however that the poisons of buttercup are lost upon drying, so any hay containing bulbous buttercup is safe for animal consumption . Protoanemonin is an irritating antibiotic, formed from enzymatic breakdown of ranunculin.
In spite of its toxic nature, this plant is listed as an herbal remedy. 
Used in Homeopathy for subepidermal blistering of the skin especially in summer.RANUNCULUS BULBOSUS.
User:Bulent Ender
Bulent Ender MD.
Gastroenterologist at Wake Gastroenterology, Raleigh, North Carolina
- Undergraduate: University of Maryland at College Park, MD
- Medical School: Medical College of Virginia
- Internship: University of Maryland at Mercy Medical Center, MD
- Residency: University of Maryland at Mercy Medical Center, MD
- Fellowship: Gastroenterology at the University of Texas Medical School and M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, TX
- Board certified in Gastroenterology
- Membership:
- American Medical Association
- American College of Physicians
- American College of Gastroenterology
- American Gastroenterological Association
- American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy
- Crohns and Colitis Foundation of America
Dr. Ender began practicing gastroenterology in 1993. He has served as an instructor to medical students and residents at the University of North Carolina program at WakeMed Hospital. His clinical interests include colorectal cancer prevention, gastroesophageal reflux disease and chronic liver disease. He is currently a member of the endoscopy committee at Rex Hospital.
Dr. Ender is active in the community and donates his time as a physician volunteer with the Project Access program of Wake County.  Additionally he is a member of the Triangle Community Foundation and serves on the board of several local charities.
C8orf58 (protein)
Uncharacterized protein C8orf58 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the C8orf58 gene. The protein is predicted to be localized in the nucleus.

# Gene
The C8orf58 gene is located on chromosome 8 at position 8p21.3. It spans a total of 4,550 base pairs and has seven exons. C8orf58 is flanked by the genes PDLIM2 and CCAR2. There are no aliases. It is defined as a protein coding gene.

# mRNA
C8orf58 produces three transcript splice variants. The transcript of variant 1 represents the longest transcript and encodes the largest protein. It is 2,062 base pairs and contains seven exons. There are two other splice variants, produced by alternative splice sites.
C8orf58 has a relatively short 5 region and a moderate 3 region. Both the 5 and 3 regions contain stem loops. There is one predicted miRNA binding site that found in the 3UTR of C8orf58.

# Protein
C8orf58 protein Isoform 1 is 365 amino acids long. Isoform 2 and Isoform 3 are 357 and 300 amino acids respectively. There is a kozak consensus sequence present, which confirms it is a protein coding sequence.
C8orf58 Isoform 1 has a molecular weight of 39.7 kDa and an isoelectric point of 8.29. It is proline and arginine rich and isoleucine, asparagine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine poor.
The predicted secondary structure of the C8orf58 protein include multiple alpha helices and one beta strands.

# Evolutionary History
It is part of the DUF4657 family, a family of proteins found in eukaryotes. Proteins in this family are typically between 305 and 370 amino acids in length. The Domain of Unknown Function (DUF) of C8orf58 is located between amino acids 73 to 364.

# Expression
According to the NCBI GEO profiles, C8orf58 is a narrowly expressed protein found in spleen, lung, thymus, prostate, and spinal cord tissue. It is constitutively expressed in these tissues.

# Post Translational Modification
The bioinformatic tools on Expasy were used to determine potential post translational modification sites for the C8orf58 protein. There are two predicted phosphorylation sites and one predicted sumoylation site.

# Subcellular Localization
According to PSORT II, C8orf58 is located in the nucleus. This is supported by the presence of a sumoylation site, which is involved in nucleic cytoplasmic transport.

# Interacting Proteins
Two proteins have been found to interact with protein C8orf58, CENPH and metG1, which were found using two hybrid assay and the two hybrid pooling approach respectively. CENPH (Centromere Protein H) plays a critical role in centromere structure, kinetochore formation, and sister chromatid separation. MetG1 (MethioninetRNA ligase) is required for elongation of protein synthesis and the initiation of all mRNA translation through initiator tRNA(fMet) aminoacylation.

# Homology
An important paralog of this gene is ENSG00000248235. Orthologs of the human gene C8orf58 are limited to vertebrates of the animal kingdom.
Cafe au lait spot
Cafe au lait spots or cafe-au-lait spots (CAL) are pigmented birthmarks.

# Etymology
The name cafe au lait is French for "coffee with milk" and refers to their light-brown color in persons with light skin. It will appear as a darker lesion  cafe noir in people with dark skin.

# Pathophysiology
While cafe au lait spots are usually not associated with any medical problems, having many (three or more) such spots is linked with neurofibromatosis and the rare McCune-Albright syndrome.
Also, having six or more of such spots greater than 5 mm in diameter prepubertal or greater than 15 mm in diameter postpubertal children is a cardinal diagnostic feature of Neurofibromatosis type I.

# Differential Diagnosis
Other syndromes that may include Cafe au lait spots:
- Fanconi anemia
- Tuberous sclerosis
- Russell-Silver syndrome (Silver-Russell dwarfism)
- Ataxia telangiectasia
- Bloom syndrome
- Basal cell nevus syndrome
- Gaucher disease
- Chediak-Higashi syndrome
- Hunter syndrome
- Maffucci syndrome
- Multiple mucosal neuroma syndrome (Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2)

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Cafe au lait spot
- Cafe au lait spot (with MR, it's McCune Albright)
Cytopathic effect

# Overview
Cytopathic effect or cytopathogenic effect (abbreviated CPE) refers to damage to host cells during virus invasion. This damage is measurable by obtaining viral titers. Degenerative changes in cells can also be studied in tissue culture.
When in tissue culture the spread of virus is restricted by an overlay of agar or other suitable substance. This barrier means the cytopathic effect may lead to the formation of a viral plaque. Thus identification of a viral infection can be made by examining the characteristic cytopathic effect produced on different cell sheets. This method however is relatively slow and not all viruses will grow on cell sheets. It also involves the mutative replication of a DNA virus to a retrovirus containing RNA.
Cytopathic effects have been shown in conjunction with non-viral infections as well, such as those changes seen in fibroblasts during the early lesion of periodontal disease.
Not all viruses cause a measurable cytopathic effect. These include two human coronaviruses HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43. 

# See Also
- Viral culture