Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
In silico

# Overview
In silico is an expression used to mean "performed on computer or via computer simulation."  The phrase is coined from the Latin phrases in vivo and in vitro that are commonly used in biology (see also systems biology) and  refer to experiments done in living organisms and outside of living organisms, respectively. Contrary to widespread belief, in silico does not mean anything in Latin.

# History
The expression in silico was first used in public in 1989 in the workshop "Cellular Automata: Theory and Applications" in Los Alamos, New Mexico. Pedro Miramontes, a mathematician from National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) presented the report "DNA and RNA Physicochemical Constraints, Cellular Automata and Molecular Evolution". In his talk, Miramontes used the term "in silico" to characterize biological experiments carried out entirely in a computer. The work was later presented by Miramontes as his PhD dissertation.
In silico has been used in white papers written to support the creation of bacterial genome programs by the Commission of the European Community. The first referenced paper where "in silico" appears was written by a French team in 1991. The first referenced book chapter where "in silico" appears was written by Hans B. Sieburg in 1990 and presented during a Summer School on Complex Systems at the Santa Fe Institute.

## In silico versus in silicio
"In silico" was briefly challenged by "in silicio," which is correct Latin for "in silicon" (the Latin term for silicon, silicium, was created at the beginning of the 19th century by Berzelius).Template:Citequote "In silico" was perceived as catchier, possibly through similarity to the word "silicate."Template:Citequote "In silico" is now almost universal; it even occurs in a journal title (In Silico Biology: /).
The phrase "in silico" originally applied only to computer simulations that modeled natural or laboratory processes (in all the natural sciences), and did not refer to calculations done by computer generically.
Incidence
Incidence is the number of new cases of a disease during a given time interval, usually one year. It can be expressed as a proportion or as a rate.
Incidence proportion (also known as risk) is the number of new cases divided by the size of the population at risk. For example, if a stable population contains 1,000 persons and 28 develop a condition over two years of observation, the incidence proportion is 28 cases per 1,000 persons.
The incidence rate is the number of new cases per unit of person-time at risk. In the same example as above, the incidence rate is 14 cases per 1000 person-years, because the incidence proportion (28 per 1,000) is divided by the number of years (two). Using person-time rather than just time handles situations where some people drop out of a study.
Incidence is sometimes used alone as a shorthand for incidence rate. Although this is sloppy usage, it is frequently encountered.
Incidence should not be confused with prevalence, which is a measure of the total number of cases of disease in a population, rather than the rate of occurrence of new cases. Thus, incidence conveys information about the risk of contracting the disease, whereas prevalence tells us how widespread the disease is.
For example, consider a disease that takes a long time to cure, and that was spread widely in 2002, but whose spread was arrested in 2003. This disease will have a high prevalence and a high incidence in 2002; but in 2003 it will have a low incidence, although it will continue to have a high prevalence because it takes a long time to cure. In contrast, a disease that has a short duration may have a low prevalence and a high incidence.
Generally speaking, diseases of short duration are better measured with incidence rates, whereas long-lasting or hereditary diseases are better measured with prevalence rates.
Indoramin

# Overview
Indoramin (trade names Baratol and Doralese) is a piperidine antiadrenergic agent.
It is an alpha-1 selective adrenoceptor antagonist with direct myocardial depression action; therefore, it results in no reflex tachycardia. It is also used in benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
It is commonly synthesized from tryptophol.

# Dosage
Indoramin is commonly prescribed as 20mg tablets when used in BPH.

# Side Effects
Drowsiness, dizziness, dry mouth, nasal congestion, headache, fatigue, weight gain, hypotension, postural hypotension, depression, problems with ejaculation, diarrhoea, nausea, increased need to pass urine, and palpitations.
Ingestion

# Overview
Ingestion is the consumption of a substance by an organism. In animals, it is accomplished by taking the substance in through the mouth into the gastrointestinal tract, such as through eating or drinking. In single-celled organisms, ingestion can take place through taking the substance through the cell wall.
Besides nutritional items, other substances which may be ingested include medications, recreational drugs, and substances considered inedible such as foreign bodies or excrement. Ingestion is a common route taken by pathogenic organisms and poisons entering the body.
Ingestion can also refer to a mechanism picking up something and making it enter an internal hollow of that mechanism.

# Pathogens
Some pathogens are transmitted via ingestion, including viruses, bacteria, and parasites. Most commonly, this takes place via the fecal-oral route. This commonly takes place via an intermediate step, such as drinking water contaminated by feces or food prepared by workers who fail to practice adequate hand-washing, and is more common in regions where untreated sewage is common. Diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route include hepatitis A, polio, and cholera.
Some pathogenic organisms are typically ingested by other routes.
- Larvae of the parasite Trichinella encyst within muscles and are transmitted when the new hosts eat the infected flesh.
- The parasite Dracunculus is ingested in drinking water, which is contaminated with larvae released as the parasite emerges from the host's body.
- The bacterium Salmonella most commonly infects humans via consumption of undercooked eggs.

# Toxins

# Foreign objects
Disk batteries, or button cells, are often mistakenly ingested, particularly by children and the elderly. They may be mistaken for pills because of their size and shape, or they may be swallowed after being held in the mouth while the battery is being changed. Battery ingestion can cause medical problems including blocked airway, vomiting, irritability, persistent drooling, and rash (due to nickel metal allergy).
Pica is an abnormal appetite for non-nutritive items or for food items in a form not normally eaten, such as flour. Coprophagia is the consumption of feces, a behavior common in some animals.
Insightec
InSightec Ltd., founded in 1999, is a privately held company owned by Elbit Medical Imaging (EMI), General Electric, private investors and employees. InSightec was founded specifically to develop MR (magnetic resonance) guided Focused Ultrasound technology. Headquartered in Tirat Hacarmel near Haifa, Israel, with US headquarters in Dallas Texas, the company has over 100 employees.
InSightec developed ExAblate 2000  a surgical system that combines Magnetic resonance imaging and Focused Ultrasound to non-invasively treat tumors inside the body without the need for incisions. During this outpatient procedure, the patient lies inside an MRI scanner, which provides three-dimensional images of the diseased tissue and surrounding area, enabling precise guidance of the ultrasound waves.  High intensity focused ultrasound waves are then directed into the body at specific tissue, raising the temperature of the targeted tissue to 65 to 85 degrees Celsius, destroying it.  The imaging capabilities of the MRI scanner provide real-time feedback on all aspects of the procedure which gives the physician a high degree of control over its therapeutic outcome.
ExAblate 2000 has been approved to treat uterine fibroids, and is currently in use in the US, Israel, Europe and Asia. Clinical trials are being conducted to evaluate ExAblate 2000 for treatment of other diseases such as breast, liver, bone and brain cancers.
Insulator
An insulator is a genetic boundary element that plays two distinct roles in gene expression, either as an enhancer-blocking element, or more rarely as a barrier against condensed chromatin proteins spreading onto active chromatin. The need for them arises where two adjacent genes on a chromosome have very different transcription patterns, and it is critical that the inducing or repressing mechanisms of one do not interfere with the neighbouring gene.

# As an enhancer-blocking element
An insulator is a genetic boundary element that plays two distinct roles in gene expression, either as an enhancer-blocking element, or more rarely as a barrier against condensed chromatin proteins spreading onto active chromatin. The need for them arises where two adjacent genes on a chromosome have very different transcription patterns, and it is critical that the inducing or repressing mechanisms of one do not interfere with the neighbouring gene.

# Reference
Burgess-Beusse, B;  et al. (2002). "The insulation of genes from external enhancers and silencing chromatin". Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 9 (Suppl 4): 1643316437. doi:10.1073/pnas.162342499. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
de:Isolator (Genetik)
Iodometry
Iodometry is a method of volumetric chemical analysis, a titration where the appearance or disappearance of elementary iodine indicates the end point.
Usual reagents are sodium thiosulfate as titrant, starch as an indicator (it forms blue complex with iodine molecules - though polyvinyl alcohol has started to be used recently as well), and an iodine compound (iodide or iodate, depending on the desired reaction with the sample).
The principial reaction is the reduction of iodine to iodide by thiosulfate:
A common and illustrative use of iodometry is the measurement of concentration of chlorine in water. Chlorine in pH under 8 oxidizes iodide to iodine. An overabundance of potassium iodide is added to the known amount of sample in acidic environment (pH < 4, the reaction is not complete in more alkaline pH). Starch is added, forming blue clathrate complex with the liberated iodine. The blue solution is then titrated with thiosulfate until the blue color vanishes.
Two possible sources of error can influence the outcome of the iodometric titration. One is the air oxidation of acid-iodide solution and the other is the volatility of I2. The first one can be eliminated by adding an excess of sodium carbonate in the reaction vessel. This removes oxygen in the vessel by forming carbon dioxide(which is heavier than air). The other error can be reduced by using an excess of iodide solution which captures liberated iodine to form triiodide ions, I3.
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Ionophore
An ionophore is a lipid-soluble molecule usually synthesized by microorganisms to transport ions across the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. There are two broad classifications of ionophores.
- Small molecules (mobile ion carriers) that bind to a particular ion, shielding its charge from the surrounding environment, and thus facilitating its crossing of the hydrophobic interior of the lipid membrane.
- Channel formers that introduce a hydrophilic pore into the membrane, allowing ions to pass through while avoiding contact with the membrane's hydrophobic interior.
Ionophores disrupt transmembrane ion concentration gradients, required for the proper functioning and survival of microorganisms, and thus have antibiotic properties.  They are produced naturally by certain microbes and act as a defense against competing microbes.
In laboratory research, ionophores are used to increase the permeability of biological membranes to certain ions. Additionally, some ionophores are used as antibiotics. The U.S. Department of Agriculture sent a letter to Tyson Foods to remove labels for chickens that said "raised without antibiotics" because of the use of ionophores in their feed.
Representative ionophores (with the ion(s) they act upon):
- Monensin (Na+)
- Ionomycin (Ca++)
- Beauvericin (Ca++, Ba++)
- Nonactin (Ammonium ionophore I)
- Nigericin (K+, H+, Pb++)
- CCCP
- 2,4-Dinitrophenol (H+)
- Valinomycin (K+)
- Crown ether
- Chlorogenic acid
- Calixarene
- Calcimycine (A23187)
- FCCP (H+)
- Gramicidin A (H+, Na+, K+)
- Proton ionophore II (4-Nonadecylpyridine)
- Proton ionophore III (N,N-Dioctadecylmethylamine)
Isobutane
Isobutane, also known as methylpropane or 2-methylpropane, is an alkane, isomeric with butane. Recent concerns with depletion of the ozone layer by freon gases have led to increased use of isobutane as a gas for refrigeration systems, especially in domestic refrigerators and freezers, and as a propellant in aerosol sprays. When used as a refrigerant or a propellant, isobutane is also known as R-600a. It is used as a feedstock in the petrochemical industry, for example in the synthesis of isooctane.

# Nomenclature
Isobutane is the trivial name retained by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in its 1993 Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry.
Methylpropane is the systematic name. The substituent number (2-) is unnecessary because there is no isomer of this molecule with methylpropane as part of its name.
Isochoric
An isochoric process, also called an isometric process or an isovolumetric process, is a process during which volume remains constant. The name is derived from the Greek isos, "equal", and khora, "place."
If an ideal gas is used in an isochoric process, and the quantity of gas stays constant, then the increase in energy is proportional to an increase in temperature and pressure. Take for example a gas heated in a rigid container: the pressure and temperature of the gas will increase, but the volume will remain the same.
In the ideal Otto cycle we found an example of an isochoric process when we assume an instantaneous burning of the gasoline-air mixture in an internal combustion engine car. There is an increase in the temperature and the pressure of the gas inside the piston while the volume remains the same.

# Equations
If the volume stays constant (\Delta V = 0 ), this implies that the process does no pressure-volume work, since such work is defined by
where P is pressure (no minus sign; this is work done by the system).
By applying the first law of thermodynamics, we can deduce that  \Delta U  the change in the system's internal energy, is
for an isochoric process: all the heat being transferred to the system is added to the system's internal energy, U.  If the quantity of gas stays constant, then this increase in energy is proportional to an increase in temperature,
where CV is molar specific heat for constant volume.
On a pressure volume diagram, an isochoric process appears as a straight vertical line.  Its thermodynamic conjugate, an isobaric process would appear as a straight horizontal line.
Isoindole
Isoindole in heterocyclic chemistry is a benzo fused pyrrole. The compound is an isomer of indole and its reduced form is an isoindoline.
In solution the non-aromatic tautomer is predominant:
and therefore the compound resembles a pyrrole more than a simple imine. Isoindoles are building blocks for phthalocyanines which are relevant as dyes

# Isoindole-1,3-diones
The commercially important phthalimide is an isoindole-1,3-dione with two carbonyl groups attached to the heterocyclic ring. Thalidomide is an infamous drug based on this framework.
Iva annua

# Overview
Iva annua, sumpweed or marshelder, is an herbaceous annual plant native to much of North America.

# Uses
Iva annua var. macrocarpa was formerly cultivated by Native Americans in the central eastern United States and specifically the indigenous peoples of the Kansas City Hopewell culture in present day Missouri and Illinois, for its edible seed. As the author Jared Diamond notes, the edible parts contain 32 percent protein and 45 percent oil.
However, like its relative ragweed, Diamond notes that sumpweed possesses many objectionable qualities which include being a severe allergen, possessing "a strong odor objectionable to some people and that handling it can cause skin irritation." For these reasons Diamond believes that it was abandoned once more pleasant alternatives (like corn) were available, and by the time Europeans arrived in the Americas, had long disappeared as a crop.

# Notes
-  Jared Diamond (2003). Guns, Germs and Steel. New York: Norton. p. 151..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Jamais vu
In psychology, the term jamais vu (from the French language|French, meaning "never seen") is used to describe any familiar situation which is not recognized by the observer.

# Psychology
Often described as the opposite of deja vu, jamais vu involves a sense of eeriness and the observer's impression of seeing the situation for the first time, despite rationally knowing that he or she has been in the situation before.
Jamais vu is more commonly explained as when a person momentarily doesn't recognize a word, person, or place that he/she already knows.
The phenomenon is often grouped with deja vu and presque vu (together, the three are frequently referred to as "The Vus").
Jamais vu is sometimes associated with certain types of amnesia and epilepsy. With seizures, jamais vu can surface as an aura due to a partial seizure disorder that originates from the temporal lobe of the brain. It also can occur as a migraine aura. 
The TimesOnline reports:

# Linguistics
From a linguistic perspective, the phenomenon that a word after frequent repetition seems to lose its meaning is connected with the very nature of words. A word as a unit of language has three characteristics:
- It has form, i.e. it is shaped out of sounds or, in the case of written language, out of letters (characters).
- It has function, which (among other things) means that it operates in  a meaningful sentence.
- It has meaning, which implies that it refers to a certain unit of thought (a concept or an idea) within a context.
However, when a word is repeated over and over again, it is in fact only the form which is repeated. There is no sentence, so the function of the word is eliminated. Its meaning, too, is effectively eliminated, because there is no context. A few repetitions will leave the language user's memory and expectation intact: he remembers the meaning and expects a meaningful reference. Continued repetition, however, will more and more foreground the word form to the exclusion of function and meaning, until the word literally "makes no sense". It is not the word that is being repeated, but only one of its aspects: the word form.

# Related phenomena
- Deja vu: remembering having seen something before. In French, this literally means 'already seen', though in usage it is basically equivalent to deja vecu.
- Presque vu: almost, but not quite, remembering something. This is the "on the tip of my tongue" feeling. (Cf. the article on Deja vu.)
Jan Adams
January Rudalgo Adams, known as "Dr. Jan Adams," is an American cosmetic surgeon from Middletown, Ohio who practices in Beverly Hills, California. He graduated from Harvard University and Ohio State University as a physician 
He co-presents Cosmetic Surgery Live, a British television program and Plastic Surgery Before & After, on the Discovery Health Channel, and was a co-host on The Other Half, a male-centric syndicated clone of The View during the 2001-02 season.
He is the author of Everything Women of Color Should Know About Cosmetic Surgery, published by St Martin's Press in 2000 (ISBN 0 312 25310 9). He has also appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show. 
Adams was the plastic surgeon who performed surgery on Donda West, the mother of rapper Kanye West. Donda West died the day following her surgery. There is speculation as to whether a pre-existing medical condition made it unsafe for her to undergo this procedure.  
Records also indicate that in 2001, two malpractice lawsuits against Adams ended in judgments of $217,337 and $250,000, respectively 
In a 2006 legal case, Adams was found guilty of driving with a blood-alcohol level of .08 or greater, and he pleaded no contest in 2003 to driving under the influence, according to medical records.
On Tuesday, November 20, 2007, Dr. Adams walked off the set of Larry King Live while on the air, taking off his microphone and ear piece. He told Larry King he did not wish to answer any questions, citing a request by the West family for privacy. He said "I have a tremendous amount of love and respect for the West family. They asked me not to go on. And I've said from the very beginning, I don't have a side in this."