Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Blast injury

# Overview
Blast injuries are inflicted on individuals subjected to the effects of the detonation of high-order explosives, explosives that produce a supersonic over-pressurization shock wave, as well as low order explosives which produce a subsonic explosion with no over-pressurization wave. These injuries are compounded when the explosion takes place in a confined space. 

# Classification
Blast injuries are divided into four classes:
- Primary: Injuries due to high-order explosive over-pressurization shock wave as it moves through the body from solid and liquid sections to gas-filled organs, in particular the lungs, gastrointestinal tract and middle ear.  Solid- and liquid-filled organs are not subject to primary blast injury. These injuries are not necessarily obvious to observers.
- Secondary: Injuries due to bomb fragments and other objects propelled by the explosion.  These injuries may affect any part of the body and sometimes result in visible hemorrhage.  At times the propelled object may become embedded in the body, obstructing the loss of blood to the outside. However, there may be extensive loss of blood within the body cavities. Shrapnel wounds may be lethal and therefore many anti-personnel bombs are designed to generate shrapnel and fragments.
- Tertiary: Injuries as a result of the victim becoming a missile and being thrown against other objects.  The injuries sustained are then similar to those that are sustained by blunt trauma, including bone fractures and coup/contre-coup injuries.
- Quaternary: All other injuries not included in the first three classes. These include burns, crushing injuries and respiratory injuries.
Coagulopathy

# Overview
Coagulopathy is a medical term for a defect in the body's mechanism for blood clotting.  While there are several possible causes they generally result in excessive bleeding and a lack of clotting.
Hemophilia is one type of congenital disease characterized by coagulopathy; these are examples of severe lack of blood clotting.

# Causes
- Acquired causes of coagulopathy include anticoagulation with warfarin, liver failure, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Additionally, the haemotoxic venom from certain species of snakes can cause this condition e.g. Bothrops, rattlesnakes and other species of viper.
- Drugs: caspofungin acetate, hydroxyethyl starch, Ixabepilone, Pegasparaginase

# Differential Diagnosis of Coagulopathy
Block design

# Overview
In combinatorial mathematics, a block design (more fully, a balanced incomplete block design) is a particular kind of set system, which has long-standing applications to experimental design (an area of statistics) as well as purely combinatorial aspects.
Given a finite set X (of elements called points) and integers k, r,   1, we define a 2-design B to be a set of k-element subsets of X, called blocks, such that the number r of blocks containing x in X is independent of x, and the number  of blocks containing given distinct points x and y in X is also independent of the choices.
Here v (the number of elements of X, called points), b (the number of blocks), k, r, and  are the parameters of the design.  (Also, B may not consist of all k-element subsets of X; that is the meaning of incomplete.)  The design is called a (v, k, )-design or a (v, b, r, k, )-design.  The parameters are not all independent; v, k, and  determine b and r, and not all combinations of v, k, and  are possible.  The two basic equations connecting these parameters are
A fundamental theorem (Fisher's inequality) is that b  v in any block design.  The case of equality is called a symmetric design; it has many special features.
Examples of block designs include the lines in finite projective planes (where X is the set of points of the plane and  = 1), and Steiner triple systems (k = 3).  The former is a relatively simple example of a symmetric design.

# Generalization: t-designs
Given any integer t  2, a t-design B is a class of k-element subsets of X (the set of points) , called blocks, such that the number r of blocks that contain any point x in X is independent of x, and the number  of blocks that contain any given t-element subset T is independent of the choice of T.  The numbers v (the number of elements of X), b (the number of blocks), k, r, , and t are the parameters of the design.  The design may be called a t-(v,k,)-design.  Again, these four numbers determine b and r and the four numbers themselves cannot be chosen arbitrarily.  The equations are
where bi is the number of blocks that contain any i-element set of points.
Examples include the d-dimensional subspaces of a finite projective geometry (where t = d + 1 and  = 1).
The term block design by itself usually means a 2-design.
Blood phobia

# Background
Blood phobia (also, AE: Hemophobia, BE: Haemophobia) is the extreme and irrational fear of blood. Acute cases of this fear can cause physical reactions that are uncommon in most other fears, specifically Vasovagal Syncope (fainting).  Similar reactions can also occur with trypanophobia and traumatophobia.  For this reason, these three phobias are categorized as "blood-injection-injury phobia" by the DSM-IV.  Some early texts refer to this category as "blood-injury-illness phobia."

# Etiology
Blood phobia is often caused by direct or vicarious trauma in childhood or adolescence.  There is also a genetic component to blood phobia.

# Treatment
In patients with vasovagal blood phobia, patients who are successfully treated with psychological interventions are seen as unique.  In contrast, many behavioral techniques useful in mitigating vasovagal syncope, such as applying tension to the muscles in an effort to increase blood pressure, are helpful to patients with blood phobia.  Medical devices, such as pacemakers, are also used to treat patients with blood-phobia.
Bodily fluid
Bodily fluids listed below are found in the bodies of men and/or women. Some may be found in animals as well. They include fluids that are excreted or secreted from the body as well as fluids that normally are not. These respective fluids would include:
- Amniotic fluid surrounding a fetus
- Aqueous humour
- Bile
- Blood and blood plasma
- Cerumen also known as earwax
- Cowper's fluid or pre-ejaculatory fluid
- Chyle
- Chyme
- Female ejaculate
- Interstitial fluid
- Lymph
- Menses
- Breast milk
- Mucus (including snot and phlegm)
- Pleural fluid
- Pus
- Saliva
- Sebum (skin oil)
- Semen
- Serum
- Sweat
- Tears
- Urine
- Vaginal lubrication
- Vomit
- Water
Feces, while not generally classed as a body fluid, are often treated similarly to body fluids, and are sometimes fluid or semi-fluid in nature.
Internal body fluids, which are not usually leaked or excreted to the outside world, include:
- cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain and the spinal cord
- synovial fluid surrounding bone joints
- intracellular fluid is the fluid inside cells
- blood
- aqueous humour and vitreous humour the fluids in the eyeball.

# Bodily fluids in religion and history
Bodily fluids are regarded with varying levels of disgust among world cultures, including the Abrahamic faiths (Christianity, Islam, Judaism) and Hinduism. In Hinduism substances that have left the body are considered unclean, although there are some sects which smear cremated body ash on their foreheads as symbolic gestures.
Feces and urine have been used by religions on every continent for atonement, rites of passage, and funerary rites.
One interesting example is the alleged consumption of some ancient sects of the urine of people intoxicated with hallucinogenic mushrooms or creepers, as the urine contained high concentrations of the drug and could be "re-used."
Attitudes concerning bodily fluids aside, there is a long human history of their use in religion, medicine, art, sex, and folklore.  Some believe that the tradition of shaking hands with the right hand stems from using the left hand to clean up after defecation, as a result, shaking hands with the left hand is considered insulting in many cultures.

# Body fluids and health
Modern medical hygiene and public health practices also treat body fluids as unclean. This is because they can be vectors for infectious diseases, such as sexually transmitted diseases or blood-borne diseases.
Safer sex practices try to avoid exchanges of body fluids.
Body orifice
A body orifice is an opening in the body of an animal. In a typical mammalian body such as the human body, the body orifices are:
- The nostrils, for breathing and the associated sense of smell.
- The eyes, for the sense of sight and crying.
- The mouth, for eating, breathing and vocalizations such as speech.
- The ear canals, for the sense of hearing.
- The anus, for defecation.
- The urethra, for urination, and in males, also for ejaculation.
- In females, the vagina, for sexual intercourse, menstruation and childbirth.
- The breast, especially in females for breastfeeding.
In other organisms with different body plans, there are other body orifices, such as the cloaca in reptiles, and the siphon in cephalopods.
Body packers

# Body packing
The practice of transporting goods outside the body is called body packing; this is done by a person usually called a mule, or bait. This method is, in general, rarely used today. However, some narcotics-trafficking organizations such as the Mexican Cartels will purposely send 1 or 2 people with drugs on the outside of their body to purposely be caught, so that the authorities are occupied while dozens of mules pass by undetected with drugs inside their body. But even these diversion tactics are becoming less and less prevalent as airport security increases.
Swallowing has been used for the transportation of heroin, cocaine, and sometimes for ecstasy.
A swallower typically fills tiny balloons, often made with multilayered condoms or more sophisticated hollow pellets, with small quantities of a drug, usually heroin or cocaine. These balloons may be swallowed or may be hidden in other natural or artificial body cavities as the rectum, a colostomy, or vagina.
The swallower then attempts to cross international borders, excrete the balloons, and then sell the drugs for profit. It is far more common for the swallower to be making the trip on behalf of a drug lord or drug dealer. Swallowers are often impoverished and agree to transport the drugs in exchange for money or other favors. In fewer cases, the drug dealers can attempt extortion against people by threatening physical harm against friends or family, but the more common practice is for swallowers to willingly accept the job in exchange for big payoffs. An increasingly popular type of swallowing involves having the drug in the form of liquid-filled balloons or condoms/packages. These are impossible to detect unless the airport has high-sensitivity X-Ray equipment. Most of the major airports in Europe, Canada, and the US have these machines. Note that a liquid mixture of water and the drug will most likely not be detected using a standard X-Ray Machine. As reported in Lost Rights by James Bovard: "Nigerian drug lords have employed an army of 'swallowers', those who will swallow as many as 150 balloons and smuggle drugs into the United States. Given the per capita yearly income of Nigeria is $2,100, Nigerians can collect as much as $15,000 per trip."
Bone density

# Overview
Bone density is a medical term referring to the amount of matter per cubic centimeter of bones. It is measured by a procedure called densitometry, often performed in the radiology or nuclear medicine departments of hospitals or clinics. The measurement is painless and non-invasive and involves minimal radiation exposure. Measurements are most commonly made over the lumbar spine and over the upper part of the hip. The forearm is scanned if either the hip or the lumbar spine can't be.

# Indication
The most common reason for measuring bone density is to screen for, or diagnose, osteoporosis.

# Interpretation
Results are often reported in 3 terms:
- Measured density in g/cm3
- Z-score, the number of standard deviations above or below the mean for the patient's age and sex
- T-score, the number of standard deviations above or below the mean for a healthy 30 year old adult of the same sex as the patient

# Limitations
The technique has several limitations.
- Measurement can be affected by the size of the patient, the thickness of tissue overlying the bone, and other factors extraneous to the bones.
- Bone density is a proxy measurement for bone strength, which is the resistance to fracture and the truly significant characteristic. Although the two are usually related, there are some circumstances in which bone density is a poorer indicator of bone strength.
- Reference standards for some populations (e.g., children) are unavailable for many of the methods used.
- Crushed vertebrae can result in falsely high bone density so must be excluded from analysis.
Boosterspice
In Larry Niven's fictional Known Space universe, boosterspice is a compound that increases the longevity and reverses aging of human beings. With the use of boosterspice, humans can easily live into hundreds of years and, theoretically, it can extend life indefinitely.
Humans have been led to believe it is made from genetically engineered ragweed (although early stories have it ingested in the form of edible seeds) but, in Ringworld's Children, we discover it is actually adapted from Tree-of-Life, without the symbiotic virus that enabled hominids to metamorphose from Pak Breeder stage to Pak Protector stage (mutated Pak breeders were the ancestors of both homo sapiens and the hominids of the Ringworld in the Known Space universe).
On the Ringworld, there is an analogous compound, but they are mutually incompatible; In The Ringworld Engineers, Louis Wu learns that the character Halrloprillalar died when in ARM custody after leaving the Ringworld, as a result of having taken boosterspice and previously having used the Ringworld equivalent.
Boracic lint
Boracic lint was a type of medical dressing made from surgical lint that was soaked in a hot, saturated solution of boracic acid and glycerine and then left to dry.
It has been in use since at least the 19th century, but is now less commonly used.
The term boracic lint, or often just "boracic", pronounced "brassic", is also used as Cockney rhyming slang for having no money. Boracic lint -> skint.
Botallackite
Botallackite, chemical formula Cu2 is a secondary copper mineral, named for its type locality at the Botallack mine, St Just in Penwith, Cornwall. It is polymorphous with Atacamite, Paratacamite and Clinoatacamite.
In the monoclinic crystal system, Botallackite is mountain-green to green in colour, with one distinct to good cleavage.
Botallackite forms in copper deposits exposed to weathering and salt water.
Brain damage

# Overview
Brain damage or brain injury is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells.

# Causes
Brain damage may occur due to a wide range of conditions, illnesses, injuries, and as a result of iatrogenesis. Possible causes of widespread (diffuse) brain damage include prolonged hypoxia (shortage of oxygen), poisoning by teratogens (including alcohol), infection, and neurological illness. Chemotherapy can cause brain damage to the neural stem cells and oligodendrocyte cells that produce myelin. Common causes of focal or localized brain damage are physical trauma (traumatic brain injury), stroke, aneurysm, surgery, or neurological illness.

# Complications
Brain injury does not necessarily result in long-term impairment or disability, although the location and extent of damage both have a significant effect on the likely outcome. In serious cases of brain injury, the result can be permanent disability, including neurocognitive deficits, delusions (often specifically monothematic delusions), speech or movement problems, and mental handicap. There may also be personality changes.  Severe brain damage may result in persistent vegetative state, coma, or death.

## Brain Damage in Children
It is a common misconception that brain damage sustained during childhood has a better chance of successful recovery than similar injury acquired in adult life. It is contested that in recent studies, severe brain damage inflicted upon children can be alleviated by the interaction of nicotinamide repropagation in nerve cells. In fact, the consequences of childhood injury may simply be more difficult to detect in the short term. This is because different cortical areas mature at different stages, with some major cell populations and their corresponding cognitive faculties remaining unrefined until early adulthood. In the case of a child with frontal brain injury, for example, the impact of the damage may be undetectable until that child fails to develop normal executive functions in his or her late teens and early twenties.

# Diagnosis
The extent and effect of brain injury is often assessed by the use of neurological examination, neuroimaging, and neuropsychological assessment.

# Treatment
Various professions may be involved in the medical care and rehabilitation of someone who suffers impairment after brain damage. Neurologists, neurosurgeons, and physiatrists are physicians who specialise in treating brain injury. Neuropsychologists (especially clinical neuropsychologists) are psychologists who specialise in understanding the effects of brain injury and may be involved in assessing the extent of brain damage or creating rehabilitation programmes. Occupational therapists may be involved in running rehabilitation programs to help restore lost function or help re-learn essential skills.
The effects of impairment or disability resulting from brain injury may be treated by a number of methods, including medication, psychotherapy, neuropsychological rehabilitation, snoezelen, surgery, or physical implants such as deep brain stimulation.
Breast shell
Breast shells are hollow plastic disks worn inside the brassiere to protect the nipple from becoming flattened.  The disk has a hole in the middle worn toward the nipple side. It is slightly concave to conform to the shape of the breast, but can sometimes still be slightly visible under tight clothing. Shells come apart for washing. This should be done frequently, as the shell also tends to make the mother's breast sweat, which can increase bacteria growth and cause irritation.
Breast shells may be used to protect engorged  or sore nipples during breastfeeding.  The shell can also encourage an inverted nipple to protract (come out).  If the shell is used to help ready the mother for breastfeeding, this is best done during pregnancy, as the shell can increase leaking of breast milk or colostrum.  Some research suggests that breast shells used on inverted nipples may actually hinder the mother's ability to breastfeed successfully.
It is also used to collect milk when the baby hasnot finished the teat.

# See Also
- Nipple shields may be confused with breast shells, but shields are intended for use during the act of breastfeeding, whereas breast shells are worn in preparation for or after breastfeeding.
Bredt's rule
Bredt's rule is an empirical observation in organic chemistry that states that a double bond cannot be placed at the bridgehead of a bridged ring system, unless the rings are large enough.
For example, two of the following isomers of norbornene violate Bredt's rule, which makes them too unstable to prepare:
In the figure, the bridgehead atoms involved in Bredt's rule violation are highlighted in red.
Bredt's rule is a consequence of the fact that having a double bond on a bridgehead would be equivalent to having a trans double bond on a ring, which is not possible for small rings (fewer than eight atoms) due to ring strain, and angle strain in particular.
Bredt's rule can be useful for predicting which isomer is obtained from an elimination reaction in a bridged ring system. It can also be applied to reaction mechanisms that go via carbocations and, to a lesser degree, via free radicals, because these intermediates, like carbon atoms involved in a double bond, prefer to have a planar geometry with 120 degree angles and sp2 hybridization.
An anti-bredt molecule is one that is found to exist and be stable (within certain parameters) despite this rule. A recent (2006) example such a molecule is 2-quinuclidonium tetrafluoroborate.

# History
The first publication of what would later become known as Bredt's rule was in an article by Julius Bredt in 1924 about the chemistry of naturally occurring bicyclic terpenes. For an extensive review of this topic, see the article by Shea.
Bromadiolone

# Overview
Bromadiolone is a potent anticoagulant rodenticide. It is a second-generation 4-hydroxycoumarin derivative and vitamin K antagonist, often called a "super-warfarin" for its added potency and tendency to accumulate in the liver of the poisoned organism. When first introduced to the UK market in 1980, it was effective against the populations that had become resistant to the first generation anticoagulants.
The product may be used both indoors and outdoors for rats and mice.

# Toxicity
Bromadiolone can be absorbed through the digestive tract, through the lungs, or through skin contact. The pesticide is generally given orally. The substance is a vitamin K antagonist. The lack of vitamin K in the circulatory system reduces blood clotting and will cause death due to internal hemorrhaging.
Poisoning doesn't show up for 24 to 36 hours after poison is eaten and often it may take 25 days for the signs to show up.
Following are acute Template:LD50 values for various animals (mammals):
- rats 1.125 mg/kg b.w.
- mice 1.75 mg/kg b.w.
- rabbits 1 mg/kg b.w.
- dogs > 10 mg/kg b.w. (oral Maximum tolerated dose|MTD)
- cats > 25 mg/kg b.w. (oral MTD)

# Chemistry
The compound is used as a mixture of four stereoisomers. Its two stereoisomeric centers are at the phenyl- and the hydroxyl-substituted carbons in the carbon chain of the substituent at the 3 position of the coumarin.

# Antidote
Vitamin K1 is used as antidote.
Halogenation

# Overview
Halogenation is a chemical reaction that incorporates a halogen atom into a molecule.  More specific descriptions exist that specify the type of halogen: fluorination, chlorination, bromination, and iodination.
In a Markovnikov addition reaction, a halogen like bromine is reacted with an alkene which causes the -bond to break forming an haloalkane. This makes the hydrocarbon more reactive and bromine as it turns out, is a good leaving group in further chemical reactions such as nucleophilic aliphatic substitution reactions and elimination reactions
Several main types of halogenation exist, including:
- Free radical halogenation
- Ketone halogenation
- Electrophilic halogenation
- Halogen addition reaction
Specific halogenation methods are the Hunsdiecker reaction (from carboxylic acids) and the Sandmeyer reaction (arylhalides).
An example of halogenation can be found in the organic synthesis of the anesthetic halothane from trichloroethylene which involves a high temperature bromination in the second step :