Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Palmer notation

# Overview
Palmer notation is a system used by dentists to associate information to a specific tooth. Although supposedly superseded by the FDI World Dental Federation notation, it overwhelming continues to be the preferred method used by dental students and practitioners in the United Kingdom.
It was originally termed the Zsigmondy system after the Hungarian dentist Adolf Zsigmondy who developed the idea in 1861, using a Zsigmondy cross to record quadrants of tooth positions.. Adult teeth were numbered 1 to 8, and the child primary dentition (also called deciduous, milk or baby teeth) were depicted with a quadrant grid using Roman numerals I, II, III, IV, V to number the teeth from the midline. Palmer changed this to A, B, C, D, E. This makes it less confusing and less prone to errors in interpretation.
The Palmer notation consists of a symbol ( ) designating in which quadrant the tooth is found and a number indicating the position from the midline. Adult teeth are numbered 1 to 8, with deciduous (baby) teeth indicated by a letter A to E. Hence the left and right maxillary central incisor would have the same number, "1", but the right one would have the symbol, "", underneath it, while the left one would have, "".

# Table of codes
Orientation of the chart is traditionally "dentist's view", i.e. patient's right corresponds to notation chart left.  The designations "left" and "right" on the chart, however, nonetheless correspond to the patient's left and right, respectively.
With the move from written dental notes to electronic records, some difficulty in reproducing the symbols has been encountered.
On a standard keyboard 'slash' and 'backslash' may be used as a crude approximation to the symbols with numbers placed before or afterwards; hence 3/ is 3 and /5 is 5
One advantage of Palmer notation is that it can produce a very graphical image, akin to a 'map' of the dentition; tooth transpositions or edentulous spaces can easily be depicted if desired. It would also be feasible to introduce additional alphabetic characters or other symbols, for example to denote supernumerary teeth or bridge pontics, to which a purely numerical method such as the FDI system does not lend itself easily.
Pars reticulata
The pars reticulata is a portion of the substantia nigra.

# Anatomy
Neurons in the pars reticulata are much less densely packed than those in the compacta (they were sometimes named pars diffusa). They are smaller and thinner than the dopaminergic neurons and conversely identical and morphologically similar to the pallidal neurons (see primate basal ganglia). Their dendrites as well as the pallidal are  preferentially perpendicular to the striatal afferents. The massive striatal afferences corresponds to the medial end of the striato-pallidonigral bundle. Nigral neurons have the same peculiar synaptology with the  striatal axonal endings. They make connections with the dopamine neurons of the pars compacta whose long dendrites plunge deeply in the pars reticulata. The neurons of the pars reticulata and lateralis  produce the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
The neurons of the pars reticulata through the nigrothalamic bundle send axons to a particular part of the motor thalamus. The nigral territory corresponds to the nucleus ventralis anterior VA (different from the pallidal VO). VA is the origin of one output of the basal ganglia system. It sends axons to the frontal and oculomotor cortex. In addition the pars reticulata sends neurons to the pars parafascicularis of the central region of the thalamus and to the  pedunculopontine complex).
The particularity of the pars lateralis is to send its axons to the superior colliculus, which is a too minimized output of the basal ganglia system.

# Function
The neurons of the pars reticulata are fast-spiking pacemakers, generating action potentials in the absence of synaptic input. In primates they discharge at a mean rate of 68Hz in contrast to dopaminergic neurons (below 8Hz). They receive abundant afferrences from the striatum (mainly from the associative striatum) with the same very peculiar synaptology as the pallidum. It receives axons from the subthalamic nucleus and a dopaminergic innervation from the dopaminergic ensemble.
The pars reticulata is one of the two primary output nuclei of the basal ganglia system to the motor thalamus (the other output is the internal segment of the globus pallidus).The nigral neurons have their own territory distinct from the cerebellar and the pallidal in the nucleus ventralis anterior VA. This sends axons to the frontal and oculomotor cortex. Hikosaka and Wurtz devoted four papers to "the visual and oculomotor functions of the monkey substantia nigra pars reticulata". This is largely involved in orientation and the control of eye movements in stabilisation of gaze and in saccades.

# Pathology
The function of the neurons of the pars reticulata is profoundly changed in parkinsonism and epilepsy. These changes are thought to be mostly secondary to pathology elsewhere in the brain, but may be crucial to understanding the generation of the symptoms of these disorders.
Pathophysiology
Pathophysiology is the study of the disturbance of normal mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions, either caused by a disease, or resulting from a disease or abnormal syndrome or condition that may not qualify to be called a disease. 
An alternate definition is "the study of the biological and physical manifestations of disease as they correlate with the underlying abnormalities and physiological disturbances."
An example, from the field of infectious disease, would be the study of a toxin released by a bacterium, and what that toxin does to the body to cause harm, one possible result being sepsis.  Another example is the study of the chemical changes that take place in body tissue due to inflammation.
Pathophysiology can be looked at as the intersection of two older, related disciplines: (normal) physiology and pathology.
Physiology is the study of normal, healthy bodily function (as opposed to anatomy, which is the study of normal structure).  When something disrupts normal physiological processes, it enters the realm of pathophysiology.
Pathology, broadly speaking, is the "study of the nature and cause of disease." or the results of disease in the body.  Pathophysiology looks at the detailed malfunctioning that comes from or, alternately, causes disease.
One caution in this approach is that healthy structure and function is not precisely the same in any two individuals.
Pathophysiology is a required study for under most nursing school programs in the United States as well as other countries.
Peak flow meter

# Overview
A peak flow meter is a small, hand-held device used to manage asthma by monitoring airflow through the bronchi and thus the degree of restriction in the airways.

# Function
The peak flow meter measures the patient's maximum ability to expel air from the lungs, or peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR or PEF). Peak flow readings are higher when patients are well, and lower when the airways are constricted. From changes in recorded values, patients and doctors may determine lung functionality, severity of asthma symptoms, and treatment options.
The measurement of peak expiratory flow was pioneered by Dr. Basil Martin Wright, who produced the first meter specifically designed to measure this index of lung function. Since the original design of instrument was introduced in the late 1950s, and the subsequent development of a more portable, lower cost version (the 'Mini-Wright'  peak flow meter), other designs and copies have become available across the world.
Measurement of PEFR requires training to correctly use a meter and the normal expected value depends on a patient's sex, age and height. It is classically reduced in obstructive lung disorders such as asthma.

# Scales
There are a number of non-equivalent scales used in the measurement of Peak Flow.
Graphs or tables are available of predicted normal values based on a person's gender, age and height. It should be noted that there is a wide natural variation in results from healthy test subjects.
- Wright scale
- EN 13826 or EU scale
- A.T.S. (American Thoracic Society) scale
In 2004 the UK switched from the original Wright scale to the newer, more accurate European scale. Limited information on converting between the scales exists.

# Measurement
The best of three readings is used as the recorded value of the Peak Expiratory Flow Rate. It may be plotted out on graph paper charts together with a record of symptoms or using peak flow charting software. This allows patients to self-monitor and pass information back to their doctor or nurse.
Peak flow readings are often classified into 3 zones of measurement according to the American Lung Association; green, yellow, and red. The color system is based on the colors of street traffic lights. Doctors and health practitioners can develop an asthma management plan based on the green-yellow-red zones.
The Green Zone means 80 to 100 percent of the usual or normal peak flow readings are clear. A peak flow reading in the green zone indicates that the asthma is under good control.
The Yellow Zone means 50 to 80 percent of the usual or normal peak flow readings indicate caution. It may mean respiratory airways are narrowing and additional medication may be required.
The Red Zone means less than 50 percent of the usual or normal peak flow readings indicate a medical emergency. Severe airway narrowing may be occurring and immediate action needs to be taken. This would usually involve contacting a doctor or hospital.

# Related Chapters
- Spirometry
- Metered dose inhaler
- Asthma inhalers
- Salbutamol
- COPD
Penile agenesis

# Overview
Penile agenesis is a very rare birth defect in humans, occurring about once in 5-10 million births, where a male child is born without a penis.  There were recently thought to be fewer but the condition is remarkably more frequent in India and South-east Asia. It is also known as aphallia . Most patients have no known family history of aphallia, and often have a normal male anatomy, save for the absence of the penis.
A partner condition is testicular or gonadal agenesis.  This is where the male child is born without gonads and consequently develops no testes.  The function of Leydig cells in the embryo is to convert the gonads into testicles in males-to-be and into ovaries in females.  In this condition, the process fails.
Penile agenesis can exist independently after full testicular development, though the causes of this in particular are uncertain.  Testes are the sole producer of 5-alpha dihydrotestosterone (5aDHT) in the male body.  One cause of the gonads failing to metamorphose into testes is the absence of  5aDHT.  Therefore the masculizing process to allow for the development of the genital tubercle which eventually becomes the penis is halted.  In this scenario, the child is born with penile and testicular agenesis.  Another slang term for this condition is "nullo".
The sufferers of just one of the conditions usually continue as males throughout their lives.  With very few exceptions the penile and testicular agenetic is brought up as a female and eventually undergoes .  This is despite being 46xy karyotype male and having no female sexual characteristics. This is an unclear part of anatomy.  The organs that prevent the development of the embryo into a female are called Anti-Mullerian hormones.  They are commonly believed to be created in the testes, but male embryos without testes still appear to produce these hormones.

# Complications
One complication of the full condition is the absence of a urinary outlet.  This can be approached as follows.  Before genital metamorphosis, the urethra runs down the anal wall, to be pulled away by the genital tubercle during male development.  It remains there in the agenetic.  In one case, 45 years ago, the surgeons redirected the urethra to the rim of the anus immediately after birth.
Patients with penile and testicular agenesis are impotent.

# Treatment
Largely, treatment is psychological and surgical reconstruction.
Peptide hormone
Peptide hormones are a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals.
Like other proteins, peptide hormones are synthesized from amino acids according to an mRNA template, which is itself synthesized from a DNA template inside the cell's nucleus. Peptide hormone precursors (pre-prohormones) are then processed in several stages, typically in the endoplasmic reticulum, including removal of the N-terminal signal sequence and sometimes glycosylation, resulting in prohormones. The prohormones are then packaged into membrane-bound secretory vesicles, which can be secreted from the cell by exocytosis in response to specific stimuli.
These prohormones often contain superfluous amino acid residues that were needed to direct folding of the hormone molecule into its active configuration but have no function once the hormone folds. Specific endopeptidases in the cell cleave the prohormone just before it is released into the blood stream, generating the mature hormone form of the molecule. Mature peptide hormones then diffuse through the blood to all of the cells of the body, where they interact with specific receptors on the surface of their target cells. Some peptide/protein hormones ( angiotensin II, basic fibroblast growth factor-2, parathyroid hormone-related protein) also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism.

# Notable peptide hormones
Several important peptide hormones are secreted from the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary secretes luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone, which act on the gonads, prolactin, which acts on the mammary gland, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), which acts on the adrenal cortex to regulate the secretion of glucocorticoids, and growth hormone, which acts on bone, muscle and the liver. The posterior pituitary gland secretes antidiuretic hormone, also called vasopressin, and oxytocin. Peptide hormones are produced by many different organs and tissues, however, including the heart (atrial-natriuretic peptide (ANP) or atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)) and pancreas (insulin and somatostatin), the gastrointestinal tract (cholecystokinin, gastrin), and adipose tissue stores (leptin).
Some neurotransmitters are secreted and released in a similar fashion to peptide hormones, and some 'neuropeptides' may be used as neurotransmitters in the nervous system in addition to acting as hormones when released into the blood. When a peptide hormone binds to receptors on the surface of the cell, a second messenger appears in the cytoplasm  
which triggers intracellular responses.
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Perfluoroalkoxy
Perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) is a type of fluoropolymer with properties similar to polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). It differs from the PTFE resins in that it is melt-processable using conventional injection molding and screw extrusion techniques.
PFA was invented by DuPont and is sold under the Teflon brand name.  (Teflon is better known as the trade name for a polymer with similar properties, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).)
PFA is one of three polymers with similar composition that are known by the Teflon name:
- PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene)
- PFA (perfluoroalkoxy polymer resin)
- FEP (fluorinated ethylene-propylene)
They retain the useful properties of PTFE of low friction and non-reactivity, but are more easily formable. FEP is softer than PTFE and melts at 260 C; it is highly transparent and resistant to sunlight.

# Notes
-  FEP Detailed Properties Parker-TexLoc, 13 April 2006. Retrieved 10 September 2006.
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Perfluorohexane
Perfluorohexane (Template:CarbonTemplate:Fluorine) or tetradecafluorohexane, is a perfluorocarbon. It is a derivative of hexane in which all of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by fluorine atoms. Its chemical formula is C6F14. It is used in one formulation of the electronic cooling liquid/insulator Fluorinert for low temperature applications due to its low boiling point of 56oC and melting point of -90 C. It is odorless and colorless.
It is one of the Fluorinert brand solvents/coolants. It is used as a solvent and coolant. In medical imaging it is used as a contrast agent.
Perfluorohexane is considered biologically and chemically inert. It is unusual in that perfluorohexane absorbs oxygen from the air to a higher concentration than is found in normal air. This means that animals can be submerged in a bath of perfluorohexane without drowning, as there is sufficient oxygen available in the solvent to allow respiration to continue. This has led to the experimental use of perfluorohexane in treating burns victims, as their lungs can be filled with either perfluorohexane vapor or in extreme cases liquid perfluorohexane, allowing breathing to continue without the problems normally seen with pulmonary edema that sometimes occur when the inside of the lungs have been burnt e.g. by inhalation of hot smoke.
Perineal artery
The perineal artery (superficial perineal artery) arises from the internal pudendal artery, and turns upward, crossing either over or under the Transversus perini superficialis, and runs forward, parallel to the pubic arch, in the interspace between the Bulbocavernosus and Ischiocavernosus, both of which it supplies, and finally divides into several posterior scrotal branches which are distributed to the skin and dartos tunic of the scrotum.
As it crosses the Transversus perini superficialis it gives off the transverse perineal artery which runs transversely on the cutaneous surface of the muscle, and anastomoses with the corresponding vessel of the opposite side and with the perineal and inferior hemorrhoidal arteries.
It supplies the Transversus perini superficialis and the structures between the anus and the urethral bulb.
Perineal hernia
Perineal hernia is a hernia involving the perineum (pelvic floor).  The hernia may contain fat, any part of the intestine, the rectum, or the bladder.  It is known to occur in humans, dogs, and other mammals, and often appears as a sudden swelling to one side (sometimes both sides) of the anus.
A common cause of perineal hernia is surgery involving the perineum.  Perineal hernia can be caused also by excessive straining to defecate (tenesmus).  Other causes include prostate or urinary disease, constipation, anal sac disease (in dogs), and diarrhea.  Atrophy of the levator ani muscle and disease of the pudendal nerve may also contribute to a perineal hernia.

# In humans
In humans, a major cause of perineal hernia is perineal surgery without adequate reconstruction.  The posterior perineum is a preferred point of access for surgery in the pelvic cavity, particularly in the presacral space.  Surgeries here include repair of rectal prolapse and anterior meningocele, radical perineal prostatectomy, removal of tumors including sacrococcygeal teratoma, and coccygectomy.  Perineal hernia is a common complication of coccygectomy in adults, but not in infants and children (see coccygectomy).
The standard surgical technique for repair of perineal hernia uses a prosthetic mesh, but this technique has a high rate of failure due to insufficient anchoring.  Promising new techniques to reduce the rate of failure include an orthopedic anchoring system, a gluteus maximus muscle flap, and an acellular human dermis graft.

# In dogs and cats
In dogs, perineal hernia usually is found on the right side.  Most cases are in older intact (not neutered) male dogs (93 percent in one study).  Breeds that may be at risk include Welsh Corgis, Boxers, Australian Kelpies, Boston Terriers, Collies, Dachshunds, Old English Sheepdogs, and Pekingese.  Perineal hernias are rare in female dogs and uncommon in cats.
Dogs with benign prostatic hyperplasia have been found to have increased relaxin levels and suspected subsequent weakening of the pelvic diaphragm.  In cats, perineal hernias are seen most commonly following perineal urethrostomy surgery or secondary to megacolon.  Medical treatment consists of treatment of the underlying disease, enemas, and stool softeners.  Because only about 20 percent of cases treated medically are free of symptoms, surgery is often necessary.  Recurrence is common with or without surgery.
Several surgeries have been described for perineal hernias in dogs.  The current standard involves transposition of the internal obturator muscle.  This technique has a lower recurrence and complication rate than traditional hernia repair.  A new technique uses porcine small intestinal submucosa as a biomaterial to help repair the defect.  This is can also be done in combination with internal obturator muscle transposition, especially when that muscle is weak.
Peroxiredoxin 1
Peroxiredoxin-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRDX1 gene.

# Function
This gene encodes a member of the peroxiredoxin family of antioxidant enzymes, which reduce hydrogen peroxide and alkyl hydroperoxides . The encoded protein may play an antioxidant protective role in cells, and may contribute to the antiviral activity of CD8(+) T-cells. This protein may have a proliferative effect and play a role in cancer development or progression. Three transcript variants encoding the same protein have been identified for this gene.

# Interactions
Peroxiredoxin 1 has been shown to interact with PRDX4. A chemoproteomic approach has revealed that peroxiredoxin 1 is the main target of theonellasterone.

# Clinical significance
As enzymes that combat oxidative stress, peroxiredoxins play an important role in health and disease. Peroxiredoxin 1 and peroxiredoxin 2 have been shown to be released by some cells when stimulated by LPS or TNF-alpha. The released peroxiredoxin can then act to produce inflammatory cytokines. The levels of peroxiredoxin 1 are elevated in pancreatic cancer and it can potentially act as a marker for the diagnosis and prognosis of this disease. In some types of cancer, peroxiredoxin 1 has been determined to act as a tumor suppressor and other studies show that peroxiredoxin 1 is overexpressed in certain human cancers. A recent study has found that peroxiredoxin 1 may play a role in tumorigenesis by regulating the mTOR/p70S6K pathway in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. The expression patterns of peroxiredoxin 1 along with peroxiredoxin 4 are involved in human lung cancer malignancy. It has also been shown that peroxiredoxin 1 may be an important player in the pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome because of its role in promoting inflammation.
Persian tobacco
Persian Tobacco or Tanbaku (also called flowering tobacco, ornamental tobacco, winged tobacco, Nicotiana alata), is a type of tobacco originating in Iran which is used only in narghilas. Persian tobacco is not chopped like tobacco, but is broken up by hand.
A species of tobacco called Nicotiana persica. Cultivated in Persia, it is the source of Persian Tobacco which is made in ITC monopoly.
As an example the term Persian tobacco is used in the Mark Twain's book Innocents Abroad, Chapter XXXIV.

# specifications
- Flowering Season: Summer to fall
- Light Requirements: Sun to partial shade
- Flower Color: Lime green, red, white, yellow
- Height: 12 to 24 inches
- Spacing: 12 to 14 inches
- Comments: Low drought tolerance