Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Statistician
Statisticians work with theoretical and applied statistics in both the private and public sectors. The core of that work is to measure, interpret, and describe the world and human activity patterns within it.
It is common to combine statistical knowledge with expertise in other subjects. The applications are varied. Statisticians apply their knowledge to production, research, finances, medicine, insurance, and government. They often are employed to support managerial decisions or to supervise quality control in manufacturing.

# Nature of the work
According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of 2006, there were 19,000 jobs classified as statistician in the United States. Of these people, 41 percent worked for governments (federal, state, or local). Additionally, there are substantial numbers of persons who use statistics in their work but have other job titles than statistician.. The job of statistician is considered a profession. Most statisticians work in offices and have regular working hours.
Most employment as a statistician requires a minimum of a masters degree in statistics or a related field. Many professional statisticians have a PhD.

# History
Civilizations have used the work of statisticians for thousands of years. Statistics was employed in ancient Egypt in censuses of population and cattle. Typical work might involve developing a model and sampling plans, analyzing survey results, or contributing to agricultural or econometric forecasts.
Steeple sign

# Overview
In radiology, the steeple sign is a sign on a frontal X-ray of tracheal narrowing and suggestive of the diagnosis of croup.

# X Ray
- The steeple sign is seen on anteroposterior radiographs of the soft tissues of the neck.
Normal lateral convexities of the subglottic trachea are lost, and narrowing of the subglottic lumen produces an inverted V configuration in this area.
Point of the inverted V is at the level of the inferior margin of the true vocal cords.
Narrowing of the subglottic lumen alters the radiographic appearance of the tracheal air column, which resembles a steeply pitched roof or a church steeple.
- Normal lateral convexities of the subglottic trachea are lost, and narrowing of the subglottic lumen produces an inverted V configuration in this area.
- Point of the inverted V is at the level of the inferior margin of the true vocal cords.
- Narrowing of the subglottic lumen alters the radiographic appearance of the tracheal air column, which resembles a steeply pitched roof or a church steeple.
- The lateral radiograph of the upper airway will show a normal epiglottis and narrowing of the subglottic region.
Stop Smoking
Stop Smoking is a cognitive project launched in April 2007 within Qoach (Question Oriented Approach for Common Health) and aiming to replace smoking habits with new learning habits.
The idea of Dr Alexandre-Pierre Gaspar was both to replace and to use the energy of smoking to gain something new.
The first method developed within the Stop Smoking project is simple: instead of a cigarette, the potential smoker will have to remember some piece of art, of music, of culture. He may get a random piece online each time he feels like having a cigarette and wants to learn something new. Soon the pleasure of learning will replace the pleasure of smoking.
Various forms of this method are presently being developed to suit different contexts and personality types.

# Resources
- Stop Smoking: Instead Of A Cigarette
- QOACH Health information system
Stramenopile
The Stramenopile group is a recently recognised informal monophyletic grouping into which a number of microscopic parasitic organisms from the superkingdom Protista and a number of diatoms and brown seaweeds are placed.
Labyrinthulomycota, Hyphochytriomycota, Phytophthora, Aphanomyces, Bremia, Pernospora and the Oomycetes are also protists that form part of the Stramenopile group. The Stramenopile group (or clade) is a sister group of another multicellular clade which includes Plantae, Animalia and Fungi.

# Notes
-  An all-taxa biodiversity inventory of the Huron Mountain Club retrieved June 6 2007
-  Genescope Blastocystis hominis: Whole genome shotgun retrieved June 6 2007
-  An all-taxa biodiversity inventory of the Huron Mountain Club retrieved June 6 2007
Study design
A study design is an analytic approach to conduct an epidemiological investigation, such as a clinical trial.

# Types of design
Some of the most popular designs are sorted below, with the ones at the top being the most powerful at reducing observer-expectancy effect but also most expensive, and in some cases introducing ethical concerns.  The ones at the bottom are the most affordable, and are frequently used earlier in the research cycle, to develop strong hypotheses worth testing with the more expensive research approaches.
File:Studydesigns.GIF

## Experimental
- Randomized controlled trial
Double-blind
Single-blind
Non-blind
Adaptive designs
- Double-blind
- Single-blind
- Non-blind
- Adaptive designs
- Nonrandomized controlled trial
- Stepped-wedge trial is usually randomized but can also be non-randomized.. Difficulties in executing stepped-wedge designs have been documented.
- Randomized database studies

## Nonexperimental
- Cohort study
Prospective cohort
Retrospective cohort
Nested cohort
Time-trend study
- Prospective cohort
- Retrospective cohort
- Nested cohort
- Time-trend study
- Case-cohort study
- Case-control study (case series)
Nested case-control study
- Nested case-control study
- Cross-sectional study

## Descriptive
- Community survey

# Important considerations
When choosing a study design, many factors must be taken into account.  Different types of studies are subject to different types of bias.  For example, recall bias is likely to occur in cross-sectional or case-control studies where subjects are asked to recall exposure to risk factors.  Subjects with the relevant condition (e.g. breast cancer) may be more likely to recall the relevant exposures that they had undergone (e.g. hormone replacement therapy) than subjects who don't have the condition.
The ecological fallacy may occur when analyses are done on ecological (group-based) data rather than individual data.  The nature of this type of analysis tends to overestimate the degree of association between variables.

# Other terms
- A "retrospective study" looks at past behavior, while a "prospective study" looks at future behavior.
- "Superiority trials" are designed to demonstrate that one treatment is more effective than another.
- "Non-inferiority trials" are designed to demonstrate that a treatment is at least not appreciably worse than another.
- "Equivalence trials" are designed to demonstrate that one treatment is as effective as another.
- When using "parallel groups", each patient receives one treatment; in a "crossover study", each patient receives several treatments.
- A longitudinal study studies a few subjects for a long period of time, while a cross-sectional study involves many subjects measured at once.
Subspecialty
A subspecialty is narrow field within a specialty such as forensic pathology, which is a subspecialty of anatomical pathology.
In medicine subspecialization is particularily common in internal medicine and has grown as medicine has:
- become more complex and
- it has become clear that a physician's case volume is negatively associated with their complication rate; that is, complications tend decrease as volume of cases goes up.
Succinyl-CoA
Succinyl-Coenzyme A, generally abbreviated as Succinyl-CoA or SucCoA is a combination of succinic acid and coenzyme A.

# Source
It is an important intermediate in the citric acid cycle, where it is synthesized from -Ketoglutarate by -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase through decarboxylation. During the process, coenzyme A is added.
It is also synthesized from propionyl CoA, the odd numbered fatty acid which cannot undergo beta-oxidation. Propionyl-CoA is carboxylated to D-methylmalonyl-CoA, isomerized to L-methylmalonyl-CoA, and rearranged to yield succinyl-CoA via a vitamin B12-dependent enzyme. Succinyl-CoA is an intermediate of the citric acid cycle and can be readily incorporated there.

# Fate
It is converted into succinate through the hydrolytic release of coenzyme A by succinyl-CoA synthetase (succinate thiokinase).
Another fate of succinyl-CoA is porphyrin synthesis, where succinyl-CoA and glycine are combined by ALA synthase to form -aminolevulinic acid (dALA).

# Formation
Succinyl CoA can be formed from methylmalonyl CoA through the utilization of deoxyadenosyl-B12 (deoxyadenosylcobalamin) by methylmalonyl CoA Mutase.  This reaction, which requires vitamin B12 to occur, is important in the catabolism of some branched-chain amino acids as well as odd-chain fatty acids.
Supercooling
Supercooling is the process of chilling a liquid below its freezing point, without it becoming solid.
A liquid below its freezing point will crystallize in the presence of a seed crystal or nucleus around which a crystal structure can form. However, lacking any such nucleus, the liquid phase can be maintained all the way down to the temperature at which crystal homogeneous nucleation occurs. The homogeneous nucleation can occur above the glass transition where the system is an amorphousthat is, non-crystallinesolid.
Water has a freezing point of 273.15 K (0 C or 32 F) but can be supercooled at standard pressure down to its crystal homogeneous nucleation at almost 231 K (42 C). If cooled at a rate on the order of 106 K/s, the crystal nucleation can be avoided and water becomes a glass. Its glass transition temperature is much colder and harder to determine, but studies estimate it at about 165 K (108 C).
Glassy water can be heated up to approximately 150 K (123 C).
In the range of temperatures between 231 K (42 C) and 150 K (123 C) experiments find only crystal ice.
Droplets of supercooled water often exist in stratiform and cumulus clouds.  They form into ice when they are struck by the wings of passing airplanes and abruptly crystallize. (This causes problems with lift, so aircraft that are expected to fly in such conditions are equipped with a deicing system.) Freezing rain is also caused by supercooled droplets.
The process opposite to supercooling, the melting of a solid above the freezing point, is much more difficult, and a solid will almost always melt at the same temperature for a given pressure. It is, however, possible to superheat a liquid above its boiling point without it becoming gaseous.

# Constitutional supercooling
Constitutional supercooling occurs during solidification, is due to compositional changes, and results in cooling a liquid below the freezing point ahead of the solid-liquid interface.  When solidifying a liquid, the interface is often unstable, and the velocity of the solid-liquid interface must be small in order to avoid constitutional supercooling.
Supercooled zones are observed when the liquidus temperature gradient at the interface is larger than the temperature gradient.
-r
The slope of the liquidus phase boundary on the phase diagram is m = \partial T_L / \partial C_L
The concentration gradient is related to points, C^{LS} and C^{SL}, on the phase diagram:
The minimum thermal gradient necessary to create a stable solid front is as expressed below.
Surfer's Ear

# Overview
Surfer's Ear is the common name for exostosis, abnormal bone growth, within the ear canal. Surfer's ear is not the same as swimmer's ear.
Irritation from cold wind and water exposure causes the bone surrounding the ear canal to develop lumps of new bony growth which constrict the ear canal. The condition is so named due to its prevalence among cold water surfers. Cold water surfers experience surfer's ear at about six times the rate of warm water surfers.
The condition is not limited to surfing and can occur in any activity with cold, wet, windy conditions such as kayaking, sailing,diving. Most avid surfers have at least some mild bone growths (exostoses), causing little to no problems. The condition is progressive, making it important to take preventative measures early, preferably whenever surfing.

# Etiology

# Symptoms
In general one ear will be much worse than the other due to the areas prevailing wind direction or the side that most often strikes the wave first.
- Decreased hearing or hearing loss, temporary or ongoing
- Increased prevalence of ear infections, causing ear pain
- Difficulty evacuating debris or water from the ear causing a plugging sensation
- Normal Ear Canal
Normal Ear Canal
- Normal Ear Canal
Normal Ear Canal
- Exostosis in Ear Canal
Exostosis in Ear Canal
- Exostosis in Ear Canal
Exostosis in Ear Canal

# Treatment
Traditionally surfer's ear has been treated by exostectomy wherein a small incision is opened behind the ear and the bone growth is removed using a surgical drill. When exostoses are completely removed there is little chance of recurrence requiring repeat surgery in the future. The postauricular approach minimizes complications by providing a proper operative trajectory to the exostoses.
During recuperation it is extremely important not to return to the water for at least four weeks to avoid infection or complications. The operation is performed under general anesthesia.
Some doctors now use extremely small chisels and enter directly through the ear canal. While not requiring an incision behind the ear, this procedure has resulted in accidental mobilization of the ear canal in several cases, and still requires use of a drill near the eardrum.
Unprotected exposure of ear canals to cold water and wind after treatment can lead to regrowth of bone and the need for repeated operations on the same ear.

# Prevention
Just as it iss possible that motorcycle helmets increase nonhead related injuries due to increased risk-taking , the widespread use of wetsuit hoods, caps, and neoprene bands has allowed people to surf in much colder waters, which probably has increased the incidence and severity of surfer's ear for those that don't properly protect their ears.
Other recommendations:
- Avoid activity during extremely cold or windy conditions.
- Keep the ear canal as warm and dry as possible.
Ear plugs
Neoprene hood
swim cap
- Ear plugs
- Neoprene hood
- swim cap
Susan Nelles
Susan Marguerite Nelles (born in Belleville, Ontario) was charged with murdering four babies in 1981, when she worked as a nurse at Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children. She was ultimately exonerated.
The hospital investigated the cause of infant deaths in the cardiac unit, using an experimental, inappropriate testing method. The test indicated that as many as 43 babies were poisoned with the heart medication digoxin. Police determined that Susan Nelles had been scheduled to work at the times that 23 of the deaths occurred. They arrested and charged her with the deaths of four babies. The deaths then stopped.
However, Nelles had not been on duty for several of the infant deaths, because she swapped shifts with other nurses  who had access to the same medication. Although the deaths ended after Nelles's arrest, the hospital had introduced restrictions for access to digoxin and had implemented a policy that kept infants in intensive care longer. Total deaths between the two units remained identical.
Nelles asked for legal counsel when she was arrested. This was interpreted by the investigating police officers to be an indication of her guilt, but the court later ruled that this should not be interpreted as evidence of guilt. The court also ruled that the Crown lacked evidence to convict Nelles. The government eventually paid for Nelles's legal costs after she sued the province's Attorney-General, Roy McMurtry for malicious prosecution.
A Royal Commission, led by Justice Samuel Grange, found that eight infants had been murdered. Although another nurse, Phyllis Trainor, fell under scrutiny, no one was charged. Moreover, the experimental test that detected digoxin may have given false results for other chemicals.
In 1999, she received an honorary degree from Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario at which she graduated with a Bachelor of Nursing Science degree in 1978. This honour, presented under her married name Susan Pine, was for her work in promoting integrity in the nursing field.
Sweet violet
(Viola odorata) is a species of the genus Viola native to Europe and Asia, but has also been introduced in North America. It is also called the Garden Violet.
Viola odorata is quite similar to other species of violet, but can be distinguished by the following characteristics:
- the flowers have a sweet scent,
- the flowers are normally either dark violet or white,
- the leaves and flowers are all in a basal rosette,
- the style is hooked (and does not end with a rounded appendage),
- the leaf-stalks have hairs which point downwards, and
- the plant spreads with stolons (above-ground shoots).
The Sweet Violet can be found near the edges of forests or in clearings; it is also a common "uninvited guest" in shaded lawns or elsewhere in gardens. The flowers appear as early as February and last until the end of April.
- File:Sweetviolet4.jpg
- File:Sweetviolet.jpg
- File:Sweetviolet2.jpg
- File:Sweetviolet3.jpg
- File:Sweet violet.jpg
- File:Viola odorata flower - purple with white center - front P.2005.04.04.jpg
- File:Violet toporas.jpg
- File:Viola odorata1.jpg
ang:ppelleaf
cs:Violka vonna
da:Marts-Viol
de:Duftveilchen
lt:Kvapioji naslaite
hu:Illatos ibolya
nl:Maarts viooltje
no:Marsfiol
nn:Marsfiol
sk:Fialka vonava
sv:Luktviol
uk:
Synarthrosis

# Overview
A synarthrosis is a type of joint which permits little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous.
Suture joints and synchondroses are synarthroses.

# Types
They can be categorised by how the two bones are joined together:
- Synchondroses are joints where the two bones are connected by a piece of cartilage.
- Synostoses are where two bones that are initially separted eventually fuse together, essentially becoming one bone. In humans the plates of the cranium fuse together as a child approaches adulthood. Children whose craniums fuse too early may suffer deformities and brain damage as the skull does not expand properly to accommodate the growing brain, a condition known as craniostenosis.
TAR syndrome

# Overview
TAR Syndrome (Thrombocytopenia with Absent radius) is a rare genetic disorder which is characterized by the absence of the radius bone in the forearm, and a dramatically reduced platelet count.

# Historical Perspective
TAR was first identified in 1956, and was named almost thirteen years later when severe bruising (along with abnormally short forearms) was present in three families with nine newborns.

# Pathophysiology

## Genetics
A region of chromosome 1, 1q21.1, containing 11 genes, is mutated in thirty of thirty patients with TAR.   This mutation was also found in 32% of unaffected family members, so there are likely other genetic components of the syndrome besides this one, hence when a child has the condition any future siblings are likely to have a 25% chance of also having it.

## Associated Conditions
Other common links between people with TAR seem to include heart problems such as secundum atrial septal defect, kidney problems, knee joint problems and frequently lactose intolerance.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
The incidence is 0.42 per 100,000 live births.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
The critical period is the first year of life.  For most people with TAR, platelet counts improve as they grow out of childhood.

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
Symptoms of thrombocytopenia, or a lowered platelet count, leads to bruising and potentially life-threatening haemorrhage.

# Treatment
Treatments range from platelet transfusions through to surgery aimed at 'normalizing' the appearance of the arm, which is much shorter and 'clubbed.'  There is some controversy surrounding the role of surgery.  The infant mortality rate has been curbed by new technology, including platelet transfusions, which can even be performed in utero.
TAVR imaging

# Overview
Transthoracic Echocardiography (TTE) is the best initial imaging modality for evaluating AS severity. Although, multimodality imaging is needed for preprocedural planning and intraoperative decision making given the complex 3D anatomy of the aortic valve, sinuses, and annulus.
Multi-Detector CT (MDCT) is a core element of the standard imaging pathway for the preprocedural planning of TAVR.
In patients being evaluated for TAVR, MDCT systems with at least 64 detectors and a spatial resolution of 0.5 to 0.6 mm are recommended.
Evaluation of kidney function to avoid contrast induced nephropathy must be taken in to consideration.

# Definition
AS severity is defined based on imaging findings. 
Severe symptomatic (Stage D) AS is considered as TAVR candidate.
Abbreviations:
P: mean gradient, Vmax: maximum aortic velocity, AVA: aortic valve area. AS: aortic stenosis, AR: aortic regurgitation.

# TAVR imaging checklist
Abbreviations:
CV: Cardiovascular, AVR: Aortic valve replacement, AS: Aortic Stenosis, MR: Mitral Regurgitation, AR: Aortic Regurgitation, PAP: Pulmonary Artery Pressure, RV: Right Ventricle, CTA: CT angiography, PA: Pulmonary Artery, TEE: Trans Esophageal Echocardiography, TTE: Trans Thoracic Echocardiography
AVA: Aortic Valve Area; CMR: Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging; CT: Computed Tomography; ECG: Electrocardiogram; EF: Ejection Fraction; DSE: Dobutamine Stress Echocardiography; ESRD: End-Stage Renal Disease; GFR: Glomerular Filtration Rate; LFLG: Low-Flow Low-Gradient; LV: Left Ventricular; LVEF: Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction; MAC: Mitral Annular Calcification; MDCT: Multi Detector Computed Tomography; MRA: Magnetic Resonance Angiogram;
MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging; MS: Mitral Stenosis; PET: Positron Emission Tomography; TAVR: Trans-catheter Aortic Valve Replacement

## Specific CT measurements for TAVR
Tanner stage

# Overview
The Tanner stages (also known as the Tanner scale) are stages of physical development in children, adolescents and adults. The stages define physical measurements of development based on external primary and secondary sex characteristics, such as the size of the breasts, genitalia, and development of pubic hair.
Due to natural variation, individuals pass through the Tanner stages at different rates, depending in particular on the timing of puberty.
In HIV treatment, Tanner staging is used to determine which treatment regimen to follow (adult, adolescent, or pediatric).
The Tanner stages were first identified by James Mourilyan Tanner and thus bear his name.

# Definitions of stages
Adapted from text by Lawrence Neinstein, MD.

## Pubic hair (both male and female)

## Genitals (male)

## Breasts (female)
Taurodontism

# Overview
Taurodontism is a condition found in teeth where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged.  As a result, the floor of the pulp and the furcation of the tooth is moved apically down the root.
The term means "bull like" teeth derived from similarity of these teeth to those of ungulate or cud chewing animals.
According to Shaw these can be classified as hypotaurodont, hypertaurodont and mesotaurodont.
According to Mangion taurodontism may be:
1. A retrograde character
2. A primitive pattern
3. Mendalian recessive character
4. Atavistic feature
5. A mutation
The condition is of anthropological importance as it was seen in Neanderthals. It has also been reported in Klinefelter's syndrome.
The teeth involved are invariably molars, sometimes single and at the other times multiple teeth may be involved. The teeth themselves may look normal and do not have any paricular anatomical character on clinical examination.
On dental radiograph, the involved tooth looks rectangular in shape without apical taper. The pulp chamber is extremely large and the furcations may be only a few millimeters long at times.