Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Foldamers

# Overview
A foldamer is a discrete chain molecule or oligomer that adopts a secondary structure stabilized by non-covalent interactions  .  They are artificial molecules that mimic the ability of proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides to fold into well-defined conformations, such as helices and -sheets.  Foldamers have been demonstrated to display a number of interesting supramolecular properties including molecular self-assembly, molecular recognition, and host-guest chemistry.  They are studied as models of biological molecules and have been shown to display antimicrobial activity.  They also have great potential application to the development of new functional materials.
Examples:
- m-Phenylene ethynylene oligomers are driven to fold into a helical conformation by solvophobic forces and aromatic stacking interactions.
- -peptides are composed of amino acids containing an additional methylene unit between the amine and carboxylic acid.  They are more stable to enzymatic degradation and have been demonstrated to have antimicrobial activity.
- Aedamers that fold in aqueous solutions driven by hydrophobic and aromatic stacking interactions.
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Foot drop

# Overview
Foot drop is a deficit in turning the ankle and toes upward (dorsiflexion).  Conditions leading to foot drop may be neurologic, muscular or anatomic in origin, often with significant overlap.

# Features
Foot drop is characterized by steppage gait. When the person with foot drop walks, the foot slaps down onto the floor. To compensate for the toe drop, the patient must raise the thigh excessively, as if walking upstairs. Individuals with foot drop are unable to walk on their heel, flex their ankle, or walk with the normal heel-toe pattern .
Patients with painful disorders of sensation (dysesthesia) of the soles of the feet may have a similar gait, but do not have foot drop. Because of the extreme pain evoked by even the slightest pressure on the feet, the patient walks as if walking barefoot on hot sand.

# Pathophysiology

## Conditions affecting the nervous system
- Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease)
- Lumbar radiculopathy (L4 and L5 nerve roots)
- Spinal disc herniation
- Multiple Sclerosis
- Peripheral neuropathies: Multifocal motor neuropathy (foot drop may be the presenting symptom), diabetic neuropathy
- Common peroneal nerve palsy
- Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (peroneal muscular atrophy)
- Progressive spinal muscular atrophy
- Poliomyelitis
- Leprosy
- Compartment syndrome
- Human monocytic ehrlichiosis (long term manifestation)
- Cryoglobulinemia

## Conditions affecting the musculature
- Different kinds of muscular dystrophy (Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy, scapuloperoneal muscular dystrophy, Myotonic dystrophy, desmin myopathy,
- Inclusion body myositis

## Drugs
- Vincristine (adults more severely affected than children) (Adams and Victor)
- Auranofin
- Allopurinol (causal relationship not established)
- Glatiramer (uncommon)
- Chymopapain (uncommon)
- Thalidomide (uncommon)

## Toxins
- Lead neuropathy (usually presents with wrist and finger drop, foot drop less common)  (Adams and Victor)

# Treatment
The underlying disorder must be treated. For example, if a spinal disc herniation in the low back is impinging on the nerve that goes to the leg and causing symptoms of foot drop, then the herniated disc should be treated.
Ankles can be stabilized by lightweight orthoses, and shoes can be fit with springs to prevent foot drop while walking. Regular exercise is usually prescribed.
The latest treatments include stimulation of the peroneal nerve that lifts the foot when you step. Many stroke and multiple sclerosis patients with foot drop have had success with it.
Devices have also been designed to regulate walking.
Gum greft

# Overview
A gum graft or gingival graft (Also called Periodontal Plastic Surgery) is a generic name for multiple periodontal procedures that all aim to cover an area of severe gum recession with grafted gum tissue. The purpose of covering the exposed root is not only cosmetic, but also to prevent further recession, tooth sensitivity due to exposed roots and tooth decay on exposed root surfaces. These procedures are usually performed by a periodontist, a dental specialist in treatment of diseases of the gingiva (gums), however some non-specialists dentists may also have training in this area.

# Specific procedures (Periodontal Plastic Surgery)
A free gingival graft is a dental procedure where a layer of tissue is removed from the palate of the patient's mouth and then relocated to the site of gum recession. It is stitched into place and will serve to protect the exposed root as living tissue. The donor site will heal without damage.  This procedure is often used to increase the thickness of very thin gum tissue.
A subepithelial connective tissue graft takes tissue from under healthy gum tissue in the palate, which may be placed at the area of gum recession.  This procedure has the advantage of excellent predictability of root coverage , as well as decreased pain at the palatal donor site compared to the free gingival graft.  The subepithelial connective tissue graft is a very common procedure for covering exposed roots.
An Acellular Dermal Matrix (Alloderm) graft uses donated medically-processed human skin tissue as a source for the graft.  The advantage of this procedure is no need for a palatal donor site, however some periodontists believe it may be less successful , while others believe it is equally successful as a subepithlial connective tissue graft. 
A lateral pedicle graft, also known as a "pedicle" graft, takes tissue from the area immediately adjacent to the damaged gum. This is not always an option, as the constraint that there must be sufficient tissue immediately lateral to the area of interest is an onerous one. 
When this procedure is performed, the transplant tissue is cut away and rotated over the damaged area. This can place the donor area at risk of recession as well.
A coronally positioned flap is another form of a "pedicle" graft in which gingival (gum) tissue is freed up and simply moved upwards on the tooth to cover the recession.  This requires adequate thickness and width of gum tissue at the base of the recession defect.
Nephritis

# Overview
Nephritis is inflammation of the kidney. The word comes from the Greek nephro- meaning "of the kidney" and -itis meaning "inflammation". Nephritis is often caused by infections, toxins, and auto-immune diseases.

# Subtypes
- Glomerulonephritis is inflammation of the glomeruli. (Often when the term "nephritis" is used without qualification, this is the condition meant.)
- Interstitial nephritis or tubulo-interstitial nephritis is inflammation is of the spaces between renal tubules.
- Pyelonephritis is when a urinary tract infection has reached the pyelum (pelvis) of the kidney.
- Lupus nephritis is an inflammation of the kidney caused by systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a disease of the immune system.

# Causes
Drug Side Effect:
- Nivolumab
- Sulfasalazine
- Oxacillin

# Related Chapters
- Bright's Disease
- Wegener's granulomatosis
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Furazabol
Furazabol (Miotolan) is a derivative of the anabolic steroid stanozolol. It differs from stanozolol by having a furazan ring system in place of the pyrazole. It has a c-17alpha methyl group, which allows it to be taken orally and causes heptatoxicity in some individuals.  The more intriguing characteristic of this steroid is that (unlike other anabolic steroids) furazabol has the ability to lower cholesterol levels.
According to William Llewellyn, author of  Anabolics 2007, the cholesterol-lowering effects of Furazabol are a myth. In the 1970s, research studies showed that Furazabol along with many other orally-active AAS like Anavar (oxandrolone) lowered total serum cholesterol. It was subsequently established that the cholesterol reduction from oral AAS was the result of suppressed HDL levels. As such, it would be expected that Furazabol, like other oral anabolic steroids, while reducing total cholesterol levels would still adversely affect the HDL/LDL ratio and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Diversion of this obscure pharmaceutical steroid to the black market rarely occurred while it was being manufactured by Daiichi Seiyaku Company in Japan. However, a number of underground labs (UGL) have produced limited quantities of Furazabol in recent years. Additionally, a non-methylated derivative of Furazabol called Furaguno is currently being sold over-the-counter on the sport nutrition market in the United States in 2006 and 2007.
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Gallamine

# Overview
Gallamine triethiodide (Flaxedil) is a non-depolarising muscle relaxant. It acts by combining with the cholinergic receptor sites in muscle and competitively blocking the transmitter action of acetylcholine. Gallamine triethiodide has a parasympatholytic effect on the cardiac vagus nerve which causes tachycardia and occasionally hypertension. Very high doses cause histamine release.
Gallamine triethiodide is commonly used to stabilize muscle contractions during surgical procedures.
It was developed by Daniel Bovet in 1947.
The pharmaceutical is no longer marketed in the United States, according to the FDA Orange Book.
Galvanism
In biology, galvanism is the contraction of a muscle that is stimulated by an electric current.  In physics and chemistry, it is the induction of electrical current from a chemical reaction, typically between two chemicals with differing electronegativites.

# History
The effect was named by Alessandro Volta after his contemporary, the scientist Luigi Galvani, who investigated the effect of electricity on dissected animals in the 1780s and 1790s. Galvani himself referred to the phenomenon as animal electricity, believing that he had discovered a distinct form of electricity. Volta, on the other hand, claimed that the reputed animal electricity was due to an interaction between the metals used to mount and dissect the frog's leg, and in 1800, before the Royal Society in London, announced the Voltaic Cell or pile, essentially the battery.
The modern study of galvanic effects in biology is called electrophysiology, the term galvanism being used only in historical contexts. The term is also used to describe the bringing to life of organisms using electricity, as shown in Mary Shelley's work Frankenstein (which was influenced by galvanism) and people still speak of being 'galvanized into action'.
Many Victorian scientists believed that if the right amount of electricity was charged into the brain, the corpse would come back to life.

## Experiments in Galvanism
The concept of galvanism was recently explored in contemporary art by Canadian artist Garnet Hertz, with his piece Experiments in Galvanism. A miniature web server was implanted in the body of a frog specimen, which was suspended in a clear glass container. Through an ethernet cable connected to the embedded web server, remote viewers could trigger movement in either the right or left leg of the frog, thereby updating Luigi Galvani's original 1786 experiment causing the legs of a dead frog to twitch simply by touching muscles and nerves with metal.
Although true galvanic action is not taking place -- two small motors/actuators  physically move the frog's legs -- the project attempts to draw a parallel between the excitement that galvanism caused in contemporary culture in the era of Mary Shelly and the excitement that internet technologies generated at the turn of the 21st century.
Gemeprost

# Overview
Gemeprost (16, 16-dimethyl-trans-delta2 PGE1 methyl ester) is an analogue of prostaglandin E1.

# Clinical use
It is used as a treatment for obstetric bleeding.
It is used with mifepristone to terminate pregnancy up to 24 weeks gestation. 

# Side effects
Vaginal bleeding, cramps, nausea, vomiting, loose stools or diarrhea, headache, muscle weakness; dizziness; flushing; chills; backache; dyspnoea; chest pain; palpitations and mild pyrexia. Rare: Uterine rupture, severe hypotension, coronary spasms with subsequent myocardial infarctions.
Genistein
Genistein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones, such as genistein and daidzein, are found in a number of plants, with soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein being the primary food source. Soy isoflavones are a group of compounds found in and isolated from the soybean. Besides functioning as antioxidants, many isoflavones have been shown to interact with animal and human estrogen receptors, causing effects in the body similar to those caused by the hormone estrogen. Soy isoflavones also produce non-hormonal effects.
Isoflavones act as antioxidants to counteract damaging effects of free radicals in tissues. Isoflavones can act like estrogen in stimulating development and maintenance of female characteristics or they can block cells from using other forms of estrogen. Isoflavones also have been found to have antiangiogenic effects (blocking formation of new blood vessels), and may block the uncontrolled cell growth associated with cancer, most likely by inhibiting the activity of substances in the body that regulate cell division and cell survival (growth factors).
Studies show that groups of people who eat large amounts of soy-based products have lower incidences of breast, colon, endometrial, and prostate cancers than the general (US) population. Initial studies of soy isoflavone mixtures containing genistein, daidzein, and glycitein have found them safe for human use. Laboratory studies using animals models have shown that both soy and isoflavones can be protective against cancer when given during early life but can stimulate response to cancer-causing chemicals when given during fetal development or when circulating levels of estrogen are low (menopause).

# Cancer link
Some recent studies have raised the concern that genistein might potentially increase the risk of leukemia, because it can inhibit an enzyme (topoisomerase) that protects DNA from mutations. Some cancer patients whose chemotherapy drugs inhibited topoisomerase later developed leukemia. NCI researchers have completed animal studies on genistein with no adverse effects being seen. Clinical trials with people are in progress.

# Molecular function
Genistein influences several targets in living cells. One important function is the inhibition of several tyrosine kinases. Genistein also inhibits the mammalian hexose transporter GLUT1 and contraction of several types of smooth muscles. Genistein can bind to CFTR receptors. This binding causes the channel to become permanently open causing "free-flow" of chloride ions through the channel.
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Genophore
A genophore is the DNA of a prokaryote.  This is commonly referred to as a prokaryotic chromosome.  The term chromosome is misleading for a genophore because the genophore lacks chromatin .
The genophore is compacted through a mechanism known as supercoiling.  Where a chromosome is compacted via chromatin.  The genophore is circular in most prokaryotes, and linear in very few.  The circular nature of the genophore allows replication to occur without telomeres.
Genophores are generally of a much smaller size than Eukaryotic chromosomes.  A genophore of a true organism can be as small as 580,073 base pairs (Mycoplasma genitalium).
Many eukaryotes (such as plants and animals) carry genophores in organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts.  These organelles are very similar to true prokaryotes.
Gerin oil
Gerin Oil or Geriniol is a fictional drug used as a device to criticize religion in articles written by Richard Dawkins.  It is an anagram of religion.
The first article, Gerin Oil, was published in an American secular humanism publication, Free Inquiry, in December 2003.  It was popularised in an article titled Opiate of the masses.  It describes a dangerous legal drug "Gerin Oil" or "Geriniol."  Dawkins blames its effects as being responsible for historic acts of violence such as the September 11th attacks, massacres of native South Americans by conquistadors, and the Salem Witch Trials.
According to Dawkins, users are often introduced to the drug at social gatherings such as weddings and funerals.  In small amounts it is considered harmless, although its usage may increase over time.  Medium usage of "Gerin Oil"  is said to cause a disconnect with reality where users expect private wishes expressed to come true, often accompanied by spasmodic muscular movement or contraction.  In large doses it is said to cause aural or visual hallucinations.
Its use is also linked to child mutilation, sexual prohibition, and the tendency to smile when convicted of mass murder.
Germ cell
A germ cell is part of the germline and is involved in the reproduction of organisms.  Germ cells should not be confused with "germs" (pathogens).  For example, the germ cells in male and female humans are the sperm and the eggs respectively.
Germ cells includes all stages of gametogenesis, i.e. gametogonia, gametocytes, gametids and gametes. By a narrower definition, the term germ cell can also just refer to gametes, which are produced by meiosis of the aforementioned germ cells, but this definition is less precise. Cells that are not part of the germline are somatic cells.

# Ploidy
Normal human somatic cells are diploid, which means they contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, including one pair of sex chromosomes; an X from the mother, and an X or a Y from the father.  If the sex chromosomes are XX then the organism is female and if they are XY then the organism is male.   Human germ cells are normally haploid, which means they contain half the chromosomes of somatic cells, or 23 chromosomes and one sex chromosome.   Thus when the germ cells unite in fertilization, the cell becomes diploid, and commences embryogenesis.

# Origin
Primordial germ cells are predecessors of germ cells. They migrate to the gonadal ridge, where they form gametogonia, and thus start gametogenesis

# In gene therapy
Genetic therapy, where new genetic material is introduced into an organism, usually confers new, genetic instructions for a cell and it's daughter cells, and the new genetic information dies with the organism.  When the genetic material is put into a germ cell, the new genetic information (for better or worse) may be transfered to biological offspring.
Germander

# Overview
Teucrium is a genus of perennial plants in the family Lamiaceae. The name is believed to refer to King Teucer of Troy.  Members of the genus are commonly known as germanders. These species are herbs, shrubs or subshrubs. They are most common in Mediterranean climates.
An unusual feature of this genus compared with other members of Lamiaceae is that the flowers completely lack the upper lip of the corolla, although it is somewhat reduced also in other genera (Ajuga among them).
Several species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the Coleophora case-bearers Coleophora auricella and Coleophora chamaedriella. The latter is only known from Wall Germander (T. chamaedrys).
Teucrium species are rich in essential oils. They are valued as ornamental plants and a pollen source, and some species have culinary and/or medical value.

# Selected species

## Formerly placed here
- Ajuga chamaepitys (L.) Schreb. (as T. chamaepitys L.)
Germolene
Germolene is a brand name used on a range of antiseptic products produced by Bayer. Traditionally Germolene was a thick antiseptic ointment of a distinctive pink colour, but the name is now used not only on the traditional product but also on cream, gel and liquid antiseptics and a range of other products such as antispetic wipes.
Germolene liquid is sometimes used in TV production, whereby it is injected into food props to stop the actors eating them. The BBC does this on the soap EastEnders after a spate of thefts from the sets.OR
Germolene was invented by Sir William Henry Veno ( also invented Veno's cough cure ) who sold his company to the Beechams Company.
Gestation
Gestation is the carrying of an embryo or fetus inside a female viviparous animal.  Mammals during pregnancy can have one or more gestations at the same time (multiple gestations). According to the National Center for Health and Statistics there were over 136,000 multiple human births documented in the United States in 2003(NCHS).  
The time interval of a gestation is called gestation period, and the length of time the offspring have spent developing in the uterus is called gestational age.

# Humans
Human pregnancy can be divided into three trimesters, each three months long. The third trimester begins at about 28 weeks. The 23rd week is the first week when a preterm fetus is considered viable.  Before this age major developmental events that would allow the fetus to survive outside the womb have not yet occurred. This division is somewhat arbitrary as children born before this point have survived, but only with significant medical assistance.
In humans, birth normally occurs at a gestational age of 37 to 42 weeks. Childbirth occurring before 37 weeks of gestation is considered preterm, childbirth after 25 weeks is usually considered "viable".  Preterm and low birth weight babies make up the second leading cause of infant death at about 17%. Preterm births solely consist of 12% of infant deaths with an 84% majority within the 32-36 week period.   It is estimated that two million babies worldwide die annually within 24 hours of birth.

# Mammals
In mammals, pregnancy begins when a fertilized zygote implants in the female's uterus; and ends once it leaves the uterus.
Below are average and approximate values ordered by gestation period:
Gestodene

# Overview
Gestodene is a progestogen hormonal contraceptive.  Products containing gestodene include:
- Melodene-15, Mirelle, and Minesse  which contain 15 mcg of ethinylestradiol and 60 mcg of gestodene;
- Meliane, Sunya, Femodette, and Millinette 20/75 which contain 20 mcg of ethinylestradiol and 75 mcg of gestodene; and
- Gynera, Minulet, Femoden, Femodene, Katya and Millinette 30/75 which contain 30 mcg of ethinylestradiol and 75 mcg of gestodene.

# Benefits
Gestodene is androgenically neutral, meaning that contraceptive pills containing gestodene do not exhibit the androgenic side effects (e.g. acne, hirsutism, weight gain) often associated with second-generation contraceptive pills, such as those containing levonorgestrel.
The synthetic estrogen dosage in third-generation contraceptive pills (including those containing gestodene) is lower than that in second-generation oral contraceptives, reducing the likelihood of weight gain, breast tenderness and migraine.
Third-generation oral contraceptives are also suitable for use in patients with diabetes or lipid disorders because they have minimal impact on blood glucose levels and the lipid profile.

# Adverse effects
Women who take oral contraceptives containing gestodene are 5.6 times as likely to develop thromboembolism than women who do not take any contraceptive pill, and 1.6 times as likely to develop thromboembolism compared to women taking oral contraceptives containing levonorgestrel.