Hyponephrosis

# Overview

# Historical Perspective
-  was first discovered by , a , in  during/following .
- In ,  mutations were first identified in the pathogenesis of .
- In , the first  was developed by  to treat/diagnose .

# Classification
-  may be classified according to  into  subtypes/groups:
- Other variants of  include , , and .

# Pathophysiology
- The pathogenesis of  is characterized by , , and .
- The  gene/Mutation in  has been associated with the development of , involving the  pathway.
- On gross pathology, , , and  are characteristic findings of .
- On microscopic histopathological analysis, , , and  are characteristic findings of .

# Clinical Features

# Differentiating  from other Diseases
-  must be differentiated from other diseases that cause , , and , such as:

# Epidemiology and Demographics
- The prevalence of  is approximately  per 100,000 individuals worldwide.
- In , the incidence of  was estimated to be  cases per 100,000 individuals in .

## Age
- Patients of all age groups may develop .
-  is more commonly observed among patients aged  years old.
-  is more commonly observed among .

## Gender
-  affects men and women equally.
-  are more commonly affected with  than .
- The  to  ratio is approximately  to 1.

## Race
- There is no racial predilection for .
-  usually affects individuals of the  race.
-  individuals are less likely to develop .

# Risk Factors
- Common risk factors in the development of  are , , , and .

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
- The majority of patients with  remain asymptomatic for .
- Early clinical features include , , and .
- If left untreated,  of patients with  may progress to develop , , and .
- Common complications of  include , , and .
- Prognosis is generally , and the  of patients with  is approximately .

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria
- The diagnosis of  is made when at least  of the following  diagnostic criteria are met:

## Symptoms
-  is usually asymptomatic.
- Symptoms of  may include the following:

## Physical Examination
- Patients with  usually appear .
- Physical examination may be remarkable for:

## Laboratory Findings
- There are no specific laboratory findings associated with .
- A    is diagnostic of .
- An  concentration of   is diagnostic of .
- Other laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of  include , , and .

## Imaging Findings
- There are no  findings associated with .
-  is the imaging modality of choice for .
- On ,  is characterized by , , and .
-  may demonstrate , , and .

## Other Diagnostic Studies
-  may also be diagnosed using .
- Findings on  include , , and .

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
- There is no treatment for ; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.
- The mainstay of therapy for  is  and .
-  acts by .
- Response to  can be monitored with  every .

## Surgery
- Surgery is the mainstay of therapy for .
-  in conjunction with  is the most common approach to the treatment of .
-  can only be performed for patients with  .

## Prevention
- There are no primary preventive measures available for .
- Effective measures for the primary prevention of  include , , and .
- Once diagnosed and successfully treated, patients with  are followed-up every . Follow-up testing includes , , and .