Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Nidovirales
The Nidovirales are an order of viruses with vertebrate hosts.  They include the Coronaviridae,  along with the genera Arterivirus  and Okavirus in separate families.
This group consists of viruses which have (+) sense single stranded RNA genomes. It contains the virus which has the largest known non segmented RNA genome; this is the mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) which has a genome of 31.5kb. These genomes share the structure of eukaryotic mRNA and so the viruses can use some host cell proteins during replication and gene expression which occurs in the cytoplasm of the host cell. Unlike many viruses they do not have any polymerase in the virus particle as the genome can be read directly as mRNA when it first enters the host cell.
This group of viruses express the structural proteins separately from the non-structural ones. The structural proteins are encoded at the 3 region of the genome and are expressed from a set of subgenomic mRNAs. These viruses encode one main proteinase and between one and three accessory proteinases which are mainly involved in expressing the replicase gene. These proteinases are also responsible for activating/inactivating specific proteins at the correct time in the virus life cycle and so ensure replication occurs at the right time. There are still a large number of proteins which have been identified on the genomes of nidovirales but whose function has not yet been determined.
Nikethamide

# Overview
Nikethamide is a stimulant which mainly affects the respiratory cycle. Widely known by its former trade name of Coramine, it was used in the mid-twentieth century as a medical countermeasure against tranquilizer overdoses, before the advent of endotracheal intubation and positive-pressure lung expansion. It is now considered to be of no value for such purposes, and may be dangerous.
In alternate terminology, it is known as nicotinic acid diethylamide, which meaningfully emphasizes its laboratory origins, and of which its common name is derived as a blend.

# Former and current medical use
Coramine was used by suspected serial killer John Bodkin Adams when treating patient Gertrude Hullett, whom he was suspected of murdering. However, the toxicity of nikethamide is quite low (Template:LD50 rabbits 650 mg/Kg oral, LD50 rats 240 mg/Kg s.c.).
Theodor Morell, Adolf Hitler's personal physician, would inject the German ruler with Coramine when Hitler was unduly sedated with barbiturates.  In addition, Morell would use Coramine as part of an all-purpose "tonic" for Hitler.
It is available as a short-acting over-the-counter drug in several South American and European countries, combined with glucose in form of lozenges. It is especially useful for mountain climbers to increase endurance at high altitudes. Contraindications include hypertension, cardiovascular pathologies and epilepsy.

# Use in sports
In some sports, nikethamide is listed by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a banned substance.  Croatian tennis player Marin Cilic was suspended from competition for nine months after he tested positive for nikethamide in April 2013. This ban was later reduced to four months after Cilic appealed and claimed he had unintentionally ingested it in a glucose tablet bought at a pharmacy. Polish kart driver Igor Walilko was given a two-year ban, later reduced to eighteen month, from competition in 2010 due to testing positive for nikethamide after a win in Germany in July, 2010.
Nilvadipine

# Overview
Nilvadipine is a calcium channel blocker (CCB) used for the treatment of hypertension and chronic major cerebral artery occlusion.
Pathohistochemical studies have revealed that the volume of the infarction in the middle cerebral artery occlusion model could be decreased by nilvadipine.
Nilvadipine was tested in clinical trial as a possible treatment for Alzheimer's Disease in Ireland by the Roskamp Institute, Florida, USA and Trinity College, Ireland.
Following this study, an international research consortium led by Trinity College Dublin (Ireland) in May 2011 announced the selection for funding of a large-scale European clinical trial of Nilvadipine, an Alzheimers disease drug developed at the Roskamp Institute in Sarasota. More than 500 Alzheimers patients will participate in the multicenter Phase III clinical trial designed to study the effectiveness of Nilvadipine.
Nimetazepam
Nimetazepam (marketed under brand name Erimin) is a hypnotic drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses strong hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.  It is sold in 5 mg tablets known as Erimin-5. It is used to treat insomnia.
Nimetazepam has a reputation for being particularly subject to abuse (known as 'Happy 5', sold as an Ecstasy replacement without a hangover), especially by persons addicted to amphetamines or opiates. For this reason it is no longer sold in most Western nations, but is still a significant drug of abuse in some Asian countries such as Japan and Malaysia.  Nimetazepam is the only benzodiazepine to be subject to legal restrictions in Malaysia, and due to its scarcity, many tablets sold on the black market are in fact counterfeits containing other benzodiazepines such as diazepam or nitrazepam instead.
In a rat study Nimetazepam showed greater damage to the fetus, as did nitrazepam and especially temazepam when compared against other benzodiazepines. Diazepam however showed relatively weak fetal toxicities.
Nitrosonium
The nitrosonium ion is NO+, the nitrogen atom is bonded to an oxygen atom with a bond order of 3, the overall diatomic species bearing a positive charge. This ion is usually obtained as the following salts:  NOClO4, NOSO4H (nitrosyl sulfuric acid, more descriptively written ONSO2OH), and NOBF4.  The ClO4 and BF4 salts are slightly soluble in CH3CN.  NOBF4 can be purified by sublimation at 200250 C/0.01 mmHg.
For NOBF4:
Selected data: density =  2.185 g cm3.3
MW =116.82
NO+ is isoelectronic with CO and N2.  It arises via protonation of nitrous acid:

# Chemical Properties

## Hydrolysis
NO+ reacts readily with water to form nitrous acid:
For this reason, NOBF4 must be protected from water or even moist air.  With base, the reaction generates nitrite:

## As a diazotizing agent
NO+ reacts with aryl amines, ArNH2, to give diazonium salt, ArN2+.  
This is useful because N2+ is a more readily leaving group than NH2.

## As an oxidizing agent
NO+, e.g. as NOBF4, is a strong oxidizing agent:
- vs. ferrocene/ferrocenium, + in CH2Cl2 solution has a redox potential of 1.00 V (or 1.46-1.48 V vs SCE)
- vs. ferrocene/ferrocenium, + in CH3CN solution has a redox potential of 0.87 V vs.  (or 1.27-1.25 V vs SCE)
NOBF4 is a convenient oxidant because the byproduct NO is a gas, which can be swept from the reaction using a stream of N2.  Upon contact with air, NO forms NO2, which can cause secondary reactions if it is not removed.  NO2 is readily detectable by its characteristic orange color.

## Nitrosylation of arenes
Electron-rich arenes are nitrosylated using NOBF4.  The example involves anisole:
Nitrosonium, NO+, is sometimes confused with nitronium, NO2+, the active agent in nitrations.  These species are quite different, however.  Nitronium is a more potent electrophile than is nitrosonium, as anticipated by the fact that the former is derived from a strong acid (nitric acid) and the latter from a weak acid (nitrous acid).

## As a source of NO complexes
NOBF4 reacts with some metal carbonyl complexes to yield related metal nitrosyl complexes.  One must be careful that + is transferred vs. electron transfer (see above).
Noble metal
Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, unlike most base metals.  They tend to be precious metals, often due to rarity in the crust of the Earth.  Examples include gold, silver, tantalum, platinum, palladium and rhodium.
Some of the noble metals can be dissolved in aqua regia, a highly concentrated mixture of acids.
The term can also be used in a relative sense.  A "Galvanic series" is a hierarchy of metals (or other electrically conductive materials, including composites and semimetals) that runs from noble to active, and allows designers to see at a glance how materials will interact in the environment used to generate the series.  In this sense of the word, graphite is more noble than silver (even though it is alchemically more base) and the relative nobility of many materials is highly dependent upon context, as for aluminium and stainless steel in conditions of varying pH.
In physics the definition of a noble metal is even more strict. It is required that the d-bands of the electronic structure are filled. Taking this into account, only copper, silver and gold are noble metals, as all d-like band are filled and don't cross the Fermi level. For platinum two d-bands cross the Fermi level, changing its chemical behaviour; it is used (in contrast to gold, for example) as a catalyst. The different reactivity can easily be seen while preparing clean metal surfaces in ultra high vacuum; surfaces of noble metals (e.g., gold) are easy to clean and stay clean for a long time, while those of platinum or palladium, for example, are covered by carbon monoxide very quickly.
Nomifensine

# Overview
Nomifensine (Merital, Alival) is a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor developed by a team at Hoechst AG in the 1960s. The drug was test marketed in the United States by Hoechst AG (now Sanofi-Aventis), i.e. a drug that increases the amount of synaptic norepinephrine and dopamine available to receptors by blocking the dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake transporters. This is a mechanism of action shared by some recreational drugs like cocaine and the medication Tametraline (see DRI). Research showed that the (S) isomer is responsible for activity.
The drug was an effective antidepressant, without sedative effects. Nomifensine did not interact significantly with alcohol and lacked anticholinergic effects. No withdrawal symptoms were seen after 6 months treatment. The drug was however considered not suitable for agitated patients as it presumably made agitation worse.
In January 1986 the drug was withdraw by its manufacturers for safety reasons.
Some case reports in the 1980s suggested that there was potential for psychological dependence on nomifensine, typically in patients with a history of stimulant addiction, or when the drug was used in very high doses (400600 mg per day).
In a 1989 study it has been investigated for use in treating adult ADHD and proven successful. In a 1977 study it has not proven of benefit in advanced parkinsonism, except for depression associated with the parkinsonism.

# Clinical uses
Nomifensine was investigated for use as an antidepressant in the 1970s, and was found to be a useful antidepressant at doses of 50225 mg per day, both motivating and anxiolytic.

# Side effects
During treatment with nomifensine there were relatively few adverse effects mainly renal failure, paranoid symptoms, drowsiness or insomnia, headache, and dry mouth.
Side effects affecting the cardiovascular system included tachycardia and palpitations, but nomifensine was significantly less cardiotoxic than the standard triciclyc antidepressants.
Due to the risk of a risk of haemolytic anaemia, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) withdrew approval for nomifensine on March 20, 1992. Nomifensine has subsequently been withdrawn from the Canadian and UK markets as well.
Some deaths were linked to immunohaemolytic anemia caused by this compound although the mechanism remained unclear.
In 2012 structureaffinity relationship data (compare SAR) were published.

# Synthesis
Noncovalent
A noncovalent bond is a type of chemical bond, typically between macromolecules, that does not involve the sharing of pairs of electrons, but rather involves more dispersed variations of electromagnetic interactions.  The noncovalent bond is the dominant type of bond between supermolecules in supermolecular chemistry. Noncovalent bonds are critical in maintaining the three-dimensional structure of large molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids, and are involved in many biological processes in which large molecules bind specifically but transiently to one another. The energy released in the formation of noncovalent bonds is on the order of 1-5 kcal per mol. There are four main types of non-covalent bonds: hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, Van der Waals interactions, and hydrophobic bonds. Examples of noncovalent bonds include: those binding interactions which hold the two strands DNA in the DNA double helix together, those which fold polypeptides into such secondary structures as the alpha helix and the beta conformation, those which enable enzymes to bind to their substrate, and those which enable antibodies to bind to their antigen.

# Overview
In general, noncovalent bonding refers to a variety of interactions that are not covalent in nature between molecules or parts of molecules that provide force to hold the molecules or parts of molecules together, usually in a specific orientation or conformation.  Noncovalent bonding is the dominant type of bonding in supramolecular chemistry.  These noncovalent interactions include: ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals forces, i.e. "London dispersion forces", and Dipole-dipole bonds.
The terms "noncovalent bonding," "noncovalent interactions," and "noncovalent forces" all refer to these forces as a whole without specifying or distinguishing which specific forces are involved: noncovalent interactions often involve several of these forces working in concert. Noncovalent bonds are weak by nature and must therefore work together to have a significant effect. In addition, the combined bond strength is greater than the sum of the individual bonds. This is because the free energy of multiple bonds between two molecules is greater than the sum of the enthalpies of each bond due to entropic effects.

# Examples

## Protein structure
Main article: Protein structure
Intramolecular noncovalent interactions are largely responsible for the secondary and tertiary structure of proteins and therefore the protein's function in the mechanisms of life. Intermolecular noncovalent interactions are responsible for protein complexes (quaternary structure) where two or more proteins function in a coherent mechanism.

## Pharmaceuticals
Most drugs work by noncovalently interacting with biomolecules such as proteins or RNA. Relatively few drugs actually form covalent bonds with the biomolecules they interact with; instead, they interfere with or activate some biological mechanism through noncovalently interacting in very specific locations on specific biomolecules which present the perfect combination of noncovalent binding partners in just the right geometry.
Nuchal cord
A nuchal cord occurs when the umbilical cord becomes wrapped around the fetal neck 360 degrees.

# Classification
- A "Type A" nuchal cord is wrapped around the neck.
- A "Type B" nuchal cord is a hitch and is not wrapped. In the Type B case, a caesarian section delivery may be recommended but is not necessary.

# Diagnosis
Doppler ultrasound has been successfully used to identify a Nuchal cord, and also to determine the orientation of the loop.

# Prognosis and treatment
Nuchal cord can be managed by home fetal monitoring. Nuchal cord can be a cause of stillbirth but can also be prevented.
Cutting the umbilical cord should not be done until it has stopped pulsating (upwards of 20 minutes after birth).  In the case of a nuchal cord the child is still receiving blood and oxygen to the brain.  As always the umbilical cord should not be cut until it ceases to pulsate (after all the blood from the placenta has been sent to the child.)
Papaveretum

# Overview
Papaveretum (BAN) is a preparation containing a mixture of hydrochloride salts of opium alkaloids. Since 1993, papaveretum has been defined in the British Pharmacopoeia (BP) as a mixture of 253 parts morphine hydrochloride, 23 parts papaverine hydrochloride, and 20 parts codeine hydrochloride. It is commonly marketed to medical agencies under the trade name Omnopon.
Although the use of papaveretum is now relatively uncommon following the wide availability of single-component opiates and synthetic opioids (e.g. pethidine) it is still used to relieve moderate to severe pain and for pre-operative sedation. In clinical settings, papaveretum is usually administered to patients via subcutaneous, intramuscular or intravenous routes. Additionally, the morphine syrettes found in combat medical kits issued to military personnel actually contain omnopon.
Prior to 1993, papaveretum also contained noscapine, though this component was removed from the BP formulation due to the genotoxic potential of noscapine.
Oncomelania
Oncomelania is a genus of very small tropical freshwater snails, aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family Pomatiopsidae.
Various Oncomelania species are significant medically, because they can serve as vectors for two serious human diseases: they can carry the schistosomiasis blood fluke parasite, and the paragonimus lung fluke parasites.
These Oncomelania snails are distantly related to the marine periwinkle, and more closely related to the small marine snails of the family Rissoidae.

# Species in the genus Oncomelania
- Oncomelania hupensis
- Oncomelania nosophora
Onycholysis

# Overview
Onycholysis is a loosening of the exposed portion of the nail from the nail bed, usually beginning at the free edge and continuing to the lunula.  It is frequently associated with an internal disorder, trauma, infection, nail fungi, allergy to nail enhancement products, or side effects of drugs.

# Pathophysiology

## Gross Pathology
Image shown below is courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission  PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology

# Causes

## Common Causes
- Trauma: such as excessive manicuring.
- Infection: especially fungal.
- Skin disease: such as psoriasis and dermatitis.
- Impaired peripheral circulation such as in Raynaud's disease.
- Systemic disease: such as hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, reactive arthritis, porphyria cutanea tarda.
- Reactions to some detergents such as washing dishes with bare hands and using detergent-based shampoos or soaps.
- Treatment with docetaxel.
- Occurring spontaneously with an unknown cause.

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Alopecia areata
- Atopic dermatitis
- Benoxaprofen
- Circulatory system diseases
- Dermatitis
- Diabetes Insipidus
- Diabetes Mellitus
- Doxorubicin Hydrochloride
- Drugs
- Eczema
- Hemangioma under the nail
- Hyperthyroidism
- Hypothyroidism
- Infections
- Onychomycosis
- Porphyria Cutanea Tarda
- Psoriasis
- Raynaud's disease
- Reactive Arthritis
- Reiter's Disease
- Thyroid Disease
- Tinea unguium
- Trauma
- Tumor
- Yellow nail syndrome
Optic tract

# Overview
The optic tract is a part of the visual system in the brain.
It is a continuation of the optic nerve and runs from the optic chiasm (where half of the information from each eye crosses sides, and half stays on the same side) to the lateral geniculate nucleus.

# Right vs. left
The relationships of the retinal fibers to the optic tracts are as follows:

# Pathology
A lesion in the left optic tract will cause right-sided homonomous hemianopsia.

# Additional images
- Diagram of hippocampus
- Schematic diagram of the primate lateral geniculate nucleus.
- Superficial dissection of brain-stem. Ventral view.
- Coronal section of brain through intermediate mass of third ventricle.
- Hind- and mid-brains; postero-lateral view.
- Scheme showing central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts.
- Base of brain.
- Section of brain showing upper surface of temporal lobe.
- Dissection showing the course of the cerebrospinal fibers.
it:Tratto ottico
Oral mucosa

# Overview
The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane epithelium of the mouth.  It can be divided into three categories.
- Masticatory mucosa - keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, found on the dorsum of the tongue, hard palate and attached gingiva.
- Lining mucosa - non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, found almost everywhere else in the oral cavity.
- Specialized mucosa - specifically in the regions of the taste buds on the dorsum of the tongue.
Orosomucoid
Orosomucoid (ORM) or alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (1AGp, AGP or AAG) is an acute phase (acute phase protein) plasma alpha-globulin glycoprotein and is modulated by two polymorphic genes. It is synthesized primarily in hepatocytes and has a normal plasma concentration between 0.6-1.2 mg/mL (1-3% plasma protein). Plasma levels are affected by pregnancy, burns, certain drugs, and certain diseases, particularly HIV.
The only established function of ORM is to act as a carrier of basic and neutrally charged lipophilic compounds. In medicine, it is known as the primary carrier of basic (positively charged) drugs (whereas albumin carries acidic (negatively charged) and neutral drugs), steroids, and protease inhibitors. Aging causes a small decrease in plasma albumin levels; if anything, there is a small increase in alpha-1-acid glycoprotein. The effect of these changes on drug protein binding and drug delivery, however, appear to be minimal. AGP shows a complex interaction with thyroid homeostasis: ORM in low concentrations was observed to stimulate the thyrotropin (TSH) receptor and intracellular accumulation of cyclic AMP. High AGP concentrations, however, inhibited TSH signalling.
Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein has been identified as one of four potentially useful circulating biomarkers for estimating the five-year risk of all-cause mortality (the other three are albumin, very low-density lipoprotein particle size, and citrate).
Orosomucoid increases in amount in obstructive jaundices while diminishes in hepatocellular jaundice and in intestinal infections.
Oscillopsia

# Overview
Oscillopsia is a visual disturbance in which objects in the visual field appear to oscillate.  The severity of the effect may range from a mild blurring to rapid and periodic jumping.

# Differential diagnosis of causes of Oscillopsia:
Oscillopsia may be caused by loss of the vestibulo-ocular reflex, involuntary eye movements such as nystagmus, or impaired coordination in the visual cortex (especially due to toxins).

# Associated signs and symptoms
Sufferers may experience dizziness and nausea. Oscillopsia can also be used as a quantitative test to document aminoglycoside toxicity.
Osteocalcin
Osteocalcin, also known as bone gamma-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein (BGLAP), is a noncollagenous protein hormone found in bone and dentin. Because it has gla domains, its synthesis is vitamin K dependent. In humans, the osteocalcin is encoded by the BGLAP gene. Its receptor is GPRC6A.

# Function
Osteocalcin is secreted solely by osteoblasts and thought to play a role in the body's metabolic regulation and is pro-osteoblastic, or bone-building, by nature. It is also implicated in bone mineralization and calcium ion homeostasis. Osteocalcin acts as a hormone in the body, causing beta cells in the pancreas to release more insulin, and at the same time directing fat cells to release the hormone adiponectin, which increases sensitivity to insulin.
Osteocalcin acts on Leydig cells of the testis to stimulate testosterone biosynthesis and therefore affect male fertility.
Osteocalcin also acts on myocytes to promote energy availability and utilization and in this manner favors exercise capacity.

# Use as a biochemical marker for bone formation
As osteocalcin is produced by osteoblasts, it is often used as a marker for the bone formation process. It has been observed that higher serum-osteocalcin levels are relatively well correlated with increases in bone mineral density (BMD) during treatment with anabolic bone formation drugs for osteoporosis, such as Teriparatide. In many studies, osteocalcin is used as a preliminary biomarker on the effectiveness of a given drug on bone formation. For instance, one study which aimed to study the effectiveness of a glycoprotein called lactoferrin on bone formation used osteocalcin as a measure of osteoblast activity.