Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Ambivalence

# Background
Ambivalence is a state of having emotions of both positive and negative valence or of having thoughts or actions in contradiction with each other, when they are related to the same object, idea or person (for example, feeling both love and hatred for someone or something). The term is also commonly used to refer to situations where 'mixed feelings' of a more general sort are experienced or where a person experiences uncertainty or indecisiveness concerning something.

# Ambivalence in psychoanalysis
In psychoanalytic terminology, however, a more refined definition applies: the term (introduced into the discipline by Bleuler in 1911), refers to an underlying emotional attitude in which the co-existing contradictory impulses (usually love and hate) derive from a common source and are thus held to be interdependent. Moreover, when the term is used in this psychoanalytic sense it would not usually be expected that the person embodying this 'ambivalence' would actually feel both of the two contradictory emotions as such: except in obsessional neurosis, which sees both sides being more or less 'balanced' in consciousness, one or other of the conflicting sides is usually repressed. (Thus, for example, an analysand's 'love' for his father might be quite consciously experienced and openly expressed  while his 'hate' for the same object might be heavily repressed and only indirectly expressed, and thus only revealed in analysis).
Another relevant distinction is that whereas the psychoanalytic notion of 'ambivalence' sees it as engendered by all neurotic conflict, a person's everyday 'mixed feelings' may easily be based on a quite realistic assessment of the imperfect, inconsistent or self-contradictory nature of the thing being considered.

# Intellectual ambivalence
Intellectual ambivalence refers to an inability or unwillingness to commit oneself to a definite answer, position, or conclusion in thought ("yea or nay"), normally either because a definite stance is deliberately avoided or evaded for some personal motive, or because sufficient grounds (logical or experiential evidence) warranting a definite stance are lacking. To resolve intellectual ambivalence into a definite position is frequently a task for criticism or critique. The main problem with intellectual ambivalence is that it provides no clear guide or orientation for action and leadership. It is difficult to act or lead on the basis that something "might or might not be the case", that something "might or might not be a good idea" etc. In order to act or lead, definite ideas are necessary rather than uncertainty which incapacitates choices and decisions. Thus it often happens that someone in a leadership function pretends to be very "definite" about an issue, because the function requires it, even though he or she is in truth ambivalent about the issue.
Amfepramone

# Overview
Amfepramone (INN) is a stimulant drug of the phenethylamine, amphetamine, and cathinone classes that is used as an appetite suppressant. It is used in the short-term management of obesity, along with dietary and lifestyle changes. Amfepramone is most closely chemically related to the antidepressant and smoking cessation aid bupropion (previously called amfebutamone), which has also been developed as a weight-loss medicine when in a combination product with naltrexone.

# Pharmacology
Amfepramone itself lacks any affinity for the monoamine transporters and instead functions as a prodrug to ethcathinone. Ethcathinone (and therefore amfepramone as well) is a very weak dopaminergic and serotonergic, and is approximately 10x and 20x stronger on norepinephrine in comparison, respectively. As a result, ethcathinone and amfepramone can essentially be considered a member of the class of drugs known as norepinephrine releasing agents (NRAs).

# Abuse
Amfepramone is believed to have relatively low abuse potential. but recently there have been reports of teens and adults in the UK abusing this drug, known as "tombstones" to the abusers.

# Legality
Amfepramone is classified as a Schedule IV controlled substance in the United States. It is also a Schedule IV controlled substance in Canada. In the UK Amfepramone is a class C drug  and as a medicine, it is a Schedule 3 Controlled Drug which requires safe custody.
It's not US FDA approved.

# Chemistry
- Propiophenone is brominated to produce -bromopropiophenone.
- This is reacted with diethylamine to yield the product, diethylpropion.
Amine oxide
An amine oxide, also known as amine-N-oxide and N-oxide, is a chemical compound that contains the functional group R3N+-O (sometimes written as R3N=O or R3NO). In the strict sense the term amine oxide applies only to oxides of tertiary amines including nitrogen-containing aromatic compounds like pyridine, but is sometimes also used for the analogous derivatives of primary and secondary amines.
Amine oxides are used as protecting group for amines and as chemical intermediates. Long-chain alkyl amine oxides are used as nonionic surfactants and foam stabilizers.
Amine oxide are highly polar molecules have a high polarity close to that of quaternary ammonium salts. Small amine oxides are very hydrophilic and have an excellent water solubility and a very poor solubility in most organic solvents.
Amine oxides are weak bases with a pKa of around 4.5 that form R3N+-OH, cationic hydroxylamines, upon protonation at a pH below their pKa.
Pyridine N-oxide is a crystalline solid with melting point 62-67C and soluble in water N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide  is an oxidant.

# Synthesis
Amine oxides are prepared by oxidation of tertiary amines or pyridine analogs with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), Caro's acid or peracids like mCPBA in N-oxidation .

# Reactions
- Pyrolytic elimination. Amine oxides, when heated to 150 to 200 oC eliminate a hydroxylamine, resulting in an alkene. This pyrolytic syn-elimination reaction is known under the name Cope reaction. The mechanism is similar to that of the Hofmann elimination.
- Reduction to amines. Amine oxides are readily converted to the parent amine by common reduction reagents including lithium aluminum hydride, sodium borohydride, catalytic reduction, zinc / acetic acid, and iron / acetic acid. Pyridine N-oxides can be deoxygenated by phosphorus oxychloride
- O-alkylation. Pyridine N-oxides react with alkyl halides to the O-alkylated product
- In the Meisenheimer rearrangement certain N-oxides R1R2R3N+O- rearrange to hydroxylamines R2R3N-O-R1  

# Metabolites
Amine oxides are common metabolites of medication and psychoactive drugs. Examples include nicotine, Zolmitriptan, and morphine.
Amine oxides of anti-cancer drugs have been developed as prodrugs that are metabolized in the oxygen deficient cancer tissue to the active drug.
Amisulpride
Amisulpride (brand-name Solian) is an antipsychotic drug sold by Sanofi-Aventis.
Amisulpride is a selective dopamine antagonist.   It has a high affinity for D2 (Ki 2.8 nM) and D3 (Ki 3.2 nM) dopaminergic receptors.  Its dosage ranges from 200 to 1200 mg/day.  Lower doses (less than 50 mg) preferentially block d2 autoreceptors that control the synthesis and release of dopamine.  This results in an increase in dopaminergic transmission.  This dopamine increase is hypothesized to cause a reduction in both depressive and negative symptoms.  Higher doses of the drug block the postsynaptic dopamine receptors resulting in an improvement in psychoses. 
Amisulpride is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in the United States.  Amisulpride (in 50mg doses) is marketed as a treatment for dysthymia in Italy (as Deniban) In one study, anxiety measured by HAM-A total mean score decreased significantly more with amisulpride 50mg/day (63%) than with fluoxetine 20mg/day (54%; P = 0.021).

# Side effects
Prolactin induction, nausea, weight gain, although much less than similar drugs in its class, and less commonly QT interval prolongation (which can lead to serious heart arrhythmias). Overdoses of amisulpride have been linked with torsades de pointes.
Amphiphysin
Amphiphysin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AMPH gene.

# Function
This gene encodes a protein associated with the cytoplasmic surface of synaptic vesicles. A subset of patients with stiff person syndrome who were also affected by breast cancer are positive for autoantibodies against this protein. Alternate splicing of this gene results in two transcript variants encoding different isoforms. Additional splice variants have been described, but their full length sequences have not been determined.
Amphiphysin is a brain-enriched protein with an N-terminal lipid interaction, dimerisation and membrane bending BAR domain, a middle clathrin and adaptor binding domain and a C-terminal SH3 domain. In the brain, its primary function is thought to be the recruitment of dynamin to sites of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. There are 2 mammalian amphiphysins with similar overall structure. A ubiquitous splice form of amphiphysin 2 that does not contain clathrin or adaptor interactions is highly expressed in muscle tissue and is involved in the formation and stabilization of the T-tubule network. In other tissues amphiphysin is likely involved in other membrane bending and curvature stabilization events.

# Interactions
Amphiphysin has been shown to interact with DNM1, Phospholipase D1, CDK5R1, PLD2, CABIN1 and SH3GL2.
Amsler grid
The Amsler grid, used since 1945, is a grid of horizontal and vertical lines used to monitor a person's central visual field. It is a diagnostic tool that aids in the detection of visual disturbances caused by changes in the retina, particularly the macula (e.g. macular degeneration, Epiretinal membrane), as well as the optic nerve and the visual pathway to the brain.
In the test, the person looks with each eye separately at the  little dot in the center of the grid. Patients may notice that they don't see the lines as straight, or lines are missing.
Amsler grids can be obtained from an ophthalmologist or optometrist and may be used to test one's vision at home.
The original Amsler grid was black and white. A color version with a blue and yellow grid is more sensitive and can be used to test for a wide variety of visual pathway abnormalities, including those associated with the retina, the optic nerve, and the pituitary gland.
Amylopectin

# Overview
Amylopectin (CAS# 9037-22-3) is a highly branched polymer of glucose found in plants. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylose.  It is soluble in water.
Glucose units are linked in a linear way with (14) bonds. Branching takes place with (16) bonds occurring every 24 to 30 glucose units.
Its counterpart in animals is glycogen which has the same composition and structure, but with more extensive branching that occurs every 8 to 12 glucose units.
Plants store starch within specialized organelles called amyloplasts. When energy is needed for cell work, the plant hydrolyzes the starch releasing the glucose subunits. Humans and other animals that eat plant foods also have enzymes to hydrolyze starch.
Starch is made of about 70% amylopectin. Amylopectin is highly branched, being formed of 2,000 to 200,000 glucose units.  Its inner chains are formed of 20-24 glucose subunits.
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Anal glands
The anal glands or anal sacs are small, paired sacs located on either side of the anus between the external and internal sphincter muscles.  Sebaceous glands within the lining secrete a foul smelling liquid that is used for identification of members within a species.  These sacs are found in all carnivora except bears and sea otters.

# Dogs
In dogs, these glands are occasionally referred to as "scent glands", because they enable the animals to mark their territory and identify other dogs.  The glands can spontaneously empty, especially under times of stress, and create a very sudden unpleasant change in the odor of the dog.  The anal glands normally empty when the dog defecates.  Failure to empty results in discomfort from the full anal gland pushing on the anus.  The glands can be emptied by the dog's keeper, or more typically by a groomer or veterinarian, by squeezing the gland so the contents are released through the small openings on either side of the anus.  Discomfort is evidenced by the dog scooting its posterior on the ground, licking or biting at the anus, sitting uncomfortably, difficulty sitting or standing, or chasing its tail.
Discomfort may also be evident with impaction or infection of the anal glands.  Anal gland impaction results from blockage of the duct leading from the gland to the opening.  The gland is usually nonpainful and swollen.  Anal gland infection results in pain, swelling, and sometimes abscessation and fever.  Treatment is by expression of the gland, lancing of an abscess, and oral antibiotics and antibiotic infusion into the gland in the case of infection.  The most common bacterial isolates from anal gland infection are E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens, and Proteus species.
Anal glands may be removed surgically in a procedure known as anal sacculectomy. This is usually done in the case of recurrent infection or because of the presence of an anal sac adenocarcinoma, a malignant tumor.  Potential complications include fecal incontinence (especially when both glands are removed), tenesmus from stricture or scar formation, and persistent draining fistulae.
Anal gland fluid is normally yellow to tan in color and watery in consistency.  Impacted anal gland material is usually brown or gray and thick.  The presence of blood or pus indicates infection.

# Opossums
Opossums use their anal glands when they "play possum". As the opossum mimics death, the glands secrete a foul-smelling liquid, suggesting the opossum is rotting.  Note that opossums are not members of the carnivora, and that their anal sacs differ from those of dogs and their relatives.

# Skunks
Skunks use their anal glands to spray a foul-smelling and sticky fluid as a defense against predators.

# Weasels
Research by the Institute for Pheromone Research and the Department of Chemistry, Indiana University suggests that weasels may well use their anal glands in gender recognition.
Anastomosis

# Overview
Anastomosis (plural anastomoses) refers to a form of network in which streams both branch out and reconnect. The term is used in medicine, biology, and geology.

# Medicine
Anastomosis is the surgical connection of two structures. It commonly refers to connections between blood vessels  or connections between other tubular structures such as loops of intestine. In circulatory anastomosis, many arteries naturally anastomose with each other. For example: the inferior epigastric artery and superior epigastric artery. In surgery, surgical anastomosis occurs when a segment of intestine is resected and the two remaining ends are sewn or stapled together (anastomosed). The procedure is referred to as intestinal anastomosis.
Pathological anastomosis results from trauma or disease and may involve veins, arteries, or intestines. These are usually referred to as fistulas. In the cases of veins or arteries, traumatic fistulas usually occur between artery and vein. Traumatic intestinal fistulas usually occur between two loops of intestine (enetero-enteric fistula) or intestine and skin (enterocutaneous fistula). Portacaval anastomosis, by contrast, is an anastomosis between a vein of the portal circulation and a vein of the systemic circulation, which allows blood to bypass the liver in patients with portal hypertension, often resulting in hemorrhoids, esophageal varices, or caput medusae.

# Biology
In evolution, anastomosis is a recombination of evolutionary lineage. Conventional accounts of evolutionary lineage present themselves as the simple branching out of species into novel forms.  Under anastomosis, species might recombine after initial branching out, such as in the case of recent research which shows that humans and chimpanzees may have interbred after an initial branching out. A second case in which the idea of anastomosis finds application is in the theory of Symbiogenesis, in which new forms of life (species) are seen to emerge from the formation of novel symbiotic relationships.
Anchor cell
The anchor cell is a type of cell responsible for patterning during development in multicellular organisms. The anchor produces a signal which nearby equipotent precursor cells receive. A precursor cells may produce one or more secondary signals, which are received by other precursors. The combination of these signals--and variations in concentration--is used by these cells to determine their ultimate fate.

# Models
- In Graded Signaling, a concentration gradient of some molecule--proportional to the distance from the anchor cell--acts to signal the precursor cell. Different concentrations produce different fates.
- In Sequential Signaling, the anchor cell initiates a signaling cascade which begins in nearby precursors and spreads to those further away.
- In Combined Signaling, the graded and sequential models are merged. Either concentration or a signaling cascade may specify precursor cell fate.
Anellovirus
Not much is known about the family of Anelloviri, having been recently discovered. It has been classified as a vertebrate virus and consisting of a non-enveloped capsid, which is round with isometric, icosahedral symmetry.
The genome is not segmented and contains a single molecule of circular, negative-sense, single-stranded DNA. The complete genome is 3000-4000 nucleotides long. .

# Literature
-  ICTVdB Management (2006). 00.107.0.01. Anellovirus. In: ICTVdB - The Universal Virus Database, version 4. Buchen-Osmond, C. (Ed), Columbia University, New York, USA
Angor animi
Synonyms and keywords: Angina animi; Gairdner's disease; angina pectoris sine dolore

# Overview
Angor animi (also referred to as angina animi, Gairdner's disease and also angina pectoris sine dolore), in medicine, is a symptom defined as a patient's perception that they are in fact dying. Most cases of angor animi are found in patients suffering from acute coronary syndrome such as unstable angina or acute myocardial infarction. It is, however, occasionally found in patients suffering from other conditions.
Angor animi is differentiated from a fear or desire for death, since angor animi refers to a patient's actual and genuine belief that they are in the present act of dying. The phrase is derived from the two Latin terms which it is composed of, namely angor and animi.
Angor (different but related to the word anger), in modern English, refers to a great anxiety often accompanied by a painful constriction and palpitations at the upper abdomen and lower thorax (chest). Animi means an animating spirit, intention or temper.
Angioplasty

# Overview
Angioplasty is the mechanical widening of a narrowed or totally obstructed blood vessel. These obstructions are often caused by atherosclerosis. The term angioplasty is a portmanteau of the words "angio" (from the Latin/Greek word meaning "vessel") and "plasticos" (Greek: fit for moulding). Angioplasty has come to include all manner of vascular interventions typically performed in a minimally invasive or percutaneous method.

# Coronary Angioplasty
The distal left main coronary artery (LMCA) is in the left upper quadrant of the image. Its main branches (also visible) are the left circumflex artery (LCX), which courses top-to-bottom initially and then toward the centre-bottom, and the left anterior descending (LAD) artery, which courses from left-to-right on the image and then courses down the middle of the image to project underneath of the distal LCX. The LAD, as is usual, has two large diagonal branches, which arise at the centre- top of the image and course toward the centre- right of the image.
Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), commonly known as coronary angioplasty is a therapeutic procedure to treat the stenotic (narrowed) coronary arteries of the heart found in coronary heart disease.  These stenotic segments are due to the build up of cholesterol-laden plaques that form due to atherosclerosis. PCI is usually performed by an interventional cardiologist.

# Peripheral Angioplasty
Peripheral angioplasty refers to the use of mechanical widening in opening blood vessels other than the coronary arteries. It is often called percutaneous transluminal angioplasty or PTA for short. PTA is most commonly done to treat narrowings in the leg arteries, especially the common iliac, external iliac, superficial femoral and popliteal arteries. PTA can also be done to treat narrowings in veins.

# Renal Artery Angioplasty
Atherosclerotic obstruction of the renal artery can be treated with angioplasty of the renal artery (percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty, PTRA). Renal artery stenosis can lead to hypertension and loss of renal function.

# Carotid Angioplasty
Generally, carotid artery stenosis is treated with angioplasty and stenting for high-risk patients in many hospitals. It has changed since the FDA has approved the first carotid stent system (Cordis) in July 2004 and the second (Guidant) in August 2004. The system comprises a stent along with an embolic capture device designed to reduce or trap emboli and clot debris. Angioplasty and stenting is increasingly being used to also treat carotid stenosis, with success rates similar to carotid endarterectomy surgery. Simple angioplasty without stenting is falling out of favor in this vascular bed. SAPPHIRE, a large trial comparing carotid endarterectomy and carotid stenting with the Cordis stent found stenting non-inferior to carotid endarterectomy.

# 2011 ACCF/AHA Guidelines for Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (DO NOT EDIT)

## Laser Angioplasty (DO NOT EDIT)

## Cutting Balloon Angioplasty (DO NOT EDIT)

# Related Chapters
- Percutaneous coronary intervention
- Angiogram
- Charles Dotter
- Vascular surgery
Angiostatin
Angiostatin is a naturally occurring protein found in several animal species, including humans. It is an endogenous angiogenesis inhibitor (i.e., it blocks the growth of new blood vessels), and it is currently undergoing clinical trials for its use in anticancer therapy.

# Structure
Angiostatin is a 38 kDa fragment of a larger protein, plasmin (itself a fragment of plasminogen) enclosing three to five contiguous Kringle modules. Each module contains two small beta sheets and three disulfide bonds.  

# Generation
Angiostatin is produced, for example, by autoproteolytic cleavage of plasminogen, involving extracellular disulfide bond reduction by phosphoglycerate kinase. Furthermore angiostatin can be cleaved from plasminogen by different metalloproteinases (MMPs), elastase, prostata-specific antigen (PSA), 13 KD serine protease, or 24KD endopeptidase.

# Biological activity
Angiostatin is known to bind a lot of proteins, especially to angiomotin and endothelial cell surface ATP synthase but also integrins, annexin II, C-met receptor, NG2-proteoglycans, tissue-type plasminogen activator, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, and CD26. Also smaller fragments of angiostatin has been shown to bind several other proteins.  There is still considerable uncertainty on its mechanism of action, but it seems to involve for example inhibition of endothelial cell migration,  proliferation and induction of apoptosis. It has been proposed that angiostatin activity is related, among other things, to the coupling of its mechanical and redox properties
Annexin A11
Annexin A11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ANXA11 gene.

# Function
This gene encodes a member of the annexin family, a group of calcium-dependent phospholipid-binding proteins. Annexins have unique N-terminal domains and conserved C-terminal domains, which contain the calcium-dependent phospholipid-binding sites. The encoded protein is a 56-kD antigen recognized by sera from patients with various autoimmune diseases. Transcript variants encoding the same isoform have been identified.

# Interactions
ANXA11 has been shown to interact with PDCD6 and ALG2.

# Clinical significance
It is shown that over-expression of the ANXA11 is involved in apoptotic alterations in schizophrenia and contribute to pathomechanisms of this disorder.