Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Butterfly needle
Winged Infusion Sets, or "Butterfly" needles are very small needles used in venipuncture (phlebotomy) of very young or elderly patients or patients with small veins and arteries. They are often used with people who have spasticity.
Since the butterfly needle uses a flexible tube, there is less chance of the patient causing damage if they move during the procedure.  Butterfly needles are usually 23 gauge needles, with two plastic 'wings' on either side, flexible tubing, and another needle, generally sheathed with some sort of rubber like material at the other end.  The phlebotomist attaches a hub or a syringe to the end of the set that has the sheathed needle.  This is the same type of hub used for a routine venipuncture.  The needle is held by the 'wings' and placed into the vein, generally at a fairly shallow angle.  The wings allow the phlebotomist to grasp the needle very close to the end, to ensure accuracy.  When the needle is successfully placed into the vein, a 'flash' can be seen.  The 'flash' is a small amount of blood that flows into the tubing when the needle enters a vein.  The phlebotomist can then push vacuum tubes into the hub and draw blood as usual.
Butterfly needles are most commonly used when available veins are very small, fragile, or when they are in a place that would make using a normal evacuated tube system difficult.  Butterfly needles are also used on very shallow veins, because the design allows the needle to be inserted at a much more shallow angle than an evacuated tube system allows.  Butterfly needles are nearly always used when drawing blood from the hand, wrist, or other places on the body where veins are very close to the skin.  Since a butterfly needle doesn't pull quite so hard, and the needle is smaller, the blood flows more slowly in most cases, which can reduce the chances of delicate veins collapsing.  It is advisable, however, to use a syringe with a butterfly, rather than vacuum tubes directly, when drawing tubes that require a full draw, such as light blue sodium citrate tubes (which are most commonly used for coagulation tests).  This is due to the fact that a small amount of blood will remain in the tubing when there is no vacuum remaining in the tube.
Butternut (tree)
The Butternut (Juglans cinerea), also occasionally known as the White Walnut, is a species of walnut native to the eastern United States and southeast Canada, from southern Quebec west to Minnesota, south to northern Alabama and southwest to northern Arkansas. It is a deciduous tree growing to 20 m tall, rarely 30 m, and 40-80 cm stem diameter, with light gray bark. The leaves are pinnate, 40-70 cm long, with 11-17 leaflets, each leaflet 5-10 cm long and 3-5 cm broad. The whole leaf is downy-pubescent, and a somewhat brighter, yellower green than many other tree leaves. The flowers are inconspicuous yellow-green catkins produced in spring at the same time as the new leaves appear. The fruit is a nut, produced in bunches of 2-6 together; the nut is oblong-ovoid, 3-6 cm long and 2-4 cm broad, surrounded by a green husk before maturity in mid autumn. Butternut grows quickly, but is rather short-lived for a tree, rarely living longer than 75 years.
The Butternut is seriously threatened by an introduced canker disease, caused by the fungus Sirococcus clavigigenti-juglandacearum. In some areas, 90% of the Butternut trees have been killed. Completely free-standing trees seem better able to withstand the fungus than those growing in dense stands or forest. The fungus is spread by a wide-ranging vector, so isolation of a tree offers no protection.

# Uses
The nuts are usually used in baking and making candies, having an oily texture and pleasant flavor. The husks are also used to make a yellowish dye.
Butternut wood is light in weight and takes polish well, is highly rot resistant, but is much softer than Black Walnut wood. Oiled, the grain of the wood usually shows much light.  It is often used to make furniture, and is a favorite of woodcarvers.
Butternut canker
Sirococcus clavigignenti juglandacearum (Nair et. al, 1979) is a fungus that causes the Butternut canker disease.  It is known to parasitize members of the family Juglandaceae.

# Distribution
Butternut canker was first reported in Wisconsin in 1967.  It has since spread to other states.  It was reported that 84% of all butternut trees in Michigan as well as 58% of all trees from Wisconsin have been affected; later surveys revealed that 91% of all living trees were diseased or cankered.  In Virginia and North Carolina, the butternut population has been reduced from 7.5 million to 2.5 million.  It has since been reported in Canada.

# Symptoms
Lenial and broad cankers on the main stem, branches, young twigs, and exposed roots.  Most cankers are covered with bark cracks and shredded bark above cankers in late stages.

# Life Cycle
Pycnidiospores are released during rainy periods.  When the spores make contact with wounds or broken branches, they germinate and penetrate deep into the tree to produce cankers.  Infection hyphae typically penetrates through the parenchyma phloem intracellularly but they can also penetrate intercellularly through uni and multiceliate xylem ray cells and paranchyma cells.  Later, the fungus will produce mycelial mats of stroma and mycelial pegs.
Stroma mats will produce uni or multilocular pycnidia.  Inside the pycnidia are branched and unbranched conidiophores with two-celled pycniospores, which later are ejected from the pycnidial ostiole.
Additionally, the stroma will produce a peg of interwoven mycelium.  These pegs put pressure on the outer peridium of the host bark, which exposes the pycnidia below.  These pegs also produce pycnidia that are smaller than the pycnidia in the stroma.  While different in size, the spores produced are identical.

# Resistance
Many species of tree show varying degrees of resistance, such as the heartnut, butternut, and the Japanese, Black, and Persian walnuts.  The heartnut and Japanese walnut trees show the highest degree of resistance, as both have a peridium layers between 35-45 cells think which act as a barrier for pathogen penetration.  Additionally, both trees produce phenolics immediately upon attack, later producing gums and tyloses to surround the pathogen.

# Control
Breeding for resistance is important for fighting butternut canker.  While standard practice has been that infected trees should be removed to prevent further spread, there is a growing opinion that the time for this is past.  The disease has now been found in virtually all parts of the butternut range.  Additionally, it is suggested that "removing diseased trees" is a guarantee that infected, but not dying trees, ie. those that are specifically "partially resistant" to the fungus, will be killed; eliminating any chance of increased resistance in progeny.  Instances are known of long-term survival of pure butternuts infected by the canker.
Recent reports have shown that the fungus can be internally seed-borne, so seeds should be subjected to intense quarantine protocols; most especially if destined for plantings where the disease is not already established.
Butylscopolamine
Butylscopolamine, also known as scopolamine butylbromide and hyoscine butylbromide is an abdominal-specific antispasmodic. It is marketed under the trade name Buscopan by Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, Germany, who also offer a combination of butylscopolamine and acetaminophen, marketed under the name Buscopan Plus.
Butylscopolamine is used to treat pain and discomfort caused by abdominal cramps or other spasmodic activity in the digestive system. When taken orally, it cannot enter the bloodstream or otherwise leave the digestive tract, so that it is only able to affect the smooth muscles of the digestive system as it passes through. It is not an analgesic in the normal sense, since it doesn't 'mask' or 'cover over' the pain, but rather works to prevent painful cramps and spasms from occurring in the first place.

# Usage
Butylscopolamine is often prescribed at a low dosage, commonly 10mg three times a day, as a means of managing some of the symptoms of Irritable bowel syndrome.
Candida glabrata

# Overview
Candida glabrata is a haploid yeast of the genus Candida, previously known as Torulopsis glabrata.  This species of yeast is non-dimorphic and there has been no observed mating activity.  Until recently, C. glabrata was thought to be a primarily non-pathogenic organism.  However, with the ever increasing population of immunocompromised individuals, trends have shown C. glabrata to be a highly opportunistic pathogen of the urogenital tract, and of the bloodstream (Candidemia).  It is especially prevalent in HIV positive people, and the elderly.
There are two widely cited potential virulence factors that contribute to the pathogenicity of C. glabrata.  The first is a series of adhesins coded by the EPA (epithelial adhesin) genes.  These genes, located in the subtelomeric region, can respond to environmental cues that allow them to be expressed en masse so the organism can adhere to biotic and abiotic surfaces in microbial mats.  This is also the suspected mechanism by which C. glabrata forms microbial "biofilms" on urinary catheters, and less commonly in-dwelling IV catheters.  It also causes problems with dental devices, such as dentures.  However, the formation of biofilms is very weak as compared to Candida albicans.
Another virulence factor that C. glabrata possesses is a wide-spectrum resistance to azole drugs, which are the most commonly prescribed antifungal (antimycotic) drugs.  These drugs, including fluconazole and ketoconazole, are quite useless against C. glabrata.  While some have said that the organism possesses an "innate" immunity to the drugs, it is more accurate to say that the organism possesses an evolved resistance to the drugs.  It is still highly vulnerable to polyene drugs such as amphotericin B and nystatin, along with variable vulnerability to flucytosine and caspofungin.
Integrin alpha M
Integrin alpha M (ITGAM) is one protein subunit that forms heterodimeric integrin alpha-M beta-2 (M2) molecule, also known as macrophage-1 antigen (Mac-1) or complement receptor 3 (CR3). ITGAM is also known as CR3A, and cluster of differentiation molecule 11B (CD11B).  The second chain of M2 is the common integrin 2 subunit known as CD18, and integrin M2 thus belongs to the 2 subfamily (or leukocyte) integrins.
M2 is expressed on the surface of many leukocytes involved in the innate immune system, including monocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, and natural killer cells. It mediates inflammation by regulating leukocyte adhesion and migration and has been implicated in several immune processes such as phagocytosis, cell-mediated cytotoxicity, chemotaxis and cellular activation. It is involved in the complement system due to its capacity to bind inactivated complement component 3b (iC3b). The ITGAM (alpha) subunit of integrin M2 is directly involved in  causing the adhesion and spreading of cells but cannot mediate cellular migration without the presence of the 2 (CD18) subunit.
In genomewide association studies, single nucleotide polymorphisms in ITGAM had the strongest association with systemic lupus erythematosus, with an odds ratio of 1.65 for the T allele of rs9888739 and lupus.
In histopathology, immunohistochemistry with antibodies against CD11B is frequently used to identify macrophages and microglia.
CD3 (immunology)
In immunology, the CD3 (cluster of differentiation 3) T cell co-receptor helps to activate both the cytotoxic T cell (CD8+ naive T cells) and also T helper cells (CD4+ naive T cells). It consists of a protein complex and is composed of four distinct chains. In mammals, the complex contains a CD3 chain, a CD3 chain, and two CD3 chains. These chains associate with the T-cell receptor (TCR) and the -chain (zeta-chain) to generate an activation signal in T lymphocytes. The TCR, -chain, and CD3 molecules together constitute the TCR complex.

# Structure
The CD3, CD3, and CD3 chains are highly related cell-surface proteins of the immunoglobulin superfamily containing a single extracellular immunoglobulin domain.
Containing aspartate residues, the transmembrane region of the CD3 chains is negatively charged, a characteristic that allows these chains to associate with the positively charged TCR chains.
The intracellular tails of the CD3 molecules contain a single conserved motif known as an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif or ITAM for short, which is essential for the signaling capacity of the TCR.
The intracellular tails of the  chain contain 3 ITAM motifs.

# Regulation
Phosphorylation of the ITAM on CD3 renders the CD3 chain capable of binding an enzyme called ZAP70 (zeta associated protein), a kinase that is important in the signaling cascade of the T cell.

# As a drug target
Because CD3 is required for T cell activation, drugs (often monoclonal antibodies) that target it are being investigated as immunosuppressant therapies (e.g., otelixizumab) for type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune diseases.

# Immunohistochemistry
CD3 is initially expressed in the cytoplasm of pro-thymocytes, the stem cells from which T-cells arise in the thymus. The pro-thymocytes differentiate into common thymocytes, and then into medullary thymocytes, and it is at this latter stage that CD3 antigen begins to migrate to the cell membrane. The antigen is found bound to the membranes of all mature T-cells, and in virtually no other cell type, although it does appear to be present in small amounts in Purkinje cells.
This high specificity, combined with the presence of CD3 at all stages of T-cell development, makes it a useful immunohistochemical marker for T-cells in tissue sections. The antigen remains present in almost all T-cell lymphomas and leukaemias, and can therefore be used to distinguish them from superficially similar B-cell and myeloid neoplasms.
Cadexomer iodine

# Overview
Cadexomer iodine is an iodophor that is produced by the reaction of dextrin with epichlorhydrin coupled with ion-exchange groups and iodine. It is a water-soluble modified starch polymer containing 0.9% iodine, calculated on a weight-weight basis, within a helical matrix.

# History
Cadexomer iodine was developed in the early 1980s in Sweden by Perstorp AB, and given the name Iodosorb. The product was shown to be effective in the treatment of venous ulcers,. 
More recently, it has been shown in studies in animals and humans that, unlike the iodophor povidone-iodine, Iodosorb causes an acceleration of the healing process in chronic human wounds. This is due to an increase in epidermal regeneration and epithelialization in both partial-thickness and full-thickness wounds. In this way cadexomer iodine acts as a cicatrizant.

# Properties
When formulated as a topical wound dressing Iodosorb adsorbs exudate and particulate matter from the surface of granulating wounds and, as the dressing becomes moist, iodine is released. The product thus has the dual effect of cleansing the wound and exerting a bactericidal action.

# Uses
In addition to other manufacturers, Smith & Nephew distributes cadexomer iodine as Iodosorb and Iodoflex in many countries of the world for the treatment and healing of various types of wounds. The dosage forms are a paste dressing, an ointment and a gel, all of which contain 0.9% iodine.
Cadmium chloride

# Overview
Cadmium chloride is a white crystalline compound of cadmium and chlorine, with the formula CdCl2.  It is a hygroscopic solid which is highly soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohol.  Although it is considered to be ionic, it has considerable covalent character to its bonding.  The crystal structure of cadmium chloride (described below), composed of two-dimensional layers of ions, is often used as a reference for describing other crystal structures.

# Crystal structure
Cadmium chloride forms crystals with cubic symmetry.  The structure is based on the sodium chloride crystal structure, but with half of the metal ions removed (the "missing" ions are shown as hatched light blue balls in the drawing) so that the resultant structure consists of a layered lattice.  This same basic structure is found in many other salts and minerals, particularly those where there is some degree of covalent bonding, such as in manganese(II) chloride, cobalt(II) chloride or magnesium chloride.
Cadmium iodide, CdI2, has a very similar crystal structure to CdCl2. The individual layers in the two structures are identical, but in CdCl2 the chloride ions are arranged in a CCP lattice, whereas in CdI2 the iodide ions are arranged in a HCP lattice.

# Chemical properties
Cadmium chloride has a high solubility in water, and it dissociates into ions.  A certain amount of hydrolysis to species such as + may occur.  The high solubility may be due in part to formation of complex ions such as 2 (i.e CdCl2 is a Lewis acid).  With excess chloride ions in water or acetonitrile it forms mainly  and the tetrahedral anion, 2:
CdCl2(aq)  +  2 Cl(aq)    2(aq)
With large cations it is possible to isolate the trigonal bipyramidal 3 ion.

# Preparation
Anhydrous cadmium chloride can be prepared by the action of anhydrous chlorine or hydrogen chloride gas on heated cadmium metal.
Cd(s)  +  2 HCl(g)    CdCl2(s)  +  H2(g)
Hydrochloric acid may be used to make hydrated CdCl2 from the metal, or alternatively from cadmium oxide or cadmium carbonate.

# Uses
Cadmium chloride is used for the preparation of cadmium sulfide, used as "Cadmium Yellow", a brilliant yellow pigment which is stable to heat and sulfide fumes.
CdCl2(aq)  +  H2S(g)    CdS(s)  +  2 HCl(aq)
In the laboratory, anhydrous CdCl2 can be used for the preparation of organocadmium compounds of the type R2Cd where R = aryl or primary alkyl.  These were once used in the synthesis of ketones from acyl chlorides (see below), but nowadays they have largely been supplanted by organocopper compounds, which are much less toxic.
CdCl2  +  2 RMgX    R2Cd  +  MgCl2  +  MgX2
R2Cd  +  R'COCl    R'COR  +  CdCl2
Cadmium chloride is also used for electroplating.
Calcinosis cutis

# Overview
Calcinosis cutis (or cutaneous calcification) is a type of calcinosis wherein calcium deposits form in the skin.  A variety of factors can result in this condition.  The most common source is dystrophic calcification, which occurs in soft tissue as a response to injury.  In dogs, calcinosis cutis is virtually pathognomonic for Canine Cushing's syndrome.

# Types
The specific manifestations of calcinosis cutis vary according to the original cause of the symptom.  Sub-types include:
- dystrophic calcinosis cutis
- iatrogenic calcinosis cutis
- idiopathic calcinosis cutis
- metastatic calcinosis cutis
- calcinosis cutis circumscripta
- calcinosis cutis universalis

# Causes
Calcinosis may be the results of a variety of causes such as:
- Trauma to the region
- Inflammation (bug bites, acne)
- Varicose veins
- Infections
- Tumors (malign or benign)
- Diseases of connective tissue
- Hypercalcemia
- Hyperphosphatemia

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis cutis. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis circumscripta. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis circumscripta. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis circumscripta. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis circumscripta. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- Calcinosis circumscripta. Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
Calcium fluoride

# Overview
Calcium fluoride (CaF2) is an insoluble ionic compound of calcium and fluorine.  It occurs naturally as the mineral fluorite (also called fluorspar), and it is the source of most of the world's fluorine.  This insoluble solid adopts a cubic structure wherein calcium is coordinated to eight fluoride anions and each F- ion is surrounded by four Ca2+ ions.  Although the pure material is colourless, the mineral is often deeply coloured due to the presence of F-centers.

# Source of HF
Naturally occurring CaF2 is the principal source of hydrogen fluoride, a commodity chemical used to produce a wide range of materials.   Fluoride is liberated from the mineral by the action of concentrated sulfuric acid:
The resulting HF is converted into fluorine, fluorocarbons, and diverse fluoride materials.  As of the late 1990s, five billion kilograms were mined annually.

# Other applications
Calcium fluoride is commonly used as a window material for both infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths, since it is transparent in these regions (about 0.15 m to 9 m) and exhibits extremely weak birefringence.  Furthermore the material is fairly inert chemically so that these windows are not attacked.   Nevertheless, at wavelengths as low as 157 nm, which are interesting to semiconductor manufacturers, the birefringence of calcium fluoride exceeds tolerable limits. This problem with birefringence can be mitigated through optimised  growth process. It is particularly important as an ultraviolet optical material for integrated circuit lithography.  Canon also uses artificially-crystallized calcium fluoride components in some of its L-series lenses to reduce light dispersion. As an infrared optical material, calcium fluoride is sometimes known by the Eastman Kodak trademarked name "Irtran-3," although this designation is obsolete.
Uranium-doped calcium fluoride was the second type of solid state laser invented, in the 1960s. Peter Sorokin and Mirek Stevenson at IBM's laboratories in Yorktown Heights (US) achieved lasing at 2.5 m shortly after Maiman's ruby laser.
It is also used as a flux for melting and liquid processing of iron, steel and their composites. Its action is based on its similar melting point to iron, on its ability to dissolve oxides and on its ability to wet oxides and metals.

# Safety
Fluorides are toxic to humans, however CaF2 is considered relatively harmless due to its extreme insolubility.  The situation is analogous to BaSO4, where the toxicity normally associated with Ba2+ is offset by the very low solubility of its sulfate derivative.
Calcium peroxide
Calcium peroxide (CaO2) is a solid peroxide with a white or yellowish color.  For all practical purposes calcium peroxide is insoluble in water but will dissolve in acid to form hydrogen peroxide. When in contact with water it will immediately begin to decompose releasing oxygen.

# Applications
Calcium peroxide is manufactured to varying specifications and purity and can be used in different areas of industry and agriculture. In agriculture it is used as an oxygen fertilizer, and is also used in the presowing treatments of rice seed. Also, calcium peroxide has found use in the aquaculture industry as it is used to oxygenate and disinfect water, and in the ecological restoration industry as it is used in the treatment of soils. Calcium Peroxide is used in a similar manner to magnesium peroxide for environmental restoration programs.  It is used to restore soil and groundwater contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons by stimulating aerobic microbial degredation of the contaminants in a process known as Enhanced In-Situ Bioremediation.
As a food additive it has the E number E930 and is used as flour bleaching agent and improving agent.
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