Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Elytrigia repens
Elytrigia repens (Couch Grass; syn. Triticum repens L., Agropyron repens (L.) P. Beauv., Elymus repens (L.) Gould) is a very common species of grass native to most of Europe, Asia, and northwest Africa. Other names include twitch, quick grass, quitch grass, dog grass, and quackgrass.
It has creeping rhizomes which enable it to grow rapidly across grassland. The stems ('culms') grow to 40150 cm tall; the leaves are linear, 1540 cm long and 310 mm broad at the base of the plant, with leaves higher on the stems 28.5 mm broad. The flower spike is 1030 cm long, with spikelets 12 cm long, 57 mm broad and 3 mm thick with three to eight florets. The glumes are 712 mm long, usually without an awn or with only a short one.
There are three subspecies, one of these with an additional variety:
- Elytrigia repens subsp. repens. Throughout most of the range of the species.
Elytrigia repens subsp. repens var. repens. Awns usually absent or if present, very short.
Elytrigia repens subsp. repens var. aristata (Doll) P.D.Sell. Awns present, up to 15 mm long.
- Elytrigia repens subsp. repens var. repens. Awns usually absent or if present, very short.
- Elytrigia repens subsp. repens var. aristata (Doll) P.D.Sell. Awns present, up to 15 mm long.
- Elytrigia repens subsp. elongatiformis (Drobow) Tzvelev (syn. Elytrigia elongatiformis (Drobow) Nevski). Central and southwestern Asia, far southeastern Europe (Ukraine).
- Elytrigia repens subsp. longearistata N. R. Cui. Western China (Xinjiang).
Hybrids are recorded with several related grasses, including Elytrigia juncea (Elytrigia  laxa (Fr.) Kerguelen), Elytrigia atherica (Elytrigia  drucei Stace), and with the barley species Hordeum secalinum ( Elytrordeum langei (K. Richt.) Hyl.).

# Ecology
The foliage is an important forage grass for many grazing mammals. The seeds are eaten by several species of grassland birds, particularly buntings and finches. The caterpillars of some Lepidoptera use it as a foodplant, e.g. the Essex Skipper (Thymelicus lineola).

# Cultivation and uses
Couch Grass has become naturalised throughout much of the world, and often listed as an invasive weed. It is very difficult to remove from garden environments. One method is to dig deep into the ground in order to remove as much of the grass as possible. The area should then be covered with a thick layer of woodchips. To further prevent re-growth cardboard can be placed underneath the woodchips. The long, white rhizomes will, however, dry out and die if left on the surface.

## Medical use
Couch Grass has been used in herbal medicine since the Classical Greek period. Sick dogs are known to dig up and eat the root, and mediaeval herbalists used it to treat inflamed bladders, painful urination and water retention. It also has antiseptic properties.
Empirical method
Empirical method is generally taken to mean the collection of data on which to base a theory or derive a conclusion in science. It is part of the scientific method, but is often mistakenly assumed to be synonymous with the experimental method.
The empirical method is not sharply defined and is often contrasted with the precision of the experimental method, where data are derived from the systematic manipulation of variables in an experiment. Some of the difficulty in discussing the empirical method is from the ambiguity of the meaning of its linguist root: empiric.

# According to Oxford English Dictionary
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2nd Edition, 1989), empiric is derived from the ancient Greek for experience, Template:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:Polytonic, which is ultimately derived from Template:PolytonicTemplate:Polytonic in + Template:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:PolytonicTemplate:Polytonic trial, experiment. Therefore, empirical data is information that is derived from the trials and errors of experience. In this way, the empirical method is similar to the experimental method. However, an essential difference is that in an experiment the different "trials" are strictly manipulated so that an inference can be made as to causation of the observed change that results. This contrasts with the empirical method of aggregating naturally occurring data.
Adding further confusion is another connotation of empiric. Strict empiricists are those who derive their rules of practice entirely from experience, to the exclusion of philosophical theory.
The OED further states that an empiric is "one who, either in medicine or in other branches of science, relies solely upon observation and experiment" . In this case, an empiricist can be someone who conducts an experiment but without using a hypothesis to guide the process, i.e., strictly by the trial-and-error method. This is counter to one of the main tenets of the scientific method, that of the hypothetico-deductive method, where the manipulation of the variable in an experiment is dictated by the hypothesis being tested.

# According to AccessScience@McGraw-Hill
The empirical method is generally characterized by the collection of a large amount of data before much speculation as to their significance, or without much idea of what to expect, and is to be contrasted with more theoretical methods in which the collection of empirical data is guided largely by preliminary theoretical exploration of what to expect. The empirical method is necessary in entering hitherto completely unexplored fields, and becomes less purely empirical as the acquired mastery of the field increases. Successful use of an exclusively empirical method demands a higher degree of intuitive ability in the practitioner.
Endocrine tumors
Please help WikiDoc by adding more content here. It's easy! Click here to learn about editing.

# Overview
- Thyroid: The prognosis is excellent for most cases of pediatric thyroid cancer, even if there is metastatic disease at diagnosis.
Pediatric thyroid tumors include benign thyroid nodules, papillary thyroid cancer, follicular thyroid cancer and medullary thyroid cancer.
- Pituitary: Pituitary tumors are usually benign and can be either non-functioning or secrete too much hormone, which, for example, can cause gigantism or Cushing's disease.
- Parathyroid: Tumors on these glands can cause overproduction of hormones (hyperparathyroidism).
- Adrenal: Adrenal tumors include adrenocortical tumors and pheochromocytoma.
- Multiple endocrine neoplasias (MEN) are inherited conditions that can cause tumors of multiple glands.
- Von Hippel Lindau syndrome (VHL) is a genetic condition that can cause blood vessel tumors of the central nervous system, kidney tumors, pancreas and kidney cysts and pheochromocytoma.

# Related chapters
- Papillary carcinoma of the thyroid
- Follicular carcinoma of the thyroid
- Anaplastic carcinoma of the thyroid
- Medullary carcinoma of thyroid
- Adrenal adenoma
- Parathyroid adenoma
Enzyme substrate
In biochemistry, a substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions involving the substrate(s). The substrate binds with the enzyme's active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. The substrate is broken down into a product and is released from the active site. The active site is now free to accept another substrate molecule.   For example, in the reaction that occurs upon adding the enzyme rennin in milk, causing milk's coagulation, the substrate is milk and the enzyme is rennin.  Another example is the reaction of the enzyme catalase in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, in which the enzyme is left the same and the substrate is changed.
A general equation is as follows:
where E = enzyme, S = substrate(s), P = product(s)
Note that only the middle step is irreversible.
By increasing the substrate concentration, the rate of reaction will increase due to the likelihood that the number of enzyme-substrate complexes will increase; this occurs until the enzyme becomes the limiting factor.
Importantly, the substrates that a given enzyme can turn over in vitro may not necessarily reflect the physiological, endogenous substrates of the enzyme in vivo. For example, while fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) can hydrolyze the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide at comparable rates in vitro, genetic or pharmacological disruption of FAAH elevates anandamide but not 2-AG, suggesting that 2-AG is not an endogenous, in vivo substrate for FAAH. In another example, the N-acyl taurines (NATs) are observed to increase dramatically in FAAH-disrupted animals, but are actually poor in vitro FAAH substrates.
Epidermis (skin)
Epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body's surface and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying basal lamina.

# Components
The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and is nourished by diffusion from the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkels cells.

# Layers
The epidermis is divided into several layers where cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with keratin. They eventually reach the top layer called stratum corneum and become sloughed off, or desquamated. This process is called keratinization and takes place within weeks. The outermost layer of epidermis consists of 25 to 30 layers of dead cells.

# Sublayers
Epidermis is divided into the following 5 sublayers or strata, listed from the superficial to deep:
- Stratum corneum
- Stratum lucidum
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum spinosum
- Stratum germinativum (also called "stratum basale")
Mnemonics used for remembering the layers of the skin (using "stratum basale" instead of "stratum germinativum"):
- "Corn Lovers Grow Several Bales" (from superficial to deep)
- "Before Signing, Get Legal Counsel" (from deep to superficial)

# Additional images
- Section of epidermis.
- Skin layers.
- Histopathological image of dyshidrotic dermatitis, showing focal spngiotic change in the epidermis.
- Schematics of external human skin depicting its inner structure.
- The distribution of the bloodvessels in the skin of the sole of the foot.
- Cross section showing layers of epidermis.
Equine influenza
Equine influenza (Horse flu) refers to varieties of Influenzavirus A that are endemic in horses. Horse flu viruses were only isolated in 1956. There are two main types of virus called equine-1 (H7N7) which commonly affects horse heart muscle and equine-2 (H3N8) which is usually more severe. Horse flu is endemic throughout the world.
The disease has a nearly 100% infection rate in an unvaccinated horse population that has not been previously exposed to the virus. The incubation time is one to five days.
Horses with horse flu can run a fever, have a dry hacking cough, have a runny nose, and become depressed and reluctant to eat or drink for several days but usually recover in 2 to 3 weeks. 
"Vaccination schedules generally require a primary course of 2 doses, 3-6 weeks apart, followed by boosters at 6-12 month intervals. It is generally recognised that in many cases such schedules may not maintain protective levels of antibody and more frequent administration is advised in high-risk situations." 
It is a common requirement at shows in Britain that horses are vaccinated against Equine flu and a vaccination card must be produced; the FEI requires vaccination every 6 months.
In August 2007, a notable outbreak occurred in Australia which had previously been free of the virus.
Erosion (dental)
Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin.  Erosion is found initially in the enamel and, if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying dentin.
The most common cause of erosion is by foods and drinks. There are numerous clinical and laboratory reports linking erosion to excessive consumption of soft drinks such as fruit drinks, fruit juices and carbonated drinks such as colas. Other possible sources of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice, exposure to chlorinated swimming pool water, and regurgitation of gastric acids.  Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the oral cavity to gastric acids.
Frequently, the appearance is a broad, rounded concavity.  There can be evidence of wear on surfaces of teeth not expected to be in contact with one another.  If it occurs in children, there can be loss of enamel surface characteristics.  Amalgam restorations in the mouth may be clean and non-tarnished.
When the etiology of dental erosion is intrinsic, caused by gastric acid that comes in contact with the teeth, it is known as perimolysis. Perimolysis occurs in individuals that vomit frequently or reflux such as patients with anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
Erythema toxicum

# Overview
Erythema toxicum is a very common rash in infants. It appears in up to half of newborns carried to term, usually between day 2-5 after birth.

# Presentation
The rash is composed of small pustular lesions, each on a separate reddened base.

# Diagnosis
At times the appearance can raise concern that the rash could be due to herpes simplex, however the latter generally has a more clustered and vesicular appearance.
In uncertain cases, a scraping of a lesion can be done and the fluid examined under the microscope.  Herpes lesions will have a positive direct fluorescent antibody test.  The fluid from erythema toxicum lesions will show many eosinophils.

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- .:Erythema neonatorum toxicum Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- .:Erythema neonatorum toxicum Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.
- .:Erythema neonatorum toxicum Adapted from Dermatology Atlas.

# Causes
The cause of erythema toxicum is unknown, but it is thought to be a benign condition that causes no discomfort to the infant and the rash will generally disappear spontaneously in about 2 weeks.
Ethinylestradiol

# Overview
Ethinyl estradiol (EE2) /nlistrda.l/, also sometimes written as 17-ethinyl estradiol, ethinylestradiol, ethynyl estradiol, or ethinyl stradiol, is a derivative of 17-estradiol (E2), the major endogenous estrogen in humans. EE2 is an orally bioactive estrogen used in many formulations of combined oral contraceptive pills. It is one of the most commonly used medications for this purpose.
Transdermal ethinyl estradiol carries a greater risk of clot formation and venous thromboembolism than naturally occurring 17-estradiol, which some have theorized to be related to different amounts of hepatic metabolism after absorption. The same contraindications and precautions apply for EE2 as with other estrogen medications.
Estinyl was a preparation of EE2 alone that was used for the management of menopausal symptoms and female hypogonadism.
EE2 is released into the environment as a xenoestrogen from the urine and feces of people who take it as a medication.
The major concern with unopposed estrogen (without progestogen) is of endometrial cancer. As such, the medication is generally prescribed with progesterone in the setting of birth control.

# History
The first orally active semisynthetic steroidal estrogen, EE2 (17-ethynylestradiol), the 17-ethynyl analog of E2, was synthesized in 1938 by Hans Herloff Inhoffen and Walter Hohlweg at Schering AG in Berlin.
EE2 was approved by the FDA in the U.S. on June 25, 1943 and marketed by Schering as Estinyl.
The FDA withdrew approval of Estinyl effective June 4, 2004 at the request of Schering, who had discontinued marketing Estinyl.

# Pharmacology
While E2 is readily absorbed when taken orally, it is also quickly inactivated by the liver. Substitution at C17 of the estrane steroid with an ethinyl group served to provide an estrogen that is much more resistant to degradation and paved the way for the development of oral contraceptives.
EE2 is absorbed  in the small intestine and reaches a serum peak about 2 hours later. It undergoes extensive metabolism in the liver involving the cytochrome P450 3A4 isoenzyme. EE2 and its metabolites are excreted with the bile.  Due to the effect of enterohepatic circulation a second peak is seen several hours later. Individually, wide variations exist in the overall absorption process, and can be further modified by  drugs (i.e. antibiotics) that affect the enterohepatic circulation or liver enzymes. In circulation EE2 is almost fully bound to plasma albumin. It is metabolized by hydroxylation  of the aromatic ring and excreted in both feces and urine, in part as glucuronide and sulfate conjugate.
EE2 is hormonally effective by activating the estrogen receptor and thus is an estrogen. It finds its most common use in the estrogen-progestin combination preparations of oral contraceptives. Over time, formulations have decreased the EE2 dose from as high as 100 g to as low as 10 g in LoLoestrin Fe.
Ethidium Bromide
Ethidium Bromide, often abbreviated EtBr
- Intercalating agent that inserts itself between DNA base pairs
- Fluorescent under UV light
Caution: Carcinogen/Mutagen
Handle with Nitrile gloves

# Hazards and Precautions
Ethidium Bromide (EB) is commonly used as a non-radioactive marker for identifying  and visualizing nucleic acid bands in electrophoresis and in other methods of  gel-based nucleic acid separation. EB is a dark red, crystalline, non-volatile  solid, moderately soluble in water, which fluoresces readily with a reddish-brown  color when exposed to ultraviolet light (UV). Its formula is 2,7,-Diamino-10-ethyl-9-phenyl-phenanthridium  bromide, CAS# 1239-45-8. Although it is an effective tool, its hazardous properties  require special safe handling and disposal procedures.

## Hazards
EB is a potent mutagen and moderately toxic after an acute exposure. EB  can be absorbed through skin, so it is important to avoid any direct contact with  the chemical. EB is also an irritant to the skin, eyes, mouth, and upper respiratory  tract. It should be stored away from strong oxidizing agents in a cool, dry place,  and the container must be kept undamaged and tightly closed.

## Safety Precautions
People using EB should follow several safety procedures. The laboratory's Chemical  Hygiene Plan should reference this Fact Sheet, which outlines safe handling of  EB and proper cleanup procedures. EB users should receive documented safety training  on its hazards. EB must appear on the laboratory's chemical inventory, with accurate  estimates of on-hand and yearly use quantities. Pure EB should only be handled  in a fume hood, with the user wearing protective equipment that includes a lab  coat, closed-toe shoes, chemically resistant gloves, and chemical safety goggles  (not just safety glasses).
Nitrile is an effective barrier to short-term exposure to EB. Gloves, such as  Best Manufacturing's N-DEX or others made of 100% nitrile, are available  from most laboratory supply distributors. EB users should wash their hands after  removing their gloves, even if they are certain the gloves weren't punctured.
An emergency eyewash and shower should be accessible nearby. Like all other toxics,  EB should be used in a specially designated area where no eating or drinking is  allowed. When using ultraviolet light to visualize EB, the user must wear UV-blocking  eyewear or work in a UV cabinet with shielding glass in place.
Ophthalmic nerve
The ophthalmic nerve is one of the three branches of the trigeminal nerve, the fifth cranial nerve. Like the maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve, the ophthalmic branch carries sensory fibers only. The ophthalmic nerve passes through the cavernous sinus and its nasociliary branch exits the skull through the superior orbital fissure.

# Branches
- Nasociliary nerve
sensory root of ciliary ganglion
posterior ethmodial nerve
long ciliary nerve
infratrochlear nerve
anterior ethmoidal nerve
- sensory root of ciliary ganglion
- posterior ethmodial nerve
- long ciliary nerve
- infratrochlear nerve
- anterior ethmoidal nerve
- lacrimal nerve
- frontal nerve
supratrochlear nerve
supraorbital nerve
- supratrochlear nerve
- supraorbital nerve

# Path
The ophthalmic nerve supplies branches to the cornea, ciliary body, and iris; to the lacrimal gland and conjunctiva; to the part of the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity; and to the skin of the eyelids, eyebrow, forehead, and nose.
It is the smallest of the three divisions of the trigeminal, and arises from the upper part of the semilunar ganglion as a short, flattened band, about 2.5 cm. long, which passes forward along the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus, below the oculomotor and trochlear nerves; just before entering the orbit, through the superior orbital fissure, it divides into three branches, lacrimal, frontal, and nasociliary.
The ophthalmic nerve is joined by filaments from the cavernous plexus of the sympathetic, and communicates with the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducent nerves; it gives off a recurrent (meningeal) filament which passes between the layers of the tentorium.

# Additional images
- Nerves of the orbit. Seen from above.
- Dermatome distribution of the trigeminal nerve
- Pathways in the Ciliary Ganglion.
Ethylamphetamine
N-ethylamphetamine (Etilamfetamine, Apetinil) is a stimulant drug derived from amphetamine which was invented in the early 1900s.
Ethylamphetamine was used as an appetite suppressant in the 1950s but was not as commonly used as other amphetamine derivatives such as dextroamphetamine or benzphetamine, and went out of fashion once newer drugs such as phenmetrazine were introduced.
Ethylamphetamine is intermediate between amphetamine and methamphetamine in potency, and is self-administered by animals; concerns about its abuse potential were a likely factor that it was not so widely used as other similar drugs. Ethylamphetamine is still encountered as a drug of abuse on the black market, but is very uncommon.
Dosage (oral) tends to fall somewhere between 10 and 30 milligrams.

# See Also
- Amphetamine
- Methamphetamine
- Propylamphetamine
Euphorbia peplus
Euphorbia peplus (Petty Spurge) is a species of Euphorbia, native to most of Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia, where it typically grows in cultivated arable land, gardens, and other disturbed land.
It should not be confused with the similarly spelled Euphorbia peplis (Purple Spurge).
It is an annual plant growing to between 530 cm tall (most plants growing as weeds of cultivation tend towards the smaller end), with smooth hairless stems. The leaves are oval-acute, 1-3 cm long, with a smooth margin. It has green flowers in three-rayed umbels. The glands, typical of the Euphorbiacae, are kidney-shaped with long thin horns.
The milky latex sap is toxic, and used as a therapeutic agent for the removal of warts on the skin. Recent work also suggests that it may also be effective in treating superficial basal cell carcinomas.
Outside of its native range it is very widely naturalised and often invasive, including in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and other countries in temperate and sub-tropical regions.
Extraction ratio

# Overview
Extraction ratio is a measure in renal physiology, primarily used to calculate renal plasma flow in order to evaluate renal function. It is the amount of compound entering the kidney that got excreted into the final urine. .
Measured in concentration in blood plasma, it may thus be expressed as:
, where Pa is the concentration in renal artery, and Pv is the concentration in the renal vein.
For instance, para aminohippuric acid (PAH) is almost completely excreted in the final urine, and thus almost none is found in the venous return (Pv ~0). Therefore, the extraction ration of PAH ~1. This is why PAH is used in PAH clearance to estimate renal plasma flow.