Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Angulated lesions

# Angulated Lesions
- Balloon angioplasty of highly angulated lesions is associated with an increased for risk coronary dissection.
- In the settings of coronary stenting, angulated lesions represent a challenge due to the inability of delivering the stent to the stenosis and straightening of the arterial silhouette after stent implantation that may predispose to the presence of stent fracture.
- Vessel curvature at the site of maximum stenosis should be measured in the most unforeshortened projection using a length of curvature that approximates the balloon length used for coronary dilation.
CME Category::Cardiology
Animal morphology
Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of  organisms. It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny (the evolution of species).

# Description
Two major concepts of comparative anatomy are:
- Homologous structures - structures (body parts/anatomy) which are similar in different species because the species have common descent.  They may or may not perform the same function. An example is the forelimb structure shared by cats and whales.
- Analogous structures - structures which are similar in different organisms because they evolved in a similar environment, rather than were inherited from a recent common ancestor. They usually serve the same or similar purposes. An example is the torpedo body shape of porpoises and sharks. It evolved in a water environment, but the animals have different ancestors.
The rules for development of special characteristics which differ significantly from general homology were listed by Karl Ernst von Baer (the Baer laws).

# History
Edward Tyson is regarded as the founder of comparative anatomy. He is credited with determining that marine mammals are, in fact, mammals. Also, he concluded that chimpanzees are more similar to humans than to monkeys because of their arms.
Marco Aurelio Severino also compared various animals, among which birds, in his Zootomia democritaea, one of the first work of comparative anatomy.
Ann Arbor staging

# Overview
Ann Arbor staging is the staging system for lymphomas, both in Hodgkin's lymphoma (previously called Hodgkin's Disease) and Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (abbreviated NHL). It was initially developed for Hodgkin's, but has some use in NHL. It has roughly the same function as TNM staging in solid tumors.
The stage depends on both the place where the malignant tissue is located (as located with biopsy, CT scanning and increasingly positron emission tomography) and on systemic symptoms due to the lymphoma ("B symptoms": night sweats, weight loss of >10% or fevers).

# Principal Stages
The principal stage is determined by location of the tumor:
- Stage I indicates that the cancer is located in a single region, usually one lymph node and the surrounding area. Stage I often will not have outward symptoms.
- Stage II indicates that the cancer is located in two separate regions, an affected lymph node or organ within the lymphatic system and a second affected area, and that both affected areas are confined to one side of the diaphragm - that is, both are above the diaphragm, or both are below the diaphragm.
- Stage III indicates that the cancer has spread to both sides of the diaphragm, including one organ or area near the lymph nodes or the spleen.
- Stage IV indicates diffuse or disseminated involvement of one or more extralymphatic organs, including any involvement of the liver, bone marrow, or nodular involvement of the lungs.

# Modifiers
These letters can be appended to some stages:
- A or B: the absence of constitutional (B-type) symptoms is denoted by adding an "A" to the stage; the presence is denoted by adding a "B" to the stage.
- E: is used if the disease is "extranodal" (not in the lymph nodes) or has spread from lymph nodes to adjacent tissue.
- X: is used if the largest deposit is >10 cm large ("bulky disease"), or whether the mediastinum is wider than 1/3 of the chest on a chest X-ray.

# Type of staging
The nature of the staging is (occasionally) expressed with:
- CS - clinical stage as obtained by doctor's examinations and tests.
- PS - pathological stage as obtained by exploratory laparotomy (surgery performed through an abdominal incision) with splenectomy (surgical removal of the spleen). Note: exploratory laparotomy has fallen out of favor for lymphoma staging.

# Limitations
The staging does not take into account the grade (biological behavior) of the tumor tissue. The prognostic significance of bulky disease, and some other modifiers, were introduced with the "Cotswolds modification" (Lister et al 1989).

# History
The Ann Arbor classification is named after Ann Arbor, Michigan, where the Committee on Hodgkin's Disease Staging Classification met in 1971; it consisted of experts from the USA, UK, Germany and France, and replaced the older Rye classification from a 1965 meeting (Rosenberg 1966). The Cotswolds modification followed after a 1988 meeting in the UK Cotswolds.
Mitotic inhibitor
A mitotic inhibitor is a type of drug derived from natural substances such as plant alkaloids and primarily used in cancer treatment and certain types of cancer research including cytogenetics. Cancer cells are able to grow and eventually metastasize through continuous mitotic division. Generally speaking, mitotic inhibitors prevent cells from undergoing mitosis by disrupting microtubule polymerization, thus preventing cancerous growth. Mitotic inhibitors work by interfering with and halting mitosis (usually during the M phase of the cell cycle), so that the cell will no longer divide. Tubulin, a necessary protein for mitosis to occur, is suppressed by the mitotic inhibitor, preventing mitosis altogether.
Examples of mitotic inhibitors frequently used in the treatment of cancer include paclitaxel, docetaxel, vinblastine, vincristine, and vinorelbine.
Colchicine is a mitotic inhibitor used in the treatment of gout.

## Use of mitotic inhibitors in cytogenetics
Cytogenetics, the study of chromosomal material by analysis of G-Banded chromosomes, uses mitotic inhibitors extensively. In order to prepare a slide for cytogenetic study, a mitotic inhibitor is added to the cells being studied. This stops the cells during mitosis, while the chromosomes are still visible. Once the cells are centrifuged and placed in a hypotonic solution, they swell, spreading the chromosomes. After preparation, the chromosomes of the cells can be viewed under a microscope to have the banding patterns of the chromosomes examined. This experiment is crucial to many forms of cancer research.

# Specific agents

## Taxanes
Taxanes are complex terpenes produced by the plants of the genus Taxus (yews). Originally derived from the Pacific yew tree, they are now synthesized artificially. Their principal mechanism is the disruption of the cell's microtubule function by stabilizing microtubule formation. Microtubules are essential to mitotic reproduction, so through the inactivation of the microtubule function of a cell, taxanes inhibit the cell's division.
- Paclitaxelused to treat lung cancer, ovarian cancer, breast cancer, and advanced forms of Kaposi's sarcoma.
- Docetaxelused to treat breast, ovarian, and non-small cell lung cancer.

## Vinca alkaloids
Vinca alkaloids are amines produced by the hallucinogenic plant Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar Periwinkle).  Vinca alkaloids inhibit microtubule polymerization, thereby inhibiting mitosis.
- Vinblastineused to treat leukaemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer and testicular cancer. It is also a component in a large number of chemotherapy regimens.
- Vincristineused to treat lymphoma, breast cancer, lung cancer, and acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
- Vindesineused to treat leukaemia, lymphoma, melanoma, breast cancer, and lung cancer.
- Vinorelbineused to treat breast cancer and non-small-cell lung cancer.

## Colchicine
Colchicine is an alkaloid derived from the autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale). It inhibits mitosis by inhibiting microtubule polymerization. While colchicine is not used to treat cancer in humans, it is commonly used to treat acute attacks of gout.
Antisense therapy
Antisense therapy is a form of treatment for genetic disorders or infections.
When the genetic sequence of a particular gene is known to be causative of a particular disease, it is possible to synthesize a strand of nucleic acid (DNA, RNA or a chemical analogue) that will bind to the messenger RNA (mRNA) produced by that gene and inactivate it, effectively turning that gene "off". This is because mRNA has to be single stranded for it to be translated.
This synthesized nucleic acid is termed an "anti-sense" oligonucleotide because its base sequence is complementary to the gene's messenger RNA (mRNA), which is called the "sense" sequence (so that a sense segment of mRNA " 5'-AAGGUC-3' " would be blocked by the anti-sense mRNA segment " 3'-UUCCAG-5' ").
Antisense drugs are being researched to treat cancers (including lung cancer,colorectal carcinoma, pancreatic carcinoma, malignant glioma and malignant melanoma), diabetes, ALS and diseases such as asthma and arthritis with an inflammatory component. Most potential therapies have not yet produced significant clinical results, though one antisense drug, fomivirsen (marketed as Vitravene), has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a treatment for cytomegalovirus retinitis.
In early 2006, scientists studying the Ebola virus at USAMRIID announced a 75% recovery rate after infecting four rhesus monkeys and then treating them with antisense drugs (the usual mortality rate for monkeys infected with Ebola is 100%).
Also in 2006, German physicians reported on a dose-escalation study for the compound AP 12009 (a phosphorothioate antisense oligodeoxynucleotide specific for the mRNA of human transforming growth factor TGF-beta2) in patients with high grade gliomas.  At the time of the report, the median overall survival had not been obtained and the authors hinted at a potential cure.
Antiviral Therapy
Antiviral Therapy is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by International Medical Press, London, UK (a subsidiary of MediTech Media). It is an official publication of the International Society for Antiviral Research.
Antiviral Therapy publishes primary papers and reviews on all aspects of the clinical development of antivirals, including clinical trial results, resistance, viral diagnostics, drug safety, pharmacoepidemiology and vaccines. The journal also publishes supplements containing abstracts from various conferences and workshops, including the International HIV Drug Resistance Workshop, International Workshop on Adverse Drug Reactions and Lipodystrophy in HIV and Therapies for Viral Hepatitis Workshop.
The journal was founded in 1996 by  Douglas D. Richman (University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, USA) and Joep M.A. Lange (University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands), who serve as the Editors-in-Chief as of 2007. The initial frequency was quarterly.
In 2005, the publication frequency increased to eight issues a year. Content over a year old is available free online in PDF format, and all articles are available free to those living in developing countries.
The journal had an impact factor of 4.982 in 2006, placing it fourth of 23 journals in the virology category. It is indexed by Chemical Abstracts, Current Contents (Clinical Medicine), EMBASE/Excerpta Medica, Medline/Index Medicus, Research Alert and SciSearch.
Apex of the heart

# Overview
The apex of the heart is the lowest superficial part of the heart.
It is directed downward, forward, and to the left, and is overlapped by the left lung and pleura.

# External anatomy
It lies behind the fifth left intercostal space, 8 to 9 cm. from the mid-sternal line, slightly medial to the midclavicular line.
Alternately, it can be found about 4 cm. below and 2 mm. to the medial side of the left mammary papilla.
It's function is to pump blood from the left atruim
Apolipoprotein C2
Apolipoprotein C2 or apolipoprotein C-II is a protein that in humans is encoded by the APOC2 gene.
The protein encoded by this gene is secreted in plasma where it is a component of very low density lipoproteins and chylomicrons. This protein activates the enzyme lipoprotein lipase in capillaries, which hydrolyzes triglycerides and thus provides free fatty acids for cells. Mutations in this gene cause hyperlipoproteinemia type IB, characterized by xanthomas, pancreatitis, and hepatosplenomegaly, but no increased risk for atherosclerosis. Lab tests will show elevated blood levels of triglycerides, cholesterol, and chylomicrons

# Interactive pathway map
Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles. 
-  The interactive pathway map can be edited at WikiPathways: "Statin_Pathway_WP430"..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Apolipoprotein C1
Apolipoprotein C-I is a protein component of lipoproteins that in humans is encoded by the APOC1 gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the apolipoprotein C family. This gene is expressed primarily in the liver, and it is activated when monocytes differentiate into macrophages. A pseudogene of this gene is located 4 kb downstream in the same orientation, on the same chromosome. This gene is mapped to chromosome 19, where it resides within an apolipoprotein gene cluster. Alternatively spliced transcript variants have been found for this gene, but the biological validity of some variants has not been determined.
Apolipoprotein C1 has a length of 57 amino acids normally found in plasma and responsible for the activation of esterified lecithin cholesterol with an important role in the exchange of esterified cholesterol between lipoproteins and in removal of cholesterol from tissues. Its main function is inhibition of CETP, probably by altering the electric charge of HDL molecules.
During fasting (like other apolipoprotein C), it is found primarily within HDL, while after a meal it is found on the surface of other lipoproteins. When proteins rich in triglycerides like chylomicrons and VLDL are broken down, this apoprotein is transferred again to HDL.  It is one of the most positively charged proteins in the human body.

# Interactive pathway map
Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles. 
-  The interactive pathway map can be edited at WikiPathways: "Statin_Pathway_WP430"..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Argemone mexicana
Argemone mexicana (Mexican Poppy, Mexican Prickly Poppy or Cardosanto) is a species of poppy found in Mexico and now widely naturalized in the United States and India. An annual herb with bright yellow sap, it has been used by the Natives of the western US and parts of Mexico. The seed-pods secrete a pale-yellow latex substance when cut open. This argemone resin contains berberine and protopine, and is used medicinally as a sedative.
The seeds contain 22-36% of a pale yellow non-edible oil, called argemone oil or katkar oil, which contains the toxic alkaloids sanguinarine and dihydrosanguinarine. The seeds resemble the seeds of Brassica nigra (mustard). As a result, mustard can be adulterated by argemone seeds, rendering it poisonous. The oil itself is used medicinally to treat dropsy, jaundice and skin diseases. Katkar oil poisoning causes epidemic dropsy, with symptoms including extreme swelling, particularly of the legs. Several significant instances of katkar poisoning have been reported in India, Fiji, South Africa and other countries. The last major outbreak in India occurred in 1998. 1% adulteration of mustard oil by argemone oil has been shown to cause clinical disease.
This plant and extract there from is also sold online as an herbal marijuana alternative.
Erectores pilorum
Erectores pilorum (singular Erector pili) are tiny muscle fibers attached to each hair follicle, which contract to make the hairs stand on end, causing goose bumps. They exist in most mammals including humans.
Erectores pilorum are smooth muscle, not skeletal muscle, which explains why humans cannot voluntarily give themselves goose bumps. In other animals with more hair than humans, they serve an important function  they raise the hairs so air gets trapped between them, providing a layer of insulation to keep the animal warm. Some animals also contract their erectores pilorum when they are cornered, in order to appear larger and more threatening. A prominent example of this function is the porcupine which uses erectores pilorum to raise its quills when threatened. Although humans' erectores pilorum also contract in response to cold or arousal, they are vestigial because humans do not have enough hair to make them effective.
The erectores pilorum are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system which is in general responsible for many fight-or-flight responses.

# Additional images
- Cross-section of all skin layers.
Oxygen saturation
Oxygen saturation is a relative measure of the amount of oxygen that is dissolved or carried in a given medium.  It can be measured with a dissolved oxygen probe such as an oxygen sensor or an optode in liquid media, usually water.

# Medical science
In medicine, oxygen saturation (SO2) measures the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites in the bloodstream occupied by oxygen. At low partial pressures of oxygen, most hemoglobin is deoxygenated. At around 90% (the value varies according to the clinical context) oxygen saturation increases according to an oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve and approaches 100% at partial oxygen pressures of >10 kPa. A pulse oximeter relies on the light absorption characteristics of saturated hemoglobin to give an indication of oxygen saturation.
An SaO2 (arterial oxygen saturation) value below 90% is termed hypoxemia. This may be due to various medical conditions.
The SvO2 (venous oxygen saturation) is measured to see how much oxygen the body consumes. Under clinical treatment, a SvO2 below 60%, indicates that the body is in lack of oxygen, and ischemic diseases occur. This measurement is often used under treatment with a heart-lung machine (Extra Corporal Circulation), and can give the perfusionist an idea of how much flow the patient needs to stay healthy.
Tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) can be measured by near infrared spectroscopy. Although the measurements are still widely discussed, they give an idea of tissue oxygenation in various conditions.
Saturation of Peripheral Oxygen (SpO2) is an estimation of the oxygen saturation level usually measured with a pulse oximeter device.

# Environmental sciences
In aquatic environments, oxygen saturation is a relative measure of the amount of oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water.  Dissolved oxygen (DO) is measured in standard solution units such as millimoles O2 per liter (mmol/L), milligrams O2
- 20 C, normal pressure, freshwater:  9.1 mg/L =  100% saturation
Solubility tables (based upon temperature) and corrections for different salinities and pressures can be found at the USGS web site.
Tables such as these of DO in milliliters per liter (ml/L) are based upon empirical equations that have been worked out and tested (e.g.,Weiss, 1970):
T = temperature in kelvins, and S = salinity in g/kg.  DO = dissolved oxygen in ml/L.  ln is the natural log.  Multiply DO by 1.4276 to obtain mg/L.
Supersaturation can sometimes be harmful for organisms and cause gas bubble disease.
DO - at least 4 - 6 mg/L (ppm), but more is better
Arthur J. Deikman
Arthur J. Deikman, M.D., is professor of psychiatry at University of California, San Francisco, and editor of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology.  He is also a contributor to The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.
His book The Wrong Way Home: Uncovering the Patterns of Cult Behavior in American Society is used as part of the curriculum for the course "Cults and New Religious Movements" at St. Francis Xavier University.  It is a cited reference for the article "Self-Sealing Doctrines, the Misuse of Power, and Recovered Memory", by psychologist Linda Riebel.  It is a cited reference in the Encyclopedia of Psychology, and is quoted in the article on cults, where the article asserts that: "Certain types of political groups and terrorist organizations are still other examples of "cults" that defy the common definition of the term.".

# Education
- Harvard College
- Harvard Medical School
- Board Certified, Psychiatry, Neurology, American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology

# Published works

## Books
- Personal Freedom: On Finding Your Way to the Real World, 1976
- The Observing Self (book), 1983
- Evaluating Spiritual and Utopian Groups (book), 1988
- The Wrong Way Home: Uncovering the Patterns of Cult Behavior in American Society, 1990
- Them and Us: Cult Thinking and the Terrorist Threat (book), 2003, excerpted

## Articles
- Arthur Deikman on Mystic Experience, "Mystic Experience and Two Modes of Consciousness", adapted from the work of Arthur J. Deikman, M.D.
- Article, Journal of Consciousness Studies, 1996
- I = Awareness, Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3 (4), pp. 350-6.
- Spirituality Expands a Therapist's Horizons
- The Evaluation of Spiritual and Utopian Groups, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 23, No. 3, 8-18 (1983), Abstract
- Treating Former Members of Cults