Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Elecampane
Elecampane, also called Horse-heal (Inula helenium) or Marchalan (in Welsh), is a perennial composite plant common in many parts of Great Britain, and ranges throughout central and Southern Europe, and in Asia as far eastwards as the Himalayas.
It is a rather rigid herb, the stem of which attains a height of from 3 to 5 feet; the leaves are large and toothed, the lower ones stalked, the rest embracing the stem; the flowers are yellow, 2 inches broad, and have many rays, each three-notched at the extremity. The root is thick, branching and mucilaginous, and has a warm, bitter taste and a camphoraceous odor.
For medicinal purposes it should be procured from plants not more than two or three years old. Besides inulin, C12H20O10, a body isomeric with starch, the root contains helenin, C6H8O, a stearoptene, which may be prepared in white acicular crystals, insoluble in water, but freely soluble in alcohol. When freed from the accompanying inula-camphor by repeated crystallization from alcohol, helenin melts at 110 C. By the ancients the root was employed both as a medicine and as a condiment, and in England it was formerly in great repute as an aromatic tonic and stimulant of the secretory organs. As a drug, however, the root is now seldom resorted to except in veterinary practice, though it is undoubtedly possessed of antiseptic properties.
In France and Switzerland it is used in the manufacture of absinthe.

# Folklore
The plant's specific name, helenium, derives from Helen of Troy; elecampane is said to have sprung up from where her tears fell. It was sacred to the ancient Celts, and once had the name "elfwort".

# Herbalism
John Gerard recommended elecampane for "the shortness of breath"; today herbalists prescribe it as an expectorant and for water retention; it also is claimed to have antiseptic properties. It has minor applications as a tonic and to bring on menstruation.
Micrograph
A micrograph, microphotograph or  photomicrograph is a photograph or similar image taken through a microscope or similar device to show a magnified image of an item. Canadian inventor Reginald Aubrey Fessenden is credited with inventing photomicrography.
To produce a micrograph, a camera may be affixed to a microscope either in place of the eyepiece or a specialist microscope may be used which has a camera and eyepiece arrangement. A prepared specimen is put under the microscope in the usual way and photographs taken. Alternatively, the image may be scanned and stored electronically and displayed on a screen and/or printed.
Micrographs are widely used in forensic engineering and forensic science, especially for recording Trace evidence. It is also routinely used in scanning electron microscopy, often combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy so that the area of the sample selected for analysis is directly visible.

# Types

## Light micrograph
A light micrograph is a micrograph prepared using a light microscope, a process referred to as photomicroscopy (a portmanteau term of the words photography and microscopy). At a basic level, photomicroscopy may be performed simply by hooking up a regular camera to a microscope, thereby enabling the user to take photographs at reasonably high magnification.
Photomicroscopists take photographs of many biologic subjects such as cells and proteins and insect eyes. Roman Vishniac was a pioneer in the field of photomicroscopy, specializing in the photography of living creatures in full motion. He also made major developments in light-interruption photography and color photomicroscopy.

## Electron micrograph
An electron micrograph is a micrograph prepared using an electron microscope.
Embryology

# Overview
Embryology is the study of the development of an embryo. An embryo is defined as any vertebrate in a stage before birth or hatching. Embryology is more specific as it only encompasses the modern definition: 
an animal that is undergoing early development including the formation of primitive organ systems, the creation of fundamental tissues, and cleavage; especially involving the development of human individuals from the moment the blastocyst is implanted until the end of the eight week after conception. Past the eight week, the developing animal is called a fetus.

# History
After the 1950s, with the DNA helical structure being discovered by James D. Watson and Francis Crick, (in collaboration with Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins) and the increasing knowledge in the field of molecular biology, developmental biology emerged as the field of study that correlates the genes and such morphological changes; in other words, which genes are responsible for each morphological change that takes place in an embryo, and how these genes are regulated.

# Vertebrate and invertebrate embryology
Many principles of embryology apply to both invertebrate animals as well as to vertebrates. Therefore, study of invertebrate embryology has advanced the study of vertebrate embryology.  However, there are many differences as well. For example, numerous invertebrate species release a larva before development is complete; at the end of the larval period, an animal for the first time looks like an offspring of its parents.  Although invertebrate embryology is similar in some ways for different invertebrate animals, there are also countless variations.  For instance, some insects proceed directly from egg to adult form whereas others develop through an elaborate sequence of changes.

# Neuroembryology
Neuroembryology refers to the development of an embryos nervous system. At the middle of the third week the neural plate appears which originates from the ectoderm.
Emissivity
The emissivity of a material (usually written  or e) is the ratio of energy radiated by a particular material to energy radiated by a black body at the same temperature. It is a measure of a material's ability to radiate absorbed energy. A true black body would have an \varepsilon=1 while any real object would have \varepsilon.  Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity (does not have units).
In general, the duller and blacker a material is, the closer its emissivity is to 1. The more reflective a material is, the lower its emissivity. Highly polished silver has an emissivity of about 0.02.

# Explanation
Emissivity depends on factors such as temperature, emission angle, and wavelength. A typical engineering assumption is to assume that a surface's spectral emissivity and absorptivity do not depend on wavelength, so that the emissivity is a constant. This is known as the grey body assumption.
When dealing with non-black surfaces, the deviations from ideal black body behavior are determined by both the geometrical structure and the chemical composition, and follow Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation: emissivity equals absorptivity (for an object in thermal equilibrium), so that an object that does not absorb all incident light will also emit less radiation than an ideal black body.

# Emissivity of earth's atmosphere
The emissivity of Earth's atmosphere varies according to cloud cover and the concentration of gases that absorb and emit energy in the thermal infrared (i.e., wavelengths around 8 to 14 micrometres). These gases are often called greenhouse gases, from their role in the greenhouse effect. The main naturally-occurring greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone.  The major constituents of the atmosphere, N2 and O2, do not absorb or emit in the thermal infrared.

## Astrophysical graybody
The monochromatic flux density radiated by a greybody at frequency \nu through solid angle d\Omega is given by F_{\nu} = B_{\nu}(T) Q_{\nu} d\Omega  where B_{\nu} is the Planck function for a blackbody at temperature T and emissivity Q_{\nu}.
For a uniform medium of optical depth \tau_{\nu} radiative transfer means that the radiation will be reduced by a factor e^{-\tau} giving . The optical depth is often approximated by the ratio of the emitting frequency to the frequency where \tau=1 all raised to an exponent . For cold dust clouds in the interstellar medium  is approximately two. Therefore Q becomes,
Q_{\nu}=1-e^{-\tau_{\nu}}=1-e^{-(\nu/\nu_{\tau=1})^{\beta}}
Emissivity between 2 walls
{\varepsilon}_{1,2}=\frac{1}{{\frac{1}{\varepsilon_1}}+{\frac{1}{\varepsilon_2}}-1}
Enamel rod

# Overview
An Enamel rod is the basic unit of enamel.  The antiquated term is enamel prism.  Measuring 4 m wide to 8 m high, an enamel rod is a tightly packed, highly organized mass of hydroxyapatite crystals. In cross section, it is best compared to a keyhole with the top, or head, oriented toward the crown of the tooth and the bottom, or tail, oriented toward the root of the tooth.
Enamel rods are found in rows along the tooth. Within each row, the long axis of the enamel rod generally is perpendicular to the underlying dentin. In permanent teeth, the enamel rods near the cementoenamel junction (CEJ) tilt slightly more toward the root of the tooth than would be expected. Knowing the orientation of enamel is very important in restorative dentistry because enamel unsupported by underlying dentin is prone to fracture and usually is avoided.
The arrangement of crystals within each enamel rod is highly complex.  For the most part, the enamel crystals are oriented parallel to the long axis of the rod.  The further away the crystals are from the central axis, the more their own orientation diverges.
The area around the enamel rod is known as interrod enamel. Interrod enamel has the same composition as the enamel rods. Nonetheless, a histologic distinction is made between the two because crystal orientation is different in each.  The crystals lie nearly perpendicular to the enamel rod.
Endostatin
Endostatin is a naturally-occurring 20-kDa C-terminal fragment derived from type XVIII collagen. It is reported to serve as an anti-angiogenic agent, similar to angiostatin and thrombospondin
Endostatin is a broad spectrum angiogenesis inhibitor and may interfere with the pro-angiogenic action of growth factors such as basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF/FGF-2) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).

# Research
Endostatin is currently being studied as part of cancer research.

## Phase I
In a Phase I clinical trial of Endostatin of the 19 patients treated, 12 were switched out of the trial by their physicians due to continued progression of their disease.
Two patients continued to be treated, and the remaining patients withdrew on their own.
The trial, designed primarily to demonstrate safety, indeed showed that the drug was safe and well-tolerated.

## Phase II
In a Phase II clinical trial of Endostatin forty two patients with pancreatic endocrine tumors or carcinoid tumors were treated. Of the 40 patients which could be evaluated for a radiologic response, none experienced partial response to therapy, as defined by World Health Organization criteria.
The conclusion from the trial was that "Treatment with Endostatin did not result in significant tumor regression in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors."
Enkephalin
An enkephalin (occasionally spelled encephalin) is a pentapeptide involved in regulating nociception in the body.  The enkephalins are termed endogenous ligands, as they are internally derived and bind to the body's opioid receptors.  Discovered in 1975, two forms of enkephalin have been found, one containing leucine ("leu"), and the other containing methionine ("met"). Both are products of the proenkephalin gene.
- Met-enkephalin is Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met.
- Leu-enkephalin has Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu.

# Endogenous opioid peptides
There are three well-characterized families of opioid peptides produced by the body: enkephalins, B-endorphin, and dynorphins. The met-enkephalin peptide sequence is coded for by the enkephalin gene; the leu-enkephalin peptide sequence is coded for by both the enkephalin gene and the dynorphin gene. The proopiomelanocortin gene (POMC) also contains the met-enkephalin sequence on the N-terminus of beta-endorphin, but the endorphin peptide is not  processed into enkephalin.

# Effects on Stress
Enkephalin is also considered a neuropeptide, which in the human body performs as an important signaling molecule in the brain. Enkephalins are found in high concentration in the brain as well as in the cells of adrenal medulla. In response to pain, norepinephrine, a hormone that is activated in fight-or-flight response is released along with endorphins. It has been shown that this polypeptide is linked to brain functioning during a stressful response, especially in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex regions. During a stress response, several Met-enkephalin analogs had increased activity in the hippocampus, while Leu-enkephalin analogs as well as somatostatins were downregulated during stress. This observation leads to a conclusion that stressors impact neuropeptides, and that their action is localized to a specific brain region.

# Enkephalin receptor
The receptors for enkephalin are the delta opioid receptors and mu opioid receptors. Opioid receptors are a group of G-protein-coupled receptors, with other opioids as ligands as well. The other endogenous opioids are dynorphins (that bind to kappa receptors), endorphins (mu receptors), endomorphins, and nociceptin/orphanin FQ. The opioid receptors are ~40% identical to somatostatin receptors (SSTRs).
Enterocyte

# Overview
Enterocytes, or intestinal absorptive cells, are simple columnar epithelial cells found in the small intestines and colon. A glycocalyx surface coat contains digestive enzymes. Microvilli on the apical surface increase surface area for the digestion and transport of molecules from the intestinal lumen. The cells also have a secretory role.

# Functions
The major functions of enterocytes include:
- Ion uptake, including sodium, calcium, magnesium, and iron. This typically occurs through active transport.
- Water uptake. This follows the osmotic gradient established by Na+/K+ ATPase on the basolateral surface. This can occur transcellularly or paracellularly.
- Sugar uptake. Polysaccharidases and disaccharidases in the glycocalyx break down large sugar molecules, which are then absorbed. Glucose crosses the apical membrane of the enterocyte using the Na+ dependent glucose transporter.  It moves through the cytosol (cytoplasm) and exits the enterocyte via the basolateral membrane (into the blood capillary) using GLUT-2 (SLC2A2). Galactose uses the same transport system. Fructose, on the other hand, crosses the apical membrane of the enterocyte, using GLUT-5 (SLC2A5). It is thought to cross into the blood capillary using one of the other GLUT transporters.
- Peptide and amino acid uptake. Peptidases in the glycocalyx cleave proteins to amino acids or small peptides. Enteropeptidase is responsible for activating pancreatic trypsinogen into trypsin, which activates other pancreatic zymogens.
- Lipid uptake. Lipids are broken down by pancreatic lipase and bile, and then diffuse into the enterocytes. Smaller lipids are transported into intestinal capillaries, while larger lipids are processed by the Golgi and smooth endoplasmic reticulum into lipoprotein chylomicra and exocytozed into lacteals.
- Vitamin uptake. Receptors bind to the ]-gastric intrinsic factor complex and are taken into the cell.
- Resorption of unconjugated bile salts. Bile that was released and not used in emulsification of lipids are reabsorbed in the ileum. Also known as the enterohepatic circulation.
- Secretion of immunoglobulins. IgA from plasma cells in the mucosa are absorbed through receptor mediated endocytosis on the basolateral surface and released as a receptor-IgA complex into the intestinal lumen. The receptor component confers additional stability to the molecule.

# Pathology
Dietary fructose intolerance occurs when there is a deficiency in the amount of fructose carrier.
Lactose intolerance is the most common problem of carbohydrate digestion and is created by an insufficient amount of lactase (a disaccharidase) enzyme, which is used to break down the sugar. As a result of this deficiency, undigested lactose cannot be absorbed and is instead passed on to the colonic bacteria, which metabolize the lactose. The bacteria release gas and metabolic products that enhance colonic motility.
Problems with the gastric intrinsic factor or its receptor can result in pernicious anemia.
Epicardial
Epicardial is a term used by some cardiac surgeons meaning " on the outside of the cardiac muscle".

# Pathological Findings
Image courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission  PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology
- Epicardial Scarring: Gross, marked thickening of epicardium, sugar-coated appearance cause unknown
- Epicardial Scarring: Gross, marked thickening of epicardium, sugar-coated appearance
- Epicardial petechiae: Gross, an excellent example of infarct heart with petechiae.
- Heart: Soldiers Patch: Gross, natural color, large area of epicardial fibrosis over mid-portion of left ventricle.
- Disseminated intravascular coagulation; External surface of the heart showing epicardial petechiae
- Cardiac rhabdomyoma: Note the multiple, minute tumors studding the epicardial surface. This pattern of involvement is typical in patients with tuberous sclerosis.
- Granular cell tumor: Localized epicardial tumor: Note the cut surface of circumscribed white tumor on the epicardial surface and the underlying right ventricular trabeculations.
- Granular cell tumor: Localized epicardial tumor (arrowheads) overlying the left main coronary artery close to its takeoff. Note aorta (AO) posterior to the pulmonary artery (PA).
- Bronchogenic cyst: This example was removed from the epicardial surface of a 13-year-old.
- Liposarcoma, Heart: Gross specimen demonstrates the posterior wall of the heart studded with multiple epicardial nodules over the right and left ventricles.
- Acute myocardial infarction with epicardial fibrin
- The heart in Leukemia: Note the biventricular, predominantly subepicardial diffuse infiltrates. The patient was a 45-year-old man with acute myelogenous leukemia who died with disseminated disease.
Epicardium

# Overview
Epicardium describes the outer layer of heart tissue (from Greek; epi- outer, cardium heart). When considered as a part of the pericardium, it is the inner layer, or visceral pericardium.
Its largest constituent is connective tissue and functions as a protective layer.
The visceral pericardium apparently produces the pericardial fluid, which lubricates motion between the inner and outer layers of the pericardium.
During ventricular contraction, the wave of depolarization moves from endocardial to epicardial surface.
Epididymis
The epididymis is part of the human male reproductive system and is present in all male mammals. It is a narrow, tightly-coiled tube connecting the efferent ducts from the rear of each testicle to its vas deferens.

# Regions
The epididymis can be divided into three main regions
- the head (caput)
- the body (corpus)
- the tail (cauda)

# Role in storage of sperm and ejaculation
Spermatozoa formed in the testis enter the caput epididymis, progress to the corpus, and finally reach the cauda region, where they are stored. Sperm entering the caput epididymis are incomplete - they lack the ability to swim forward (motility) and to fertilize an egg.  During their transit in the epididymis, sperm undergo maturation processes necessary for them to acquire these functions.  Final maturation is completed in the female reproductive tract (capacitation).
During ejaculation, sperm flow from the lower portion of the epididymis (which functions as a storage reservoir). They are packed so tightly that they are unable to swim, but are transported via the peristaltic action of muscle layers within the vas deferens, and are mixed with the diluting fluids of the seminal vesicles and other accessory glands prior to ejaculation (forming semen).
The epididymis is one of only two regions of the body to have stereocilia (the inner ear being the other.)

# Pathology
An inflammation of the epididymis is called epididymitis.  It is a swollen blood vessel from the testicle that appears or feels like an enlarged epididymis.

# Embryology and vestigial structures
A Gartner's duct is a homologous remnant in the female.
Embryologically, the epididymis is derived from tissue that once formed the mesonephros, a primitive kidney found in many aquatic vertebrates.  Persistence of the cranial end of the mesonephric duct will leave behind a remnant called the appendix of the epididymis.  Additionally, some mesonephric tubules can persist as the paradidymis, a small body caudal to the efferent ductules.

# Additional images
- Male reproductive system.
- Testis
- Schematic drawing of a cross-section through the vaginal process.
- Microscopic shot.
Epiglottis

# Overview
The epiglottis is a lid-like flap of elastic cartilage tissue covered with a mucus membrane, attached to the root of the tongue. It projects obliquely upwards behind the tongue and the hyoid bone.

# Anatomy and function
The epiglottis guards the entrance of the glottis, the opening between the vocal folds.
It is normally pointed upward, but during swallowing, elevation of the hyoid bone draws the larynx upward; as a result, the epiglottis folds down to a more horizontal position. In this manner it prevents food from going into the trachea and instead directs it to the esophagus, which is more posterior.
The epiglottis is one of three large cartilaginous structures that make up the larynx (voice box).

# Clinical significance

## Reflexes
The glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) sends fibers to the upper epiglottis that contribute to the afferent limb of the gag reflex. The superior laryngeal branch of the vagus nerve (CN X) sends fibers to the lower epiglottis that contribute to the afferent limb of the cough reflex. 

## Infection of the epiglottis
In children, the epiglottis will occasionally become infected with Haemophilus influenzae or Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria. Although easily treated, this condition is a medical emergency because without treatment the epiglottis may swell and block the trachea, causing massive inflammation. This condition has become rare in countries where vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae (HIB) is administered.

# Additional images
- Larynx
- Cut through the larynx of a horse
- The cartilages of the larynx. Posterior view.
- Ligaments of the larynx. Posterior view.
- Coronal section of larynx and upper part of trachea.
- The entrance to the larynx, viewed from behind.
- Muscles of larynx. Posterior view.
- Muscles of larynx. Side view. Right lamina of thyroid cartilage removed.
- Sagittal section of nose mouth, pharynx, and larynx.
Epiregulin
Epiregulin (EPR) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EREG gene.

# Structure
Epiregulin consists of 46 amino acid residues. Its secondary structure contains approximately 30 percent of -sheet in the strand. Some of the residues form loops and turns due to the hydrogen bonding. The percentage of -sheet in epiregulin depends on the domain and the secondary structures that they occupy. The polymeric molecules of epiregulin has the formula weight of 5280.1 g/mol with a polypeptide(L), a polymer type.
Structural motifs in most proteins have typical connections in an all  motif. Meaning that the polypeptide chains do not make a crossover connection or in so far as this type of connection has not been observed. Epiregulin is one of the proteins that occupies a typical connection in all  motif. Furthermore, as the structure of epiregulin forms a chain in an all  motif, it also forms  hairpin structural motif. A  hairpin is when the two adjacent anti-parallel  strands connected by a -turn.

# Function
Epiregulin is a member of the epidermal growth factor family. Epiregulin can function as a ligand of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), as well as a ligand of most members of the ERBB (v-erb-b2 oncogene homolog) family of tyrosine-kinase receptors. The secondary structure at the C-terminus epiregulin is different from other epidermal growth factor family ligands because of the lack of hydrogen bonds. The structural difference at the C-terminus may provide an explanation for the reduced  binding affinity of epiregulin to the ERBB receptors.