Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Toxin
A toxin (Greek: Template:Polytonic, toxikon, lit. (poison) for use on arrows) is a poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms. Toxins are nearly always proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact or absorption with body tissues by interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors. Toxins vary greatly in their severity, ranging from usually minor and acute (as in a bee sting) to almost immediately deadly (as in botulinum toxin).
Biotoxins vary greatly in purpose and mechanism, and can be highly complex (the venom of the cone snail contains dozens of small proteins, each targeting a specific nerve channel or receptor), or relatively small protein.

# Use
Biotoxins in nature have two primary functions:
- Predation (spider, snake, scorpion, jellyfish, wasp)
- Defense (bee, poison dart frog, deadly nightshade, honeybee, wasp)
Some of the more well known types of biotoxins include:
- Hemotoxins target and destroy red blood cells, and are transmitted through the bloodstream. Organisms that possess hemotoxins include:
Pit Vipers, such as rattlesnakes.
- Pit Vipers, such as rattlesnakes.
- Necrotoxins cause necrosis (i.e., death) in the cells they encounter and destroy all types of tissue.  Necrotoxins spread through the bloodstream, but infect all tissues.  In humans, skin and muscle tissues are most sensitive to necrotoxins.  Organisms that possess necrotoxins include:
The brown recluse or "fiddle back" spider.
Necrotizing fasciitis (the "flesh eating" bacteria)
- The brown recluse or "fiddle back" spider.
- Necrotizing fasciitis (the "flesh eating" bacteria)
- Neurotoxins primarily affect the nervous systems of animals.  Organisms that possess neurotoxins include:
The Black Widow and other widow spiders.
Most scorpions.
The box jellyfish.
Elapid snakes.
The Cone Snail.
- The Black Widow and other widow spiders.
- Most scorpions.
- The box jellyfish.
- Elapid snakes.
- The Cone Snail.
Plant Toxins
Ricin is found in the castor bean plant.

# Non-technical usage
When used non-technically, the term "toxin" is often applied to any toxic substances. Toxic substances not of biological origin are more properly termed poisons.  Many non-technical and lifestyle journalists also follow this usage to refer to toxic substances in general, though some specialist journalists at publishers such as BBC and The Guardian maintain the distinction that toxins are only those produced by living organisms.
In the context of alternative medicine the term is often used nonspecifically to refer to any substance claimed to cause ill health, ranging anywhere from trace amounts of pesticides to common food items like refined sugar or additives like artificial sweeteners and MSG.
The term is also used commonly in pop psychology to describe things that have an adverse effect on psychological health, such as a "toxic relationship," "toxic work environment" or "toxic shame."
Rales
Synonyms and keywords:  Crackles; crepitations

# Overview
Rales are the clicking, rattling, or crackling noises heard on auscultation of (listening to) the lung with a stethoscope during inhalation. The sounds are caused by the "popping open" of small airways and alveoli collapsed by fluid, exudate, or lack of aeration during expiration. The word "rales" derives from the French word rale meaning "rattle".

# Causes

## Common Causes
- Atelectasis
- Bronchiectasis
- Bronchitis, acute
- Congestive heart failure
- Pneumonia
- Pulmonary edema
- Pulmonary fibrosis

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### The Sound of Rales
Crackles (or rales) are caused by explosive opening of small airways. Cracklinuous sounds; they are intermittent, nonmusical and brief. Crackles are much more common during the inspiratory than the expiratory phase of breathing, but they may be heard during the expiratory phase. Crackles are often associated with inflammation or infection of the small bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. Crackles that don't clear after a cough may indicate pulmonary edema or fluid in the alveoli due to heart failure or acute respiratory distress syndrome.
- Crackles are often described as fine, medium, and coarse. They can also be characterized as to their timing: fine crackles are usually late-inspiratory, whereas coarse crackles are early inspiratory.
- Fine crackles are soft, high-pitched, and very brief. This sound can be simulated by rolling a strand of hair between one's fingers near the ears, or by moistening one's thumb and index finger and separating them near the ears. Their presence usually indicates an interstitial process, such as pulmonary fibrosis or congestive heart failure.
- Coarse crackles are somewhat louder, lower in pitch, and last longer than fine crackles. They have been described as sounding like opening a Velcro fastener. Their presence usually indicates an airway disease, such as bronchiectasis.

# Related Chapters
- Wheeze
- Rhonchi
- Bronchophony
- Egophony
Beedi
A beedi  (from Hindi , (pronounced: Template:IPA) also known as bidi or biri) is a thin, often flavored, South Asian cigarette made of tobacco wrapped in a tendu (or temburini; Diospyros melonoxylon) leaf, and secured with colored thread at one end. Beedies, though smaller than regular cigarettes produce three times more carbon monoxide and nicotine, and five times more tar than a regular cigarette. Tobacco content in beedies is 10-20%, and, unlike regular cigarettes, beedies do not contain added chemicals. Like all tobacco products, use can cause various cancers.
Beedi-rolling is a cottage industry in India and are typically done by women in their homes. The process of rolling a beedi is similar to that of a handmade cigarette.
Due to the relatively low cost of Beedies (compared to regular cigarettes), they have long been popular among the poor in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Cambodia and India. In India, 850 billion are smoked every year.

# Outside South Asia
Beedies, while controversial outside of South Asia, are available in many fruity flavors (such as vanilla, strawberry, chocolate, and mango). Their availability in Indian food markets is usually under the authorities' radar, due to the markets' ethnic clientele and ostensible focus on food, drink, and provisions (and omission of alcohol products).  A 1999 survey by San Francisco's Booker T Washington Community Service Center reported that 58% of high school students in San Francisco had tried them, and 31% smoked them at least once a month. Seventy percent of packs purchased contained no warning labels, and about 40% did not contain tax-paid stamps, contributing to their low cost.  Many students who have tried a beedi believe it to be less harmful than a regular cigarette due to the ease of inhalation and absence of warning labels.
Tumor

# Overview
A Tumor or tumour (via Old French tumour from Latin tumor "swelling") originally meant an abnormal swelling of the flesh. In contemporary English, tumor has evolved to become synonymous with neoplasia , all other forms being called swelling . This tendency has also become common in medical literature. The noun tumefaction, derived from the adjective tumefied, is the current medical term for non-neoplastic tumors .

# Causes
Tumors and/or swellings can be caused by:
- Neoplasia, an abnormal proliferation of tissues. Most (not all) neoplasms cause a tumor. Neoplasms (or tumors) may be benign or malignant (cancer).
- Non-neoplastic causes :
Inflammation, by far the most common cause; tumor is one of the classic signs of inflammation. The lump following a blow on the head is a typical example. Infection is another common cause of inflammation.
Edema, the accumulation of an excessive amount of fluid in the tissues, either with or without inflammation.
Malformation, a congenital anomaly in the architecture of a tissue. A typical example is an epidermal nevus.
Cyst, the accumulation of fluid in a closed structure. Breast cysts are a typical example.
Hemorrhage in a closed structure.
- Inflammation, by far the most common cause; tumor is one of the classic signs of inflammation. The lump following a blow on the head is a typical example. Infection is another common cause of inflammation.
- Edema, the accumulation of an excessive amount of fluid in the tissues, either with or without inflammation.
- Malformation, a congenital anomaly in the architecture of a tissue. A typical example is an epidermal nevus.
- Cyst, the accumulation of fluid in a closed structure. Breast cysts are a typical example.
- Hemorrhage in a closed structure.
Other forms of swelling are part of the normal functions of the body and may or may not be included as causes of tumor. Examples include enlargement of the uterus in pregnancy and erection of the penis.
This article is intentionally kept short. For a detailed discussion, see Cancer.
Bevel
A beveled edge refers to an edge of a structure that is not perpendicular (but instead often at 45 degrees) to the faces of the piece. The words bevel and chamfer overlap in usage; in general usage they are often interchanged, while in technical usage they may sometimes be differentiated as shown in the image at right.

# Applications

## Woodworking
Bevel angles can be duplicated using a sliding T bevel.

## Graphic design
Typographic bevels are shading and aritifical shadows that emulate the appearance of a 3-dimensional letter.
The bevel is a relatively common effect in graphic editors such as Photoshop. As such, it is in widespread usage in mainstream logos and archetypes.
Bevel when mentioned in the same context with boxes and squares in design refers to a raised effect, and not as commonly mistaken for rounded corners.

## Glass and mirrors
Beveled edges are a common aesthetic nicety added to window panes and mirrors.

## Geology
Geologists refer to any slope of land into a strata of different elevation as a bevel.

## Sports
In waterskiing, a bevel is the transition area between the side of the ski and the bottom of the ski. Beginners tend to prefer sharp bevels, which allow the ski to glide on the water surface.

## Cards
With a deck of cards, you can slide the top portion back so that the back of the deck is at an angle. This can be used in card tricks; see also Glossary of conjuring terms.

## Theatre
A Bevel.
Standing on one leg while pulling in the foot to the other leg.
Toe should flick out while the heel is in to the shin as far as possible.
Boldo
Boldo (Peumus boldus Molina, the only species in the genus Peumus) is a tree native to the central region of Chile. Together with litre, quillay, peumo, bollen and other indigenous plants, it is a characteristic component of the sclerophyllous forest (hard leaves that resist long dry summers and cold rainy winters) endemic to central Chile.  Its leaves, which have a strong, woody and slightly bitter flavor and camphor-like aroma, are used for culinary purposes, primarily in Latin America.  The leaves are used in a similar manner to bay leaves, and also used as an herbal tea, primarily in Chile and Argentina but also in other Spanish-speaking nations, and Brazil.
Not too well known, but very tasty and nutritious, Boldo fruits, which appear between December and February, are small green edible spheres that contain lots of sugars and aid the traveler for refreshing himself on those sunny and dry days.
Boldo's assertive flavor comes primarily from the presence of the chemical ascaridol, which is also present in the epazote plant.
In Latin America and Spain, boldo is also used as a form of herbal medicine, particularly to support the gallbladder, but also to calm upset stomachs. In Chile, it is frequently mixed with yerba mate or other teas to moderate its flavor. In Brazil, many families keep a boldo plant at home for this purpose, although boldo teabags are readily available in nearly all supermarkets.
Boldo is in the family Monimiaceae, which is closely related to the family Lauraceae (which includes many other plants used for their aromatic leaves, such as cinnamon, cassia, bay leaf, and camphor laurel.
Boldo has also been introduced to Europe and North Africa.
Braxy
Braxy is an inflammatory disease in the abomasal lining of sheep caused by the bacterium Clostridium septicum (aka Bacillus septicus).
Braxy is often brought on by a change from succulent food to dry (or icy) food.  It is usually seen in young sheep, in particular those not protected with a Clostridial vaccine.
The mutton affected with this disease can also be referred to as braxy.
Tosyl
A tosyl group (abbreviated Ts or Tos) combines the toluene and sulfonyl functional groups. The sulfonyl group consists of a hexavalent sulfur atom double bonded to two oxygen atoms and, in the tosylate group, an aromatic ring; an alkyl substituent on the R group forms a sulfonate ester. Thus, the tosylate group is the ester of toluenesulfonic acid. The para orientation illustrated (p-toluenesulfonyl) is most common, and by convention tosyl refers to the p-toluenesulfonate ester.
A tosylate ester has only a limited shelf life if it is stored outside of a desiccator as the free tosyl is readily hydrolysed by water in the presence of light. The tosyl group is electron-withdrawing.  Hence, it is an excellent leaving group.
The tosyl group is also a protecting group for alcohols, prepared by combining the alcohol with toluenesulfonyl chloride in an aprotic solvent. Toluenesulfonyl chlorides activate alcohols for nucleophilic attack or elimination (dehydration).
Similarly, the brosyl (Bs) group or brosylate is a p-bromobenzenesulfonyl group with the methyl group of toluene replaced by a bromine atom. Nosyl groups in Nosylates (Ns) are 4-nitrobenzenesulfonyl groups with a nitro group in the para position.

# Applications
The use of these functional groups is examplified in an organic synthesis of the drug tolterodine, where in one of the steps a phenol group is blocked as a tosyl group and the primary alcohol as a nosyl group. The latter is a leaving group for displacement by diisopropylamine :
Brpf1
Peregrin also known as bromodomain and PHD finger-containing protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BRPF1 gene located on 3p26-p25. Peregrin is a multivalent chromatin regulator that recognizes different epigenetic marks and activates three histone acetyltransferases (Moz, Morf and Hbo1). BRPF1 contains two PHD fingers, one bromodomain and one chromo/Tudor-related Pro-Trp-Trp-Pro (PWWP) domain.

# Function

## Embryo development
Brpf1 gene is very conserved and has a critical role in different developmental processes. Zebrafish BRPF1, which is coordinated by its particular set of PWWP domains, mediates Moz -dependent histone acetylation and maintains Hox genes expression throughout vertebrate development, hence determines the proper pharyngeal segmental identities. Furthermore, Brpf1 may not only has significant role for maintaining the anterior-posterior axis of the craniofacial skeleton, but also the dorsal-ventral axis of the caudal skeleton. Recent studies have shown that ablation of the mouse Brpf1 gene causes embryonic lethality at embryonic day 9.5. Specifically, Brpf1 regulates placenta vascular formation, neural tube closure, primitive hematopoiesis and embryonic fibroblast proliferation.
For the central nervous system, Brpf1 has high expression and is essential for the development of several important structures, including neocortex and dentate gyrus in the hippocampus. Brpf1 is dynamically expressed during forebrain development, especially the hippocampal neurogenesis. Brpf1 shares phenotypes with transcription factors Sox2, Tlx and Tbr2 in dentate gyrus development and has potential link to neural stem cells and progenitors. Except for the forebrain, Brpf1 is also required for the proper patterning of the craniofacial cartilage, which is derived from neural crest cells that migrate from the hindbrain.

## Cancer development
Recently, Brpf1 was reported to play the tumor suppressor or oncogenic role in several malignant tumors, including leukemia, medulloblastoma and endometrial stromal sarcoma. Brpf1 was considered a tumor suppressor gene because mutations in cancer cells appear to diminish the function of Brpf1 However, oncogenic role of Brpf1 is also possible in cancer. For example, Brpf1 can form a stable complex with Moz-Tif2, which could lead to the development of human acute myeloid leukemia (AML). There is another Brpf1 related complex Brpf1Ing5Eaf6, which also plays a direct role in cancer.
Bruit
Bruit (pronounced (IPA) either Template:IPA or Template:IPA) is the term for the unusual sound that blood makes when it rushes past an obstruction (called turbulent flow) in an artery when the sound is auscultated with the bell portion of a stethoscope.
Further discussion about arterial bruits can be found here.
The location of the stethoscope when the sound is heard can guide the diagnosis:
- If the sound is heard in the neck arteries it is called a carotid bruit
- If the sound is heard in the abdomen, it is called an abdominal bruit
CME Category::Cardiology
Mouth
The human mouth (or oral cavity) is covered by an upper and lower lip.
The mouth starts digestion by physically chewing the food and breaking it down with saliva.
The average male mouth holds a volume of about 100mL.

# Function
They play an important role in speech (it is part of the vocal apparatus), facial expression, kissing, eating, drinking (especially with a straw), breathing, and smoking.
Infants are born with a sucking reflex, by which they instinctively know to suck for nourishment using their lips and jaw.

# Cultural aspects
According to general etiquette, the mouth is kept closed, especially when chewing.
Lips are often adorned with lipstick or lip gloss although in most human cultures this is an affectation for females only.
Piercings have been made popular by the younger generations. Lip, tongue, and the 'Monroe' (Monroe piercing is a stud piercing placed on one's face in the same area as Marilyn Monroe's well known and prominent birthmark was) are piercings seen in many varieties. Piercings of any sort besides two subtle earrings are seen as rebellious to the norm in many western cultures.

# Development
The philtrum is the vertical groove in the upper lip, formed where the nasomedial and maxillary processes meet during embryo development. When these processes fail to fuse fully, a hare lip and/or cleft palate can result.
The nasolabial folds are the deep creases of tissue that extend from the nose to the sides of the mouth.  One of the first signs of age on the human face is the increase in prominence of the nasolabial folds.
Butyl
In organic chemistry, butyl is a four-carbon alkyl substituent with chemical formula -C4H9 .  It is derived from either of the two isomers of the alkane called butane.
Each of the two isomers of butane give rise to two isomers of the butyl substituent.  Thus, n-butane can connect at either the terminal or an internal carbon atoms, giving rise to "n-butyl" and "sec-butyl" substituents.
- n-butyl group; CH3CH2CH2CH2, (fully systematic name "butyl")
- sec-butyl group; CH3CH2(CH3)CH, (fully systematic name "1-methylpropyl")
The second, branched isomer of butane, isobutane can also connect either terminal methyl or internal carbon atoms, giving rise to "isobutyl" and "tertiary butyl" substituents, respectively.
- isobutyl group; (CH3)2CHCH2, (fully systematic name "2-methylpropyl")
- tert-butyl group; (CH3)3C, (fully systematic name "1,1-dimethylethyl")

# Nomenclature
According to IUPAC nomenclature, "isobutyl", "sec-butyl", and "tert-butyl" are all retained trivial names.
Butyl is the largest substituent for which trivial names are commonly used for all isomers.
The prefixes iso, sec and tert refer to the number of carbons connected to the primary carbon (also known as RI ("R prime"), the carbon that is connected to R). Iso means one, sec- means two and tert- means three.

# Some examples
The following are the four isomers of "butyl acetate":

# Etymology
As the number of carbons in an alkyl chain increases, butyl is the last to be named historically instead of through Greek numbers. The name is derived from butyric acid, a four carbon carboxylic acid found in rancid butter. The name of butyric acid, in turn, comes from Latin butyrum, "butter".

# Tert-butyl effect
The tert-butyl substituent is very bulky and used in chemistry for kinetic stabilisation together with other bulky groups such as the related trimethylsilyl group. The effect that the t-butyl group exerts on the progress of a chemical reaction is called the tert-butyl effect.
This effect is illustrated in the Diels-Alder reaction below where the tert-butyl substituent causes a reaction rate acceleration by a factor of 240 compared to hydrogen as the substituent.
c-Raf

# Overview
c-raf is gene that codes for a protein kinase. That protein is sometimes called c-Raf and will be called "Raf-1" here. The Raf-1 protein functions in the MAPK/ERK signal transduction pathway as part of a protein kinase cascade. Raf-1 is a serine/threonine-specific kinase (EC 2.7.11.1). 
Raf-1 is a MAP kinase kinase kinase (MAP3K) which functions downstream of the Ras family of membrane associated GTPases to which it binds directly. Once activated Raf-1 can phosphorylate to activate the dual specificity protein kinases MEK1 and MEK2 which in turn phosphorylate to activate the serine/threonine specific protein kinases ERK1 and ERK2. Activated ERKs are pleiotropic effectors of cell physiology and play an important role in the control of gene expression involved in the cell division cycle, apoptosis, cell differentiation and cell migration. 

# Discovery and role in cancer
The first raf gene that was found was the oncogene v-raf. Normal (non-oncogenic) cellular homologs of v-raf were soon found to be conserved components of eukaryotic genomes and it was shown that they could mutate and become oncogenes. A-Raf (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) 311010) and B-Raf (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) 164757) are two protein kinases with similar sequences to Raf-1. Mutations in B-Raf genes are found in several types of cancer. The Raf kinases are targets for anticancer drug development.

# Regulation of Raf kinase activity
Raf-1 was shown to bind efficiently to Ras only when Ras is bound to GTP, not GDP.
In the MAPK/ERK pathway Raf-1 becomes activated when it binds to Ras. It is thought that phosphorylation of Raf-1 (at sites such as serine-338) upon binding of Raf-1 to Ras locks Raf-1 into an activated conformation that is then independent of binding to Ras for the continued activity of Raf-1. Several MAPK kinase kinase kinases have been suggested to be important for phosphorylation of Raf-1 as well as positive feedback phosphorylation by MAPK (ERK).
Binding of 14-3-3 to phosphorylated serine-259 of Raf-1 is associated with inhibition of Raf-1 kinase activity. As shown in the figure (to the right), it is thought that a 14-3-3 dimer can bind to two phosphoserines of Raf-1 when it is inactive. Dephosphorylation of serine-259 has been associated with activation of Raf-1. In the model shown, the binding of GTP to Ras and the dephosphorylation of serine-259 of Raf-1 allows Raf-1 to take on a conformation that allows binding of Raf-1 to Ras-GTP. This represents a conformation in which Raf-1 can phosphorylate the downstream target MEK.

# Targets of Raf-1
In the MAPK/ERK pathway Raf-1 phosphorylates and activates MEK, a MAPK kinase. This allows Raf-1 to function as part of a kinase cascade: Raf-1 phosphorylates MEK which phosphorylates MAPK (see MAPK/ERK pathway).
C1QBP
Complement component 1 Q subcomponent-binding protein, mitochondrial is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C1QBP gene.
The human complement subcomponent C1q associates with C1r and C1s in order to yield the first component of the serum complement system. The protein encoded by this gene is known to bind to the globular heads of C1q molecules and inhibit C1 activation. This protein has also been identified as the p32 subunit of pre-mRNA splicing factor SF2, as well as a hyaluronic acid-binding protein.

# Interactions
C1QBP has been shown to interact with Protein kinase D1, BAT2, PRKCD, PKC alpha and Protein kinase M.