Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Salmonella bongori

# Overview
Salmonella bongori is a pathogenic bacterium belonging to the genus Salmonella, and was  earlier known as Salmonella subspecies V or S. enterica subsp. bongori or S. choleraesuis subsp. bongori. It is a Gram negative rod-shaped bacterium (bacillus) which causes a gastrointestinal disease called salmonellosis, characterized by cramping and diarrhoea. It is typically considered a microbe of cold-blooded animals, unlike other members of the genus, and is most frequently associated with reptiles.
It was discovered in 1966 from a lizard in the city of Bongor, Chad, from which the specific name bongori was derived.  After decades of controversy in Salmonella nomenclature, it gained the species status in 2005.

# Pathogenicity and epidemiology
S. bongori is classically regarded as the Salmonella of lizards. However, discrete investigations contradict the notion of strict host-specificity as there emerged reports of occurrence in dogs and birds. In animals, unlike those of other Salmonella, infection is generally asymptomatic and does not cause discernible effects. However, infection of pet animals is associated with diarrhea.
Further, human infections have been substantiated, with conclusive reports from Italy. The majority of these cases are among children of less than three years, who are more prone to oral contact with animal droppings. Symptoms are typified by diarrhoea with fever, and acute enteritis.  The first observations, from Messina and Palermo, starting from late 1984, were followed by other cities in Sicily.

# Origin and evolution
Originally S. bangori was considered to be a subspecies within the genus Salmonella. However, based on DNA similarity all members of Salmonella are now grouped into only two species, namely S. bangori and S. enterica.  Species of Salomonella are closely related to E. coli and they are estimated to have diverged from a common ancestor ~100 million years ago; their genomes still display significant similarity, hence many functional identities. Many of the genes which are unique to Salmonella serovars, compared to E. coli, are found on large discrete genomic islands such as Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs). These Salmonella-specific functions include many genes for their virulence and characterizes the divergence of S. enterica from S. bongori. For instance, the SPI-2 gene which encodes type III secretion systems present in S. enterica is absent in S. bongori.  There is also an indication that the virulence determinants, specifically effector proteins, are more closely related to enteropathogenic E. coli because some of the gene are missing in S. enterica.
Sandbox:Nimmi Nath

# Overview
Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia may be caused by genetic and rarely autoimmune factors. FHH type 1(the most common type of FHH) is caused by mutations in the CASR gene, which codes for the calcium-sensing receptor, CaSR protein. FHH type 2 is caused by mutations of the GNA11 gene,which codes for the alpha subunit of a G protein called G11, which ultimately works with CaSR protein to regulate the calcium levels in the blood. FHH type 3 is caused by mutations in the AP2S1 gene, (adaptor-related protein complex 2, sigma 1 subunit).

# Causes
Each subtype of FHH is caused by mutations in the following genes:
- FHH Type 1 - CaSR gene (Chromosome 3q21.1) 
- FHH Type 2 - GNA11 gene (Chromosome 19p13.3) 
- FHH Type 3 - AP2S1 gene ( Chromosome 19p13.3)
Rarely, Autoimmune Hypocalciuric Hypocalcemia should be suspected in patients with similar presentation but negative mutational analyses of CASR, GNA11, and AP2S1 for familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia.
Sandbox: prognosis
- The table below lists prognostic factors for chronic lymphocytic leukemia:
-  Nabhan C, Rosen ST (2014). "Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a clinical review". JAMA. 312 (21): 226576. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.14553. PMID 25461996..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
-  Hoffbrand V, Moss P. Essential Haematology. John Wiley & Sons; 2011
Sandbox:literature

# Literature review
A literature review is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method to identify, evaluate, and synthesize the existing published literature on a topic. It may include scholarly articles, textbooks, or websites. There are important steps to start your literature review:
- Select search question
- Select your search source
- Select the search terms
- Run your search

# Search Question
Search question could be broad or narrow based on the specific topic that you want to contribute. Questions related to the microchapters that need general information, such as pathophysiology could be started with broad questions, such as what is the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus? And then be narrowed accordingly like, what is the role of beta cells dysfunction in pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes? Or even very narrow question like, what is the effect of the potassium pump block for insulin secretion in beta cells in type 2 diabetes?

# Select Search Source
There are many different resources available including:
- Bibliographic databases:
- Websites:
- Others:

# Serach Terms
To have a specific search result you need to select proper terms and use Key Operators in those search engines.
For example if you are looking for role of microvascular endothelial inflammation in heart failure, you need to search the ''Microvascular endothelial inflammation'' AND ''Heart failure'' to narrow your search result. Following you may find the commonly used Key Operators.

# Run Your Search
- When you have selected your search question, search engine, and search terms then you can run your search in that specific search engine, such as PubMed.
- Another way to find required information regarding a specific topic, is to search for review articles in some prestigious journals, such as, The New England Journal of Medicine, JAMA, or Circulation. and find the original articles that were used in that review article.
- You may find a good source for your topic in guidelines that are categorized as the highest reputable sources. There are different ways to find the appropriate guideline. The simplest way is to Google every possibilities that may be redirect you to the guideline. For example: Search for hypothyroidism guideline. The other way is to search in guideline section of Uptodate to find the required guideline.
Sandbox:ultrasound

# Overview
- There are no echocardiography/ultrasound  findings associated with .
OR
- Echocardiography/ultrasound  may be helpful in the diagnosis of . Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of  include , , and .
OR
- There are no echocardiography/ultrasound  findings associated with . However, an echocardiography/ultrasound  may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of , which include , , and .

# Echocardiography/Ultrasound
- There are no echocardiography/ultrasound  findings associated with .
OR
- Echocardiography/ultrasound  may be helpful in the diagnosis of . Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of  include:
OR
- There are no echocardiography/ultrasound  findings associated with . However, an echocardiography/ultrasound  may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of , which include:
Sandbox metoprolol
For patient information about metoprolol, click here.
Synonyms / Brand Names: Lopressor, Toprol XL

# Overview
Metoprolol is a selective 1 receptor blocker used in treatment of several diseases of the cardiovascular system, especially hypertension. The active substance metoprolol is employed either as metoprolol succinate or as metoprolol tartrate (where 100 mg metoprolol tartrate corresponds to 95 mg metoprolol succinate). The tartrate is an immediate-release and the succinate is an extended-release formulation.

# Category
Antianginals, antiarrhythmic agents, antihypertensive agents, antimigraine drugs, beta blockers, cardiovascular drugs

# FDA Package Insert

## Lopressor (metoprolol tartrate) tablet

## Toprol XL (metoprolol succinate) tablet, extended release

# Taking Alcohol with Metoprolol
Alcohol-Metoprolol interaction has not been established. Talk to your doctor about the effects of taking alcohol with this medication.
Sandmeyer Reaction
The Sandmeyer reaction is a chemical reaction used to synthesize aryl halides from aryl diazonium salts. It is named after the Swiss chemist Traugott Sandmeyer.
An aromatic (or heterocyclic) amine quickly reacts with a nitrite to form an aryl diazonium salt, which decomposes in the presence of copper(I) salts, such as copper(I) chloride, to form the desired aryl halide. The reaction is a radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution.
Several improvements have been made to the standard procedures.

# Variations
The majority of variations of the Sandmeyer reactions consist of using various copper salts. For example, using cuprous cyanide produces benzonitriles. Substituting thiols or water for the copper salts generates thioethers or phenols, respectively.
The Schiemann reaction uses tetrafluoroborate and delivers the halide-substituted product, fluorobenzene, which is not obtained by the use of copper fluorides.
Sandmeyer reactions with copper salts used in catalytic amounts are also known. One bromination protocol employs a 0.2 equivalent Cu(I)/Cu(II) mixture with additional amounts of the bidentate ligand phenanthroline and phase-transfer catalyst dibenzo-18-crown-6 :
Satoyoshi syndrome
Satoyoshi syndrome, also known as Komuragueri syndrome, is a rare progressive disorder of presumed autoimmune etiology, characterized by painful muscle spasms, alopecia, diarrhea, endocrinopathy with amenorrhoea and secondary skeletal abnormalities. The syndrome was first reported in 1967 by Eijito Satoyoshi and Kaneo Yamada in Tokyo, Japan. To this date, less than 40 cases worldwide have been reported for the Satoyoshi syndrome.
People with the syndrome typically develop symptoms of the illness at a young age, usually between the age of six and fifteen years old. The initial symptoms are muscle spasms in the legs and alopecia, also known as baldness. The spasms are painful and progressive and their frequency varies from 1 or 2 to 100 per day, each lasting a few minutes. It can be sufficiently severe to produce abnormal posturing of the affected limbs, particularly the thumbs. With progression the illness involves the pectoral girdle and trunk muscles and finally the masseters and temporal muscles. The spasms usually spare the facial muscles. Severe spasms can interfere with respiration and speech. During an attack-free period, non-stimulus-sensitive myoclonus can occur in the arms, legs and neck. Diarrhea occurs in the first 2-3 years with intolerance to carbohydrate  and high glucose diets. Endocrinopathy manifests as amenorrhea and hypoplasia of the uterus. Affected children fail to attain height after 10-12 years of age.
The syndrome is not fatal per se, but some patients have died as a result of syndrome complications, such as respiratory failure or malnourishment.
Schwartz's reagent
Schwartz's reagent is the common name for the chemical compound with the formula (C5H5)2ZrHCl. This metallocene is used in organic synthesis for various transformations of alkenes and alkynes.

# Hydrozirconation
Schwartz's reagent reacts with alkenes and alkynes via the process called hydrozirconation which formally results in the addition of the Zr-H bond across the C=C or CC bond.  The selectivity of the hydrozirconation of alkynes has been studied in detail. The rate of addition to unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds is terminal alkyne > terminal alkene ~ internal alkyne > disubstituted alkene.  Acyl complexes can be generated by insertion of CO into the C-Zr bond resulting from hydrozirconation.

# Preparation
The complex was first prepared by Wailes and Weigold.  It can be purchased or readily prepared by reduction of zirconocene dichloride with lithium aluminum hydride.
In practice this reaction affords also (C5H5)2ZrH2, which is treated with methylene chloride to give the mixed hydride chloride. An alternative procedure that generated Schwartz'd Reagent from dihydride has also been reported.
It is claimed that Schwartz's Reagent has been used in over 100 natural product syntheses.
Screening template

# Introduction to the Screening Page
- The page name should be "(Disease name) screening", with only the first letter of the title capitalized.
- Goal: to explain the methods that are used to screen for the disease.
- As with all microchapter pages linking to the main page, at the top of the edit box put {{CMG}}, your name template, and the microchapter navigation template you created at the beginning.
- Remember to create links within Wikidoc by placing ] around key words which you want to link to other pages. Make sure you makes your links as specific as possible. For example if a sentence contained the phrase anterior spinal artery syndrome, the link should be to anterior spinal artery syndrome not anterior or artery or syndrome.  For more information on how to create links click here.
- Remember to follow the same format and capitalization of letters  as outlined in the template below.
- You should include the name of the disease in the first sentence of every subsection.

# Overview
- The overview section should include the disease name in the first sentence.
- The goal is to summarize the screening page in several sentences. This section can be the same as the screening segment on the overview page.
- To see an example of an overview section on a symptoms page, click here.

## Template
- First Sentence:
- Examples:
- Additional Sentence:
- Examples:

# Preferred Template Statements
IF no guidelines exist to indicate that screening is beneficial:
- There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for .
IF screening is specifically not recommended:
- According to the , screening for  is not recommended.
IF screening is recommended by a reputable source:
- According to the , screening for  by  is recommended every  among patients with , , and .

# Screening
- This section can have subheadings to outline the different methods of screening, and the efficacy of each screening method.
- For an example of a screening subsection with sub-headings within a screening page, click here.
Secondary emission
Secondary emission is a phenomenon where additional electrons, called secondary electrons, are emitted from the surface of a material when an incident particle (often, charged particle such as electron or ion) impacts the material with sufficient energy.  The number of secondary electrons emitted per an incident particle is called secondary emission yield.

# Undesirable effects
Secondary emission can be undesirable such as in the tetrode thermionic valve (tube).  In this instance the positively charged screen grid can accelerate the electron stream sufficiently to cause secondary emission at the anode (plate).  This can give rise to excessive screen grid current.  It is also partly responsible for this type of valve (tube) exhibiting a 'negative resistance' characteristic.

# Applications

## Photo multipliers and similar devices
The effect can also be exploited to advantage such as in the photomultiplier tube.  In this instance the electrons (or an electron) emitted from a photocathode are accelerated towards a polished metal electrode (called a dynode).  This electron or electrons strike with sufficient energy to 'knock' many more electrons from its surface through the Auger effect.  These new electrons are then accelerated towards another dynode where even more electrons are emitted.  This process occurs (typically) 10 or so times.  The result is that the tiny and normally undetectable current from the photocathode becomes a much larger and easily measurable current flowing in the final anode circuit.  The current gain is typically many hundreds of millions.
For the first multiplication the electron is accelerated by 100 to 200 eV and hits the surface in grazing incidence so that a mean 10 secondary electrons are emitted and the chance that at least 2 electrons are emitted is very high. In this way every electron can be detected and the efficiency of about 0.3 is mostly governed by the generation of photoelectrons (one kind of secondary electron) and their ejection into the vacuum. Ions are detected by accelerating them onto an a separate dynode, which suffers from sputtering, and detecting their secondary electrons. Ions at keV kinetic energy generate about 30 secondary electrons.

## Special amplifying tubes
In the 1930s special amplifying tubes were developed which deliberately "folded" the electron beam, by having it strike a dynode to be reflected into the anode. This had the effect of increasing the plate-grid distance for a given tube size, increasing the transconductance of the tube and reducing its noise figure. A typical such "orbital beam hexode" was the RCA 1630, introduced in 1939. Because the heavy electron current in such tubes damaged the dynode surface rapidly, their lifetime tended to be very short compared to conventional tubes.

## Early computer memory tubes
The first random access computer memory used a type of cathode ray tube called the Williams tube that used secondary emission to store bits on the tube face. Another random access computer memory tube based on secondary emission was the Selectron tube. Both were made obsolete by the invention of magnetic core memory.
Septum transversum

# Overview
The septum transversum is a thick mass of cranial mesenchyme that gives rise to parts of the thoracic diaphragm and the ventral mesentery of the foregut in the developed human being.

# Origins
The septum transversum originally arises as the most cranial part of the mesenchyme on day 22. During craniocaudal folding it assumes a position caudal to the developing heart at the level of the cervical vertebrae. During subsequent weeks the dorsal end of the embryo grows much faster than its ventral counterpart resulting in an apparent descent of the ventrally located septum transversum. At week 8 it can be found at the level of the thoracic vertebrae. 

# Innervation
After successful craniocaudal folding septum transversum picks up innervation from the adjacent ventral rami of spinal nerves C3, C4 and C5, thus forming the precursor of the phrenic nerve. During the descent of the septum, the phrenic nerve is carried along and assumes its descending pathway.
During embryonic development of the thoracic diaphragm, myoblast cells from the septum invade the other components of the diaphragm. They thus give rise to the motor and sensory innervation of the muscular diaphragm by the phrenic nerve.

# Derivatives
The cranial part of the septum transversum gives rise to the central tendon of the diaphragm and is the origin of the myoblasts that invade the pleuroperitoneal folds resulting in the formation of the muscular diaphragm. 
The caudal part of the septum transversum is invaded by the hepatic diverticulum which divides within it to form the liver and thus gives rise to the ventral mesentery of the foregut, which in turn is the precursor of the lesser omentum, the visceral peritoneum of the liver and the falciform ligament.

# Additional images
- The primitive mesentery of a six weeks human embryo, half schematic.
Serous pericardium

# Overview
The serous pericardium is deeper than the fibrous pericardium.  It contains two layers, both of which function in lubricating the heart to prevent friction from occurring during heart activity:
- The layer next to the fibrous pericardium is the parietal layer.
- The layer deep to the fibrous pericardium is the visceral layer. When this layer comes into contact with the heart (not the great vessels), it is known as the epicardium.
Together these two layers form a continuous uninterrupted membrane. Between these two layers exists a small cavity called the pericardial cavity, which contains a supply of serous fluid. The serous fluid that is found in this space is known as the pericardial fluid.
Vertebra prominens

# Overview
Vertebra prominens is the proper name for the seventh cervical vertebra. The most distinctive characteristic of this vertebra is the existence of a long and prominent spinous process which is papable from the skin surface, hence the name.
This spinous process is thick, nearly horizontal in direction, not bifurcated, but terminating in a tubercle to which the lower end of the ligamentum nuchae is attached.
The transverse processes are of considerable size, their posterior roots are large and prominent, while the anterior are small and faintly marked;
the upper surface of each has usually a shallow sulcus for the eighth spinal nerve, and its extremity seldom presents more than a trace of bifurcation.
The foramen transversarium may be as large as that in the other cervical vertebrae, but is generally smaller on one or both sides;
-ccasionally it is double, sometimes it is absent.
On the left side it occasionally gives passage to the vertebral artery;
more frequently the vertebral vein traverses it on both sides;
but the usual arrangement is for both artery and vein to pass in front of the transverse process, and not through the foramen.
Sometimes the anterior root of the transverse process attains a large size and exists as a separate bone, which is known as a cervical rib.

# Additional images
- Vertebral column.