Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Sulfonic acid
Sulfonic acid is a hypothetical acid with formula H-S(=O)2-OH. This compound is a less stable tautomer of sulfurous acid HO-S(=O)-OH, so sulfonic acid converts rapidly when it is formed. Derived compounds which replace the sulfur-bonded hydrogen with organic groups are stable. These may then form salts or esters, called sulfonates.

# Sulfonic acids
Sulfonic acids are a class of organic acids with the general formula R-S(=O)2-OH, where R is usually a hydrocarbon side chain. Sulfonic acids are typically much stronger acids than their carboxylic equivalents, and have the unique tendency to bind to proteins and carbohydrates tightly; most "washable" dyes are sulfonic acids (or have the functional sulfonyl group in them) for this reason. They are also used as catalysts and intermediates for a number of different products. Sulfonic acid salts (sulfonates) are important as detergents, and the antibacterial sulfa drugs are also sulfonic acid derivatives.
The simplest example is methanesulfonic acid, CH3SO2OH, which is a reagent regularly used in organic chemistry. p-Toluenesulfonic acid is also an important reagent.
Note that the sulfonic acids and sulfonates are analogous to carboxylic acids and carboxylates; in both cases, -C(=O)- is replaced by -S(=O)2-. Chemical properties are similar as well, although sulfonic acids are often even stronger acids than carboxylic acids, the hydrogen being easier to leave than in most compounds, and they readily form esters.
The sulfonic acid and sulfonate functional groups, -SO2OH and -SO2O-, are found in many chemical compounds, e.g. certain detergents and dyes as well as in strongly acidic cation exchange resins.

# Sulfonic acid chlorides
Sulfonic acid chlorides are a class of organic compounds with the general formula R-SO2-Cl. These compounds react readily with alcohols to sulfonic esters. Important acid chlorides are tosyl chloride, brosyl chloride, nosyl chloride and mesyl chloride. One synthetic procedure to synthesize sulfonic acid chlorides is the Reed reaction.

# Sulfonic esters
Sulfonic esters are a class of organic compounds with the general formula R-SO2-OR. Sulfonic esters are considered good leaving groups in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution.
Sultamicillin

# Overview
Sultamicillin is an oral form of the antibiotic combination (codrug or mutual prodrug) ampicillin/sulbactam. It contains esterified ampicillin and sulbactam and is marketed under a number of trade names, including Saltum from Morepen Lab and Unasyn from Pfizer.
The pharmacokinetic properties of sultamicillin are improved compared to a combination of ampicillin and sulbactam.  Sultamicillin increases the absorption and decreases the chances of diarrhea and dysentery. The inclusion of sulbactam extends ampicillin's spectrum of action to beta-lactamase producing strains of bacteria. Oral sulbactam with parenteral form provides a regimen of continuous sulbactam therapy throughout the treatment, resulting in better clinical results.

# Chemical evaluation
Sultamicillin is a mutual prodrug of ampicillin and sulbactam. Ampicillin, a semi-synthetic orally active broad spectrum antibiotic, is linked via a methylene group with a beta-lactamase inhibitor. Sultamicillin is chemically oxymethyl penicillinate sulfone ester of ampicillin.

# Mechanism of action
After absorption, sultamicillin releases ampicillin and sulbactam into the system, so all the antibacterial efficacy of sultamicillin is due to ampicillin and sulbactam. Ampicillin exerts antibacterial activity against sensitive organisms by inhibiting biosynthesis of cell wall mucopeptide where as sulbactam irreversibly inhibits most important beta-lactamases that occur in resistant strains.

# Indications
Indications for sultamicillin include:
- Skin and soft tissue infections - furuncles, carbuncles, cellulitis, paronychia, impetigo contagiosa, diabetic foot ulcers and abscesses caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes.
- Upper respiratory tract infections - pharyngitis and tonsillitis caused by S. pyogenes and S. aureus. Acute and chronic sinusitis caused by S. aureus, S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and S. progenies. Otis media, particularly suppurative otis media, with or without mastoiditis antrum.
- Lower respiratory tract infections - bacterial pneumonias, bronchitis, bronchiestasis caused by S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus and S. progenies. Acute exacerbations of COPD.
- Urinary tract infections - pyelonephritis, cystitis caused by Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella, Enterobacter and Staphylococcus aureus.
- Surgical infections - prophylaxis and treatment of surgical site infections, peri-operative prophylaxis in orthopaedic and cardiovascular surgery.
- Gynecological infections - Caused by beta-lactamase producing strains of E. coli and Bacteroides sp. (including B. fragilis).
- Infections of the gastrointestinal tract - Bacterial esophagitis, treatment of H. pylori infections as a part of MDT in ulcer management.
Sumatran Pine
The Sumatran Pine (Pinus merkusii) is a pine native to southeast Asia, mainly in the mountains of northern Sumatra, and with two outlying populations, on Mount Kerinci and Mount Talang in central Sumatra, and in the Philippines on Mindoro and the Zambales Mountains of western Luzon. The population in central Sumatra, between 1 40' and 2 06' S latitude, is the only natural occurrence of any pine south of the Equator. It generally occurs at moderate altitudes, mostly from 400-1500 m, but occasionally as low as 90 m and up to 2000 m.
It is a medium-sized to large tree, reaching 25-45 m tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 1 m. The bark is orange-red, thick and deeply fissured at the base of the trunk, and thin and flaky in the upper crown. The leaves ('needles') are in pairs, very slender, 15-20 cm long and less than 1 mm thick, green to yellowish green. The cones are narrow conic, 5-8 cm long and 2 cm broad at the base when closed, green at first, ripening glossy red-brown. They open to 4-5 cm broad at maturity to release the seeds. The seeds are 5-6 mm long, with a 15-20 mm wing, and are wind-dispersed.
Sumatran Pine is closely related to Tenasserim Pine Pinus latteri, which occurs further north in southeast Asia from Myanmar to Vietnam; some botanists treat the two as conspecific (under the name P. merkusii, which was described first), but the Tenasserim Pine differs in longer (18-27 cm) and stouter (over 1 mm thick) leaves and larger cones with thicker scales, the cones often remaining closed for some time after maturity. It is also related to the group of Mediterranean pines including Aleppo Pine and Turkish Pine, which share many features with it.
Superfetation
Superfetation (also spelt superfoetation, based on a false etymology  see fetus) is the formation of a fetus while another fetus is already present in the uterus.  When there are two separate instances of fertilisation during the same cycle, rather than different cycles, it is known as superfecundation.
Superfetation is claimed to be common in some species of animals, but is extremely rare in humans. It can occur only where there are two uteri, or where the menstrual cycle continues through pregnancy.

# In animals
Animals which have been claimed to be subject to superfetation include rodents (mice and rats), farm animals (horses and sheep), marsupials and primates (monkeys and humans). Superfetation has also been clearly demonstrated in poeciliid fish 

# In humans
Reports of superfetation occurring long after the first impregnation have often been treated with suspicion and some have been clearly discredited.  Other explanations have been given (and demonstrated) for different levels of development between twins. Artificially induced superfetation has, however, been demonstrated although only up to a short period after insemination.
In 2007, Ame and Lia Herrity, conceived 3 weeks apart, were born in the United Kingdom to Amelia Spence and George Herrity.
In May 2007, Harriet and Thomas Mullineux, also conceived 3 weeks apart, were born in Benfleet, Essex UK to Charlotte and Matt Mullineux, 

## Hoaxes
Flavia d'Angelo, an Italian woman claiming to have become pregnant with triplets three months after initially getting pregnant, caused global media interest in 2001.  However, it was later revealed to be a hoax.
Swish (slang)
Swish is a derogatory term  for effeminate behaviour and interests (camp), emphasized and sanctioned in pre-Stonewall gay male communities. This behaviour is also described as nelly. Wentworth and Flexner define swish as a noun meaning "a male homosexual, esp. one with obviously feminine traits".
Being swish includes sashaying and the use of limp wrists, falsetto voices, feminine pronouns, and superlatives (Sonenschein 1969; Tripp 197?, both cited in Levine 1998)basically, everything up to the other side of camp, or drag.
"Extravagant language is common. Such expressions as 'Oh my word!' 'Good heavens!' and 'Oh, my dear!' are readily associated with other aspects of a feminine man. In describing ordinary experiences the male variant is likely to use such words as 'terrific,' 'amazing,' 'completely devoted,' 'horrible,' 'tremendous,' 'sublimely,' 'charming,' 'appalling,' 'vicious,' 'loathed,' and 'madly.' Exaggerations are made more conspicuous by placing undue or inappropriate emphasis on certain syllables and intonations which leave little doubt of the effeminacy of the speaker." (Henry, 1955, p. 291, cited in Levine 1998)
Though being butch was viewed as deviant and socially unacceptable by gay male society (Warren 1972, 1974; Helmer 1963, both cited in Levine 1998), being swish has since lost its mainstream gay status post-Stonewall, and in addition to being used occasionally by straight people is now most often derogatory even when used by gay men. Though it may be assumed that most post-Stonewall gay men view acting swish as internalized homophobia, a concession to straight stereotypes of gay men as failed men (or women); however, "clone"the masculine, even macho, standard and ideal behaviour that replaced swishadapted many camp elements such as dish.
Thus while clones view swish as harmfully embodying anti-gay stereotypes, being swish was a way of indicating and performing one's identity, indicating that anti-gay stereotypes were and are derived from gay identities. Further, one could turn one's swish on or off, as described by Martin Levine in Gay Macho:
Symbiogenesis
Symbiogenesis is the merging of two separate organisms to form a single new organism. The idea originated with Konstantin Mereschkowsky in his 1926 book Symbiogenesis and the Origin of Species, which proposed that chloroplasts originate from cyanobacteria captured by a protozoan. Today both chloroplasts and mitochondria are believed to have such an origin; this is the endosymbiotic theory.
In Acquiring Genomes: A Theory of the Origins of Species, biologist Dr. Lynn Margulis argued that symbiogenesis is a primary force in evolution. According to her theory, acquisition and accumulation of random mutations are not sufficient to explain how inherited variations occur; rather, new organelles, bodies, organs, and species arise from symbiogenesis. Whereas the classical interpretation of evolution (the modern evolutionary synthesis) emphasizes competition as the main force behind evolution, Margulis emphasizes cooperation.
Many ecologists agree, but this idea has little support from other evolutionary biologists. They see little evidence that symbiogenesis has had a major impact on eukaryotic life, or that much of its diversification can be attributed to it. Other than the two examples of  mitochondria and chloroplasts, there is no clear evidence of other major traits or transitions that can be attributed to symbiogenesis.
A fundamental principle of modern evolutionary theory is that mutations arise one at a time and either spread through the population or not, depending on whether they offer an individual fitness advantage. Nevertheless, this general case may not apply to all examples of evolutionary change. Indeed, genome mapping techniques have revealed that family trees of the major taxa appear to be extensively cross-linked - possibly due to lateral gene transfer.
Symphysiotomy

# Overview
Symphysiotomy is a surgical procedure in which the cartilage of the symphysis pubis is divided to widen the pelvis allowing childbirth when there is a mechanical problem.

# Introduction
Symphysiotomy was also advocated in 1597 by Severin Pineau after his description of a diastasis of the pubis on a hanged pregnant 
woman .  Thus symphysiotomies became a routine surgical procedure for women experiencing an obstructed labour. In the late 19th century  after the risk of maternal death after caesarean section decreased due to improvement in techniques, hygiene and clinical practice the symphysiotomy was rarely used.

# Indications for the procedure
The most common indications are a trapped head of a breech baby, shoulder dystocia which does not resolve with routine manoeuvres and obstructed labour at full cervical dilation when there is no option of a caesarean section. Currently the procedure is rarely performed in developed countries, but is still  routine in developing countries where caesarean section is not always an option.

# Surgical application
Symphysiotomy results in a temporary increase in pelvic diameter (up to 2 cm) by surgically dividing the ligaments of the symphysis under local anaesthesia. This procedure should be carried out only in combination with vacuum extraction. Symphysiotomy in combination with vacuum extraction can be a life-saving procedure in areas of the world where caesarean section is not feasible or immediately available. Symphysiotomy leaves no uterine scar and the risk of ruptured uterus in any future labour is not increased.
The procedure is not without risk, including urethral and bladder injury, infection, pain and long-term walking difficulty. Symphysiotomy should, therefore, be carried out only when there is no safe alternative.  It is advised that this procedure should not be repeated due to the risk of the woman developing long term walking problems and continued pain.
Abduction of the thighs more than 45 degrees from the midline may cause tearing of the urethra and bladder.
- Give appropriate analgesic drugs.
- Apply elastic strapping across the front of the pelvis from one iliac crest to the other to stabilize the symphysis and reduce pain.
- Leave the catheter in the bladder for a minimum of 5 days.
- Encourage the woman to drink plenty of fluids to ensure a good urinary output.
- Encourage bed rest for 7 days after discharge from hospital.
- Encourage the woman to begin to walk with assistance when she is ready to do so.
If long-term walking difficulties and pain are reported (occur in 2% of cases), treat with physical therapy. 

# Ireland and Symphysiotomy
Irish women who unknowingly and without consent underwent symphysiotomies during childbirth between the 1950s and 1980s  say they were left them with severe side effects, including extreme pain, incontinence and depression. Irish obstetricians sought to establish this operation as an alternative to Caesarean sections because it was thought that women subjected to repeated Caesareans 'might be tempted to use contraception'.
Synaptophysin
Synaptophysin, also known as the major synaptic vesicle protein p38, is a  protein that in humans is encoded by the SYP gene.

# Genomics
The gene is located on the short arm of X chromosome (Xp11.23-p11.22). It is 12,406 bases in length and lies on the minus strand. The encoded protein has 313 amino acids with a predicted molecular weight of 33.845 kDa.

# Molecular biology
The protein is a synaptic vesicle glycoprotein with four transmembrane domains weighing 38kDa. It is present in neuroendocrine cells and in virtually all neurons in the brain and spinal cord that participate in synaptic transmission. It acts as a marker for neuroendocrine tumors, and its ubiquity at the synapse has led to the use of synaptophysin immunostaining for quantification of synapses.
The exact function of the protein is unknown: it interacts with the essential synaptic vesicle protein synaptobrevin, but when the synaptophysin gene is experimentally inactivated in animals, they still develop and function normally. Recent research has shown, however, that elimination of synaptophysin in mice creates behavioral changes such as increased exploratory behavior, impaired object novelty recognition, and reduced spatial learning.

# Clinical importance
This gene has been implicated in X linked intellectual disability.
Using immunohistochemistry, synaptophysin can be demonstrated in a range of neural and neuroendocrine tissues, including cells of the adrenal medulla and pancreatic islets. As a specific marker for these tissues, it can be used to identify tumours arising from them, such as neuroblastoma, retinoblastoma, phaeochromocytoma, carcinoid, small-cell carcinoma, medulloblastoma and medullary thyroid carcinoma, among others. Diagnostically, it is often used in combination with chromogranin A.
Synchondrosis

# Overview
Where the connecting medium is cartilage, a joint is termed a synchondrosis.
This is a temporary form of joint, for the cartilage is converted into bone before adult life. 
Such joints are found between the epiphyses and bodies of long bones, between the occipital and the sphenoid at, and for some years after, birth, and between the petrous portion of the temporal and the jugular process of the occipital.
Systemic risk
In finance, systemic risk describes the likelihood of the collapse of a financial system, such as a general stock market crash or a joint breakdown of the banking system. As such, it is a type of "aggregate risk" as opposed to "idiosyncratic risk", which is specific to individual stocks or banks. Systemic risk should also be carefully distinguished from Non-systemic risk, which describes risks which the whole economy faces such as business cycles or wars.
In banking, banks hold capital to absorb credit risk (e.g. bad loans), market risk (e.g. interest rate risk) and operational risk (e.g. exposure to lawsuits). In recent years development of international derivative markets led to tendencies of banks to sell their credit risk through "credit risk derivatives", a trend that has become popular under the heading of "securitization".
In insurance it is difficult to obtain financial protection against "systemic risks" because of the inability of any counter-party to accept the risk. For example it is difficult to obtain insurance for life or property in the event of nuclear war. The essence of systematic risk is therefore the correlation of losses. "Systemic Risk" adds the important problem, that it is much more difficult to evaluate than "systematic risk". For example, while econometric estimates and expectation proxies in business cycle research led to a considerable improvement in forecasting recessions, data on "Systemic Risk" is often hard to obtain, since interdependencies and counter party risk on financial markets play a crucial role. If one bank goes bankrupt and sells all its assets, the drop in asset prices may induce liquidity problems of other banks, leading to a general banking panic.
One concern is the potential fragility of some financial markets.  If the participants are trading at levels far above their capital bases, then the failure of one participant to settle trades may deprive others of liquidity, and through a domino effect expose the whole market to systemic risk.

# Diversification
Risks can be reduced in four main ways: Avoidance, Reduction, Retention and Transfer.  Systematic risk is a risk of security that cannot be reduced through diversification. Also sometimes called market risk or un-diversifiable risk. Participants in the market, like hedge funds, can themselves be the source of an increase in systemic risk and transfer of risk to them may, paradoxically, increase the exposure to systemic risk.

# Regulation
One of the main reasons for regulation in the marketplace is to reduce systemic risk.
TES (protein)
'TES' (aka 'Testin') is the protein product of the TESS gene, located on chromosome 7 in Homo sapiens. TES is a 47 kDa protein composed of 421 amino acids found at focal adhesions and is thought to have a role in regulation of cell motility. 
In addition to this, TES functions as a tumour suppressor
; the TESS gene is located within a fragile region of chromosome 7, and the promoter elements of the TESS gene have been shown to be susceptible to methylation - this prevents the expression of the TES protein.

# Domain Organisation
Tes is composed of the following domains:
The structures of the Cysteine rich domain and the PET domain are not known. LIM domains, however, are known as modulators of protein interactions
. LIM domain consist of 2 zinc fingers separated by 2 hydrophobic amino acids (generally a Phenylalanine and then a Leucine.

# Binding Partners
TES does not appear to be an enzyme; rather it is a protein that mediates/regulates cullular functions via Protein:protein interactions. Pull down experiments  reveal that TES has putative interactions mediated by the indicated domain:
Garalov et al showed that the interaction between TES & zyxin were direct, using recombinant proteins expressed in E.coli.
Some of the potential binding partners (Zyxin, mENA) can be found in focal adhesion complexes; the range of binding partners indicates a potential role for TES in-between 'privileged' Actin polymerisation and focal adhesion contacts to the extracellular matrix. This tallies with the observation that GFP-tagged TES can be seen at focal adhesions.

# Conformational Change
Based on the observations that:
- Mammalian cell derived TES binding Zyxin
- E.coli produced recombinant TES  (rTES) does not bind Zyxin
- An rTES construct composed of residues 201-421 (i.e, the linker and all 3 LIM domains) does bind Zyxin
- The above rTES construct binds an N-terminal rTES construct, consisting of the cysteine rich and PET domains - IE, the two halves of TES interact with each other.
Garalov et al propose that TES exists in two conformational states: A 'closed' state where the N & C halves of TES interact, obscuring the Zyxin binding site in LIM1, and an 'open' state where the Zyxin binding site is accessible and the two halves no-longer interact in the same fashion, if at all. The regulatory mechanism switching between the two states is not presently fully understood.

# Phenotype
In RNAi experiments, cells that had impaired TES expression showed an inability to correctly organise their focal adhesions and actin stress fibres.
In gene knockout experiments, transgenic mice lacking both copies of the TES gene displayed an increased susceptibility to tumour formation when challenged with a carcinogen. Mice retaining the TES gene were less susceptible: thus, TES is a tumour suppressor gene.