Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Answers.com
Answers.com is a website that presents reference content in over four million entries, collected from multiple sources.  The site was launched in January 2005. The website is the primary product of the Answers Corporation(Template:NASDAQ), previously GuruNet, an Israel-based Internet reference company with offices in New York City and Jerusalem, founded by Bob Rosenschein in 1999.

# WikiAnswers
Answers Corporation also owns Wikianswers, a Q&A site that uses a wiki engine to improve questions and answers. It is the second-largest Q&A site after Yahoo! Answers. Answers has stated that it intends to bring the two sites much closer together in order to provide various types of answers to its visitors -- both encyclopedic and "community-based".

# Staff
- Robert S Rosenschein, chairman of the board, president, chief executive officer
- Steven Steinberg, chief financial officer, secretary
- Bruce D Smith, chief strategic officer
- Jeff Schneiderman, chief technical officer
Facial vein
The anterior facial vein (facial vein) commences at the side of the root of the nose, and is a direct continuation of the angular vein. It lies behind the facial artery and follows a less tortuous course.  It usually either joins the anterior branch of the retromandibular vein to form the common facial vein, or drains directly into the internal jugular vein.

# Path
From its origin it runs obliquely downward and backward, beneath the Zygomaticus and zygomatic head of the Quadratus labii superioris, descends along the anterior border and then on the superficial surface of the Masseter, crosses over the body of the mandible, and passes obliquely backward, beneath the Platysma and cervical fascia, superficial to the submaxillary gland, the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus.
The facial vein has no valves, and its walls are not so flaccid as most superficial veins.

# Additional images
- Bloodvessels of the eyelids, front view.
Antianginal

# Overview
An antianginal is any drug used in the treatment of angina pectoris, a symptom of ischaemic heart disease.
Drugs used are nitrates such as nitroglycerin (glyceryl trinitrate) or pentaerythritol tetranitrate; beta blockers, either cardioselectives such as acebutolol or metoprolol, or non-cardioselectives such as oxprenolol or sotalol; or calcium channel blockers, either Class I agents (e.g., verapamil), Class II agents (e.g., amlodipine, nifedipine), or the Class III agent diltiazem.
Nitrates cause vasodilation of the venous capacitance vessels by simulating the endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF). Used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in the heart. Short-acting nitrates are used to abort angina attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition.
Beta blockers are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the work the heart is allowed to perform below the level that would provoke an angina attack. They cannot be used in vasospastic angina and can precipitate heart failure.
Calcium ion (Ca++) antagonists (Calcium channel blockers) are used in the treatment of both exertional and vasospastic angina. In vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing afterload, improving myocardial efficiency, reducing heart rate and improving coronary blood flow.
In vivo, the vasodilation and hypotension trigger the baroreceptor reflex. Therefore the net effect is the interplay of direct and reflex actions. Class I antiarrhythmic agents have the most potent negative inotropic effect and may cause heart failure; Class II agents do not depress conduction or contractility; the Class III agent has negligible inotropic effect and causes almost no reflex tachycardia.
Antipyretic
Antipyretics are drugs that reduce body temperature in situations such as fever. However, they will not affect the normal body temperature if one does not have fever.
Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override an interleukin-induced increase in temperature. The body will then work to lower the temperature and the result is a reduction in fever.
Most are also used for other purposes. For example, the most common antipyretics in the United States are aspirin and paracetamol (acetaminophen), which are used primarily as pain relievers. NSAIDs are antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and pain relievers. There is some debate over the appropriate use of such medications: fever is part of the body's immune response to infection.
Herbal remedies with a fever-reducing effect are called febrifuges, and include catnip, chamomile, sage and yarrow.  However, the term febrifuge can also refer to a refrigerant, such as topical alcohol, which cools the body by physically removing heat rather than modifying the body's responses. This is not recommended now because alcohol can be transferred through the skin and affect the liver.  In addition, alcohol slightly raises the body temperature before it brings it down, which, if the fever is already very high could cause permanent damage..
Antibiogram

# Overview
An antibiogram is the result of a laboratory testing for the sensitivity of an isolated bacterial strain to different antibiotics. It is by definition an in vitro-sensitivity.
In clinical practice, antibiotics are most frequently prescribed on the basis of general guidelines and knowledge about sensitivity: e.g. uncomplicated urinary tract infections can be treated with a first generation quinolone, etc. This is because Escherichia coli is the most likely causative pathogen, and it is known to be sensitive to quinolone treatment. Infections that are not acquired in the hospital, are called "community acquired" infections.
However, many bacteria are known to be resistant to several classes of antibiotics, and treatment is not so straight-forward. This is especially the case in vulnerable patients, such as patients in the intensive care unit. When these patients develop a "hospital-acquired" (or "nosocomial") pneumonia, more hardy bacteria like Pseudomonas aeruginosa are potentially involved. Treatment is then generally started on the basis of surveillance data about the local pathogens probably involved. This first treatment, based on statistical information about former patients, and aimed at a large group of potentially involved microbes, is called "empirical treatment".
Before starting this treatment, the physician will collect a sample from a suspected contaminated compartment: a blood sample when bacteria possibly have invaded the bloodstream, a sputum sample, a urine sample,... This samples are transferred to the microbiology lab, which looks at the sample under the microscope, and tries to culture the bacteria. This can help in the diagnosis.
Once a culture is established, there are two possible ways to get an antibiogram:
- a semi-quantitative way based on diffusion (Kirby-Bauer method); small discs containing different antibiotics, or impregnated paper discs, are dropped in different zones of the culture in the petri dish. The antibiotic will diffuse in the area surrounding each tablet, and a disc of bacterial lysis will become visible. Since the concentration of the antibiotic was the highest at the centre, and the lowest at the edge of this zone, the diameter is suggestive for the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (conversion of the diameter in millimeter to the MIC, in g/ml, is based on known linear regression curves).
- a quantitative way based on dilution: a dilution series of antibiotics is established (this is a series of reaction vials with progressively lower concentrations of antibiotic substance). The last vial in which no bacteria grow contains the antibiotic at the Minimal Inhibiting Concentration.
Once the MIC is calculated, it can be compared to know values for a given bacterium and antibiotic: e.g. a MIC > 0,06g/ml may be interpreted as a penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Such information may be useful to the clinician, who can change the empirical treatment, to a more custom-tailored treatment that is directed only at the causative bacterium.
it:Antibiogramma
- Antibiogram technique video (diffusion method)
Antimycin A
Antimycin A is a chemical compound produced by streptomyces bacteria.

# Uses
It is the active ingredient in Fintrol(R), a chemical piscicide (fish poison) used in fisheries management and in the catfish industry.
It is also used as an antibiotic.

# Mechanism
Antimycin A functions by inhibiting the oxidation of ubiquinol in the electron transport chain, ultimately preventing the formation of ATP.
More specifically, Antimycin A binds to the Qi site of Complex III (the enzyme cytochrome c oxidoreductase), in the cytochrome b subunit.
The inhibition of Complex III by Antimycin A result in the formation of large quantities of the toxic free radical, Superoxide.
It has also been found to inhibit the cyclic electron flow within photosynthetic systems along the proposed ferredoxin quinone reductase pathway.
Antimycin blocks the flow of electrons from semiquinone to ubiquinone in the Q-cycle of complex III in oxidative phosphorylation. By doing so it inhibits the electron transport pathway thus preventing the consumption of oxygen (which occurs at Complex IV) and disrupting the proton gradient across the inner membrane. It is the disruption of the proton gradient that prevents the production of ATP as protons are unable to flow through the ATP synthase complex.
Antlophobia

# Overview
Antlophobia is a specific phobiaan irrational fear of floods. The term comes from the Greek word antlia, meaning "pump", and phobos, meaning "fear". Antlophobic people usually fear the power of floods that can cause property damage or loss of life.

# Causes
Antlophobia develops from past traumatic experiences with floods; either personal experiences or through knowing survivors of a flood.

# Symptoms and treatment
People who are severely antlophobic may feel anxious, be filled with dread, or have panic attacks. Mild sufferers may have shakiness, breathlessness, irregular heartbeat, discomfort, etc.
As with other specific phobias, antlophobia is treated through psychotherapy, talk therapy, support groups, cognitive-behavioral therapy, exposure therapy, and for severe sufferers anti-anxiety medication.
Aortic arch
The arch of the aorta (Transverse Aorta) begins at the level of the upper border of the second sternocostal articulation of the right side, and runs at first upward, backward, and to the left in front of the trachea; it is then directed backward on the left side of the trachea and finally passes downward on the left side of the body of the fourth thoracic vertebra, at the lower border of which it becomes continuous with the descending aorta.
It thus forms two curvatures: one with its convexity upward, the other with its convexity forward and to the left. Its upper border is usually about 2.5 cm. below the superior border to the manubrium sterni.

# Relations
The arch of the aorta is covered anteriorly by the pleura and anterior margins of the lungs, and by the remains of the thymus.
As the vessel runs backward its left side is in contact with the left lung and pleura.
Passing downward on the left side of this part of the arch are four nerves; in order from before backward these are, the left phrenic, the lower of the superior cardiac branches of the left vagus, the superior cardiac branch of the left sympathetic, and the trunk of the left vagus.
As the left vagus nerve crosses the arch, it gives off its recurrent branch, which hooks around below the vessel and then passes upward on its right side.
The highest left intercostal vein runs obliquely upward and forward on the left side of the arch, between the phrenic and vagus nerves.
On the right are the deep part of the cardiac plexus, the left recurrent nerve, the esophagus, and the thoracic duct; the trachea lies behind and to the right of the vessel.
Above are the innominate, left common carotid, and left subclavian arteries, which arise from the convexity of the arch and are crossed close to their origins by the left innominate vein.
Below are the bifurcation of the pulmonary artery, the left bronchus, the ligamentum arteriosum, the superficial part of the cardiac plexus, and the left recurrent nerve.
The ligamentum arteriosum connects the commencement of the left pulmonary artery to the aortic arch.

# Additional images
- Diagram showing the origins of the main branches of the carotid arteries.
- Front view of heart and lungs.
- Course and distribution of the glossopharyngeal, vagus, and accessory nerves.
da:Arcus aortae
hr:Luk aorte
Aortic body
In the human heart, the aortic body is one of several small cluster of chemoreceptors, baroreceptors, and supporting cells located along the aortic arch.

# Function
It measures changes in blood pressure and the composition of arterial blood flowing past it, including the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide but not pH.  The chemoreceptors responsible for sensing changes in blood gases are called glomus cells.
It gives feedback to the medulla oblongata via the afferent branches of the vagus nerve (X).  The medulla, in turn, regulates breathing and blood pressure.

# Disorders
A paraganglioma is a tumor that may involve the aortic body.
Swelling can also occur.

# Nomenclature
Some sources equate the "aortic bodies" and "paraaortic bodies", while other sources explicitly distinguish between the two. When a distinction is made, the "aortic bodies" are chemoreceptors which regulate circulation, while the "paraaortic bodies" are the chromaffin cells which manufacture catecholamines.
Aphidicolin
Aphidicolin is defined as a tetracyclic diterpene antibiotic with antiviral and antimitotical properties.
Aphidicolin is a reversible inhibitor of eukaryotic nuclear DNA replication. It blocks the cell cycle at early S-phase. It is a specific inhibitor of DNA polymerase A,D in eukaryotic cells and in some viruses and an Apoptosis inducer in HeLa cells.

# Further reading
- Dhillon VS, Husain SA, Ray GN. in Teratog Carcinog Mutagen. 2003
Expression of aphidicolin-induced fragile sites and their relationship between genetic susceptibility in breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and non-small-cell lung cancer patients
Apis cerana
Apis cerana, or the Asiatic honey bee (or the Eastern honey bee), are small honey bees of southern and southeastern Asia, such as China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, Bangladesh and Papua New Guinea. This species is the sister species of Apis koschevnikovi, and both are in the same subgenus as the Western (European) honey bee, Apis mellifera.
In the wild, they prefer to nest in small spaces, such as hollowed out tree trunks. Like the Western honey bee, they are sometimes domesticated and used in apiculture, mostly in wooden boxes with fixed frames.  Their size is similar or somewhat smaller than Apis mellifera, and they also have a more prominent abdominal stripes. Their honey yield is smaller, because they form smaller colonies. In folk medicine, their beeswax is used to treat and heal wounds.
Apis cerana is the natural host to the mite Varroa jacobsoni and the parasite Nosema ceranae, both serious pests of the Western honey bee.  Having coevolved with these parasites, A. cerana exhibits more careful grooming than A. mellifera, and thus has an effective defense mechanism against Varroa that keeps the mite from devastating colonies. Other than defensive behaviors such as these, much of their behavior and biology (at least in the wild) is very similar to that of A. mellifera.
- Thermal defense: When an Apis cerana hive is invaded by the Japanese giant hornet (Vespa mandarinia), about 500 Japanese honey bees (A. cerana japonica) surround the hornet and vibrate their flight muscles until the temperature is raised to 47C (117F), heating the hornet to death, but keeping the temperature still under their own lethal limit (48-50C). European honey bees (A. mellifera) lack this behavior.

# Subspecies
(following Engel, 1999).
- Apis cerana cerana Fabricius ( = "sinensis") - Afghanistan, Pakistan, north India, China and north Vietnam
- Apis cerana heimifeng Engel
- Apis cerana indica - Fabricius South India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines
- Apis cerana japonica Fabricius - Japan
- Apis cerana javana Enderlein
- Apis cerana johni Skorikov
- Apis cerana nuluensis Tingek, Koeniger and Koeniger
- Apis cerana skorikovi Engel ( = "himalaya") - Central and east Himalayan mountains (Ruttner, 1987)

# Sources
- BIODIVERSITY OF HONEYBEES, M.R.Srinivasan, Department of Agricultural Entomology - Tamil Nadu Agricultural University accessed Oct 2005
- Engel, M.S. (1999) The taxonomy of recent and fossil honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Apis). Journal of Hymenoptera Research 8: 165-196.
Apocynaceae

# Overview
The Apocynaceae or dogbane family is a family of flowering plants, including trees, shrubs, herbs, or lianas.
Many species are tall trees found in the tropical rainforest, and most are from the tropics and subtropics, but some come from tropical dry, xeric environments. There are also some perennial herbs from temperate zones. Many of these plants have milky sap; and many species are poisonous if ingested. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as Adenium however, have either clear and milky, latex sap, and others, such as Pachypodium, always have clear sap.

# Uses
Several plants of this family had economic uses in the past.
The genera Carpodinus, Landolphia, Hancornia, Funtumia and Mascarenhasia were used as a commercial source of inferior rubber.
The juice of Acokanthera species such as A. venenata and the milky juice of the Namibian Pachypodium has been used as venom for arrow tips by the Bushmen. Some sources (Rapananrivo et al. on p. 5) state that Pachypodium do not have a milky sap.
Several genera are grown as ornamental plants, including Amsonia (bluestar), Nerium (oleander), Vinca (periwinkle), Carissa (Natal plum, an edible fruit), Allamanda (golden trumpet), Plumeria (frangipani), Thevetia (lucky nut), Mandevilla (Savannah flower).
Rauvolfia cafra is the Quinine tree. Rauvolfia serpentina or Indian Snakeroot yields the alkaloids reserpine and rescinnamine.
Some are sources of drugs, such as cardiac glycosides, affecting the heart function, including Acokanthera, Apocynum, Cerbera, Nerium, Thevetia and Strophantus.
The genus Apocynum was used as a source of fiber by Native Americans.
The edible flower of Fernaldia pandurata (common name: Loroco) is a popular part of El Salvadorian and Guatemalan cooking.
Aponeurosis

# Overview
Aponeuroses (, "away" or "of", and , "sinew") are membranes separating muscles from each other. They have a shiny, whitish-silvery color, and are histologically similar to tendons, but are very sparingly supplied with blood vessels and nerves. When dissected, aponeuroses are papery, and peel off by sections. The primary regions with thick aponeurosis is in the ventral abdominal region, the dorsal lumbar region, and in the palmar region.

# Ventral abdominal aponeuroses
The ventral abdominal aponeuroses are located just on top of the rectus abdominis muscle. It has for its borders the external oblique, pectoralis muscles, and the latissimus dorsi.

# Dorsal lumbar aponeuroses
The dorsal lumbar aponeuroses are situated just on top of the epaxial muscles of the thorax, which are multifidus spinae and Sacrospinalis.

# Palmar aponeuroses
The palmar aponeuroses occur on the palms of the hands, and are referred to in the
Patrick O'Brian AubreyMaturin series of books.

# Scalp aponeuroses
The aponeurosis (or galea aponeurotica) is a tough layer of dense fibrous tissue which runs from the frontalis muscle anteriorly to the occipitalis posteriorly.
Aquaporin 2
AQP2 is found in the apical cell membranes of the kidney's collecting duct principal cells and in intracellular vesicles located throughout the cell.

# Regulation
It is the only aquaporin regulated by vasopressin.
The basic job of aquaporin 2 is to reabsorb water from the urine while its being removed from the blood by the kidney.  Aquaporin 2 is in kidney epithelial cells and usually lies dormant in intracellular vesicle membranes. When it is needed, vasopressin binds to the cell surface vasopressin receptor thereby activating a signaling pathway that causes the aquaporin 2 containing vesicles to fuse with the plasma membrane, so the aquaporin 2 can be used by the cell.
This aquaporin is regulated in two ways by the peptide hormone vasopressin:
- short-term regulation (minutes) through trafficking of AQP2 vesicles to the apical region where they fuse with the apical plasma membrane
- long-term regulation (days) through an increase in AQP2 gene expression.
This aquaporin is also regulated by food intake. Fasting reduces expression of this aquaporin independently of vasopressin.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in this channel are associated with nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, which can be autosomal dominant or recessive. Mutations in the vasopressin receptor cause a similar X-linked phenotype.
Lithium, which is often used to treat bipolar disorder, can cause acquired diabetes insipidus (characterized by the excretion of large volumes of dilute urine) by decreasing the expression of the AQP2 gene.
The expression of the AQP2 gene is increased during conditions associated with water retention such as pregnancy and congestive heart failure.
Aquaporin 3
Aquaporin 3 is found in the basolateral cell membrane of principal collecting duct cells and provides a pathway for water to exit these cells. In the kidney, AQP3 is regulated by vasopressin (ADH). This protein is also a determinant for the GIL blood group system.
Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) (a HDAC inhibitor) increases expression of aquaporin-3 in normal skin cells (keratinocytes).

# Clinical significance
AQP3 levels are often lower in psoriasis than in healthy skin.
AQP3 is expressed more in atopic eczema.