Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Coumarin
Coumarin is a chemical compound; a toxin found in many plants, notably in high concentration in the tonka bean, woodruff, and bison grass. It has a sweet scent, readily recognised as the scent of newly-mown hay. It has clinical value as the precursor for several anticoagulants, notably warfarin. It is also used as a gain medium in some dye lasers.
The name comes from a French word, coumarou, for the tonka bean.

# Synthesis
The biosynthesis of coumarin in plants is via hydroxylation, glycolysis and cyclization of cinnamic acid. Coumarin can be prepared in a laboratory in a Perkin reaction between salicylaldehyde and acetic anhydride.
The Pechmann condensation provides another synthesis of coumarin and its derivatives.

# Derivatives
Some naturally occurring coumarin derivatives include umbelliferone (7-hydroxycoumarin), aesculetin (6,7-dihydroxycoumarin), herniarin (7-methoxycoumarin), psoralen and imperatorin. Coumarin and its derivatives are all considered phenylpropanoids.

# Coumarin toxicity
Coumarin is often found in tobacco products and artificial vanilla substitutes, though it has been banned as a food additive in numerous countries since the mid-20th century because it is moderately toxic to the liver and kidneys, with an LD50 of 275 mg/kg - low compared to related compounds. Although only somewhat dangerous to humans, coumarin is a potent rodenticide: rats and other rodents largely metabolize it to 3,4-coumarin epoxide, a toxic compound that can cause internal hemorrhage and death. Humans largely metabolize it to 7-hydroxycoumarin, a compound of lower toxicity.
Coumarin was banned as a food additive in the United States in 1978. OSHA considers this compound to be only a lung-specific carcinogen, and "not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans" . Coumarin was banned as an adulterant in cigarettes by tobacco companies in 1997, but due to the lack of reporting requirements to the US Department of Health and Human Services it was still being used as a flavoring additive in pipe tobacco. Coumarin is currently listed by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) among "Substances Generally Prohibited From Direct Addition or Use as Human Food", according to 21 CFR 189.130 , but some natural additives containing coumarin (such as sweet woodruff) are allowed "in alcoholic beverages only" (21 CFR 172.510 ). In Europe, such beverages are very popular, for example Maiwein (white wine with woodruff) and Zubrowka (vodka flavored with bison grass).
European health agencies have warned against consuming high amounts of cassia bark, one of the four species of cinnamon, because of its coumarin content.
Coumarin should be avoided by people with perfume allergy.  
Flexitral (Chantilly, VA) has developed an allergen replacement product called Coumane(TM), GRAS. .

# Compounds
Compounds within the coumarin family include:
- brodifacoum,
- bromadiolone,
- coumafuryl, and
- difenacoum.
- Ensaculin
- warfarin
Several of the above compounds are used as rodenticides.
Cow dung

# Overview
Cow dung is a term used for the feces of the bovine species. The species includes the cow, buffalo, ox and bullock. Cow dung is basically the digested residue of herbivorous matter which is acted upon by symbiotic bacteria residing within the animal's rumen. The resultant faecal matter is rich in minerals. Colour ranges from greenish to blackish. In due course, the resulting matter turns yellow due to chemical changes caused by sunlight.

# Uses
In many parts of the developing world, cow dung is used as a fertilizer and fuel. Caked and dried cow dung is used as a fuel to cook food in many parts of Asia and Africa. Especially in India where it is known as gobar, cow dung is also used as manure.
In recent times, the dung is collected and used as biogas used to generate electricity and heat. The gas is a rich source of methane and is used in rural areas of India to provide a renewable and stable source of electricity.
Cow dung is also used to line the floor and walls of buildings owing to its insect repellent properties. In cold places, cow dung is used to line the walls of rustic houses as is a cheap thermal insulator. Cow dung has an excellent mosquito repellent property and is used by many companies to produce repellents.
It was also used extensively on Indian Railways to seal smokeboxes on steam locomotives.
Cow dung is also an optional ingredient in the manufacture of adobe mud brick housing depending on the availability of materials at hand.

# Colloquialisms
Cow dung goes by many terms around the world, virtually all of which are colloquial or slang in nature. Cow dung usually appears in a rounded pile and many many of the terms refer to the shape. They include:
- cow pat (used in England; said to originate from the sound made as the faeces drops to the ground)
- cow patty
- cow plop
- pasture patty
- cow chip, (refers to dried cow dung)
- meadow muffin
- cow pie
- country pancake
- buffalo pancake
- landmine
Crawling
Crawling is a form of animal locomotion generally involving slow movement along the ground, such as that seen in snakes, snails and earthworms. Various mechanisms are involved, for example earthworms move by peristalsis, while snakes undulate their body from side to side. This form of terrestrial locomotion involves much higher levels of friction than running, hopping etc.

# Human crawling
For humans it usually means moving on knees and hands, with support from the toes. Except for using a vehicle or being carried by an animal, it is the main alternative to walking and running. Crawling is used mainly:
- When he/she cannot walk because of being an infant or due to disability or being wounded or sick.
- In very low places (caves, under a table, in a mine, etc.). Sometimes underground miners need to crawl long distances during their work.
- When searching for something on the ground.
- To get down to the ground in gardening
- For stealth (camouflage and quietness)
- To lower the field of vision
- For fun or comical purposes.
- When gun fire or other projectiles are flying over, crawling reduces the risk of being hit.

# Crawling sensation
Crawling, in terms of pain sensations, refers to feeling as if covered with crawling things (i.e., ants).
Crepitus

# Overview
Crepitus is a medical term to describe the grating, crackling or popping sounds and sensations experienced under the skin and joints.  The sound can be created when two rough surfaces in the human body come into contact - for example, in osteoarthritis when the cartilage around joints has eroded away and the joint ends grind against one another, or when the fracture surfaces of two broken bones rub together.
In soft tissues, crepitus can be produced when gas is introduced into an area where it normally isn't present. The term can also be used when describing the sounds produced by lung conditions such as interstitial lung disease - these are also referred to as "rales". Crepitus is often loud enough to be heard by the human ear, although a stethoscope may be needed to detect instances caused by respiratory diseases.
In times of poor surgical practice, post-surgical complications involved anaerobic infection by Clostridium perfringens strains, which can cause gas gangrene in tissues, also giving rise to crepitus.
Cryostat
A Cryostat (cryo=cold and stat=stable) is a vessel, similar in construction to a vacuum flask, or Dewar used to maintain cold cryogenic temperatures.

# Cryostat types

## Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Research magnet types
Cryostats used in MRI machines are designed to hold a cryogen, typically helium, in a liquid state with minimal evaporation (boil-off). The liquid helium bath is designed to keep the superconducting magnet's bobbin of superconductive wire in its superconductive state. In this state the wire has no electrical resistance and very large currents are maintained with a low power input. To maintain superconductivity, the bobbin must be kept below its transition temperature by being immersed in the liquid helium. If, for any reason, the wire becomes resistive, i.e. loses superconductivity, a condition known as a "quench", the liquid helium evaporates, instantly raising pressure within the vessel. A burst disk, usually made of carbon, is placed within the chimney or vent pipe so that during a pressure excursion, the gaseous helium can be safely vented out of the MRI suite. Modern MRI cryostats use a mechanical refrigerator (cryocooler) to re-condense the helium gas and return it to the bath, to maintain cryogenic conditions and to conserve helium.
Typically cryostats are manufactured with two vessels, one inside the other. The outer vessel is evacuated with the vacuum acting as a thermal insulator. The inner vessel contains the cryogen and is supported within the outer vessel by structures made from low-conductivity materials. An intermediate shield between the outer and inner vessels intercepts the heat radiated from the outer vessel. This heat is removed by a cryocooler. Older helium cryostats used a liquid nitrogen vessel as this radiation shield and had the liquid helium in an inner, third, vessel. Nowadays few units using multiple cryogens are made with the trend being towards 'cryogen-free' cryostats in which all heat loads are removed by cryocoolers.

## Biological microtome type
In biology, cryostats are used for freezing specimens for sectioning and staining for microscopical examination. The cryostat-microtome is a type of Microtome where the device is located completely within a refrigerated chamber with glass window to enable viewing during the sectioning. To minimize unnecessary warming all necessary mechanical movements of the microtome can be achieved by hand via a wheel mounted outside the chamber. Specimens that are soft at room temperature need to be frozen before sectioning (for example at -20 degrees C).
de:Kryostat
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Cumulina
Cumulina (December 3 1997-May 5 2000) was a mouse who was the first animal cloned from adult cells that survived to adulthood.  She was cloned using the Honolulu technique developed by the Ryuzo Yanagimachi research group, 'Team Yana',  at the former campus of the John A. Burns School of Medicine located at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa.  She was a brown Mus musculus or common house mouse.  Cumulina was named after the cumulus cells surrounding the developing ovarian follicle in mice.  Nuclei from these cells were put into egg cell devoid of their original nuclei in the Honolulu cloning technique.  All other mice produced by the Yanagimachi lab are just known by a number.
Cumulina was able to produce two healthy litters.  She was retired after the second.
One can now visit Cumulina's preserved remains at the Institute for Biogenesis Research laboratory in Honolulu, Hawaii.  The Institute is a part of the John A. Burns School of Medicine.
Some of her descendants have been displayed at the Bishop Museum and the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois.
Cyclopia

# Overview
Cyclopia (also cyclocephaly or synophthalmia) is a rare form of holoprosencephaly and is a congenital disorder (birth defect) characterized by the failure of the embryonic prosencephalon to properly divide the orbits of the eye into two cavities. Its incidence is 1 in 16,000 in born animals, and 1 in 250 in embryos.

# Presentation
Typically, the nose is either missing or replaced with a non-functioning nose in the form of a proboscis. Although cyclopia is very rare, several cyclopic human babies are preserved in medical museums (e.g The Vrolik Museum, Amsterdam). There are also two known cases of children with Down Syndrome being born with one eye.
Some extreme cases of cyclopia have been documented in cats. In such cases, the nose and mouth fail to form, resulting in suffocation shortly after birth.

# Causes
Genetic problems or toxins can cause problems in the embryonic forebrain-dividing process.
One highly teratogenic alkaloid toxin that can cause cyclopia is cyclopamine or 2-deoxyjervine, found in the plant Veratrum californicum (also known as corn lily or vetch weed). The mistake of ingesting Veratrum californicum while pregnant is often due to the fact that hellebore, a plant with which it is easily confused, is recommended as a natural treatment for vomiting, cramps, and poor circulation, three conditions that are quite common in pregnant women.

# Notable cases
An old description of a colt apparently suffering from cyclopia reads:
First, That it had no sign of any Nose in the usual place, nor had it any, in any other place of the Head, unless the double Bagg CC that grew out of the midst of the forehead, were some rudiment of it.
Next, That the two Eyes were united into one Double Eye which was placed just in the middle of the Brow.
In 2005, a kitten with cyclopia, "Cy", was born in the United States and died about one day after birth.
Pemoline

# Overview
Pemoline (sold as Cylert) is a medication used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. Under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, it is a Schedule IV drug.
Pemoline has some advantages over other stimulants in that it does not reduce the appetite or cause dry mouth.

# Hepatotoxicity and discontinuation
In some patients Pemoline is suspected of causing hepatotoxicity, so regular liver tests are performed on those treated with it. Since receiving FDA approval in 1975, it has been linked with 21 cases of liver failure, of which 13 resulted in liver replacement or death. In 2005, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) withdrew approval for pemoline due to pressure from certain public advocacy groups, including Public Citizen.  The patient support group "Narcolepsy Network" tried to persuade the FDA not to ban it, on the grounds that some patients find all other treatments ineffective or to have debilitating side effects. The medication was used by an estimated 10,000 Americans afflicted with narcolepsy. A more potent analogue of pemoline, 4-methylaminorex has appeared as a black market drug with abuse potential similar to methamphetamine.
In March 2005, Abbott Laboratories (Cylert marketer) had discontinued the production of Cylert arguing economic reasons.
DCA agar
DCA agar  - Deoxycholate Citrate Agar - is particularly useful for the isolation of organisms that cause bacilliary dysentery, salmonella strains that cause food poisoning and Salmonella Paratyphi.  It is not so selective for Salmonella Typhi.  This growth medium is inhibitory to most gut bacteria, in particular species of the genus Proteus, although these species do survive on DCA agar.  It is therefore essential that suspected pathogens must be subcultured on a less inhibitory medium prior to identification.
Salmonella spp appear to be yellow or colourless colonies, often with a dark centre.
As there are many bacteria that also look like Salmonella on DCA, it is widely recommended that more selective agars are used for the identification of Salmonella, namely xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar.
This growth medium is heat-sensitive and should be poured and cooled as soon as possible after addition of the deoxycholate, otherwise it tends to become very soft and difficult to handle.  It has a pH of approximately 7.3, and when poured and cooled, appears light to dark pink in colour.
DCA agar contains:
DEFB103A
Beta-defensin 103 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DEFB103A gene.

# Function
Defensins form a family of microbicidal and cytotoxic peptides made by neutrophils. Members of the defensin family are highly similar in protein sequence. This gene encodes defensin, beta 103B, which has broad spectrum antimicrobial activity and may play an important role in innate epithelial defense.
In dogs, the product of the same genetic locus, -Defensin 103, also plays a role in pigmentation, being an agonist of the melanocortin 1 receptor.
DEFB106A
Beta-defensin 106 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DEFB106A gene.
Defensins form a family of microbicidal and cytotoxic peptides made by neutrophils. Defensins are short, processed peptide molecules that are classified by structure into three groups: alpha-defensins, beta-defensins and theta-defensins. All beta-defensin genes are densely clustered in four to five syntenic chromosomal regions. Chromosome 8p23 contains at least two copies of the duplicated beta-defensin cluster. This duplication results in two identical copies of defensin, beta 106, DEFB106A and DEFB106B, in head-to-head orientation. This gene, DEFB106A, represents the more centromeric copy.

# Function
The purified DEFB106 showed antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus.
DNASE1L2
Deoxyribonuclease-1-like 2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DNASE1L2 gene.

# Model organisms
Model organisms have been used in the study of DNASE1L2 function. A conditional knockout mouse line, called Dnase1l2tm1(KOMP)Wtsi was generated as part of the International Knockout Mouse Consortium program  a high-throughput mutagenesis project to generate and distribute animal models of disease to interested scientists.
Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Twenty three tests were carried out on mutant mice and eight significant abnormalities were observed. Homozygous mutant animals had a decreased body weight, grip strength and bone mineral content; a kinked tail, abnormal indirect calorimetry and femur/tibia morphology. Females also had an increased blood urea nitrogen level while males had a decreased leukocyte cell number.
Torsin A
Torsin-1A (TorA) also known as dystonia 1 protein (DYT1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TOR1A gene (also known as DQ2 or DYT1). TorA localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum and contiguous perinuclear space, where its ATPase activity is activated by either LULL1 or LAP1, respectively.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the AAA family of adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases), is related to the Clp protease/heat shock family and is expressed prominently in the substantia nigra pars compacta.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in this gene result in the autosomal dominant disorder, torsion dystonia 1.
Dactylis

# Overview
Dactylis is a genus of grasses in the subfamily Pooideae, native to Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. They are known in English as cock's-foot or cocksfoot grasses, also sometimes as orchard grasses.

# Taxonomy
The genus has been treated as containing only a single species D. glomerata by many authors, treating variation in the genus at only subspecific rank within D. glomerata, but more recently, there has been a trend to accept two species, while some authors accept even more species in the genus, particularly island endemic species in Macaronesia.

# Description
Dactylis species are perennial grasses, forming dense tussocks growing to 15140 centimetres tall, with leaves 2050 cm long and up to 1.5 cm broad, and distinctive tufted triangular flowerheads comprising a panicle 1015 cm long, turning pale grey-brown at seed maturity. The spikelets are 59 mm long, typically containing two to five flowers. The stems have a flattened base, which distinguishes them from many other grasses.

# Species
- Dactylis glomerata L. Throughout most of the range of the genus.
- Dactylis marina Borrill. Western Mediterranean region (SW Europe, NW Africa).
- Dactylis metlesicsii Schonfelder & Ludwig. Canary Islands, endemic.
- Dactylis smithii Link (syn. D. glomerata subsp. smithii (Link) Stebbins & Zohary). Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Madeira.

# Cytology
The taxa show several different levels of polyploidy. Dactylis glomerata subsp. glomerata and D. glomerata subsp. hispanica are tetraploid forms with 28 chromosomes. Several of the other taxa, including D. glomerata. subsp. himalayensis (syn. D. himalayensis), D. glomerata subsp. lobata (syn. D. polygama), D. metlesicsii, and some forms of D. smithii, are diploid with 2n = 14; hexaploids with 42 chromosomes also occur rarely.
Dezocine

# Overview
Dezocine (Dalgan, WY-16225) is an opioid analgesic related to pentazocine, with a similar profile of effects that include analgesic action and euphoria at low doses, but produces dysphoria and hallucinations at high doses, most likely due to action at -opioid receptors.
Dezocine has been found to be an effective painkiller comparable to meperidine (pethidine), and so is a more effective analgesic than pentazocine, but causes relatively more respiratory depression than pentazocine. It is a useful drug for the treatment of pain, but side effects such as dizziness limit its clinical application, and it can produce opioid withdrawal syndrome in patients already dependent on other opioids.
Dezocine is unusual among opioids as it is the only primary amine known to be an active opioid. It is a mixed agonist-antagonist as with other drugs in this class, and despite having a stronger respiratory depressant effect than morphine, dezocine shows a ceiling effect on its respiratory depressive action so above a certain dose this effect does not get any more severe.
Flushing

# Overview
For a person to flush is to become markedly red in the face and often other areas of the skin, from various physiological conditions. Flushing is generally distinguished, despite a close physiological relation between them, from blushing, which is milder, generally restricted to the face or cheeks, and generally assumed to reflect embarrassment. Flushing is also a cardinal symptom of carcinoid syndrome  the syndrome that results from hormones (often serotonin or histamine) being secreted into systemic circulation.

# Causes

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order

# Sex flush
Commonly referred to as the sex flush, vasocongestion (increased blood flow) of the skin can occur during all four phases of the human sexual response cycle. Studies show that the sex flush occurs in approximately 50-75% of females and 25% of males, yet not consistently. The sex flush tends to occur more often under warmer conditions and may not appear at all under cooler temperatures. It has also been commonly observed that the marked degree of the sex flush can predict the intensity of orgasm to follow.
During the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also responsible for the darkening of the clitoris and the walls of the vagina during sexual arousal. During the male sex flush, the coloration of the skin develops less consistently than in the female, but typically starts with the epigastrium (upper abdomen), spreads across the chest, then continues to the neck, face, forehead, back, and sometimes, shoulders and forearms.
The sex flush typically disappears soon after orgasm occurs, but this may take up to two hours or so, and sometimes, intense sweating will occur simultaneously. The flush usually diminishes in reverse of which it appeared.