Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Scaphoid bone
The scaphoid bone (hand navicular) of the wrist is found on the thumb side of the hand, within the anatomical snuffbox. It is known as the "navicular" in older texts, from its fancied resemblance to a boat. In modern usage, when used without modifiers, navicular refers to a bone in the tarsus.
It is approximately the size and shape of a cashew.
The scaphoid is the largest bone of the proximal row. It is situated at the radial side of the carpus, its long axis being from above downward, lateralward, and forward.
The etymology derives from the Greek skaphe which means "a boat," and the Greek eidos which means "form".

# Surfaces
The superior surface is convex, smooth, of triangular shape, and articulates with the lower end of the radius.
The inferior surface, directed downward, lateralward, and backward, is also smooth, convex, and triangular, and is divided by a slight ridge into two parts, the lateral articulating with the greater multangular, the medial with the lesser multangular.
On the dorsal surface is a narrow, rough groove, which runs the entire length of the bone, and serves for the attachment of ligaments.
The volar surface is concave above, and elevated at its lower and lateral part into a rounded projection, the tubercle, which is directed forward and gives attachment to the transverse carpal ligament and sometimes origin to a few fibers of the Abductor pollicis brevis.
The lateral surface is rough and narrow, and gives attachment to the radial collateral ligament of the wrist.
The medial surface presents two articular facets; of these, the superior or smaller is flattened of semilunar form, and articulates with the lunate bone; the inferior or larger is concave, forming with the lunate a concavity for the head of the capitate bone.
The distal convex surface articulates with trapezium and trapezoid.

# Clinical significance
It can be slow to heal because of the limited circulation to the bone. Fortunately, it is relatively difficult to break, but is the most commonly fractured bone in the carpus, particularly because of its unique anatomy and position within the wrist. Approximately 60% of carpal fractures are scaphoid fractures.
Fractures of the scaphoid must be recognized and treated quickly, as prompt treatment is the key to proper healing. Delays may complicate healing. Even rapidly immobilized fractures may require surgical treatment, including use of the Herbert screw to bind the two halves together.

# Palpation
Other than the obvious anatomical snuff box position, the scaphoid can be palpated in the volar (palmar) hand/wrist.  Its position is the intersections of the long axes of the four fingers while in a fist, or the base of the thenar eminence.  When felt in this position, the bone will feel to slide forward during radial deviation (wrist abduction), and flexion.
Clicking of the scaphoid, or no anterior translation can indicate scapholunate instability.
Sciatic nerve

# Overview
The sciatic nerve (also known as the ischiatic nerve) is a large nerve that starts in the lower back and runs through the buttock and down the lower limb. It is the longest and largest single nerve in the body.
The sciatic supplies nearly the whole of the skin of the leg, the muscles of the back of the thigh, and those of the leg and foot.

# Anatomical course
The nerve enters the lower limb by exiting the pelvis through the greater sciatic foramen, below the Piriformis muscle.
It descends midway in the greater trochanter of the femur and the tuberosity of the ischium, and along the back of the thigh to about its lower third, where it divides into two large branches, the tibial and common peroneal nerves. This division may take place at any point between the sacral plexus and the lower third of the thigh. When it occurs at the plexus, the common peroneal nerve usually pierces the Piriformis muscles.
In the upper part of its course, the nerve rests upon the posterior surface of the ischium, the nerve to the Quadratus femoris, the Obturator internus and Gemelli; it is accompanied by the posterior femoral cutaneous nerve and the inferior gluteal artery, and is covered by the Gluteus maximus.
Lower down, it lies upon the Adductor magnus, and is crossed obliquely by the long head of the Biceps femoris.

# Branches
The nerve gives off articular and muscular branches.
- The articular branches (rami articulares) arise from the upper part of the nerve and supply the hip-joint, perforating the posterior part of its capsule; they are sometimes derived from the sacral plexus.
- The muscular branches (rami musculares) are distributed to the following muscles of the lower limb: Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus, and Adductor magnus. The nerve to the short head of the Biceps femoris comes from the common peroneal part of the sciatic, while the other muscular branches arise from the tibial portion, as may be seen in those cases where there is a high division of the sciatic nerve.
The muscular branch eventually gives off the tibial nerve and common peroneal nerve, which innervates the muscles of the (lower) leg.  The tibial nerve goes on to innervate all muscles of the foot except the extensor digitorum brevis (peroneal nerve).

# Pathology
Pain caused by a compression or irritation of the sciatic nerve by a problem in the lower back is called sciatica.  Common causes of sciatica include the following low back conditions: spinal disc herniation, degenerative disc disease, spinal stenosis, and spondylolisthesis.

### Counter Pressure Relief for Sciatica
Applying counter pressure to location of sciatic nerve pain will provide temporary relief.  This method may be utilized by applying 2-minutes of pressure to sciatic, using a solid object in the area of pain (ex. a fist or tennis ball) pressed against another solid surface (ex. wall).

# Additional images
- Structures surrounding right hip-joint.
- Plan of sacral and pudendal plexuses.
- Nerves of the right lower extremity Posterior view.

# Internal links
- Sciatica
Sclerodactyly

# Overview
Sclerodactyly is a localized thickening and tightness of the skin of the fingers or toes. Sclerodactyly is commonly accompanied by atrophy of the underlying soft tissues.
The term "sclerodactyly" is made up from the Greek "skleros" meaning hard and "daktylos" meaning a finger or toe  "hard fingers or toes".
It is sometimes associated with scleroderma and mixed connective tissue disease, auto-immune disorders.
Sclerodactyly is a component of the CREST variant of scleroderma (CREST is an acronym that stands for calcinosis, Raynaud's phenomenon, esophageal dysmotility, sclerodactyly, and telangiectasia.)
it:Sclerodattilia
Scoop and Run

# Overview
Scoop and run (Scoop and shoot) is a colloquialism for the practice of immediately transporting ill or injured medical patients to a medical facility. Also known as, GTHTTH (Get The Hell To The Hospital), an acronym used by some Emergency Medical personnel to prevent alarming the patient.

# Phrase Usage
This phrase comes into use most commonly for the very seriously injured, such as at a violent automobile collision, when it becomes obvious to the first responders that the person may die without immediate treatment at an advanced facility.  The responders may then "scoop up the body and run" to the ambulance and then on to the hospital, ignoring relatively minor injuries.  The implication is that palliative or first aid treatment in the field will do little or no good for the patient, and that any delay in arriving at the hospital will be severely detrimental.
In general, it is common practice in the United States to transport patients to a medical facility as soon as possible, meaning as soon as it is safe to do so.
Alternative practice is to treat as many ailments as possible in the field (stay and play), or as many as possible when the stability of the patient is more critical than the delay (play and run). See Prehospital care strategies.
Today, emergency medical technicians are trained to make a transport decision early in patient care, whether to "load and go" or "stay and play," based on the severity of the patient's condition.
Secretoneurin
Secretoneurin, also called Chromogranin B (CHGB), is a 33-amino acid neuropeptide derived from secretogranin II (chromogranin C, CHGC) . Because of this secretogranin II is also called  secretoneurin-included (SN, included).
Chromogranin B is a tyrosine-sulfated secretory protein found in a wide variety of peptidergic endocrine cells. Chromogranin functions as a neuroendocrine secretory granule protein which may be the precursor for other biologically active peptides.
Secretoneurin is involved in chemotaxis of monocytes and epsinophils (comparable in potency to IL8) and endothelial cells and in regulation of endothelial cell proliferation. Highest secretoneurin levels are found in anterior pituitary, followed by adrenal medulla and posterior pituitary hypothalamus (2- to 6-fold lower levels in other brain regions investigated). Secretoneurin has been shown to have potent angiogenic activity in vivo in mouse cornea model and in vitro in a 3-dimensional gel.

# Singaling
PI3 kinase, phosphodiesterase and phospholipase D inhibition inhobits its pro-migration effects, but blocking PKC and tyrosine kinases has notbeen shown to have effect. Downstream to these ERK type MAP kinase and AKT are activated.
Semisynthesis
"Semisynthesis" or partial chemical synthesis is a type of chemical synthesis that uses compounds isolated from natural sources (e.g. plant material or bacterial or cell cultures) as starting materials. These natural biomolecules are usually large and complex molecules. This is opposed to a total synthesis where large molecules are synthesized from a stepwise combination of small and cheap (petrochemical) building blocks.
Semisynthesis is usually used when the precursor molecule is too structurally complex, too costly or too inefficient to be produced by total synthesis. It is also possible that the semisynthetic derivative outperforms the original biomolecule itself with respect to potency, stability or safety.
Drugs derived from natural sources are usually produced by harvesting the natural source or through semisynthetic methods: one example is the semisynthesis of LSD from ergotamine, which is isolated from ergot fungus cultures. The commercial production of Taxol is also based on semisynthesis (see: Taxol total synthesis).
The antimalarial drug artemether (a component of Coartem) is a semisynthetic derived from naturally occurring Artemisinin. The latter is unstable due to the presence of a lactone group and therefore this group is replaced by an acetal through organic reduction with potassium borohydride and methoxylation :
Senna (genus)
Senna is a large genus of about 250260 species of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae. This diverse genus is native throughout the tropics, with a small number of species reaching into temperate regions.
Typically Senna species have yellow flowers. Some species of Senna are notable for being host to particular butterfly species  for instance Cloudless Sulphur butterflies.
Senna alexandrina is a small shrub, about 0.5-1 m high, with a pale green smooth erect stem, long spreading branches, bearing four or five pairs of leaves. The flowers are small and yellow, the pods broadly oblong and containing about six seeds.
Senna is an Arabian name, and the plant is grown mostly in Nubia. Twice a year the plants are cut down, dried in the sun, stripped and packed in palm-leaf bags and sent on camels to Essouan and Darao then up the Nile to Cairo or else to Red Sea ports.
It is a purgative, similar to aloe and rhubarb in having as active ingredients anthraquinone derivatives and their glucosides. Its action is on the lower bowel, and is especially useful in alleviating constipation. It increases the peristaltic movements of the colon.
Another species of senna, Cassia obovata, is used as a hair treatment with effects similar to henna, but without the red color. The active component is an anthraquinone derivative called chrysophanic acid, which is also found in higher concentrations in rhubarb root. It adds a slight yellow color. Cassia obovata is often called "neutral henna".

# Selected species
- Senna aculeata
- Senna acutifolia (syn. Cassia acutifolia; Alexandrian senna; Senna alexandrina)
- Senna alata (Candle Bush)
- Senna angulata
- Senna armata
- Senna artemisioides
- Senna auriculata
- Senna australis
- Senna bicapsularis
- Senna birostris
- Senna candolleana
- Senna corymbosa
- Senna covesii, (Desert senna, Rattleweed)
- Senna cumingii
- Senna didymobotrya
- Senna fruticosa
- Senna hebecarpa
- Senna helmsii
- Senna hirsuta
- Senna italica
- Senna ligustrina
- Senna lindheimeriana
- Senna macranthera
- Senna marilandica
- Senna multiglandulosa
- Senna multijuga
- Senna nicaraguensis
- Senna nitida
- Cassia obovata
- Senna obtusifolia
- Senna occidentalis
- Senna odorata
- Senna oligophylla
- Senna pallida
- Senna purpusii
- Senna siamea (syn. Cassia siamea; Siamese cassia; Siamese senna)
- Senna wislizeni Shrubby Senna,  Wislizenus' Senna (syn. Cassia wislizeni, Palmerocassia wislizenii)

# Uses

## Medicinal use
Because of the presence of anthraquinones, senna species are used as the primary ingredient in certain commercial stimulant laxatives.  It is also the primary ingredient found in most "dieter's tea."

## Culinary use
In some Southeast Asian cuisines (particularly those of Thailand and Laos), the leaves and flowers of Siamese Cassia (Senna siamea, called khi-lek in Thai), either fresh or pickled in brine, are used in cooking, particularly in gaeng khi-lek (khi-lek curry).
Shaker (gene)
The shaker (Sh) gene, when mutated, causes a variety of atypical behaviors in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster.  Under ether anesthesia, the flys legs will shake (hence the name); even when the fly is unanaesthetized, it will exhibit aberrant movements.  Sh-mutant flies have a shorter lifespan than regular flies; in their larvae, the repetitive firing of action potentials as well as prolonged exposure to neurotransmitters at neuromuscular junctions occurs.
In Drosophila, the shaker gene is located on the X chromosome. The closest human homolog is KCNA3.

# Function
The Sh gene plays a part in the operation of potassium ion channels, which are integral membrane proteins and are essential to the correct functioning of the cell.  A working shaker channel is voltage-dependent and has four subunits, which form a pore through which ions flow, carrying type-A potassium current (IA). A mutation in the Sh gene reduces the conductance of charge across the neuron since the channels do not work, causing the severe phenotypical aberrations mentioned above. These types of ion channels are responsible for the repolarization of the cell.
The shaker K channel is a homo tetrameric protein complex. When confronted with a stimulus, the tetramers undergo conformational changes; some of these changes are cooperative. The final step involved in the opening of the channel is highly synchronized.
Recently, the shaker gene has also been identified as a gene that helps determine an organism's amount of sleep. The phenotype of the flies that need less sleep is called minisleep (mns).

# Blockers
The shaker K channel is affected by various toxins, which effectively slow the opening of the channel, or reversibly block its functioning.
Toxins that affect the shaker K channel include:
- Agitoxin
- Charybdotoxin
- Iberiotoxin
- Pandinotoxin
- 6-bromo-2-mercaptotryptamine (BrMT)
BrMT can be seen working in the K channel to prevent the early activation of the channel  before the cooperation has begun. Though its exact mechanism remains unknown, it is expected to work by forcing a conformational change in the pore domain of the channel. This part of the channel is expected to be altered instead of the voltage-sensing domain because of its connections to other subunits. When the conformational change is enacted, the BrMT sites on adjacent subunits are also affected, resulting in a widespread delayed activation of the K channel.
Shazia Khalid
Shazia Khalid is a Pakistani medical doctor. On the night of January 2, 2005 she was allegedly raped by Captain Hammad, an officer of the Pakistan Army's Defence Services Group stationed at Sui, Dera Bugti, in a heavily-guarded government-owned natural gas plant. She was severely injured in the attack. Instead of treating her medically, officials were said to have drugged her into unconsciousness for three days to keep her quiet and then shipped her to a psychiatric hospital in Karachi. For a period of time she was reportedly held at a house in Karachi under the "unofficial protection" of the police and army and was not allowed access to doctors, lawyers or visitors of her choice.
Her case led to a violent uprising by the Bugti tribe in Baluchistan province, disrupting the supply of gas to much of the country for several weeks. By some accounts, up to 10,000 soldiers and police were brought in to quell the rebellion.
Even Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf entered the controversy, saying that the accused officer was not guilty.
In an interview with the BBC, Khalid said that she was threatened many times. "I cannot tell you how many times I was threatened. My life was made impossible. I  am still terrified." "My whole career was destroyed, as was my husbands. That was  why we left our country." "Instead of getting justice, I was hounded out of  Pakistan. I never wanted to leave Pakistan, but had no choice."
On March 18 Khalid left Pakistan on a flight to London. She has applied for asylum in Canada, where she has relatives, but her application was denied. In August, 2005 New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof wrote several articles about Khalid's story and urged readers to write to the Canadian minister of citizenship and Immigration asking the Canadian government to reconsider.
Shear modulus
In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or , is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:
where
Shear modulus is usually measured in GPa (gigapascals) or ksi (thousands of pounds per square inch).

# Explanation
The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the strength of materials. All of them arise in the generalized Hooke's law:
- Young's modulus describes the material's response to linear strain (like pulling on the ends of a wire),
- the bulk modulus describes the material's response to uniform pressure, and
- the shear modulus describes the material's response to shearing strains.
The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it experiences a force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face experiences an opposing force (such as friction). In the case of an object that's shaped like a rectangular prism, it will deform into a parallelepiped. Anisotropic materials such as wood and paper exhibit differing material response to stress or strain when tested in different directions. In this case, when the deformation is small enough so that the deformation is linear, the elastic moduli, including the shear modulus, will then be a tensor, rather than a single scalar value.

# Sound waves
In homogeneous and isotropic solids, there are two kinds of sound waves, pressure waves and shear waves.  The speed of sound for shear waves, v_s is controlled by the shear modulus,
where
Sigma-Aldrich

# Overview
Sigma-Aldrich Corporation Template:Nasdaq, headquartered in St. Louis, Missouri, is a supplier of reagents and materials for use in research and development, diagnostics and analysis. They have facilities in 36 countries and manufacture many of the chemicals they sell.

# Product lines
Sigma-Aldrich has a variety of product lines, each offered under separate branding.
- Life science
- Biochemicals
- Chemistry
- Analytical / Chromatography
- Research essentials (Solvents, Buffers, Acids/Bases, General Reagents)
- Equipment, books & supplies
- Large scale chemicals & contract manufacturing

# Subsidiaries

## Aldrich
Aldrich is a supplier in the research and fine chemicals market. Aldrich provides materials for drug discovery, materials science and chemical synthesis. Aldrich is well known among research chemists for having a wide selection of products. Their trademark "Sure-Seal" bottle, which incorporates a PTFE-lined septum inside a crown cap, allows the contents to be easily dispensed under an atmosphere of inert gas. Also, the Aldrich "Atmos Bag", is a sealable glove bag which enables the user to handle materials that are air and moisture sensitive in an inert atmosphere, such as nitrogen. Aldrich's chemicals catalog, the "Aldrich Catalog and Handbook" is often used as a handbook due to the inclusion of structures, physical data, and literature references. Many students use it as a reference book, especially undergraduates, as it is offered free by request.

## Sigma
Sigma is the Sigma-Aldrich's main biochemical supplier, with offerings including antibiotics, buffers, carbohydrates, enzymes, forensic tools, hematology and histology, nucleotides, proteins, peptides, amino acids and their derivatives.

## Sigma RBI
Sigma RBI produces specialized products for use in the field of cell signaling and neuroscience. Their offerings range from standard biochemical reagents to the latest cuttingedge research tools, including new ligands for receptors and ion channels, novel enzyme inhibitors, phosphospecific antibodies, key signal transduction enzymes, and assay kits for cell signaling.

## ISOTEC
ISOTEC provides isotopically labeled products for protein structure determination, peptide synthesis, proteomics, metabolic research, magnetic resonance imaging, nuclear magnetic resonance, breath test substrates, agriculture, as well as gas and gas mixes.

## Fluka Riedel-de Haen
Fluka Riedel-de Haen works in the field of analytical chemistry, biochemistry and organic chemistry.

## Supelco
Supelco is the analytical and chromotography products branch of Sigma-Aldrich. It provides analytical standards and reagents, vials and syringes, biocides, and sample preparation/purification products.

## Sigma-Aldrich Fine Chemicals
Sigma-Aldrich Fine Chemicals (SAFC) is the extremely-fine chemical supply branch of Sigma-Aldrich.

## Sigma Life Science (formally Sigma-Genosys)
Sigma Life Science provides products such as custom DNA/RNA oligos; custom DNA and LNA probes; siRNA; isotopically-labelled peptides and peptide libraries.
Sigmoid colon

# Overview
The sigmoid colon (pelvic colon; sigmoid flexure) forms a loop which averages about 40 cm. in length, and normally lies within the pelvis, but on account of its freedom of movement it is liable to be displaced into the abdominal cavity.

# Path
It begins at the superior aperture of the lesser pelvis, where it is continuous with the iliac colon, and passes transversely across the front of the sacrum to the right side of the pelvis.
It then curves on itself and turns toward the left to reach the middle line at the level of the third piece of the sacrum, where it bends downward and ends in the rectum. According to Isaac Asimov's book The Human Body, the name sigmoid means "S-shaped."

# Coverings
It is completely surrounded by peritoneum, which forms a mesentery (sigmoid mesocolon), which diminishes in length from the center toward the ends of the loop, where it disappears, so that the loop is fixed at its junctions with the iliac colon and rectum, but enjoys a considerable range of movement in its central portion.

# Relations
Behind the sigmoid colon are the external iliac vessels, the left Piriformis, and left sacral plexus of nerves.
In front, it is separated from the bladder in the male, and the uterus in the female, by some coils of the small intestine.

# Additional images
- Intestines
- Sigmoid colon and rectum, showing distribution of branches of inferior mesenteric artery and their anastomoses.
- Iliac colon, sigmoid or pelvic colon, and rectum seen from the front, after removal of pubic bones and bladder.
- Sagittal section of the lower part of a female trunk, right segment.