Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Hyperphosphatemia

# Overview
Hyperphosphatemia is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is an abnormally elevated level of phosphate in the blood. Often, calcium levels are lowered (hypocalcemia) due to precipitation of phosphate with the calcium in tissues.

# Causes

## Causes by Organs System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
It can be caused by hypoparathyroidism due to the lack of PTH effect of inhibiting renal reabsorption of phosophate. Independent of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D level, fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) regulates the sodium/phosphate cotransporter (NPT2a) by controlling renal expressions of key enzymes of vitamin D metabolism. Both NPT2a and NPT2c are regulated in a similar fashion by parathyroid hormone (PTH), FGF23, and dietary phosphate.
There are two rare autosomal recessive metabolic disorders characterized by hyperphosphatemia:
- Hyperphosphatemic familial tumoral calcinosis (HFTC)
- Hyperphosphatemia-hyperostosis syndrome (HHS).
The principal clinical features of HFTC are represented by ectopic periarticular calcifications associated with hyperphosphatemia. HFTC has been shown to result from mutations in two genes: GALNT3 and FGF23. The secretion of FGF23 requires O-glycosylation, which is selectively directed by GALNT3, to block processing of FGF23. Hyperphosphatemia-hyperostosis syndrome (HHS) is also characterized by radiological evidence of cortical hyperostosis. HHS is caused by mutations in GALNT3. HHS and HFTC may be different manifestations of the same disorder. Hyperphosphatemia is also commonly seen in chronic renal failure. This can also be caused by taking oral sodium phosphate solutions prescribed for bowel preparation for colonoscopy in children. Hyperphosphatemia can be induced by using hyperphosphate.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Signs and symptoms include ectopic calcification, secondary hyperparathyroidism, and renal osteodystrophy. -Klotho has been implicated in the renal and parathyroid response to hyperphosphatemia. In patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) the expression of osteopontin in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is associated with hyperphosphatemia or azotemia.

# Treatment
High phosphate levels can be avoided with phosphate binders and dietary restriction of phosphate.
Vitamin poisoning

# Overview
Vitamin poisoning, or hypervitaminosis, refers to a condition of high storage levels of vitamins, which can lead to toxic symptoms.  The medical names of the different conditions are derived from the vitamin involved: an excess of vitamin A, for example, is called "hypervitaminosis A".
High dosage vitamin A; high dosage, slow release vitamin B3; and very high dosage vitamin B6 alone (i.e.  without vitamin B complex) are sometimes associated with vitamin side effects that usually rapidly cease with supplement reduction or cessation.  Conversely, certain vitamins do not produce toxicity in excess levels.  Vitamin C has been used in dosages over 100,000 mg for serious illness  over 1000 times the daily recommended intake  without ill effects. However, Vitamin C does have a pronounced laxative effect, typically when intake of vitamin C is in the range of 5-20 grams per day for a person in normal "good health".
High doses of mineral supplements can also lead to side effects and toxicity.  Mineral-supplement poisoning does occur occasionally due to excessive and unusual intake of iron-containing supplements, including some multivitamins, but is not common.
The Dietary Reference Intake recommendations from the United States Department of Agriculture define  a "tolerable upper intake level" for most vitamins.

# Comparative safety statistics
Death by vitamin poisoning appears to be quite rare in the US, typically none in a given year. However before 1998, several deaths per year were typically associated with pharmaceutical iron-containing supplements, especially brightly-colored, sugar-coated, high-potency iron supplements, and most deaths were children. Unit packaging restrictions on supplements with more than 30 mg iron have since reduced deaths to 0 or 1 per year. These statistics compare with 59 deaths due to aspirin poisoning in 2003, 147 deaths associated with acetaminophen-containing products in 2003, and an average of 54 deaths per year due to lightning for 1990-2003.
Hypochondroplasia
Hypochondroplasia is a developmental disorder caused by an autosomal dominant genetic defect in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 gene (FGFR3) that results in a disproportionately short stature, micromelia, and a head that appears large when compared with the underdeveloped portions of the body.  It is also known as "achondroplasia tarda" and "atypical achondroplasia."

# Features
People affected by this disorder appear normal at birth. As the infant grows, however, their arms and legs do not develop properly and their body becomes thicker and shorter than normal. The head is normal but appears large due to the underdevelopment of other parts of the body, a symptom called "relative macrocephaly".
The clinical and radiographic features of this disorder are milder than those seen in achondroplasia.
Intelligence is usually normal.

# Pathophysiology
This disorder results from mutations in the proximal tyrosine kinase domain of the FGFR3 gene.  This gene plays an important role in embryonic development, playing a part in regulating activities such as cell division, migration, and differentiation.

# Getting Help
Standard treatment of hypochondroplasia usually takes the form of orthopedic surgery and physical therapy.  Genetic counseling is advised for patients and their families.

# Etiology
This disorder is transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait affecting the FGFR3 gene on chromosome 4p16.3.

# Epidemiology
Shemales tend to be affected more often than males.
Hypoglossal canal
The hypoglossal canal is a bony canal in the occipital bone of the skull that transmits the hypoglossal nerve from its point of entry near the medulla oblongata to its exit from the base of the skull near the jugular foramen.  It lies in the epiphyseal junction between the basiocciput and the jugular process of the occipital bone.
The Hypoglossal canal has recently been used to try to determine the antiquity of human speech.  Researchers have found that hominids who lived as long as 2 million years ago had the same size canal as that of modern day chimpanzees, some scientists thus assume they were incapable of speech. However, archaric H. sapiens 400,000 years ago had the same size canal as that of modern humans, meaning they could have been capable of speech. Some Neanderthals also had the same size hypoglossal canal as archaic H. sapiens. However recent studies involving several primate species  have given inconclusive results as to whether there is any association between its size and speech .

# Additional images
- Base of the skull. Upper surface.
- Median sagittal section through the occipital bone and first three cervical vertebr.
IMP dehydrogenase
IMP dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.205 (Inosine-5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase) (Inosinic acid dehydrogenaseis) (IMPDH) an enzyme that converts inosine monophosphate to xanthosine monophosphate:
It catalyzes the rate-limiting reaction of de novo GTP biosynthesis.
IMP dehydrogenase is associated with cell proliferation and is a possible target for cancer chemotherapy. Mammalian and bacterial IMPDHs are tetramers of identical chains. There are two IMP dehydrogenase isozymes in humans. IMP dehydrogenase nearly always contains a long insertion that has two CBS domains within it.
The structure of this enzyme is composed of a TIM barrel domain with two CBS domains inserted within a loop.
It is inhibited by mycophenolic acid, ribavirin, and 6TGMP (6-thioguanine monophosphate). 6TGMP inhibition prevents purine interconversion and thus the synthesis of purine nucleotides.

# Examples
Humans express the following two IMP dehydrogenase isozymes:
Iliolumbar artery
The iliolumbar artery is a branch of the posterior trunk of the internal iliac artery.

# Course
The iliolumbar artery turns upward behind the obturator nerve and the external iliac artery and vein, to the medial border of the psoas major, behind which it divides into a lumbar and an iliac branch.

# Lumbar branch
The lumbar branch of the iliolumbar artery (ramus lumbalis) supplies the psoas major and quadratus lumborum, anastomoses with the last lumbar artery, and sends a small spinal branch through the intervertebral foramen between the last lumbar vertebra and the sacrum, into the vertebral canal to supply the cauda equina.

# Iliac branch
The iliac branch of the iliolumbar artery(ramus iliacus) descends to supply the iliacus muscle; some offsets, running between the muscle and the bone, anastomose with the iliac branches of the obturator artery; one of these enters an oblique canal to supply the bone, while others run along the crest of the ilium, distributing branches to the gluteal and abdominal muscles, and anastomosing in their course with the superior gluteal artery, iliac circumflex artery, and the lateral circumflex femoral artery.
Image attribution

# Overview
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Immune checkpoint
Cancers considered "hot tumors", such as melanoma, contain antitumor T cells and may respond to checkpoint inhibitor antibodies.

# Immune checkpoint inhibitors
Monoclonal antibodies are a type of cancer immunotherapy that have been developed to target immune checkpoints. These checkpoints down-regulate programmed cell death 1 or apoptosis. Cancer immunotherapy to block these checkpoints may encourage apoptosis of cancer cells.
Drug toxicities include:
- Gastrointestinal
- Dermatologic
- Endocrine
- Exacerbation of pre-existing autoimmune disease.

## PD-1 inhibitors
These antibodies can activate the immune system to attack cancers. These antibodies target the Programmed Cell Death 1 Receptor (PD-1 Receptor or CD279). Programmed Cell Death Type I is also known as apoptosis. The PD-1 Receptor is "an inhibitory T-lymphocyte receptor that has specificity for CD274 antigen and Programmed Cell Death 1 Ligand 2 Protein."
Pembrolizumab is a 'humanized monoclonal IgG4 kappa isotype antibody against PD-1'. Pembrolizumab was approved by the FDA for patients with unresectable or metastatic, microsatellite-instabilityhigh (MSI-H) or mismatch-repairdeficient (dMMR) solid tumors, regardless of tumor site or histology.  Pembrolizumab creates more objective tumor response among tumors in which at least 50% of its cells express PD-L1.
Nivolumab may case drug toxicity in about 40% of patients - rash and diarrhea are the most common effects.
Examples:
- Pembrolizumab (Keytruda)
- Nivolumab (Opdivo)

## PD-L1 inhibitors
These antibodies can activate the immune system to attack cancers. These antibodies target PD-L1, or cluster of differentiation 274 (CD274) which is the transmembrane protein ligand to PD-1.
- Atezolizumab (Tecentriq)
- Avelumab (Bavencio)
- Durvalumab (Imfinzi)

## CTLA-4 blockade
The CTLA-4 Antigen is "an inhibitory T cell receptor that is closely related to CD28 antigen. It has specificity for CD80 antigen and CD86 antigen and acts as a negative regulator of peripheral T cell function. CTLA-4 antigen is believed to play role in inducing peripheral tolerance."
Ipilimumab may cause autoimmune pituitary disease and exacerbate autoimmune disease in recipients with pre-existing autoimmune disease. The U.S. FDA has issued guidance on managing side effects.
Examples:
- Ipilimumab (Yervoy)

## Raf protein kinase inhibitors
Raf inhibitors are "a family of closely-related serine-threonine kinases that were originally identified as the cellular homologs of the retrovirus-derived V-RAF kinases. They are MAP kinase kinase kinases that play important roles in signal transduction."
Examples:
- Vemurafenib

# Vaccines
Vaccines may provide immunotherapy of cancers.
Incubation period
Incubation period, also called the latent period or latency period, is the time elapsed between exposure to a pathogenic organism, or chemical or radiation, and when symptoms and signs are first apparent.  The period may be as short as minutes, to as long as thirty years in the case of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.
While Latent or Latency period may be synonymous, 
a distinction is sometimes made between Incubation period - the period between infection and clinical onset of the disease- and Latent period -the time from infection to infectiousness. Which is shorter depends on the disease.
A person may be a carrier of a disease, such as Streptococcus in the throat without exhibiting any symptoms. Depending on the disease, the person may or may not be able to give the disease to others during the incubation period.

# Examples of incubation periods
Incubation periods can vary greatly, and are generally expressed as a range. When possible, it is best to express the mean and the 10th and 90th percentiles, though this information is not always available. The values below are arranged roughly in ascending order by number of days, although in some cases the mean had to be inferred.
For many conditions, incubation periods are longer in adults than they are in children or infants.
Induction (birth)

# Overview
Induction is a method of artificially or prematurely stimulating labour in a woman.
Common causes for induction include:
- The baby is believed to be getting too big.
- Postdate pregnancy, i.e. if the pregnancy has gone past the 42 week mark.
- Intrauterine fetal growth retardation (IUGR).
- There are health risks to the woman in continuing the pregnancy (e.g. she has pre-eclampsia).
- Premature rupture of the membranes (PROM); this is when the membranes rupture, but labour does not start within a specific amount of time.
- Premature termination of the pregnancy (abortion).
- Scheduling concerns.
- Fetal death in utero.

# Criticisms of induction
Induced labour tends to be more intense and painful for the woman, often leading to the increased use of analgesics and other pain-relieving pharmaceuticals (Vernon, 2005).  This cascade of intervention has been shown to lead to an increased likelihood of caesarean section delivery for the baby.  (Roberts 2000).  Inductions should only be undertaken for significant medical reasons, but some feel that doctors show increasing propensity toward induction simply for personal convenience or to relieve load on hospital facilities.  " enables doctors to practice daylight obstetrics," says Dr. Marsden Wagner, a neonatologist who served for 15 years as a director of women's and children's health in industrialized countries for the World Health Organization. "It means that as a doctor, I can come in at 9 a.m., give you the pill, and by 6 p.m. I've delivered a baby and am home having dinner."

# Methods of induction
Methods of inducing labour include:
- "Membrane Sweep" (aka "Stretch and Sweep" in Australia and the UK) - during an internal examination, the midwife moves her finger around the cervix to stimulate and/or separate the membranes around the baby from the cervix.  This causes a release of prostaglandins which can help to kick-start labour.
- Artificial rupture of the membranes (AROM or ARM) ("breaking the waters")
- Cervically-applied prostaglandin, such as dinoprostone (Cervidil) or misoprostol.
- Intravenous administration of synthetic oxytocin preparations, such as Pitocin.
- Natural Induction - Many midwives or other holistic providers practice "natural" induction, which may include use of herbs, castor oil or other agents to stimulate or advance a stalled labor. The safety of such practices is undetermined. Women should not try to induce labor without talking with their physician or other healthcare provider, and certainly not before 37 weeks gestation.
If an induction causes complications during labor, a Caesarean section is almost always conducted. An induction is most likely to result in successful vaginal delivery when a woman is close to or in the early stages of labor. Signs of pending labor may include softening of the cervix, dilation and increasing frequency or intensity of contractions.
Industrial injury
An industrial injury is any disease or bodily damage resulting from working.
The most usual organs involved are the spine, hands, the head,  lungs, eyes, skeleton, and skin.
Common causes of industrial injury are poor ergonomics, manual handling of heavy loads, misuse or failure of vehicles, machinery or tools, exposure to general hazards, inadequate safety training and clothing, jewellery or long hair that becomes tangled in machinery.
General hazards in a work environment include electricity, explosive materials, fire, flammable gases, heat, height, high pressure gases and liquids, hot gases and liquids, powerful or sharp moving machinery, oxygen-free gases or spaces, poisonous gases, radiation, toxic materials, work on, near or under water, work on, near or under weak or heavy structures.
List of well known industrial injuries:
- Air embolism caused by working with compressed air close to cuts in the skin.
- Asbestosis caused by working near asbestos.
- Decompression sickness caused by working underwater in a high ambient pressure environment
- Hand-arm vibration syndrome/HAVS/white finger caused by long-term use of vibrating tools
- Phossy jaw caused by chronic exposure to white phosphorus
- Repetitive strain injury
- Silicosis caused by working in a confined, dusty environment
There are many methods on preventing or reducing industrial injures, including: anticipation of problems by risk assessment, safety training, safety clothing, breathing equipment, safety guards, mechanisms on machinery, and safety barriers. In addition, past problems can be analyzed to find their root causes by using a technique called root cause analysis.
fi:Ammattitauti
sv:Arbetsskada
Infrared detector
An infrared detector is a photodetector that reacts to infrared (IR) radiation. The two main types of detectors are thermal and photonic.
The thermal effects of the incident IR radiation can be followed through many temperature dependent phenomena.
Bolometers and  microbolometers are based on changes in resistance. Thermocouples and thermopiles use the thermoelectric effect. Golay cells follow thermal expansion. In IR spectrometers the pyroelectric detectors are the most widespread.
The response time and sensitivity of photonic detectors can be much higher, but usually these have to be cooled to cut thermal noise. The materials in these are semiconductors with narrow band gaps. Incident IR photons can cause electronic excitations. In photoconductive detectors, the resistivity of the detector element is monitored. Photovoltaic detectors contain a p-n junction on which photoelectric current appears upon illumination.
A few detector materials:

# Types
Vanadium pentoxide is frequently used as a detector material in uncooled microbolometer arrays.
Inguinal ligament

# Overview
The inguinal ligament is a band running from the pubic tubercle to the anterior superior iliac spine.  Its anatomy is very important for operating on hernia patients.
It forms the base of the inguinal canal which is the place from where the inguinal hernia develops.
The inguinal ligament runs from the anterior superior iliac spine of the ilium to the pubic tubercle of the pubic bone.  It is formed by the external abdominal oblique aponeurosis and is continuous with the fascia lata of the thigh.

# Eponym
It is also referred to as Poupart's ligament, because Poupart gave it its relevance to hernial repair (he called it "le suspenseur de l'abdomen", the suspender of the abdomen). It is less frequently termed the Fallopian ligament.

# Function
The ligament serves to contain soft tissues as they course anteriorly from the trunk to the lower extremity.  This structure demarcates the superior border of the femoral triangle.

# Additional images
- Articulations of pelvis. Anterior view.
- The subcutaneous inguinal ring.
- Femoral sheath laid open to show its three compartments.
- The relations of the femoral and abdominal inguinal rings, seen from within the abdomen. Right side.
- The left femoral triangle.
- Posterior view of the anterior abdominal wall in its lower half. The peritoneum is in place, and the various cords are shining through.
Radial neuropathy

# Overview
Radial neuropathy (or radial mononeuropathy) is a type of mononeuropathy which results from acute trauma to the radial nerve that runs the length of the arm. Saturday night palsy is a colloquial term for it.It is known as transient paresthesia when sensation is temporarily abnormal.

# Causes
There are many ways to acquire radial neuropathy.
The term Saturday Night Palsy refers to nerve damage that can occur if a drunk person falls asleep with the back of their arms compressed by a bar edge, bench back, or like object. Radial neuropathy is also called honeymooners palsy, since it can be acquired by sitting with an arm draped over the back of a neighboring chair (or movie-theater seat) for a long time.
Both Saturday night palsy and honeymooners palsy refer to the fact that the nerve damage is generally forewarned by arm pain to a degree that only excessive love or liquor would drive a person to keep their arm in such an uncomfortable position.
Breaking the humerus and deep puncture wounds can also cause the condition.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Radial neuropathy is not necessarily permanent. Peripheral nerve regeneration is an imperfect and slow process, and full restoration of ability may take months, years, or may never occur.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Symptoms vary depending on the severity and location of the trauma; however, common symptoms include wrist drop (the inability to flex the wrist upward when the hand is palm down); numbness of the back of the hand and wrist; and inability to voluntarily straighten the fingers.