Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Epispadias
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Steven C. Campbell, M.D., Ph.D.

# Overview
An epispadias is a rare type of malformation of the penis in which the urethra ends in an opening on the upper aspect (the dorsum) of the penis. An epispadias is an uncommon and partial form of a spectrum of failures of abdominal and pelvic fusion in the first months of embryogenesis. Most cases involve more severe defects, including a small and bifid phallus with bladder exstrophy or even cloacal exstrophy involving the entire perineum.
Despite the similarity of name, an epispadias is not a type of hypospadias, and involves a problem with a different set of embryologic processes. The cause of this defect of early embryogenesis is unknown but does not involve androgens.
Women can also have this type of congenital malformation.  Epispadias of the female may occur when the urethra develops too far anteriorly, exiting in the clitoris or even more forward.  For females, this may not cause difficulty in urination but may cause problems with sexual satisfaction.  Frequently, the clitoris is bifurcated at the site of urethral exit, and therefore clitoral sensation is less intense during sexual intercourse due to frequent stimulation during urination.  However, with proper stimulation, using either manual or positional techniques, clitoral orgasm is definitely possible and quite pleasurable.
One of the most famous people afflicted with this condition is Wellington guitarist Ryan Salter. He elected to have penile amputation instead of repair.
- Widened pubic symphysis with epispadias
Epoophoron

# Overview
The epoophoron (also called organ of Rosenmuller or the parovarium) is a remnant of the Wolffian duct that can be found  next to the ovary and fallopian tube.

# Anatomy
It may contain 10-15 transverse small ducts or tubules that lead to the Gartners duct (also longitudinal duct of epoophoron) that represents the caudal remnant of the Wolffian duct and  passes through the broad ligament and the lateral wall of the cervix and vagina.
The epoophoron is a homologue to the epididymis in the male.
While the epoophoron is located in the lateral portion of the mesosalpinx and mesovarium, the paroophoron (residual remnant of that part of the Wolfian duct that forms the paradidymis in the male)  lies more medially in the mesosalpinx.

# Histology
It has a unique histological profile.

# Clinical significance
Clinically the organ may give rise to a local paraovarian cyst or adenoma.
Eric Topol
Eric Topol, M.D. is a noted American cardiologist, geneticist and administrator. He is currently leads the Translational Science Institute and Genomic Medicine program at Scripps Green Hospital in La Jolla as the chief academic officer and chief of genomic medicine and translational science for Scripps Health.
Before this, he was the chairman of cardiovascular medicine  the Cleveland Clinic in Ohio where is widely credited  with leading its cardiovascular program to the topmost position in the US.
Topol gained prominence as a leading litigationist in the Vioxx lawsuit against Merck.
Esketamine

# Overview
Esketamine  (also (S)-ketamine or S(+)-ketamine) (brand name Ketanest S) is a general anaesthetic and a dissociative. It is the S(+) enantiomer of the drug ketamine, a general anaesthetic. Esketamine acts primarily as a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, but is also a dopamine reuptake inhibitor. As of July 2014, it is in phase II clinical trials for treatment-resistant depression (TRD).

# Pharmacology
Esketamine is approximately twice as potent as racemic ketamine. It is eliminated from the human body more quickly than R()-ketamine or racemic ketamine, although R()-ketamine slows its elimination.
A number of studies have suggested that esketamine has a more medically useful pharmacological action than R()-ketamine or racemic ketamine. Esketamine inhibits dopamine transporters eight times more than R()-ketamine. This increases dopamine activity in the brain. At doses causing the same intensity of effects, esketamine is generally considered to be more pleasant by patients. Patients also generally recover mental function more quickly after being treated with pure esketamine, which may be a result of the fact that it is cleared from their system more quickly.
Esketamine has an affinity for the PCP binding site of the NMDA receptor 3-4 times higher than that of R()-ketamine. Unlike R()-ketamine, esketamine does not bind significantly to sigma receptors. Esketamine increases glucose metabolism in frontal cortex, while R()-ketamine decreases glucose metabolism in the brain. This difference may be responsible for the fact that esketamine generally has a more dissociative or hallucinogenic effect while R()-ketamine is reportedly more relaxing. However, other studies have found no difference between the isomers in the patient's level of vigilance.

# Potential use as an antidepressant
Johnson & Johnson is developing a nasal spray formulation of esketamine as a treatment for depression in patients that have been unresponsive to other antidepressants in the United States. As of July 2014, phase II clinical trials of intranasal esketamine sponsored by the Johnson & Johnson subsidiary Janssen Pharmaceutica are underway. Other pharmaceutical companies are also developing new antidepressant drugs that act similarly to ketamine, including Naurex's rapastinel (GLYX-13) and NRX-1074, and Cerecor's CERC-301.
Although most studies suggest that esketamine is preferable for medical uses, a 2013 study found that the antidepressant effect of R()-ketamine lasted longer than those of S(+)-ketamine in mice.
Etanautine

# Overview
Etanautine, also known as diphenhydramine monoacefyllinate, is an anticholinergic used as an antiparkinsonian agent. It is a 1:1 salt of diphenhydramine with acefylline, similar to the diphenhydramine/8-chlorotheophylline combination product dimenhydrinate.
As with dimenhydrinate, the stimulant effect of the acefylline counteracts the sedative effect from the diphenhydramine, resulting in an improved therapeutic profile.
The 1:2 salt diphenhydramine diacefylline (with two molecules of acefylline to each molecule of diphenhydramine) is also used in medicine, under the brand name Nautamine.
Ethylamine
Ethylamine is a chemical compound with the formula CH3CH2NH2.  It has a strong ammonia-like odor.  It is miscible with virtually all solvents and is considered to be a weak base, as is typical for amines.  Ethylamine is widely used in chemical industry and organic synthesis.
Ethylamine, like some other amines, has the unusual property of dissolving lithium metal to give the ion + and the solvated electron.  Evaporation of these solutions, gives back lithium metal.  Such solutions are used for the reduction of unsaturated organic compounds, such as naphthalenes and alkynes.

# Synthesis and reactions
Ethylamine can be prepared in a laboratory by reaction of ethylene with ammonia in the presence of a catalyst.
It can also be synthesized from acetaldehyde and ammonium chloride.
Reaction of ethylamine with sulfuryl chloride followed by oxidaton of the sulfonamide give diethyldiazene, EtN=NEt.
It is a basic compound.
Etretinate

# Overview
Etretinate (trade name Tegison) is a medication developed by HoffmannLa Roche that was approved by the FDA in 1986 to treat severe psoriasis. It is a second-generation retinoid. It was subsequently removed from the Canadian market in 1996 and the United States market in 1998 due to the high risk of birth defects. It remains on the market in Japan.

# Properties
Etretinate has a low therapeutic index and a long elimination half-life (t1/2) of 120 days, which make dosing difficult.
Etretinate is an aromatic retinoid, and therefore highly lipophilic. It is stored and released from adipose tissue, so its effects can continue long after dosage stops. It is detectable in the plasma for up to three years following therapy.
Etretinate has been replaced by acitretin, a safer metabolite of etretinate.

# Precautions
- Etretinate is a teratogen, and may cause birth defects long after use. Therefore, birth control is advised during therapy, and for at least three years after therapy has stopped.
- Etretinate should be avoided in children, as it may interfere with bone growth.
- If a patient has ever taken etretinate, he or she is not eligible to donate blood, due to the risk of birth defects.

# Side effects
- Hepatitis
- Pseudotumor cerebri
- Diffuse idiopathic skeletal Hyperostosis

# History
The drug was approved by the FDA in 1986 to treat severe psoriasis. It was subsequently removed from the Canadian market in 1996 and the United States market in 1998 due to the high risk of birth defects.
In Japan, the drug remains on market branded Tigason.  People may not donate blood for two years after ceasing to use the medication.
Euglenozoa
The Euglenozoa are a large group of flagellate protozoa. They include a variety of common free-living species, as well as a few important parasites, some of which infect humans.  There are two main subgroups, the euglenids and kinetoplastids.  Euglenozoa are unicellular, mostly around 15-40 m in size, although some euglenids get up to 500 m long.
Most euglenozoa have two flagella, which are inserted parallel to one another in an apical or subapical pocket.  In some these are associated with a cytostome or mouth, used to ingest bacteria or other small organisms.  This is supported by one of three sets of microtubules that arise from the flagellar bases; the other two support the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the cell.
Some other euglenozoa feed through the absorption, and many euglenids possess chloroplasts and so obtain energy through photosynthesis.  These chloroplasts are surrounded by three membranes and contain chlorophylls a and b, along with other pigments, so are probably derived from a captured green alga.  Reproduction occurs exclusively through cell division.  During mitosis, the nuclear membrane remains intact, and the spindle microtubules form inside of it.
The group is characterized by the ultrastructure of the flagella.  In addition to the normal supporting microtubules or axoneme, each contains a rod (called paraxonemal), which has a tubular structure in one flagellum and a latticed structure in the other.  Based on this, two smaller groups have been included here: the diplonemids and Postgaardi.
The euglenozoa are generally accepted as monophyletic.  They are related to Percolozoa; the two share mitochondria with disc-shaped cristae, which only occurs in a few other groups.  Both probably belong to a larger group of eukaryotes called the excavates.
Eutherians
Eutheria is a taxon containing the placental mammals, such as humans. The sister group of Eutheria is Metatheria, which includes marsupials and their extinct relatives.

# Origin of the word
The name Eutheria comes from the Greek words eu- "well" and ther "beast". When Eutheria was introduced by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1880, he meant it to be broader in definition than its precursor Placentalia. Some use Eutheria as a total group which includes the crown group Placentalia and extinct mammals which are closer to Placentalia than to Marsupialia.

# Characteristics of eutherians
Nevertheless, all living eutherians are placental mammals. This means that a eutherian fetus is nourished during gestation by a placenta. Eutherians are also viviparous, meaning that the offspring are carried in the mother's uterus until fully developed.

# Differences from other mammals
Because of this, eutherians are different from other mammal groups such as monotremes and marsupials which are not placental. Monotremes, for instance, lay eggs which protect developing young until they are fully developed. Marsupials give birth to partially-developed young who then migrate to a special pouch in the mother's body in which the young continue their development. (Some exceptions do exist. Bandicoots for instance, which are marsupials, develop small placenta-like structures during gestation.)

# Earliest example
The earliest known eutherian species is the extinct Eomaia scansoria from the Lower Cretaceous of China. It is a member of Eutheria, but the hips of the animal were too narrowly built to have allowed the birth of well-developed young. Thus it is unlikely that a placenta greatly contributed to the development of E. scansoria's young before they were born.
Members of Eutheria are found on all continents and in all oceans.
Polyphagia
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# Overview
In biology, "polyphagia" is a type of phagy, referring to an animal that feeds on many kinds of food.  In medicine, polyphagia (sometimes known as hyperphagia) is a medical sign meaning excessive hunger and abnormally large (poly-) intake of solids by mouth.
Exhalation
Exhalation (or expiration) is the movement of air out of the bronchial tubes, through the airways, to the external environment during breathing.
Exhaled air is rich in carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration during the production of ATP.
Exhalation has a complementary relationship to inhalation; the cycling between these two efforts define respiration.
Exothermic
In thermodynamics, the  word exothermic "outside heating" describes a process or reaction that releases energy usually in the form of heat, but it can also release energy in form of light (e.g. explosions), sound, or electricity (e.g. a battery). Its etymology stems from the Greek prefix ex-, meaning outside and the Greek word thermein, meaning to heat.  The term exothermic was first coined by Marcellin Berthelot.  The opposite of an exothermic process is an endothermic process, one that absorbs energy in the form of heat.
The concept is frequently applied in physical sciences to chemical reactions, where chemical bond energy is converted to thermal energy (heat).

# Overview
Exothermic refers to a transformation in which a system releases energy (heat) to the surroundings:
When the transformation occurs at constant pressure:
and constant volume:
In an adiabatic system (e.g. a system that does not give off heat to the surroundings), an exothermic process results in an increase in temperature.

## Exothermic processes
Some examples of exothermic processes are:
- Condensation of rain from water vapour
- Combustion of fuels such as wood, coal and oil
- Mixing water and strong acids
- Mixing alkalis and acids
- The setting of cement and concrete
- Most polymerisation reactions such as the setting of epoxy resin

# Implications for chemical reactions
Chemical exothermic reactions are generally more spontaneous than their counterparts, endothermic reactions.  In a thermochemical reaction that is exothermic, the heat may be listed among the products of the reaction.
FER (gene)
Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase FER is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the FER gene.
Fer protein is a member of the FPS/FES family of nontransmembrane receptor tyrosine kinases. It regulates cell-cell adhesion and mediates signaling from the cell surface to the cytoskeleton via growth factor receptors.

# Interactions
FER (gene) has been shown to interact with TMF1 and Cortactin.
FGR (gene)
Gardner-Rasheed feline sarcoma viral (v-fgr) oncogene homolog, also known as FGR, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the FGR gene.

# Function
This gene is a member of the Src family of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs). The encoded protein contains N-terminal sites for myristoylation and palmitoylation, a PTK domain, and SH2 and SH3 domains which are involved in mediating protein-protein interactions with phosphotyrosine-containing and proline-rich motifs, respectively. The protein localizes to plasma membrane ruffles, and functions as a negative regulator of cell migration and adhesion triggered by the beta-2 integrin signal transduction pathway. Infection with Epstein-Barr virus results in the overexpression of this gene. Multiple alternatively spliced variants, encoding the same protein, have been identified.

# Discovery
The feline version of this gene was discovered by Suraiya Rasheed, Murray Gardner, and co-workers.

# Interactions
FGR (gene) has been shown to interact with Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein.
False ribs
Excluding the first seven sets of ribs, the remaining five sets are false ribs.
Of these:
- the first three (eighth, ninth, and tenth rib) have their cartilages attached to the cartilage of the rib above (vertebro-chondral):
- the last two (eleventh rib and twelfth rib) are free at their anterior extremities and are termed floating ribs or vertebral ribs.

# Ninth rib
The frontal part of the ninth rib is at the same level as the first lumbar vertebra. This level is called planum transpyloricum, since the pylorus also is at this level.
Familicide

# Overview
A familicide is a type of murder or murder-suicide in which at least one spouse and one or more children are killed.  In some cases all of the family members' lives are taken. 
Of 909 cases of mass murder (defined as 4 victims within a 24 hour period) in the US from 1900 to 2000, more than half occurred within an immediate family. So that although the total number of familicide cases are relatively rare, they are the most common form of mass killings. However, statistical data is difficult to establish due to reporting discrepancies.
Familicide differs from mass murder in that the murder kills family members or loved ones rather than anonymous people. This has a different psychodynamic and psychiatric significance, but the distinction is not always made. 
A study of 30 cases in Ohio found that most of the killings were motivated by a parent's desire to stop their children's suffering.
In Australia, a study was done of seven cases of filicide followed by suicide in which marital separation followed by custody and access disputes were identified as an issue.  Some common factors such as marital discord, unhappiness, domestic violence, sexual abuse, threats of harm to self or others were found in varying degrees. It was not clear what could be done in terms of prevention.

# Famous familicides
- Chris Benoit, June 24, 2007, killed his wife, son, and himself
- Ronald DeFeo, Jr., November 13, 1974, killed his father, mother, two brothers and two sisters

# Related terms
- Filicide -  A parent, or parents killing their own child, or children.
- Infanticide - The killing of one's child, or children up to 12 months of age.
Firmicutes
The Firmicutes are a division of bacteria, most of which have Gram-positive cell wall structure. A few, the Mollicutes or mycoplasmas, lack cell walls altogether and so do not respond to Gram staining, but still lack the second membrane found in other Gram-negative forms. Others, such as Megasphaera, Pectinatus, Selenomonas, and Zymophilus have a porous pseudo-outer-membrane that causes them to stain Gram-negative. Originally the Firmicutes were taken to include all Gram-positive bacteria, but more recently they tend to be restricted to a core group of related forms, called the low G+C group in contrast to the Actinobacteria. They have round cells, called cocci (singular coccus), or rod-shaped forms.
Many Firmicutes produce endospores, which are resistant to desiccation and can survive extreme conditions. They are found in various environments, and some notable pathogens. Those in one family, the heliobacteria, produce energy through photosynthesis. Firmicutes play an important role in beer, wine, and cider spoilage.
There is currently no way of detecting a bacteria as belonging to Firmicutes as the phylum is highly diverse in phenotypic characteristics due to promiscusious plasmid exchange across species and genera of this phyla.
The division Firmicutes as part of the gut flora has been shown to be involved in energy resorption and obesity. 

# Classes
The group is typically divided into the Clostridia, which are anaerobic, the Bacilli, which are obligate or facultative aerobes, and the Mollicutes. On phylogenetic trees the first two groups show up as paraphyletic or polyphyletic, as do their main genera, Clostridium and Bacillus.  It is likely these groups will undergo revision.

# Genera
While there are currently more than 274 genera within the Firmicutes phylum, Notable genera of Firmicutes include:
Bacilli, order Bacillales
- Bacillus
- Listeria
- Staphylococcus
Bacilli, order Lactobacillales
- Enterococcus
- Lactobacillus
- Lactococcus
- Leuconostoc
- Pectinatus
- Pediococcus
- Streptococcus
Clostridia
- Acetobacterium
- Clostridium
- Eubacterium
- Heliobacterium
- Heliospirillum
- Sporomusa
Mollicutes
- Mycoplasma
- Spiroplasma
- Ureaplasma
- Erysipelothrix'
Flail limb
A Flail limb, or "flail arm", is a medical term which refers to an extremity in which the primary nerve has been severed, resulting in complete lack of mobility and sensation.  Although blood typically continues to flow through the limb, it is completely useless and generally cannot be surgically repaired.  The muscles soon wither away from atrophy, and the arm swings loosely at the side like a literal "dead weight."
Surgeons will usually recommend amputation of the flail limb, with the possibility of replacement with a prosthesis.
It is possible that fetal stem cells may be helpful in the regeneration of damaged or severed nerves, but it is difficult to get funding or permission to conduct such research.