Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Cystectomy

# Overview
Cystectomy is a medical term for surgical removal of all or part of the urinary bladder. It may also be rarely used to refer to the removal of a cyst, or the gallbladder. The most common condition warranting removal of the urinary bladder is bladder cancer. After the bladder has been removed, an Ileal conduit urinary diversion is necessary. An alternative to this method is to construct a pouch from a section of ileum or colon, which can act as a form of replacement bladder, storing urine until the patient desires to release it, which can be achieved by either abdominal straining or self catherisation.
Future treatment for this condition may involve a full replacement with an artificial bladder.
One of the follow-up solutions to a cystectomy is the creation of a neobladder (one form of which is named Studer's Ileal Neobladder or the Studer Pouch). A neobladder is a loop of intestine that is surgically fashioned into a pouch and placed in the location of the original bladder. It is then attached to the ureters and the urethra, thus simulating the function of the original organ. The kidneys filter the urine into the neobladder which can often be emptied by muscle control. There are side effects of this complex surgery, including partial shut down of the digestive system (in response to removal of the piece of intestine), incontinence, and the loss of the nerves that signal a full bladder.
Cystinuria

# Overview
Cystinuria is an inherited autosomal recessive disorder and is characterized by the formation of cystine stones in the kidneys, ureter, and bladder.
Newfoundland dogs are at an increased risk for cystinuria, compared with other breeds of dogs.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification
Cystinuria is characterized by the inadequate reabsorption of cystine during the filtering process in the kidneys, thus resulting in an excessive concentration of this amino acid. Cystine will precipitate out of the urine, if the urine is neutral or acidic, and form crystals or stones in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.
Mutations in the SLC3A1 and SLC7A9 genes cause cystinuria. The SLC3A1 and SLC7A9 genes provide instructions for producing the two parts of a transporter protein that is made primarily in the kidneys. These defects prevent proper reabsorption of basic, or positively charged amino acids such as histidine, lysine, ornithine, arginine and cystine.  Normally this protein allows certain amino acids, including cystine, to be reabsorbed into the blood from the filtered fluid that will become urine. Mutations in either of these genes disrupt the ability of this transporter protein to reabsorb these amino acids, allowing them to become concentrated in the urine. As the levels of cystine in the urine increase, the crystals typical of cystinuria are able to form, resulting in kidney stones.  Cystine crystals form hexagonal-shaped crystals which can be viewed upon microscopic analysis of the urine.  The other amino acids that are not reabsorbed do not create crystals in urine. The disorder affects 1 in 10,000 people and is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Cystinuria from Other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

## Natural History

## Complications

## Prognosis

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria

## History and Symptoms

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy

## Surgery

## Prevention
Cystometry
Cystometry, also known as flow cystometry, is a clinical diagnostic procedure used to evaluate bladder function. Specifically, it measures contractile force of the bladder when voiding. The resulting chart generated from cystometric analysis is known as a cystometrogram (CMG), which plots volume of liquid emptied from bladder against intravesical pressure.

# Use
Cystometric analysis is used to evaluate the bladder's capacity to contract and expel urine. It helps determine the source of urinary problems. A normal CMG effectively rules out primary vesical dysfunction. It is used as a component for diagnosis of various disorders including urinary tract infections, multiple sclerosis, stroke, spinal cord injury, urethral obstruction, and overactive bladder, among others.

# Procedure
The procedure is relatively short, ranging from fifteen minutes to an hour in duration. It involves the insertion of one or two catheters into an emptied bladder through the urethra. In the two catheter method, one catheter transfers liquid while the other is a manometer (pressure sensor). In the single catheter method, a specialized catheter performs both functions. An additional rectal catheter may also be placed for additional data. The bladder will then be filled with saline and the patient's awareness of the event will be queried. The patient will often be asked to note when presence of liquid is felt, when the bladder feels full, and when the urgency to void is felt. The patient is then asked to void, and both flow and pressure are recorded. These are plotted against each other to create the cystometrogram.

# Results
The primary results of cystometric analysis is the cystometrogram. The x-axis is the volume of liquid and the y-axis is the intraluminal pressure of the bladder. In normal patients, the plot is a series of spikes whose local minimums form a non-linear curve resembling an exponential growth curve. The spikes correspond to the bladder contractions associated with the micturation reflex. The curve formed by the bottom of the plot reflects the level of pressure necessary to void. In normal patients, the first couple hundred milliliters of urine flow with minimal applied pressure. Increasing pressure is necessary to void 200-300 millileters of urine. Beyond that, the pressure necessary to void additional urine rises sharply.

# Risks & Contraindications
As with any catheterization, the primary risk is of urinary tract infection. As a result, the procedure is contraindicated in any patient with an active UTI because the results may be skewed and the infection may spread.
There is also the potential for trauma to the bladder and urethtra, which may result in hematuria (blood in the urine).
Cystovirus

# Overview
Cystovirus is a genus of dsRNA virus, which infect certain Gram negative bacteria.

# Characteristics
All cystoviruses are distinguished by their three strands (analogous to chromosomes) of dsRNA, totalling ~14 kb in length and their protein and lipid outer layer.  No other bacteriophage have any lipid in their outer coat, though the Tectiviridae and the Corticoviridae have lipids within their capsids.
Most identified cystoviruses infect Pseudomonas species, but this is likely biased due to the method of screening and enrichment . The type species is Pseudomonas phage 6, but there are many other members of this family.  7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 have been identified and named , but other cystoviruses have also been isolated .
Members of the Cystoviridae appear to be most closely related to the Reoviridae , but also share homology with the Totiviridae.  Cystoviruses are the only bacteriophage that are more closely related to viruses of eukaryotes than to other phage.
Cytochrome

# Overview
Cytochromes are generally membrane-bound hemoproteins that contain heme groups and carry out electron transport.
They are either found as monomeric proteins (i.e. cytochrome c) or as subunits of bigger enzymatic complexes that catalyze redox reactions.  They are found in the mitochondrial inner membrane and endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotes, in the chloroplasts of plants, in photosynthetic microorganisms, and in bacteria.

# Structure and function
The heme group is a highly conjugated ring system (which means its electrons are very mobile) surrounding a metal ion, which readily interconverts between the oxidation states.  For many cytochromes the metal ion present is that of iron, which interconverts between Fe2+ (reduced) and Fe3+ (oxidized) states (electron-transfer processes) or between Fe2+ (reduced) and Fe3+ (formal, oxidized) states (oxidative processes). Cytochromes are thus capable of performing oxidation and reduction. Because the cytochromes (as well as other complexes) are held within membranes in an organized way, the redox reactions are carried out in the proper sequence for maximum efficiency.
In the process of oxidative phosphorylation, which is the principal energy-generating process undertaken by organisms which need oxygen to survive, other membrane-bound and soluble complexes and cofactors are involved in the chain of redox reactions, with the additional net effect that protons (H+) are transported across the mitochondrial inner membrane.  The resulting transmembrane proton gradient  is used to generate ATP, which is the universal chemical energy currency of life.  ATP is consumed to drive cellular processes that require energy (such as synthesis of macromolecules, active transport of molecules across the membrane, and assembly of flagella).

# Types
Several kinds of cytochrome exist and can be distinguished by spectroscopy, exact structure of the heme group, inhibitor sensitivity, and reduction potential.
Three types of cytochrome are distinguished by their prosthetic groups:
The definition of cytochrome c is not defined in terms of the heme group. There is no "cytochrome e", but there is a cytochrome f, which is often considered a type of cytochrome c.
In mitochondria and chloroplasts, these cytochromes are often combined in electron transport and related metabolic pathways:
A completely distinct family of cytochromes are known as the cytochrome P450 oxidases, so named for the characteristic Soret peak formed by absorbance of light at wavelengths near 450 nm when the heme iron is reduced (with sodium dithionite) and complexed to carbon monoxide. These enzymes are primarily involved in steroidogenesis and detoxification.
Cytoglobin
Cytoglobin is the protein product of CYGB, a human and mammalian gene.
Cytoglobin is a globin molecule ubiquitously expressed in all tissues and most notably utilized in marine mammals. It was discovered in 2001 and named cytoglobin in 2002. It is thought to protect against hypoxia. The predicted function of cytoglobin is the transfer of oxygen from arterial blood to the brain.

# Function
Cytoglobin is a ubiquitously expressed hexacoordinate hemoglobin that may facilitate diffusion of oxygen through tissues, scavenge nitric oxide or reactive oxygen species, or serve a protective function during oxidative stress.

# Applications
CYGB expression can be used as a specific marker with which hepatic stellate cells can be distinguished from portal myofibroblasts in the damaged human liver.
DAPT score
Synonyms and keywords: Dual Antiplatelet Therapy score; DAPT (Dual Antiplatelet Therapy) score; DAPT score calculator; Dual Antiplatelet Therapy score calculator; DAPT (Dual Antiplatelet Therapy) score calculator

# Overview
The DAPT score is a clinical prediction score assessing ischemic and bleeding risks at 12 to 30 months following  percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) to inform the duration of dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT). The score was derived from the DAPT study (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00977938) and initially validated in the PROTECT trial (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00476957).

# DAPT Score
The DAPT score is a simplified clinical prediction score designed to assess the benefit-risk tradeoff between ischemia reduction (myocardial infarction or stent thrombosis) and bleeding increase (moderate or severe hemorrhage) associated with continued thienopyridine plus aspirin versus aspirin alone at 12 to 30 months after PCI based on 11,648 patients enrolled in the DAPT study (derivation cohort) and 8,136 patients enrolled in the PROTECT trial (validation cohort).  The DAPT score has been externally validated in several subsequent studies.

# DAPT Score Calculator
Shown below is the calculator for the DAPT score (check all the boxes that apply):
function calcScore(){
var age_score = 0;
if (document.getElementById('AGE1').checked == 1) {age_score += -2;}
if (document.getElementById('AGE2').checked == 1) {age_score += -1;}
if (document.getElementById('AGE3').checked == 1) {age_score += 0;}
var score = age_score + 0;
if(document.forms.checked == 1){score += 1;}
if(document.forms.checked == 1){score += 1;}
if(document.forms.checked == 1){score += 1;}
if(document.forms.checked == 1){score += 1;}
if(document.forms.checked == 1){score += 1;}
if(document.forms.checked == 1){score += 1;}
if(document.forms.checked == 1){score += 2;}
if(document.forms.checked == 1){score += 2;}
document.forms.value = score;
if(score >= 2){document.forms.value = "Benefit-risk favoring prolonged DAPT over aspirin alone";}
if(score <= 1){document.forms.value = "Benefit-risk favoring aspirin alone over prolonged DAPT";}

# Interpretation
- Score 2 (high score): benefit-risk favoring prolonged DAPT over aspirin alone
- Greater ischemic reduction (2.7% for prolonged DAPT vs 5.7% for aspirin alone; difference, 3.0% ; NNT=34)
- Smaller bleeding increase (1.8% for prolonged DAPT vs 1.4% for aspirin alone; difference, 0.4% )
- Score <2 (low score): benefit-risk favoring aspirin alone over prolonged DAPT
- Smaller ischemic reduction (1.7% for prolonged DAPT vs 2.3% for aspirin alone; difference, 0.7% )
- Greater bleeding increase (3.0% for prolonged DAPT vs 1.4% for aspirin alone; difference, 1.5% ; NNH=64)
DNA adduct

# Overview
A DNA adduct is an abnormal piece of DNA covalently-bonded to a cancer-causing chemical. This has shown to be the start of a cancerous cell, or carcinogenesis. DNA adducts in scientific experiments are used as bio-markers and as such are themselves measured to reflect quantitatively, for comparison, the amount of cancer in the subject, i.e. rats or other living animals.  Under experimental conditions for study, such DNA adducts are induced by known carcinogens, of which commonly used is DMBA, chemically structured and named as 7,12-Dimethyl-benz Anthracene .  For example, a scientific journal that writes "DMBA - DNA adduct" is referring to a piece of DNA that has the chemical DMBA attached to it. The presence of such adduct indicates the presence of cancer in the subject animal.
Other examples :  
- acetaldehyde DNA Adducts. Note: acetaldehyde is a major component of cigarette smoke.

## DNA Damage
When a chemical bonds to DNA, the  DNA becomes damaged, and proper and complete replication cannot occur to make the normal intended cell.  This would be the start of a mutation, or mutagenesis, and without proper DNA repair (DNA repair happens naturally under normal circumstances), this can lead to carcinogenesis, the beginnings of cancer.
DNA ladder
A DNA ladder is a solution of DNA molecules of different lengths used in agarose gel electrophoresis. It is applied to an agarose gel as a reference to estimate the size of unknown DNA molecules. In addition it can be used to approximate the mass of a band by comparison to a special mass ladder.
Different DNA ladders are commercially available depending on expected DNA length. The 1kb ladder with fragment ranging from about 0.5 kbp to 10 or 12 kbp and the 100 bp ladder with fragments ranging from  100 bp to just above 1000 bp are the most frequent. DNA ladders are often produced by a suitable restriction digest of a plasmid. There are special DNA ladders for supercoiled DNA and RNA.
For example, a  DNA-HindIII Digest: a common lamdba DNA ladder that has band sizes (in base pairs) of 23 130 , 9 416, 6 557, 4 361, 2 322, 2 027, 564 , 125 bp
Delta cell

# Overview
Delta cells (-cells or D cells) are somatostatin producing cells.
They can be found in the stomach, intestine and the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
In rodents delta-cells are located in the periphery of the islets; in humans the islet architecture is generally less organized and delta-cells are frequently observed inside the islets as well.
In the electron microscope, delta-cells can be identified as cells with smaller and slightly more compact granules than beta cells.

# Clinical significance
A tumor of the delta cells is called a "somatostatinoma".
Daclizumab
Daclizumab (Zenapax) is a humanized monoclonal antibody to the IL-2R receptor of T cells. It is used to prevent rejection in organ transplantation, especially in kidney transplants.
It is given in multiple doses, the first 1 hour before the transplant operation and 5 further doses given at two week intervals after the transplant. These saturate the receptors and prevent T cell activation and thus prevent formation of antibodies against the transplant.
Like the similar drug basiliximab, daclizumab reduces the incidence and severity of acute rejection in kidney transplantation without increasing the incidence of opportunistic infections.
Daclizumab can also be used in place of a calcineurin-inhibitor (ciclosporin or tacrolimus) in the early phase after kidney transplantation when the kidney is recovering and vulnerable to calcineurin-inhibitor toxicity. This has been shown to be beneficial in non-heart beating donor kidney transplantation.
In the United Kingdom, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence has recommended its use be considered for all kidney transplant recipients.
Daclizumab is now being tested as a possible Multiple Sclerosis treatment in a phase 2 clinical trial across the United States and Europe, which started 2006 and will end in 2007. It has also been used to arrest the progression of autoimmune diseases, especially birdshot retinochoroidopathy.
Daflon 500
DAFLON 500 is also distributed as:
Detralex, Arvenum 500, Alvenor, Ardium, Capiven, Elatec and Venitol
- Official web site
DAFLON 500 abridged prescribing information

# Presentation and Composition:
Micronized Purified Flavonoid Fraction 500mg: diosmin 450 mg, flavonoids expressed as hesperidin 50 mg.

# Therapeutic properties:
Vascular protector and venotonic. 
DAFLON 500 mg acts on the return vascular system: it reduces venous distensibility and venous stasis; in the microcirculation, it normalizes capillary permeability and reinforces capillary resistance.

# Pharmacokinetics:
Micronization of Daflon 500 mg increases its gastrointestinal absorption compared with nonmicronized diosmin (urinary excretion 57.9% vs 32.7%).

# Therapeutic indications:
Treatment of organic and idiopathic chronic venous disease of the lower limbs with the following symptoms: heavy legs, pain, nocturnal cramps, edema. 
Treatment of hemorrhoids and acute hemorrhoidal attacks.

# Side effects:
Some cases of minor gastrointestinal and autonomic disorders have been reported, but these never required cessation of treatment.

# Drug interactions:
None

# Precautions:
Pregnancy: experimental studies in animal have not demonstrated any teratogenic effects and no harmful effects have been reported in man to date. 
Lactation: in the absence of data concerning the diffusion into breast milk, breast-feeding is not recommended during treatment.

# Contraindications:
None

# Dosage and administration:
In chronic venous disease: 2 tablets daily.
In hemorrhoidal disease:
- Acute crisis: 6 tablets daily for 4 days, then 4 tablets daily for 3 days. 
- Chronic treatment: 2 tablets daily.
Danaparoid

# Overview
Danaparoid sodium (Orgaran) is an anticoagulant that works by inhibiting activated factor X (factor Xa).
Danaparoid is considered a "low molecular weight heparin" by some sources, but is chemically distinct from heparin and thus has little cross-reactivity in heparin-intolerant patients.

# Uses
It is used to prevent deep venous clots, particularly in situations with a high risk of clot formation, such as after hip surgery.
It is also used as a heparinoid substitute in heparin-induced thrombocytopenia which may otherwise cause paradoxical thrombosis.

# Discontinuation
On August 14, 2002, this drug was withdrawn by Organon International.

# Administration
- IV
- SC

# Side Effects
- Bleeding problems
- Low platelets, due to a low level of structural similarity between danaparoid and heparin
- Asthma exacerbations, due to allergies to sulphites contained within the medicine
Dapoxetine
Steven C. Campbell, M.D., Ph.D.

# Overview
Dapoxetine is the International Nonproprietary Name of a short-acting SSRI drug currently being considered for approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of premature ejaculation in men, which would make it the first drug approved for such treatment.  It is currently in Phase III of the approval process.

# Function
If approved, this would make Dapoxetine join the ranks of erectile dysfunction drugs such as sildenafil (Viagra), tadalafil (Cialis), and vardenafil (Levitra), and some dopamine agonists such as cabergoline (Dostinex) and pramipexole, as drugs which can be used to improve male sexual health. Misuse of these drugs as aphrodisiacs or sexual enhancers in individuals who do not suffer from sexual health problems is also a possibility and there have been some concerns about doctors being pressured to prescribe such drugs off-label to people who do not actually have a medical need for the drug.
Some research has shown Dapoxetine to have a benefit in the treatment of premature ejaculation.

# Approval process
Dapoxetine was created by Eli Lilly and Company and is credited to biochemist David T. Wong. Originally known as LY 210448, it was being developed by Lilly as an antidepressant.  Eli Lilly sold the patent to Johnson & Johnson for $65 million dollars and future royalties in December 2003.
Dapoxetine was submitted to the FDA in the form of dapoxetine hydrochloride by the ALZA Corporation and its parent company, Johnson & Johnson for the treatment of premature ejaculation with a New Drug Application (NDA) to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on December 28, 2004.
In October of 2005, the FDA issued a "not approvable" letter for dapoxetine.
Despite two clinical trials finished in 2006, experts doubt it will be approved by the FDA soon because SSRIs come with undesirable side-effects after long-term use, such as psychiatric problems, dermatological reactions, increase in body weight, lower sex-drive, nausea, headache, upset stomach and weakness, thus not significantly outweighing the benefit of premature ejaculation medication versus the risks.