Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Alpha blocker

# Overview
Alpha blockers (also called alpha-adrenergic blocking agents) constitute a variety of drugs which block 1-adrenergic receptors in arteries and smooth muscles.

# Indications
These drugs may be used to treat:
- benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
- high blood pressure (hypertension). This is not typically the drug of choice unless the patient also has BPH.
- symptoms of non inflammatory chronic pelvic pain syndrome, a type of prostatitis. As a side effect they may reduce blood pressure and result in lightheadedness.

# Examples of alpha blockers
Alpha blockers include:
- Doxazosin (Cardura)
- Prazosin (Minipress)
- Phenoxybenzamine
- Phentolamine (Regitine)
- Tamsulosin (Flomaxtra/Flomax)
- Alfuzosin  (Uroxatral)
- Terazosin (Hytrin)
Tamsulosin is relatively selective for 1a-adrenergic receptors, which are mainly present in the prostate. Hence, it may have a more selective action in BPH with minimal effects on blood pressure.

# Adverse effects and interactions
By reducing 1-adrenergic activity of the blood vessels, these drugs may cause hypotension (low blood pressure) and interrupt the baroreflex response.  In doing so, they may cause dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting when rising from a lying or sitting posture (known as orthostatic hypotension or postural hypotension). For this reason, it is generally recommended that alpha blockers should be taken at bedtime. Additionally, the risk of orthostatic hypotension may be reduced by starting at a low dose and titrating upwards as needed.
Because these medications may cause orthostatic hypotension, as well as hypotension in general, these agents may interact with other medications that increase risk for hypotension, such as other antihypertensives and vasodilators.
As discussed above, tamsulosin may have less risk for hypotension and orthostatic hypotension due to its selectivity for 1a-adrenergic receptors. On the other hand, the drug:
(a) elevates risk for floppy iris syndrome,
(b) might show ADRs characteristic of the sulfa related drugs.
Aedes aegypti

# Overview
Aedes aegypti, commonly known as the yellow fever mosquito, is a mosquito that can host the dengue fever, Chikungunya and yellow fever viruses (and other diseases as well). One group of researchers recently proposed that A. aegypti be renamed Stegomyia aegypti , but this proposal has yet to be widely accepted by the scientific community. The mosquito can be recognized by white markings, although other mosquitos may have only slightly different patterns. The mosquito is most frequently found in the tropics; it has some presence in the southeastern United States (such as the lower half of Florida), but it seems to have been competitively displaced by the introduction of Aedes albopictus.

# Appearance
It is smaller in comparison to other mosquitoes, usually between 3 to 4 mm in length. It is totally black apart from white 'spots' on the body and head regions and white rings on the legs.

# Genetic mapping
The genome of this species of mosquito was mapped, and published on 2007-05-17. The effort in mapping its DNA was intended to provide new avenues for research into insecticides and possible genetic modification to prevent the spread of disease. This was the second mosquito species to have its genome mapped in full. The first was Anopheles gambiae. The published data included the 1.38 billion base pairs containing the insect's estimated 15,419 protein encoding genes. The sequence indicates that the species diverged  from Drosophila melanogaster (the common fruit fly) about 250 million years ago, and that Anopheles gambiae and this species diverged about 150 million years ago.

# Spread of disease and prevention
The CDC traveler's page on preventing dengue fever suggests using mosquito repellents that contain DEET (N, N-diethylmetatoluamide). It also explains the following:
1) Although it may feed at any time, the mosquito bites humans only between a few hours after dawn until an hour or so after sunset.
2) The mosquito's preferred breeding areas are in areas of stagnant water, such as flower vases, uncovered barrels, buckets, and discarded tires, but the most dangerous areas are wet shower floors and toilet bowls, as they allow the mosquitos to breed right in the residence.

# Gallery
- This 1978 photograph depicted the cracked surface of dredged spoils deposits, which when wet, became the oviposition, and breeding site for a population of Aedes sollicitans mosquitoes. From Public Health Image Library (PHIL).
Ajuga reptans
Ajuga reptans (Blue bugle, Bugleherb, Bugleweed, Carpetweed, Common bugle) is a herbaceous flowering plant native to Europe. This plant is often used as medicinal and ornamental plant.
The bugle has dark green leaves with purple highlights.  It is a spreading ground cover that grows in a dense mat.  The leaves grow 2-3 inches high but in the spring it sends up 4-6 inch tall flower stalks with many purple flowers on them.

# In folklore
Bugle is also known as "carpenter's herb" due to its supposed ability to stem bleeding.
Osteopetrosis
Synonyms and keywords: Marble bone disease, Albers-Schonberg disease

# Overview
Osteopetrosis also known as marble bone disease and Albers-Schonberg disease is an extremely rare inherited disorder whereby the bones harden, becoming denser, in contrast to the more prevalent osteomalacia, in which the bones soften.
It can cause osteosclerosis.

# Cause
Normally, bone growth is a balance between osteoblasts (cells that create bone tissue) and osteoclasts (cells that destroy bone tissue). Sufferers of osteopetrosis have a deficiency of osteoclasts, meaning too little bone is being resorbed, resulting in too much bone being created.

# Variations
There are three major clinical forms:
- 1. Autosomal recessive (malignant type)
- 2. Autosomal dominant (benign type)
- 3. Carbonic anhydrase II deficiency (Type 3 Renal tubular acidosis)

# Symptoms
Despite this excess bone formation, people with osteopetrosis tend to have bones that are more brittle than normal. Mild osteopetrosis may cause no symptoms, and present no problems. However, serious forms can result in stunted growth, deformity, increased likelihood of fractures, and anaemia. It can also result in blindness, facial paralysis, and deafness, due to the increased pressure put on the nerves by the extra bone.

# Diagnostic Findings

## MRI
(Images courtesy of RadsWiki)
- Osteopetrosis
- Osteopetrosis
- Osteopetrosis
- Osteopetrosis

# Treatment
There is no cure, although curative therapy with bone marrow transplantion is being investigated in clinical trials. It is believed the healthy marrow will provide the sufferer with cells from which osteoclasts will develop.
Aleppo pepper
The Aleppo pepper  is a variety of Capsicum annuum named after the town Aleppo in northern Syria. Most Aleppo peppers are grown in Syria.
It has a moderate heat level with some fruitiness and mild, cumin-like undertones.
Aleppo pepper may also refer to a dried, granulated spice made from Aleppo peppers that is also produced in Syria. It is similar to paprika, but coarser, and is only moderately spicy.
Alison Kitson
Professor Alison Kitson  RN, BSc(Hons), PhD, FRCN is a UK nurse and is currently responsible for leading on the Royal College of Nursing professional nursing agenda.
She was previously Director of the RCN Institute. As Director she supported the development of a number of innovative projects including the Clinical Leadership Programme, the RCN Learning Zone, an e-learning venture with three higher education establishments and an extensive set of practice-based research programmes.
She has had a distinguished academic and professional career. In 1991 she was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal College of Nursing for her work on Standards of Care. She is a supernumerary Fellow of Green College, Oxford, holds a number of Visiting and Honorary Chairs and in 2001 was awarded Distinguished Graduate of the Year from her old university, University of Ulster.
Alison has published over 100 academic and professional articles and has appeared on numerous local, national and international platforms. She has also worked with the World Health Organisation and as a consultant on international projects for the World Bank. She is a Trustee of the Brendoncare Foundation and former member of the Health Advisory Service 2000 Board and the Policy Advisory Board of the Nuffield Trust.
Alkaline tide

# Overview
Alkaline Tide refers to a condition, normally encountered after eating a meal, when stomach acid is released into the stomach that causes a temporary increase in pH of the blood.  This is a natural bodily function.
Alkaline Tide is caused when CO2 concentration increases in active stomach wall and it gets converted to bicarbonate by carbonic anhydrase which results in an increase in pH - this shift in PH in children causes problem called Alkaline Tide bicarbonate into the bloodstream.
During HCl excretion in the stomach, the gastric parietal cells extract Cl anions, CO2, H2O and Na cations from the blood plasma and in turn release bicarbonate back into the plasma after the HCl acid is formed from CO2 and H2O constituents. This is to maintain the plasma's electrical balance, as the Cl anions have been extraced. Bicarbonate being alkaline, the venous blood leaving the stomach is more alkaline than the arterial blood being delivered to it.
Gluconic acid
Gluconic acid is an organic compound with molecular formula C6H12O7 and condensed structural formula HOCH2(CHOH)4COOH. In aqueous solution at neutral pH, carboxylic acid forms the gluconate ion and the salts of gluconic acid are also known as gluconates.  Gluconic and gluconate salts occur widely in nature because such species arise from the oxidation of glucose.  Gluconate esters can also be formed, such as quinine gluconate which is used for IM injections in the treatment of malaria.

# Chemical structure
The chemical structure of gluconic acid consists of a six-carbon chain with five hydroxyl groups terminating in a carboxylic acid group.  In aqueous solution, gluconic acid exists in equilibrium with the cyclic ester Glucono delta lactone.

# Occurrence and uses
Gluconic acid occurs naturally in fruit, honey, kombucha tea, and wine.  As a food additive (E574), it is an acidity regulator.  It is also used in cleaning products where it dissolves mineral deposits especially in alkaline solution. The gluconate anion chelates Ca2+, Fe2+, Al3+, and other heavy metals.  Calcium gluconate is used to treat burns from hydrofluoric acid.
Dimepheptanol
Dimepheptanol (Racemethadol) is an opioid analgesic that is an analogue of methadone.
Dimepheptanol is a mixture of two isomers, -methadol and -methadol. These are also available separately, and this drug has three separate entries in many national and international lists of illegal drugs, which refer to the racemic mixture dimepheptanol, and the two optical isomers. Each of these isomers is itself a mixture of two isomers, and so there are in fact four isomers of dimepheptanol in total; levo--methadol, dextro--methadol, levo--methadol and dextro--methadol.
The isomer levo--methadol is the active metabolite of the long-acting opioid substitute drug Levomethadyl Acetate, and has been much more widely used than -methadol or the racemic mix dimepheptanol.
Dimepheptanol has similar effects to other opioids, and produces analgesia, sedation and euphoria. Side effects can include itching, nausea and potentially serious respiratory depression which can be life-threatening.
Alpha-taxilin
Alpha-taxilin also known as interleukin-14 (IL-14) or high molecular weight B-cell growth factor (HMW-BCGF) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TXLNA gene.
Interleukin-14 is a cytokine that controls the growth and proliferation of both normal and cancerous B cells. This molecule was also recently designated taxilin. IL-14 induces B-cell proliferation, inhibits antibody secretion, and expands selected B-cell subgroups. This interleukin is produced mainly by T cells and certain malignant B cells.

# Gene
In murine models, two distinct transcripts are produced from opposite strands of the il14 gene that are called IL-14 and IL-14. The il14 locus is near the gene for LCK on chromosome 1 in humans.
Alveolar duct

# Overview
Alveolar ducts are the tiny end ducts of the branching airways that fill the lungs. Each lung holds approximately 1.5 to 2 million of them. The tubules divide into two or three alveolar sacs at the distal end. They are formed from the confluence openings of several alveoli. Distal terminations of alveolar ducts are atria which then end in alveolar sacs.
In human anatomy, respiratory bronchioles exists proximal to the alveolar ducts. The epithelial lining consists of smooth muscle knobs covered by nonciliated, simple cuboidal cells. The smooth muscle constricts under parasympathetic innervation and relax under sympathetic innervation.

# Other Imaging Findings
- Detailed drawing of the alveoli from Gray's Anatomy, 1918 - Schematic longitudinal section of a primary lobule of the lung (anatomical unit);r. b respiratory bronchiole;al. d alveolar duct; at atria;a. s alveolar sac;'a' alveolus or air cell;p. a.: pulmonary artery; p. v pulmonary vein;l lymphatic;l. n lymph node.]
- Part of a secondary lobule from the depth of a human lung, showing parts of several primary lobules.1, bronchiole;2, respiratory bronchiole;3, alveolar duct;4, atria;5, alveolar sac;6, alveolus or air cell:m, smooth muscle;a, branch pulmonary artery;v, branch pulmonary vein;s, septum between secondary lobules.
- Bronchi, bronchial tree, and lungs
- Human alveolar duct
Aminocoumarin
Aminocoumarin  is a class of  antibiotics which act by an inhibition of the DNA Gyrase enzyme involved in the cell division in bacteria. They are derived from  Streptomyces  species, whose most well-known representative  Streptomyces coelicolor  was completely sequenced in 2002. 
The Aminocoumarin antibiotics include
- Novobiocin, Albamycin (Pharmacia And Upjohn)
- Coumermycin
- Clorobiocin

# Mechanism of action
The  Aminocoumarin  antibiotics are known inhibitors of DNA gyrase. Antibiotics of the aminocoumarin family exert their therapeutic activity by binding tightly to the B subunit of bacterial DNA gyrase, thereby inhibiting this essential enzyme. They compete with ATP
for binding to the B subunit of this enzyme and inhibit the ATP-dependent DNA supercoiling catalysed by gyrase. X-ray crystallography studies have confirmed binding at the ATP-binding site located on the gyrB subunit of DNA gyrase.

# Structure
The core of aminocoumarin antibiotics is made up of a 3-Amino-4,7-dihydroxycumarin ring, which is linked e.g. with a sugar in 7-Position and a benzoic acid derivative in 3-Position.
Clorobiocin is a natural antibiotic isolated from several Streptomyces strains and differs from novobiocin in that the methyl group at the 8 position in the coumarin ring of novobiocin is replaced by a chlorine atom, and the carbamoyl at the 3' position of the noviose sugar is substituted by a 5-methyl-2-pyrrolylcarbonyl group.

# Clinical use
The clinical use of these antibiotic class has been restricted due to their low water solubility, low activity against gram-negative bacteria and toxiciy in vivo.
Amniocentesis

# Overview
Amniocentesis (also referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT), is a medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis of genetic risk factors, in which a small amount of amniotic fluid, which contains fetal tissues, is extracted from the amnion or amniotic sac surrounding a developing fetus, and the fetal DNA is examined for genetic abnormalities. Amniocentesis is not performed for every pregnancy, but is generally done when an increased risk of genetic defects in the fetus is indicated, by mother's age (over 35 years is common), family history of genetic defects, or other factors.

# Procedure
A syringe is usually inserted through the mother's abdominal wall or at the end of the vagina, and through the wall of the uterus into the amniotic sac. With assistance from ultrasound a physician aims for an area of the sac that is away from the fetus and extracts a small amount of amniotic fluid for testing. The puncture heals, and the amniotic sac  automatically replenishes the liquid over a day or so. After the amniotic fluid is extracted, the fetal cells are separated from it using a centrifuge, and cell chromosomes are examined for abnormalities. Various genetic testing may be performed, but the three most common abnormalities tested for are Down's syndrome, Trisomy 18 and spina bifida. Amniocentesis can be performed as soon as sufficient amniotic fluid surrounds the fetus to allow a sample to be recovered relatively safely, usually no earlier than the 14th week of pregnancy. Often, genetic counseling is offered in conjunction with amniocentesis.
In addition to the fetal cells, some tests may examine the amniotic fluid for indications of non-genetic diseases the fetus might have. Levels of chemical substances (such as alpha-fetoprotein) can be measured to detect other health problems such as hydrocephalus.
An alternative test to examine the genome of the developing fetus is chorionic villus sampling, or CVS.
A side benefit of genetic analysis through amniocentesis or CVS is that the sex of the fetus may be determined with 100% accuracy.

# Risks
Although the procedure is routine, possible complications include infection of the amniotic sac from the needle, and failure of the puncture to heal properly, which can result in leakage or infection. Serious complications can result in miscarriage. Other possible complications include preterm labor and delivery, respiratory distress, postural deformities, fetal trauma and alloimmunisation (rhesus disease). The risk of amniocentesis-related miscarriage is generally thought to be 1 in 200, although a recent study has indicated this may actually be much lower, perhaps 1 in 1,600. In contrast, the risk of miscarriage for CVS is believed to be approximately 1 in 100, although CVS may be done up to four weeks earlier, and may be preferable if the possibility of genetic defects is thought to be higher.
Amplification
Amplification may refer to:
- The operation of an amplifier, a natural or artificial device intended to make a signal stronger.
- Amplification (rhetoric), a figure of speech that adds importance to increase its rhetorical effect.
- Amplification (psychology) in which physical symptoms are affected by psychological state.
- Amplification (molecular biology), a mechanism leading to multiple copies of a chromosomal region within a chromosome arm.
- The DNA amplification technique of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in molecular biology, a laboratory method for creating multiple copies of small segments of DNA.
Amplified may refer to:
- Amplified (Q-Tip album), an album by Q-Tip
- Amplified (Mock Orange album), an album by Mock Orange
- Amplified - A Decade of Reinventing the Cello, an album by Apocalyptica
- Amplified (band), a Hong Kong rock band popular in Japan.
- Abbr.  Amp  (as in "amped up")
de:Amplifikation
nl:Amplificatie
Anaphylatoxin
Anaphylatoxins, or anaphylotoxins, are fragments (C3a, C4a or C5a) that are produced during the pathways of the complement system.

# Direct and indirect functions
Most notable is the ability to trigger degranulation of (release of substances from) mast cells or basophils, which is an important part of the immune system in all kinds of inflammation and especially as part of defense against parasites. If the degranulation is too strong, it can cause allergic reactions.
Anaphylatoxins indirectly mediate:
- spasms of smooth muscle cells, for example bronchospasms
- increase in the permeability of blood capillaries
- chemotaxis  receptor-mediated movement of leukocytes in the direction of the increasing concentration of anaphylatoxins

# Examples
Important anaphylatoxins:
- C3a is not as strong as C5a, but stronger than C4a and can trigger degranulation of Mast-cells and serve as a chemotactic targeting molecule for eosinophile granulocytes.
- C4a is the least active anaphylatoxin
- C5a is the strongest toxin in the row, it is a very strong mediator of inflammation.
co-stimulation of C3b at times of phagocytosis (not possible without C5a).
Chemotactor and activator for granulocytes in general and macrophages
stimulates respiratory burst in Neutrophils
increases vascular permeability
contracts smooth muscle cells
activates mastcells to churn out Histamine and TNF-Alpha
- co-stimulation of C3b at times of phagocytosis (not possible without C5a).
- Chemotactor and activator for granulocytes in general and macrophages
- stimulates respiratory burst in Neutrophils
- increases vascular permeability
- contracts smooth muscle cells
- activates mastcells to churn out Histamine and TNF-Alpha

# Terminology
Although some drugs (morphine, codeine, synthetic ACTH) and some neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, substance P) are important mediators of degranulation of mast cells or basophils, they are generally not called anaphylatoxins. This term is reserved only for fragments of the complement.
Anaplastology

# Overview
Anaplastology (Gk. ana-again, anew, upon plastos-something made, formed, molded logy-the study of) is a branch of medicine dealing with the prosthetic rehabilitation of an absent, disfigured, or malformed anatomically critical location of the face or body.
An anaplastologist (a maxillofacial prosthetist and technologist in the United Kingdom) is an individual who has the ability and provides the service of customizing a facial (craniofacial prosthesis) or somato prosthesis. In locations around the world where facial and somato prostheses are not readily available, an anaplastologist may be a dentist who specializes in maxillofacial prosthetics (prosthodontics), a dental technician or an ocularist who is cross-trained in the field of other facial prosthetics. In urban or more developed locations, an individual referred to as an anaplastologist is one who solely works with facial and somato prostheses. In such a setting, there are times the anaplastologist collaborates with prosthodontists and ocularists.
The studies of an anaplastologist consist of the arts and sciences. Visual arts are studied, namely photography, illustration, sculpture, painting.  Biology, behavioral sciences, materials science, and physics are the studied sciences with emphases in superficial anatomy and physiology of humans, polymer science, optics, dermatology, otolaryngology, and oncology.