Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Tissue (biology)

# Overview
Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism.
The study of tissue is known as histology, or, in connection with disease, histopathology.
The classical tools for studying the tissues are the wax block, the tissue stain, and the optical microscope, though developments in electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, and frozen sections have all added to the sum of knowledge in the last couple of decades.With these tools, the classical appearances of the tissues can be examined in health and disease, enabling considerable refinement of clinical diagnosis and prognosis.
There are four basic types of tissue in the body of all animals, including the human body and lower multicellular organisms such as insects. These compose all the organs, structures and other contents.
- Epithelium - Tissues composed of layers of cells that cover organ surfaces such as surface of the skin and inner lining of digestive tract: the tissues that serve for protection, secretion, and absorption.
- Connective tissue - As the name suggests, connective tissue holds everything together. Connective tissue is characterized by the separation of the cells by an inorganic material, which is called extracellular matrix. Bone and blood are connective tissues.
- Muscle tissue - Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. Muscle tissue also is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth muscle, which is found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, which is found attached to bone in order for mobility to take place; and cardiac muscle which is found in the heart.
- Nervous tissue - Cells forming the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system.

# Plant tissues
Examples of tissue in other multicellular organisms are vascular tissue in plants, such as xylem and phloem. Plant tissues are categorized broadly into three tissue systems: the epidermis, the ground tissue, and the vascular tissue. Together they are often referred to as biomass.
- Epidermis - Cells forming the outer surface of the leaves and of the young plant body.
- Vascular tissue - The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem.  These transport fluid and nutrients internally.
- Ground tissue - Ground tissue is less differentiated than other tissues.  Ground tissue manufactures nutrients by photosynthesis and stores reserve nutrients.
Biomedical model
The biomedical model of medicine, has been around since the mid-nineteenth century as the predominant model used by physicians in the diagnosis of disease.
This model focuses on the physical processes, such as the pathology, the biochemistry and the physiology of a disease. It does not take into account the role of social factors or individual subjectivity. The model also overlooks the fact that the diagnosis (that will effect treatment of the patient) is a result of negotiation between doctor and patient.
This model is effective at diagnosing and treating most diseases. It cannot be denied that it has been extremely useful throughout history by establishing the reasons that a disease occurs, and in coming up with very effective treatment regimes.
It is however very limiting. By not taking into account society in general, the prevention of disease is omitted. Many diseases affecting first world countries nowadays, such as heart disease and diabetes mellitus are very much dependent on a person's actions and beliefs.
Blackwater fever
Synonyms and keywords: Malignant tertian malaria

# Overview
Blackwater fever is a complication of malaria characterized by intravascular hemolysis, hemoglobinuria and kidney failure. Blackwater fever is caused by heavy parasitization of red blood cells with Plasmodium falciparum.  Plasmodium vivax may also cause the disease. 

# Historical Perspective
The term Black water fever was coined by the Sierra Leonean doctor John Farrell Easmon in his 1884 pamphlet entitled "Blackwater Fever." Easmon was the first to treat cases of black water fever following the publication of his pamphlet.

# Pathophysiology

## Pathogenesis
When red blood cells burst, hemoglobin leaks into the blood plasma.  This free hemoglobin damages the glomerulus in the kidney, and begins to leak into the urine where it causes further damage to the tubules of the kidney.
The presence of hemoglobin in the urine causes a dark discoloration, hence the name.  When it is passed, it is raven black.
The most probable explanation for Blackwater fever is an autoimmune reaction apparently caused by the interaction of the malaria parasite and the use of quinine.

# Causes
The cause of hemolytic crises in this disease is unknown (mainly due to intravascular haemolysis).  Blackwater fever is caused by heavy parasitization of red blood cells with Plasmodium falciparum.  There has been at least one case, however, attributed to Plasmodium vivax.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
Blackwater fever is much less common today than it was before 1950. It may be that quinine plays a role in triggering the condition, and this drug is no longer commonly used for malaria prophylaxis. Quinine remains important for treatment of malaria.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

## Complications
Blackwater fever is a serious complication of malaria, but cerebral malaria has a higher mortality rate.

# History and Symptoms

## Symptoms
- Chills with rigor
- High fever
- Jaundice
- Vomiting
- Rapidly progressive anemia
- Dark red or black urine

# Medical Therapy

## Pharmacotherapy
The treatment for Blackwater fever is antimalarial chemotherapy, intravenous fluid and sometimes supportive care such as intensive care and dialysis.
Blaschko's lines
Blaschko's lines, also called the Lines of Blaschko, are an extremely rare and unexplained phenomenon of human anatomy first presented in 1901 by German dermatologist Alfred Blaschko. Neither a specific disease nor a predictable symptom of a disease, Blaschko's lines are an invisible pattern built into human DNA. Many inherited and acquired diseases of the skin or mucosa manifest themselves according to these patterns, creating the visual appearance of stripes.
The cause of the stripes is thought to result from mosaicism; they do not correspond to nervous, muscular, or lymphatic systems. What makes them more remarkable is that they correspond quite closely from patient to patient, usually forming a "V" shape over the spine and "S" shapes over the chest, stomach, and sides.
It is theorized that the lines define the natural areas of growth between the original cells of the embryo and the later (copied) cells of mature adults.

# Conditions distributed along Blaschkos lines
A number of X-linked, congenital/naevoid and acquired skin diseases follow Blaschkos lines.  These have been extensively reviewed by Bolognia. Examples include:
- Pigmentary disorders
Naevus achromicus (including hypomelanosis of Ito)
- Naevus achromicus (including hypomelanosis of Ito)
- Epithelial Naevi
Sebaceous naevus
Inflammatory linear verrucous naevus
- Epithelial Naevi
Sebaceous naevus
Inflammatory linear verrucous naevus
- Sebaceous naevus
- Inflammatory linear verrucous naevus
- X-linked dominant skin disorders
Incontinentia pigmenti
CHILD syndrome
- Incontinentia pigmenti
- CHILD syndrome
- Acquired skin disorders with polygenic aetiology
Lichen striatus
Linear lichen planus
Linear lupus erythematosus
- Lichen striatus
- Linear lichen planus
- Linear lupus erythematosus
Blepharochalasis

# Overview
Blepharochalasis is an inflammation of the eyelid that is characterized by exacerbations and remissions of eyelid edema, which results in a stretching and subsequent atrophy of the eyelid tissue. It typically affects only the upper eyelids, and may be unilateral as well as bilateral.

# Pathophysiology
Blepharochalasis results from recurrent bouts of painless eyelid swelling, each lasting for several days. This is thought to be a form of localized angioedema, or rapid accumulation of fluid in the tissues. Recurrent episodes lead to thin and atrophic skin. Damage to the levator palpebrae superioris muscle causes ptosis, or drooping of the eyelid, when the muscle can no longer hold the eyelid up.

# Causes
Blepharochalasis is idiopathic in most cases- the cause is unknown. Systemic conditions linked to blepharochalasis are renal agenesis, vertebral abnormalities, and congenital heart disease.

# Epidemiology
It is encountered more commonly in younger rather than older individuals.

# Complications
Complications of blepharochalasis may include conjunctival hyperemia (excessive blood flow through the moist tissues of the orbit), chemosis, entropion, ectropion, and ptosis.

# Differential diagnosis
Dermatochalasis is sometimes confused with blepharochalasis, but these are two different conditions.

# Physical examination
- Blepharochalasis  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Blepharochalasis  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
Unilateral Blepharochalasis
- Unilateral Blepharochalasis  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Unilateral Blepharochalasis  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Unilateral Blepharochalasis  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas
- Unilateral Blepharochalasis  Adapted from Dermatology Atlas

# Treatment/Surgery
An oculoplastic surgeon is required to decide and perform the appropriate surgical procedure. Following procedures have been described for blepharochalasis:
- External levator aponeurosis tuck
- Blepharoplasty
- Lateral canthoplasty
- Dermis fat grafts
They are used to correct atrophic blepharochalasis after the syndrome had run its course.
Blood lead level
Blood lead level (BLL), is a measure of lead in the body. It is measured in micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood (g/dL); 10 g/dL is equivalent to 0.48 micromoles per liter (mol/L).
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that a BLL of 10 g/dL or above is a cause for concern. However, lead can impair development even at BLLs below 10 g/dL.
In Australia, the acceptable level of lead in blood was lowered from 25 g/dL to 10 g/dL in 1992. In 1993 the National Health and Medical Research Council (NH&MRC) set a national target for 1998 for all Australian to have a BLL less than 15 g/dL (except where they worked with lead), and strategies were put in place whereby 90% of pre-school children would have BLL below 15 g/dL. In 1996 National Blood Lead Survey (the Donovan Survey) found 7.7% of children aged one to four were above 10 g/dL, and 1.7% were above 15 g/dL.
Blount's disease

# Overview
Blount's disease is a growth disorder of the tibia (shin bone) that causes the lower leg to angle inward, resembling a bowleg.

# Causes
Blount's disease occurs in young children and adolescents. The cause is unknown but is thought to be due to the effects of weight on the growth plate. The inner part of the tibia, just below the knee, fails to develop normally, causing angulation of the bone.
Unlike bowlegs, which tend to straighten as the child develops, Blount's disease is progressive and the condition worsens. It can cause severe bowing of the legs and can affect one or both legs.
This condition is more common among African-American children. It is also associated with obesity and early walking. There does not appear to be an obvious genetic factor.

# Symptoms
Bowing of one or both legs that may:
- Be rapidly progressive
- Appear asymmetric
- Primarily occur just below the knee

# Signs and Tests
Physical examination shows that the lower legs angle inward. An x-ray of the knee and the lower leg confirms the diagnosis.

# Treatment
Children who develop severe bowing before the age of 3 may be treated with bracing. If bracing fails, or if bowing is not detected until the child is older, surgery is usually required. Surgery may involve cutting the shin bone (tibia) to realign it, and sometimes lengthen it as well.
Other times, the growth of just the outer half of the tibia can be surgically restricted to allow the childs natural growth to reverse the bowing process. This second, much smaller surgery is most effective in children with less severe bowing and significant growth remaining.

# Prognosis
Return to normal function and cosmetic appearance is expected if the knee can be properly aligned.

# Complications
Failure to treat Blount's disease may lead to progressive deformity.
Blount's disease may come back after surgery, especially in younger children.
Because of the bowing, a leg-length discrepancy may result. This may result in disability if the discrepancy is significant (greater than 1 inch) and is not treated.
Blowout fracture

# Overview
A blowout fracture is a fracture of the walls or floor of the orbit. Intraorbital material may be pushed out into one of the paranasal sinuses. This is most commonly caused by blunt trauma of the head, generally personal altercations.

# Historical Perspective
The term "blow out fracture" was coined in 1957 by Smith & Regan, who were investigating injuries to the orbit by placing a hurling ball on cadaverous orbits and striking it with a mallet.

# Pathophysiology
The force of a blow to the orbit is dissipated by a fracture of the surrounding bone, usually the orbital floor and/or the medial orbital wall.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Serious consequences of such injury include diplopia on downward gaze if there is damage to the floor of the orbit.

## CT
Blue Funnel Lily
Androstephium caeruleum, is also known as the Blue Funnel Lily. 
A perennial herb found the United States, ranging through Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas. It disperses its seed by wind.
- Androstephium caeruleum (Scheele) Greene Blue Funnel Lily.
- Androstephium breviflorum S. Wats. Pink Funnel Lily.

# Cultivation and uses
The Blue Funnel Lilly is among the first of the prairie flowers to bloom - typically in February in North Central Texas.
There is great variability in the flowers of the species, and it is uncommon in its habitat, black soil prairie. 
Fruit set is infrequent - whether due to loss of native pollinators or self-sterility is unknown. Fruit ripens by late April
and splits open, presenting the thin, flat black seeds to the wind. The seedling manifests itself as a single thin green
leaf - very much like a green hair - and is easily lost in the prairie grasses among which it grows. Over the course of several
years the plant progressively pulls its corm deeper and deeper into the soil until it has reached a depth of 15 to 20 centimeters.
The corm was once eaten in West Texas.
Body of mandible
The body of the mandible is curved somewhat like a horseshoe and has two surfaces and two borders.

# Surfaces

## External surface
The external surface is marked in the median line by a faint ridge, indicating the symphysis or line of junction of the two pieces of which the bone is composed at an early period of life.
This ridge divides below and encloses a triangular eminence, the mental protuberance, the base of which is depressed in the center but raised on either side to form the mental tubercle.
On either side of the symphysis, just below the incisor teeth, is a depression, the incisive fossa, which gives origin to the mentalis and a small portion of the orbicularis oris.
Below the second premolar tooth, on either side, midway between the upper and lower borders of the body, is the mental foramen, for the passage of the mental vessels and nerve.
Running backward and upward from each mental tubercle is a faint ridge, the oblique line, which is continuous with the anterior border of the ramus; it affords attachment to the depressor labii Inferioris (Quadratus labii inferioris) and depressor anguli oris (Triangularis); the platysma is attached below it.

## Internal surface
The internal surface is concave from side to side. Near the lower part of the symphysis is a pair of laterally placed spines, termed the mental spines, which give origin to the genioglossus.
Immediately below these is a second pair of spines, or more frequently a median ridge or impression, for the origin of the geniohyoid.
In some cases the mental spines are fused to form a single eminence, in others they are absent and their position is indicated merely by an irregularity of the surface.
Above the mental spines a median foramen and furrow are sometimes seen; they mark the line of union of the halves of the bone.
Below the mental spines, on either side of the middle line, is an oval depression for the attachment of the anterior belly of the digastric.
Extending upward and backward on either side from the lower part of the symphysis is the mylohyoid line, which gives origin to the mylohyoid; the posterior part of this line, near the alveolar margin, gives attachment to a small part of the Constrictor pharyngis superior, and to the pterygomandibular raphe.
Above the anterior part of this line is a smooth triangular area against which the sublingual gland rests, and below the hinder part, an oval fossa for the submaxillary gland.

# Borders
The superior or alveolar border, wider behind than in front, is hollowed into cavities, for the reception of the teeth; these cavities are sixteen in number, and vary in depth and size according to the teeth which they contain. To the outer lip of the superior border, on either side, the buccinator is attached as far forward as the first molar tooth.
The inferior border is rounded, longer than the superior, and thicker in front than behind; at the point where it joins the lower border of the ramus a shallow groove; for the facial artery, may be present.
Body proportions
In art, body proportions are the study of relation of human body, or in general, animal body, parts to each other and the whole, essential for depiction of the overall figure.
Some common proportional relationships for humans:
Body:
- The average adult human figure is about 7 to 7.5 heads tall.
- The idealized human figure is traditionally represented as being 8 heads tall.
- 8 head proportions:
head
from the bottom of the head to the middle height of a chest (place where a man's nipples should be)
from previous position to the navel
from previous position to (upper edge of) the pubis
from previous position to the middle height of thigh
from previous position to the middle height of a calf
from previous position to the point just below the ankles
from previous position to the feet
- head
- from the bottom of the head to the middle height of a chest (place where a man's nipples should be)
- from previous position to the navel
- from previous position to (upper edge of) the pubis
- from previous position to the middle height of thigh
- from previous position to the middle height of a calf
- from previous position to the point just below the ankles
- from previous position to the feet
- The pubis, or its upper edge, is at mid-height of the average adult figure.
- The length of the shin is equal to the length of the hip for an average adult figure.
- When the body stands upright, the length of the arm is such that the finger tips come down to mid-thigh.
- The arms' wingspan (measured from the tips of the middle fingers) is about equal to the body height.
- The length of the foot is about equal to the length of the  forearm.
Head:
- The eyes are at the mid-height of the head.
- The head also can be divided into thirds - from the top of the head to the bottom of the forehead, from the bottom of the forehead to the bottom of the nose, and then from there to the bottom of the chin.
- The width of the head is between four and five eyes wide.
- The height of the face is about equal to the length of the hand.
- The eyes are separated by a distance of one eye width.
- The bottom of the nose to the corner of the eye is equal to the height of the ear.
- The width of the base of the nose is equal to the width of the eye.
- The width of the mouth is equal to the distance between pupils, or the width of two eyes.
Boltzmann factor
In physics, the Boltzmann factor is a weighting factor that determines the relative probability of a state i in a multi-state system in thermodynamic equilibrium at temperature T.
Where k_B is Boltzmann's constant, and E_i is the energy of state i.  The ratio of the probabilities of two states is given by the ratio of their Boltzmann factors.
The Boltzmann factor is not a probability by itself, because it is not normalized.  To normalize the Boltzmann factor into a probability, one divides it by the sum Z of the Boltzmann factors of all possible states of a system, which is called the partition function.  This gives the Boltzmann distribution.
From the Boltzmann factor it is possible to derive the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, Bose-Einstein statistics, and Fermi-Dirac statistics that govern classical particles as well as quantum mechanical bosons, and fermions, respectively.
Bolus (medicine)
In medicine, a bolus (from Latin bolus, ball) is the administration of a medication, drug or other compound that is given to raise blood concentration to an effective level.  The administration can be given intravenously, by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection.

# Bolus placement
The placement of the bolus depends on the systemic levels of the contents desired throughout the body.  An intramuscular bolus is used in the administration of vaccines to allow a slow release of the antigen to stimulate the body's immune system and allow time to develop antibodies.   Subcutaneous injections are used by heroin addicts (called 'skin popping', referring to the bump formed by the bolus of heroin), to sustain a slow release that staves off withdrawal symptoms without producing euphoria.
A bolus delivered directly to the veins through an intravenous drip allows a much faster delivery which quickly raises the concentration of the substance in the blood to an effective level.  This is typically done at the beginning of a treatment or after a removal of medicine from blood (e.g. through dialysis).

# Diabetes
Diabetics and health care professionals use bolus to refer to a dosage of fast-acting insulin with a meal (as opposed to basal rate, which is a dose of slow-acting insulin or the continuous pumping a small quantity of fast-acting insulin to cover the glucose output of the liver).

# Veterinary medicine
In veterinary medicine a bolus is a large time-release tablet that stays in the rumen of cattle, goats and sheep.
Boost (beverage)
Boost is the brand name of a line of products produced by Novartis Medical Nutrition.  It was recently featured in popular news reports after a man filed suit claiming that Boost Plus had caused his priapism.
The ingredients of Boost Plus are common food products or vitamins, present at 3 to 100% of their recommended daily values.  For example, the vanilla flavor contains:
water, corn syrup solids, sugar, milk protein concentrate, canola oil, high oleic sunflower oil, calcium caseinate, sodium caseinate, corn oil, and less than 1% potassium citrate, magnesium chloride, soy lecithin, calcium phosphate, salt, sodium ascorbate, beta carotene, biotin, niacinamide, calcium pantothenate, vitamin B 12, vitamin B6 hydrochloride, riboflavin, thiamin hydrochloride, folic acid, potassium iodide, magnesium phosphate, artificial flavor, choline chloride, vitamin E acetate, vitamin A palmitate, vitamin D3, vitamin K1, carrageenan, potassium chloride, zinc sulfate, manganese sulfate, cupric sulfate, chromic chloride, sodium molybdate, sodium selenite, ferrous sulfate.
Bowel infarction
Bowel infarction or 'bowel death' results from a severely restricted blood supply to part of the bowel; this can in turn be due to an uncorrected bowel twist or bowel strangulation, or to occlusion of one of the mesenteric arteries.
Strangulation sometimes results from fibrous bands which can form after major bowel surgery due to post operative adhesions.
The condition is very commonly fatal, is difficult to anticipate and not an easy diagnosis.
Small numbers of people have survived resection of extensive sections of bowel following arterial occlusion, but maintaining nourishment presents large problems.