Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Hypoalbuminemia
Synonyms and keywords: low albumin; low serum albumin; reduced albumin; hypoalbuminism;

# Overview
Hypoalbuminemia is a medical condition where levels of albumin in blood serum are abnormally low.  It is a specific form of hypoproteinemia.

# Pathophysiology
Albumin is a major protein in the human body, making up about 60% of total human plasma protein by mass.  Many hormones, drugs, and other molecules are mostly bound to albumin in the bloodstream and must be released before becoming biologically active.
Albumin is synthesized in the liver, and low serum albumin may be indicative of liver failure or diseases such as cirrhosis or chronic hepatitis.  Hypoalbuminemia can also present as part of the nephrotic syndrome, in which protein is lost in the urine due to kidney damage. Low albumin levels can be an indicator of chronic malnutrition.

# Causes

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Acute phase reaction
- Analbuminaemia
- Cirrhosis
- Hepatitis
- Liver failure
- Malnutrition
- Drug Side Effect- Cefpodoxime,Denileukin diftitox Ibuprofen,Dapsone, Streptozocin
- Nephrotic syndrome
- Sorafenib
- Protein losing enteropathy
- Starvation

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
- Generalized edema (swelling) via a decrease in oncotic pressure.

## Physical Examination
- Generalized edema (swelling) via a decrease in oncotic pressure.

## Laboratory Findings
The serum albumin level is part of a standard panel of liver function tests. Levels below 3.5 grams per deciliter are generally considered low.
Hypomagnesiuria
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# Overview
Hypomagnesuria is defined as urinary magnesium excretion of < 50 mg/day.
Magnesium is known to be an inhibitor of calcium nephrolithiasis by apparently increasing the solubility product of calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate. This condition may coexist with hypocitraturia in approximately 65% of patients, and low urine volume (< 1 L/d) in approximately 40% of patients.
Many patients with nephrolithiasis report a limited intake of magnesium-rich foods such as nuts and chocolate, suggesting the dietary basis for this condition.
Hypoproteinemia
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Synonyms and keywords: Hypoproteinaemia; total protein levels low (plasma or serum)

# Overview
Hypoproteinemia is a condition where there is an abnormally low level of protein in the blood.

# Classification
A specific form of hypoproteinemia is hypoalbuminemia.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Hypoproteinemia results in tissue edema.

# Causes

## Common Causes
One common cause is due to excess protein in the urine (proteinuria), which can be a medical sign of nephrotic syndrome.

## Causes In Alphabetical Order
- Cirrhosis of liver
- Drug Side Effect- Cefpodoxime, Cidofovir, Ibuprofen, Olanzapine, Thalidomide
- Hepatic failure
- Malabsorption syndrome
- Menetrier disease
- Protein losing enteropathy
- Water overload
- Nephrotic syndrome
- Intestinal enteropeptidase deficiency
- Kwashiorkor
- Malabsorption syndrome
- Capillary leak syndrome
Hypoventilation
For patient information, click Hypoventilation
Synonyms and keywords:

# Overview
In medicine, hypoventilation (also known as respiratory depression) occurs when ventilation is inadequate (hypo means "below") to perform needed gas exchange. It generally causes an increased concentration of carbon dioxide (hypercapnia) and respiratory acidosis. It can be caused by medical conditions, by holding one's breath, or by drugs, typically when taken in overdose.  Hypoventilation may be dangerous for those with sleep apnea.

# Pathophysiology
Hypoventilation (also known as respiratory depression) occurs when ventilation is inadequate (hypo meaning "below") to perform needed gas exchange. By definition it causes an increased concentration of carbon dioxide (hypercapnia) and respiratory acidosis.

## Associated Conditions
- Disorders like (CCHS) and Rapid-Onset Obesity, Hypothalamic Dysfunction, Hypoventilation, with Autonomic Dysregulation  are recognized as conditions that are associated with hypoventilation. CCHS may be a significant factor in some cases of  (SIDS), often termed "cot death" or "crib death".
- The opposite condition is  (too much ventilation), resulting in low carbon dioxide levels, rather than hypercapnia.

# Differentiating hypoventilation from other Diseases
Abbreviations: Ab (antibody); ABG (arterial blood gas); BMP (basic metabolic panel); BPS (biophysical profile score); CHS (central hypoventilation syndrome); CBC (complete blood count); CPK (Creatine phosphokinase); CSF (cerebrospinal fluid); CT (computed tomography ); CXR (chest X-ray); DMD (dystrophin gene);  ECG (electrocardiogram); EMG (electromyography); FEF (forced expiratory flow rate); FEV1 (forced expiratory volume); FRC (functional residual capacity); FVC (forced vital capacity); GIT (gastrointestinal tract); JVD (jugular vein distention); MAS (meconium aspiration syndrome); MCV (mean corpuscular volume); MRI (magnetic resonance imaging); NCS (Nerve conduction studies);  PEF (pulmonary expiratory flow); RDS (acute respiratory distress syndrome); ROHHAD (rapid-onset obesity with hypothalamic dysfunction, hypoventilation and autonomic dysregulation); RV (residual volume); SIRS (systemic inflammatory response syndrome); SMN1 (survival of motor neuron 1); TLC (total lung capacity) TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone); Vt (tidal volume); WBC (white blood cell);

# Treatment

## Pharmacotherapy
- Respiratory stimulants such as nikethamide were traditionally used to counteract respiratory depression from CNS depressant overdose, but were of only limited effectiveness.
- A new respiratory stimulant drug called BIMU8 is being investigated which seems to be significantly more effective and may be useful for counteracting the respiratory depression produced by opiates and similar drugs without offsetting their therapeutic effects.
- If the respiratory depression is from opioid overdose, then the overdose itself is usually treated with an inverse agonist, most likely naloxone, which will itself almost instantaneously stop the respiratory depression if caused by an opioid (and also, depending on the dose, plunge the patient into precipitated withdrawal).
IPEX (syndrome)
IPEX stands for immunodysregulation polyendocrinopathy enteropathy X-linked syndrome and it is a rare disease linked to the dysfunction of the transcriptional activator FoxP3. 
It leads to the dysfunction of regulatory T-cells and the subsequent autoimmunity.
This autoimmunity is called IPEX and it is the attack from the body's own immune system against the body's own tissues and organs.  Early age onset of this disease in males causes severe enlargement of the secondary lymphoid organs, insulin dependent diabetes, eczema, food allergies, and infections.  There has been limited success in treating the syndrome by bone marrow transplantation.
Ian Brockington
Ian Brockington (1935-) was the son of Sir Colin Fraser Brockington, one of the top names in British medicine. Ian trained as a cardiologist and went to Nigeria where he completed a monumental work on cardiomyopathy which formed the basis for his doctoral thesis.
However, on his return he decided to train in psychiatry at the Maudsley Hospital. He developed a strong interest in nosology of psychiatric illnesses. He moved to Chicago as a Visiting Professor where he produced several classic works on the nosology of psychiatric illnesses. He moved to the Manchester Academy as a senior lecturer and was very soon appointed to a chair in Birmingham. By this time, he had also developed an interest in postpartum psychiatric illnesses and was one of the founders of Marce Society. Along with Ramesh Kumar, he produced a volume, Motherhood and Mental Illness, that is still regarded as a classic in the field.
He is also known for his avocation of restoring Tudor farmhouses.
Ileo-anal pouch

# Overview
The ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA), also known as an ileo-anal pouch, restorative proctocolectomy, ileal-anal pullthrough, or sometimes referred to as a j-pouch, s-pouch, w-pouch or an internal pouch, is an internal reservoir; usually situated where the rectum would normally be. It is formed by folding loops of small intestine (the ileum) back on themselves and stitching or stapling them together. The internal walls are then removed thus forming a reservoir. The reservour is then stitched or stapled into the perineum where the rectum was.
Ileo-anal pouches are constructed for people who have had their large intestine surgically removed due to disease or injury. Diseases and conditions of the large intestine which may require surgical removal include:
- Crohn's disease
- Ulcerative colitis
- Familial adenomatous polyposis
- Colon cancer
- Toxic megacolon
There is debate about whether patients suffering from Crohn's disease are suitable candidates for an ileo-anal pouch due to the risk of the disease occurring in the pouch, which could make matters even worse. An alternative to an ileo-anal pouch is an ileostomy.
In some cases where the pouch was formed as a result of colitis, inflammation can return to the pouch in a similar way to the original inflammation in the colon. This is known as pouchitis.

# History
The surgical procedure for forming an ileo-anal pouch was developed as an alternative to the ileostomy where, in the absence of a colon, intestinal waste is emptied into a bag attached to the abdomen.
This work was pioneered by Sir Alan Parks at St. Mark's Hospital in London in the early 1980's, the pouch was known as Parks' Pouch.
Ilex aquifolium
Ilex aquifolium (Holly, or European Holly to distinguish it from related species) is a species of holly native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia.
It is an evergreen tree growing to 10-25 m tall and 40-80 cm (rarely 1 m or more) trunk diameter, with smooth grey bark. The leaves are 5-12 cm long and 2-6 cm broad, variable in shape; on young plants and low branches, with three to five sharp spines on each side, pointing alternately upward and downward; on higher branches of older trees with few or no spines except for the leaf tip, often entire.
The flowers are dioecious, white, four-lobed, and pollinated by bees. The fruit is a red berry 6-10 mm diameter, containing four seeds; although mature in late autumn, they are very bitter so are rarely touched by birds until late winter after frost has made them softer and more palatable. They are slightly poisonous for people.

# Cultivation and uses
European Holly (Gaelic: cuileann) was traditionally the most sacred tree to druids and associated as the ruler of winter, ending on winter solstice. For pre-Christian pagan Romans, Holly was considered the plant of the God Saturn, celebrated at the Feast of Sol Invictus on December 25th. As a result, European Holly has always traditionally had a strong association with Christmas.
It is also a very popular ornamental tree in its native range. Dozens of cultivars have been selected, including plants with variegated, yellow, contorted, thornless, or exceptionally thorny leaves. Female clones are particularly popular, with the shoots with berries being used as a traditional Christmas decoration.
The wood is heavy, hard and white; one traditional use is (together with ebony) for chess pieces, with holly for the white pieces, and ebony for the black. Other uses include turnery, inlay work and as firewood.
Outside of its native range, European Holly has been widely planted in New Zealand, the cooler areas of Australia, and the Pacific Northwest of North America; in all of these areas, concern has been expressed over its becoming an invasive species harming local native vegetation.
Iliopubic tract
Curving over the external iliac vessels, at the spot where they become femoral, on the abdominal side of the inguinal ligaments and loosely connected with it, is a thickened band of fibers called the deep crural arch (or iliopubic tract).
It is apparently a thickening of the transversalis fascia joined laterally to the center of the lower margin of the inguinal ligament, and arching across the front of the femoral sheath to be inserted by a broad attachment into the pubic tubercle and pectineal line, behind the inguinal aponeurotic falx.
In some subjects this structure is not very prominently marked, and not infrequently it is altogether wanting.
It can be of clinical significance in herniorrhaphy.
Inch of mercury
Inches of mercury, inHg or "Hg is a non-SI unit for pressure. It is still widely used for barometric pressure in weather reports and aviation in the United States, but is considered somewhat outdated elsewhere.
It is defined as the pressure exerted by a column of mercury of 1 inch in height at 32 F (0 C) at the standard acceleration of gravity.
Aircraft operating at higher altitudes (at or above what is called the Transition Altitude, which varies by country) set their barometric altimeters to a standard pressure of 29.92 inHg or 1,013.2 hPa (1 hPa = 1 mbar) regardless of the actual sea level pressure, with inches of mercury used in the U.S. and Canada. The resulting altimeter readings are known as flight levels.
Piston engine aircraft with constant-speed propellers also use inches of mercury to measure manifold pressure, which is indicative of engine power produced.
In older literature, an inch of mercury based on the height of a column at 60 F (15.6 C) was common.
T-shaped uterus
- A T-shaped configuration of the endometrial cavity is the most commonly associated abnormality from in utero diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure, seen in 31% of exposed women.
- DES is a synthetic estrogen that was introduced in 1948
- DES was prescribed for women experiencing recurrent spontaneous abortions, premature deliveries, and other pregnancy complications. By increasing the synthesis of placental steroidal hormones, DES was thought to decrease the frequency of pregnancy loss.
- In utero exposure to DES was shown to be associated with clear cell carcinoma of the vagina, and use of the drug was abruptly discontinued in 1971 (incidence 0.141.4 per 1000 women exposed).

# Diagnosis

## HSG
- Narrowed irregular endocervical canal.
- The opacified endometrial cavity appears small, with a shortened upper uterine segment, resulting in the characteristic T configuration

# See Also
- Mullerian duct anomalies classification system
- Arcuate uterus
- Bicornuate uterus
- Septate uterus
- Unicornuate uterus
- Uterus didelphys
Incident report
Assistant Editor-In-Chief: Michelle Lew

# Overview
In a health care facility, such as a hospital, nursing home, or assisted living, an incident report or accident report is a form that is filled out in order to record details of an unusual event that occurs at the facility, such as an injury to a patient. The purpose of the incident report is to document the exact details of the occurrence while they are fresh in the minds of those who witnessed the event. This information may be useful in the future when dealing with liability issues stemming from the incident.
Generally, according to health care guidelines, the report must be filled out as soon as possible following the incident (but after the situation has been stabilized). This way, the details written in the report are as accurate as possible.
Most incident reports that are written involve accidents with patients, such as patient falls. But most facilities will also document an incident in which a staff member or visitor is injured.
In the event that an incident involves a patient, the patient will often be monitored for a period of time following the incident, which may include taking vital signs regularly.
Redox indicator
A redox indicator (also called an oxidation-reduction indicator) is an indicator that undergoes a definite color change at a specific electrode potential.
The requirement for fast and reversible color change means that the oxidation-reduction equilibrium for an indicator redox system needs to be established very fast. Therefore only a few classes of organic redox systems can be used for indicator purposes.
There are two common type of redox indicators:
- metal-organic complexes (Ex. phenanthroline)
- true organic redox systems (Ex. Methylene blue)
Sometimes colored inorganic oxidants or reductants (Ex. Potassium manganate, Potassium dichromate) are also incorrectly called redox indicators.  They cant be classified as true redox indicators because of their irreversibility.
Almost all redox indicators with true organic redox systems  involve a proton as a participant in their electrochemical reaction. Therefore sometimes redox indicators are also divided into two general groups: independent or dependent on pH.

# pH independent redox indicators

# pH dependent redox indicators
Inner bone pain

# Overview
Inner Bone Pain, commonly referred to as IBP, is a disorder that occurs in a patients who has sustained prolonged exposure to pain.  The disorder is characterized by severe pain felt to be emanating from a persons very core.

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
It is difficult to differentiate between growing pains and IBP in younger children, but is easily identifiable by people between the ages of 26-50.
There are very few reported cases of IBP in the United States. In some patients there is a psychological overlay of  severe stress in their lives such as raising children, work, or constant lack of peace either by constant contact with family or noise.  This prolonged stress can turn become IBP when person suffering extreme stress suffers trauma such as a broken or dislocated appendage like an arm or leg.
The first reported case of IBP was to a man in Saint Paul, Minnesota.  Morrow Monk was the first documented US citizen of IBP when he was admitted to United Hospital in St Paul.  The findings were then reported to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention by Dr. Tyler Coles after findings supported evidence of IBP.
InnoMed PredTox
InnoMed PredTox is a joint Industry and European Commission collaboration to improve drug safety. The consortium is composed of 15 research groups from 12 pharmaceutical companies, three academic institutions and two technology providers.
The goal of InnoMed PredTox is to assess the value of combining results from omics technologies together with the results from more conventional toxicology methods for more informed decision making in preclinical safety evaluation.
The project was initiated in October 2005 with a term of 40 month. It receives funding as an Integrated Project under the Sixth Framework Programme. The  project had been set up jointly by the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA) and the European Commission as a pilot project for the subsequent design of the Innovative Medicines Initiative
As part of InnoMed PredTox the partners ran a series of regular 14 days toxicological studies in rats with daily dosing. The compounds had been selected representing compounds with promising drug-like properties but that had been terminated due to toxic effects on the liver and/or kidneys.
The project collected and jointly analysed transcriptomics, proteomics, metabonomics and conventional toxicological data on 14 failed drug candidates together with two reference compounds, troglitazone and gentamicin. As data integration across different data areas and technology platforms is considered a prerequisite to building a consistent standardised data schema for joint analysis all project data are stored in a database custom developed by Genedata.
Joint research activities like InnoMed PredTox are seen by the pharmaceutical industry as the most promising approach to increasing the number of generally accepted, measurable indicators biomarkers of toxic (side-) effects. In particular, as the consortia facilitate the efficient exchange of experience in this pre-competitive area of drug development and early involvement of regulatory authorities like the FDA and EMEA.

# Milestones
Status: August 2008
Integrin beta 2
In molecular biology, CD18 (Integrin beta chain-2) is an integrin beta chain protein that is encoded by the ITGB2 gene in humans. Upon binding with one of a number of alpha chains, CD18 is capable of forming multiple heterodimers, which play significant roles in cellular adhesion and cell surface signaling, as well as important roles in immune responses. CD18 also exists in soluble, ligand binding forms. Deficiencies in CD18 expression can lead to adhesion defects in circulating white blood cells in humans, reducing the immune system's ability to fight off foreign invaders.

# Structure and function
The ITGB2 protein product is CD18. Integrins are integral cell-surface proteins composed of an alpha chain and a beta chain, and are crucial for cells to be able to efficiently bind to the extracellular matrix. This is especially important for neutrophils, as cellular adhesion plays a large role in extravasation from the blood vessels.  A given chain may combine with multiple partners resulting in different integrins.
The known binding partners of CD18 are CD11a, CD11b, CD11c and CD11d. Binding of CD18 and CD11 results in the formation of Lymphocyte Functions Associated Antigen 1 (LFA-1), a protein found on B cells, all T cells, macrophages, neutrophils and NK cells. LFA-1 is involved in adhesion and binding to antigen presenting cells through interactions with the surface protein ICAM-1
Binding of CD18 and CD11b-d results in the formation of complement receptors (e.g. Macrophage-1 antigen receptor, Mac-1, when bound to CD11b), which are proteins found largely on neutrophils, macrophages and NK cells. These complement receptors participate in the innate immune response by recognizing foreign antigen peptides and phagocytizing them, thus destroying the antigen.

# Clinical significance
In humans, lack of functional CD18 causes Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency, a disease defined by a lack of leukocyte extravasation from blood into tissues, which is the inability of circulating leukocytes to respond to foreign bodies present in the tissue. This subsequently reduces the ability of the individual's immune system to fight off infection, making them more susceptible to foreign infection than those with functional CD18 proteins. The beta 2 integrins have also been found in a soluble form, meaning they are not anchored into the plasma membrane of the cell, but rather exist outside of the cell in the plasma, and are capable of ligand binding. The soluble beta 2 integrins are ligand binding and plasma levels are inversely associated with disease activity in the autoimmune disease spondyloarthritis.

# Interactions
CD18 has been shown to interact with:
- FHL2,
- GNB2L1,
- ICAM-1,  and
- PSCD1.
Integrin beta 3
Integrin beta-3 (3) or CD61 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ITGB3 gene.  CD61 is a cluster of differentiation found on thrombocytes.

# Structure and function
The ITGB3 protein product is the integrin beta chain beta 3. Integrins are integral cell-surface proteins composed of an alpha chain and a beta chain. A given chain may combine with multiple partners resulting in different integrins. Integrin beta 3 is found along with the alpha IIb chain in platelets. Integrins are known to participate in cell adhesion as well as cell-surface-mediated signaling.

# Role in endometriosis
Defectively expressed 3 integrin subunit has been correlated with presence of endometriosis, and has been suggested as a putative marker of this condition.

# Interactions
CD61 has been shown to interact with PTK2, ITGB3BP, TLN1 and CIB1.