Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Argininemia

# Overview
Argininemia, also called arginase deficiency, is an autosomal recessive urea cycle disorder where a deficiency of the enzyme arginase causes a build up of arginine and ammonia in the blood.
Ammonia, which is formed when proteins are broken down in the body, is toxic if levels become too high. The nervous system is especially sensitive to the effects of excess ammonia.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

## Genetics
Mutations in the ARG1 gene cause argininemia.
Argininemia belongs to a class of genetic diseases called urea cycle disorders. The urea cycle is a sequence of reactions that occurs in liver cells. This cycle processes excess nitrogen, generated when protein is used by the body, to make a compound called urea that is excreted by the kidneys.
The ARG1 gene provides instructions for making an enzyme called arginase. This enzyme controls the final step of the urea cycle, which produces urea by removing nitrogen from arginine. In people with arginase deficiency, arginase is damaged or missing, and arginine is not broken down properly. As a result, urea cannot be produced normally, and excess nitrogen accumulates in the blood in the form of ammonia. The accumulation of ammonia and arginine are believed to cause the neurological problems and other signs and symptoms of arginase deficiency.
This condition is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means the defective gene is located on an autosome, and two copies of the defective gene are required to inherit the disorder. Both parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder are carriers of one copy of the gene, but usually do not have the disorder.

# Causes

# Differentiating Argininemia from Other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

# Diagnosis
Argininemia usually becomes evident by about the age of 3. It most often appears as stiffness, especially in the legs, caused by abnormal tensing of the muscles (spasticity). Other symptoms may include slower than normal growth, developmental delay and eventual loss of developmental milestones, mental retardation, seizures, tremor, and difficulty with balance and coordination (ataxia). Occasionally, high protein meals or stress caused by illness or periods without food (fasting) may cause ammonia to accumulate more quickly in the blood. This rapid increase in ammonia may lead to episodes of irritability, refusal to eat, and vomiting.
In some affected individuals, signs and symptoms of argininemia may be less severe, and may not appear until later in life.

## Diagnostic Criteria

## History and Symptoms

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy

## Surgery

## Prevention
Arthropathy

# Overview
An arthropathy is a disease of a joint. Although the terms "arthropathy" and arthritis have very similar meanings, the former is traditionally used to describe the following conditions:
- Reactive arthropathy (M02-M03) is caused by an infection, but not a direct infection of the synovial space. (See also Reactive arthritis)
- Enteropathic arthropathy (M07) is caused by colitis and related conditions.
- Crystal arthropathy (also known as crystal arthritis) (M10-M11) involves the deposition of crystals in the joint.
In gout, the crystal is uric acid.
In pseudogout/chondrocalcinosis/calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease, the crystal is calcium pyrophosphate.
- In gout, the crystal is uric acid.
- In pseudogout/chondrocalcinosis/calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease, the crystal is calcium pyrophosphate.
- Diabetic arthropathy (M14.2, E10-E14) is caused by diabetes.
- Neuropathic arthropathy (M14.6) is associated with a loss of sensation.
Interneuron

# Overview
An interneuron (also called relay neuron, association neuron or bipolar neuron) is a term used to describe a neuron which has two different common meanings.

# PNS
In the peripheral nervous system, an interneuron is a neuron that communicates only to other neurons. Interneurons are the neurons that provide connections between sensory and motor neurons, as well as between themselves.   Contrast to sensory neurons or motor neurons, which respectively provide input from and output to the rest of the body.
Interneurons are found in the grey matter. One type of peripheral interneuron is the Renshaw cell.

# CNS
According to the PNS definition, the neurons of the central nervous system, including the brain, are all interneurons. However, in the CNS, the term interneurons is also used for the general group of small, locally projecting neurons of the central nervous system.  These neurons are typically inhibitory, and use the neurotransmitter GABA. However, excitatory interneurons also exist.
One example of interneurons are inhibitory interneurons in the neocortex which selectively inhibit sections of the thalamus based on synaptic input both from other parts of the neocortex and from the thalamus itself.  This is theorized to help focus higher attention on relevant sensory input and help block out behavioraly irrelevant or unchanging input, such as the sensation of the backs of your thighs on a chair. A human brain contains about 100 billion interneurons.
Athymhormia

# Overview
Athymhormia is a disorder of motivation, one of that class of neuro-psychiatric conditions marked by abnormalities or deficiencies in motivation. Symptoms include the loss or reduction of desire and interest toward previous motivations, loss of drive and the desire for satisfaction, curiosity, the loss of tastes and preferences, and flat affect. In athymhormia, however, these phenomena are not accompanied by the characterizing features of depression nor by any notable abnormality in intellectual or cognitive function.

# Historical Perspective
The diagnostic category was coined in 1922 by the French psychiatrists Dide and Guiraud, originally in reference to the behavior identified in some schizophrenic patients.

# Etiology
The etiology of this condition has been hypothesised to derive from abnormalities in the limbic frontal cortex, the striatum, globus pallidus, and dorso-medial thalamic nucleus. In the context of the theory of those who propose the existence of a distinct neural pathway for mood and interest, or the "hormothymic" system, athymhormia may be a disorder of this system.

# Further Reading
- Patrick Verstichel and Pascale Larrouy. "Drowning Mr. M." Scientific American Mind. April 2005.
Atomization
In atomic spectroscopy, atomization stands for the conversion of a vaporized sample into atomic components. Liquid samples are first nebulized, the fine mist is transported into the atomization source (flame or plasma), where the solvent evaporates and the analyte is vaporized, then atomized.
Atomization also refers to the conversion of bulk liquid into a spray or mist (i.e. collection of drops), often by passing the liquid through a nozzle. Despite the name, it does not usually imply that the particles are reduced to atomic sizes. The process can also be described as nebulization. By convention, "nebulize", "nebulization", and "nebulizer" are terms used more often in the medical/science fields.
An atomizer is an atomization apparatus; carburetors, airbrushes, misters, and spray bottles are only a few examples of atomizers used ubiquitously. In internal combustion engines, fine-grained fuel atomization is instrumental to efficient combustion.
In some manufacturing processes, fine powder is produced by spraying molten or dissolved materials through an atomizer and solidifying the droplets.
Atropisomer
Atropisomers are stereoisomers resulting from hindered rotation about single bonds where the steric strain barrier to rotation is high enough to allow for the isolation of the conformers . The word atropisomer is derived from the Greek a which means not and tropos which translates as turn. The name was coined by Kuhn in 1933, but atropisomerism was first detected in 6,6-dinitro-2,2-diphenic acid by Cristie in 1922.
Oki defined atropisomers as conformers that interconvert with a half-life of more than 1000 seconds at a given temperature. Atropisomers are an important class of compounds because they  display axial chirality. They differ from other chiral compounds in that they can be equilibrated thermally whereas in the other forms of chirality isomerization is usually only possible chemically.
The most important class of atropisomers are biaryls such as the aforementioned diphenic acid which is a derivative of biphenyl with a complete set of ortho substituents. Others are dimers of naphthalene derivatives such as 1,1'-bi-2-naphthol. In a similar way aliphatic ring systems like cyclohexanes linked through a single bond may display atropisomerism provided that bulky substituents are present.
Examples of naturally occurring atropisomers include vancomycin and knipholone which is found in the roots of Kniphofia Foliosa of the family Asphodelaceae.
Separation of atropisomers is possibly by chiral resolution methods such as selective crystallization. In an atropo-enantioselective or atropselective synthesis one atropisomer is formed at the expense of the other. Atroposelective synthesis may be carried out by use of chiral auxiliaries like a CBS catalyst in the total synthesis of knipholone or by approaches based on thermodynamic equilibration when an isomerization reaction favors one atropisomer over the other.

# Scope
In one application the asymmetry in an atropisomer is transferred in a chemical reaction to a new stereocenter . The atropisomer is an iodoaryl compound synthesised starting from (S)-valine and exists as the (M,S) isomer and the (P,S) isomer. The interconversion barrier between the two is 24.3 kcal/mol (101.7 kJ/mol). The (M,S) isomer can be obtained exclusively from this mixture by recrystallisation from hexanes. The iodine group is homolytically removed to form an aryl radical by a tributyltin hydride/triethylboron/oxygen mixture as in the Barton-McCombie reaction. Although the hindered rotation is now removed in the aryl radical the intermolecular reaction with the alkene is so much faster than rotation of the carbon-nitrogen bond that the stereochemistry is preserved. In this way the (M,S) isomer yields the (S,S) dihydroindolone.
An axial chirality switch is reported  for a diol prepared from intramolecular pinacol coupling of the corresponding di-aldehyde with samarium(II) iodide. In methanol this compound has the two alcohol groups in equatorial positions but in hexane helicity is reversed with both groups in axial positions.
Attack rate
An attack rate in epidemiology is the incidence of infection in a group of people over a period of time, usually in relation to foodborne illness.
It is defined as the number of exposed persons infected with the disease divided by the total number of exposed persons.
This ratio is measured from the beginning of an outbreak to the end of the outbreak.
Avoirdupois
The avoirdupois (Template:IPAEng; French Template:IPA2) system is a system of weights (or, properly, mass) based on a pound of sixteen ounces. It is the everyday system of weight used in the United States. It is still widely used by many people in Canada and the United Kingdom despite the official adoption of the metric system, including the compulsory introduction of metric units in shops. It is considered more modern than the alternative troy or apothecary or the medieval English mercantile and Tower systems.

# History of the term
The word avoirdupois is from French and Middle English (Anglo-French) avoir de pois, "goods of weight" or "goods sold by weight", from Old French aveir de peis, literally "goods of weight" (Old French aveir, "property, goods", also "to have", comes from the Latin habere, "to have, to hold, to possess property"; de = "from", cf. Latin; peis = "weight", from Latin pensum).  This term originally referred to a class of merchandise: aveir de peis, "goods of weight", things that were sold in bulk and were weighed on large steelyards or balances.  Only later did it become identified with a particular system of units used to weigh such merchandise. The imaginative orthography of the day and the passage of the term through a series of languages  (Latin, Anglo-French and English) has left many variants of the term, such as haberty-poie and haber de peyse. (The Norman peis became the Parisian pois. In the 17th century de was replaced with du.)

# Original forms
These are the units in their original French forms:
Note: The plural of quintal is quintaux.

# British adaptation
When people in Britain began to use this system they included the stone, which was eventually defined as fourteen avoirdupois pounds. The quarter, hundredweight, and ton were altered, respectively, to 28 lb, 112 lb, and 2,240 lb in order for masses to be easily converted between them and stones. 
The following are the units in the British or imperial adaptation of the avoirdupois system:
Note: The plural form of stone is conventionally written the same as the singular when used after a number.

# American customary system
The thirteen British colonies in North America (not including those that formed Canada), however, adopted the French system as it was. In the United States, quarters, hundredweights, and tons remain defined as 25, 100, and 2,000 lb respectively. The quarter is now virtually unused, as is the hundredweight outside of agriculture and commodities. 
If disambiguation is required then they are referred to as the "short" units, as opposed to the British "long" units.

# Internationalization
In the avoirdupois system, all units are multiples or fractions of the pound, which is now defined as 0.45359237 kg in most of the English-speaking world since 1959. (See the Mendenhall Order for references.)
Due to the ambiguous meanings of "weight" as referring to both mass and force, it is sometimes erroneously asserted that the pound is only a unit of force. However, as defined above the pound is a unit of mass, which agrees with common usage. Also see pound-force and pound-mass.
Azoospermia
Steven C. Campbell, M.D., Ph.D.

# Overview
Azoospermia is the medical condition of a male not having any measurable level of sperm in his semen. It is associated with very low levels of fertility.
Azoospermia has two forms:
- obstructive azoospermia, where sperm are created, but cannot be mixed with the rest of the ejaculatory fluid due to a physical obstruction, and;
- non-obstructive azoospermia, where there is a problem with spermatogenesis, as in the condition of hyperprolactinemia.
- congenital azoospermia, where azoospermia is a manifestation of cystic fibrosis due to agenesis of vas deferens.
Azoospermia is a reported side effect of androgen drugs and corticosteroids because they suppress the hypothalamus release of GnRH and therefore FSH.  This causes azoospermia in males and amenorrhea in females.
Compare with aspermia.

# Differential Diagnosis
- 5-alpha reductase deficiency
- Anabolic steroid hormone abuse
- Androgen resistance syndromes
- Congenital anorchism
- Cryptorchidism
- Drugs
- Ejaculatory duct obstructive lesion
- Epididymis obstructive lesion
- Gonadotoxins
- Hemochromatosis
- Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
- Hypothyroidism
- Impaired nerve function (retrograde ejaculation)
- Mumps
- Neurologic disease
- Other bacterial infections
- Postoperative conditions (retrograde ejaculation)
- Prior urologic surgery
- Psychosexual dysfunction
- Sertoli only syndrome
- Syphilis
- Testicular Tuberculosis
- Testicular tumor
- Torsion
- Traumatic damage
- Varicocele
- Vas deferens obstructive lesion
- Vasectomy
Azygos vein

# Overview
The azygos vein is a vein running up the right side of the thoracic vertebral column.

# Structure
The azygos vein transports deoxygenated blood from the posterior walls of the thorax and abdomen into the superior vena cava vein. The anatomy of this blood vessel can be quite variable. In some rare variations for example, it also drains thoracic veins, bronchial veins and even gonadal veins. The vein is so named because it has no symmetrically equivalent vein on the left side of the body.
It is formed by the union of the ascending lumbar veins with the right subcostal veins at the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra, ascending in the posterior mediastinum, and arching over the root of the right lung to join the superior vena cava. This "arch of the azygos vein" (arcus venae azygou) is an important anatomic landmark.
Its tributaries, apart from its main tributary, the hemiazygos vein, are the bronchial veins, pericardial veins, and  posterior right intercostal veins. It communicates with the vertebral venous plexuses.

# Azygos venous system
The azygos system of veins is considered to be the azygos vein, along with its left-sided counterparts, the hemiazygos vein and the accessory hemiazygos vein.  Together, they form an anastomosis between the superior vena cava to the inferior vena cava.
It can be noted that the azygos system of veins exists because the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava are not continuous.  While the aorta travels downward (continuously) through the mediastinum, supplying blood to the intercostal spaces, the vena cava does not exist at the level of the heart.  Thus, the azygos venous system makes up for this deficiency of the venae cavae.

# Etymology
The Greek root zyg refers to a pair.  'A-' means not.  Thus, azygos means unpaired.  The azygos vein is unpaired in that there is only one in the body, mostly on the right side.  While there is the hemiazygos vein and its accessory on the left side of the body, they are considered tributaries of the azygos vein rather than its left-side equivalent.

# Additional images
- Diagram showing completion of development of the parietal veins.
- Transverse section of thorax, showing relations of pulmonary artery.
- Base and diaphragmatic surface of heart.
- The ven cav and azygos veins, with their tributaries.
- The thoracic and right lymphatic ducts.
- Mediastinal surface of right lung.
- A young patient was involved in a trauma. A supine thoracic spine film demonstrates a rounded opacity in the right mediastinum, just superior to the right main bronchus (arrow). This opacity is a distended azygous vein, and it collapses when the patient is erect (erect chest xray). The azygous vein is a normal structure which may be distended in the supine position, right heart failure, inferior vena cava obstruction, and portosystemic shunting.
B.J. Palmer
Bartlett Joshua (B.J.) Palmer (September 10, 1881-May 21, 1961) was a pioneer  of Chiropractic.

# Early life
B.J. was son of Daniel David Palmer (or "D.D."), the "Founder" of chiropractic. The Palmer family of six resided in the back of a grocery store that D.D. operated. In 1885 D.D.'s wife became sick and died, after which D.D. remarried numerous times. When D.D. had settled with a new wife, he moved the family to Letts, Iowa, and he worked as a schoolteacher and a magnetic healer, developing chiropractic. B.J. developed an interest in chiropractic, and eventually assumed control of the school that his father had founded in Davenport, Iowa. As a result of his development and promotion of the profession, he became known as the "Developer" of chiropractic.

# Life
On May 30, 1904, Palmer married Mabel Heath, and they both worked as chiropractors and instructors at Palmer College. B.J. Palmer ran his research clinics in Davenport, IA. for 16 years and eventually became convinced that upper cervical spine was the key to health. He coined the new method Hole-In-One (HIO) as known as Upper Cervical via Toggle Recoid application. Subsequently, he modified the PSC's curriculum to reflect his new ideas. Palmer advocated the use of Neurocalometer and x-ray machine.
On December 12, 1906 David Daniel Palmer was born, and would be the couple's only child. In keeping with his educational efforts for the profession, he became known as "The Educator." They had an estranged relationship for a number of years when David decide to attended University of Pennsylvania and later its Wharton School of Business.
Palmer also became involved in a number of technological advances in his region of Iowa. He owned the first automobile in the area, and he would use it when he made house calls. In 1922, Palmer purchased a local radio station, WOC (whose call letters stood for "Wonders Of Chiropractic"), and began using it to market chiropractic, as well as to broadcast farm, sports and weather reports. Ronald Reagan, future President of the United States and actor, was given his first broadcast job by Dr. Palmer to broadcast sports for WOC. A second station in Des Moines, WHO, ("With Hands Only") was purchased in 1930. Television stations were later added under the same call letters.
BATF (gene)
Basic leucine zipper transcription factor, ATF-like, also known as BATF, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the BATF gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a nuclear basic leucine zipper (bZIP) protein that belongs to the AP-1/ATF superfamily of transcription factors. The leucine zipper of this protein mediates dimerization with members of the Jun family of proteins. This protein is thought to be a negative regulator of AP-1/ATF transcriptional events.
Mice without the BATF gene (BATF knockout mice) lacked a type of inflammatory immune cell (Th17) and were resistant to conditions that normally induces an autoimmune condition similar to multiple sclerosis.

# Interactions
BATF (gene) has been shown to interact with IFI35.
Native PAGE

# Overview
Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is an electrophoretic separation method typically used in proteomics.
Native PAGE should not be confused with SDS-PAGE. SDS-PAGE uses a detergent, sodium dodecyl sulfate, to denature proteins. The primary effect is that proteins in protein complexes are separated, reducing the dependence of protein mobility on folding.
In contrast, native PAGE separations are run in non-denaturing conditions. Detergents are used only to the extent that they are necessary to lyse lipid membranes in the cell. Complexes remain--for the most part--associated and folded as they would be in the cell. One downside, however, is that complexes may not separate cleanly or predictably, since they cannot move through the polyacrylamide gel as quickly as individual, denatured proteins.
There are three popular methods of native PAGE, clear native (CN-PAGE), blue native (BN-PAGE), and quantitative preparative native continuous (QPNC-PAGE).

# Blue Native PAGE
BN-PAGE is more widely used than CN-PAGE, since the use of Coomassie blue dye enables the separations to be examined with the naked eye. The disadvantage of using dye is that in binding to proteins it causes complexes to dissociate.

# Clear Native PAGE
CN-PAGE uses no dye, which makes it difficult to examine separations of proteins. However, this method is arguably the most useful for examining protein-protein interactions, particularly in conjunction with mass spectrometry (MS).
In a typical CN-PAGE experimental procedure, the complexes will be separated with CN-PAGE. An additional separation method may then be used, such as isoelectric focusing. The gel will then be physically cut, and the protein complexes extracted from each portion separately. Each extract may then be sequenced, such as by peptide mass fingerprinting. This can provide a great deal of information about the identifies of the proteins in a complex.