Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Medical thermometer
Medical thermometers are traditionally mercury-in-glass thermometers used for measuring human body temperature, with the tip of the thermometer being inserted either into the mouth (oral temperature), under the armpit (axillary temperature), or into the rectum via the anus (rectal temperature).

# Classification, by technology
The traditional mercury-filled medical thermometer works in the same way as a meteorological maximum thermometer.  The thermometer consists of a bulb containing mercury attached to a small tube.the range of this thermometer is from 89.6.F to 109.4.F.   As the temperature rises, the mercury expands and flows up the tube.  The temperature is obtained by reading the scale inscribed on the side of the thermometer.  There is a constriction in the neck close to the bulb.  As the temperature rises, the mercury is forced up through the constriction by the force of the expansion.  When the temperature falls, the column of mercury breaks at the constriction and cannot return to the bulb, thus remaining stationary in the tube.  To reset the thermometer, it must be swung sharply.
In the 1990s, mercury thermometers were found too risky to handle and have largely been replaced with electronic thermometers, or, more rarely, thermometers based on liquids other than mercury.  In some places, it may be illegal to sell products which contain mercury, such as thermometers.  Both kinds may be used orally, axillarily, or rectally.

# Classification, by location

## Oral
Oral temperature may only be taken from a patient who is capable of holding the thermometer in their mouth correctly and securely, which generally excludes small children or people who are overcome by coughing, weak, or vomiting.  (This is less of a problem with fast-reacting digital thermometers, but was certainly an issue with mercury thermometers, which took several minutes to register a temperature.)  Another counter-indication is if the patient has drunk a hot or cold liquid beforehand, in which case one has to wait or use another method.

## Rectal
Rectal temperature-taking, especially if performed by a person other than the patient, should be facilitated with the use of lubricant (such as petroleum jelly (now discouraged) or a water-based personal lubricant).  Although rectal temperature is the most accurate, this method may be considered embarrassing in some countries or cultures, especially if used on patients older than young children; and, if not taken the correct way, a rectal temperature-taking can be uncomfortable and in some cases painful for the patient. Rectal temperature-taking is considered the method of choice for infants for the general public; however, the rectal route is least desirable in infants from a nursing point of view.

## Ear and forehead
Other kinds of medical thermometers exist, such as the tympanic thermometer that measures the temperature of the tympanum by infrared measurement, and the band thermometer that is applied to the patient's brow.
de:Fieberthermometer
nl:Koortsthermometer
-  Fundamentals of Nursing by Barbara Kozier et al,  7th edition, p. 495
Membrane oxygenator
A membrane oxygenator is a device used to add oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from the blood. It can be used in two principal modes: to imitate the function of the lungs in cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), and to oxygenate blood in longer term life support, termed Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, ECMO.  A membrane oxygenator consists of a thin gas permeable membrane separating the blood and gas flows in the CPB circuit; oxygen diffuses from the gas side into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the gas for disposal.

# History
The history of the oxygenator, or artificial lung, dates back to 1885, with the first demonstration of a disc oxygenator, on which blood was exposed to the atmosphere on rotating discs by Von Frey and Gruber .  These pioneers noted the dangers of blood streaming, foaming and clotting. In the 1920s and 30s, research into developing extracorporeal oxygenation continued.  Working independently, Brukhonenko in the USSR and John Heysham Gibbon in the USA demonstrated the feasibility of extracorporeal oxygenation.  Brukhonenko used excised dog lungs while Gibbon used a direct contact drum type oxygenator, perfusing cats for up to 25 minutes in the 1930s .
Gibbons pioneering work was rewarded in May 1953 with the first successful cardiopulmonary bypass operation .  The oxygenator was of the stationary film type, in which oxygen was exposed to a film of blood as it flowed over a series of stainless steel plates.
The disadvantages of direct contact between the blood and air were well recognised, and the less traumatic membrane oxygenator was developed to overcome these.  The first membrane artificial lung was demonstrated in 1955 by the group led by Willem Kolff, and in 1956 the first disposable membrane oxygenator removed the need for time consuming cleaning before re-use . No patent was filed as Kolff believed that doctors should make technology available to all, without mind to profit .
The early artificial lungs used relatively impermeable polyethylene or Teflon homogeneous membranes, and it was not until more highly permeable silicone rubber membranes were introduced in the 1960s (and as hollow fibres in 1971) that the membrane oxygenator became commercially successful . The introduction of microporous hollow fibres with very low resistance to mass transfer revolutionised  design of membrane modules, as the limiting factor to oxygenator performance became the blood resistance . Current designs of oxygenator typically use an extraluminal flow regime, where the blood flows outside the gas filled hollow fibres, for short term life support, while only the homogeneous membranes are approved for long term use.
Meningitis overview

# Overview
Meningitis is the inflammation of the protective membranes covering the central nervous system, known collectively as the meninges (the leptomeninges and underlying subarachnoid cerebrospinal fluid). Meningitis may develop in response to a number of causes, including infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other organisms), physical injury, cancer, or certain drugs. While some forms of meningitis are mild and resolve on their own, meningitis is a potentially serious condition owing to the proximity of the inflammation to the brain and spinal cord. The potential for serious neurologic damage or even death necessitates prompt medical attention and evaluation. Infectious meningitis, the most common form, is typically treated with antibiotics and close observation.      

# Causes
Most cases of meningitis are caused by microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites, that spread into the blood and into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).  Non-infectious causes include cancers, systemic lupus erythematosus and certain drugs.  The most common cause of meningitis is viral, and often runs its course within a few days. Bacterial meningitis is the second most frequent type and can be serious and life-threatening. Numerous microorganisms may cause bacterial meningitis, but Neisseria meningitidis ("meningococcus") and Streptococcus pneumoniae ("pneumococcus") are the most common pathogens in patients without immune deficiency, with meningococcal disease being more common in children. Staphylococcus aureus may complicate neurosurgical operations, and Listeria monocytogenes is associated with poor nutritional state and alcoholicism. Haemophilus influenzae (type B) incidence has been much reduced by immunization in many countries. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (the causative agent of tuberculosis) rarely causes meningitis in Western countries but is common and feared in countries where tuberculosis is endemic.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
From its recognition in 1805 until the early 20th century, bacterial meningitis was virtually uniformly fatal.  Until recent years, up to 50% of patients who survived the acute infection would be left with permanent sequelae such as mental retardation and hearing loss. Over the past several years, there has been a striking shift in the demography of meningitis.
Metastasis overview

# Overview
Metastasis (Greek: displacement, =next + =placement, plural: metastases), sometimes abbreviated mets, is the spread of a disease from one organ or part to another non-adjacent organ or part. Only malignant tumor cells and infections have the capacity to metastasize.
Cancer cells can "break away", "leak", or "spill" from a primary tumor, enter lymphatic and blood vessels, circulate through the bloodstream, and settle down to grow within normal tissues elsewhere in the body. Metastasis is one of three hallmarks of malignancy (contrast benign tumors). Most tumors and other neoplasms can metastasize, although in varying degrees, barring a few exceptions (e.g., Glioma and Basal cell carcinoma never metastasize).
When tumor cells metastasize, the new tumor is called a secondary or metastatic tumor, and its cells are like those in the original tumor. This means, for example, that, if breast cancer spreads (metastasizes) to the lung, the secondary tumor is made up of abnormal breast cells, not of abnormal lung cells. The tumor in the lung is then called metastatic breast cancer, not lung cancer.
Methylene Dianiline

# Overview
4,4'-Methylenedianiline (MDA) is a suspected carcinogen.
It is included in the "substances of very high concern" list of the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA).  The compound was involved in an accidental mass poisoning in the vicinity of Epping, Essex, United Kingdom during 1965 during which 84 individuals were poisoned through accidental contamination of flour used to make bread.

# Synthesis
In the industrial production, MDA is synthesised by reaction of formaldehyde and aniline in the presence of hydrochloric acid.

# Uses
MDA is used primarily for making polyurethane foams in which case it is first reacted with phosgene to create 4,4 -methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) prior to polymerization with a polyol. Lower quantities are used as hardeners in epoxy resins and adhesives, as well as in the production of high-performance polymers.
Microscopic colitis
Synonyms and keywords:

# Overview
Microscopic colitis refers to two medical conditions which cause diarrhoea: collagenous colitis and lymphocytic colitis. Both conditions are characterised by the following triad of clinicopathological features:
- Chronic watery diarrhoea;
- Normal colonoscopy;
- Characteristic histopathology.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology
The hallmark of microscopic colitis is an increase in inflammatory cells (i.e. lymphocytes) in colonic biopsies with an otherwise normal appearance and architecture of the colon. Inflammatory cells are increased both in the surface epithelium ("intraepithelial lymphocytes") and in the lamina propria. In lymphocytic colitis, these are the only abnormal features.
In collagenous colitis, the features of lymphocytic colitis are present, with in addition the presence of a thickened subepithelial collagen layer which may be up to 30 micrometres thick.
Microscopic colitis in some cases may be an adverse reaction to drugs or an autoimmune disorder.

# Causes

# Differentiating Microscopic Colitis from other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

## Age
Patients are characteristically middle-aged.

## Gender
Patients are characteristically, though not exclusively female.

## Race

# Risk Factors

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
The prognosis for lymphocytic colitis and collagenous colitis is good and both conditions are considered to be benign.  The majority of people afflicited with the conditions recover from their diarrhoea and their histological abnormalities resolve.

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria

## Symptoms

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies
Colonoscopy is normal or near normal. The changes are often patchy, so multiple colonic biopsies must be taken in order to make the diagnosis. A full colonoscopy is required, as an examination limited to the rectum will miss cases of microscopic colitis.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
No single treatment is accepted as the standard and measuring response is difficult. Often a trial of anti-diarrhoeals is followed by anti-inflammatory drugs.
Lymphocytic colitis is thought to respond well to mesalazine and collagenous colitis to budesonide.

## Surgery

## Prevention
Middle colic artery
The middle colic artery is a branch of the superior mesenteric artery that mostly supplies the transverse colon.  It arises just below the pancreas, and, passing downward and forward between the layers of the transverse mesocolon, divides into two branches: right and left.
- The right branch anastomoses with the right colic artery
- The left branch anastomoses with the left colic artery, a branch of the inferior mesenteric artery.
The arches thus formed are placed about two fingers breadth from the transverse colon, to which they distribute branches.
Monomorphic adenoma
The term monomorphic adenoma refers to a group of rare salivary tumors that includes the basal cell, canalicular, sebaceous, glycogen-rich and clear cell adenoma.  Of these, the basal cell adenoma is the most common.  It constitutes 1.8% of benign epithelial salivary gland tumors and typically occurs in the 6th decade of life.  There are conflicting reports of gender predilection for this tumor but it does seem to occur more frequently among Caucasians than African Americans.  The majority of basal cell adenomas occur in the parotid gland where they present as a slowly enlarging firm mass.  They are well-encapsulated, smooth tumors on gross inspection and are divided into four subtypes based on their microscopic appearancesolid, trabecular, tubular and membranous.

# Epidemiology
The presentation of canalicular adenoma peaks in the 7th decade of life and, like the basal cell adenoma, is more common in whites than blacks.  There is a female predominance with a female-to-male ratio of occurrence of 1.8-1.

# Signs
This tumor most commonly involves the minor salivary glands of the upper lip (74%) or buccal mucosal (12%).

# Symptoms
Clinically it presents as a nonpainful submucosal nodule.  On gross pathologic examination, canalicular adenomas may or may not possess a capsule and it is not unusual for there to be multifocal growth.  Microscopically there are cords of single-layer columnar or cuboidal cells forming duct-like structures in a background of fibrous stroma (1,2,3,4).

# Treatment
The majority of monomorphic adenomas display nonaggressive behavior and are adequately treated with surgical excision.
Munchausen syndrome

# Overview
Munchausen syndrome is a psychiatric disorder in which those affected feign disease, illness, or psychological trauma in order to draw attention or sympathy to themselves. It is in a class of disorders known as factitious disorders which involve "illnesses" whose symptoms are either self-induced or falsified by the patient. It is also sometimes known as hospital addiction syndrome.

# Munchausen syndrome
In Munchausen syndrome, the affected person exaggerates or creates symptoms of illnesses in themselves in order to gain investigation, treatment, attention, sympathy, and comfort from medical personnel. In some extremes, people suffering from Munchausen's Syndrome are highly knowledgeable about the practice of medicine, and are able to produce symptoms that result in multiple unnecessary operations. For example, they may inject a vein with infected material, causing widespread infection of unknown origin, and as a result cause lengthy and costly medical analyses and prolonged hospital stay. The role of "patient" is a familiar and comforting one, and it fills a psychological need in people with Munchausen's. It is distinct from hypochondria in that patients with Munchausen syndrome are aware that they are exaggerating, while sufferers of hypochondria actually believe they have a disease.

# Origin of the name
The name derives from Baron Munchhausen (Karl Friedrich Hieronymus Freiherr von Munchhausen, 1720 - 1797), to whom were ascribed a series of fantastically impossible tales written by Rudolf Raspe.
In 1950, Sir Richard Asher (father of Jane Asher and Peter Asher) was the first to describe a pattern of self-harm, where individuals fabricated histories, signs, and symptoms of illness.  Remembering Baron Munchausen, Asher named this condition Munchausen's Syndrome. Originally, this term was used for all factitious disorders. Now, however, there is considered to be a wide range of factitious disorders, and the diagnosis of "Munchausen syndrome" is reserved for the most severe form, where the simulation of disease is the central activity of the affected person's life.

# Comparison to Fabricated or Induced Illness (FII)
Fabricated or Induced Illness (FII) is the formal name of a type of abuse in which a caregiver feigns or induces an illness in a person under their care, in order to attract attention, sympathy, or to fill other emotional needs. It has been informally known as Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy (MSbP), due to its similarity to Munchausen syndrome, in which a person feigns or induces illness in themselves for similar emotional reasons.  The syndrome was proposed in 1977 by the pediatrician Roy Meadow, and gained recognition from the Royal College Of Paediatrics and Child Health in 2002.  Nevertheless, not all medical organizations agree on the nature and extent of the syndrome; whether it actually exists and the rate of prevalence if it does is a matter of dispute.
Mutational meltdown
Mutational meltdown refers to the process by which a small population accumulates deleterious mutations, which leads to loss of fitness and decline of the population size, which may lead to further accumulation of deleterious mutations due to inbreeding depression. A population experiencing mutational meltdown is trapped in a downward spiral and will go extinct if the phenomenon lasts for some time. Usually, the deleterious mutations would simply be selected away, but during mutational meltdown, the number of individuals thus suffering an early death is too large relative to overall population size so that mortality exceeds the birth rate.

# Further reading
- W. Gabriel, M. Lynch, and R. Burger (1993). Muller's Ratchet and mutational meltdowns. Evolution 47:1744-1757.
- M. Lynch, R. Burger, D. Butcher, and W. Gabriel (1993). The mutational meltdown in asexual populations. J. Hered. 84:339-344.
- M. Lynch and W. Gabriel (1990). Mutation load and the survival of small populations. Evolution 44:1725-1737.
- M. Lynch, J. Conery, and R. Burger (1995) Mutational meltdowns in sexual populations. Evolution 49:1067-1080.
Mycobacterium alvei
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Mycobacterium alvei

# Description
Gram-positive, nonmotile and acid-fast rods (1-3m x 0.5-0.7m).
Colony characteristics
- Colonies are eugonic, rough and nonpigmented.
Physiology
- Colonies occur within 5 days at 30C (optimum temperature, no growth at 45C) on Lowenstein-Jensen medium and on Middlebrook 7H10 agar.
- The type strain is resistant to D-cycloserine, streptomycin, isoniazid, rifampin, and thiacetazone
- The type strain is susceptible to kanamycin, capreomycin and high levels of isoniazid.
Differential characteristics
- Differentiation from all other mycobacterial species by its unusual mycolate pattern.

# Pathogenesis
- Not associated with disease.
- Biosafety level 1

# Type Strain
First isolated from water samples, from soil and human sputum samples in Spain.
Strain CR-21 = ATCC 51304 = CIP 103464 = DSM 44176 = JCM 12272.
Mycobacterium aurum
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Mycobacterium aurum
Type strain: strain ATCC 23366 = CCUG 37666 = CIP 104465 = DSM 43999 = HAMBI 2275 = JCM 6366 = LMG 19255 = NCTC 10437 = NRRL B-4037.
Myocardial disarray

# Overview
Myocardial disarray, also known as myocyte disarray, is a term to describe the loss of the normal parallel alignment of myocytes (the muscle cells of the heart).  Instead, the myocytes usually form circles around foci of connective tissue.  Myocardial disarray is associated with myocardial fibrosis (the replacement of the myocytes with non-contractile scar tissue).
Myocardial disarray can be seen in a number of disease states, including:
- Aortic stenosis
- Congenital heart disease
- Hypertensive heart disease
- Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
The common factor amongst all these diseases is that they all cause varying degrees of remodelling (myocardial fibrosis) of the ventricles.
Myositis ossificans
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# Overview
Myositis ossificans comprises two syndromes characterized by heterotopic ossification (calcification) of muscle.

# Classification
- In the first, and by far most common type, nonhereditary myositis ossificans (commonly referred to simply as "myositis ossificans", as in the remainder of this article), calcifications occur at the site of injured muscle, most commonly in the arms or in the quadriceps of the thighs.
- The second condition, myositis ossificans progressiva (also referred to as fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva) is an inherited affliction, autosomal dominant pattern, in which the ossification can occur without injury, and typically grows in a predictable pattern.

# Diagnosis
Myositis ossificans usually presents with pain, tenderness, focal swelling, and joint muscle reduction, in the aftermath of a painful muscle contusion which resolved more slowly than expected, if at all.
The condition rarely is asymptomatic, and may sometimes be diagnosed from radiographs obtained for unrelated problems.
Most (ie, 80%) ossifications arise in the thigh or arm, and are predisposed to by a too-early return to activity after an injury. Other sites include intercostal spaces, erector spinae, pectoralis muscles, glutei, and the chest. Hazy densities are sometimes noted one month after injury, while the denser opacities eventually seen may not be apparent until two months have passed.

# Treatment
Treatment is initially conservative, as some patients' calcifications will spontaneously be reabsorbed, and others will have minimal symptoms. In occasional cases, surgical debridement of the abnormal tissue is required, although success of such therapy is limited.