Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Heavy chain disease

# Overview
Heavy chain disease is a form of paraproteinemia with a proliferation of heavy chains.
This disease is characterized by an excessive production of immunoglobulin heavy chains that are short and truncated. The amino acid sequence on the amino terminal is completely normal, but there is a deletion in the protein structure that extends from the middle of the variable region, through the first domain of the constant region, and ending just before the position of the first disulfide bond between the two heavy chains. This deletion causes the heavy chains to lose the ability to form disulfide bonds with the light chains. The defect in the immunoglobulins arises during the faulty coupling of the variable and constant regions during somatic recombination.

# Classification
There are three forms:
- alpha chain disease
- gamma chain disease
- mu chain disease

### IgA/HCD
The most common type of heavy chain disease is the IgA type, known as HCD. This is because the most common immunoglobulin in the body is IgA. The most common type of HCD is the digestive form, however it has also been reported in the respiratory tract, and other areas of the body.

### IgG/HCD
IgM and IgG heavy chain diseases, which are known as HCD and HCD respectively, are fairly common and are present in various tissues.
The HCD can be divided into three categories based on the various clinical and pathological features. These categories are disseminated lymphoproliferative disease, localized proliferative disease and no apparent proliferative disease.
- Disseminated lymphoproliferative disease is found in 57-66% of patients diagnosed with HCD. Lymphadenopathy and constitutional symptoms are the usual features.
- Localized proliferative disease is found in approximately 25% of HCD patients. This is characterized by a localization of the mutated heavy chains in extramedullary tissue, or solely in the bone marrow.
- No apparent proliferative disease is seen in 9-17% of patients with HCD, and there is almost always an underlying autoimmune disorder in these patients.

### IgM/HCD
The IgM type of heavy chain disease, HCD, is often misdiagnosed as chronic lymphoid leukemia (CLL) because the two diseases are often associated with each other and show similar symptoms.
Alprazolam overdose

# Overdosage topics
Manifestations
Treatment
Flumazenil

## Manifestations
Manifestations of Alprazolam overdosage include somnolence, confusion, impaired coordination, diminished reflexes and coma. Death has been reported in association with overdoses of Alprazolam by itself, as it has with other benzodiazepines. In addition, fatalities have been reported in patients who have overdosed with a combination of a single benzodiazepine, including Alprazolam, and alcohol; alcohol levels seen in some of these patients have been lower than those usually associated with alcohol-induced fatality. Return to top

## Treatment
Overdosage reports with Alprazolam tablets are limited. As in all cases of drug overdosage, respiration, pulse rate, and blood pressure should be monitored. General supportive measures should be employed, along with immediate gastric lavage. Intravenous fluids should be administered and an adequate airway maintained. If hypotension occurs, it may be combated by the use of vasopressors. Dialysis is of limited value. As with the management of intentional overdosing with any drug, it should be borne in mind that multiple agents may have been ingested. Return to top

## Flumazenil
Flumazenil, a specific benzodiazepine receptor antagonist, is indicated for the complete or partial reversal of the sedative effects of benzodiazepines and may be used in situations when an overdose with a benzodiazepine is known or suspected. Prior to the administration of flumazenil, necessary measures should be instituted to secure airway, ventilation, and intravenous access. Flumazenil is intended as an adjunct to, not as a substitute for, proper management of benzodiazepine overdose. Patients treated with flumazenil should be monitored for re-sedation, respiratory depression, and other residual benzodiazepine effects for an appropriate period after treatment. The prescriber should be aware of a risk of seizure in association with flumazenil treatment, particularly in long-term benzodiazepine users and in cyclic antidepressant overdose. Return to top
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
Alternative oxidase

# Overview
The alternative oxidase is an enzyme that forms part of the electron transport chain in plants, as well as some fungi, protists and possibly some animals. Sequences similar to the plant oxidase have also been identified in bacterial genomes.
The oxidase provides an alternative route for electrons passing through the electron transport chain to reduce oxygen. However, as several proton-pumping steps are bypassed in this alternative pathway, activation of the oxidase reduces ATP generation. This enzyme was first identified as a distinct oxidase pathway from cytochrome c oxidase as the alternative oxidase is resistant to inhibition by the poison cyanide.

# Function
This metabolic pathway leading to the alternative oxidase diverges from the cytochrome-linked electron transport chain at the ubiquinone pool. Alternative pathway respiration only produces proton translocation at Complex 1 (NADH dehydrogenase) and so has a lower ATP yield than the full pathway. The expression of the alternative oxidase gene AOX is influenced by stresses such as cold, reactive oxygen species and infection by pathogens, as well as other factors that reduce electron flow through the cytochrome pathway of respiration. Although the benefit conferred by this activity remains uncertain, it may enhance an organisms' ability to resist these stresses, through reducing the level of oxidative stress.
Unusually, the bloodstream form of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, which is the cause of sleeping sickness, depends entirely on the alternative oxidase pathway for cellular respiration through its electron transport chain. This major metabolic difference between the parasite and its human host has made the T. brucei alternative oxidase an attractive target for drug design. Of the known inhibitors of alternative oxidases, the antibiotic ascofuranone inhibits the T. brucei enzyme and cures infection in mice.
In fungi, the ability of the alternative oxidase to bypass inhibition of parts of the electron transport chain can contribute to fungicide resistance. This is seen in the strobilurin fungicides that target complex III, such as azoxystrobin, picoxystrobin and fluoxastrobin. However, as the alternative pathway generates less ATP, these fungicides are still effective in preventing spore germination, as this is an energy-intensive process.

# Structure and mechanism
The alternative oxidase is a integral membrane protein that is tightly bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane. The enzyme has been predicted to contain a coupled diiron center on the basis of a conserved sequence motif consisting of the proposed iron ligands, four glutamine and two histidine amino acid residues. The electron spin resonance study of Arabidopsis thaliana alternative oxidase AOX1a showed that the enzyme contains a hydroxo-bridged mixed-valent Fe(II)/Fe(III) binuclear iron center. A catalytic cycle has been proposed that involves this di-iron center and at least one transient protein-derived free radical, which is probably formed on an invariant tyrosine residue.
America's Charities
America's Charities is a membership-based federation of approximately 180 charities participating in workplace giving campaign in the United States administered through the federal government, state and local government, and private sector corporations. It is based in Chantilly, Virginia.
Historically, most workplace giving campaigns in the United States were managed by a different group of charitable federations which shared the United Way name.
Since 1980, America's Charities has represented such charities as Make-A-Wish Foundation of America, NAACP Special Contributions Fund, Ronald McDonald House Charities, and The Humane Society of the United States in workplace giving campaigns.
In 2004, the United Way of the National Capital Area suspended America's Charities from that fall's United Way campaign, stating that America's Charities was "competing with the United Way".
Ammonia (data page)
This page provides supplementary chemical data on ammonia.

# Structure and properties

# Thermodynamic properties

# Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Data
Table data (above) obtained from CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th ed. The (s) notation indicates equilibrium temperature of vapor over solid. Otherwise temperature is equilibrium of vapor over liquid.
Vapor pressure formula for ammonia:
where P is pressure in kPa and T is temperature in kelvins

# Heat capacity of liquid and vapor

# Spectral data

# Regulatory data

# Material Safety Data Sheet
The handling of this chemical may incur notable safety precautions. It is highly recommend that you seek the Material Safety Datasheet (MSDS) for this chemical from a reliable source  such as SIRI, and follow its directions.
Amyloid arthropathy

# Overview
Amyloidosis is defined as the extracellular deposition of the fibrous protein amyloid in one or more sites in the body. Amyloid protein is not filtered by standard dialysis membranes and tends to accumulate within the musculoskeletal system; therefore, amyloid arthropathy is seen in patients undergoing long-term hemodialysis. Amyloid arthropathy may involve the axial skeleton, especially the cervical spine, or the peripheral skeleton. Patients can also develop carpal tunnel syndrome and osteolytic bone lesions (amyloidomas). Shoulder pain and carpal tunnel syndrome are the most common clinical manifestations. Symptoms are commonly bilateral.

# Diagnosis
The imaging findings are
- In the glenohumeral joint and other large joints, amyloid arthropathy resembles inflammatory arthritis with juxtaarticular soft-tissue swelling, mild periarticular osteoporosis, and subchondral cystic lesions, usually with well-defined sclerotic margins.
- Usually, the joint space is normal in width until late in the course of the disease.
- Patients with amyloidomas of bone or with large subchondral lesions have a high prevalence of pathologic fractures.
- The MR imaging appearance of amyloid infiltration within or around the joint consists of extensive deposition of an abnormal soft tissue that has low or intermediate signal intensity on T1-weighted images and low to intermediate signal intensity on T2-weighted images.
- This abnormal material covers the synovial membrane, fills subchondral defects, and extends to periarticular soft tissue.
- Joint effusion is usually present.
CT images demonstrate amyloid arthropathy
Ancillary statistic

# Overview
In statistics, an ancillary statistic is a statistic whose probability distribution does not depend on which of the probability distributions among those being considered is the distribution of the statistical population from which the data were taken.  This concept was introduced by the great statistical geneticist Sir Ronald Fisher.

# Example
Suppose X1, ..., Xn are independent and identically distributed, and are normally distributed with expected value  and variance 1.  Let
be the sample mean.
The following statistical measures of dispersion of the sample
- Range: max(X1, ..., Xn)  min(X1, ..., Xn)
- Interquartile range: Q3  Q1
- Sample variance:
are all ancillary statistics, because their probability distributions do not change as  changes.

# Ancillary complement example
In baseball, suppose a scout observes a batter in N at-bats.  Suppose (unrealistically) that the number N is chosen by some random process that is independent of the batter's ability -- say a coin is tossed after each at-bat and the result determines whether the scout will stay to watch the batter's next at-bat.  The eventual data are the number N of at-bats and the number X of hits.   The observed batting average X/N fails to convey all of the information available in the data because it fails to report the number N of at-bats (e.g., a batting average of 0.400, which is very high, based on only five at-bats does not inspire anywhere near as much confidence in the player's ability than a 0.400 average based on 100 at-bats).  The number N of at-bats is an ancillary statistic because
- It is a part of the observable data (it is a statistic), and
- Its probability distribution does not depend on the batter's ability, since it was chosen by a random process independent of the batter's ability.
This ancillary statistic is an ancillary complement to the observed batting average X/N, i.e., the batting average X/N is not a sufficient statistic, in that it conveys less than all of the relevant information in the data, but conjoined with N, it becomes sufficient.
Dihydrotestosterone

# Overview
Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (Full name: 5-Dihydrotestosterone, abbreviating to 5-DHT; INN: androstanolone) is a biologically active metabolite of the hormone testosterone, formed primarily in the prostate gland, testes, hair follicles, and adrenal glands by the enzyme 5-reductase by means of reducing the 4,5 double-bond. Dihydrotestosterone belongs to the class of compounds called androgens, also commonly called androgenic hormones or testoids. Androgens are part of the biology of gender by stimulating and controlling the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics. DHT is thought to be approximately 30 times more potent than testosterone because of increased affinity for the androgen receptor.

# Significance
DHT is produced by males in utero and is responsible for the formation of male gender specific characteristics. DHT is also an important contributor to other characteristics generally attributed to males, including facial and body hair growth, and deepening of the voice. DHT has been shown to be deactivated in skeletal muscle through the actions of 3-alpha hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and therefore does not have a significant effect on muscle hypertrophy.

# Pathology
It is suspected that DHT is the primary contributing factor in most cases of male-pattern baldness. Women with increased levels of DHT may develop certain androgynous male secondary sex characteristics, including a deepened voice and facial hair. DHT also seems to play a role in the development or exacerbation of benign prostatic hyperplasia, or BPH, and prostate cancer, though the exact reason for this is not known.
DHT is also known to participate in the development of acne.

# Treatment
The drugs belonging to the group known as 5-reductase inhibitors are used for treatment of problems stemming from DHT. This group includes finasteride (sold under the names Proscar for BPH and Propecia for androgenic alopecia as well as in generic formulation) and dutasteride (sold under the name Avodart). Currently, DHT supplementation is not used as a treatment for DHT/androgen deficiency.
Alternative treatments used to inhibit DHT include dietary supplementation with, or topically administered preparations of, saw palmetto berry extractives. Unlike most known 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors, saw palmetto induces its effects without interfering with the cellular capacity to secrete PSA. 
Saw palmetto extract has been demonstrated to inhibit both isoforms of 5-alpha-reductase unlike finasteride which only inhibits the (predominant) type 2 isoenzyme of 5-alpha-reductase.
The chemical equol, derived by consuming foods rich in soy isoflavones by persons with certain digestive-tract bacterial flora, appears to have an androgen-inhibitive effect.
Green tea, in many studies, has been found a potent DHT inhibitor. However, in one trial using mice, both the testosterone and DHT levels increased. However, if the isoflavones in soy are also ingested, the green tea has a synergetic decreasing effect on DHT.
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Antagonist (muscle)

# Overview
An antagonist is a kind of muscle that acts in opposition to the movement generated by the agonist and is responsible for returning a limb to its initial position.

### Antagonistic pairs
Antagonistic muscles are found in pairs called antagonistic pairs. These consist of an extensor muscle, which "opens" the joint (i.e. increasing the angle between the two bones), and a flexor muscle, which does the opposite to an extensor muscle.
Antagonistic pairs are needed in the body because muscles can only exert a pulling force, and can't push themselves back into their original positions. An example of this kind of muscle pairing is the biceps and triceps.
When the biceps are contracting, the triceps are relaxed, and are able to be stretched back to its original position. This is the opposite when the triceps are contracting.

# Lombard's Paradox
When you stand up from a sitting position, both the hamstrings and quadriceps contract at the same time.
The Rectus Femoris biarticular muscle acting over the hip, when compared to the hamstrings has a smaller hip movement arm.  But, the rectus femoris movement arm is greater over the knee, than the hamstring's knee movement.  This means that contraction from both rectus femoris and hamstrings will result in hip extension, and knee extension.  Hip extension will also add a passive stretch component to the Rectus Femoris, and will result in a knee extension force.  This "paradox" allows for efficient movement especially during gait.
Anterior commissure

# Overview
The Anterior Commissure (precommissure) is a bundle of white fibers, connecting the two cerebral hemispheres across the middle line, and placed in front of the columns of the fornix.
On a sagittal section, it is oval in shape, having a long vertical diameter that measures about 5 mm.
In 1991 brain studies performed by Laura Allen and Roger Gorsky of UCLA noted that the Anterior Commissure was found to be 1/3 larger in men with a homosexual orientation.

# Connections
Its fibers can be traced laterally and backwards on either side beneath the corpus striatum into the substance of the temporal lobe.
It serves in this way to connect the two temporal lobes, but it also contains decussating fibers from the olfactory tracts, and is a part of the neospinothalamic tract for pain.
Aortic valve repair

# Overview
Aortic valve repair is a surgical procedure used to correct some aortic valve disorders. It is an alternative to aortic valve replacement. Aortic valve repair is performed less often and is more technically difficult than mitral valve repair.
There are two surgical techniques tor repair an aortic valve:
- The Remodeling Technique, established by Sir Magdi Yacoub and
- The Reimplantation Technique, established by Tirone David.

# 2008 and Incorporated 2006 ACC/AHA Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Valvular Heart Disease (DO NOT EDIT) 

## Aortic Valve Selection (DO NOT EDIT) 

## Intraoperative Assessment (DO NOT EDIT) 

# Sources
- 2008 Focused Update Incorporated Into the ACC/AHA 2006 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Valvular Heart Disease
Apocynum cannabinum
Apocynum cannabinum (Dogbane, Amy Root, Hemp Dogbane, Indian hemp, Rheumatism Root, or Wild Cotton) is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows throughout much of North America, in the southern half of Canada and throughout the United States. It grows up to 2 meters tall. It prefers moist places. It is a poisonous plant; the name means "poisonous to dogs". All parts of the plant are poisonous and can cause cardiac arrest if ingested.
The stems are reddish and contain a milky latex capable of causing skin blisters. The leaves are opposite, simple broad lanceolate, 7-15 cm long and 3-5 cm broad, entire, and smooth on top with white hairs on the underside. The flowers are produced in mid summer, with large sepals, and a five-lobed white corolla.
It grows in open wooded areas, ditches, and hillsides; in gardens it can be invasive, growing from spreading roots.  When growing among corn, Apocynum cannabinum can reduce yields by up to 10% and when growing among soybeans, by up to 40%.  It can be controlled through mechanical means, although it is difficult to control with herbicides.

# Uses
Indian hemp was used as a source of fiber by Native Americans, to make hunting nets, fishing lines, clothing, and twine. It was also used in herbal medicine to treat syphilis, rheumatism, intestinal worms, fever, asthma, and dysentery. Although the toxins from the plant can cause nausea and catharsis, it has also been used for slowing the pulse.
Applied probability
Much research involving probability is done under the auspices of applied probability, the application of probability theory to other scientific and engineering domains.  However, while such research is motivated (to some degree) by applied problems, it is usually the mathematical aspects of the problems that are of most interest to researchers (as is typical of applied mathematics in general).
Applied probabilists are particularly concerned with the application of stochastic processes, and probability more generally, to the natural, applied and social sciences, including biology, physics (including astronomy), chemistry, computer science and information technology, and economics.
Another area of interest is in engineering, particularly in areas of uncertainty, or risks.
Aquatic respiration
Aquatic respiration is the process whereby an aquatic animal obtains oxygen from water.
Earth's natural bodies of water have a low oxygen concentration--much lower than the level of oxygen in air at the earth's surface. Smaller organisms can obtain sufficient oxygen through the skin (e.g. flatworms), but larger organisms require special structures to collect enough oxygen to sustain life.
Fish have developed gills for respiration which have:
- large surface area
- high blood flow
- small/short diffusion distances
- contain four gill arches (bony fishes)or two gill arches (cartilaginous fish) on each side of the fish's head
- each gill arch has 2 rows (hemibranchs) of gill filaments
- each gill filament has many lamellae
The operculum in fish is a long bony cover for the gill that can be used for pushing water.  Some fishes pump water using the operculum.  Without an operculum, other methods are required, such as ventilation. Some species of sharks use this system.  When they swim, water flows into the mouth and across the gills.  Because these sharks rely on this technique, they must keep swimming in order to respire.
Bony fish use a type of countercurrent flow to maximize the intake of oxygen that diffuse through the gill.  Countercurrent flow is when deoxygenated blood moves through gill in one direction while oxygenated water moves in the gill in the opposite direction. This mechanism maintains the concentration gradient and increasing the efficiency of the respiration process as well. Cartilaginous fish do not have a countercurrent flow system as they lack bones which are needed to have the opened out gill that a bony fishes have.
This oxygen comes from molecules of oxygen gas (O2) dissolved in the water. The oxygen atom present in the water molecule (H2O) is not suitable for respiration.
Arkangel (magazine)
Arkangel is a British-based bi-annual animal liberation magazine, first published in the winter of 1989. The magazine covers global aspects of animal rights and promotes a vegan lifestyle, which includes the use of  cruelty-free products.
The magazine was founded by Ronnie Lee, the founder of the Animal Liberation Front. 

# Notes
-  "Ronnie Lee Fighting Talk: an interview with Arkangel", Arkangel, issue 25.

# Further reading
- Website of Arkangel.
Articular processes

# Overview
The articular processes (zygapophyses) of a vertebra, two superior and two inferior, spring from the junctions of the pedicles and lamin.
- The superior processes project upward from a lower vertebra, and their articular surfaces are directed more or less backward.
- The inferior processes project downward from a higher vertebra, and their articular surfaces are directed more or less forward and outward.
The articular surfaces are coated with hyaline cartilage.