Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Foscarnet microbiology

# Microbiology

## Antiviral Activity in vitro and in vivo
The quantitative relationship between the in vitro susceptibility of human cytomegalovirus (CMV) or herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) to FOSCAVIR and clinical response to therapy has not been established and virus sensitivity testing has not been standardized. Sensitivity test results, expressed as the concentration of drug required to inhibit by 50% the growth of virus in cell culture (IC50), vary greatly depending on the assay method used, cell type employed and the laboratory performing the test. A number of sensitive viruses and their IC50 values are listed below (Table 1).
Statistically significant decreases in positive CMV cultures from blood and urine have been demonstrated in two studies (FOS-03 and ACTG-015/915) of patients treated with FOSCAVIR. Although median time to progression of CMV retinitis was increased in patients treated with FOSCAVIR, reductions in positive blood or urine cultures have not been shown to correlate with clinical efficacy in individual patients.

## Resistance
Strains of both HSV and CMV that are resistant to FOSCAVIR can be readily selected in vitro by passage of wild type virus in the presence of increasing concentrations of the drug. All FOSCAVIR resistant mutants are known to be generated through mutation in the viral DNA polymerase gene. CMV strains with double mutations conferring resistance to both FOSCAVIR and ganciclovir have been isolated from patients with AIDS. The possibility of viral resistance should be considered in patients who show poor clinical response or experience persistent viral excretion during therapy.
Frequency (statistics)
In statistics the frequency of an event i is the number ni of times the event occurred in the experiment or the study. These frequencies are often graphically represented in histograms.
We speak of absolute frequencies, when the counts ni themselves are given and of (relative) frequencies, when those are normalized by the total number of events:
 f_i = \frac{n_i}{N} = \frac{n_i}{\sum_i n_i} 
Taking the fi for all i and tabulating or plotting them leads to a frequency distribution.
The relative frequency density of occurrence of an event is the relative frequency of i divided by the size of the bin used to classify i.
For example: If the lower extreme of the class you are measuring the density of is 15 and the upper extreme of the class you are measuring is 30, given a relative frequency of 0.0625, you would calculate the frequency density for this class to be:
Rel.freq / (Upper Extreme of Class - Lower Extreme of Class) = Density
0.0625 / (30 - 15) = 0.0625 / 15 = 0.0041666.. That is: 0.00417 to 5 S.F.
In biology, relative frequency is the occurrence of a single gene in a specific species that makes up a gene pool.
The limiting relative frequency of an event over a long series of trials is the conceptual foundation of the frequency interpretation of probability. In this framework, it is assumed that as the length of the series increases without bound, the fraction of the experiments in which we observe the event will stabilize. This interpretation is often contrasted with Bayesian probability.
Freshers' Flu overview

# Overview
Freshers' Flu is the name commonly given to illnesses contracted as many as 90% of new students during the first few weeks at a university, in some form, common symptoms include fever, sore throat, severe headache, coughing and general discomfort,
 although it doesn't necessarily have to be flu, and is often simply a bad cold, but is so named simply due to alliteration. This is mostly a British term, and is rarely heard outside the UK.

# Causes
The most likely cause is the convergence of large numbers of people arriving from all over the world, many of whom carry germs to which they are immune, but others have not had a chance to acquire the necessary immunity. The poor diet and heavy consumption of alcohol during freshers week is also reported as a cause for many of the illnesses contracted during this time. "Stress, which may be induced by tiredness, combined with a poor diet, late nights and too much alcohol, can weaken the immune system and be a recipe for ill health. All this can make students more susceptible to infections within their first weeks of term."

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
As well as the usual viral effects, Freshers' Flu can also have some psychological effects. These effects arise where the stress of leaving home, and other consequences of being independent, not to mention various levels of homesickness and the attempts at making new friends, can further weaken the immune system, increasing susceptibility to illness.
Frotteuristic disorder
Synonyms and keywords: Frotteurism

# Overview
Frotteuristic disorder is a sexual dysfunction disorder characterized by sexual arousal from rubbing against or touching a non-consenting person.

# Differential Diagnosis
- Antisocial personality disorder
- Conduct disorder
- Substance use disorders

# Epidemiology and Demographics

## Prevalence
The prevalence of frotteuristic disorder is up to 30% adult males in the general population.

# Risk Factors
- Nonsexual antisocial behavior
- Sexual preoccupation/hypersexuality

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Poor prognostic factors include:
- Recurrent touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting individual
- Subjective distress (e.g., guilt, shame, intense sexual frustration, loneliness)
- Psychiatric morbidity
- Hypersexuality and sexual impulsivity
- Psychosocial impairment

# Diagnostic Criteria

## DSM-V Diagnostic Criteria for Frotteuristic Disorder
- A. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent and intense sexual arousal from touching or rubbing against a non consenting person, as manifested by fantasies, urges, or behaviors.
AND
- B. The individual has acted on these sexual urges with a non consenting person, or the sexual urges or fantasies cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
Specify if:
Genetic predisposition
A genetic predisposition is a genetic effect which influences the phenotype of an organism but which can be modified by the environmental conditions.  Genetic testing is able to identify individuals who are genetically predisposed to certain health problems.

# Behavior
Predisposition is the capacity we are born with to learn things such as language and concept of self.  Negative environmental influences may block the predisposition (ability) we have to do some things.  Behaviors displayed by animals can be influenced by genetic predispositions. Genetic predisposition towards certain human behaviors is scientifically investigated by attempts to identify patterns of human behavior that seem to be invariant over long periods of time and in very different cultures. For example, philosopher Daniel Dennett has proposed that humans are genetically predisposed to have a Theory of mind because there has been evolutionary selection for the human ability to adopt the Intentional stance. The intentional stance is a useful behavioral strategy by which humans assume that others have minds like their own. This assumption allows you to predict the behavior of others based on personal knowledge of what you would do.
Powerful evidence for genetic predispositions towards certain patterns of human behavior comes from twin studies. The idea that human behavior can have a genetic basis has become controversial due to religious and politically-inspired positions with respect to common human behaviors such as homosexuality.

# Genetic discrimination in health insurance
In the United States, individuals are at risk for loss of health insurance if they are discovered to have genetic predispositions for health problems. The National Center for Genome Resources found that 85 percent of those polled think employers should not have access to information about their employees' genetic conditions, risks or predispositions. The U.S. federal government has so far taken only limited measures against discrimination based on genetic testing.
Gentamicin description

# Description
Gentamicin sulfate, a water-soluble antibiotic of the aminoglycoside group, is derived by the growth of Micromonospora purpurea, an actinomycete.
It has the following structural formula.
Gentamicin injection is a sterile, nonpyrogenic aqueous solution for parenteral administration.
Each mL contains: Gentamicin sulfate equivalent to 40 mg gentamicin, methylparaben 1.8 mg and propylparaben 0.2 mg as preservatives, sodium metabisulfite 3.2 mg and edetate disodium 0.1 mg, Water for Injection q.s.  Sodium hydroxide and/or sulfuric acid may have been added for pH adjustment.
Gluteus maximus muscle

# Overview
The gluteus maximus is the largest and most superficial of the three gluteal muscles. It makes up a large portion of the shape and appearance of the buttocks.
It is a broad and thick fleshy mass of a quadrilateral shape, and forms the prominence of the nates.
Its large size is one of the most characteristic features of the muscular system in humans, connected as it is with the power of maintaining the trunk in the erect posture.
The muscle is remarkably coarse in structure, being made up of fasciculi lying parallel with one another and collected together into large bundles separated by fibrous septa.

# Origin and insertion
It arises from the posterior gluteal line of the ilium, and the rough portion of bone including the crest, immediately above and behind it; from the posterior surface of the lower part of the sacrum and the side of the coccyx; from the aponeurosis of the sacrospinalis, the sacrotuberous ligament, and the fascia (gluteal aponeurosis) covering the gluteus medius.
The fibers are directed obliquely downward and lateralward;
- those forming the lower and larger portion of the muscle, together with the superficial fibers of the lower portion, end in a thick tendinous lamina, which passes across the greater trochanter, and is inserted into the iliotibial band of the fascia lata;
- the deeper fibers of the lower portion of the muscle are inserted into the gluteal tuberosity between the vastus lateralis and adductor magnus.
The gluteus maximus is also a main muscle used in many sports such as volleyball, hockey, basketball, soccer, and football.

# Bursae
Three bursae are usually found in relation with the deep surface of this muscle:
- One of these, of large size, and generally multilocular, separates it from the greater trochanter;
- a second, often wanting, is situated on the tuberosity of the ischium;
- a third is found between the tendon of the muscle and that of the vastus lateralis.

# Actions
When the gluteus maximus takes its fixed point from the pelvis, it extends the femur and brings the bent thigh into a line with the body.
Taking its fixed point from below, it acts upon the pelvis, supporting it and the trunk upon the head of the femur; this is especially obvious in standing on one leg.
Its most powerful action is to cause the body to regain the erect position after stooping, by drawing the pelvis backward, being assisted in this action by the biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, and adductor magnus.
The gluteus maximus is a tensor of the fascia lata, and by its connection with the iliotibial band steadies the femur on the articular surfaces of the tibia during standing, when the extensor muscles are relaxed.
The lower part of the muscle also acts as an adductor and external rotator of the limb.
Gnathostoma spinigerum
Gnathostoma spinigerum is a parasitic nematode that causes gnathostomiasis in humans, also known as creeping eruption, larva migrans, Yangtze edema, Choko-Fuschu Tua chid and wandering swelling. Gnathostomiasis in animals can be serious, and even fatal. The first described case of gnathostomiasis was in a young tiger that died in the London Zoo in 1835. The larval nematode is acquired by eating raw or undercooked fish and meat.
G. spinigerum has a multi-host life history. The eggs hatch in fresh water and the larvae are eaten by water fleas of the genus Cyclops (genus)|Cyclops. The water fleas are in turn eaten by small fish. Eventually, the larvae end up in the stomachs of carnivores, usually cats and dogs. The larva bores through the stomach wall and migrates around in the host's body for about three months before returning to the stomach and attaching itself in the gastric mucosa. It then takes another six months to mature. The eggs are carried in the host's feces, and if they reach fresh water the cycle begins again. As humans are not a normal host for the larva, they do not mature in humans, but can cause various degrees of damage, depending on where the larve wanders in the body.

# Treatment

## Antimicrobial Regimen
- Gnathostoma spinigerum Return to Top
- 1. Eosinophilic Meningitis
Preferred regimen: Supportive measures. Anthelminthic therapy might be deleterious by augmenting the inflammation due to the death of the larvae. The use of corticosteroids is generally favored for suppression of the inflammation but there are no clinical trials that prove its efficacy.
- Preferred regimen: Supportive measures. Anthelminthic therapy might be deleterious by augmenting the inflammation due to the death of the larvae. The use of corticosteroids is generally favored for suppression of the inflammation but there are no clinical trials that prove its efficacy.
- 2. Cutaneous disease:
- Preferred regimen (1): Albendazole 400 mg bid for 21 days
- Preferred regimen (2): Ivermectin 200 mcg/kg once daily for 2 days
- Alternative regimen (1): Albendazole 400 mg daily for 21 days
- Alternative regimen (2): Ivermectin 200 mcg/kg once daily for 1 day
Gram-positive bacteria
Gram-positive bacteria are those that retain a crystal violet dye during the Gram stain process. Gram-positive bacteria appear blue or violet under a microscope, while Gram-negative bacteria appear red or pink. The Gram classification system is empirical, and largely based on differences in cell wall structure. The purpose of Gram staining is to visually differentiate groups of bacteria, primarily for identification.

# Characteristics
The following characteristics are generally present in a Gram-positive bacterium:
- Cytoplasmic membrane
- Thick peptidoglycan layer
- Teichoic acids and lipoteichoic acids are present, which serve to act as chelating agents, and also for certain types of adherence.
- Capsule polysaccharides
- If a flagellum is present, it contains two rings for support as opposed to four in Gram-negative bacteria because Gram-positive bacteria have only one membrane layer.

# History of Gram positive
In the original bacterial phyla, the Gram-positive forms made up the phylum Firmicutes, a name now used for the largest group. It includes many well-known genera such as Bacillus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, and Clostridium. It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria like Mycoplasma that lack cell walls and so cannot be stained by Gram, but are derived from such forms.
The actinobacteria are another major group of Gram-positive bacteria; they and the Firmicutes are referred to as the high and low G+C groups based on the guanosine and cytosine content of their DNA. If the second membrane is a derived condition, the two may have been basal among the bacteria; otherwise they are probably a relatively recent monophyletic group. They have been considered as possible ancestors for the archaeans and eukaryotes, both because they are unusual in lacking the second membrane and because of various biochemical similarities such as the presence of sterols.
The Deinococcus-Thermus bacteria also have Gram-positive stains, although they are structurally similar to Gram-negative bacteria.
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria may have a membrane called an S-layer.  In Gram-negative bacteria, the S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane. In Gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the peptidoglycan layer. Unique to Gram-positive bacteria is the presence of teichoic acids in the cell wall. Some particular teichoic acids, lipoteichoic acids, have a lipid component and can assist in anchoring peptidoglycan, as the lipid component is embedded in the membrane.
Granule (cell biology)
In cell biology, a granule can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle.

# Leukocytes
A group of leukocytes called granulocytes contain granules and play an important role in the immune system. The granules of certain cells, such as Natural Killer Cells, contain components which can lead to the lysis of neighboring cells. The granules of leukocytes are classified as azurophilic granules or specific granules.
Leukocyte granules are released in response to immunological stimuli during a process known as degranulation.

# Platelets
The granules of platelets are classified as dense granules and alpha granules.
Grey platelet syndrome

# Overview
Gray platelet syndrome (GPS), or platelet alpha-granule deficiency, is a rare congenital autosomal recessive bleeding disorder caused by a reduction or absence of alpha-granules in blood platelets, and the release of proteins normally contained in these granules into the marrow, causing myelofibrosis.
GPS is primarily inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, and the gene that is mutated in GPS has recently been mapped to chromosome 3p and identified as NBEAL2. NBEAL2 encodes a protein containing a BEACH domain that is predicted to be involved in vesicular trafficking.  It is expressed in platelets and megakaryocytes and is required for the development of platelet alpha-granules. NBEAL2 expression is also required for the development of thrombocytes in zebrafish.
GPS is characterized by "thrombocytopenia, and abnormally large agranular platelets in peripheral blood smears." The defect in GPS is the failure of megakaryocytes to package secretory proteins into alpha-granules. Patients with the GPS are affected by mild to moderate bleeding tendencies.
Great Ape research ban
A  Great Ape research ban, or severe restrictions on the use of non-human great apes in research, is currently in place in the Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany and Austria. In Austria, as the only country in the world, even experiments on lesser apes, the gibbons, are completely banned too.
These countries have ruled that chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans are cognitively so similar to humans that using them as test subjects is unethical. Announcing the UKs ban in 1986, the British Home Secretary said: "his is a matter of morality. The cognitive and behavioural characteristics and qualities of these animals mean it is unethical to treat them as expendable for research." Britain continues to use other primates in laboratories, such as macaques and marmosets.
The British newspaper, The Independent, has argued that the "demand for a comprehensive ban by the European Union on experiments involving great apes is surely unanswerable"
The United States is the world's largest user of chimpanzees for biomedical research, with approximately 1,300 individuals currently in U.S. labs. A Washington-state group called Ban Ape Research (BAR) is campaigning to enact an ordinance in Seattle that would prohibit non-human great-ape experiments in that city, which would be the first jurisdiction in the U.S. to take this step.
In 2006 the permanency of the UK ban was questioned by Colin Blakemore, head of the Medical Research Council. Blakemore, while stressing he saw no "immediate need" to lift the ban,  argued "that under certain circumstances, such as the emergence of a lethal pandemic virus that only affected the great apes, including man, then experiments on chimps, orang-utans and even gorillas may become necessary." The British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection described Blakemore's stance as "backward-looking."
Greater petrosal nerve
The greater petrosal nerve is a nerve in the skull that branches from the facial nerve; it forms part of a chain of nerves that innervates the lacrimal gland. The fibres have synapses in the pterygopalatine ganglion.

# Structure
The greater petrosal nerve is a branch of the facial nerve that arises from the geniculate ganglion, a part of the facial nerve inside the facial canal. It enters the middle cranial fossa through the hiatus for the greater petrosal nerve (on the anterior surface of the petrous temporal bone). It proceeds towards the foramen lacerum, where it joins the deep petrosal nerve (sympathetic) to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal. The nerve of the pterygoid canal passes through the pterygoid canal to reach the pterygopalatine ganglion.

# Function
The greater petrosal nerve carries gustatory (taste) and parasympathetic fibres. Postganglionic parasympathetic fibres from pterygopalatine ganglion supply lacrimal gland and the mucosal glands of the nose, palate, and pharynx. The gustatory fibres do not relay in the ganglion and are distributed to the palate.

# Additional images
- Alveolar branches of superior maxillary nerve and sphenopalatine ganglion. (
- Sympathetic connections of the sphenopalatine and superior cervical ganglia.
Greater alar cartilage
The greater alar cartilage (lower lateral cartilage) is a thin, flexible plate, situated immediately below the preceding, and bent upon itself in such a manner as to form the medial wall and lateral wall of the naris of its own side.
The portion which forms the medial wall (crus mediale) is loosely connected with the corresponding portion of the opposite cartilage, the two forming, together with the thickened integument and subjacent tissue, the septum mobile nasi.
The part which forms the lateral wall (crus laterale) is curved to correspond with the ala of the nose; it is oval and flattened, narrow behind, where it is connected with the frontal process of the maxilla by a tough fibrous membrane, in which are found three or four small cartilaginous plates, the lesser alar cartilages (cartilagines alares minores; sesamoid cartilages).
Above, it is connected by fibrous tissue to the lateral cartilage and front part of the cartilage of the septum; below, it falls short of the margin of the naris, the ala being completed by fatty and fibrous tissue covered by skin.
In front, the greater alar cartilages are separated by a notch which corresponds with the apex of the nose.
Groote Schuur Hospital
Groote Schuur Hospital (also known as "GSH" or, colloquially, "Grotties") is a large, government-funded, teaching hospital situated on the slopes of Devil's Peak in the city of Cape Town, South Africa. It was founded in 1938 and is famous for being the institution where the first human heart transplant took place, conducted by University of Cape Town-educated surgeon Christiaan Barnard on the patient Louis Washkansky.
Groote Schuur is the chief academic hospital of the University of Cape Town's medical school, providing tertiary care and instruction in all the major branches of medicine. The hospital underwent major extension in 1984 when two new wings were added; the old main building now mainly houses several academic clinical departments as well as a museum about the first heart transplant.
The hospital is an internationally-acclaimed research institution and is world-renowned for its trauma unit, anaesthesiology and internal medicine departments. Groote Schuur attracts many visiting medical students, residents and specialists each year who come to gain experience in various fields. As at December 2006 the hospital employed over 500 doctors, 1300 nurses and 250 allied health professionals.

# Trivia
Groote Schuur is Dutch for Great Barn and is named after an original estate laid out by Dutch settlers when the city of Cape Town was founded in the 17th Century.