The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (Public Law 91-596)  states that the purpose of Congress expressed in the Act is "to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the Nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources...by," among other things, "providing for research in the field of occupational safety and health...and by developing innovative methods, techniques, and approaches for dealing with occupational safety and health problems." Later in the Act, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is charged with carrying out this policy. One method by which NIOSH responds to this charge is to publish recommendations for control of occupational safety and health hazards. the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) for cons Occupational Safety and Health Centers for Disease Control iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The contributions to this publication by NIOSH staff, other Federal agencies, the review consultants, the reviewers selected by the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) and the Society for Occupational and Environmental Health (SOEH), and consultants William C. Nicoll and Robert B. O'Connor, M.D. are gratefully acknowledged. The Division of Standards Development and Technology Transfer, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, had primary responsibility for the development of this publication. The initial development was performed by Paul A. Schulte and Charles H. Gorski. The publication was completed by Howard R. Ludwig. Contributors to this document and previous unpublished versions of it are listed below and on the following pages. The NIOSH review of this publication was provided by Robert W.#
These publications critically review the scientific and technical information available on the prevalence of hazards, the existence of safety and health risks, and the adequacy of hazard control methods in an industry.
The information and recommendations presented should facilitate development of specific procedures for hazard control in individual workplaces.
In addition, these publications list the Federal standards applicable to the industry and the specific hazardous substances that are present in its work environment.
In the Interest of wide dissemination of this information, NIOSH distributes these publications to other appropriate governmental agencies, organized labor, industry, and public interest groups.
We welcome suggestions concerning the content, style, and distribution of these documents.
This document provides guidance for protecting workers involved in the manufacture of paint and allied coating products.
It was prepared by the staff of the

# II. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PAINT AND ALLIED COATING PRODUCTS
The handling of raw materials and finished products; dispersion of pigment or resin particles; thinning, tinting, and shading; filling; and laboratory functions are some of the operations in the paint and allied coatings industry that will be discussed in this publication. The recommendations are broad-based to accommodate variations between facilities and the wide range of operations and processes encountered. Many of the recommendations, such as those addressing the use of personal protective equipment, machine guarding, container labeling, and worker training, are consistent with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) General Industry Standards contained in 29 CFR 1910. Other recommendations, such as those concerning substitution of raw materials, engineering controls, or safe lifting techniques are addressed only generally in OSHA standards or not at all.
The recommendations are intended to enable management and labor to develop better work practices and training programs that will result in safer working environments.
Chapter II provides a discussion of basic characteristics for those persons who are not familiar with this industry. The document in its entirety provides safety and health information for organized labor; managers, technical consultants, and occupational safety and health personnel of companies involved in this industry; and the field staffs of various governmental agencies (i.e., NIOSH, OSHA, and EPA) responsible for the safety and health of workers.

# II. C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F T H E P A I N T A N D A L L I E D C O A T I N G P R O D U C T S I N D U S T R Y A. Overview
Paint and allied coating products constitute a general class of materials whose primary functions are the protection and decoration of surfaces. Coatings are also used for fire retardation, color coding, electrical insulation, and temperature control ,
In the most narrow sense, "paint" refers only to pigmented products such as interior (wall), exterior (house), masonry, and traffic coatings; terms for other coatings include enamel, undercoater, primer, sealer, varnish, lacquer, stain, and industrial finishes. Historically, however, the term "paint" has sufficed as the common description for coating materials consisting of a covering material (pigment), a film-forming material (usually an oil or resin), and viscosity modifiers (thinners and solvents).
The terms "organic surface coating," "paint and coating," or "chemical coating" are increasingly being used to describe a variety of products that are used for the protection or decoration of surfaces.
Related to the various types of surface coatings are allied products such as putties and paint and varnish removers.
The major types and end uses of paint and coating products are shown in Table II-l.
The manufacture of most coatings basically involves the incorporation of pigment particles in a film-forming matrix, thinning and adjusting the resultant product, and dispensing it into containers of various sizes for shipment and sale.
The manufacture of varnishes, which contain no pigments, is a different type of batch process which involves mixing ingredients and "cooking" them in a reactor vessel or kettle. Definitions of various terms used in the coatings industry are listed in the Glossary (Appendix A).

# Thousands of different raw materials  are used in the manufacture of approximately 20,000 different coating products .
The need for so many raw materials and products results from the great diversity of surfaces requiring treatment. There are numerous small manufacturers because paint-making is still largely a batch process that does not readily lend itself to automation or continuous flow processing , Few firms sell nationwide because of high shipping costs, the difficulty of maintaining production schedules, and other distribution problems.

# I. Industry Trends
Growth in the total production of the U.S. paint and allied coating products industry has been about 2% annually since 1967 and is expected to continue at this rate through 1990 .
In 1981, over 900 companies produced architectural coatings, approximately 250 companies made product coatings for original equipment manufacturers, and approximately 250 companies made special purpose coatings .
The largest companies are active in all coatings categories; whereas, the smaller companies may specialize in only one segment of the industry .

# Air pollution regulations limiting
the amount of volatile organic compounds that can be used in coatings and the rapid rise in solvent prices are responsible for the trend in the coatings industry to replace conventional low-solids, volatile organic solvent-based coatings with high-solids (i.e., over 70%) or low solvent or water-based formulations such as radiation-curable coatings, powder coatings, two-part catalyzed systems, and nonaqueous dispersions [1,2,6 In addition to the air pollution emission potential of various coating systems, a factor in their selection is the amount of energy required for application and for engineering controls to reduce occupational exposure.
Because of relatively high energy efficiencies, the use of high-solids and radiation-curable coatings is expected to increase ,

# E x t e n t of E x p o s u r e
According to the 1978 Annual Survey of Manufacturers , the paint and allied coating products industry in the United States employed about 61,500 workers in 1,700 individual plants. About 60% of the paint facilities had fewer than 20 workers, and only about 3% of the facilities (i.e., about 50) had more than 250 workers . These coatings include paints, lacquers, and powders and are applied during the manufacturing process to the surfaces of products made from metal, wood, or plastic. About 60-65% of these coatings have been solvent-based, but in recent years applications for water-based, high-solids, powder coatings, and two-part catalyzed systems have been increasing , "Special purpose coatings" may be stock-type or shelf goods, but they are formulated specifically for refinishing and specialty applications or for environmental conditions such as extreme temperatures or corrosivechemical atmospheres .
These coating types include high-performance industrial maintenance paints, automotive and machinery refinishes, and traffic paints and can be either solvent-or water-based ,

# J o b C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s
A scheme for the classification and description of jobs in this industry has been developed by Discher et al. .

# A revised version of this classification is presented in Table II-2.
A similar description of job classifications in the varnish manufacturing process is shown in Table II-3. In many smaller plants, one worker might perform a number of different jobs rather than just one particular task.

# Raw materials handlers
Transport and store raw materials in the plant.

# Prebatch assemblers
Weigh and assemble raw materials (usually dry) for the mixer, primarily in the raw materials storage and mixing areas.

# Mixers (including mill operators)
Load mixing tanks or mills. Responsible for quality control checks for dispersion. May be responsible for cleaning the mills.

# Tinters (including thinners, shaders, and body adjus ters)
Responsible for the dispersed paint quality. Add solvents, driers, preservatives, and tinting paste.
Responsible for quality control for color, viscosity, etc.

# Fillers
Fill paint containers.

# Set up the filling line (if mechanized).

# Tank and tub cleaners
Clean portable tanks and tubs.

# Laboratory personnel
Test raw materials. Responsible for finished product testing and for research and development.

# thers
Includes packagers, maintenance personnel, shippers, and loading personnel in the warehouse.

# Adapted from Discher et al. 

# Varnish cookers
Cook varnish and maintain reaction conditions (applies only to open-kettle process).

# Filter press opera tors
Filter and reduce the varnish and clean the presses.

# Fillers
Fill varnish containers.

# Laboratory personnel
Test raw materials. Responsible for finished product testing and for research and development.

# Others
Includes packagers, maintenance personnel, shippers, and loading personnel in the warehouse.

# Adapted from Discher et al. 

# B. Raw Materials
Liquid paint is a suspension of pigment particles in a mixture of film-former and volatile solvent.
The solvent, which reduces viscosity to allow easy application, and the film-former hold the pigment in the dried film and cause it to adhere to the coated surface.
The pigment confers hiding and coloring power as well as durability to the dried film.
Various additives are used to obtain particular characteristics.
Although drying is usually accomplished through evaporation of the solvent, drying may also be by polymerization of the film-former through oxidation (e.g., with oils and alkyds), by coalescence (e.g., with latexes), or by chemical reactivity (e.g., with epoxy resins) .
In 1980, an estimated 9.5 billion pounds of raw materials (excluding water) were used in the manufacture of paint and allied coating products ,
The four general categories of raw materials used (film-formers, pigments, solvents, and additives) are identified in Figure II-2.  Linseed oil is the primary drying oil utilized as a film-former.

# F I G U R E II-2. R A W M A T E R I A L S U S E D IN T H E M A N U F A C T U R E OF C O A T I N G
Natural resin film-formers constituted less than 1% of all film-formers consumed in 1977 , in contrast to about 50% prior to World War II , Some of these natural resins include rosins and shellac.

# Pigments
Pigments are incorporated into coatings to impart color, opacity, and properties such as durability, corrosion inhibition, and mildew control or to be a filler or extender . They are finely powdered solids that are essentially insoluble in the medium in which they are dispersed. Almost all of the pigments utilized in the U.S. (99%) are inorganic  with titanium dioxide accounting for about one-third of total pigments used . Pigments are generally classified as white (opaque) pigments, colored and black pigments, extenders (non-opaque), and miscellaneous (mainly metallic powders).  They are less expensive than many other types of organic solvents and have many uses.
An organic solvent-based coating material that contains no hydrocarbon solvent is unusual. Hydrocarbon solvents used in the paint industry are classified as either aliphatic naphthas or aromatics.
Aliphatic naphtha solvents such as mineral spirits or Varnish Makers' and Painters' (VM&P) naphtha are predominantly paraffins, with a smaller but appreciable content of cycloparaffins (naphthenes such as cyclopentane and cyclohexane). These solvents may also contain as much as 20-30% aromatics ,
Mineral spirits constitute about three-fourths of all hydrocarbon solvents used in the paint and allied coating products industry overall.
The aromatic hydrocarbon solvents such as toluene, xylene, high flash solvent naphthas, and aromatic naphthas predominantly exhibit higher solvency than aliphatic solvents.

# b. Oxygenated Solvents
Oxygenated solvents are so designated because of the presence of oxygen which contributes polarity (a difference in the electric charge on various portions of the materials).
This polarity is the fundamental difference between oxygenated and hydrocarbon solvents, which are essentially nonpolar.
Because

# A d d i t i v e s
Many substances that contribute to the ease of manufacture, the stability of the paint in the package, the ease of application, or the quality or appearance of the applied film are used in relatively small quantities in paint formulations.
These

# e. A n t i -s k i n n i n g A g e n t s
Skinning refers to the drying of a coating, but at the wrong time and in the wrong place (e.g., while it is still packaged).
Oxidative polymerization of the film-formers at the air-liquid interface can lead to the formation of a solid or gelatinous skin on the surface.  reactions. Production is begun by mixing the pigment, film-former, and solvent (organic solvent or water). This is followed by the dispersion operation, which is a manipulation of the mixture to achieve pigment particle separation, wetting, and stabilization.
The performance of the finished product depends on the maintenance of uniform interparticle distances in the dried film .
A variety of equipment is used to effect dispersion.
The trend currently is to use equipment in which the paint formulation can be continuously mixed and dispersed, followed by thinning in the same unit , After dispersion, the resultant material is tested for viscosity, color, and other physical properties while being adjusted or thinned.
After passing this inspection, the batch is strained and loaded into containers.
The manufacture of varnishes is one of the most complex processes in a coatings plant, primarily because of the large variety of different raw materials, products, and cooking formulae used ,
Varnishes are classified on the basis of the resins used.
Oleoresinous varnishes are solutions of both oils and resins; whereas, spirit varnishes such as shellac are formed by dissolving a resin in a solvent.
Varnish manufacture essentially consists of heating or cooking materials in a reactor vessel or kettle and then thinning and filtering the final product , 1. Paints a. Materials Handling Materials handling occurs primarily at both ends of the production process.
Raw materials are available as liquids, solids, powders, pastes, and slurries.

# b. Dispersion
The assembly of raw materials is followed by the mixing of pigments with film-formers, solvents, and additives and the dispersion of the pigment particles in the liquid matrix.
Dispersion consists of a deagglomeration or separation of aggregates of individual particles, the wetting of particles with solvent and film-former, and uniformly distributing particles in the liquid phase.
Types of dispersion equipment include high-speed shaft-impeHer dispersers, dough mixers, and a variety of mills such as roller, stone, pebble, media, stator-rotor, attritor, Uniroll, resonant, vibratory, and Kady .
After the dispersion operation, it may be necessary to clean the mills and tanks before a new batch is introduced.
Tank and mill cleaning can involve hand and power tools as well as caustic cleaners and solvents. c. T h i n n i n g , T i n t i n g , a n d S h a d i n g Thinning operations involve the further addition of a film-former or solvent to the batch following the mixing and dispersion operations. These operations may be performed in stationary tanks or in portable change cans. Tinting and shading operations involve adding color to white bases or adjusting the color of solid color bases that have been formulated as complete products.
After these operations, the quality of the paint must be checked by sample collection and laboratory analysis.

# d. Filling Operations and Finished Product Handling
After the desired paint quality is achieved, the paint is strained or filtered to remove foreign material.
Fabric or metal screen filters, vibrating or variable-speed centrifugal clarifiers, vibrating screens, and cartridge filters can be used.
After filtering, the coating is either manually or machine-filled into cans that are subsequently sealed, labeled, packed, and stored or shipped.

# Lacquers
Lacquers differ from most other coatings in that the film dries or hardens entirely by evaporation. Therefore, it is impractical to manufacture lacquers in the customary manner because volatilization of the solvents results in deposits of a dry, solid film on processing equipment .
Thus, production is carried out in enclosed equipment such as tanks or mixers to reduce solvent loss, ensure ease of cleanup, and provide fire safety.
However, lacquer is produced in the same general manner as paint.

# Varnishes
All varnishes (i.e., oleoresinous and spirit) are solutions of film-formers in organic solvents. The manufacture of oleoresinous varnishes involves a cooking stage to render the oil and resin more compatible, to develop high molecular weight molecules or polymers, and to obtain solubility in the thinner or solvent. The manufacture of spirit varnishes usually involves cold cutting the resin with the solvent; however, mild heat may be used occasionally , Varnish is cooked in portable kettles or in large reactors, although kettles are now used only to a limited extent and primarily by smaller manufacturers .
Large closed reactors with capacities of 1,000 to 8,000 gallons are more common .

# a. Operation of Kettles
In facilities where portable kettles are still used, resin and oil or resin alone is added to the kettle and then heated to about 600F (316C).
Natural resins must be heated prior to adding the oils to make the resin more compatible with the oils.
All materials are poured in over the top of the kettle (150-375 gallon capacity). During the cooking phase, the kettles are covered with retractable hoods with exhaust pipes that may be fitted with solvent condensers. After the materials are cooked, the kettles are moved to rooms where the kettles are cooled quickly, often by water spray, and thinner and driers are added .

# b. Operation of Reactor Vessels
Varnish production is different when reactor vessels are used instead of kettles.
Most reactors range in size from 500 to 8,000 gallons . Reactors are designed to give exact process control and usually can handle a variety of different varnishes, operate over a wide range of temperatures, and be cleaned easily.
Varnish reactor vessels are similar to batch reactor equipment used in the chemical process industry.
The vessels are fitted with agitators, manholes, sight-glasses, lines to charge liquid reactants, condensers, temperature measuring devices, sampling devices, discharge lines, and heat sources.

# c. Filtering
Filtration of the thinned resin is the final step before the varnish is packaged. This is normally done while the resin is still hot. The filter press is the most commonly used filtering device .

# Powder Coatings
Powder coatings are solventless systems based on the melting and subsequent fusion of resin and other additive particles onto surfaces of heated objects.
Powder coatings, which may be either thermosetting or thermoplastic, are made from various types of resins such as epoxies, polyethylene, polyesters, polyvinyl chloride, and acrylics.

# Three methods have been used
to manufacture powder coatings: dry blending, extrusion melt-mixing, and a combination of the two. Dry blending of powder coating ingredients is usually accomplished by placing all components (powdered resin, pigments, additives, and powdered curing agents) into a cooled pebble mill with high density porcelain grinding media.
The extrusion melt-mixing method involves premixing the dry components to ensure homogeneity and to reduce particle size.
The mix is placed in a specially-designed extruder where it is heated until molten.
The molten material is then deposited on a cooling belt, and when it has cooled to a friable state, it is transferred to a coarse granulator.
The granulated material is then passed through a fine grinder and particle size classifier and packaged.
Figure  shows a typical layout for the manufacture of powder coatings by the extrusion melt-mixing method. A wider range of pigments is used with interior stains.

# Radiation-Curable Coatings

# Radiation
The film-fortners for interior stains are usually very low-solids alkyd resin solutions.
Generally, the manufacture of stain is similar to that of paint.

# Allied Coating Products
Many of the allied or sundry products of the coatings industry are manufactured in the same plants as paint, with few variations in the processes previously discussed in this section.

# a. Putties
The manufacture of putties involves the dispersion of calcium sulfate in oils and adjustment with small amounts of solvent in a dough-type mixer or in a mixer known as a putty chaser .
The viscous putty is usually put into containers directly from the dispersion stage.

# Laboratory Functions
Analytical and developmental laboratory functions are integral to the manufacture of coatings.
Four functional types of laboratories are found in coatings manufacture: analytical, quality control, formulation or product development, and research and development .
Many companies combine the various laboratory functions in one space; whereas, others separate each function.
Analytical laboratories receive samples of incoming raw materials to be tested for conformity with purchase specifications.
Other analytical laboratory functions include the analysis of competing products and "bad batches" of paint.
Quality control laboratories test the product before it is packaged for various physical characteristics such as weight per gallon, viscosity, color, and drying time.
In the formulation or product development laboratory, existing products are refined.
This differs from the research and development laboratory which is involved with basic research and the development of completely new classes of products.

# III. HEALTH AND SAFETY HAZARDS DURING THE MANUFACTURE OF PAINT AND ALLIED COATING PRODUCTS

# A. Injury and Illness Statistics
The number and severity of injuries and illnesses in the Paints, Varnishes, Lacquers, Enamels, and Allied Coating Products Industry (SIC code 285) may be estimated from information reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), U.S. Department of Labor .
Table III-l shows the average annual employment and injury and illness incidence rates (per 100 full-time workers) from 1980 through 1982 for total cases, lost workday cases, nonfatal cases without lost workdays, and lost workdays in SIC code 285.  , 1980-1982  Average Incidence Rates per 100 Full-time Workers These data show an annual total of approximately 7,570 injuries and illnesses (employment times total case incidence rate divided by 100) in paint manufacturing facilities.
Per 100 full-time workers, paint manufacturers had an average injury and illness incidence rate of 12.0 and an average lost workday incidence rate (severity rate) of 74.3, which are about the same as the average rates exhibited by "All Manufacturing" industries.

# Also
-f interest are data included in Table III-2, which address occupational injury and illness rates by employment size in the paint and allied coating products industry.
The highest incidence rates occurred in facilities with 20-249 workers.    The most prevalent sources of injuries and illnesses were boxes, barrels, containers, packages, etc. (33.3%), working surfaces (10.7%), and chemicals (9.0%).
The most common types of accidents were overexertion (31.3%), struck by an object (15.4%), and struck against an object (9.6%). Sprains and strains (40.5%) were the most prevalent nature of injury, followed by contusions and bruises (15.2%), and cuts, lacerations, punctures, etc. (10.4%).
The back (24.4%) and fingers (11.5%) were the parts of the body most frequently affected .
In an attempt to better elucidate accident causal factors, 38 "sources of injury" (which included 81% of the total cases) were cross-tabula ted with the "type of accident," "nature of injury," and "part of body affected." These data are summarized in Table III-5.
Another analysis of the SDS data is summarized in Table III-6 where 15 occupational groupings (which included 81% of the total cases) were similarly cross-indexed.
Mention needs to be made of some of the data constraints of the SDS reporting system.
Although there are about 300 subcategories of "sources of injury," and 425 occupational classification codes, in many instances the subgroupings are still not useful for the purpose of quantifying accidents specific to paint manufacturing.
For instance, there might not be specific SDS categories for the inclusion of equipment typically used in the paint industry which would necessitate its being grouped into a broad category such as "Machines, Not Elsewhere Classified."
Similarly, although there is an occupational classification for mixing operatives, individual facilities when filling out the workers' compensation form could have coded paint mixers in a number of other categories (e.g., miscellaneous operatives, machine operatives, not specified, etc.).
A further difficulty encountered in the data base, when using it for analysis of accident causal factors, is that, by definition, the "source of injury" is the object identified as most responsible for causing the injury.
This may, in fact, not be directly associated with the actual cause of the accident.
For example, if a worker cuts his finger while using a knife, the "source of injury" is the knife, which also is the tool most clearly associated with the cause of the accident.
However, if a worker falls from a ladder and fractures his leg on the floor, the "source of injury" is the floor, which probably contributed very little to the actual cause of the accident.
However, once the constraints of the SDS data are recognized, the information included can be applied to further identify some of the hazards associated with occupations, tasks, tools, and equipment used in paint manufacturing.
In Table III-5 the most frequent subcategories for each major heading are listed; all subcategories relate to the "source of injury" in the first column and are not expected to total with it.
In Table III        As would be expected, Table III-5 indicates that injuries related to materials handling (i.e., containers, handtrucks, dollies, skids, pallets, etc.) were most often caused by overexertion and by being struck by falling objects.
Sprains, strains, contusions, bruises, cuts, and lacerations were the most common injuries; the back and fingers were the parts of the body most frequently affected.
An interesting finding was that 60% of the injuries caused by chemicals (i.e., 615 of 1,027) were from skin contact (absorption); 47% of these injuries were chemical burns of the skin.
Analysis of the SDS data by "occupation" yielded similar results. As Table III-6 indicates, various types of containers (i.e., barrels, boxes, crates, etc.) were the most common sources of injury (20-30%) in almost every occupational grouping.
As before, overexertion and "struck by or against" type accidents were the most prevalent, with the most common injuries also being sprains, contusions, and cuts. Exposure to chemicals again accounted for a significant proportion of injuries in many of the occupational groups, usually resulting in chemical burns of the skin. Nonproduction workers (clerks, salesmen, managers, chemists, secretaries, etc.), who make up about 51% of the workforce in SIC code 285 , accounted for 13% of the cases in the SDS file .
Conversely, production workers were involved in 87% of the injuries and illnesses in paint and allied coating products manufacturing although comprising only about 49% of the total workforce. Further analysis of the SDS data  showed that workers under 26 years of age accounted for about one-third of the injuries and illnesses and that workers under 31 years of age accounted for over half (51.6%).
Although only about one-third of the SDS cases had length of service data, 36.9% of those injuries occurred within the first year with the company, 5 0 . 4 % within the first 2 years, and 69.9% within the first 5 years .
The types and numbers of illnesses in the SDS data base are shown in Table III-7. Dermatitis was the most common illness noted (41.2%).
The SDS data show that only 5.7% of the total number of injuries and illnesses were due to illnesses .
However, occupational illness data from the SDS suffer from the same degree of identification as that experienced in the BLS annual survey of occupational injuries and illnesses.
Recognition of occupational illness depends on the "state of the art." Nevertheless, despite the underestimate of the incidence of occupational illnesses, it is evident that reducing injuries should be a high priority of the paint and allied coating products industry. Workers in paint and allied coating products facilities may be exposed to a wide variety of hazardous conditions during the performance of their jobs. The majority of these hazards exist, to some extent, throughout industry, although certain characteristics in the paint industry may magnify the degree of risk.
The hazards associated with the manufacture of paint and allied coating products involve materials handling; toxic, flammable, or explosive substances; and physical agents such as electrical shock, noise, heat, and cold.
These hazards can be present at various stages of production.
In this section, there will be a discussion of the hazards involved with the storage and handling of raw materials and finished products for the industry in general, followed by other hazards associated with specific types of paint and allied coating products manufacture. Inhalation is a primary route of exposure for materials handlers, but skin exposure and ingestion are also possible.
Dry materials such as pigments and additives can become airborne when containers leak or are ruptured and when materials are transferred. Loading pigments into grinding equipment and discarding empty bags can cause the surrounding plant areas to become contaminated with dust. Solvents are volatile and their vapors can escape when transferred in the open or if containers develop minor leaks or are accidentally ruptured. Because of both toxicity and danger of fire, solvent spills present a serious hazard to workers.
Many substances used in paint and allied coating products are highly volatile and flammable or are explosive.
The fire and explosion risk is high wherever organic solvents are present.
Combustible material can be ignited by a spark or by high temperatures.
Sources Preventing the accumulation of static electricity in the handling of liquid raw materials requires special techniques and precautions. Static electricity may be produced when nonconducting liquids flow through pipes or hoses; when liquids fall through the air in droplets or as a spray; when liquids are splashed around in tanks --in the mixing, pouring, pumping, filtering, and agitation of liquids; or when air or other gases bubble through liquids ,
In addition to potential exposures to the m a n y raw materials handled, carbon monoxide emitted from engine exhausts may be a hazard on loading and shipping docks. Exposures may be greater in the winter when loading areas are often enclosed to minimize heat loss.
2. M a n u f a c t u r e of P a i n t s a n d L a c q u e r s There are a number of potential hazards that confront workers in the various processes involved in the manufacture of paints and lacquers.

# a. Dispersion
Pigment and resin particles may enter the breathing zones of workers when mixer and mill hoppers are filled.
Airborne particles may also result when the mixers and the mills are operated. Workers may also be exposed to solvents during the loading, operation, and cleaning of mills.
A noise hazard may be associated with the use of ball and pebble mills, especially when the mills are improperly adjusted, as well as with the use of high-speed dispersers.
The noise levels at dispersion equipment such as Kady mills have been found to range from 109-114 dBA .
Several mills operating simultaneously will have a combined sound pressure level greater than any individual mill.
Ball mills that do not have vibration isolators can be the source of structure-borne vibrations that could be reradiated by other objects in the building , Cleaning the dispersion equipment involves the use of solvents and may result in potential exposure by inhalation or skin absorption. Cleaning may be performed manually or by automatic solvent wash. Since roller mills are often cleaned manually, there is also the potential hazard of catching and crushing arms and fingers between rollers.
To Maintenance operations involve many of the same hazards associated with cleaning operations.
Nitrocellulose, which is used in lacquer production, is one of the most flammable materials used in the coatings industry; it will not burn when wet with water but becomes flammable when water is extracted and replaced with alcohol . When nitrocellulose is dry, it burns very rapidly and can be ignited by friction or impact , b. Thinning, Tinting, and Shading Although exposure to additives either as dusts or vapors can also occur, solvent exposure is the primary hazard associated with these adjustment procedures.
Since quality control checks are often made during these operations, exposures can also occur during sampling and transport of samples to the laboratory. c. F i l l i n g Solvent exposure is also the primary hazard of filling operations. Such exposures may result from direct evaporation of the solvent as the coatings flow into containers or from the cleaning and maintenance of the filling apparatus, particularly the filters used in the first step of the operation.
Extensive noise can be generated by the vibrating screens used for filtering.
Packaging the products usually involves automated equipment with moving parts that may catch on clothing.
Burns or vapor exposure may also result from the use of hot, melted glues to secure packaging and labels.

# d. Handling Finished Products
Safety hazards involved in handling finished coating products are similar to those involved in handling raw materials (e.g., lifting, slippery working surfaces, poor clearance, reduced visibility, etc.).
Finished products are usually in sealed metal containers and present little respiratory hazard.
Automatic depalletizers are a potential source of excessive noise.

# Manufacture of Varnishes
Varnish production requires an external source of heat and, therefore, differs from paint and lacquer production. Temperatures associated with the manufacture of varnish are often 2 0 0-6 0 0F (93-316C) and cause the formation of gaseous substances during varnish cooking .

# a. Kettle and Reactor Operation Hazards
The major hazards associated with the cooking stage in varnish production involve airborne exposures while loading the vessels or emissions while processing.
Loading or charging the reactor vessel is usually done by pumping in the liquid reactants such as oils, glycols, or acid anhydrides.
When dry materials are added, they can release irritant dusts or vapors of maleic, phthalic, or fumaric anhydride.
Splattered molten anhydride can harm eyes and skin. Moreover, temperature changes at vents and orifices must be avoided so that vapors of these materials will not condense and form pressure plugs.

# Since
these reaction vessels are mostly closed systems, only inadvertent or fugitive emissions present a hazard to workers during the reaction phase. In a few cases, however, open kettles may still be used in the manufacture of varnishes. Some of the emissions given off during the cooking of varnishes include acrolein, phenol, aldehydes, ketones, glycerin, fatty acids, and carbon dioxide .
Maximum reactor vessel emissions occur during "sparging," when an inert gas is blown through the reactor to remove the water of reaction. Emissions from solvent cooking operations do not vary significantly with the size of the reactor, but are more a result of the volatility of the solvent being used and the size and efficiency of the condenser.
Startup, process upset, shutdown, and, particularly, emergencies offer further potential for worker exposure . Ambient temperatures around reactors generally are not hazardous. However, when insulation or climate controls are inadequate, ambient temperatures may rise and workers may be subject to heat stress.
In direct-fired kettles or reaction vessels, the constant heating and cooling can cause metal fatigue and subsequent cracks in the vessel. These cracks can be sources of vapor leaks and fire hazards.
Also, open kettles, especially portable ones, pose the hazard of burns from contact with hot surfaces or from splattering material.

# b. Thinning and Filtering
Exposure to solvents may occur during the thinning stage of varnish production.
Thinning is usually done in separate tanks but may be performed in the varnish or resin kettle itself.
Solvent exposure may also occur during filtering but is more likely during the subsequent cleaning of the filters.

# c. Equipment Cleaning
The cleaning of equipment (e.g., reactors, kettles, thinning tanks, filters, etc.) is another source of worker exposure to toxic substances.
Cleaning operations in confined spaces are especially hazardous.
Workers may be exposed by skin contact or inhalation. Equipment is also sometimes cleaned with hot caustic solutions that may affect the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.
The cleaning of filters may be performed manually or by automatic washing with solvents.
Respiratory exposure to diatomaceous earths and dusts from other finely ground materials used as filter aids is possible.

# Manufacture of Powder Coatings
Many of the same types of hazards found during the manufacture of paints or varnishes also exist in the production of powder coatings.
Dust exposure can occur during the charging of hoppers, mixers, and grinders and in packaging.
The fine particle sizes associated with powder coatings increase the possibility of dust explosions , Inhalation of resin powders, pigments, curing agents, and other additives is the primary health hazard associated with the production of powder coatings.
5. M a n u f a c t u r e of R a d i a t i o n -C u r a b l e C o a t i n g s Since the manufacture of radiation-curable coatings, which dry or cure as a result of radiation such as infrared, ultraviolet, and electron beam, is similar to that of other paints, so are most of its hazards. Radiation-curable coatings, however, contain reactive monomers in place of solvents.
In addition, ultraviolet-curable coatings also contain photoinitiators.
Both reactive monomers and photoinitiators may have acute or delayed effects on the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract causing skin sensitization and other effects .
Because of the likelihood of acute effects resulting from skin or eye contact with some components of radiation-curable coatings, this type of coating is manufactured in enclosed equipment.
Enclosed equipment is also necessary to prevent vaporization of some components that have relatively high vapor pressures.
Various types of hazards are associated with acrylate monomers used in radiation-curable coatings.
Acrylates cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, and skin.
In

# Laboratory Functions
In addition to the hazards associated with the manufacture of coatings, the operations associated with laboratory functions may also expose workers to other chemical substances (e.g., reagents) and physical agents such as ultraviolet or infrared radiation, heat, cold, and ionizing radiation used in curing processes and in exposure tests.
A potentially hazardous practice in laboratories involves spraying a coating to match colors.
Often no exposure controls are used, and exposure to airborne coatings is likely.
This situation is easily remedied by providing a spray booth with negative pressure to remove the overspray and thus protect the worker.

# C. Adverse Health Effects
OSHA has promulgated occupational exposure standards for many of the chemicals used in the manufacture of paint and allied coating products. NIOSH has also evaluated many of these materials and has published Criteria Documents and other reports which have recommended occupational safety and health standards for them, including occupational exposure limits.
The current OSHA standards and the NIOSH-recommended exposure limits, as well as pertinent health effects, are listed in Appendix B.
The materials used in coatings vary greatly in their toxicity.
Some have been shown to be biologically inert, and others are proven or potential occupational carcinogens.
Pigments are usually handled as finely divided solids that can readily become airborne; adhere to skin, hair, and clothing; and generally coat the work area with dust.
The primary routes of exposure to pigments are inhalation, skin contact, and eye exposure.
Ingestion of pigments can result from eating, smoking, or drinking in the work areas as well as from swallowing material gathered by the mucociliary clearance mechanism in the respiratory tract.
The volatility of m a n y organic solvents and resins at room temperature accounts for the likelihood that workers will be exposed to them by inhalation.
Exposure to solvents and resins by s k i n contact and skin absorption is also common.
An epidemiological study  was conducted on a cohort of 16,243 men from 32 plants who were employed in the manufacture of paint or varnish for at least one year after January 1, 1946.
The total mortality data of these workers compared favorably with that of the United States white male population (i.e., 2,633 deaths observed, standardized mortality ratio  of 86).
However, a statistically significant increased mortality risk from colon and rectal cancer (65 and 26 deaths observed, SMR's of 138 and 139, respectively)
were found. The workers were also divided into seven subgroups on the basis of the type of exposure.
In one of these subgroups (the pigment workers) there was a significant increase of liver cancer (7 deaths observed, SMR of 273, p<0.05).
Lacquer workers had increased, although not significant, liver cancer and leukemia (SMR's of 255 and 212, respectively).
The investigators  concluded that work in this industry presented no major health hazard. However, there were no analyses performed which took into account either exposure or latency.
Without such analyses, positive findings would likely be obscured by the dilution of the study population with persons with inadequate exposure and latency for chronic disease to manifest. There is no basis for the author's conclusions.

# IV. M E T H O D S F O R W O R K E R P R O T E C T I O N
The occupational hazards that have been identified in the paint and allied coating products industry fall into three categories:
(1) accidents, (2) fires and explosions, and (3) exposures to toxic substances and physical agents.
Injuries are reported among coatings industry workers about 18 times more frequently than illnesses  and are the major cause of lost worktime .
The possibility of fires and explosions exists where solvents and other flammable materials are used.
Workers who manufacture paint and allied coating products are also potentially exposed to numerous toxic solvents, pigments, film-formers, and additives.
Possible adverse health effects resulting from exposure to m a n y of these materials, particularly components of some of the more recently developed products, are unknown.
In addition, workers are exposed to more than one substance at a time, and the possible synergistic or additive effects have not been determined.

# A. Prevention of Accidents
To protect workers in the coatings industry, a critical objective is to reduce injuries. Sprains, strains, contusions, bruises, cuts, and lacerations constitute about 66% of the total injuries and illnesses in the coatings industry , The largest source of injuries and illnesses (about 33%) is associated with the handling of boxes, barrels, and containers . Accidents are caused by improper lifting, carrying a load that is too heavy, incorrect gripping, failure to wear appropriate protective clothing, and slips and falls resulting from sudden changes in friction between the shoes and the floor.
It is evident that reducing the number of injuries should be a high priority in the paint and allied coating products industry.
Grimaldi and Simonds  suggested that the causes of all injuries can be divided into two categories:
unsafe physical conditions and unsafe personal acts.
Unsafe physical conditions are due to defects in the condition of equipment, errors in design, faulty planning, or omission of essential safety requirements for maintaining a relatively hazard-free physical environment.
Unsafe physical conditions were grouped by Grimaldi and Simonds   o Removing safety devices or altering their operation so that they are ineffective.
- Operating equipment at unsafe speeds.
- Using unsafe or improper equipment (e.g., using a chisel with a "mushroomed" head, using the hands instead of a brush to remove chips from cutting machines, or using a screwdriver of incorrect size for the slot in the screwhead). o More stable qualities in the makeup of the workforce (i.e., more older, married workers with longer time on the job) were found.
Safety control programs that have the preceding characteristics of workforces with low accident rates and that are oriented toward minimizing the number of unsafe conditions and acts should tend to reduce the number and severity of accidents and injuries in the coatings industry.
Hazard control programs are most effective when they include both specific corrective actions and demonstrable involvement by senior management.
Also, involvement of workers in decision processes leads to improvements in safety compliance .

# Proper Lifting
Overexertion in the workplace accounts for a large number of disabling injuries.
Most of these injuries involve the act of manually handling materials.
A detailed analysis of hazard identification and control involved in lifting is given in the NIOSH technical report, Work Practices Guide for Manual Lifting . It recommends that a job analysis be conducted for tasks associated with increased risk of injury; a detailed procedure for evaluating the analysis for lifting tasks is presented .
For workers to safely perform lifting jobs, employers should institute training, ergonomic/engineering controls, the use of materials handling aids and equipment, and the selection of appropriate individuals as discussed in the following sections.

# a. T r a i n i n g
The training of workers in proper materials handling techniques is generally accepted as a potentially useful technique for reducing injuries.
A The container itself affects safety directly through its weight and size and indirectly through the limitations it imposes on methods of holding and carrying it.
Containers should be as small as possible. A compact load minimizes the compressive forces on the back because the center of gravity of the load can be brought close to the spinal column .
Worker/container coupling affects the ability to exert forces on the object, to maintain grip, and to exercise control --all vital to safe handling. The major problems with most handles are insufficient hand clearance, sharp edges which can cut into the hand, and a handle diameter that is too small.
Handle diameter should range from 2.5-3.8 cm (1.0-1.5 in). Handle width should be at least 11.5 cm (4.5 in) with 5.0 cm (2 in) clearance all around the handle.
If gloves are used, at least 2.5 cm (1 in) should be added to the width and the clearance .
Worker/floor surface coupling is important for maintaining stability and preventing slips, trips, and falls.
Accidents can be reduced by using good housekeeping procedures to reduce transient changes in surface friction such as spills, worn spots, and loose or irregular floors .
Although manual materials handling operations rarely demand the fine visual discrimination of delicate assembly work, lighting can have a large effect on surface texture and depth perception. Low, angled illumination is recommended for enhancing surface texture to warn workers of changes in surface friction.
Color contrasts should be used on the edges of steps, loading docks, and ramps.

# c. Materials Handling Aids and Equipment
The use of materials handling aids (rollers, jacks, and platforms) and mechanical equipment (conveyors, cranes, hoists, hand trucks, and forklifts) can be helpful or necessary in many lifting tasks. Particularly useful are conveyors and other devices which convert lifting into sliding tasks.
The potential benefits of these devices, however, must be weighed against potential safety problems such as suspended loads with cranes and the many hazards in the use of hand-operated trucks and forklifts .

# d. Selection of Appropriate Individuals
To avoid worker-job mismatch, selection of individuals for some jobs is considered desirable. Criteria for selection are lacking, however.
For many industries the principal method has been self-selection by the workers based on their initial tolerance for the demands of the job, a poor choice for obvious reasons.
Other selection methods that have been used are questionnaires on health and medical history; and tests of visual, auditory, and pulmonary function, of blood pressure, mobility, etc., often with the addition of a chest x ray. However, such tests have poor predictive power.
In particular, x rays of the musculoskeletal system have little value in identifying workers who develop back injuries, and their routine use in screening employees is discouraged by medical authorities . The most useful procedure is a medical history coupled with an objective test of performance capacity (e.g., strength testing).

# M a c h i n e G u a r d i n g / R e d e s i g n
An important area of occupational safety and health is that which protects the operator from the hazards of machine operations.
OSHA requires in 29 CFR 1910.212 that one or more methods shall be provided to protect the operator and other workers in the machine area from hazards such as those created by point of operation, in-running nip points, rotating parts, flying chips, sparks, power transmission equipment, etc. Guards shall be affixed to the machine where possible.
Workers who use powered handtools in chipping operations are exposed to hand-arm vibration and potential risk of developing vibration syndrome (also known as vibration white finger and Raynaud's phenomenon). Vibration syndrome has adverse circulatory and neural effects in the fingers; the signs and symptoms include numbness, pain, and blanching (turning pale and ashen) .
NIOSH recommends that jobs be redesigned to minimize the use of vibrating tools and that powered handtools be redesigned to minimize vibration .

# Noise Control
Noise must be controlled wherever it is excessive, both as a means of preventing accidents and as protection from hearing loss.
The noise in dispersion and filling operations is of special concern  as is the use of powered handtools to chip layers of coatings from the insides of containers .
Under the provisions of the OSHA Occupational Noise Standard (29 CFR 1910.95), protection against the effects of noise exposure shall be provided when the sound levels exceed those shown in Table IV

# S O U N D P R E S S U R E L E V E L S (dBA) A T D I F F E R E N T L O C A T I O N S A R O U N D A B A L L M I L L 
(Copyright by Communication Channels, Inc. Reprinted with permission by the Department of Health and Human Services.
Further reproduction prohibited without permission of copyright holder.)

# P O S ITIO N G H iG H R EA D IN G W AS T A K E N W IT H W ASH S O LV E N T IN A STEEL B A LL M ILL; LOW R E A D IN G W AS FOR A W ATER JA C K E T E D LIN E D PEBBLE M IL L U S IN G H IG H D EN SITY G R IN D IN G BALLS.

# B. P r e v e n t i o n of F i r e s a n d E x p l o s i o n s
Many of the organic substances used in the manufacture of paint and allied coating products are highly flammable, and some are also explosive.
Thus, fires and explosions are a constant threat in most manufacturing operations where solvents and other flammable materials are used.

# Static Electricity
The handling of the flammable or explosive liquid raw materials used in the coatings industry requires special techniques and precautions to prevent the accumulation of static electricity.
The object of such measures is .to provide a means whereby charges may recombine harmlessly before sparking potentials are attained or to avoid spark gaps where harmful discharges could occur .
During the transfer of the solvents from one container to another (whether in bulk or in small amounts), effective bonding and grounding should be used to prevent the accumulation of static electricity , "Bonding" is the process of connecting two or more conductive objects together by means of a conductor , "Grounding" is the process of connecting a conductive object to the ground and is a specific form of bonding ,
Fill pipes should go to the bottom of tanks, drums, etc., to minimize the generation of static electricity in the free fall of flammable solvents . Drums cleaned by steam should be electrically bonded to steam lines, and the entire assembly should be grounded.
Before drums are emptied, they should be supported and blocked to prevent movement.
Examples of bonding and grounding arrangements are shown in Figures IV-2, IV-3, IV-4, IV-5, and IV-6. Services.

# FIGURE IV-2. BONDING AND GROUNDING FOR A MECHANICAL PUMPING DEVICE 
HOSE MAY BE EITHER C O N D U C T IN G OR N O N C O N D U C T IN G . C O N D U C T IN G H OSE A N D N O Z ZLE IN C O N T A C T W ITH C O N T A IN E R -NO O TH ER B O N D
Further reproduction prohibited without permission of copyright holder.)

# F L E X IB L E AIR DUCT ( M E T A L -F A B R IC ) HANGING FROM R IG ID DUCT S Y S T E M FIGURE IV-6. TYPICAL GROUNDING ARRANGEMENT FOR THINNING OR MIXING EQUIPMENT 
(Copyright by The Sherwin-Williams Company.

# Reprinted with permission by the Department of Health and Human
Services.
Further reproduction prohibited without permission of copyright holder.)

# Work Practices
Procedures and precautions for preventing fires and explosions include:
(1) regular inspection of equipment and storage tanks, (2) immediate repair of leaks, pumps, and lines, (3) periodic testing of pressure equipment, and (4) ventilation to reduce vapor concentrations.
Containers of solvents or hot resins should be tightly covered at all times except when material is transferred.
Containers of not more than five gallons capacity, having a spring-closing lid and spout cover and so designed to safely relieve internal pressure when subjected to fire exposure, should be used to hold working amounts of solvents.
Since small amounts of residue may remain and present a fire hazard, containers that have held solvents should be thoroughly cleaned with steam and then drained and dried before re-use.
Fittings and open heaters should be prohibited except in specified areas.
Fire hazards around tank trucks and cars can be reduced by turning off their motors and not starting them during loading or unloading operations.
Good housekeeping is also imperative to prevent fires.
After eliminating potential sources of ignition, spills should be cleaned up immediately after the area is ventilated.
Stopping leaks and spills will eliminate fire hazards and help conserve raw materials, keep chemicals out of the effluent system, and reduce worker exposure. Combustible materials such as cleaning rags should be disposed of in metal containers filled with water . Specific OSHA requirements for the storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids are given in 29 CFR 1910.106.

# C. Controlling Exposures to Toxic Substances
Exposure to the thousands of raw materials (i.e., pigments, solvents, film-formers, and additives) used in the paint and allied coating products industry also poses a potential hazard.
A variety of technologies such as process enclosure, modification of existing equipment, mechanical pumping systems, local exhaust ventilation, hazardous substance identification systems, protective clothing and equipment, and implementation of safe work practices can be used to control exposures to toxic substances.
The conclusions of a NIOSH-sponsored study  indicate that the coatings industry relies on relatively well-known technology and uses equipment and procedures that are commonly used in a wide variety of other industries.
The effectiveness with which the coatings industry has controlled worker exposure to toxic substances can be evaluated somewhat by reviewing the records of OSHA compliance investigations.
For the industries within the SIC code 2851, data are available from OSHA health inspections completed during the period June 1979 to January 1984.
Table IV-2 indicates the numbers of different samples collected and whether the concentrations found were above or below the Federal occupational standard in effect at the time ,
The majority of tests (94%) showed that the concentrations of the substances evaluated were within applicable Federal standards.
On the basis of these tests, it can be concluded that it is probably feasible in the coatings industry, through engineering controls and effective work practices, to limit exposures to most hazardous substances to within Federal s tandards.    To identify specific hazards, comprehensive industrial hygiene evaluations (including appropriate measurements) should be conducted.
Such evaluations should be conducted at least yearly or when any change in process, raw material, or engineering control occurs which could result in increased exposure to toxic substances.
The results of these evaluations should be used to guide employers in implementing effective work practices and engineering controls, worker training, medical surveillance, and the use of personal protective clothing and equipment.

# Informing Workers of Hazards
OSHA on November 21, 1983, promulgated an occupational safety and health standard titled "Hazard Communication." Under the provisions of this standard (29 CFR 1910(29 CFR .1200 The hazard communication program is to be written and is to be made available to workers and their designated representatives. Chemical manufacturers, importers, and distributors are required to ensure that containers of hazardous chemicals leaving their workplaces are labeled, tagged, or marked with the identity, appropriate hazard warnings, and the name and address of the manufacturer or other responsible party.
Employers must ensure that labels on incoming containers of hazardous chemicals are not removed or defaced unless they are immediately replaced with other labels containing the required information.
Each container in the workplace must be prominently labeled, tagged, or marked with the identity of hazardous chemicals contained therein along with hazard warnings appropriate for worker protection.
If there are a number of stationary containers within a work area which have similar contents and hazards, the employer may post signs or placards which convey the hazard information required rather than individually labeling each container.
Employers may use various types of standard operating procedures, process sheets, batch tickets, or other such written materials as substitutes for individual container labels on stationary process equipment.
However, these written materials must contain the same information as is required on the labels and must be readily accessible to workers in the work areas.
Pipes or piping systems are exempted altogether from the OSHA labeling requirements although NIOSH recommends that filler ports and outlets be labeled.
In addition, NIOSH recommends that a system should be set up to ensure that pipes containing hazardous materials are identified to avoid accidental cutting and discharge of hazardous materials.
Employers are not required to label portable containers into which hazardous chemicals are transferred from labeled containers and which are intended only for the immediate use of the worker who performs the transfer.
According to the OSHA definition of "immediate use," for the exemption to apply, the container must be under the control of the worker performing the transfer and must be used only within the workshift in which it is transferred.
The OSHA Hazard Communication standard requires chemical manufacturers and importers to develop a material safety data sheet (MSDS) for each hazardous chemical they produce or import. Employers in the manufacturing sector (which includes paint and allied coating products manufacturing) are required to obtain or develop a MSDS for each hazardous chemical used in their workplaces. The MSDS is required to provide specific information such as the chemical and common names for the hazardous chemical.
For hazardous chemical mixtures, each component which comprises 1% or more and which is itself a health hazard must be listed. Any chemical which is determined to be a carcinogen must be listed if it is present in quantities of 0.1% or greater.
Ingredients present in concentrations of less than one percent must also be listed if there is evidence that the permissible exposure limit may be exceeded or if it could present a health hazard in those concentrations.
Additional information on the MSDS must include data on the physical and chemical characteristics of the hazardous chemical, known acute and chronic health effects, precautionary measures, and emergency and first aid procedures. The NIOSH publication, A Recommended Standard--An Identification System for Occupationally Hazardous Materials , can be used as a guide when preparing the MSDS. Required information can be recorded on the "Material Safety Data Sheet" shown in Appendix C, or on a similar form.
Employers are to establish a training program for all workers exposed to hazardous chemicals.
Training is to be provided at the time of initial assignment and whenever a new chemical hazard is introduced into their work area.
Workers are to be informed of specific hazards involved in any operations in their work areas where hazardous chemicals are present.
This may be done by individual chemical or by categories of hazards, but in any case the worker is to be aware that information is available on the specific hazards of individual chemicals through the MSDS.
Workers are also to be trained regarding methods and observations that may be used to detect the presence or release of hazardous chemicals (e.g., monitoring conducted by the employer, continuous monitoring devices, visual appearance or odor of hazardous chemicals when being released, etc.   Bulk handling methods for liquid raw materials which include techniques for bulk storage, piping, mechanical pumping (rather than pouring), and metering liquids minimize the opportunity for volatile liquids to contact ambient air.
Systems for the bulk handling of pigments and other powdered materials also have been developed , The bulk handling system shown in Figure IV-8 uses bulk delivery vehicles, the transfer of materials by pipes to tanks that have lids, and built-in dust collectors and operates in the following manner.
Pigment is blown from trailers or rail cars into a steel storage silo.
From the silo, pigment is blown through piping to a use bin located on the roof of the manufacturing building directly over the mixing area.
Weighed quantities of pigment are delivered directly or via batch dollies to mixers.
A low-level sensor actuates the transfer system to feed pigment from the silo when the pigment falls to a preselected level.
Pigment is added to the use bin until its level activates a flow-cutoff sensor .
Despite precautions, the area around dispersion equipment often becomes quite dusty and frequent vacuum cleaning is recommended . Compressed air should not be used to remove pigment dust from clothing or work surfaces because it will result in the secondary generation of airborne dust.
It is also recommended that soiled clothing not be taken home for cleaning but be cleaned either by an industrial laundry or an on-site facility.
When solvents or caustic solutions are used for cleaning dispersion equipment, it is important to avoid skin, eye, and inhalation exposures, which are especially likely to occur during manual cleaning.
When using caustic solutions, care should be taken during the preparation of the solution to prevent excessive heat generation; dry caustic, typically 3 pounds per gallon , should be added slowly to the water . Caustic solutions should not be superheated because of the possibility that the tank will "boil over" .
Because caustics may react violently with aluminum, caustic solutions should not be used to clean out tanks that have contained aluminum paint .
Special precautions should also be taken in the handling of aluminum paste or powder which can generate hydrogen gas when in contact with moisture . When this occurs in closed containers of aluminum pigments, sufficient pressure may build up to cause an explosion and fire .
Spills are likely to occur during filling operations when automated equipment malfunctions.
Immediate spill cleanup can reduce vapor release.
Worker training programs that address techniques for spill cleanup are useful.
For major spills, some useful special procedures include the use of protective equipment (e.g., rubber boots), portable ventilation, absorbent material (e.g., floor sweeping compound, sawdust, -j Contact with coatings or their components (especially radiation-curable coatings) should be avoided, if possible, but should be followed by the immediate washing of contaminated skin with soap and water, immediate flushing of exposed eyes with copious amounts of water, and quick removal of contaminated clothing.
HI & LOW LEVEL IN D IC A T O R USE BIN D IS C H A R G E A S S E M B LY (FLE XIB LE) SCALE M IX IN G T A N K S DUST C O LLE C T O R D ELIVER Y PIPE -U N L O A D IN G PIPE B IN A C T IV A T O R .FEEDER C O N V E Y IN G BLOW ER
Exposure of workers to toxic substances may also occur through the use of food, beverages, or tobacco products in areas where toxic substances are present.
For that reason, such activities (eating, smoking, etc.) should be prohibited in those areas. Good sanitation and hygiene practices should be encouraged by worker training, posting of warning signs, supervision, and provision for adequate eating and sanitation facilities, the latter of which should include change rooms, showers, and wash basins . For all work areas in which there is a potential for emergencies involving toxic materials, the employer should take necessary steps to ensure that workers are instructed in and follow the specified procedures.
Prearranged plans should be established for administering first aid and emergency medical care and for transportation of injured workers.
Firefighting procedures should also be established and implemented.
Personnel who may be required to shut off sources of solvents, clean up spills, and repair leaks should be properly trained in the appropriate procedures.
In case of fire, solvent sources should be shut off or removed.
Chemical foam, carbon dioxide, or dry chemicals should be used for fighting solvent fires, and proper respiratory protection and clothing should be worn.
Nonessential workers should be evacuated from exposure areas during emergencies.
Warning or alarm systems should be considered to alert workers to possible hazardous exposures during emergencies .
Entry into confined or enclosed spaces where there is limited egress, such as tanks, pits, trucks and tank cars, and process vessels, should be controlled by a permit system.
Permits should be signed by an authorized employer representative and should certify that preparation of the confined space, precautionary measures, and personal protective equipment are adequate.
Further

# Substitution of Raw Materials
Occupational health hazards can also be controlled by the substitution of raw materials.
Because of their potential for environmental damage or consumer injury, the use of lead, chromates, and mercury compounds and various highly volatile solvents in many applications has been reduced or eliminated with replacement by other, less hazardous substances. An example is the use of zinc metal, zinc oxide, molybdates, and phosphates instead of lead and chromates as pigments in industrial maintenance coatings or the use of cuprous oxide or organotin compounds in antifouling paints rather than organic mercury, lead, and arsenic compounds .
In addition, many potent paint and varnish removers such as benzene, phenol, and cresols are no longer used , Another type of raw material substitution being utilized in paint manufacturing involves replacing dry pigments with pigment slurries .
As depicted in Figure IV-9, instead of storing and handling bagged dry pigments, slurries can be pumped from railroad cars into storage tanks and then to the mixing floor as needed, thus eliminating the release of pigment dust into the workplace air and simplifying pigment dispersion ,

# Engineering Controls
Occupational exposures to hazardous substances should be controlled at the source of the hazard wherever feasible.
This can be achieved by process or equipment modification, isolation of stored materials and processes, and local exhaust ventilation.
One of the most effective methods of dust control during the weighing and assembling of raw materials is a system that utilizes a closed fabricated metal booth that rests on top of the mixer and is connected by ducts to both a dust collector and an empty bag shredder.
Inside the booth, a bag of pigment is placed on a table and cut open as it is pushed over a mounted metal blade. The pigment falls through the cut in the bag into the mixer, and the empty bag is lifted slightly by the worker and is drawn upward and away by suction (Figure IV-10).
Another method that can effectively control dust and vapor is the use of a ventilated booth where materials are weighed or transferred. This results in reduced worker exposure and a decrease in the amount of dust and vapor released into the general workroom air. Dust-laden air that is exhausted should be collected in bag houses or forced through scrubbers or electrostatic precipitators.
Vapor-laden air can be scrubbed, incinerated, condensed, or adsorbed , Portable exhaust ventilation is another common control technique. This is accomplished with a hood attached to a flexible duct that leads to a fan. The effectiveness of this type of control varies, depending on the type of hood used, its placement, and its face velocity. Portable exhaust ventilation is generally, but not necessarily, less effective than ventilated hoods that enclose or confine a contaminant because exhaust volumes are large and control can be easily upset by cross drafts in the area .

# HIGH SPEED MIXING TANK R E C O V E R E D P IG M E N T R E C Y C L E FO R DA RK P R IM E R P A IN T S TO SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
Enclosed equipment, such as ball or pebble mills, is free of vapor release during operation, but this is not the case with high-speed dispersers, which are open to the air. The use of covers and lids on containers can reduce vapor emissions. This is especially true during the thinning, tinting, and shading operations when temporary containers often remain open for long periods of time while laboratory analysis and subsequent adjustments are performed.
Sand mills often discharge into open portable tanks resulting in potential solvent emissions .
Since vapors are emitted when containers are filled with solvent-based coatings, exhaust ventilation may be needed at the point of filling.
Because of the heat required and the by-products that need to be controlled, operations in varnish manufacture differ from other operations in the paint and allied coating products industry.
Both reactors and open and closed kettles are used to produce varnishes with the hazard of exposure to toxic emissions being greatest for open kettles.
Emissions are generated during cooking processes when kettles are opened for charging or product sampling.
Most kettles are currently fitted with retractable hoods and exhaust systems, some of which incorporate solvent condensers .
Figure  shows the control measures used in a typical varnish cooking room. Ventilation systems used to control vapors are most effective when designed to control vapors generated at temperatures higher than the ambient air .
Condensed vapors collect to some extent as a sticky film on the relatively cool hood and duct walls, necessitating frequent cleaning and maintenance.
Hood design should provide for access to the kettle during use of the hood and should be designed to prevent contamination or exposure by the dripping of condensate from its inner surfaces . Varnish production vapor emissions can be controlled by water scrubbing, combustion, vapor incineration, high stack dispersal, or condensation ,
Because of the nature of the process, workers in varnish manufacturing operations may be subject to heat stress or to contact with hot surfaces.
Screens or guards can be used to shield workers from contact with hot surfaces and from radiant heat.
In some cases, protective qlothing (particularly gloves) is useful.
With open kettles, the hot material can splatter on workers.
This hazard can be prevented, however, by covering the kettles or by using enclosures or splatter-gua rd s. Measurements of the effectiveness of the system should also be made as soon as possible after any change in production, process, or control which may result in any increase in airborne contaminants.
It is essential that any scheme that involves exhausting air from a work area should also provide for a positive means of bringing in at least an equal volume of air from the outside, conditioning it, and evenly distributing it throughout the exhausted area.
The

# Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment
Workers should use appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment which must be carefully selected, used, and maintained to be effective. The SDS data  indicated that 60% of the injuries or illnesses associated with chemicals or chemical compounds were caused by skin contact and 47% resulted in chemical burns.
To prevent skin contact, gloves, aprons, boots, etc. should be made of materials resistant to the hazardous substances in question, particularly the solvents. Splash-proof chemical safety goggles or face shields, (20-30 cm minimum) should be worn in any operation in which there is a likelihood of a solvent, caustic, or other toxic substance being splashed into the eyes.

# Medical Surveillance
The medical officer responsible for the health of workers should be apprised of potential workplace hazards, based on safety and health evaluations, and appropriate medical surveillance should be conducted. The number and type of tests to be performed should be based on the substance or hazards to which the worker may be exposed. In any case, preplacement examinations should be performed and should include at least a medical and occupational history, a comprehensive physical examination, and a judgement of the worker's ability to use positive or negative pressure respirators.
Emergency first-aid programs should be developed that are based on the results of the workplace occupational safety and health evaluation.
Periodic examinations should be carried out at the discretion of the responsible physician based on the adverse health effects and nature of the hazards identified.
Health hazards identified for which NIOSH has made specific recommendations should be addressed in accordance with those specific recommendations.
Pertinent medical records of all workers should be kept by employers for at least 30 years after termination of employment. Each worker should have access to information contained in his or her own medical records. A revolving cylindrical metal mill that uses steel balls, stones, or other media to grind or disperse the pigment in the film-former.
Film-forming material applied for protection or decoration of surfaces.
The mixing of materials, usually liquids, without the addition of heat.
The heating of the combined ingredients of a varnish.
A machine that unloads a pallet of materials.
A liquid that is blended with an active solvent to reduce cos t.
Any heterogeneous system of solids, gases, or liquids.
Oils capable of absorbing oxygen from the air and becoming solid films.
A pigment that contributes little hiding to the system but does reinforce the film and alter its gloss.
The nonvolatile binder portion of a coating.
These may be classified as either thermoplastic or convertible (see vehicle).
The lowest temperature at which a substance in an open vessel gives off enough vapors to produce a flash of fire when a flame is passed near the surface as described by American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) test procedures.

# Flush Colors
Water dispersions of organic and inorganic pigments that are supplied as organophilic pastes.
The ability of a paint to obscure the background over which it is applied.
Coatings that contain more than 70% nonvolatile material.
Vessel used in the production of varnish.
Usually indicates a material that dries by evaporation and forms a film from the nonvolatile constituents.
A generic term describing stable dispersions of resin particles in a water system.
An increase in the consistency of paint resulting in a rubbery or coagulated mass.
A general term for a water-insoluble viscous liquid usually consisting of triglycerides.
A material that has been made by a combination of oil and resin.
A dispersion formed by the suspension of resin particles (usually a vinyl resin) in a liquid consisting of volatile solvents.
Mills usually lined with porcelain or buhrstone in which flint pebbles or porcelain balls are used as the grinding media.
A dispersion formed by the suspension of resin particles (usually vinyl) in a liquid consisting only of plasticizers.
Pigmented polymer coatings applied in powder form by various techniques such as electrostatic spray, fluidized bed, flocking gun, flame spray, or cloud chamber.
The phase of coatings production in which raw materials are weighed and assembled for mixing.

# Coatings
that dry or cure as the result of initiation of polymerization by radiation such as infrared, ultraviolet, or electron beam. Resins that soften and flow when heated and, on cooling, regain their original physical and chemical properties.

# Resin

# Resins
that undergo a chemical change and become hard after heating and cannot be resoftened.
When used as a film-former, they are often referred to as convertible film-formers.
Coatings, usually urethane, formed by catalytic conversion that occurs so rapidly at ambient temperature that the components must be shipped in two separate containers.
Solutions of film-formers in organic solvents, with no pigments.
The liquid portion of a coating material that forms the finished film and binds the pigments in the coating (see film-former).    The "%" may be the approximate percentage by weight or volume (indicate basis) which each hazardous ingredient of the mixture bears to the whole mixture.

# VIII. APPENDIX B SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS AND EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR SUBSTANCES POTENTIALLY PRESENT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PAINT AND ALLIED COATING PRODUCTS

# Agent
This may be indicated as a range or maximum amount, i.e., "10-40% vol." or "10% max.
wt." to avoid disclosure of trade secrets.
Toxic hazard data shall be stated in terms of concentration, mode of exposure or test, and animal used, e.g., "100 ppm LC50-rat," "25 mg/kg LD50-skin-rabbit," "75 ppm LC man," "permissible exposure from 29 CFR 191029 CFR .1000  The data in Section III should be for the total mixture and should include the boiling point and melting point in degrees Fahrenheit (Celsius in parentheses); vapor pressure, in conventional millimeters of mercury (mmHg); vapor density of gas or vapor (air=l); solubility in water, in parts/hundred parts of water by weight; specific gravity (water=l); percent volatiles (indicated if by weight or volume) at 70F (21.1C); evaporation rate for liquids or sublimable solids, relative to butyl acetate; and appearance and odor. These data are useful for the control of toxic substances.
Boiling point, vapor density, percent volatiles, vapor pressure, and evaporation are useful for designing proper ventilation equipment.
This information is also useful for design and deployment of adequate fire and spill containment equipment.
The appearance and odor may facilitate identification of substances stored in improperly marked containers or when spilled.

# Section IV. Fire and Explosion Data
Section IV should contain complete fire and explosion data for the product, including flash point and autoignition temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (Celsius in parentheses); flammable limits, in percent by volume in air; suitable extinguishing media or materials; special firefighting procedures; and unusual fire and explosion hazard information.
If the product presents no fire hazard, insert "NO FIRE HAZARD" on the line labeled "Extinguishing Media."

# Section V. Health Hazard Information
The "Health Hazard Data" should be a combined estimate of the hazard of the total product. This can be expressed as a TWA concentration, as a permissible exposure, or by some other indication of an acceptable standard.
Other data are acceptable, such as lowest LD50 if multiple components are involved.

# Ill
Under "Routes of Exposure," comments in each category should reflect the potential hazard from absorption by the route in question.
Comments should indicate the severity of the effect and the basis for the statement if possible. The basis might be animal studies, analogy with similar products, or human experiences. Comments such as "yes" or "possible" are not helpful. Typical comments might be: Skin Contact-single short contact, no adverse effects likely; prolonged or repeated contact, possibly mild irritation.
Eye Contact-some pain and mild transient irritation; no corneal scarring.
"Emergency and First Aid Procedures" should be written in lay language and should primarily represent first-aid treatment that could be provided by paramedical personnel or individuals trained in first aid.
Information in the "Notes to Physician" section should include any special medical information which would be of assistance to an attending physician including required or recommended preplacement and periodic medical examinations, diagnostic procedures, and medical management of overexposed workers.

# Section VI. Reactivity Data
The comments in Section VI relate to safe storage and handling of hazardous, unstable substances.
It is particularly important to highlight instability or incompatibility to common substances or circumstances, such as water, direct sunlight, steel or copper piping, acids, alkalies, etc.
"Hazardous Decomposition Products" shall include those products released under fire conditions.
It must also include dangerous products produced by aging, such as peroxides in the case of some ethers.
Where applicable, shelf life should also be indicated.

# Section VII. Spill or Leak Procedures
Detailed procedures for cleanup and disposal should be listed with emphasis on precautions to be taken to protect workers assigned to cleanup detail. Specific neutralizing chemicals or procedures should be described in detail.
Disposal methods should be explicit including proper labeling of containers holding residues and ultimate disposal methods such as "sanitary landfill" or "incineration."
Warnings such as "comply with local, state, and Federal antipollution ordinances" are proper but not sufficient. Specific procedures shall be identified.

# Section VIII. Special Protection Information
Section VIII requires specific information. Statements such as "Yes," "No," or "If necessary" are not informative. Ventilation requirements should be specific as to type and preferred methods.
Respirators shall be specified as to type and NIOSH or Mine Safety and Health Administration approval class, i.e., "Supplied air," "Organic vapor canister," etc. Protective equipment must be specified as to type and materials of construction. Section IX. Special Precautions "Precautionary Statements" shall consist of the label statements selected for use on the container or placard.
Additional information on any aspect of safety or health not covered in other sections should be inserted in Section IX.
The lower block can contain references to published guides or in-house procedures for handling and storage. Department of Transportation markings and classifications and other freight, handling, or storage requirements and environmental controls can be noted.

# Signature and Filing
Finally, the name and address of the responsible person who completed the MSDS and the date of completion are entered. This will facilitate correction of errors and identify a source of additional information.
The MSDS shall be filed in a location readily accessible to workers exposed to the hazardous substance.
The

# V . RESEARCH NEEDS
There is Little published information on the health experience of workers engaged in the manufacture of paint and allied coating products.
Additional epidemiological studies are needed to determine the morbidity and mortality experience of workers in this industry.
Frequent use of volatile solvents throughout the coatings industry increases the possibility that subtle behavioral and neurological effects will occur in workers.
A potential problem of chronic deterioration of the central nervous system has recently been identified in Scandinavia among workers with long-term solvent exposures . More information is needed to evaluate tnese effects. Fortunately, the need for this type of information becomes less urgent as solvent-based coatings are being progressively replaced by water-based coatings.
However, it has been estimated that considerable quantities of solvents will still be used by the coatings industry in 1990 .

# Documentation of the exposures
that occur in operations where powder coatings and reactive coatings (e.g., radiation-curable coatings) are produced is needed since little is known of the hazards present during their manufac ture.
Research is needed to develop more comfortable and effective personal protective equipment, particularly respirators.
It is also important to determine the effect on respirator filter cartridge or canister life when there is a mixture of solvents in the surrounding air.
Cohen A: Factors in successful occupational safety programs. J Safety Research 9(4);168-77 (1977

# IX. APPENDIX C MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
The following items of information which are applicable to a specific product or material shall be provided in the appropriate block of the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
The product designation is inserted in the block in the upper left corner of the first page to facilitate filing and retrieval. Print in upper case letters as large as possible.
It should be printed to read upright with the sheet turned sideways.
The product designation is that name or code designation which appears on the label or by which the product is sold or known by workers.
The relative numerical hazard ratings and key statements are those determined by the rules in Chapter V, Part The company identification may be printed in the upper right corner if desired.

# Section I. Production Identification
The manufacturer's name, address, and regular and emergency telephone numbers (including area code) are inserted in the appropriate blocks of Section I.
The company listed should be a source of detailed backup information on the hazards of the material(s) covered by the MSDS.
The listing of suppliers or wholesale distributors is discouraged. The trade name should be the product designation or common name associated with the material.
The synonyms are those commonly used for the product, especially formal chemical nomenclature.
Not every known chemical designation or competitor's trade name needs to be listed.

# Section II. Hazardous Ingredients
The "materials" listed in Section II shall be those substances which are part of the hazardous product covered by the MSDS and which individually meet any of the criteria defining a hazardous material.
Thus, one component of a multicomponent product might be listed because of its toxicity, another component because of its flammability, while a third component could be included both for its toxicity and its reactivity.
Note that a MSDS for a single component product must have the name of the material repeated in this section to avoid giving the impression that there are no hazardous ingredients. Chemical substances should be listed according to their complete name derived from a recognized system of nomenclature.
Where possible, avoid using common names and general class names such as "aromatic amine," "safety solvent," or "aliphatic hydrocarbon" when the specific name is known.   8 8 97 1 1 3 1 0 8 9 9 7 1 1 4 1 0 9 0 9 8 1 1 5 1 0 91 9 8 1 1 6 1 0 92 9 9 1 1 7 1 0 9 3 9 9 1 1 8 1 0 94 9 9 1 1 9 1 0 9 5 99 1 2 0 1 0 96 9 9 1 2 1 1 0 9 7 1 0 0 , 1 0 1 1 2 2 1 0 9 8 1 0 3 1 2 3 1 0 9 9 1 0 4 1 2 4 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 4 1 2 5 1 0 GOVERNMEN' PPiNTlNG OPFlCE '

# MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET 1 PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION M A N U F A C T U R E R S NAM E R E G U L A R TE LE PH O N E NO E M E R G E N C Y TELEPHO NE

# PROCEDURES U N U S U A L FIRE A N D EXPLOSION H A Z A R D V HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION H E A L T H H A Z A R D DA T A RO UTES OF EXPOSURE IN H A L A T IO