Management of Hyperglycemia in Type 2 Diabetes, 2018. A Consensus Report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD)

 [bib_ref] Shared decision making in endocrinology: present and future directions, Rodriguez-Gutierrez [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] A1C targets should be personalized to maximize benefits while limiting risks, Riddle [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] A1C targets should be personalized to maximize benefits while limiting risks, Riddle [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Legacy benefits of blood glucose, blood pressure and lipid control in individuals..., Khunti [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] The changing face of diabetes complications, Gregg [/bib_ref] 

## Glucose management: monitoring
Glycemic management is primarily assessed with the HbA 1c test, which was the measure studied in trials demonstrating the benefits of glucose lowering. The performance of the test is generally excellent for NGSP-certified assays and laboratories (www.ngsp.org) [bib_ref] Status of HbA 1c measurement and goals for improvement: from chaos to..., Little [/bib_ref]. As with any laboratory test, HbA 1c has limitations. Because there is variability in the measurement of HbA 1c , clinicians should exercise judgment, particularly when the result is close to the threshold that might prompt a change in therapy. HbA 1c results may be discrepant from the patient's true mean glycemia in certain racial and ethnic groups, and in conditions that alter red blood cell turnover, such as anemia, end-stage renal disease (ESRD) (especially with erythropoietin therapy), and pregnancy, or if an HbA 1c assay sensitive to hemoglobin variants is used in someone with sickle cell trait or other hemoglobinopathy. Discrepancies between measured HbA 1c and measured or reported glucose levels should prompt consideration that one of these may not be reliable.
Regular self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) may help with self-management and medication adjustment, particularly in individuals taking insulin. SMBG plans should be individualized. People with diabetes and the health care team should use the data in an effective and timely manner. In people with type 2 diabetes not using insulin, routine glucose monitoring is of limited additional clinical benefit while adding burden and cost [bib_ref] Effects of structured versus unstructured self-monitoring of blood glucose on glucose control..., Mannucci [/bib_ref]. However, for some individuals, glucose monitoring can provide insight into the impact of lifestyle and medication management on blood glucose and symptoms, particularly when combined with education and support. Novel technologies, such as continuous or flash glucose monitoring, provide more information. However, in type 2 diabetes, they have been associated with only modest benefits [bib_ref] A multicenter real-life study on the effect of flash glucose monitoring on..., Anjana [/bib_ref]. strategy to arrive at the best treatment course for an individual [bib_ref] What is shared decision making? (and what it is not), Kunneman [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] The design of a decision aid about diabetes medications for use during..., Breslin [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] The diabetes mellitus medication choice decision aid: a randomized trial, Mullan [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Decision aids for people facing health treatment or screening decisions, Stacey [/bib_ref]. Providers should evaluate the impact of any suggested intervention, including self-care regimens, in the context of cognitive impairment, limited literacy, distinct cultural beliefs, and individual fears or health concerns given their impact on treatment efficacy.

## Dsmes

## Consensus recommendation
c All people with type 2 diabetes should be offered access to ongoing DSMES programs.
DSMES is a key intervention to enable people with diabetes to make informed decisions and to assume responsibility for day-to-day diabetes management. DSMES is central to establishing and implementing the principles of care . DSMES programs usually involve face-to-face contact in group or individual sessions with trained educators, and key components are shown in [fig_ref] Table 1 -: Key components of DSMES [/fig_ref] [bib_ref] Diabetes self-management education and support in type 2 diabetes: a joint position..., Powers [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Standards Revision Task Force. 2017 National standards for diabetes self-management education and..., Beck [/bib_ref]. While DSMES should be available on an ongoing basis, critical junctures when DSMES should occur include at diagnosis, annually, when complications arise, and during transitions in life and care [bib_ref] Diabetes self-management education and support in type 2 diabetes: a joint position..., Powers [/bib_ref]. DSMES programs delivered from diagnosis can promote medication adherence, healthy eating, and physical activity, and increase self-efficacy.
In type 2 diabetes, high-quality evidence has consistently shown that DSMES is a cost-effective intervention in the health care systems studied. DSMES significantly improves clinical and psychological outcomes, improves glycemic control, reduces hospital admissions, improves patient knowledge, and reduces the risk of all-cause mortality [bib_ref] Diabetes self-management education and support in type 2 diabetes: a joint position..., Powers [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Diabetes self-management education for adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic..., Chrvala [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Theory-based self-management educational interventions on patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic..., Zhao [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Effectiveness of groupbased self-management education for individuals with type 2 diabetes: a..., Odgers-Jewell [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Diabetes selfmanagement education reduces risk of all-cause mortality in type 2 diabetes..., He [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Diabetes structured selfmanagement education programmes: a narrative review and current innovations, Chatterjee [/bib_ref]. The best outcomes are achieved in those programs with a theory-based and structured curriculum and with contact time of over 10 h. While online programs may reinforce learning, there is little evidence they are effective when used alone.

## Consensus recommendation
c Facilitating medication adherence should be specifically considered when selecting glucose-lowering medications.
Suboptimal adherence, including poor persistence, to therapy affects almost half of people with diabetes, leading to suboptimal glycemic and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor control as well as increased risk of diabetes complications, mortality, hospital admissions, and health care costs [bib_ref] Longitudinal effects of medication nonadherence on glycemic control, Egede [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Medication adherence in patients with diabetes mellitus: does physician drug dispensing enhance..., Huber [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Metaanalysis of studies examining medication adherence, persistence, and discontinuation of oral antihyperglycemic..., Iglay [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Systematic review of adherence rates by medication class in type 2 diabetes:..., Mcgovern [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Poor medication adherence in type 2 diabetes: recognizing the scope of the..., Khunti [/bib_ref]. Though this consensus recommendation focuses on medication adherence (including persistence), the principles are pertinent to all aspects of diabetes care. Multiple factors contribute to inconsistent medication use and treatment discontinuation, including patientperceived lack of medication efficacy, fear of hypoglycemia, lack of access to medication, and adverse effects of medication (37). Medication adherence (including persistence) varies across medication classes and careful consideration of these differences may help improve outcomes [bib_ref] Comparison of medication adherence and persistence in type 2 diabetes: a systematic..., Mcgovern [/bib_ref]. Ultimately, patient preference is a major factor driving the choice of medication. Even in cases where clinical characteristics suggest the use of a particular medication based on the available evidence from clinical trials, patient preferences regarding route of administration, injection devices, side effects, or cost may prevent their use by some individuals [bib_ref] Pen devices for insulin self-administration compared with needle and vial: systematic review..., Lasalvia [/bib_ref]. Therapeutic inertia, sometimes referred to as clinical inertia, refers to failure to intensify therapy when treatment targets are not met. The causes of therapeutic inertia are multifactorial, occurring at the level of the practitioner, patient, and/or health care system [bib_ref] Clinical inertia-time to reappraise the terminology?, Khunti [/bib_ref]. Interventions targeting therapeutic inertia have facilitated improved glycemic control and timely insulin intensification [bib_ref] Overcoming clinical inertia in insulin initiation in primary care for patients with..., Furler [/bib_ref]. For example, multidisciplinary teams that include nurse practitioners or pharmacists may help reduce therapeutic inertia [bib_ref] Improving risk factor management for patients with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes:..., Tabesh [/bib_ref]. A fragmented health care system may contribute to therapeutic inertia and impair delivery of patientcentered care. A coordinated chronic care model, including self-management support, decision support, delivery system design, clinical information systems, and community resources and policies, promotes interaction between more empowered patients and better prepared and proactive health care teams. In prior consensus statements, efficacy in reducing hyperglycemia, along with tolerability and safety were primary factors in glucose-lowering medication selection. Patient preferences, glycemic targets, comorbidities, polypharmacy, side effects, and cost were additional DSMES is a critical element of care for all people with diabetes and is the ongoing process of facilitating the knowledge, skills, and ability necessary for diabetes self-care as well as activities that assist a person implementing and sustaining behaviors needed to manage their diabetes on an ongoing basis. National organizations in the U.S. and Europe have published standards to underpin DSMES. In the U.S., these are defined as DSMES "services," whereas in Europe they are often referred to as "programs." Nevertheless, the broad components are similar.
important considerations. For every individual, the choice of glucose-lowering medication should be underpinned by lifestyle management, DSMES, and the patient-centered care principles outlined in . describes our new consensus approach to glucose lowering with medications in type 2 diabetes. Because of the new evidence for the benefit of specific medications to reduce mortality, heart failure (HF), and progression of renal disease in the setting of established CVD, their use was considered compelling in this patient group. Thus, we recommend that providers consider a history of CVD very early in the process of treatment selection. Other factors affect the choice of glucose-lowering medications, particularly in the setting of patient-centered care. In addition to CVD, we recommend early consideration of weight, hypoglycemic risk, treatment cost, and other patient-related factors that may influence treatment selection (Figs. 2-6).

## Implications of new evidence from cardiovascular outcomes trials
The major change from prior consensus reports is based on new evidence that specific sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors or glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists improve cardiovascular outcomes, as well as secondary outcomes such as HF and progression of renal disease, in patients with established CVD or CKD. Therefore, an important early step in this new approach is to consider the presence or absence of ASCVD, HF, and CKD, conditions in aggregate affecting 15-25% of the population with type 2 diabetes. While the new evidence supporting the use of particular medications in patients who also have established CVD or are at high risk of CVD is derived from large cardiovascular outcomes trials (CVOTs) demonstrating substantial benefits over 2-5 years, it is important to remember that each trial constitutes a single experiment. Within each drug class, results have been heterogeneous. It is not clear whether there are true drug-class effects with different findings for individual medications due to differences in trial design and conduct, or whether there are real differences between medications within a drug class due to properties of the individual compounds.
Where the current evidence is strongest for a specific medication within a class, it is noted. The American Diabetes Association's (ADA) Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes will align with this document and will be updated to reflect new evidence as it emerges from ongoing clinical trials. years, but the reduction in events appeared to be driven by the rate of stroke rather than CVD death [bib_ref] SUSTAIN-6 Investigators. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes, Marso [/bib_ref]. The Exenatide Study of Cardiovascular Event Lowering (EXSCEL) compared exenatide extended-release with placebo over 3.2 years in 14,752 participants with type 2 diabetes. While the medication was safe (noninferior), the HR for MACE in the entire trial was 0.91 (95% CI 0.83, 1.0; P 5 0.06) not reaching the threshold for demonstrated superiority versus placebo; ARR was 0.8% [bib_ref] EXSCEL Study Group. Effects of once-weekly exenatide on cardiovascular outcomes in type..., Holman [/bib_ref]. All-cause death was lower in the exenatide arm (ARR 1%, HR 0.86 [95% CI 0.77, 0.97]), but it was not considered to be statistically significant in the hierarchical testing procedure applied. Lixisenatide, a short-acting GLP-1 receptor agonist, did not demonstrate CVD benefit or harm in a trial of patients recruited within 180 days of an acute coronary syndrome admission [bib_ref] Lixisenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes and acute coronary syndrome, Pfeffer [/bib_ref]. Taken together, it appears that among patients with established CVD, some GLP-1 receptor agonists may provide cardiovascular benefit, with the evidence of benefit strongest for liraglutide, favorable for semaglutide, and less certain for exenatide. There is no evidence of cardiovascular benefit with lixisenatide. Adverse effects for the class are discussed in the section "The Full Range of Therapeutic Options: Lifestyle Management, Medication, and Obesity Management."
Among the SGLT2 inhibitors, empagliflozin compared with placebo was studied in the Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcome Event Trial in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients (EMPA-REG OUTCOME) in 7,020 participants with type 2 diabetes and CVD. With a median follow-up of 3.1 years, the ARR was 1.6% and the HR was 0.86 (95% CI 0.74, 0.99; P 5 0.04 for superiority) for the primary composite end point of nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, and cardiovascular death. The ARR was 2.2% and the HR was 0.62 (95% CI 0.49, 0.77; P , 0.001) for cardiovascular death (51). The ARR was 2.6% and the HR was 0.68 (95% CI 0.57, 0.82; P , 0.001) for death from any cause. Canagliflozin compared with placebo was studied in the Canagliflozin Cardiovascular Assessment Study (CANVAS) Program (comprised of two similar trials, CANVAS and CANVAS-Renal; n 5 10,142) in participants with type 2 diabetes, 66% of whom had a history of CVD. Participants were followed for a median of 3.6 years. In the combined analysis of the two trials, the primary composite end point of MI, stroke, or cardiovascular death was reduced with canagliflozin (26.9 vs. 31.5 participants per patient-year with placebo; HR 0.86 [95% CI 0.75, 0.97]; P 5 0.02) for superiority in the pooled analysis, with consistent findings in the component studies. Though there was a trend toward benefit for cardiovascular death, the difference from placebo was not statistically significant in the CANVAS Program [bib_ref] CANVAS Program Collaborative Group. Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type..., Neal [/bib_ref]. For the SGLT2 inhibitors studied to date, it appears that among patients with established CVD, there is likely cardiovascular benefit, with the evidence of benefit modestly stronger for empagliflozin than canagliflozin. Adverse effects for the class are discussed in the section "The Full Range of Therapeutic Options: Lifestyle Management, Medication, and Obesity Management."
While the evidence of an ASCVD outcomes benefit for GLP-1 receptor agonists and SGLT2 inhibitors has been demonstrated for people with established ASCVD, the evidence of benefit beyond glucose lowering has not been demonstrated in those without ASCVD. Indeed, in subgroup analyses of these trials, lower-risk individuals have not been observed to have an ASCVD benefit. While this may be due to the short time frame of the studies and the low event rate in those without ASCVD, the finding is consistent across the reported trials. Overall, CVOTs of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) inhibitors have demonstrated safety, i.e., noninferiority relative to placebo, for the primary MACE end point, but not cardiovascular benefit.
The available evidence for cardiovascular event reduction in patients with type 2 diabetes and clinical CVD is derived from trials in which the participants were not meeting glycemic targets (HbA 1c $53 mmol/mol [$7%] at baseline). Furthermore, most (;70% across trials) participants were treated with metformin at baseline. Thus, we recommend that patients with clinical CVD not meeting individualized glycemic targets while treated with metformin (or in whom metformin is contraindicated or not tolerated) should have an SGLT2 inhibitor or GLP-1 receptor agonist with proven benefit for cardiovascular risk reduction added to their treatment program. There are no clinical trial data that support prescribing an SGLT2 inhibitor or GLP-1 receptor agonist with the intent of reducing cardiovascular risk in patients with an HbA 1c ,53 mmol/mol (,7%). Limited data suggest that there is no heterogeneity in the cardiovascular benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors or GLP-1 receptor agonists as a function of background glucose-lowering therapy. Thus, background glucose-lowering therapy in patients with clinical CVD arguably is not pertinent in clinical decision making. However, dose adjustment or discontinuation of background medications may be required to avoid hypoglycemia when adding a new agent to a regimen containing insulin, sulfonylurea, or glinide therapy, particularly in patients at or near glycemic goals. Full efforts to achieve glycemic and blood pressure targets and to adhere to lipid, antiplatelet, antithrombotic, and tobacco cessation guidelines (7) should continue after an SGLT2 inhibitor or GLP-1 receptor agonist is added, as such efforts were integral to all studies that have demonstrated cardiovascular benefit of these agents.

## Consensus recommendation
c Among patients with ASCVD in whom HF coexists or is of special concern, SGLT2 inhibitors are recommended (Figs. 2 and 3).
Patients with type 2 diabetes are at increased risk of HF [bib_ref] EMPA-REG OUTCOMEO trial investigators. Heart failure outcomes with empagliflozin in patients with..., Lehrke [/bib_ref]. In the EMPA-REG OUTCOME and CANVAS CVOT studies testing SGLT2 inhibitors, which enrolled participants with ASCVD, .85% of participants did not have symptomatic HF at baseline. Yet, in both trials there was a clinically and statistically significant reduction in hospitalization for HF for the SGLT2 inhibitor as compared with placebo. In the EMPA-REG OUTCOME study with empagliflozin (54), the ARR was 1.4%, and the HR 0.65 (95% CI 0.50, 0.85), and in the CANVAS Program with canagliflozin, the HR was 0.67 (95% CI 0.52, 0.87), with a rate of hospitalized HF of 5.5 vs. 8.7 events per 1,000 patient-years [bib_ref] Canagliflozin and heart failure in type 2 diabetes mellitus: results from the..., Radholm [/bib_ref]. Because HF was neither well characterized at baseline nor as carefully adjudicated as it would have been in a trial specifically designed to evaluate HF outcomes, and because HF was a secondary end point in the trials, further ongoing studies are required to conclusively address the issue. That said, the significant reduction in hospitalization for HF demonstrated in the two study populations and the consistency across two independent trial programs suggest to us that treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors in the setting of clinical HF may provide substantial benefit and should be specifically considered in people with type 2 diabetes and ASCVD and HF.
In the GLP-1 receptor agonist studies LEADER, SUSTAIN 6, and EXSCEL, there was no significant effect on hospitalization for HF with HR 0.86 (95% CI 0.71, 1.06), 1.11 (95% CI 0.77, 1.61), and 0.94 (95% CI 0.78, 1.13), respectively [bib_ref] LEADER Steering Committee; LEADER Trial Investigators. Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type..., Marso [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] SUSTAIN-6 Investigators. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes, Marso [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] EXSCEL Study Group. Effects of once-weekly exenatide on cardiovascular outcomes in type..., Holman [/bib_ref]. Two short-term studies of liraglutide in patients with reduced ejection fraction suggested a lack of benefit in this setting [bib_ref] NHLBI Heart Failure Clinical Research Network. Effects of liraglutide on clinical stability..., Margulies [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Effect of liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue, on left ventricular function in..., Jorsal [/bib_ref] Patients with type 2 diabetes and kidney disease are at an increased risk for cardiovascular events. A substantial number of participants with an eGFR of 30-60 mL min -1 [1.73 m] -2 were included in EMPA-REG OUTCOME, CANVAS, LEADER, and SUSTAIN 6. An important finding in the studies was reduction of the primary ASCVD outcome even among participants with stage 3 CKD (eGFR 30-60 mL min -1 [1.73 m] -2 ). For SGLT2 inhibitors, this contrasts with the glucose-lowering effect, which diminishes with declining eGFR. In addition to the primary cardiovascular end points, most of the SGLT2 inhibitor and GLP-1 receptor agonist CVOTs reported benefit in renal end points, albeit as secondary outcomes. The renal outcome benefit has been most pronounced and consistent for SGLT2 inhibitors. EMPA-REG OUTCOME (empagliflozin) demonstrated an ARR 6.1%, HR of 0.61 (95% CI 0.53, 0.70) for the composite outcome of new or worsening nephropathy (progression to urine albumin/creatinine ratio .33.9 mg/mmol [.300 mg/g], doubling of serum creatinine and ESRD, or death by ESRD). The most prevalent outcome component was the development of sustained albuminuria, but the other components were each significantly reduced relative to placebo [bib_ref] EMPA-REG OUTCOME Investigators. Empagliflozin and progression of kidney disease in type 2..., Wanner [/bib_ref]. CANVAS (canagliflozin) reported an HR of 1.7 (95% CI 1.51, 1.91) for regression of albuminuria and a 40% reduction in risk in the composite outcome of eGFR, ESRD, or renal death (5.5 vs. 9.0 participants per 1,000 patientyears; HR 0.60; 95% CI 0.47, 0.77) (52). Additional trials with primary renal end points are ongoing in high-risk renal populations. The Evaluation of the Effects of Canagliflozin on Renal and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Participants with Diabetic Nephropathy (CREDENCE) trial examining canagliflozin in CKD with proteinuria has been stopped at a planned interim analysis for achieving the primary efficacy end point [bib_ref] CREDENCE study investigators. The Canagliflozin and Renal Endpoints in Diabetes with Established..., Jardine [/bib_ref].
In LEADER and SUSTAIN 6, the GLP-1 receptor agonist liraglutide was associated with an ARR of 1.5% and an HR of 0.78 (95% CI 0.67, 0.92) for new or worsening nephropathy [bib_ref] LEADER Steering Committee and Investigators. Liraglutide and renal outcomes in type 2..., Mann [/bib_ref] , and semaglutide demonstrated an ARR of 2.3% and an HR of 0.64 (95% CI 0.46, 0.88) for new or worsening nephropathy [bib_ref] SUSTAIN-6 Investigators. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes, Marso [/bib_ref]. Progression of albuminuria was the most prevalent component of the composite renal end point, whereas the other components (doubling of serum creatinine, ESRD, or renal death) did not contribute substantially to the benefit. In the DPP-4 inhibitor CVOTs, the DPP-4 inhibitors have been shown to be safe from a renal perspective, with modest reduction in albuminuria [bib_ref] A review of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors. Hot topics from randomized controlled trials, Deacon [/bib_ref].

## The full range of therapeutic options: lifestyle management, medication, and obesity management
This section summarizes the lifestyle, medication, and obesity management therapies that lower glucose or improve other outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. A more comprehensive discussion of these issues is available elsewhere. For more details on weight loss medications and metabolic surgery, see the section "Obesity Management Beyond Lifestyle Intervention." Basic information about specific options in each category of therapy is summarized in [fig_ref] Table 2 -: Glucose-lowering medications and therapies available in the U [/fig_ref].
Lifestyle interventions, including MNT and physical activity, are effective and safe for improving glucose control in type 2 diabetes. For these reasons, they are recommended as first-line therapies from the time of diagnosis and as cotherapy for patients who also require glucoselowering medications or metabolic surgery. Lifestyle management should be part of the ongoing discussion with individuals with type 2 diabetes at each visit.

## Lifestyle management
Consensus recommendation c An individualized program of MNT should be offered to all patients.

## Medical nutrition therapy
MNT comprises education and support to help patients adopt healthy eating patterns. The goal of MNT is to manage blood glucose and cardiovascular risk factors to reduce risk for diabetes-related complications while preserving the pleasure of eating. Two basic dimensions of MNT include dietary quality and energy restriction. Strategies directed at each dimension can improve glycemic control. [bib_ref] Effect of dietary carbohydrate restriction on glycemic control in adults with diabetes:..., Sainsbury [/bib_ref]. Vegetarian eating patterns have been shown to lower HbA 1c , but not fasting glucose, compared with nonvegetarian ones [bib_ref] Vegetarian diets and glycemic control in diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Yokoyama [/bib_ref]. Very recent trials of different eating patterns in type 2 diabetes have typically also included weight reduction, hindering firm conclusions regarding the distinct contribution of dietary quality.
Consensus recommendation c All overweight and obese patients with diabetes should be advised of the health benefits of weight loss and encouraged to engage in a program of intensive lifestyle management, which may include food substitution.

## Nonsurgical energy restriction for weight
Loss. If a patient wishes to aim for remission of type 2 diabetes, particularly The most effective nonsurgical strategies for weight reduction involve food substitution and intensive, sustained counseling (e.g., 12-26 individual counseling sessions over 6-12 months). Among adults with type 2 diabetes, meal replacement (825-853 kcal/day [3,450-3,570 kJ/day] formula diet for 3-5 months) followed by gradual reintroduction of food and intensive counseling resulted in 9-kg placebo-adjusted weight loss at 1 year and high rates of diabetes remission (46% vs. 4%; odds ratio [OR] 19.7 [95% CI 7.8, 49.8]) compared with best usual practice [bib_ref] Primary care-led weight management for remission of type 2 diabetes (DiRECT): an..., Lean [/bib_ref]. In terms of intensive behavioral interventions, the Action for Health in Diabetes (Look AHEAD) trial (76) randomized 5,145 overweight or obese patients with type 2 diabetes to an intensive lifestyle program that promoted energy restriction, incorporating meal replacements to induce and sustain weight loss, along with increased physical activity compared with standard diabetes education and support in the control group. After 9.6 years, weight loss was greater in the intervention group (8.6% vs. 0.7% at 1 year; 6.0% vs. 3.5% at study end; both P , 0.05). HbA 1c also fell in the intervention group despite less use of glucose-lowering medications. Cardiovascular event rates were not reduced, but there were numerous other benefits. In a 12-month trial, 563 adults with type 2 diabetes who were randomized to Weight Watchers compared with standard care had a 2.1% net weight loss (24.0% vs. 21.9%; P , 0.001), a 5.3 mmol/mol (23.5 vs. 11.8 mmol/mol; P 5 0.020) net absolute improvement in HbA 1c (0.48% [20.32% vs. 10.16%]), and a greater reduction in use of glucoselowering medications (226% vs. 112%; P , 0.001) [bib_ref] Randomized controlled trial of a nationally available weight control program tailored for..., O&apos;neil [/bib_ref]. Similar programs have resulted in a net 3-kg weight loss over .

## Physical activity
Consensus recommendation c Increasing physical activity improves glycemic control and should be encouraged in all people with type 2 diabetes.
Aerobic exercise, resistance training, and the combination of the two are effective in reducing HbA 1c by about 6.6 mmol/mol (0.6%) (81-84). Of these modalities, some evidence suggests that aerobic exercise and the combination of aerobic exercise and resistance training may be more effective than resistance training alone [bib_ref] Impact of different training modalities on glycaemic control and blood lipids in..., Schwingshackl [/bib_ref] , but this remains controversial. When considering exercise interventions, special considerations are required for individuals with CVD, uncontrolled retinopathy or nephropathy, and severe neuropathy. A wide range of physical activity, including leisure time activities (e.g., walking, swimming, gardening, jogging, tai chi, and yoga) can significantly reduce HbA 1c [bib_ref] Impact of walking on glycemic control and other cardiovascular risk factors in..., Qiu [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] The effectiveness of regular leisuretime physical activities on long-term glycemic control in..., Pai [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] A systematic review and meta-analysis of tai chi for treating type 2..., Lee [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Effects of yoga in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis, Cui [/bib_ref]. In general, supervision of exercise and motivational strategies, such as monitoring using a step counter, can improve the effect of exercise on HbA 1c compared with advice alone [bib_ref] Italian Diabetes Exercise Study (IDES) Investigators. Effect of an intensive exercise intervention..., Balducci [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Lifestyle weight-loss intervention outcomes in overweight and obese adults with type 2..., Qiu [/bib_ref]. The combination of dietary change for weight reduction and physical exercise improves hyperglycemia and reduces cardiovascular risk factors more than dietary interventions or physical activity alone (92).

## Medications for lowering glucose

## Metformin
Metformin is an oral medication that reduces plasma glucose via multiple mechanisms. It is available as an immediaterelease formulation that is typically administered twice a day and as extended-release formulations for oncedaily or twice-daily administration. The formulations are equally effective with no consistent differences in side effect profile [bib_ref] Metformin extended-release versus immediaterelease: an international, randomized, doubleblind, head-to-head trial in pharmacotherapy-naive..., Aggarwal [/bib_ref]. Dosages of immediaterelease metformin start at 500 mg once or twice a day with meals and should be increased as tolerated to a target dosage of 1,000 mg twice a day. The maximum daily dose is 2,550 mg in the U.S. and 3,000 mg in the European Union, though doses above 2,000 mg are generally associated with little additional efficacy and poorer tolerability [bib_ref] Efficacy of metformin in type II diabetes: results of a double-blind, placebocontrolled,..., Garber [/bib_ref] 

## Glp-1 receptor agonists
GLP-1 receptor agonists are currently delivered by subcutaneous injection. These medications stimulate insulin secretion and reduce glucagon secretion in a glucose-dependent manner, improve satiety, and promote weight loss [bib_ref] Pharmacologic management of type 2 diabetes mellitus: available therapies, Thrasher [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of once-weekly glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists for the..., Karagiannis [/bib_ref]. Structural differences among GLP-1 receptor agonists affect duration of action, and their formulation and dosing may affect efficacy for glucose-lowering and weight reduction as well as side effect profile and cardiovascular effects [bib_ref] Benefits and harms of once-weekly glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist treatments: a systematic..., Zaccardi [/bib_ref]. Dulaglutide, exenatide extended-release, and semaglutide are administered once weekly [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of once-weekly glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists for the..., Karagiannis [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Benefits and harms of once-weekly glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist treatments: a systematic..., Zaccardi [/bib_ref]. Liraglutide and lixisenatide are administered once daily, and exenatide is available in a twice-daily formulation. GLP-1 receptor agonists have high glucose-lowering efficacy, but with variation within the drug class [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in type 2 diabetes:..., Htike [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of once-weekly semaglutide monotherapy versus placebo in patients with..., Sorli [/bib_ref]. Evidence suggests that the effect may be greatest for semaglutide once weekly, followed by dulaglutide and liraglutide, closely followed by exenatide once weekly, and then exenatide twice daily and lixisenatide [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in type 2 diabetes:..., Htike [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Semaglutide versus dulaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes (SUSTAIN..., Pratley [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Once-weekly dulaglutide versus once-daily liraglutide in metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes..., Dungan [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Exenatide once weekly versus liraglutide once daily in patients with type 2..., Buse [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Liraglutide once a day versus exenatide twice a day for type 2..., Buse [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Exenatide once weekly versus twice daily for the treatment of type 2..., Drucker [/bib_ref]. The shortacting medications exenatide twice daily and lixisenatide have greater postprandial effects, at least after the meals with which they are administered. All GLP-1 receptor agonists reduce weight [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in type 2 diabetes:..., Htike [/bib_ref] ; the reduction ranges from about 1.5 kg to 6.0 kg over about 30 weeks of therapy [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in type 2 diabetes:..., Htike [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Semaglutide for type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Andreadis [/bib_ref]. (119). They are associated with increased risk of gallbladder events (120). Semaglutide was associated with increased retinopathy complications in the SUSTAIN 6 trial (HR 1.76, 95% CI 1.11, 2.78), largely among those with baseline retinopathy who had rapid improvement of glycemic control [bib_ref] SUSTAIN-6 Investigators. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes, Marso [/bib_ref]. While this observation remains unexplained, this is also a recognized effect of intensification of glycemic control with insulin.

## Dpp-4 inhibitors
DPP-4 inhibitors are oral medications that increase insulin secretion and reduce glucagon secretion in a glucose-dependent manner. They have moderate glucoselowering efficacy [bib_ref] Glycaemic durability with dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes: a systematic..., Esposito [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Efficacy of GLP-1 receptor agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors: meta-analysis and systematic review, Aroda [/bib_ref]. DPP-4 inhibitors are well tolerated, have a neutral effect on weight, and have minimal risk of hypoglycemia when used as monotherapy [bib_ref] :i2231 125. Tkac I, Raz I. Combined analysis of three large interventional..., Wu [/bib_ref]. When added to sulfonylurea therapy, however, the risk for hypoglycemia is increased 50% compared with sulfonylurea therapy alone (124). The recommended dose for each DPP-4 inhibitor is determined and needs to be adjusted based on renal function; linagliptin is the exception as it has minimal renal excretion. Rare but increased rates of pancreatitis (125) and musculoskeletal side effects have been reported [bib_ref] Dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP)-4 inhibitor-induced arthritis/arthralgia: a review of clinical cases, Mascolo [/bib_ref] 

## Thiazolidinediones
Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) (pioglitazone and rosiglitazone) are oral medications that increase insulin sensitivity and are of high glucose-lowering efficacy [bib_ref] Pioglitazone hydrochloride monotherapy improves glycemic control in the treatment of patients with..., Aronoff [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Pioglitazone hydrochloride in combination with metformin in the treatment of type 2..., Einhorn [/bib_ref]. TZDs increase HDL-cholesterol [bib_ref] Pioglitazone after ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack, Kernan [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Antiinflammatory effects of pioglitazone and/or simvastatin in high cardiovascular risk patients with..., Hanefeld [/bib_ref] , and pioglitazone has been shown to reduce cardiovascular end points [bib_ref] Pioglitazone after ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack, Kernan [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Pioglitazone slows progression of atherosclerosis in prediabetes independent of changes in cardiovascular..., Saremi [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] PERISCOPE Investigators. Comparison of pioglitazone vs glimepiride on progression of coronary atherosclerosis..., Nissen [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in..., Dormandy [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Results of a reevaluation of cardiovascular outcomes in the RECORD trial, Mahaffey [/bib_ref] and hepatic steatohepatitis [bib_ref] Long-term pioglitazone treatment for patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and prediabetes or type..., Cusi [/bib_ref] , but without conclusive evidence for benefit. TZDs are associated with the best evidence among glucoselowering medications for glycemic durability [bib_ref] Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy, Kahn [/bib_ref]. However, these notable benefits must be balanced with safety concerns regarding fluid retention and congestive heart failure [bib_ref] Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in..., Dormandy [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy, Kahn [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] RECORD Study Team. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes in oral agent combination..., Home [/bib_ref] , weight gain [bib_ref] Pioglitazone after ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack, Kernan [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in..., Dormandy [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy, Kahn [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] RECORD Study Team. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes in oral agent combination..., Home [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Charbonnel BH; QUARTET Study Group. One-year glycemic control with a sulfonylurea plus..., Hanefeld [/bib_ref] , bone fracture [bib_ref] IRIS Trial Investigators. Pioglitazone and risk for bone fracture: safety data from..., Viscoli [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Diabetes Outcome Progression Trial (ADOPT) Study Group. Rosiglitazone-associated fractures in type 2..., Kahn [/bib_ref] , and, possibly, bladder cancer [bib_ref] Pioglitazone use and risk of bladder cancer and other common cancers in..., Lewis [/bib_ref]. Lower-dose therapy (e.g., pioglitazone 15-30 mg) mitigates weight gain and edema, but the broader benefits and harms of low-dose TZD therapy have not been evaluated.

## Sulfonylureas
Sulfonylureas are oral medications that lower glucose by stimulating insulin secretion from pancreatic b-cells. They are inexpensive, widely available, and have high glucose-lowering efficacy [bib_ref] Estimating the effect of sulfonylurea on HbA 1c in diabetes: a systematic..., Hirst [/bib_ref]. Sulfonylureas were used as part of the glucose-lowering regimen in the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS)and Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease: Preterax and Diamicron MR Controlled Evaluation (ADVANCE) [bib_ref] ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients..., Patel [/bib_ref] trials, which both demonstrated reductions in microvascular complications. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain and risk for hypoglycemia and down titration of dose to reduce the risk of hypoglycemia results in higher HbA 1c [bib_ref] Estimating the effect of sulfonylurea on HbA 1c in diabetes: a systematic..., Hirst [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] A meta-analysis of the hypoglycaemic risk in randomized controlled trials with sulphonylureas..., Monami [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Durability of the efficacy and safety of alogliptin compared with glipizide in..., Prato [/bib_ref]. Sulfonylureas are known to be associated with a lack of durable effect on glucose lowering [bib_ref] Diabetes Outcome Progression Trial (ADOPT) Study Group. Rosiglitazone-associated fractures in type 2..., Kahn [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] The efficacy and safety of DPP4 inhibitors compared to sulfonylureas as add-on..., Mishriky [/bib_ref]. The weight gain associated with sulfonylureas is relatively modest in large cohort studies and the incidence of severe hypoglycemia is lower than with insulin [bib_ref] Do sulphonylureas still have a place in clinical practice?, Khunti [/bib_ref]. Important differences among sulfonylureas affect both safety and efficacy. Glibenclamide (known as glyburide in the U.S. and Canada) has a higher risk of hypoglycemia compared with other sulfonylureas [bib_ref] A systematic review and meta-analysis of hypoglycemia and cardiovascular events: a comparison..., Gangji [/bib_ref]. Glipizide, glimepiride, and gliclazide may have a lower risk for hypoglycemia compared with other sulfonylureas [bib_ref] Do sulphonylureas still have a place in clinical practice?, Khunti [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy and hypoglycemic safety of gliclazide..., Chan [/bib_ref]. Adverse cardiovascular outcomes with sulfonylureas in some observational studies have raised concerns, although findings from recent systematic reviews have found no increase in all-cause mortality compared with other active treatments [bib_ref] Do sulphonylureas still have a place in clinical practice?, Khunti [/bib_ref]. As newer-generation sulfonylureas appear to confer a lower risk of hypoglycemia and have favorable cost, efficacy, and safety profiles, sulfonylureas remain a reasonable choice among glucose-lowering medications, particularly when cost is an important consideration. Patient education and use of low or variable dosing with later generation sulfonylureas may be used to mitigate the risk of hypoglycemia. Greatest caution in this regard is warranted for people at high risk of hypoglycemia, such as older patients and those with CKD.

## Insulin
Numerous formulations of insulin are available with differing durations of action. Human insulins (NPH, regular [R], and premixed combinations of NPH and R) are recombinant DNA-derived human insulin, while insulin analogs have been designed to change the onset or duration of action. The main advantage of insulin over other glucose-lowering medications is that insulin lowers glucose in a dosedependent manner over a wide range, to almost any glycemic target as limited by hypoglycemia. Older formulations of insulin have also demonstrated reduction in microvascular complications and with long-term follow-up, all-cause mortality, and diabetes-related death [bib_ref] 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes, Holman [/bib_ref]. Beyond hypoglycemia, the disadvantages of insulin include weight gain and the need for injection, frequent titration for optimal efficacy, and glucose monitoring [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of insulin in type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis of randomised..., Erpeldinger [/bib_ref]. The effectiveness of insulin is highly dependent on its appropriate use; patient selection and training; adjustment of dose for changes in diet, activity, or weight; and titration to acceptable, safe glucose targets. Formulations of intermediate-and long-acting insulin have different timings of onset, durations of action, and risks of hypoglycemia. However, the way in which insulin is administered, including the dose, timing of injection, and glycemic targets, has a greater impact on the adverse effects of insulin than differences among insulin formulations.
Basal Insulin. Basal insulin refers to longer-acting insulin that is meant to cover the body's basal metabolic insulin requirement (regulating hepatic glucose production), in contrast to bolus or prandial insulin, which is meant to reduce glycemic excursions after meals. Basal insulin is the preferred initial insulin formulation in patients with type 2 diabetes. Options include once-or twicedaily administration of intermediateacting NPH or detemir insulin and the once-daily administration of glargine (U100 or U300) or degludec (U100 or U200). Long-acting insulin analogs (degludec [U100 or U200], glargine [U100 and U300], detemir) have a modestly lower absolute risk for hypoglycemia compared with NPH insulin, but cost more [bib_ref] Patient-level meta-analysis of efficacy and hypoglycaemia in people with type 2 diabetes..., Owens [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Understanding how pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic differences of basal analog insulins influence clinical..., Goldman [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Safety and efficacy of insulin glargine 300 u/mL compared with other basal..., Freemantle [/bib_ref]. However, in real-world settings where patients are treated to conventional treatment targets, initiation of NPH compared with determir or glargine U100 did not increase hypoglycemiarelated emergency department visits or hospital admissions [bib_ref] Association of initiation of basal insulin analogs vs neutral protamine hagedorn insulin..., Lipska [/bib_ref]. When comparing human and analog insulins, cost differences can be large while differences in hypoglycemia risk are modest and differences in glycemic efficacy minimal.
Degludec is associated with a lower risk of severe hypoglycemia compared with glargine U100 insulin when targeting intensive glycemic control in patients with long-standing type 2 diabetes at high risk of CVD; absolute incidence difference of 1.7% over 2 years (rate ratio 0.60; P , 0.001 for superiority; OR 0.73; P , 0.001 for superiority) [bib_ref] DEVOTE Study Group. Efficacy and safety of degludec versus glargine in type..., Marso [/bib_ref]. Biosimilar formulations are now available for glargine with similar efficacy profile and lower cost [bib_ref] Similar efficacy and safety of LY2963016 insulin glargine and insulin glargine (LantusO)..., Rosenstock [/bib_ref]. No insulin has been shown to reduce risk for CVD [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of insulin in type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis of randomised..., Erpeldinger [/bib_ref] , but data suggest that glargine U100 and degludec do not increase risk for MACE [bib_ref] DEVOTE Study Group. Efficacy and safety of degludec versus glargine in type..., Marso [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] ORIGIN Trial Investigators. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia, Gerstein [/bib_ref].
Concentrated formulations of degludec (U200) and glargine (U300) are available that allow injection of a reduced volume, a convenience for patients on higher doses. Glargine U300 is associated with a lower risk of nocturnal hypoglycemia compared with glargine U100 but requires a 10-14% higher dose of glargine for equivalent efficacy [bib_ref] One-year sustained glycaemic control and less hypoglycaemia with new insulin glargine 300..., Riddle [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] New insulin glargine 300 units/mL versus glargine 100 units/mL in people with..., Yki-Jarvinen [/bib_ref].
Not all patients have their blood glucose adequately controlled with basal insulin. In particular, patients with higher pretreatment HbA 1c , higher BMI, longer duration of disease, and a greater number of oral glucose-lowering medications are more likely to require intensified therapy [bib_ref] Exploring the characteristics of suboptimally controlled patients after 24 weeks of basal..., Khunti [/bib_ref].
Other Insulin Formulations. Short-and rapid-acting insulin formulations administered at mealtime are generally used to intensify basal insulin therapy in patients not meeting glycemic targets. Options include human regular insulin, various analogs (aspart, glulisine, and lispro), formulations (faster insulin aspart, lispro U200), biosimilars (lispro), and insulins with different routes of administration (inhaled). Rapid-acting insulin analogs have a modestly lower risk for hypoglycemia compared with human regular insulin but at a higher cost. Various premixed formulations of human and analog insulins are available and continue to be widely used in some regions, though they tend to have an increased risk of hypoglycemia as compared with basal insulin alone [fig_ref] Table 2 -: Glucose-lowering medications and therapies available in the U [/fig_ref] and [fig_ref] Figure 7 -: Intensifying to injectable therapies [/fig_ref].

## Other glucose-lowering medications
Other oral glucose-lowering medications (i.e., meglitinides, a-glucosidase inhibitors, colesevelam, quick-release bromocriptine, pramlintide) are not used commonly in the U.S. and some are not licensed at all in Europe. No major new scientific information on these medications has emerged in recent years. Their basic characteristics are listed in [fig_ref] Table 2 -: Glucose-lowering medications and therapies available in the U [/fig_ref].

## Obesity management beyond lifestyle intervention

## Medications for weight loss
Several clinical practice guidelines recommend weight-loss medications as an optional adjunct to intensive lifestyle management for patients with obesity, particularly if they have diabetes [bib_ref] American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology Comprehensive Clinical..., Garvey [/bib_ref]. Others do not. Several medications and medication combinations approved in the U.S. or Europe for weight loss have been found to improve glucose control in people with diabetes (173,174). One glucose-lowering medication, liraglutide, is also approved for the treatment of obesity at a higher dose [bib_ref] NN8022-1922 Study Group. Efficacy of liraglutide for weight loss among patients with..., Davies [/bib_ref]. Cost, side effects, and modest efficacy limit the role of pharmacotherapy in long-term weight management.

## Metabolic surgery
Consensus recommendation c Metabolic surgery is a recommended treatment option for adults with type 2 diabetes and 1) a BMI $40.0 kg/m 2 (BMI $37.5 kg/m 2 in people of Asian ancestry) or 2) a BMI of 35.0-39.9 kg/m 2 (32.5-37.4 kg/m 2 in people of Asian ancestry) who do not achieve durable weight loss and improvement in comorbidities with reasonable nonsurgical methods.
Metabolic surgery is highly effective in improving glucose control [bib_ref] Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical therapy for diabetesd3-year outcomes, Schauer [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical therapy for diabetesd 5-year outcomes, Schauer [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Lifestyle intervention and medical management with vs without Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and..., Ikramuddin [/bib_ref] and often produces disease remission [bib_ref] Adjustable gastric banding and conventional therapy for type 2 diabetes: a randomized..., Dixon [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Bariatric surgery versus conventional medical therapy for type 2 diabetes, Mingrone [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Association of bariatric surgery with long-term remission of type 2 diabetes and..., Sjostrom [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Bariatric-metabolic surgery versus conventional medical treatment in obese patients with type 2..., Mingrone [/bib_ref]. The effects can be sustained for at least 5 years [bib_ref] Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical therapy for diabetesd 5-year outcomes, Schauer [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Bariatric-metabolic surgery versus conventional medical treatment in obese patients with type 2..., Mingrone [/bib_ref]. Benefits include a reduction in the number of glucose-lowering medications needed to achieve glycemic targets [bib_ref] Lifestyle intervention and medical management with vs without Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and..., Ikramuddin [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Adjustable gastric banding and conventional therapy for type 2 diabetes: a randomized..., Dixon [/bib_ref]. Several clinical practice guidelines and position statements recommend consideration of metabolic surgery as a treatment option for adults with type 2 diabetes and 1) a BMI $40.0 kg/m 2 (BMI $37.5 kg/m 2 in people of Asian ancestry) or 2) a BMI of 35.0-39.9 kg/m 2 (32.5-37.4 kg/m 2 in people of Asian ancestry) who do not achieve durable weight loss and improvement in comorbidities with reasonable nonsurgical methods [bib_ref] Delegates of the 2nd Diabetes Surgery Summit. Metabolic surgery in the treatment..., Rubino [/bib_ref]. Because baseline BMI does not predict surgical benefits on glycemia or hard outcomes and the improvement in glycemic control occurs early through weight-independent mechanisms (183), metabolic surgery may be considered for those with a BMI of 30.0-34.9 kg/m 2 in people of Asian ancestry) who do not achieve durable weight loss and improvement in comorbidities with reasonable nonsurgical methods.
Adverse effects of bariatric surgery, which vary by procedure, include surgical complications (e.g., anastomotic or staple line leaks, gastrointestinal bleeding, intestinal obstruction, the need for reoperation), late metabolic complications (e.g., protein malnutrition, mineral deficiency, vitamin deficiency, anemia, hypoglycemia), and gastroesophageal reflux [bib_ref] Bariatric surgery for weight loss and glycemic control in nonmorbidly obese adults..., Maggard-Gibbons [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Optimisation of follow-up after metabolic surgery, Mingrone [/bib_ref]. Patients who undergo metabolic surgery may be at risk for substance use, including drug and alcohol use and cigarette smoking [bib_ref] Substance use following bariatric weight loss surgery, Conason [/bib_ref]. People with diabetes presenting for metabolic surgery also have increased rates of depression and other major psychiatric disorders [bib_ref] Mental health conditions among patients seeking and undergoing bariatric surgery: a meta-analysis, Dawes [/bib_ref]. These factors should be assessed preoperatively and during follow-up. Metabolic surgery should be performed in high-volume centers with multidisciplinary teams that are experienced in the management of diabetes and gastrointestinal surgery. Long-term lifestyle support and routine monitoring of micronutrient and nutritional status must be provided to patients after surgery [bib_ref] The Obesity Society, and American Society for Metabolic & Bariatric Surgery medical..., Mechanick [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Clinical practice guidelines for the perioperative nutritional, metabolic, and nonsurgical support of..., Mechanick [/bib_ref].

## Putting it all together: strategies for implementation
For an increasing number of patients, presence of specific comorbidities (e.g., ASCVD, HF, CKD, obesity), safety concerns (e.g., risk of hypoglycemia), or health care environment (e.g., cost of medications) mandate a specific approach to the choice of glucose-lowering medication. These are considered in Figs. 2-6. For patients not reaching their target HbA 1c , it is important to re-emphasize lifestyle measures, assess adherence, and arrange timely follow-up (e.g., within 3-6 months) .

## Initial monotherapy
Consensus recommendation c Metformin is the preferred initial glucose-lowering medication for most people with type 2 diabetes.
Metformin remains the preferred option for initiating glucose-lowering medication in type 2 diabetes and should be added to lifestyle measures in newly diagnosed patients. This recommendation is based on the efficacy, safety, tolerability, low cost, and extensive clinical experience with this medication. Results from a substudy of UKPDS (n 5 342) showed benefits of initial treatment with metformin on clinical outcomes related to diabetes, with less hypoglycemia and weight gain than with insulin or sulfonylureas (98).

## Initial combination therapy compared with stepwise addition of glucose-lowering medication

## Consensus recommendation
c The stepwise addition of glucoselowering medication is generally preferred to initial combination therapy.
In most patients, type 2 diabetes is a progressive disease, a consequence generally attributed to a steady decline of insulin secretory capacity. The practical impact of gradual loss of b-cell function is that achieving a glycemic target with monotherapy is typically limited to several years. Stepwise therapy (i.e., adding medications to metformin to maintain HbA 1c at target) is supported by clinical trials. While there is some support for initial combination therapy due to the greater initial reduction of HbA 1c than can be provided by metformin alone [bib_ref] Early combination therapy for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic..., Phung [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Initial combination therapy with metformin, pioglitazone and exenatide is more effective than..., Abdul-Ghani [/bib_ref] , there is little evidence that this approach is superior to sequential addition of medications for maintaining glycemic control or slowing the progression of diabetes. However, since the absolute effectiveness of most oral medications rarely exceeds an 11 mmol/mol (1%) reduction in HbA 1c , initial combination therapy may be considered in patients presenting with HbA 1c levels more than 17 mmol/mol (1.5%) above their target. Fixed-dose formulations can improve medication adherence when combination therapy is used [bib_ref] Safety, efficacy, and bioavailability of fixed-dose combinations in type 2 diabetes mellitus:..., Vijayakumar [/bib_ref] , and may help achieve glycemic targets more rapidly [bib_ref] Diabetes medications as monotherapy or metformin-based combination therapy for type 2 diabetes:..., Maruthur [/bib_ref]. Potential benefits of combination therapy need to be weighed against the exposure of patients to multiple medications and potential side effects, increased cost, and, in the case of fixed combination medications, less flexibility in dosing.

## Choice of glucose-lowering medication after metformin
Consensus recommendation c The selection of medication added to metformin is based on patient preference and clinical characteristics. Important clinical characteristics include the presence of established ASCVD and other comorbidities such as HF or CKD; the risk for specific adverse medication effects, particularly hypoglycemia and weight gain; as well as safety, tolerability, and cost [fig_ref] Figure 6 -: Choosing glucose-lowering medication if cost is a major issue [/fig_ref].
As detailed in the "Medications for Lowering Glucose" section, the glucoselowering medications that can be added to metformin have distinct profiles of action, efficacy, and adverse effects [bib_ref] Diabetes medications as monotherapy or metformin-based combination therapy for type 2 diabetes:..., Maruthur [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of antihyperglycaemic drug regimens added to metformin and sulphonylurea..., Mearns [/bib_ref]. The early introduction of basal insulin is well established, in particular when HbA 1c levels are very high (.97 mmol/mol [.11%]), symptoms of hyperglycemia are present, or there is evidence of ongoing catabolism (e.g., weight loss). This constellation of symptoms can occur in type 2 diabetes but suggest insulin deficiency and raise the possibility of autoimmune (type 1) or pancreatogenic diabetes in which insulin would be the preferred therapy. While this remains the usual strategy for patients when HbA 1c levels are very high, SGLT2 inhibitors [bib_ref] Dapagliflozin, metformin XR, or both: initial pharmacotherapy for type 2 diabetes, a..., Henry [/bib_ref] and GLP-1 receptor agonists [bib_ref] Is insulin the most effective injectable antihyperglycaemic therapy?, Buse [/bib_ref] have demonstrated efficacy in patients with HbA 1c levels exceeding 75 mmol/mol (9%), with the additional benefits of weight reduction and reduced risk of hypoglycemia. Evidence from clinical trials supports the use of several of the SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists as add-on therapy for people with type 2 diabetes with an HbA 1c .53 mmol/mol (.7%) and established CVD [bib_ref] SUSTAIN-6 Investigators. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes, Marso [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] EMPA-REG OUTCOME Investigators. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes, Zinman [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] CANVAS Program Collaborative Group. Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type..., Neal [/bib_ref]. However, since only 15-20% of patients with type 2 diabetes conform to the characteristics of patients in these trials, other clinical features need to be considered in the majority when selecting second medications to add to metformin (Figs. 2-6) [bib_ref] A meta-analysis of the hypoglycaemic risk in randomized controlled trials with sulphonylureas..., Monami [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors versus dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors as..., Wang [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] The safety of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors or sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2)..., Kawalec [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Canagliflozin provides durable glycemic improvements and body weight reduction over 104 weeks..., Leiter [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Long-term glycaemic response and tolerability of dapagliflozin versus a sulphonylurea as addon..., Prato [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] EMPA-REG H2H-SU trial investigators. Comparison of empagliflozin and glimepiride as add-on to..., Ridderstrale [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Head-to-head comparison of dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitors and sulfonylureas -a meta-analysis from randomized..., Zhang [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Safety and efficacy of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors vs sulfonylurea in metformin-based combination..., Foroutan [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Direct headto-head comparison of glycaemic durability of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and sulphonylureas..., Chen [/bib_ref].
Sulfonylureas and insulin are associated with an increased risk for causing hypoglycemia and would not be preferred for patients in whom this is a concern. Furthermore, hypoglycemia is distressing and so may reduce treatment adherence . For patients prioritizing weight loss or weight maintenance , important considerations include the weight reduction associated with SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists, the weight neutrality of DPP-4 inhibitors, and the weight gain associated with sulfonylureas, basal insulin, and TZDs. An important consideration for society in general and for many patients in particular is the cost of medications; sulfonylureas, pioglitazone, and recombinant human insulins are relatively inexpensive, although their cost may vary across regions. Short-term acquisition costs, longerterm treatment cost, and cost-effectiveness should be considered in clinical decision making when data are available [fig_ref] Figure 6 -: Choosing glucose-lowering medication if cost is a major issue [/fig_ref].

## Intensification beyond two medications
Consensus recommendation c Intensification of treatment beyond dual therapy to maintain glycemic targets requires consideration of the impact of medication side effects on comorbidities, as well as the burden of treatment and cost.
The lack of a substantial response to one or more noninsulin therapies should raise the issue of adherence and, in those with weight loss, the possibility that the patient has autoimmune (type 1) or pancreatogenic diabetes. However, it is common in people with long-standing diabetes to require more than two glucose-lowering agents, often including insulin. Compared with the knowledge base guiding dual therapy of type 2 diabetes, there is less evidence guiding these choices [bib_ref] Comparison of glucose-lowering agents after dual therapy failure in type 2 diabetes:..., Zaccardi [/bib_ref]. In general, intensification of treatment beyond two medications follows the same general principles as the addition of a second medication, with the assumption that the efficacy of third and fourth medications will be generally less than expected.
No specific combination has demonstrated superiority except for those that include insulin and GLP-1 receptor agonists that have broad ranges of glycemic efficacy. As more medications are added, there is an increased risk of adverse effects. It is important to consider medication interactions and whether regimen complexity may become an obstacle to adherence. Finally, with each additional medication comes increased costs, which can affect patient burden, medication-taking behavior, and medication effectiveness [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of antihyperglycaemic drug regimens added to metformin and sulphonylurea..., Mearns [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Comparison of glucose-lowering agents after dual therapy failure in type 2 diabetes:..., Zaccardi [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Triple therapy in type 2 diabetes; a systematic review and network meta-analysis, Downes [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Triple therapy combinations for the treatment of type 2 diabetes -a network..., Lee [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Efficacy and safety of vildagliptin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus..., Lukashevich [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Comparison of vildagliptin as an add-on therapy and sulfonylurea dose-increasing therapy in..., Hong [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] A randomized controlled trial of the efficacy and safety of saxagliptin as..., Moses [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] A randomized clinical trial evaluating the safety and efficacy of sitagliptin added..., Moses [/bib_ref]. While most patients require intensification of glucose-lowering medications, some require medication reduction or discontinuation of medication, particularly if the therapy is ineffective or is exposing patients to a higher risk of side effects such as hypoglycemia or when glycemic goals have changed due to a change in clinical circumstances (e.g., development of comorbidities or even healthy aging). A guiding principle is that for all therapies the response should be reviewed at regular intervals, including the impact on efficacy (HbA 1c , weight) and safety; the therapy should be stopped or the dose reduced if there are minimal benefits or if harm outweighs any benefit. In particular, ceasing or reducing the dose of medications that have an increased risk of hypoglycemia is important when any new glucose-lowering treatment (lifestyle or medication) is started [fig_ref] Figure 7 -: Intensifying to injectable therapies [/fig_ref] [bib_ref] Clinical inertia-time to reappraise the terminology?, Khunti [/bib_ref]. HbA 1c levels below 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) or substantially below the individualized glycemic target should prompt consideration of stopping or reducing the dose of medications with risk of hypoglycemia or weight gain.

## Addition of injectable medications
Consensus recommendation c In patients who need the greater glucose-lowering effect of an injectable medication, GLP-1 receptor agonists are the preferred choice to insulin. For patients with extreme and symptomatic hyperglycemia, insulin is recommended [fig_ref] Figure 7 -: Intensifying to injectable therapies [/fig_ref].
See the "Insulin" and "Basal Insulin" sections in "Medications for Lowering Glucose" for more medication details. Patients often prefer combinations of oral medications to injectable medications. The range of combinations available with current oral medications allows many people to reach glycemic targets safely. However, there is currently no evidence that any single medication or combination has durable effects and, for many patients, injectable medications become necessary within 5-10 years of diabetes diagnosis.
Evidence from trials comparing GLP-1 receptor agonists and insulin (basal, premixed, or basal-bolus) shows similar or even better efficacy in HbA 1c reduction [bib_ref] Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists compared with basal insulins for the treatment of..., Singh [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists: a systematic review of comparative effectiveness research, Levin [/bib_ref]. GLP-1 receptor agonists have a lower risk of hypoglycemia and are associated with reductions in body weight compared with weight gain with insulin [bib_ref] Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists compared with basal insulins for the treatment of..., Singh [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] A meta-analysis comparing clinical effects of short-or long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonists versus..., El Aziz [/bib_ref]. Some GLP-1 receptor agonists allow for once-weekly injections, as opposed to daily or more often for insulin. Based on these considerations, a GLP-1 receptor agonist is the preferred option in a patient with a definite diagnosis of type 2 diabetes who needs injectable therapy. However, the tolerability and high cost of GLP-1 receptor agonists are important limitations to their use. If additional glucose lowering is needed despite therapy with a long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonist, the addition of basal insulin is a reasonable option [bib_ref] Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist and basal insulin combination treatment for the management..., Eng [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Effect of adding insulin degludec to treatment in patients with type 2..., Aroda [/bib_ref].
Alternatively, the addition of insulin to oral medication regimens is well established. In particular, using basal insulin in combination with oral medications is effective, and has less hypoglycemia and weight gain than combinations using premixed insulin formulations or prandial insulin [bib_ref] Insulin glargine compared with premixed insulin for management of insulin-naive type 2..., Aschner [/bib_ref]. A standard approach for optimizing basal insulin regimens is to titrate the dose based on a target fasting glucose concentration, which is a simple index of effectiveness. Either NPH insulin or long-acting insulin analogs are efficacious for controlling fasting glucose, although basal analog formulations show reduced risks of hypoglycemia, particularly overnight, when titrated to the same fasting glucose target as NPH insulin [bib_ref] Patient-level meta-analysis of efficacy and hypoglycaemia in people with type 2 diabetes..., Owens [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Reduced risk of hypoglycemia with once-daily glargine versus twicedaily NPH and number..., Rosenstock [/bib_ref]. It has become common practice to approach insulin use in people with type 2 diabetes by following the established paradigms developed for those with type 1 diabetes. This includes multiple daily injections with doses of insulin analogs before meals that are adjusted based on ambient blood glucose and meal constituents. While this is reasonable for people with type 2 diabetes who are lean, insulinopenic, and sensitive to exogenous insulin, it ignores the substantial differences in pathophysiology between most people with type 2 diabetes and type 1 diabetes. Most people with type 2 diabetes are obese and insulin resistant, requiring much larger doses of insulin and experiencing lower rates of hypoglycemia than those with type 1 diabetes. In patients with type 2 diabetes, weight gain is a particularly problematic side effect of insulin use. Recent evidence supports the effectiveness of combinations of insulin with glucose-lowering medications that do not increase body weight. For example, SGLT2 inhibitors can be added to insulin regimens to lower blood glucose levels without increasing insulin doses, weight gain, or hypoglycemia (219-221). In a meta-analysis that studied the combination of either SGLT2 inhibitors or DPP-4 inhibitors with insulin, the SGLT2 inhibitor-insulin combination was associated with a greater reduction in HbA 1c , an advantage in terms of body weight and no increase in the rates of hypoglycemia [bib_ref] Addition of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors to insulin treatment in type 2 diabetes..., Yang [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Comparison between SGLT2 inhibitors and DPP4 inhibitors added to insulin therapy in..., Min [/bib_ref]. Depending on baseline HbA 1c , glycemic profile, and individual response, the insulin dose may need to be reduced to prevent hypoglycemia when adding an SGLT2 inhibitor.

## Beyond basal insulin
The combination of basal insulin and a GLP-1 receptor agonist has high efficacy, with recent evidence from clinical trials demonstrating the benefits of this combination to lower HbA 1c and limit weight gain and hypoglycemia compared with intensified insulin regimens [bib_ref] Safety and efficacy of a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist added to basal..., Wysham [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Oneyear efficacy and safety of a fixed combination of insulin degludec and..., Maiorino [/bib_ref]. Most data come from studies in which a GLP-1 receptor agonist is added to basal insulin. However, there is evidence that insulin added to a GLP-1 receptor agonist can also effectively lower HbA 1c , although some weight gain results [bib_ref] Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist and basal insulin combination treatment for the management..., Eng [/bib_ref]. Fixed-ratio combinations of insulin and GLP-1 receptor agonists are available and can decrease the number of injections compared with administering the medications separately (226-228).
A final approach to glycemic management when basal insulin plus oral medications is insufficient to achieve HbA 1c targets is intensified insulin regimens (Figs. 7 and 8). DSMES focused on insulin therapy is particularly helpful when intensified insulin therapy is considered. Referral to a diabetes specialist team should be considered in cases where the provider is uncomfortable or unfamiliar with intensification, poor outcomes continue despite intensification, or patients have other issues that complicate intensification. Intensified insulin regimens include 1) one or more daily injections of rapid-or short-acting insulin before meals (prandial insulin) or 2) switching to one to three daily administrations of a fixed combination of shortand long-acting insulin (premixed or biphasic insulins) [bib_ref] Attainment of glycaemic goals in type 2 diabetes with once-, twice-, or..., Garber [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] A 32-week randomized comparison of stepwise insulin intensification of biphasic insulin aspart..., Linjawi [/bib_ref]. When adding prandial insulin, giving one injection with the largest meal of the day is a simple and safe approach [bib_ref] Treatment intensification with stepwise addition of prandial insulin aspart boluses compared with..., Raccah [/bib_ref]. Over time, if glycemic targets are not met with one dose of prandial insulin daily, additional prandial injections can be added to other meals (232). Results of meta-analyses suggest a modestly greater reduction in HbA 1c with basal-prandial regimens compared with biphasic insulin regimens, but at the expense of greater weight gain (233-235). While still commonly used, we do not generally advocate premixed insulin regimens, particularly those administered three times daily, for routine use when intensifying insulin regimens [fig_ref] Figure 7 -: Intensifying to injectable therapies [/fig_ref].
Continuous insulin infusion using insulin pumps may have a role in a small minority of people with type 2 diabetes (236).

## Access and cost
Consensus recommendation c Access, treatment cost, and insurance coverage should all be considered when selecting glucoselowering medications.
The availability of glucose-lowering medications, patient support systems, and blood glucose-monitoring devices can differ worldwide, depending on a region's economy, culture, and health care system. Cost of and access to newer medications and insulin remain important issues throughout the world. Although the economics of diabetes care is complex and broadly includes the costs to society of diabetic complications and long-term outcomes, the cost of drugs and the affordability of treatment are often the primary basis for decision making. Within health care systems, variance in medication coverage is based on different assessments of cost-effectiveness. This results in huge disparities in the cost of new and old glucose-lowering medications in some countries, limiting access to the full range of diabetes therapies in large segments of the population, and creating a two-tiered system of treatment. Since glycemic management remains a cornerstone of the prevention of diabetes complications, these disparities raise questions of fairness, equity, and overall public health. Nonetheless, the use of less expensive agents, such as metformin, sulfonylureas, and human insulin, remain effective options [fig_ref] Figure 6 -: Choosing glucose-lowering medication if cost is a major issue [/fig_ref]. Redoubling lifestyle management efforts can also have great impact, but behavioral intervention and support can also be costly, and socioeconomic barriers to improving lifestyle are well described [bib_ref] Barriers and facilitators to the uptake and maintenance of healthy behaviours by..., Kelly [/bib_ref].

## Emerging technology
There is an increasing call for the use of technology and telemedicine to improve patients' health [bib_ref] The eHealth Enhanced Chronic Care Model: a theory derivation approach, Gee [/bib_ref]. Many types of inputs can be digitalized, such as blood glucose levels, time spent exercising, steps walked, energy ingested, medication doses administered, blood pressure, and weight. Patterns in these variables can be identified by software, leading to specific treatment recommendations supported by real-time algorithms. Telemedicine incorporates multiple types of communication services, such as twoway video, e-mail, texting, smartphones, tablets, wireless monitors, decision support tools, and other forms of telecommunication technologies. Results overall suggest a modest improvement in glycemic control [bib_ref] Alberta Kidney Disease Network. Effect of telemedicine on glycated hemoglobin in diabetes:..., Faruque [/bib_ref] [bib_ref] Comparative effectiveness of telemedicine strategies on type 2 diabetes management: a systematic..., Lee [/bib_ref].

## Key knowledge gaps
Despite over 200 years of research on lifestyle management of diabetes and more than 50 years of comparativeeffectiveness research in diabetes, innumerable unanswerecd questions regarding the management of type 2 diabetes remain. In the context of our current consensus recommendations, the following is an incomplete discussion of vexing issues that must be addressed.
Evolving areas of current investigation will provide improvements in diabetes care and hold great hope for new treatments.
c Implementation science. The tools available to prevent and treat diabetes are vastly improved. However, implementation of effective innovation has lagged behind. c Basic science. Our understanding of the basic mechanisms of diabetes, the development of complications, and the treatment of both, though continuously advancing, has highlighted how much we do not know. c Personalized/precision medicine.
Though promising, these -omics and big data approaches addressing both personal and environmental factors and their interaction are largely unrealized in diabetes care and will require large investments and coordination to have impact. c Informatics. The benefits and role of enhanced monitoring of glucose and other variables leveraged with real-time informatics-based approaches to adapt treatment on an individual basis has great potential but has not been elucidated. c Overweight/obesity. Current therapy is clearly inadequate. Innovation in methods and implementation would transform diabetes prevention and care. Understanding the biology, psychology, and sociology of obesity to identify pharmacological, behavioral, and political approaches to preventing and treating this principal cause of type 2 diabetes is essential. c Lifestyle management and DSMES.
Though the benefits of these approaches are clear, better paradigms on how to target, individualize, and sustain the effects are needed. c b-Cell function. Preserving and enhancing b-cell function is perceived as the holy grail of diabetes and yet effective techniques are inadequately developed. c Translational research. There is a huge gap between the knowledge gained from clinical trials and application of that information in clinical practice. This gap should be filled with pragmatic studies and other designs that include costs, measures of patient preference, and other patient-recorded outcome measures. Patients and other stakeholders should have more input into trial designs and outcomes. Pragmatic designs will enhance generalizability of results and reduce cost. Better application of "real-world evidence" will complement randomized trial evidence. c Drug development. New medications will require demonstration of broad efficacy for glucose, comorbidities and/or complications, as well as safety and tolerability to compete in the marketplace. c Complications. Steatohepatitis, HF, nonalbuminuric CKD, chronic mental illness, and other emerging issues are complications in diabetes that may supplant classical microvascular and macrovascular disease in importance and impact. Understanding optimal diagnostic, screening, and treatment strategies is urgently needed.
Other areas of importance include better segmentation of "type 2 diabetes," as well as appropriate diagnosis of secondary diabetes, which should allow more informed individualization of care. Better data on optimal approaches to diabetes management in frail and older adult patients is urgently required considering the controversy around glycemic targets and the benefits and harms of specific treatments from lifestyle management to medications. Current approaches to the management of type 2 diabetes in adolescents and young adults do not seem to alter the loss of b-cell function and most individuals in this age-group quickly transition to insulin therapy. Studies to guide optimal therapy in this emerging population with a terrifyingly high risk of early disability is an immediate need. There are enduring questions that continue to challenge guideline development. For example, does metformin provide cardiovascular benefit in patients with type 2 diabetes early in the natural history of diabetes, as suggested by the UKPDS? Is metformin's role as first-line medication management truly evidencebased or a quirk of history? Though the rationale for early combination therapy targeting normal levels of glycemia in early diabetes is seductive, clinical trial evidence to support specific combinations and targets is essentially nonexistent. As the cost implications for these approaches is enormous, evidence is desperately needed. Different models of care are being implemented globally. Defining optimal cost-effective approaches to care, particularly in the management of patients (multimorbidity), is essential.
New questions arise from the recent cardiovascular outcomes studies. Do the cardiovascular and renal benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists demonstrated in patients with established CVD extend to lower-risk patients? Is there additive benefit of use of GLP-1 receptor agonists and SGLT2 inhibitors for prevention of cardiovascular and renal events? If so, in what populations?
Addressing these and other vital clinical questions will require additional investment in basic, translational, clinical, and implementation research. More time-and cost-efficient research paradigms to address patient-centered end points will need to be developed through regulatory reform and leveraging informatics and coordinated learning health care systems. The increasing burden of cardiorenal metabolic disease in terms of incidence, prevalence, and cost is an existential threat to society. Urgent attention to improve prevention and treatment is of the essence.
The management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes has become extraordinarily complex with the number of glucose-lowering medications now available. Patient-centered decision making and support and consistent efforts to improve diet and exercise remain the foundation of all glycemic management. Initial use of metformin, followed by addition of glucose-lowering medications based on patient comorbidities and concerns is recommended as we await answers to the many questions that remain. and grants from Merck and Ligand outside the submitted work. J.F. has nothing to disclose. J.F.'s input into this consensus report is from her own perspective and the report does not reflect the view of the National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, or the U.S. Government. W.N.K. has nothing to disclose. C.M. reports grants and personal fees from Novo Nordisk, grants and personal fees from Sanofi, grants and personal fees from Merck Sharp & Dohme, grants and personal fees from Eli Lilly and Company, grants and personal fees from Novartis, personal fees from Bristol-Myers Squibb, personal fees from AstraZeneca, grants and personal fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, personal fees from Hanmi Pharmaceuticals, grants and personal fees from Roche Diagnostics, grants and personal fees from Medtronic, grants and personal fees from Intrexon, grants and personal fees from Abbott, and personal fees from UCB, outside the submitted work. G.M. reports grants and personal fees from Novo Nordisk, personal fees from Johnson & Johnson, and personal fees from Fractyl Inc., during the conduct of the study. P.R. reports grants and nonfinancial and other support from Novo Nordisk, grants and other support from AstraZeneca, other support from Bayer, other support from Boehringer Ingelheim, other support from Merck Sharp & Dohme, and other support from Eli Lilly, during the conduct of the study. A.T. reports nonfinancial support from the European Association for the Study of Diabetes during the conduct of the study; grants and other support from Boehringer Ingelheim, grants and other support from Novo Nordisk, other support from Novartis, grants and other support from Sanofi, grants and other support from AstraZeneca, grants from GSK, and grants and other support from European Foundation for the Study of Diabetes, outside the submitted work. D.J.W. has nothing to disclose. J.B.B. has provided consultation to Adocia, AstraZeneca, Eli Lilly, GI Dynamics, Intarcia, MannKind, NovaTarg, Novo Nordisk, Senseonics, and vTv Therapeutics with fees paid to the University of North Carolina. He has received grant support from AstraZeneca, Johnson & Johnson, Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, and vTv Therapeutics. He is a consultant to Neurimmune AG. He holds stock options in Mellitus Health, PhaseBio, and Stability Health. He is supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (UL1TR002489). No other potential conflicts of interest relevant to this article were reported.
[fig] Figure 6 -: Choosing glucose-lowering medication if cost is a major issue. DPP-4i, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitor; SGLT2i, SGLT2 inhibitor; SU, sulfonylurea. [/fig]
[fig] Figure 7 -: Intensifying to injectable therapies. FRC, fixed-ratio combination; GLP-1 RA, glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist; FBG, fasting blood glucose; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; max, maximum; PPG, postprandial glucose. [/fig]
[fig] c: Patients who are unable to maintain glyemi targets on basal insulin in ombination with oral mediations an have treatment intensified with GLP-1 reeptor agonists, SGLT2 inhibitors, or prandial insulin (Figs. 7 and 8). [/fig]
[fig] Figure 8 -: Considering oral therapy in combination with injectable therapies. DKA, diabetic ketoacidosis; DPP-4i, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitor; GLP-1 RA, glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist; SGLT2i, SGLT2 inhibitor; SU, sulfonylurea. [/fig]
[table] Table 1 -: Key components of DSMES (21,23-25) c Evidence-based c Individualized to the needs of the person, including language and culture c Has a structured theory-driven written curriculum with supporting materials c Delivered by trained and competent individuals (educators) who are quality assured c Delivered in group or individual settings c Aligns with the local population needs c Supports the person and their family in developing attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, and skills to self-manage diabetes [/table]
[table] Table 2 -: Glucose-lowering medications and therapies available in the U.S. or Europe and specific characteristics that may guide individualized treatment choices in nonpregnant adults with type 2 diabetes [/table]