Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Chichibabin reaction

# Overview
The Chichibabin reaction is a method for producing 2-aminopyridine derivatives by the reaction of pyridine with sodium amide. It was reported by Aleksei Chichibabin in 1914.
The direct amination of pyridine with sodium amide takes place in liquid ammonia. Following the addition elimination mechanism first a  nucleophilic NH2- is added while a hydride (H-) is leaving.
Before the Chichibabin reaction, only electrophilic substitution on the pyridine ring was possible, which is difficult due to the fact that pyridine is an electron-poor aromatic compound and additionally forms positive charged pyridinum ions, which further decrease the probability of an electrophile attack. The positions in the pyridine system attacked by the electrophiles are the 3rd and the 5th position.
The Chichibabin reaction is a nucleophilic substitution on the pyridine ring; the 2nd and 6th positions are therefore favoured over the other positions.
Chimaphila umbellata
Chimaphila umbellata (Umbellate Wintergreen, Pipsissewa, or Prince's pine) is a small perennial flowering plant found in dry woodlands, or sandy soils. It is native throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere.
It grows 10-35 cm tall, and has evergreen shiny, bright green, toothed leaves arranged in opposite pairs or whorls of 3-4 along the stem. Leaves have a shallowly toothed margin, where the teeth have fine hairs at their ends. The flowers are white or pink, produced in a small umbel of 4-8 together.

# Ecology
Although it has green leaves year-round, it turns out to get a significant portion of its nutrition from fungi in the soil (that is, it is a partial  myco-heterotroph, which is not surprising as related plants, such as Pyrola, are partial or full myco-heterotrophs).

# Taxonomy
There are four subspecies:
- Chimaphila umbellata subsp. umbellata  Europe, Asia
- Chimaphila umbellata subsp. acuta  southwestern North America
- Chimaphila umbellata subsp. cisatlantica  northeastern North America
- Chimaphila umbellata subsp. occidentalis  northwestern North America

## Uses
It is used as a flavoring in candy and soft drinks, particularly root beer.
"Pipsissewa" is a Cree name meaning "It-breaks-into-small-pieces". The name is also used for a character in the "Uncle Wiggly" books of Howard R. Garis.
Chlorosis (medicine)
In medicine, chlorosis (also known as "green sickness") is a form of anemia named for the greenish tinge of the skin of a patient.  Its symptoms included lack of energy, shortness of breath, dyspepsia, headaches, a capricious or scanty appetite and amenorrhoea. Today this disease is diagnosed as hypochromic anemia.

# History
In 1554, German physician Johannes Lange, described the condition as "peculiar to virgins". He prescribed that sufferers should "live with men and copulate. If they conceive, they will recover." The name "chlorosis" was coined in 1615 by Montpellier professor of medicine Jean Varande from the word "Chloris" (Greek: ) meaning "greenish-yellow," "pale green," "pale," "pallid" or "fresh". Both Lange and Varande claimed Hippocrates as a reference.
In addition to "green sickness", the condition was known as morbus virgineus ("virgin's disease") or febris amatoria ("lover's fever"). Francis Grose' 1811 Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue defined "green sickness" as: "The disease of maids occasioned by celibacy."
In 1681, English physician Thomas Sydenham classified chlorosis as a hysterical disease affecting not only adolescent girls but also "slender and weakly women that seem consumptive." He advocated iron as a treatment: "To the worn out or languid blood it gives a spur or fillip whereby the animal spirits which lay prostrate and sunken under their own weight are raised and excited." In 1872, French physician Armand Trousseau also advocated treatment with iron, although he similarly classified chlorosis as a "nervous disease".
In 1887, physician Andrew Clark of London Hospital proposed a physiological cause for chlorosis, tying its onset to the demands placed on the bodies of adolescent girls by growth and menarche. In 1895, University of Edinburgh pathologist Ralph Stockman built upon experiments demonstrating that inorganic iron contributed to hemoglobin synthesis to show that chlorosis could be explained by a deficiency in iron brought on by menstrual blood loss and an inadequate diet. Despite the work of Stockman and the effectiveness of iron in treating the symptoms of chlorosis, debate about its cause continued into the 1930s.
In 1937, Arthur J. Patek and Clark W. Heath of Harvard Medical School concluded that chlorosis was identical to hypochromic anemia.
Cholestasis overview

# Overview
In medicine, cholestasis is a condition where bile cannot flow from the liver to the duodenum. Bile formation is a secretory function of the liver. It begins in bile canaliculi that form between two adjacent surfaces of liver cells (hepatocytes) similar to the terminal branches of a tree. The canaliculi join each other to form larger and larger structures, sometimes referred to as Canals of Hering, which themselves join to form small bile ductules that have an epithelial surface. The ductules join to form bile ducts that eventually form either the right main hepatic duct that drains the right lobe of the liver and the left main hepatic duct draining the left lobe of the liver. The two ducts join to form the common hepatic duct, which in turn joins the cystic duct from the gall bladder, to give the common bile duct.  This duct then enters the duodenum at the ampulla of Vater. The two basic distinctions are an obstructive type of cholestasis where there is a mechanical blockage in the duct system such as can occur from a gallstone or malignancy and metabolic types of cholestasis which are disturbances in bile formation that can occur because of genetic defects or acquired as a side effect of many medications.

# Pathophysiology
Under a microscope, the individual hepatocytes will have a brownish-green stippled appearance within the cytoplasm, representing bile that cannot get out of the cell.  Canalicular bile plugs between individual hepatocytes or within bile ducts may also be seen, representing bile that has been excreted from the hepatocytes but cannot go any further due to the obstruction.  When these plugs occur within the bile duct, sufficient pressure (caused by bile accumulation) can cause them to rupture, spilling bile into the surrounding tissue, causing hepatic necrosis.  These areas are known as bile lakes, and are typically seen only with extra-hepatic obstruction.

# Diagnosis

## Laboratory Findings
Blood tests may show higher than normal levels of bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase.
Clasp-knife response

# Overview
Clasp-knife response is one of the characteristic responses of a upper motor neurone lesion. It refers to a stretch reflex with a rapid decrease in resistance when attempting to flex a joint, usually during a neurological examination.
It gets its name from the resemblance between the motion of the limb and the sudden closing of a claspknife after sufficient pressure is applied.

# Cause
Although seemingly a stretch reflex when flexing a joint, force from the muscle during the attempt to flex a joint is actually thought to be caused by the tendon reflex of the antagonistic muscle of that joint, which gets extended . In upper motor neurone lesions, muscle tonus may increase resistance of muscle to stretch increases. However, if sufficient force is applied, limb resistance suddenly decreases.
Medical microbiology
Medical microbiology is a branch of microbiology which deals with the study of microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites which are of medical importance and are capable of causing diseases in human beings.  It includes the study of microbial pathogenesis and epidemiology and is related to the study of disease pathology and immunology.  In the medical laboratory, these microbiologists are often medical technologists and they also work in a subdepartment dedicated to  parasitology.
This branch of microbiology is amongst the most widely studied and followed branches as this has given mankind a chance to fight the organisms that at one point of time were pure nemesis to us. Along with providing a deep knowledge and understanding of the nature of pathogens this line of study has also been the precursor to the wide gamut of immunological innovations in the field of medical science.
Not only has this field helped us to develop vaccines against invading organisms, but in a more holistic way has given mankind a second shot at a life. Deadly and debilitating diseases, like plague, small pox, polio, rabies, have been either eradicated or are more treatable now because of the efforts of scientists and researchers in the field of medical microbiology.
Dicloxacillin Sodium

# Overview
Dicloxacillin sodium, is an antibacterial agent of the isoxazolyl penicillin series. It is a penicillinase-resistant, acid resistant semisynthetic penicillin suitable for oral administration.  It exert a bactericidal action against penicillin-susceptible microorganisms during the state of active multiplication. 
Dicloxacillin sodium has been shown to be active against most strains of aerobic gram-positive microorganisms, and staphylococcus spp. (penicillinase producing).

# Category
Penicillinase-resistant penicillins

# US Brand Names
DICLOXACILLIN SODIUM

# FDA Package Insert
Description

# Mechanism of Action
Penicillinase-resistant penicillins exert a bactericidal action against penicillin-susceptible microorganisms during the state of active multiplication. All penicillins inhibit the biosynthesis of the bacterial cell wall.
Median sacral artery
The median sacral artery (or middle sacral artery) is a small vessel, which arises from the back of the aorta, a little above its bifurcation.
It descends in the middle line in front of the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebr, the sacrum and coccyx, and ends in the glomus coccygeum (coccygeal gland).
From it, minute branches are said to pass to the posterior surface of the rectum.
On the last lumbar vertebra it anastomoses with the lumbar branch of the iliolumbar artery; in front of the sacrum it anastomoses with the lateral sacral arteries, and sends offsets into the anterior sacral foramina.
It is crossed by the left common iliac vein, and is accompanied by a pair of ven comitantes; these unite to form a single vessel, which opens into the left common iliac vein.
Prevertebral ganglia
Please Take Over This Page and Apply to be Editor-In-Chief for this topic: 
There can be one or more than one Editor-In-Chief. You may also apply to be an Associate Editor-In-Chief of one of the subtopics below. Please mail us  to indicate your interest in serving either as an Editor-In-Chief of the entire topic or as an Associate Editor-In-Chief for a subtopic. Please be sure to attach your CV and or biographical sketch.
Prevertebral ganglia (or collateral ganglia, or preaortic ganglia) are sympathetic ganglia which lie between the sympathetic chain and the organ of supply.

# Function
They are the site of relay of the preganglionic sympathetic fibres that supply abdominal and pelvic viscera.

# Examples
These include the celiac ganglia (which can include the aorticorenal ganglion), superior mesenteric ganglia, and inferior mesenteric ganglia.
Concealed conduction

# Definitions of conduction abnormalities

## Aberrant conduction
Cardiac conduction through pathways not normally conducting cardiac impulses, particularly through ventricular tissue.

## Anterograde conduction
Transmission of a cardiac impulse in the normal direction, from the sinus node to the ventricles, particularly forward conduction through the atrioventricular node.

## Concealed conduction
Incomplete penetration of a propagating impulse through the cardiac conducting system such that electrocardiograms reveal no evidence of transmission but the behavior of one or more subsequent impulses is somehow affected. A common example would be an interpolated PVC (a type of premature ventricular contraction) during normal sinus rhythm; the PVC does not cause an atrial contraction, because the retrograde impulse from the PVC does not completely penetrate the AV node. However, this AV node stimulation (which is not visible on EKG by itself, hence "concealed") can cause a delay in subsequent AV conduction by modifying the AV node's subsequent conduction characteristics. Hence, the P-R interval after the PVC is longer than the baseline P-R interval.
Another variation on this concept is seen in atrial flutter. As a result of the rapid atrial rate, some of the atrial activity fails to get through the AV node in an antegrade direction but can alter the rate at which a subsequent atrial impulse is conducted. In this circumstance, an alteration in the F-wave to QRS relationship is seen.

## Concealed retrograde conduction
Retrograde conduction blocked in the atrioventricular node; it does not produce an extra P wave but leaves the node refractory to the next normal sinus beat.

## Retrograde conduction
transmission of a cardiac impulse backward in the ventricular to atrial direction, particularly conduction from the atrioventricular node into the atria.
Condensed Detachment
Condensed Detachment (Rule D) is a method of finding the most general possible conclusion given two formal logical statements.
It was developed by the Irish Logician Carew Meredith in the 1950s and inspired by the work of ukasiewicz.

# Informal description
A rule of detachment says:
Given that p \,\! implies q \,\!, and given p \to\,\! produces q \,\!.
The condensed detachment goes a step further and says:
Given that p \,\! implies q \,\!, and given an r \to\,\! produces the most general possible result of substitutions into q \,\! and r \,\! followed by a standard rule of detachments.
For substitution A that when applied to p \,\! produces t \,\!, and substitution B that when applied to r \,\! produces t \,\!, are called the Unifiers of p \,\! and q \,\!.
Various unifiers may produce expressions with varying numbers of free variables.  Some possible unifying expression are substitution instances of others.  If one expression is a substitution instance of another (and not just a variable renaming), then that other is called "more general".
If the most general unifier is used in Condensed Detachment, then the logical result is the most general conclusion that can be made in the given inference with the given second expression. (And since any weaker inference you can get is a substitution instance of the most general one, nothing less than the most general unifier is ever used in practice.)
In some logics (such as standard PC) have a set of defining axioms with the "D-completeness" property.  Any conclusion that can be arrived at by  a sequence of uniform substitution and Modus Ponens steps can either be done as a sequence of Condensed Detachment steps, or is a substitution instance of something that can be.
((((A implies B)implies((not C)implies(not D)))implies C)implies E)implies((E implies A)implies(D implies A))

# D-notation
Since a given major premise and a given minor premise uniquely determine the conclusion (up to variable renaming), Meredith observed that it was only necessary to note which two statements were involved and that the condensed detachment can be used without any other notation required. This led to the "D-notation" for proofs.  This notation uses the "D" operator to mean condensed detachment, and takes 2 arguments, in a standard prefix notation string. For example:D D 1 2 D 3 4
shows a condensed detachment step using the result of two prior condensed detachment steps, the first of which used axioms 1 and 2, and the second of which used axioms 3 and 4.
This notation, besides being used in some automated theorem provers, sometimes appears in catalogs of proofs
Condensed detachment's use of Unification predates the resolution techniques of automated theorem proving.
Controlled substance
A controlled substance is generally a drug or chemical whose manufacture, possession and use are regulated by a government. This may include Illegal drugs and Prescription medications (designated Controlled Drug in the United Kingdom).
In the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration is responsible for suppressing illegal drug use and distribution by enforcing the Controlled Substances Act. Some precursor chemicals used for the production of illegal drugs are also controlled substances in many countries, even though they lack drug-like effects themselves. Substances are classified according to schedules and consist primarily of potentially psychoactive substances. The controlled substances do not include many prescription items such as antibiotics.
Some US states have statutes against healthcare providers self-prescribing and/or administering substances listed in the Controlled Substance Act schedules. This does not forbid licensed providers from self-prescribing medications not on the schedules.
Convergent synthesis
In chemistry a convergent synthesis is a strategy that aims to improve the efficiency of multi-step chemical synthesis. In linear synthesis the overall yield quickly drops with each reaction step:
Suppose the yield is 50% for each reaction, the overall yield of D is only 12.5% from A.
In a convergent synthesis
the overall yield of E (25%) looks much better. Convergent synthesis is applied in the synthesis of complex molecules (see total synthesis) and  involve fragment coupling and independent synthesis.
Examples:
- Convergent synthesis is encountered in dendrimer synthesis  where branches (with the number of generations preset) are connected to the central core
- Proteins of up to 300 amino acids are produced by a convergent approach using chemical ligation.
- An example of its use in total synthesis is the final step (photochemical cycloaddition) towards the compound Biyouyanagin A :
Seminiferous tubules

# Overview
Seminiferous tubules are located in the testicles, and are the specific location of meiosis, and the subsequent creation of gametes, namely spermatozoa.
The epithelium of the tubule consists of sustentacular or Sertoli cells, which are tall, columnar type cells that line the tubule.
In between the Sertoli cells are spermatogenic cells, which differentiate through meiosis to sperm cells.
There are two types: convoluted and straight.
Convolvulus arvensis
Convolvulus arvensis (Field Bindweed) is a species of bindweed, native to Europe and Asia. It is a climbing or creeping herbaceous perennial plant growing to 0.5-2 m high. The leaves are spirally arranged, linear to arrowhead-shaped, 2-5 cm long, with a 1-3 cm petiole. The flowers are trumpet-shaped, 1-2.5 cm diameter, white or pale pink, with five slightly darker pink radial stripes.
There are two varieties:
- Convolvulus arvensis var. arvensis. Leaves broader.
- Convolvulus arvensis var. linearifolius. Leaves narrower.
Although it produces attractive flowers, it is often unwelcome in gardens as a nuisance weed due to its rapid growth and choking of cultivated plants. It has been introduced to North America, where it is an invasive species in some areas. Very common in Pakistan and it is called Leli in Punjabi.
Other common names, mostly obsolete, include lesser bindweed, European bindweed, perennial morning glory, smallflowered morning glory, creeping jenny, and possession vine.
In one of the tales collected by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Our Lady's Little Glass, this flower is used by Our Lady to drink wine with when she helps free a wagoner's cart. The story goes on to say that "the little flower is still always called Our Lady's Little Glass."
Coptis aspleniifolia
Coptis aspleniifolia, commonly known as Fern-Leaved Goldthread, is found in the northern two-thirds of British Columbia, in Alaska, and along the Cascades into Washington and is a native plant of the Coast (temperate) Forest Region.  It is often found in the understory of the herb layer of carniferous mountain forests as part of a multilayered canopy system on gleysolic or organic soils on watering sights. Also found in wetwoods and bogs, the Fern-leaved Goldthread is not invasive or poisonous.  On a rating system created by the province ranging from S1, critically imperiled or rare  S5, common, widespread, and abundant in the province, the Fern-leaved Goldthread is an S5.
An evergreen perennial, the Fern-leaved Goldthread is mostly hairless and 5-30cm tall. Its leaves resemble those of Ferns, are all basal, dark-green and glossy and divided into 5 or more segments. The Fern-leaved Goldthread blooms late April/May with a pale greenish white/yellow flower.  It has 2-3 nodding flowers per stalk, 5-7 delicate septals and 5-7 thin petals. The Fern-leaved Goldthread is a member of the Buttercup Family.
The Fern-leaved Goldthread is named for its leaves which are structured similar to the common fern and for its roots, which are vibrant golden hue when peeled.
The Fern-leaved Goldthread is an important part of the ecosystem, serving as a protective ground cover, keeping moisture in the ground by providing shade, as well as primary nutritional food source for deer.
Dural venous sinuses
The dural venous sinuses (also called dural sinuses, cerebral sinuses, or cranial sinuses) are venous channels found between layers of dura mater in the brain. They receive blood from internal and external veins of the brain, receive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the subarachnoid space, and ultimately empty into the internal jugular vein.

# Venous sinuses

# Structure
The walls of the dural venous sinuses are composed of dura mater lined with endothelium, a specialized layer of flattened cells found in blood vessels. They differ from other blood vessels in that they lack a full set of vessel layers (e.g. tunica media) characteristic of arteries and veins.

# Clinical relevance
The sinuses can be injured by trauma. Damage to the dura mater, which may be caused by skull fracture, may result blood clot formation (thrombosis) within the dural sinuses. While rare, dural sinus thrombosis may lead to hemorrhagic infarction with serious consequences including epilepsy, neurological deficits, or death.
Create user template
- A user template is a computer program that generates the same content on multiple pages.
- After your request for a WikiDoc account has been approved, you have to make a user template by following the following steps:
Create a new page and type "template:xyz (xyz here can be the name or initials of the scholar)".
E.g., John Smith's user template can be "template:JS", "template:JSmith", "template:John Smith", or "template:JSM".
Go to the newly created template page, type "]" and save the page.
- Create a new page and type "template:xyz (xyz here can be the name or initials of the scholar)".
E.g., John Smith's user template can be "template:JS", "template:JSmith", "template:John Smith", or "template:JSM".
- E.g., John Smith's user template can be "template:JS", "template:JSmith", "template:John Smith", or "template:JSM".
- Go to the newly created template page, type "]" and save the page.
- To watch an instructional video, click here.
- To go back to WikiDoc scholar program homepage, click here.