Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Exothermic reaction
The total energy in bond breaking is less than the total energy released in bond making.
In chemistry, an exothermic reaction is one that releases heat. It is the opposite of an endothermic reaction. Expressed in a chemical equation:

# Overview
In  an exothermic reaction, the total energy absorbed in bond breaking is less than the total energy released in bond making. In other words, the energy needed for the reaction to occur is less than the total energy provided. As a result of this, the extra energy is released, usually in the form of heat.
When using a calorimeter, the change in heat of the calorimeter is equal to the opposite of the change in heat of the system. This means that when the medium in which the reaction is taking place gains heat, the reaction is exothermic.
The absolute amount of energy in a chemical system is extremely difficult to measure or calculate. The enthalpy change, H, of a chemical reaction is much easier to measure and calculate. A bomb calorimeter is very suitable for measuring the energy change, H, of a combustion reaction. Measured and calculated H values are related to bond energies by:
by definition the enthalpy change has a negative value:
For an exothermic reaction, this gives a negative value for H, since a larger value (the energy released in the reaction) is subtracted from a smaller value (the energy used for the reaction). For example, when hydrogen burns:

# Examples of exothermic reactions
- Combustion reactions
- Neutralization reactions for instance direct reaction of acid and base
- Adding concentrated acid to water
- Adding water to anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
- The Thermite reaction
- Reactions taking place in a self-heating can based on lime and aluminum.

# Key points
- The concept and its opposite number endothermic relate to the enthalpy change in any process not just chemical reaction.
- In endergonic reactions and exergonic reactions it is the sign of the Gibbs free energy that count and not enthalpy. the related concepts endergonic and exergonic apply to all physical processes.
- the conceptually related endotherm and exotherm are concepts in Animal physiology.
- In quantum numbers, when any exited energy level goes down to its original level for example: when n=4 fall to n=2, energy is released so, it is exothermic.
Experimentum crucis
In the sciences, an experimentum crucis, or critical experiment, is an experiment capable of decisively determining whether or not a particular  hypothesis or theory is correct.  In particular, such an experiment must typically be able to produce a predictable result that no established hypothesis or theory is capable of producing.
The production of such an experiment is considered necessary for a particular hypothesis or theory to be considered an established part of the body of scientific knowledge. It is not unusual in the history of science for theories to be developed fully before producing a critical experiment. A given theory which is in accordance with known experiment but which has not yet produced a critical experiment is typically considered worthy of exploration in order to discover such an experimental test.
Isaac Newton (1687) presented a disproof of Descartes' vortex theory of the motion of the planets.
Isaac Newton first used the term experimentum crucis in his 1672 letter to the Royal Society concerning his New Theory of Light and Colors.
A famous example in the 20th century of an experimentum crucis was the expedition led by Arthur Eddington to Principe Island in Africa in 1919 to record the positions of stars around the Sun during a solar eclipse. The observation of star positions confirmed predictions of gravitational lensing made by Albert Einstein in the general theory of relativity published in 1915. Eddington's observations were considered to be the first solid evidence in favor of the Einstein's theory.
In some cases, a proposed theory can account for existing anomalous experimental results for which no other existing theory can furnish an explanation. An example would be the ability of the quantum hypothesis, proposed by Max Planck in 1900, to account for the observed black-body spectrum, an experimental result which the existing classical Rayleigh-Jeans law could not predict. Such cases are not considered strong enough to fully establish a new theory, however, and the case of quantum mechanics, it took the confirmation of the theory through new predictions for the theory to gain full acceptance.

# Notes
-  Isaac Newton (1687), Principia Mathematica Book iii, Proposition 43, General Scholium and Book ii,  Section ix, Proposition 53, as referenced by William Stanley Jevons (1874), The Principles of Science: A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method p. 517.
-  William Stanley Jevons (1874) reports in The Principles of Science: A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method p. 507. that Newton first used the term in his Opticks of 1704; however the term appears in Newton's letter 32 years before.
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Extracellular fluid
Extracellular fluid (ECF) usually denotes all body fluid outside of cells. The remainder is called intracellular fluid.
In some animals, including mammals, the extracellular fluid can be divided into two major subcompartments, interstitial fluid (ISF) and blood plasma.  The extracellular fluid also includes the transcellular fluid (TCF) which makes up only about 2.5 percent of the ECF.
In humans, the normal glucose concentration of extracellular fluid that is regulated by homeostasis is approximately 5 mM.
The pH of extracellular fluid is tightly regulated by buffers around 7.4.
The volume of ECF is typically 15L (of which 12L is interstitial fluid and 3L as plasma)

# Contents of ECF
Main Cations:
Sodium (140 mM)
Potassium (4 mM)
Calcium (2 mM)
Main Anions:
Chloride (110 mM)
Hydrogen Carbonate (26 mM)
It is poorer in proteins compared to intracellular fluid
Extraocular muscles
The extraocular muscles are the six muscles that control the movements of the eye. The actions of the extraocular muscles depend on the position of the eye at the time of muscle contraction.

# List of muscles

# Actions
In an eye examination, the inability of the patient to move the eye in the specified direction can indicate a problem with the associated muscle, and the nerve associated with that muscle.

# Paths

## Five with paths from annulus of zinn
Five of the extraocular muscles have their origin in the back of the orbit in a fibrous ring called the annulus of Zinn.
Four of these then course forward through the orbit and insert onto the globe on its anterior half (i.e., in front of the eye's equator). These muscles are named after their straight paths, and are called the four rectus muscles, or four recti.
- superior rectus - inserts on the globe at 2
- inferior rectus - inserts on the globe at 3
- medial rectus - inserts on the globe at 4
- lateral rectus - inserts on the globe at 5
(Note that lateral and medial are relative to the subject, with lateral toward the side and medial toward the midline, thus the medial rectus is the muscle closest to the nose).

## Two with more complex paths
The other two extraocular muscles follow more complicated paths.
- The superior oblique muscle originates at the back of the orbit and courses forward to a rigid pulley, called the trochlea, on the upper, nasal wall of the orbit. The muscle passes through the pulley, turning sharply across the orbit, and inserts on the lateral, posterior part of the globe. Thus, the superior oblique goes backward for the last part of its path, and because it goes over the top of the eye, it pulls it downward and nasally (medially).
- The last muscle is the inferior oblique, which originates at the lower front of the nasal orbital wall, and passes under the LR to insert on the lateral, posterior part of the globe. Thus, the inferior oblique pulls the eye upward and nasally (medially).

# Mnemonic
A good mnemonic to remember which muscles are innervated by what nerve is to paraphrase it as a molecular equation: LR6SO4R3.
- Lateral Rectus - Cranial Nerve VI
- Superior Oblique - Cranial Nerve IV
- the Rest of the muscles - Cranial Nerve III.
Another way to remember which nerves innervate which muscles is to understand the meaning behind all of the Latin words.
- The fourth cranial nerve, the trochlear, is so named because the muscle it innervates, the superior oblique, runs through a little fascial pulley that changes its direction of pull (the trochlea of superior oblique).  This pulley exists in the superiomedial corner of each orbit, and "trochl-" is Latin for "pulley."
- The sixth cranial nerve, the abducens, is so named because it controls the lateral rectus, which abducts the eye (rotates it laterally) upon contraction.
- The third cranial nerve, the oculomotor, is so named because it is in charge of the movement (motor) of the eye (oculo-). It controls all of the other muscles.
Eye injury overview

# Overview
Physical or chemical injuries of the eye can be a serious threat to vision if not treated appropriately and in a timely fashion. The most obvious presentation of ocular (eye) injuries is redness and pain of the affected eyes. This is not, however, universally true, as tiny metallic projectiles may cause neither symptom. Tiny metallic projectiles should be suspected when a patient reports metal on metal contact, such as with hammering a metal surface. Intraocular foreign bodies do not cause pain because of the lack of nerve endings in the vitreous humour and retina that can transmit pain sensations. As such, general or emergency room doctors should refer cases involving the posterior segment of the eye or intraocular foreign bodies to an ophthalmologist. Ideally, ointment would not be used when referring to an ophthalmologist, since it diminishes the ability to carry out a thorough eye examination.

# Causes
Flying pieces of wood, metal, glass, stone and other material are notorious for causing much of the eye trauma. Blunt injury by fist (during a drunken brawl), ball (cricket ball, lawn tennis ball), shuttle cock (from Badminton) and other high speed flying objects can strike the eye. Small children may indulge in bow-and-arrow games and firecrackers (respectively common during Dussehra and Diwali festivals in India) which can lead to eye trauma. Road traffic accidents (RTAs) with head and facial trauma may also have an eye injury - these are usually severe in nature with multiple lacerations, shards of glasses embedded in tissues, orbital fractures, severehematoma and penetrating open-globe injuries with prolapse of eye contents.  Other causes of intraocular trauma may arise from workplace tools or even common household implements. 

# Epidemiology and Demographics
A recent study estimated that from 2002-2003 there were 27,152 injuries in the United States related to the wearing of eyeglasses. The same study concluded that sports-related injuries due to eyeglasses wear were more common in those under the age of 18 and that fall-related injuries due to eyeglasses wear were more common in those aged 65 or more. Although eyeglasses-related injuries do occur, prescription eyeglasses and non-prescription sunglasses have been found to "offer measurable protection which results in a lower incidence of severe eye injuries to those wearing them".

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Multiple complications are known to occur following eye injury: corneal scarring, hyphema, iridodialysis, post-traumaticglaucoma, uveitis cataract, vitreous hemorrhage and retinal detachment. The complications risk is high with retinal tears, penetrating injuries and severe blunt trauma.
Facial rejuvenation

# Overview
Facial rejuvenation is any cosmetic or medical procedure used to increase or restore the appearance of a younger age to human face. The specific term, however, refers to a set of surgical procedures which try to restore facial geometry and skin appearance which are typical of youth, by using a combination of brow lift, elimination of eye bags, eyelids lift, elimination of senile spots, skin aging, facial sagging and wrinkles by face lift and rhytidectomy and physical or chemical peeling, chin lift (reduction of double chin), restoration of facial hairline, etc. These procedures are usually successful and in some cases achieve striking results.
Other medically effective procedures are:
- Botox injections
- DMAE creams
- Permanent makeup
- Facial toning
- Collagen injection

# Influence of changes in bone structure
More recent research has pointed out the influence of changes in the facial skeleton with age on the appearance of "oldness", especially in the mid-face area and the lower part of the orbits around the nose. quantitative study with CAT scans of the faces of men and women in several age brackets  has revealed that there is an appreciable amount of loss of bone tissue in these regions with age, leading to changes in angles, lengths and volumes, and also decreasing the distance between the eyes. This occurs earlier in women than in man. It has been hypothesised that skin sagging and wrinkles may occur not only because of loss of soft tissue and fat, but also because bone retraction creates an excess of skin which is no longer flexible. Future facial rejuvenation techniques may take into account these findings and restore bone lost by aging processes.

# Visual appraisal of facial youthness
Human visual perception is notable to its sensitivity and accuracy in estimating or perceiving age by instant pattern recognition of facial features. Often, human faces with nary a measurable difference in facial geometry and appearance are perceived as having different ages. This mechanism is not yet entirely understood, but they may be related to the subtle changes in facial bone structure related above.

# Trends in facial rejuvenation
According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, more than 114,000 facelifts and nearly 55,000 forehead lifts were performed in the USA in 2004, the majority on women. A significant upward trend on the number of facial rejuvenation procedures is predicted, due to the following factors:
- Men have also started to perform these procedures at increasing numbers;
- Emphasis on image of youthfulness by the mass media and fashion;
- Increasing numbers of senior people enjoying good health and financial affluence at older ages;
- Decreasing costs of surgery and other cosmetic procedures, making them affordable to all
Factor I Deficiency

# Overview
Factor I deficiency, also known as fibrinogen deficiency, is a rare inherited bleeding disorder related to fibrinogen function in the blood coagulation cascade.  It is typically subclassified into three distinct disorders: afibrinogenemia, hypofibrinogenemia, or dysfibrinogenemia.
Afibrinogenemia is defined as a lack of fibrinogen in the blood, clinically <20 mg/deciliter of plasma.  The frequency of this disorder is estimated at between 0.5 and 2 per million.
Hypofibrinogenemia is defined as a partial deficiency of fibrinogen, clinically 2080 mg/deciliter of plasma.  Estimated frequency varies from <0.5 to 3 per million.
Dysfibrinogenemia is defined as malfunctioning or non-functioning fibrinogen in the blood, albeit at normal concentrations: 200400 mg/deciliter of plasma.  Hypodysfibrinogenemia is a partial deficiency of fibrinogen that is also malfunctioning.  Estimated frequency varies from 1 to 3 per million.
Within the United States, afibrinogenemia accounts for 24% of all inherited abnormalities of fibrinogen, while hypofibrinogenemia and dysfibrinogenemia account for 38% each.

# Causes
The disorders associated with Factor I deficiency are generally inherited, although certain liver diseases can also affect fibrinogen levels and function (e.g. cirrhosis).  Afibrinogenemia is a recessive inherited disorder, where both parents must be carriers.  Hypofibrinogenemia and dysfibrinogenemia can be dominant (i.e. only one parent needs to be a carrier) or recessive.  The origin of the disorders is traced back to three possible genes: FGA, FGB, or FGG.  Because all three are involved in forming the hexameric glycoprotein fibrinogen, mutations in any one of the three genes can cause the deficiency.

# Symptoms
Afibrinogenemia is typically the most severe of the three disorders.  Common symptoms include bleeding of the umbilical cord at birth, traumatic and surgical bleeding, GI tract, oral and mucosal bleeding, spontaneous splenal rupture, and rarely intracranial hemorrhage and articular bleeding.
Symptoms of hypofibrinogenemia varies from mild to severe, but can include bleeding of the GI tract, oral and mucosal bleeding, and very rarely intracranial bleeding.  More commonly it presents during traumatic bleeding or surgical procedures.
Most cases (60%) of dyfibrinogenemia are asymptomatic, but 28% exhibit hemorrhaging similar to that described above while 20% exhibit thrombosis (i.e. excessive clotting).

# Treatment
The most common type of treatment is cryoprecipitate or fibrinogen concentrate drip to increase fibrinogen levels to normal during surgical procedures or after trauma.  RiaSTAP, a factor I concentrate, was approved by the U.S. FDA in 2009 for use in cases where the fibrinogen level was below 50 mg/deciliter of plasma.  Recently, antifibrinolytics have also been used to inhibit fibrinolysis (breaking down of the fibrin clot).  In the case of dysfibrinogenemia that manifests by thrombosis, anticoagulants can be used.
Due to the inhibited clotting ability associated with a- and hypofibrinogenemia, physicians advise against the use of Aspirin as it is known to inhibit platelet function.
Faculty development
Faculty development is a component of medical education.

# Peer learning
Peer learning may be a helpful tactic, especially for medical education as opposed to the research component of a faculty work. Gosling, quoting Shulman wrote:
- "Rather, what he  found was not a community of teachers, but isolation: We close the classroom door and experience pedagogical solitude, whereas in our life as scholars, we are members of active communities: communities of conversation, communities of evaluation, communities in which we gather with others in our invisible colleges to exchange our findings, and methods and our excuses."
One review found regarding peers:
- the value of using peers as role models
- the mutual exchange of information and ideas
- and the importance of collegial support to promote and maintain change
Gosling has identified the models of peer support:
- evaluative. Gosling notes that this can be a problematic judgemental process
- developmental. This is more typical learning from experts.
- collaborative. Collaborative models "aim to promote self-reflection and growth through non-judgemental feedback amongst peers. Through their reliance on peers as equals, and negotiated practices, collaborative models of faculty development emphasise relationships, reflective practice based on dialogue14 and the social enterprise of learning.
Hyperproinsulinemia
Hyperproinsulinemia is a disease where insulin is not sufficiently processed before secretion and immature forms of insulin make up the majority of circulating insulin immunoreactivity in both fasting and glucose-stimulated conditions (insulin immunoreactivity refers to all molecules detectable by an insulin antibody, i.e. insulin, proinsulin, and proinsulin-like material). The term is composed of hyper - high, proinsulin - immature insulin molecule, and -nemia - disease.
Hyperproinsulinemia is more frequent in type 2 diabetes. It has been attributed to either a direct -cells defect or an indirect effect of cell dysregulation under sustained elevated blood glucose (hyperglycemia).
Some alleles of insulin can cause hyperproinsulinemia (see table 2: monogenic forms of type 1 diabetes, INS (insulin). For a more detailed descriptions of the insulin gene variations leading to hyperproinsulinemia see NCBI's OMIM 176730
Fascial compartment
On the human body, the limbs can be divided into segments, such as the arm and the forearm of the upper limb, and the thigh and the leg of the lower limb.
If these segments are cut transversely, it is apparent that they are divided into multiple sections. These are called fascial compartments, and are formed by tough connective tissue septa.
These compartments usually have a separate nerve and blood supply to their neighbours. The muscles in each compartment will often all be supplied by the same nerve.
Female sex hormones
Sex steroids, also known as gonadal steroids, are steroid hormones that interact with vertebrate androgen or estrogen receptors. The term sex hormone nearly always is synonymous with sex steroid.

# Production
Natural sex steroids are made by the gonads (ovaries or testes), by adrenal glands, or by conversion from other sex steroids in other tissues such as liver or fat.

# Functions
Sex steroids play important roles in inducing the body changes known as primary sex characteristics and secondary sex characteristics.
The development of both primary and secondary sexual characteristics is controlled by sex hormones after the initial fetal stage where the presence or absence of the Y-chromosome and/or the SRY gene determine development.

# Synthetic sex steroids
There are also many synthetic sex steroids. Synthetic androgens are often referred to as anabolic steroids. Synthetic estrogens and progestins are used in methods of hormonal contraception. Ethinylestradiol is a semi-synthetic estrogen.

# Types
In many contexts, the two main classes of sex steroids are androgens and estrogens, of which the most important human derivatives are testosterone and estradiol, respectively. Other contexts will include progestagen as a third class of sex steroids, distinct from androgens and estrogens. Progesterone is the most important and only naturally-occurring human progestagen. In general, androgens are considered "male sex hormones", since they have masculinizing effects, while estrogens and progestagens are considered "female sex hormones" although all types are present in each gender, albeit at different levels.
Sex steroids include:
- androgens:
testosterone
androstenedione
dihydrotestosterone
dehydroepiandrosterone
anabolic steroids
- testosterone
- androstenedione
- dihydrotestosterone
- dehydroepiandrosterone
- anabolic steroids
- estrogens:
estradiol
estrone
- estradiol
- estrone
- progestagens:
progesterone
progestins
- progesterone
- progestins