Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Haplogroup G (mtDNA)
In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup G is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
It is an East Asian haplogroup.  Today G is found at its highest frequency in northeastern Siberia. Haplogroup G is also found at lower frequency among some populations of northern East Asia and Central Asia.

# Relationship to other haplogroups
Haplogroup G is a descendant of haplogroup M.

## Subclades
Haplogroup G is divided into subclades G1 and G2a, which represent the Koryaks and Itelmen.
Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup H (M69) is a Y-chromosome haplogroup.
This haplogroup is found at a high frequency in India. It is generally rare outside of the Indian subcontinent but is common among the Roma people, particularly the H-M82 subgroup.
It is a branch of Haplogroup F, and is believed to have arisen in India between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago.  Its probable site of introduction is India since it is concentrated there, but it may also have arisen in Iran or the Middle East. It seems to represent the main Y-haplogroup of the indigenous paleolithic inhabitants of India, because it is the most frequent Y-haplogroup of lower castes and tribal populations (25-35%), especially those of Dravidian origin. On the other hand, its presence in upper castes is quite rare (ca. 10%) (Cordaux et al. 2004, Sengupta et al. 2006, Thanseem et al. 2006).
Very low frequencies of the Haplogroup H are found among populations of Pakistan compared to the frequency of this haplogroup among Indian populations. A recent study of Y-chromosome variation among populations of Pakistan found Haplogroup H1-M52 Y-chromosomes in only 2.5% of a sample of the general Pakistani population (16 out of 638 individuals), and this haplogroup was also found at similar frequencies among ethnic Pashtuns (4/96 or 4.2%) and Burusho (4/97 or 4.1%). Surprisingly, Haplogroup H1-M52 was found at a much higher frequency among this study's sample of Kalash (9/44 or 20.5%) (Firasat et al. 2007).
Haplogroup H has been found very rarely outside of the Roma and populations of the Indian subcontinent, including approximately 6% (1 out of 17 individuals) of a sample of Kurds from Turkmenistan, 4% (2/53) of Iranians from Samarkand, 2% (1/56) of Uzbeks from Bukhara, 3% (2/70) of Uzbeks from Khorezm, 2% (1/63) of Uzbeks from the Fergana Valley, 4% (2/45) of Uzbeks from Samarkand, 12.5% (2/16) of Tajiks from Dushanbe, and 2% (1/41) of Uyghurs from Kazakhstan (Wells et al. 2001). The subclade H1a-M82 has also been found in 2.0% (3/150) of a sample of the population of Iran, but only in the southern parts of the country (Regueiro et al. 2006).
Haplogroup K (mtDNA)
Haplogroup K is a group of people who descend from a woman in the Haplogroup R (mtDNA) branch of the genographic tree. Because of the genetic diversity in haplogroup K she most likely lived around 50,000 years ago. Her descendants gave birth to several different subgroups, some of which exhibit very specific geographic homelands. The old age has led to a wide distribution of the descendant subgroups that harbor specific European, northern African, Indian, Arab, northern Caucasus Mountains and the Near East. While some members of the group headed north to Scandinavia or South to North Africa, most women in this group crossed the Caucasus Mountains in southern Russia and moved on to the steppes of the Black Sea. The Haplogroup K is currently shared by over 3,000,000 people.
Approximately 32% of the haplotypes of modern people with Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry are in haplogroup K.
In his popular book The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes named the originator of this mtDNA haplogroup Katrine.

# Famous members
Analysis of the mtDNA of Otzi the Iceman, the frozen mummy from 3300 BC found on the Austrian-Italian border, has shown that Otzi belongs to the K1 subcluster of the mitochondrial haplogroup K, but that it cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subcluster.
On an 18 November 2005 broadcast of the Today Show, during an interview with Dr. Spencer Wells of The National Geographic Genographic Project, host Katie Couric was revealed to belong to haplogroup K. 
On 14 August 2007, Stephen Colbert was told by Dr. Spencer Wells that he is a member of this haplogroup.
Haplogroup M (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup M (M4) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup.
This haplogroup is associated with Near Oceania and Maritime Southeast Asia, particularly Melanesia, Micronesia, and eastern Indonesia.
It is a descendant haplogroup of haplogroup K, and is believed to have first appeared approximately 10,000 years ago.

# Subclades
- M   (M4 (M296), M5, M106, M186, M189, P35)
M*
M1   (P34)
M1*
M1a   (P51)
M2   (P87)
M2*
M2a   (M104 (P22)) Typical of populations of the Bismarck Archipelago and Bougainville Island
M2a*
M2a1   (M16)
M2a2   (M83)
- M*
- M1   (P34)
M1*
M1a   (P51)
- M1*
- M1a   (P51)
- M2   (P87)
M2*
M2a   (M104 (P22)) Typical of populations of the Bismarck Archipelago and Bougainville Island
M2a*
M2a1   (M16)
M2a2   (M83)
- M2*
- M2a   (M104 (P22)) Typical of populations of the Bismarck Archipelago and Bougainville Island
M2a*
M2a1   (M16)
M2a2   (M83)
- M2a*
- M2a1   (M16)
- M2a2   (M83)
Haplogroup M (mtDNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup M is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
An enormous haplogroup spanning many continents, the macro-haplogroup M is a branch of the African haplogroup L3, and is believed to have originated in Africa some 60 to 80,000 years before present.
The two haplogroups M and N are believed to represent the initial migration of modern humans out of Africa.  Haplogroup M in particular represents the dispersal of modern humans into the Middle East and South Asia some 60 to 80,000 years ago along the southern Asian coastline.
Among the subgroups of M are M1, C, D, E, G, Q, and Z.
Owing to its great age, haplogroup M is one of those mtDNA lineages which does not correspond well to present-day racial groups, as it spans Siberian, East Asian, Southeast Asian, Central Asian, South Asian, Melanesian as well as Ethiopian, Caucasian, and various Middle Eastern groups in lesser frequency.
Haplogroup N (mtDNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup N is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
An enormous haplogroup spanning many continents, the macro-haplogroup N is a branch of the African haplogroup L3, and is believed to have originated in Africa some 60,000 to 80,000 years before present.
The two haplogroups M and N are believed to represent the initial migration by modern humans out of Africa.  Haplogroup N is the ancestral haplogroup to almost all European and Oceanian haplogroups in addition to many Asian and Amerindian ones.
Its descendant haplogroups include the macro-haplogroup R (and its descendants) and haplogroups N1, A, I, W, and X.
On an 18 November 2005 broadcast of the Today Show, during an interview with Dr. Spencer Wells, host Ann Curry was revealed to belong to Haplogroup N.
Haplogroup X (mtDNA)
In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup X is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup which can be used to define genetic populations. The genetic sequences of haplogroup X diverged originally from haplogroup N, and subsequently further diverged about 20,000 to 30,000 years ago to give two sub-groups, X1 and X2.  Overall haplogroup X accounts for about 2% of the population of Europe, the Near East and North Africa. Sub-group X1 is much less numerous, and restricted to North and East Africa, and also the Near East.  Sub-group X2 appears to have undergone extensive population expansion and dispersal around or soon after the last glacial maximum, about 21,000 years ago.  It is more strongly present in the Near East, the Caucasus, and Mediterranean Europe; and somewhat less strongly present in the rest of Europe.  Particular concentrations appear in Georgia (8%), the Orkney Islands (in Scotland) (7%) and amongst the Israeli Druze (26%); the latter are presumably due to a founder effect.

# North and South America
Haplogroup X is also one of the five haplogroups found in the indigenous peoples of the Americas.
Although it occurs only at a frequency of about 3% for the total current indigenous population of the Americas, it is a major haplogroup in northeastern North America, where among the Algonquian peoples it comprises up to 25% of mtDNA types. It is also present in lesser percentages to the west and south of this area -- in North America among the Sioux (15%), the Nuu-Chah-Nulth (11%13%), the Navajo (7%), and the Yakima (5%), and in South America among the Yanomami people (12%) in eight villages in Roraima in northwestern Brazil.
Unlike the four main Native American haplogroups (A, B, C, and D), X is not at all strongly associated with East Asia. The sole occurrence of X in Asia discovered so far is in Altaia in South Siberia (Derenko et al, 2001), and detailed examination (Reidla et al, 2003) has shown that the Altaian sequences are all almost identical, suggesting that they arrived in the area probably from the South Caucasus more recently than 5000 BC.
This absence of haplogroup X2 in Asia is one of the major factors causing the current rethinking of the peopling of the Americas. However, the New World haplogroup X2a  is as different from any of the Old World X2b-f lineages as they are from each other, indicating an early origin "likely at the very beginning of their expansion and spread from the Near East".
The Solutrean Hypothesis posits that haplogroup X reached North America with a wave of European migration about 20,000 BC by the Solutreans, a stone-age culture in south-western France and in Spain, by boat around the southern edge of the Arctic ice pack.
Haplogroup Z (mtDNA)
In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup Z is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Haplogroup Z is believed to have arisen in Central Asia, and is a descendant of the haplogroup M.
Its greatest variety is found in Korea, northern China, and Central Asia.  However, its greatest frequency appears in Russia and among the Saami people of northern Scandinavia.
Head injury overview

# Overview
Head injury is a trauma to the head, that may or may not include injury to the brain(see also brain injury).

# Causes
Common causes of head injury are traffic accidents, home and occupational accidents, falls, and assaults. Bicycle accidents are also a common cause of head injury-related death and disability, especially among children.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
The incidence (number of new cases) of head injury is 300 per 100,000 per year (0.3% of the population), with a mortality of 25 per 100,000 in North America and 9 per 100,000 in Britain.  Head trauma is a common cause of childhood hospitalization.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Recovery in children with neurologic deficits will vary. Children with neurologic deficits who improve daily are more likely to recover. Children who are vegetative for months are less likely to improve. Most patients without deficits have full recovery. However, persons who sustain head trauma resulting in  unconsciousness for an hour or more have twice the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease later in life.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination
The Glasgow Coma Scale is a tool for measuring degree of unconsciousness and is thus a useful tool for determining severity of injury. The Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale is used in young children.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
Unfortunately, once the brain has been damaged by trauma, there is no quick fix.  However, there are some steps that can be taken to prevent secondary damage.  If left untreated many patients with head injury will rapidly develop complications which may lead to death or permanent disability.  Prompt medical treatment may prevent the worsening of symptoms and lead to a better outcome.

## Surgery
Second line alternatives include decompressive craniectomy (Jagannathan et al. found a net 65% favorable outcomes rate in pediatric patients), barbiturate coma, hypertonic saline and hypothermia.
Health care industry
The health care industry or health profession is considered an industry or profession which includes peoples exercise of skill or judgment or the providing of a service related to the preservation or improvement of the health of individuals or the treatment or care of individuals who are injured, sick, disabled, or infirm.  The delivery of modern health care depends on an expanding group of trained professionals coming together as an interdisciplinary team.

# History

## Growth
The health care industry is one of the world's largest and fastest-growing industries. Consuming over 10 percent of gross domestic product of most developed nations, health care can form an enormous part of a country's economy. In 2003, health care costs paid to hospitals, physicians, nursing homes, diagnostic laboratories, pharmacies, medical device manufacturers and other components of the health care system, consumed 15.3 percent of the GDP of the United States, the largest of any country in the world. For United States, the health share of gross domestic product (GDP) is expected to hold steady in 2006 before resuming its historical upward trend, reaching 19.6 percent of GDP by 2016.  In 2001, for the OECD countries the average was 8.4 percent  with the United States (13.9%), Switzerland (10.9%), and Germany (10.7%) being the top three.
According to Celent, US healthcare expenditures totaled US$2.2 trillion in 2006. According to Health Affairs, USD$7,498 will be spent on every woman, man and child in the United States in 2007, 20 percent of all spending. Costs are projected to increase to $12,782 by 2016.

# Providers and professionals
A health care provider or health professional is an organization or person who delivers proper health care in a systematic way professionally to any individual in need of health care services.

## Delivery of services
The healthcare industry includes the delivery of health services by health care providers. Usually such services receive payment from the patient or from the patient's insurance company; although they may be government-financed (such as the National Health Service in the United Kingdom) or delivered by charities or volunteers, particularly in poorer countries. There are many ways of providing healthcare in the modern world. The most common way is face-to-face delivery, where care provider and patient see each other 'in the flesh'. This is what occurs in general medicine in most countries. However, healthcare is not always face-to-face; with modern telecommunications technology, in absentia health care is becoming more common. This could be when practitioner and patient communicate over the phone, video conferencing, the internet, email, text messages, or any other form of non-face-to-face communication.
Heinrich Obersteiner

# Overview
Heinrich Obersteiner (November 13, 1847 - November 19, 1922) was an Austrian neurologist who was born in Vienna. In 1870 earned his doctorate from the University of Vienna, where he worked in the laboratory of Ernst Wilhelm von Brucke (1819-1892).
Obersteiner was a professor of pathology and anatomy of the nervous system at the University of Vienna. He was also director of a private mental institution at Oberdobling, outside of Vienna. He did extensive work as a psychiatrist and published articles on several subjects including hypnosis. In 1882 he established the internationally known Neurological Institute in Vienna.
The eponymous Obersteiner-Redlich line is named after him, along with Emil Redlich (1866-1930). This zone is where the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system meet, as well as the place where Schwann cells meet oligodendroglia cells.
Hematemesis overview

# Overview
Hematemesis or haematemesis is the vomiting of blood. The source is generally the upper gastrointestinal tract (UGI). Patients can easily confuse it with hemoptysis (coughing up blood), although the former is more common. The most common causes of upper GI bleeding include bleeding peptic ulcer disease, gastritis, and variceal bleed. A nasogastric tube lavage that yields blood or coffee-ground like material confirms the diagnosis and predicts whether bleeding is caused by a high-risk lesion. The initial evaluation of the patient with UGI bleeding involves an assessment of hemodynamic stability and resuscitation if necessary. Upper endoscopy usually follows, with the goal of both diagnosis, and in some circumstances, treatment of the specific disorder.
Important elements of the history include use of NSAIDs, alcohol, history of liver disease or variceal bleeding, history of ulcers, weight loss, dysphagia, or an abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). The latter may indicate aortoenteric fistula. Any recent surgical procedure especially one involving the GI tract is also relevant.
Endoscopic, clinical, and laboratory features are useful for risk stratification of patients who present with UGI bleeding. In addition, gastroenterology and surgical consultation are usually required, especially for high risk patients.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Hematemesis from other Diseases
Hematemesis must be differentiated from hemoptysis.

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

## Natural History

## Complications

## Prognosis

# Diagnosis

## Laboratory Findings
Blood tests, such as a complete blood count (CBC), blood chemistries, blood clotting tests, and liver function tests, are used to assess the condition of the patient.

## Chest X Ray
Chest X ray in a patient with hematemesis should be ordered to exclude aspiration pneumonia, effusion, and esophageal perforation.

## CT
CT scan may be indicated to evaluate liver disease with cirrhosis, cholecystitis with hemorrhage, pancreatitis with pseudocyst and hemorrhage, aortoenteric fistula, and other unusual causes of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage.

## Other Imaging Findings
Angiography may be useful if bleeding persists and endoscopy fails to identify a bleeding site. As salvage therapy, embolization of the bleeding vessel can be as successful as emergent surgery in patients who have failed a second attempt of endoscopic therapy. Nuclear medicine scans may be useful to determine the area of active hemorrhage.

## Other Diagnostic Studies
Endoscopy and biopsy can be used to indicate the diseases in esophagus, stomach and duodenum. Also, bleeding can be stanched through the tube. If abnormal areas are noted, tissue samples can be obtained through the endoscope. The tissue samples will be checked to identify the cause of bleeding.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy

## Surgery
Surgery or angiographic therapy is needed to patients who seem unstable or bleeding continues after initial resuscitation.

## Prevention
Hemodialysis product
Hemodialysis product (HDP) - is a number used to quantify hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis treatment adequacy.
It was proposed by Scribner and Oreopoulous because of their perceived inadequacy of the Kt/V measure of dialysis adequacy.  It has not been widely adopted.
The HDP is defined by the following empirical formula:
Where:
- HDP - hemodialysis product
- t - dialysis time (hours/dialysis session)
- f - dialysis frequency (dialysis sessions/week)
The formula, like all empirical formulae, has no theoretical basis.  The HDP has not seen widespread use.
Hering-Breuer reflex
The Hering-Breuer reflex is a reflex triggered to prevent overinflation of the lungs. Pulmonary stretch receptors present in the smooth muscle of the airways respond to excessive stretching of the lung during large inspirations.
Once activated, they send action potentials through large myelinated fibers of the paired vagus nerves to the apneustic center of the pons, inhibiting the inspiratory neurons present there. This inhibits inspiration, allowing expiration to occur.

# Anatomy and physiology
The neural circuit that controls the Hering-Breuer reflex involves several regions of the central nervous system, and both sensory and motor components of the vagus nerve. Increased sensory activity of the vagus nerve increases activity of the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), which itself sends inhibitory input to the nucleus ambiguus. The nucleus ambiguus, which sends motor fibers to the heart via the vagus nerve, is responsible for tonic inhibitory control of heart rate. Increased pulmonary stretch receptor activity, which leads to inhibition of the nucleus ambiguus, ultimately elevates the heart rate. Thus during inspiration, it is normal for the heart rate to increase.

# Rate and depth of breathing
Early physiologists believed the reflex played a major role in establishing the rate and depth of breathing in humans. While this may be true for most animals, it is not the case for most adult humans at rest. However, the reflex may determine breathing rate and depth in newborns and in adult human when tidal volume is more than 1 L, as when exercising.
Hoehn and Yahr scale

# Overview
The Hoehn and Yahr scale is a commonly used system for describing how the symptoms of Parkinson's disease progress. The scale allocates stages from 0 to 5 to indicate the relative level of disability.
- Stage one: Symptoms on one side of the body only.
- Stage two: Symptoms on both sides of the body.  No impairment of balance.
- Stage three: Balance impairment.  Mild to moderate disease.  Physically independent.
- Stage four: Severe disability, but still able to walk or stand unassisted.
- Stage five: Wheelchair-bound or bedridden unless assisted.
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