Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Perinatal mortality

# Overview
Perinatal mortality (PNM), also perinatal death, refers to the death of a fetus or neonate and is the basis to calculate the perinatal mortality rate. Variations in the precise definition of the perinatal mortality exist specifically concerning the issue of inclusion or exclusion of early fetal and late neonatal fatalities. Thus the WHO s definition "Deaths occurring during late pregnancy (at 22 completed weeks gestation and over), during childbirth and up to seven completed days of life" is not universally accepted. The perinatal mortality is the sum of the fetal mortality and the neonatal mortality.

# Fetal mortality
Fetal mortality refers to stillbirths or fetal death. It encompasses any death of a fetus after 20 weeks of gestation or 500 gm. In some definitions of the PNM early fetal mortality (week 20-27 gestation) is not included, and the PNM may only include late fetal death and neonatal death. Fetal death can also be divided into death prior to labor, antenatal (antepartum) death,  and death during labor, intranatal (intrapartum) death. Fetal mortality can be decreased by good preconception health among women before they get pregnant.

# Neonatal mortality
Early neonatal mortality refers to a death of a life-born baby within the first seven days of life, while late neonatal mortality covers the time after 7 days until before 29 days. The sum of these two represents the neonatal mortality. Some definitions of the PNM include only the early neonatal mortality. Neonatal mortality is affected by the quality of in-hospital care for the neonate. Neonatal mortality and postneonatal mortality (covering the remaining 11 months of the first year of life) are reflected in the Infant Mortality Rate.

# Perinatal Mortality Rate
The PNMR refers to the number of perinatal deaths per 1,000 total births. It is usually reported on an annual basis. It is a major marker to assess the quality of health care delivery. Comparisons between different rates may be hampered by varying definitions, registration bias, and differences in the underlying risks of the populations.
PNMRs vary widely and may be below 10 for certain developed countries and more than 10 times higher in developing countries . The WHO has not published contemporary data.
Feynman-Kac formula
The Feynman-Kac formula, named after Richard Feynman and Mark Kac, establishes a link between partial differential equations (PDEs) and stochastic processes. It offers a method of solving certain PDEs by simulating random paths of a stochastic process. Conversely, stochastic PDEs can be solved by deterministic methods.
Suppose we are given the PDE
subject to the terminal condition
where \mu,\ \sigma,\ \psi are known functions, \ T is a parameter and \ f is the unknown. This is known as the (one-dimensional) Kolmogorov backward equation. Then the Feynman-Kac formula tells us that the solution can be written as an expectation:
where \ X is an Ito process driven by the equation
where \ W(t) is a Wiener process (also called Brownian motion) and the initial condition for \ X(t) is \ X(0) = x. This expectation can then be approximated using Monte Carlo or quasi-Monte Carlo methods.

# Proof
Applying Ito's lemma to the unknown function \ f one gets
The first term in parentheses is the above PDE and is zero by hypothesis. Integrating both sides one gets
Reorganising and taking the expectation of both sides:
Since the expectation of an Ito integral with respect to a Wiener process \ W is zero, one gets the desired result:

# Remarks
When originally published by Kac in 1949, the Feynman-Kac formula was presented as a formula for determining the distribution of certain Wiener functionals. Suppose we wish to find the expected value of the function
in the case where \ x(\tau) is some realization of a diffusion process starting at \ x(0) = 0. The Feynman-Kac formula says that this expectation is equivalent to the integral of a solution to a
diffusion equation. Specifically, under the conditions that \ u V(x) \geq 0,
where \ w(x,0) = \delta(x) and
\frac{\partial w}{\partial t} = \frac{1}{2} \frac{\partial^2 w}{\partial x^2} - u V(x) w.
The Feynman-Kac formula can also be interpreted as a method for evaluating functional integrals of a certain form. If
where the integral is taken over all random walks, then
where \ w(x,t) is a solution to the parabolic partial differential equation
with initial condition \ w(x,0) = f(x).
Filtration fraction
In renal physiology, the filtration fraction is the ratio of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) to the renal plasma flow (RPF).
Filtration Fraction = GFR/RPF
The filtration fraction therefore represents the proportion of the fluid reaching the kidneys which passes into the renal tubules.
The GFR on its own is the most common and important measure of renal function. However, in a condition such as renal stenosis, the blood flow to the kidneys is reduced. The filtration must therefore be increased in order to perform the normal tasks of the kidney in balancing fluid and electrolytes in the body. This would be reflected by a high filtration fraction, showing that the kidneys have to do more work with the fluid they are receiving.
Splinter hemorrhage
For patient information, click Splinter hemorrhage
Synonyms and keywords: Splinter haemorrhages

# Overview
Splinter hemorrhages are small areas of bleeding (hemorrhage) under the fingernails or toenails.
Splinter hemorrhages look like thin, red to reddish-brown lines of blood under the nails. They run in the direction of nail growth.
They are named splinter hemorrhages because they look like a splinter under the fingernail.

# Pathophysiology
In certain conditions (in particular, infective endocarditis), clots can migrate from the affected heart valve and find their way into various parts of the body. If this happens in the finger, it can cause damage to the capillaries resulting in a splinter hemorrhage.

## Associated Conditions
Splinter hemorrhage is a nonspecific finding and can be associated with:
- Antiphospholipid syndrome
- Janeway spots
- Psoriatic nails
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- Scleroderma
- Subacute bacterial endocarditis
- Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
- Trauma
- Trichinosis

# Causes

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Cholesterol embolization
- Endocarditis
- Psoriatic nails
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- Scleroderma
- Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
- Trauma
- Trichinosis
- Vasculitis

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Initially splinter hemorrhages are plum-colored, but they then darken to a brown or black color in several days.

# Diagnosis
The presence of splinter hemorrhages is not sensitive but is a fairly specific finding the diagnosis of endocarditis.  Only one in six patients with endocarditis will have splinter hemorrhages.  Therefore the absence of splinter hemorrhages does not exclude endocarditis.  If there is a clinical suspicion of endocarditis and splinter hemorrhages are observed, then this is likely a fairly specific finding for endocarditis.

## Physical Examination
Physical examination may include special attention to the heart and blood circulation systems.

## Laboratory Findings

### Electrolyte and Biomarker Studies
Laboratory studies may include:
- Blood cultures
- Complete blood count (CBC)
- Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)
Fletcher's Laxative
Fletcher's Castoria, also known as Fletcher's Laxative, is an oral syrup containing a stimulant laxative and ingredients to soothe the stomach.

# Pharmacology
- Active laxative ingredient: senna, 33.3 mg/ml
- Other ingredients: citric acid, flavor, glycerin, methylparaben, propylparaben, purified water, sodium benzoate, sucrose
- Non-alcoholic
- Non-prescription
Acts within 6-12 hours.
There are no known drug interactions, although as a stimulant laxative it may affect how long a medicine remains in the digestive tract.  It is best not to take senna within 1 to 2 hours of taking other medicines.
Use wisely.  Senna can be habit-forming.

# Availability
Fletcher's Castoria seems to have been renamed Fletcher's Laxative for Kids, and the Castoria name no longer appears on the product web site.  Although marketed as a children's laxative in the US, it is effective for adults.
Once a staple of drug stores, Castoria is becoming difficult to find.

# Product History
1868, May 12: The United States Patent Office grants patent to Dr. Samuel Pitcher (1824-1907) of Barnstable, Massachusetts for a cathartic composed of senna, sodium bicarbonate, essence of wintergreen, taraxicum, sugar and water.  The remedy was initially sold under the name Pitcher's Castoria. Over time the product formula has changed.
The United States Patent image is located at this link. 
In 1871, The Centaur Company was formed by Charles Henry Fletcher with backing from Demas Barnes to purchase the rights to and manufacture Pitcher's Castoria.  It was renamed Fletcher's Castoria.
Castoria was the subject of one of the most significant campaigns in early mass advertising.  Castoria ads from the 1870s through 1920s are still visible today (or at least were between the 1970s and 2005) on the buildings of New York. See  and  for photos.  At the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883, there were Castoria ads on virtually every blank wall in sight. They are quite visible in images of the opening of the bridge. 
There were two "Fletcher's Castoria" B-17 Flying Fortress bombers during World War II, both part of the 100th Bomber Group. The first was lost, but the crew survived. The second survived the war. Its pilot was William H. Fletcher (not a descendant of Charles Henry Fletcher), hence its name.
The Centaur Company was acquired by Sterling Drug during the 1920s.  In 1984, Sterling Drug sold Fletcher's Castoria to Mentholatum Co., Inc.  In 1988 Rohto, a Japanese company, purchased Mentholatum.
Fluorine deficiency
Fluoride or fluorine deficiency is a medical condition in which a human, or other organism lacks the necessary compounds containing fluorine to keep bones and teeth healthy. The extent to which the condition truly exists, and its relationship to fluoride poisoning has arisen some controversy.
Fluoride is considered essential in the development and maintenance of teeth by the American Dental Hygiene Association.  The systemic effects of fluoride were first seen in 1931 when fluoride in high concentrations was found to stain teeth and prevent tooth decay.
Excessive fluoride has been scientifically linked to death, brain damage, hypothyroidism, cancer, liver damage, kidney function, and fluorosis in children.
 Consequently, anti-fluoridation groups argue that there is no need to risk communities with fluoride.
Forensic accounting

# Overview
Forensic accounting is the specialty practice area of accounting that describes engagements that result from actual or anticipated disputes or litigation. "Forensic" means "suitable for use in a court of law", and it is to that standard and potential outcome that Forensic Accountants generally have to work. Forensic accountants, also referred to as forensic auditors or investigative auditors, often have to give expert evidence at the eventual trial. All of the larger accounting firms, as well as many medium-sized and boutique firms, have specialist forensic accounting departments. Within these groups, there may be further sub-specializations: some forensic accountants may, for example, just specialize in insurance claims, personal injury claims, fraud, construction, or royalty audits.

# Categories
Engagements relating to civil disputes may fall into several categories: calculating and quantifying losses and economic damages, whether suffered through tort or breach of contract; disagreements relating to company acquisitionsperhaps earn outs or breaches of warranties; and business valuation. Forensic accountants often assist in professional negligence claims where they are assessing and commenting on the work of other professionals.
Engagements relating to criminal matters typically arise in the aftermath of fraud. They frequently involve the assessment of accounting systems and accounts presentationin essence assessing if the numbers reflect reality.

# Forensic accountants
Forensic accountants may be involved in recovering proceeds of crime and in relation to confiscation proceedings concerning actual or assumed proceeds of crime or money laundering. In the United Kingdom, relevant legislation is contained in the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002. In India there is a separate breed of forensic accountants called Certified Forensic Accounting Professionals.
Some forensic accountants are also Certified Fraud Examiners and/or Certified Public Accountants.
Forensic accountants utilize an understanding of business information and financial reporting systems, accounting and auditing standards and procedures, evidence gathering and investigative techniques, and litigation processes and procedures to perform their work. Forensic accountants are also increasingly playing more proactive risk reduction roles by designing and performing extended procedures as part of the statutory audit, acting as advisers to audit committees, fraud deterrence engagements, and assisting in investment analyst research.

# Licensure Requirements
As forensic accounting occasionally falls within the scope of private investigation, some states require specialized certifications and licenses to work within the field.  But in most cases, accountants can perform forensic audits without a private investigator license.
Fosfomycin warnings

# WARNINGS
Clostridium difficileassociated diarrhea (CDAD) has been reported with use of nearly all antibacterial agents, including MONUROL, and may range in severity from mild diarrhea to fatal colitis. Treatment with antibacterial agents alters the normal flora of the colon leading to overgrowth ofC. difficile.
C. difficileproduces toxins A and B which contribute to the development of CDAD. Hypertoxin producing strains ofC. difficilecause increased morbidity and mortality, as these infections can be refractory to antimicrobial therapy and may require colectomy. CDAD must be considered in all patients who present with diarrhea following antibiotic use. Careful medical history is necessary since CDAD has been reported to occur over two months after the administration of antibacterial agents.
If CDAD is suspected or confirmed, ongoing antibiotic use not directed againstC. difficilemay need to be discontinued. Appropriate fluid and electrolyte management, protein supplementation, antibiotic treatment ofC. difficile, and surgical evaluation should be instituted as clinically indicated.
Fox-Fordyce disease

# Overview
Fox-Fordyce disease is a chronic blockage of the sweat gland ducts with a secondary, nonbacterial inflammatory response to the secretions and cellular debris in the cysts. Hidradenitis is very similar but tends to have a secondary bacterial infection so that pus-draining sinuses are formed. It is a very devastating skin disease that does not have universally curative treatments.

# Eponym
It is named for George Henry Fox and John Fordyce.

# Physical examination

## Gallery

### Extremities
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# Treatment
The mainstay treatment is surgical removal of the skin tissue containing affected sweat glands.  Irradiation therapy may also be used and antibiotics are used to reduce the inflammatory response.
No treatment is required for Fordyce granules, except for cosmetic removal of labial lesions. Inflamed glands can be treated topically with clindamycin. When surgically excised, recurrence does not occur. Neoplastic transformation is very rare but has been reported.
Frameshift mutation
A frameshift mutation (also called a frameshift or a framing error) is a genetic mutation caused by indels, ie. inserts or deletes a number of nucleotides that is not evenly divisible by three from a DNA sequence. Due to the triplet nature of gene expression by codons, the insertion or deletion can disrupt the reading frame, or the grouping of the codons, resulting in a completely different translation from the original.  The earlier in the sequence the deletion or insertion occurs, the more altered the protein produced is.
A frameshift mutation causes the reading of codons to be different, so all codons after the mutation (with a few exceptions due to redundancy) will code for different amino acids.  Furthermore, the stop codon "UAA, UGA, or UAG" will not be read, or a stop codon could be created at an earlier site. The protein being created could be abnormally short, abnormally long, and/or contain the wrong amino acids.  It will most likely not be functional.
Frameshift mutations frequently result in severe genetic diseases.  A frameshift mutation is responsible for the disabling of the CCR5 HIV receptor and some types of familial hypercholesterolemia (Lewis, 2005, p. 227-228).  Frameshift mutations can also be beneficial.
Frameshifting may also occur during protein translation, producing different proteins from overlapping open reading frames, such as the gag-pol-env retroviral proteins. This is fairly common in viruses and also occurs in bacteria and yeast (Farabaugh, 1996).

# Reference
Farabaugh, P. J. 1996. Programmed translational frameshifting. Microbiol. Rev. 60:103-4.
Lewis, R.  2005.  Human Genetics: Concepts and Applications, 6th Ed.  McGraw Hill, New York.
Free androgen index
Free Androgen Index or FAI is a ratio used to determine abnormal androgen status in humans.  The ratio is the total testosterone level divided by the sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) level, and then multiplying by a constant, usually 100. The concentrations of testosterone and SHBG are normally measured in nanomols per liter.  FAI has no units.
FAI=100(\frac{}{})
The majority of testosterone in the blood does not exist as the free molecule.  Instead around half is tightly bound to sex hormone binding globulin, and the other half is weakly bound to albumin.  Only a small percentage is unbound, under 3% in females, and less than 0.7% in males.  Since only the free testosterone is able to bind to tissue receptors to exert its effects, it is believed that free testosterone is the best marker of a person's androgen status.  However, free testosterone is difficult and expensive to measure, and many laboratories do not offer this service.
The free androgen index is intended to give a guide to the free testosterone level, but it is not very accurate.  Consequently, there are no universally agreed 'normal ranges', and levels slightly above or below quoted laboratory reference ranges may not be clinically significant.
Reference ranges depend on the constant in the calculation - 100 is used in the formula above, and the following suggested ranges are based on this.  As with any laboratory measurement, however, it is vital that results are compared against the reference range quoted for that laboratory.  Neither FAI nor free or total testosterone measurements should be interpreted in isolation; as a bare minimum, gonadotropin levels should also be measured.
As a guide, in healthy adult men typical FAI values are 30-150.  Values below 30 may indicate testosterone deficiency, which may contribute to fatigue, erectile dysfunction, weight gain, osteoporosis and loss of secondary sex characteristics.  In women, androgens are most often measured when there is concern that they may be raised (as in hirsutism or the polycystic ovary syndrome).  Typical values for the FAI in women are <7.

# Testing
Various companies manufacture testing equipment and kits to measure this index.  To test about 1 mL of blood is required.
Freiberg infraction

# Overview
Freiberg infraction affects the metatarsal head (usually the second or third metatarsal head) and is characterized at pathologic analysis by collapse of the subchondral bone, osteonecrosis, and cartilaginous fissures. The cause of Freiberg infraction is controversial and is probably multifactorial. A traumatic insult in the form of either acute or repetitive injury and vascular compromise are the most popular theories. Freiberg infraction is more common in women and most commonly manifests during adolescence. High-heeled shoes have been implicated as a causative factor. Patients may present with pain and limited motion, although symptoms may not begin until osteoarthrosis has developed.

# Diagnosis

## X-ray
Radiograph demonstrating Freiberg infraction

## MRI
- Early MR imaging findings include low-signal-intensity changes in the metatarsal head on T1-weighted images with increased signal intensity on corresponding T2-weighted and STIR images.
- With disease progression, flattening of the metatarsal head occurs, and low-signal-intensity changes develop on T2-weighted images as the bone becomes sclerotic.
Freundlich equation

# Overview
The Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm is an adsorption isotherm, which is a curve relating the concentration of a solute on the surface of an adsorbent, to the concentration of the solute in the liquid with which it is in contact.
The Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm is mathematically expressed as
-r
where
K and 1/n are constants for a given adsorbate and adsorbent at a particular temperature.
There are basically two well established types of adsorption isotherm:
- the Langmuir adsorption isotherm (see Langmuir equation)
- the Freundlich adsorption isotherm
The Langmuir adsorption isotherm describes quantitatively the build up of a layer of molecules on an adsorbent surface as a function of the concentration of the adsorbed material in the liquid in which it is in contact. In a modified form it can also describe a bi-layer deposition. The shape of the isotherm (assuming the (x) axis represents the concentration of adsorbing material in the contacting liquid) is a gradual positive curve that flattens to a constant value. It often represents an initial surface adsorption followed by a condensation effect resulting from extremely strong solute-solute interaction. In chromatography the Freundlich isotherm is not common, most adsorption processes are best described by the Langmuir isotherm.