Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
List of Schedule II drugs

# Overview
This is a list of Schedule II drugs under the Controlled Substances Act for the United States.
Required findings for drugs to be placed in this schedule: 
- The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.
- The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States or a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions.
- Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence.
The complete list of Schedule II drugs are as follows.   The Administrative Controlled Substances Code Number for each drug is included.

# Opiates

# Stimulants

# Depressants

# Hallucinogens

# Immediate precursors
List of Schedule IV drugs

# Overview
This is a list of Schedule IV drugs under the Controlled Substances Act for the United States.
Required findings for drugs to be placed in this schedule: 
- The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III.
- The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
- Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III.
The complete list of Schedule IV drugs are as follows.   The Administrative Controlled Substances Code Number for each drug is included.

# Narcotics

# Depressants

# Fenfluramine

# Stimulants

# Others
List of genetic disorders

# Overview
The following is a list of genetic disorders and if known, causal type of mutation and the chromosome involved.
- P - Point mutation, or any insertion/deletion entirely inside one gene
- D - Deletion of a gene or genes
- C - Whole chromosome extra, missing, or both - see chromosomal aberrations
- T - Trinucleotide repeat disorders - gene is extended in length
More common disorders

# A

# B

# C

# D

# E

# F

# G

# H

# I

# J

# K

# L

# M

# N

# O

# P

# R

# S

# T

# U

# V

# W

# X

# Y
Local anesthetic toxicity
While generally safe, local anesthetic agents can be toxic if used in excessive doses or administered improperly. Even when administered properly, patients may still experience unintended reactions to local anesthetics.
Excessive doses may be unintentionally administered in several ways.
- Repetitive (small) doses of local anesthetic to achieve an adequate level of anesthesia may lead to eventual adminitration of toxic doses.
- Injection of anesthesia in a confined space may result in excesive fluid pressure that may damage nerves.
- Doses intended for epidural or intra-support-tissue administration may be accidentally delivered as intravascular injection resulting in accelerated systematic absorption.
The toxic effects of local anesthetics can be classified by localized and systemic effects.

# Localized toxicity
A cause of local toxicity is allergic reaction to para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA). These reactions range from urticaria to anaphylaxis.
PABA is a metabolic product of the degradation of Ester class of local anesthetics, such as  Procaine (Novocaine), Benzocaine, and, to a lesser degree, amide class anesthetics such asLidocaine, and Prilocaine.  It is also a metabolic by-product of Methylparaben, a preservative in multi-dose vials of Lidocane. When allergic response to injected anesthetics does occur, it is most likely due to the ester class local anesthetics.  The amide class of local anesthetics is far less likely to produce allergic reaction..

# Systemic toxicity
Systemic toxicity of anesthetics involves the central nervous system (CNS), the cardiovascular system, and the immune system.
It can be described by the direct effects on the immune system, blood (hematologic), and cardiovascular system.

## Immune system effects
As noted previously, allergic reaction to metabolic break-down of anesthetic agents and preservatives (PABA) can cause anaphylaxis.

## Hematologic effects
Methemoglobinemia is a process where iron in hemoglobin is altered, reducing its oxygen-carrying capability, which produces cyanosis and symptoms of hypoxia.  Benzocaine, Lidocaine, and Prilocaine all produce this effect, especially Benzocaine.

## Cardiovascular effects
Cardiovascular effects are primarily those of direct myocardial depression and bradycardia, which may lead to cardiovascular collapse..
Systemic toxic reactions to locally administered anesthetics are progressive as the level of the anesthetic agent in the blood rises. Initial symptoms suggest some form of central nervous system excitation such as a ringing in the ears (tinnitus), a metallic taste in the mouth, or tingling or numbness of the mouth. advanced symptoms include motor twitching in the periphery followed by grand mal seizures, coma, and eventually respiratory arrest. At extremely high levels, cardiac arrhythmia or hypotension and cardiovascular collapse occur.
Luliconazole microbiology

# Microbiology

## Mechanism of Action
Luliconazole is an antifungal that belongs to the azole class. Although the exact mechanism of action against dermatophytes is unknown, luliconazole appears to inhibit ergosterol synthesis by inhibiting the enzyme lanosterol demethylase. Inhibition of this enzymes activity by azoles results in decreased amounts of ergosterol, a constituent of fungal cell membranes, and a corresponding accumulation of lanosterol.

## Mechanism of Resistance
To date, a mechanism of resistance to luliconazole has not been described.
LUZU Cream, 1% has been shown to be active against most isolates of the following fungi, both in vitro and in clinical infections as described in the indications and usage section:
- Tricophyton rubrum
- Epidermophyton floccosum
Lysophospholipid receptor
The Lysophospholipid receptor (LPL-R) group are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of  integral membrane proteins that are important for lipid signaling.  In humans there are eight LPL receptors, each encoded by a separate gene.  These LPL receptor genes are also sometimes referred to as "Edg (an acronym for endothelial differentiation gene).

# Ligands
The ligands for LPL-R group are the lysophospholipid extracellular signaling molecules, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P).

# Origin of name
The term 'lysophospholipid' (LPL) refers to any phospholipid that is missing one of its two O-acyl chains.  Thus, LPLs have a free alcohol in either the sn-1 or sn-2 position.  The prefix 'lyso-' comes from the fact that lysophospholipids were originally found to be hemolytic however it is now used to refer generally to phospholipids missing an acyl chain.  LPLs are usually the result of phospholipase A-type enzymatic activity on regular phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidic acid, although they can also be generated by the acylation of glycerophospholipids or the phosphorylation of monoacylglycerols.    Some LPLs serve important signaling functions such as lysophosphatidic acid.

# Function
LPL receptor ligands bind to and activate their cognate receptors located in the cell membrane.   Depending on which ligand, receptor, and cell type is involved, the activated receptor can have a range of effects on the cell.  These include primary effects of inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and release of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum, as well as secondary effects of preventing apoptosis and increasing cell proliferation.

# Group members
The following is a list of the eight known human LPL receptors:
MagForce Nanotechnologies

# Overview
MagForce Nanotechnologies AG is a German biotechnology company focusing on cancer treatment. It is a world's leading company in treating cancer cells with nanotechnology-based therapy. The company is led by CEO Andreas Jordan.

# The method
MagForce has patented a new approach in which  magnetizing nano-sized iron particles covered with sugar are led into body part containing cancer cells. Abnormal and quickly expanding cancer cells need a lot more energy than normal cells and thus they swallow sugar-coated nanoparticles unlike healthy cells. After that the body part is subjected to a magnetic field which heats up the nanoparticles up to 70 degrees Celsius and later burns ja kills the cancer cells.
This new method has been tested on animals and also on humans. The first results are promising.

# Recognitions and Awards
- MagForce was named as one of the 10 most promising technologies at the German Future Awards in 2006.
Mahaim type preexcitation

# Overview
Mahaim type pre-excitation is a form of ventricular pre-excitation characterized by a normal PR interval and a long QRS interval with initial slurring of or slow deflection of the QRS complex (a delta wave is present).

# Pathophysiology
In Mahaim type pre-excitation, the atrial impulse travel to the ventricle via the Mahaim fibers which connect the atrioventricular node directly to the right ventricular wall (nodoventricular pathway) or to the right bundle branch of the His bundle (nodofascicular pathway).

# Epidemiology and Demographics
- Rarer than WPW or LGL

# Diagnosis

## Electrocardiogram
- There is a delta wave with a normal PR interval.
- In older patients there can be a prolonged conduction down the accessory pathway resulting in a normal PR interval in the presence of WPW which is tough to distinguish from Mahaim fibers.
Shown below is an EKG of a 24 years old man with Mahaim type of preexcitation.
Shown below is an EKG of the same patient after Mahaim bundle ablation
Major diagnostic category
The Major Diagnostic Categories (MDC) are formed by dividing all possible principal diagnoses (from ICD-9-CM) into 25 mutually exclusive diagnosis areas.
The diagnoses in each MDC correspond to a single organ system or etiology and, in general, are associated with a particular medical specialty. MDC 1 to MDC 23 are grouped according to principal diagnoses. Patients are assigned to MDC 24 (Multiple Significant Trauma) with at least two significant trauma diagnosis codes (either as principal or secondaries) from different body site categories. Patients assigned to MDC 25 (HIV Infections) must have a principal diagnosis of an HIV Infection or a principal diagnosis of a significant HIV related condition and a secondary diagnosis of an HIV Infection.
MDC codes, like DRG codes, are primarily a claims and administrative data element unique to the United States medical care reimbursement system.
Non-mendelian inheritance

# Overview
In genetics, non-Mendelian inheritance is a general term for the inheritance of genetic information that does not obey Mendelian rules.  Briefly stated, in Mendelian inheritance, the probability that a diploid parent will pass on to its progeny a given one of its two alleles for a particular locus is 50%, and each progeny receives one allele from each of its parents.  Which allele comes from which parent is not important.
Inheritance can therefore be non-Mendelian in at least three ways:
First, if a genetic element has a greater-than-50% chance of being passed on to an offspring, such as transposition,  gene conversion, unequal chromosomal crossover and segregation distorter then the inheritance is non-Mendelian.
Second, some genetic elements are inherited only from one parent, such as those in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Third, a gene's behavior can depend on which parent the gene is inherited from, a phenomenon known as imprinting.
Mauchly's sphericity test
Mauchly's sphericity test is a statistical test used to validate repeated measures factor ANOVA. SPSS includes it automatically as part of its ANOVA with a repeated measures factor (RMF) output tables.  The test was introduced by ENIAC co-inventor John Mauchly in 1940.

# What is sphericity?
Sphericity is an assumption of an ANOVA with a RMF and violations of this assumption can invalidate the analysis conclusions. Sphericity relates to the equality of the variances of the differences between levels of the repeated measures factor. Sphericity requires that the variances for each set of difference scores are equal.

# Interpreting the Mauchly's sphericity test
When the significance level of the Mauchlys test is  0.05 then sphericity cannot be assumed.

# Violations of sphericity
When conducting an ANOVA with a RMF SPSS will automatically generate three corrections for violations of sphericity. These are the Greenhouse-Geisser, the Huynh-Feldt and the Lower-bound corrections. To correct for sphericity these corrections alter the degrees of freedom, thereby altering the significance value of the F-ratio. There are different opinions about the best correction to apply. A good rule of thumb is to use the Greenhouse-Geisser estimate unless it leads to a different conclusion from the other two. Another option when sphericity is violated is to use the multivariate test (also automatically provided by SPSS). However, multivariate tests can be less powerful than their univariate counterparts.
Medial umbilical ligament
The medial umbilical ligament is a paired structure found in human anatomy. It is on the deep surface of the anterior abdominal wall, and is covered by the medial umbilical folds.

# Origins
It represents the remnant of the fetal umbilical artery, which serves no purpose in humans after birth. In an adult it will be shrivelled.

# Functions
It may be used as a landmark for surgeons exploring the medial inguinal fossa during laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair. Other than this, it has no purpose in an adult and it may be cut or damaged with impunity.

# Relations
The supravesical fossa, and therefore a supravesical hernia, is medial to this structure. The medial inguinal fossa, and therefore a direct inguinal hernia, is lateral to it.
Median umbilical ligament
The median umbilical ligament is a structure in human anatomy. It is a shrivelled piece of tissue that represents the remnant of the embryonic urachus.
It extends from the apex of the bladder to the umbilicus, on the deep surface of the anterior abdominal wall. It is unpaired.
It is covered by the median umbilical fold
Lateral to this structure are the medial umbilical ligament (which is a different structure, not to be confused) and the lateral umbilical ligament.

# Uses
It may be used as a landmark for surgeons who are performing laparoscopy, such as laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair. Other than this, it has no function in a born human and may be cut or removed with impunity.
Medical students' disease

# Background
Medical students' disease, also known as hypochondriasis of medical students,  is a condition frequently reported in medical students, who perceive themselves to be experiencing the symptoms of the disease(s) they are studying. The condition is associated with the fear of contracting the disease in question. Some authors suggested that the condition must be referred to as nosophobia rather than "hypochondriasis", because the quoted studies show a very low percentage of hypochondriacal character of the condition, and hence the term "hypochondriasis" would have ominous therapeutic and prognostic indications. The reference suggests that the condition is associated with immediate preoccupation with the symptoms in question, leading the student to become unduly aware of various casual psychological and physiological dysfunctions; cases show little correlation with the severity of psychopathology, but rather with accidental factors related to learning and experience.
Baars (2001) writes:
Hodges (2004), reviewing the literature, said that "the first descriptions of medical students' disease appeared in the 1960s." He may have been referring to the phrase, for the phenomenon itself was noted much earlier. George Lincoln Walton (1908) reported that
Hodges (2004), reviewing the literature, said that it was suggested in the 1960s that:
Hodges went on to describe work by Moss-Morris and Petrie who saw medical students' disease as "a normal perceptual process, rather than a form of hypochondriasis." Learning about a disease "creates a mental schema or representation of the illness which includes the label of the illness and the symptoms associated with the condition. Once this representation is formed, symptoms or bodily sensations that the individual is currently experiencing which are consistent with the schema may be noticed, while inconsistent symptoms are ignored."
Howes and Salkovskis (1998) noted that "medical students frequently develop fears and symptoms of illness. This has been termed medical student's disease, nosophobia, hypochondriasis of medical students, and medicalstudentitis." They mentioned two studies, one concluding that about 70% of medical students have groundless medical fears during their studies, and one which found that 78.8% of a randomly chosen sample of medical students showed a history of "medical student disease." However, they cite a number of studies showing a similar incidence of hypochondria in law students and other non-medical students, which they said call into question "the widely held view that medical students are more likely than others to have excessive anxiety about their health."
In his comic classic Three Men in a Boat, Jerome K. Jerome describes the effect as experienced by a layman:
Singleton-Merten syndrome
Synonyms and keywords: Merten-Singleton syndrome

# Overview
Singleton Merten syndrome is an extremely rare, multisystem disorder.  It is a syndrome of widened medullary cavities of the metacarpals and phalanges, aortic valve calcification and abnormal dentition.

# Pathophysiology
Singleton Merten syndrome appears to occur sporadically (in individuals with no history of the condition in their family) but in some cases, autosomal dominant inheritance has been suggested.

## Pathology
The major characteristics are
- Tooth abnormalities (dental dysplasia)
- Calcifications in the aorta and certain valves of the heart (i.e., aortic and mitral valves)
- Progressive thinning and loss of protein of the bones (osteoporosis), especially the upper and back portions of the skull.
- Skin conditions
- Malformation of the hips and/or feet
- Growth delay
- Delays in motor development

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
- Generalized muscle weakness

## Physical Examination

### Extremities
- Generalized muscle weakness
- Muscle atrophy

# Treatment
Treatment is typically directed toward the specific symptoms that are present in each individual.
Methylthioninium chloride

# Overview
Methylthioninium chloride (INN, or methylene blue, proposed trade name Rember) is an investigational drug being developed by the University of Aberdeen and TauRx Therapeutics that has been shown in early clinical trials to be an inhibitor of Tau protein aggregation. The drug is of potential interest for the treatment of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Its development appears to be related to claim 7 of Template:Patent.
TauRx Therapeutics has suggested that the mechanism by which methylene blue might delay or reverse neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease is as an inhibitor of Tau protein aggregation. While methylene blue arguably has an effect on Tau aggregation, it also has an effect on mitochondrial function which is likely to play an important role. In vitro studies suggest that methylene blue might be an effective remedy for both Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease by enhancing key mitochondrial biochemical pathways. It can disinhibit and increase complex IV, whose inhibition correlates with Alzheimer's disease. 

# 2008 clinical trial results
The University of Aberdeen held a Phase IIB clinical trial on 321 people with mild Alzheimer's disease in the United Kingdom and Singapore and found that taking the drug 3 times a day over a period of 50 weeks slows down the development of Alzheimer's disease by about 81%.
The patients were split into four groups: one group taking a dose of 30 mg, another taking a dose of 60 mg, a third taking a dose of 100 mg and the fourth taking a placebo. The 60 mg dosage gave the best results, giving an 81% reduction in mental degression compared to those on the placebo. Only those on the placebo experienced a decline in mental function.
A larger Phase 3 trial is planned for 2009 with an idea to see whether methylene blue can prevent the formation of the disease in the first place. TauRx are also looking into starting a trial of the drug on patients suffering from Parkinson's disease; as methylene blue also has effects on the synuclein fibres in the brain.
Debate began soon after the announcement over the funding of the drug under the UK's National Health Service.
The initial press release from TauRx has been characterized as "very aggressively worded".  A lengthy article at the Alzheimer Research Forum provoked further comments.

# Phase III trial
The form of the prodrug used in the Phase III clinical trial (NCT01689233) has been changed to TRx0237 (tradename LMTX), which is said to be better tolerated and more conducive to maintaining blinding in the trial. A smaller amount of the same prodrug is given to control subjects as a blinding agent.
Minimally conscious state
A minimally conscious state (MCS) is a condition distinct from coma or the vegetative state, in which a patient exhibits deliberate, or cognitively mediated, behavior often enough, or consistently enough, for clinicians to be able to distinguish it from entirely unconscious, reflexive responses.
Patients with severe brain damage may progress through stages of unconsciousness with eyes closed (coma), to unconsciousness with eyes open (vegetative state), to a stage of "inconsistent, erratic responsiveness" (minimally conscious state). 
It is not known whether patients in MCS can process emotion. MCS is thought to have a more favorable outcome than persistent vegetative state.
Doctors in the USA recently succeeded in bringing a man who had been under MCS for six years back to consciusness by planting electrodes deep inside his brain. If the success can be more widely replicated, it offers hope for many of the up to 300,000 MCS sufferers in the USA today. 

# Notable MCS patients
- Terry Wallis
- Gary Dockery
- Dorothy Crater
Minimum mean square error
In statistics, minimum mean square error (or MMSE) describes the statistical estimator with the least possible mean squared error. MMSE estimators are commonly described as optimal.
Let {\scriptstyle\hat{\theta}} be a point estimator of the parameter \theta:
\operatorname{MSE}( \hat{\theta} ) = \operatorname{E}( ( \hat{\theta} - \theta )^2 ).
Suppose there are two estimators {\scriptstyle\hat{\theta}_1} and {\scriptstyle{\hat{\theta}_2}} of the parameter \theta. Set {\scriptstyle\operatorname{MSE}( \hat{\theta}_1 )} and {\scriptstyle\operatorname{MSE}( \hat{\theta}_2 )} equal to the mean square errors of those two estimators. Then the relative efficiency of {\scriptstyle\hat{\theta}_1} and {\scriptstyle\hat{\theta}_2} can be defined as:

# Operational Considerations
Unfortunately, the correct distribution from which to estimate the mean-squared error of the estimator is a point of contention between Bayesian and frequentist schools of probability theory.  Orthodox statistics employs a transformation of variables to get the probability distribution of the estimator from the sampling distribution, giving the estimator's probability independent of the actual data set obtained.  This distribution correctly describes the variation of the estimator over all possible data sets.
P(\hat{\theta}) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} {\prod_{i=1}^{N} P(x_i|\theta)}  \delta(\hat{\theta}- \hat{\theta}(\vec{x})) d\vec{x} \!
Bayesian statistics instead holds that the correct distribution to use is that which represents the probability an observer would give to the variable after observing the actual data set.
P(\hat{\theta} | x_1, ..., x_N, I) = \frac {P(\vec{x} | \theta, I) P(\theta | I)} {P(\vec{x} | I)} \propto P(\vec{x} | \theta, I) P(\theta | I) \!
Where I represents some information the observer has about the nature of the variable \theta.  This distribution correctly describes the observer's state of knowledge about the parameter to be estimated after taking the observed data set into consideration.
It is interesting to note that these alternate viewpoints can sometimes (but not always) produce the same mean +/- standard deviation answer, as for example, estimation of the mean of a Normally-distributed data set. (Jaynes)