Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Benedict's reagent
Benedict's reagent (also called Benedict's solution or Benedict's test) is a chemical reagent named after an American chemist, Stanley Rossiter Benedict.
Benedict's reagent is used as a test for the presence of all monosaccharides, and generally also reducing sugars. These include glucose, galactose, mannose, lactose and maltose. Even more generally, Benedict's test will detect the presence of aldehydes (except aromatic ones), and alpha-hydroxy-ketones, including those that occur in certain ketoses. Thus, although the ketose fructose is not strictly a reducing sugar, it is an alpha-hydroxy-ketone, and gives a positive test because it is converted to the aldoses glucose and mannose by the base in the reagent..
Benedict's reagent can be prepared from sodium carbonate, sodium citrate and copper(II) sulfate. It is often used in place of Fehling's solution.
Benedict's reagent contains blue copper(II) ions (Cu2+) which are reduced to copper(I) (Cu+).  These are precipitated as red copper(I) oxide which is insoluble in water.

# Chemical test
To test for the presence of monosaccharides and reducing disaccharide sugars in food, the food sample is dissolved in water, and a small amount of Benedict's reagent is added. The mixture is heated in a boiling water bath, and any precipitate formed is recorded as a positive result for the presence of reducing sugars in the food.
The common disacharrides lactose and maltose are directly detected by Benedict's reagent, because each contains a glucose with a free reducing aldehyde moiety, after isomerization.
Sucrose (table sugar) contains two sugars (fructose and glucose) joined with by their glycosidic bond in such a way as to prevent the glucose isomerizing to aldehyde, or the  fructose to alpha-hydroxy-ketone form. Sucrose is thus a non-reducing sugar which does not react with Benedict's reagent. Sucrose indirectly produces a positive result with Benedict's reagent if heated with dilute hydrochloric acid prior to the test, although after this treatment it is no longer sucrose. The acidic conditions and heat break the glycosidic bond in sucrose through hydrolysis. The products of sucrose decomposition are glucose and fructose, both of which can be detected by Benedict's reagent, as described above.
Starches do not react or react very poorly with Benedict's reagent, due to the relatively small number of reducing sugar moieties, which occur only at the ends of carbohydrate chains. Inositol (myo-inositol) is another carbohydrate which produces a negative test.
Benedict's reagent can be used to test for the presence of glucose in urine. Glucose found to be present in urine is an indication of diabetes mellitus. Once a reducing sugar is detected in urine, further tests have to be undergone in order to ascertain which sugar is present. Only glucose is indicative of diabetes.

# Quantitative reagent
Benedict's quantitative reagent is used to determine how much reducing sugar is present. This solution forms as white precipitate rather than a red one and so can be used in a titration. The titration should be repeated with 1% glucose solution instead of the sample for calibration.
Bernard J. Cigrand

# Overview
Dr. Bernard J. Cigrand, a dentist, has a strong claim to being considered the father of Flag Day in the United States.
Cigrand, who lived from 1866 to 1932, practiced dentistry in Chicago and was the third dean of the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Dentistry, serving in that post from 1903 to 1906.
Working as a grade school teacher in Waubeka, WI, in 1885, Cigrand held the first recognized formal observance of Flag Day at Stony Hill School in Waubeka. The school has been restored, and a bust of Cigrand also honors him at the National Flag Day Americanism Center in Waubeka.
From the late 1880s on, Cigrand spoke around the country promoting patriotism, respect for the flag, and the need for the annual observance of a flag day on June 14, the day in 1777 that the Continental Congress adopted the Stars and Stripes. He became president of the American Flag Day Association and later of the National Flag Day Society, which allowed him to promote his cause with organizational backing. Cigrand once noted he had given 2,188 speeches on patriotism and the flag.
After joining the UIC College of Dentistry's teaching staff in 1899, Cigrand was elected by faculty to the Paris International Congress of Educators in 1900. He also was elected secretary of the faculty before becoming dean. After his deanship, he remained on the faculty well into the 1920s and was a frequent contributor to five Chicago newspapers.
In 1916, after 30 years of Cigrand's advocacy, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed June 14 Flag Day in 1916. (The United States Congress formally made the proclamation law in 1949).
The public generally credited Cigrand with being the "Father of Flag Day," with the Chicago Tribune noting he "almost singlehandedly" established the holiday.
Betamethylfentanyl
-Methylfentanyl is an opioid analgesic that is an analogue of fentanyl.
-Methylfentanyl was sold briefly on the black market in the early 1980s, before the introduction of the Federal Analog Act which for the first time attempted to control entire families of drugs based on their structural similarity rather than scheduling each drug individually as they appeared.
-Methylfentanyl has similar effects to fentanyl. Side effects of fentanyl analogues are similar to those of fentanyl itself, which include itching, nausea and potentially serious respiratory depression which can be life-threatening.
BingNeel syndrome

# Overview
BingNeel syndrome (BNS) is an extremely rare neurologic complication of Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia (WM).
It was first described in 1936 by Jens Bing and Axel Valdemar Neel, who observed a case of 2 women, 56 and 39 years old, presenting with rapid neurodegeneration in the setting of hyperglobulinemia.
It involves central nervous system infiltration by neoplastic lymphoplasmacytoid and plasma cells with or without cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) hyperglobulinemia. This increases blood viscosity, which impairs its circulation through small brain and eye blood vessels. Patients with BNS can be classified into Group A and Group B based on the presence of these cells within the brain parenchyma, leptomeninges, dura, and/or the CSF.
Symptoms include episodes of confusion, slurred speech, headache, fatigue, ataxia, memory problems, nausea, vomiting, and extremity numbness.
Complete blood count, electrolytes, and liver enzymes are normal in patients with Bing-Neel syndrome. Diagnosis can include lumbar puncture and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and spinal cord.
Treatment involves central nervous system penetrating chemotherapy. Some significant improvement has been shown in patients as a result of cranial radiation treatment preceding a brief course of intrathecal chemotherapy. In Arkansas, a patient was treated with "intrathecal chemotherapy with several cycles of systemic chemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell-supported High-dose chemotherapy and bone marrow transplant|high-dose therapy transplant". The patient discontinued all treatment in 2009 and was still asymptomatic by the time a follow-up report was published in 2013.
Biocrystallization
Biocrystallization is the formation of crystals from organic macromolecules by living organisms. This may be a stress response, or a normal part of metabolism such as processes that dispose of waste compounds. Inhibitors of biocrystallization are of interest in drug design efforts against pathogens that feed on blood, since many of these organisms use this process to safely dispose of heme.

# DNA
Under severe stress conditions the bacteria Escherichia coli protects its DNA from damage by sequestering it within a crystalline structure. This process is mediated by the stress response protein Dps and allows the bacteria to survive varied assaults such as oxidative stress, heat shock, ultraviolet light, gamma radiation and extremes of pH.

# Heme
Blood feeding organisms digest hemoglobin  and release high quantities of free toxic heme. To avoid destruction by this molecule, the parasite biocrystallizes  heme to form  hemozoin. To date, the only definitively characterized product of hematin disposal is the pigment hemozoin. Heme biocrystallization has been found in blood feeding organisms of great medical importance including Plasmodium, Rhodnius and Schistosoma. Heme biocrystallization is inhibited by quinoline antimalarials, the biocrystallization inhibitor Chloroquine is one of the best antimicrobials ever developed. Targeting heme  biocrystallization remains one of the most promising avenues for antimalarial drug development because the drug target is highly specific to the malarial parasite, and outside the genetic control of the parasite.
Biot's respiration

# Overview
Biot's respiration, sometimes also called cluster respiration, is an abnormal pattern of breathing characterized by groups of quick, shallow inspirations followed by regular or irregular periods of apnea.
It is distinguished from ataxic respiration by having more regularity and similar-sized inspirations, whereas ataxic respirations are characterized by completely irregular breaths and pauses. As the breathing pattern deteriorates, it merges with ataxic respirations.
Biot's respiration is caused by damage to the medulla oblongata due to strokes or trauma or by pressure on the medulla due to uncal or tentorial herniation. It generally indicates a poor prognosis.
Oral contraceptive

# Overview
Oral contraceptives are medications taken by mouth for the purpose of birth control.

# Types of Oral Contraceptives

## Female
- Two types of female oral contraceptive pill are widely available:
- The combined oral contraceptive pill contains oestrogen and a progestogen, and is taken once per day.
- The progestogen only pill contains only a progestogen, and is also taken once per day.
- Other types of female oral contraceptive are experimental or only available in limited areas:
- Mifepristone is an antiprogestogen which has been used as a daily oral contraceptive in investigational clinical trials.
- Ormeloxifene (also known as Centchroman) is a selective oestrogen receptor modulator which is taken one to two times per week.  Ormeloxifene is approved as an oral contraceptive only in India.

## Male
- Male oral contraceptives do not currently exist, although several possibilities are in various stages of research and development.
Bismuth subgallate
Bismuth subgallate, with a chemical formula C7H5BiO6, is the active ingredient in the over-the-counter medicine, Devrom that is an internal deodorant commonly used to treat malodor by deodorizing flatulence and stool.  Also, it has been used to treat Helicobacter pylori infection and is used in wound therapy.  As an internal deodorant, it is commonly used by individuals who have had ostomy surgery, bariatric surgery, fecal incontinence, and irritable bowel syndrome.
It can cause darkening of the tongue and stools, which is temporary and harmless.
A reversible encephalopathy was noted and examined in subjects taking very large doses of Bismuth subgallate in a medical study. Authors concluded that it is unlikely that Bismuth subgallate was responsible for the illness. The neurological syndrome in the subjects does not resemble effects of bismuth when administered parenterally or by mouth.
Bjork-Shiley valve
The Bjork-Shiley valve is a mechanical heart valve prosthesis. Beginning in 1971, it has been used to replace the aortic or mitral valves. It marks the first example of a successfully used tilting-disc valve.  It was manufactured first by Shiley Inc., then later by Pfizer after that company purchased Shiley.  One model of the Bjork-Shiley valve became the subject of a famous lawsuit and recall after it was shown to malfunction, usually fatally, in a number of cases.

# Construction
The Bjork valve consists of a single carbon-coated disc in a metal housing. The discs are held in place by two metal struts, an inflow and an outflow strut. The standard design Bjork-Shiley valve is a very durable valve and was widely used in the 1970s.

# Convexo-concave valves
Attempts to improve the design of the valve and speed manufacturing, however, led to a weaker structure, with serious consequences. Beginning in 1979, Bjork-Shiley valves with the convexo-concave design had a tendency to develop fractures in the outflow strut which could result in catastrophic valve failure and possibly sudden cardiac death. Later analysis revealed that the strut was fracturing at the place where it was welded onto the metal valve ring. One end of the strut would fracture first, followed by the second strut some months later. Eventually, 619 of the 80,000 convexo-concave valves implanted fractured in this way, with the patient dying in two thirds of those cases.  The convexo-concave valve was forced off the market by the FDA in 1986.  Valves welded by specific welders were at greater risk of fracture. The Convexo-Concave valve was withdrawn from the market and multiple lawsuits filed.  This recall and legal struggle have been described as "perhaps the most infamous recall case on record".
Not all of these valves were removed and replaced. The risk of valve fracture must be balanced against the risk of the surgery to replace the valve. Decision tools have been published and are available from a trust set up for this purpose during the litigation surrounding the valve "recall". The tools take into account patient age, the size and location of the valve (aortic or mitral) and other factors to come up with a recommendation as to whether surgery to replace the valve is worthwhile. In some patients the risk of surgery to replace the valve is higher than the risk of the valve fracturing. A compensation fund was also established to provide money for patient compensation and to pay for the costs of heart surgery to replace the valve.
More recent models of the Bjork-Shiley valve did away with the convexo-concave design and are reliable valves that do not require replacement.
Black hairy tongue
Black hairy tongue refers to a number of conditions of humans and animals that cause the tongue to become unusually dark and/or hairy in appearance.
Black hairy tongue in humans is a harmless condition caused by a fungus which grows on the top surface of the tongue. It is associated with the elderly, as well as with antibiotic use. It is more commonly seen in tobacco smokers. While black is the most common color associated with the condition other colors are also possible.

# Causes in Humans
Hairy tongue (lingua villosa) is a common condition caused by defective desquamation of the filiform papillae that results from a variety of precipitating factors. Some of these factors include poor oral hygiene, tooth loss (because their soft diet does not allow for normal desquamation from rough food scraping the tongue), chronic or extensive use of antibiotics, and radiation treatments to the head and neck. Patients with hairy tongue are more often than not coffee or tea drinkers and often use tobacco. It is also commonly seen in patients who are HIV positive or use intravenous drugs, although there is no predictive value to the finding of hairy tongue. One would assume that it is the result of shared lifestyle habits such as poor oral hygiene, use of tobacco/marijuana, coffee drinking, etc.
Hairy tongue is often referred to as black hairy tongue (lingua villosa nigra), but it may also appear brown, white, green, or pink - often due to secondary factors such as mouthwashes, breath mints etc. The "hairy" areas are usually on the posterior (back) of the tongue and never involve the undersurface. Hairy tongue is not a harmful disorder, and is normally asymptomatic. Patients with hairy tongue often may develop a secondary infection of Candida albicans (thrush). It is unclear if hairy tongue itself is a predisposing factor, as the underlying causes of hairy tongue may also lead to the development of thrush.
Pepto-Bismol has been known to cause one's tongue and stool to turn black. This form of "black tongue", however, is a result of the separation of bismuth from salicylate, forming bismuth trisulfide (Bi2S3) in combination with the sulfur found in saliva.

## Causes by Organ System

## Causas by Alphabetical Order
- Amoxicillin
- Phenoxymethylpenicillin

# Treatment
Treatment consists of good oral hygiene and use of a toothbrush or tongue scraper to aid with the desquamation of the tongue. Use of antifungals may be warranted if there is a suspicion of candidal infection.
If antibiotic use lead to the condition then the condition may resolve naturally after the antibiotic course is completed.

# In Animals
Black tongue is a condition seen in dogs, caused by a deficiency of niacin, associated with ulcers and inflammation of the dog's oral cavity.
Blindness overview

# Overview
Blindness is the condition of lacking  visual perception due to physiological or neurological factors.
Various scales have been developed to describe the extent of vision loss and define "blindness." Total blindness is the complete lack of form and light perception and is clinically recorded as "NLP," an abbreviation for "no light perception." Blindness is frequently used to describe severe visual impairment with residual vision. Those described as having only "light perception" can see no more than the ability to tell light from dark. A person with only "light projection" can tell the general direction of a light source.
In order to determine which people may need special assistance because of their visual disabilities, various governmental jurisdictions have formulated more complex definitions referred to as legal blindness. In North America and most of Europe, legal blindness is defined as visual acuity (vision) of 20/200 (6/60) or less in the better eye with best correction possible. This means that a legally blind individual would have to stand 20 feet (6 m) from an object to see it with the same degree of clarity as a normally sighted person could from 200 feet (60 m). In many areas, people with average acuity who nonetheless have a visual field of less than 20 degrees (the norm being 180 degrees) are also classified as being legally blind. 
Approximately ten percent of those deemed legally blind, by any measure, have no vision. The rest have some vision, from light perception alone to relatively good acuity. Low vision is sometimes used to describe visual acuities from 20/70 to 20/200. 
By the 10th Revision of the WHO International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death, low vision is defined as visual acuity of less than 6/18, but equal to or better than 3/60, or corresponding visual field loss to less than 20 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction. Blindness is defined as visual acuity of less than 3/60, or corresponding visual field loss to less than 10 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction.

# Primary Prevention
There exist a number of organizations, such as International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness, ORBIS International, and Seva Foundation, who have developed programs aimed at preventing blindness.
On September 10, 2007,  in a 6-year study, researchers, led by John Paul SanGiovanni of the National Eye Institute, Maryland found that Lutein and zeaxanthin (nutrients in eggs, spinach and other green vegetables) protect against blindness (macular degeneration), affecting 1.2 million Americans, mostly after age 65. Lutein and zeaxanthin reduce the risk of AMD (journal Archives of Ophthalmology). Foods considered good sources of the nutrients also include kale, turnip greens, collard greens, romaine lettuce, broccoli, zucchini, corn, garden peas and Brussels sprouts.
Blood oxygen level

# Overview
Blood oxygen level is a term referring to the concentration of oxygen in the blood.  The human body requires and regulates a very precise and specific balance of oxygen in the blood.
This balance is maintained for the most part by chemical processes in the body to sustain aerobic metabolism and life.
Pulse oximetry is a method used to measure the concentration of oxygen in the blood.
Blue baby syndrome
Blue baby syndrome (or simply, blue baby) is a layman's term used to describe newborns with cyanotic conditions, such as
- Cyanotic heart defects
Tetralogy of Fallot
Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome
- Tetralogy of Fallot
- Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries
- Hypoplastic left heart syndrome
- Methemoglobinemia
- Respiratory distress syndrome
Some pesticides(DDT, PCBs etc) ecotoxicological problems in the food chains of living organisms. It increases BOD which kills aquatic animals. This causes high nitrate contamination in ground water resulting in decreased oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin in babies leading to death.
Methemoglobinemia also known as "blue baby syndrome"

# Surgery
On November 29, 1944, the Johns Hopkins Hospital was the first to successfully perform an operation to relieve this syndrome. The syndrome was brought to the attention of surgeon Alfred Blalock and his laboratory assistant Vivien Thomas in 1943 by pediatric cardiologist Helen Taussig, who had treated hundreds of children with Tetralogy of Fallot in her work at Hopkins' Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children. The two men adapted a surgical procedure they had earlier developed for another purpose, involving the anastomosis, or joining, of the subclavian artery to the pulmonary artery, which allowed the blood another chance to become oxygenated.  The procedure became known as the Blalock-Taussig shunt, although in recent years the contribution of Vivien Thomas, both experimentally and clinically, has been widely acknowledged.
Turkey coronavirus

# Overview
Turkey coronaviruses are members of the Coronaviridae family and infect turkey, especially poults, leading to gastrointestinal disease. The viruses are also known as: Turkey Enteritis Virus, Bluecomb Disease Virus, or Turkey Coronaviral Enteritis. Transmission is horizontal via the faeces, and can be direct or indirectly spread by fomites.
Disease has been noted in North America, Europe and Brazil.
Avian infectious bronchitis is a closely related disease.

# Diagnosis
Gastrointestinal disease appears as diarrhoea, anorexia and lethargy. Most of the birds in a group are usually affected and their overall appearance is of darkened skin and ruffled feathers.
In the USA, Turkey coronavirus is one of the pathogens responsible for the Poult Enteritis and Mortality Syndrome (PEMS) in birds up to 1 month of age.
Mortality can be high in poults.
Recovered birds are immune for life but may become carriers.
Necropsy, histology, indirect immunofluorescence, immunoperoxidase staining, ELISA and PCR can all be used for diagnosis.

# Treatment
Supportive therapy can be given, including: heat lamps, antibiotics, milk replacer.
As the virus persists in the flock, farms should be depopulated, following an outbreak.
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