Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Howel-Evans syndrome
Howel-Evans syndrome is an extremely rare condition in which the skin of the palms of the hands, and soles of the feet, are affected (hyperkeratosis). The effects on the palms and soles is called tylosis, and in Howel-Evans syndrome, there is a predisposition to oesophageal cancer, particularly squamous cell carcinoma.
Howel-Evans syndrome was described in 1996 as being identical with palmoplantar ectodermal dysplasia type III.
The skin is treated with a keratolytic (such as salicylic acid) to dissolve the excess skin, and systemic treatment with retinoids (derivatives of Vitamin A) may be given.
Humanized antibodies
Humanized antibodies or chimeric antibodies are a type of monoclonal antibody that have been synthesized using recombinant DNA technology to circumvent the clinical problem of immune response to foreign antigens.  The standard procedure of producing monoclonal antibodies yields mouse antibodies. Although murine antibodies are very similar to human ones there are differences, and the human immune system recognizes mouse antibodies as foreign, rapidly removing them from circulation and causing systemic inflammatory effects.
Humanized antibodies are produced by merging the DNA that encodes the binding portion of a monoclonal mouse antibody with human antibody-producing DNA.  One then uses mammalian cell cultures to express this DNA and produce these half-mouse and half-human antibodies that are not as immunogenic as the murine variety.

# Alternatives
A solution to this problem would be to generate human antibodies directly from humans. However, this is not easy, primarily because it is clearly not ethical to challenge humans with antigen in order to produce antibody. Furthermore, it is not easy to generate human antibodies against human tissues.
Hydrazone iodination
Hydrazone iodination is an organic reaction in which a hydrazone is converted in a vinyl iodide by reaction of iodine and a non-nucleophilic base such as DBU
. First published by D. H. R. Barton in 1962 the reaction is sometimes referred to as the Barton reaction (although one of many Barton reactions and not very descriptive) or the better phrased Barton vinyl iodine procedure.
The reaction has earlier roots with the discovery in 1911 by Wieland and Roseeu that the reaction of hydrazones with iodine alone (without base) results in the azine dimer (structure 2 in scheme 1).
In the original Barton publication the reaction was optimized by using a strong guanidine base, the inverse edition of the hydrazone to an iodine solution, and by exclusion of water.
When iodine as an electrophile is replaced by aromatic selenyl bromides, the corresponding vinyl selenides are obtained:

# Reaction mechanism
The reaction mechanism proposed in the original Barton publication is outlines as follows:
The hydrazone gets oxidized by iodine to a diazo intermediate. In the next step iodine reacts as a nucleophile and displacement of nitrogen generates an iodocarbonium ion. When the reaction site is not sterically hindered a second iodide can recombine to the geminal di-iodide, otherwise an elimination reaction leads to the vinyliodide. When water is present the reaction product can revert to the ketone.
This reaction is related to the Shapiro reaction.

# Scope
An example of this procedure is the reaction of 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone to the hydrazone by reaction with hydrazine and triethylamine in ethanol at reflux followed by reaction of the hydrazone with iodine in the presence of 2-tert-butyl-1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidine (cheaper than DBU) in diethyl ether at room temperature
. Another example can be found in the Danishefsky Taxol total synthesis.
In one study it is attempted to trap any reactive intermediate of this reaction with an internal alkene. When the hydrazone 1 in scheme 5 is reacted with iodine and triethylamine in toluene, the expected reaction product is not the di-iodide 10 through path B in a free radical mechanism. The actual process taking place is path A with elimination of HI to the diazo compound 4 followed by a diazoalkane 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition to the pyrazoline 5 in 85% yield.
Hydrocodone compound
A hydrocodone compound is a pharmaceutical compound containing hydrocodone.
To qualify for treatment as a schedule III medication in the US, hydrocodone must be combined with a nonnarcotic ingredient in a recognized therapeutic amount.  There are four dosage forms recognized by the US authorities:
- per 100 ml (i.e. a liquid), which must have no more than 300 mg of (dissolved) hydrocodone in addition to the therapeutic amount of a nonnarcotic ingredient
- per dosage unit (i.e. a solid, pill or capsule) which must have no more than 15 mg of hydrocodone in addition to the therapeutic amount of a nonnarcotic ingredient
Compounded dosages seen on the market include:
- per 15 ml of syrup: 15 mg/80 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 30 mg/80 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, and 45 mg/80 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen,
- per capsule: 5 mg/80 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 10 mg/80 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 15 mg/80 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 10 mg/100 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 15 mg/100 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 10 mg/200 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 15 mg/200 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 5 mg/500 mg hydrocodone/acetaminophen, 10 mg/200 mg hydrocodone/ibuprofen, 15 mg/200 mg, hydrocodone/ibuprofen
Hydrocodone overdose

# Overdosage topics
Manifestations
Treatment

## Manifestations
Serious overdosage with hydrocodone is characterized by respiratory depression (a decrease in
respiratory rate and/or tidal volume, Cheyne-Stokes respiration, cyanosis), extreme somnolence
progressing to stupor or coma, skeletal muscle flaccidity, cold and clammy skin, and sometimes
bradycardia and hypotension. Although miosis is characteristic of narcotic overdose, mydriasis
may occur in terminal narcosis or severe hypoxia. In severe overdosage apnea, circulatory
collapse, cardiac arrest and death may occur. The manifestations of chlorpheniramine overdosage
may vary from central nervous system depression to stimulation.

## Treatment
Primary attention should be given to the reestablishment of adequate respiratory exchange
through provision of a patent airway and the institution of assisted or controlled ventilation. The
narcotic antagonist naloxone hydrochloride is a specific antidote for respiratory depression which
may result from overdosage or unusual sensitivity to narcotics including hydrocodone. Therefore,
an appropriate dose of naloxone hydrochloride should be administered, preferably by the
intravenous route, simultaneously with efforts at respiratory resuscitation. Since the duration of
action of hydrocodone in this formulation may exceed that of the antagonist, the patient should be
kept under continued surveillance and repeated doses of the antagonist should be administered as
needed to maintain adequate respiration. For further information, see full prescribing information
for naloxone hydrochloride. An antagonist should not be administered in the absence of clinically
significant respiratory depression. Oxygen, intravenous fluids, vasopressors and other supportive
measures should be employed as indicated. Gastric emptying may be useful in removing
unabsorbed drug.
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
Hypoadrenia overview

# Overview
Hypoadrenia is a term for a hypothesised condition of the adrenal glands. The terms adrenal exhaustion or adrenal fatigue are often used (and connected to hypoadrenia) by complementary and alternative therapists, but are not formal medical terms.
The adrenal glands are part of the body's mechanism for short term stress response and management, they are involved in the production of the hormone adrenaline (also known as epinephrine), the famous fight or flight chemical released in stressful situations, which increases the body's metabolic rate and muscular contraction strength. Along with the thyroid gland they are also part of the body's metabolic energy regulation and control system, and thus control to an extent the energy available to body systems.
It has been theorized by alternative medical practitioners that under conditions of long term stress, the adrenal glands can become less responsive to circumstance, or maladapted, and cease to function optimally, leading to a wide (but slightly vague) range of fatigue and stress related conditions including a greater likelihood of psychological conditions such as depression and possibly certain other mood disorders. However, it is important to note that this theory has not yet gained acceptance within mainstream medicine.
Hypokalemia overview

# Overview
Low level of potassium (usually below 3.5 mEq/L) in body is called hypokalemia. The condition is also known as potassium deficiency.

# Historical Perspective
The prefix hypo- means low and kal refers to kalium, which is Neo-Latin for potassium. The end portion of the word, -emia, means "in the blood" (note, however, that hypokalemia is usually indicative of a systemic potassium deficit).

# Pathophysiology
Potassium is one of the intracellular cation. Any derangement of potassium serum levels can disturb the transmembrane potential and renders excitable cells (nerve and muscle) hyperpolarized and less excitable. However, cardiac cells don't obey this rule and become hyperexcitable. Potassium regulation is essential to maintain a normal activity in cells. Any imparment in potassium serum levels will have severe consequences on several organs especially the heart and the nervous system. Normally, total potassium excretion in stool is low and most ingested potassium is absorbed. The kidney is the main regulator of potassium balance through excretion (the kidney excretes 90-95% of dietary potassium); the gut excretes a minimal amount of dietary potassium (approximately 10%).

# Causes
The etiology of hypokalemia can be quite difficult to diagnose. Diferent organ systems play role in the regulation of potassium level and any derangement to their normal function can cause hypokalemia. Drugs, diarrhea, kidney disease, endocrine diseases and many others are potential culprits. Hypokalemia can be the consequence of decreased ingestion, increased losses (renal, GI or excessive sweating) or transcellular shift from the extracellular to the intracellular compartment. The most common causes are diarrhea, vomiting and diuretic use (mostly loop and thiazide diuretics).

# Diagnosis
Diagnosis relies on a constellation of findings including:

## History
Past medical history and medication history are so important in finding the reason of hypokalemia (eg hyperthyroidism, hyperaldosteronism, Cushing's disease,etc).

## Symptoms
- Muscle weakness, cramping, and paralysis.
- Palpitation.
- Polyuria.
- Depression, psychosis, delirium.

## Laboratory findings
Many labs can be helpful. The transtubular potasium gradient (TTKG), urine potassium, sodium, osmolality and chloride levels can help define the etiology of hypokalemia.

## Electrocardiogram
The most notable EKG findings in hypokalemia are due to the delayed ventricular repolarization, manifesting as (QT-U) with prominent U waves.  The ECG changes of hypokalemia are commonly seen at potassium levels < 3 meq/Li. 90% of the patients with potassium levels <2.7 meq/L have abnormal ECG findings.

# Treatment
The oral route is the safest. There are many oral potassium salts that can be prescribed including potassium chloride (the most popular) and the organic alkalinizing salts that are metabolized to potassium bicarbonate in the body. Severe hypokalemia ca be treated via IV potassium chloride infusion with doses that shouldn't exceed 60 mEq/L unless ECG monitoring is provided. A central line can be used for administration of greater concentrations of potassium chloride.
Hypospadias overview
Steven C. Campbell, M.D., Ph.D.

# Overview
Hypospadias is a birth defect of the urethra in the male that involves an abnormally placed urethral meatus (opening). Instead of opening at the tip of the glans of the penis, a hypospadic urethra opens anywhere along a line (the urethral groove) running from the tip along the underside (ventral aspect) of the shaft to the junction of the penis and scrotum or perineum. A distal hypospadias may be suspected even in an uncircumcised boy from an abnormally formed foreskin and downward tilt of the glans.
The urethral meatus opens on the glans penis in about 50-75% of cases; these are categorized as first degree hypospadias.  Second degree (when the urethra opens on the shaft), and third degree (when the urethra opens on the perineum) occur in up to 20 and 30% of cases respectively. The more severe degrees are more likely to be associated with chordee, in which the phallus is incompletely separated from the perineum or is still tethered downwards by connective tissue, or with undescended testes (cryptorchidism).

# Epidemiology and Demographics
Hypospadias are among the most common birth defects of the male genitalia (second to cryptorchidism), but widely varying incidences have been reported from different countries, from as low as 1 in 4000 to as high as 1 in 125 boys. There has been some evidence that the incidence of hypospadias around the world has been increasing in recent decades. In the United States, two surveillance studies reported that the incidence had increased from about 1 in 500 total births (1 in 250 boys) in the 1970s to 1 in 250 total births (1 in 125 boys) in the 1990s.  Although a slight worldwide increase in hypospadias was reported in the 1980s, studies in different countries and regions have yielded conflicting results and some registries have reported decreases.

# Treatment

## Primary Prevention
As it is a birth defect, it cannot be prevented.
Hypothermia overview

# Overview
Hypothermia is a condition in which an organism's temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In warm-blooded animals, core body temperature is maintained near a constant level through biologic homeostasis.  But when the body is exposed to cold its internal mechanisms may be unable to replenish the heat that is being lost to the organism's surroundings.

# Differentiating Hypothermia from other Diseases
Hypothermia is the opposite of hyperthermia. Because the words sound alike, they are easily confused.

# Treatment

## Surgery
Profound hypothermia can be an indication to be placed on extracorporeal circulation (bypass pump).
Prolidase deficiency
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Prolidase deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive 
inborn error of metabolism classified as a genodermatosis.
Although metabolism of the amino acid proline is affected by the enzyme prolidase, this disorder is not to be confused with hyperprolinemia, which involves different enzymatyic pathways related to proline metabolism.

# Diagnosis
Prolidase deficiency is characterized by severe skin ulcers, facial abnormalities, chronic joint dislocations, bacterial infections, and mental retardation. Asymptomatic patients, though rare, have also been recognized..  Due to this deficiency of the exopeptidase called prolidase, patients may also excrete large amounts of iminodipeptides in the urine, a condition called iminodipeptiduria.

# Genetics
Mutations in the PEPD gene on chromosome 19p13.2 have been observed to cause prolidase deficiency.
Indigestion overview

# Overview
Indigestion is a term used to describe a feeling of fullness or discomfort during or after a meal. It can be accompanied by burning or pain in the upper stomach. It is a condition that is frequently caused by eating too fast, especially by eating high-fat foods quickly. There are many possible causes of indigestion, of which some are related to lifestyle.

# Historical Perspective
Indigestion is an old english word meaning lack of digestion. Dyspepsia like symptoms have been recognized since the birth of medicine, however, the underlying pathogenesis of dyspepsia only began to be appreciated when Baillie in 1799 first described the anatomy and symptoms of gastric ulcer disease. The development of barium x-ray radiology, by Cannon in 1897, led to the clinical recognition of peptic ulcer disease and its relationship with its symptoms. Walter Alvarez at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, MN was the first to apply the term functional dyspepsia in 1916 to describe patients with ulcer-like symptoms and a normal X-ray.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Discomfort or pain in the upper abdomen, early fullness while eating, bloating, sense of fullness after eating are the usual symptoms expressed by the patients. Sometimes indigestion is accompanied by heartburn which is a separate condition.

## Laboratory Findings
People without risk factors for serious causes of dyspepsia usually do not need investigation beyond an office based clinical examination.

## Other Diagnostic Studies
People over the age 55 years and those with alarm features are usually investigated by esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). People under the age of 55 years with  no alarm features do not need EGD but are considered for investigation for peptic ulcer disease caused by Helicobacter pylori infection.

# Treatment

## Prevention
Avoiding foods and situations that seem to cause it may help. Indigestion can be a sign of a more serious problem. Seeing a health care provider if it lasts for more than two weeks and involves severe pain or other symptoms is very important.
Inferior pubic ramus
The inferior pubic ramus is thin and flattened. It passes lateralward and downward from the medial end of the superior ramus; it becomes narrower as it descends and joins with the inferior ramus of the ischium below the obturator foramen.

# Surfaces
Its anterior surface is rough, for the origin of musclesthe Gracilis along its medial border, a portion of the Obturator externus where it enters into the formation of the obturator foramen, and between these two, the Adductores brevis and magnus, the former being the more medial.
The posterior surface is smooth, and gives origin to the Obturator internus, and, close to the medial margin, to the Constrictor urethrae.

# Borders
The medial border is thick, rough, and everted, especially in females. It presents two ridges, separated by an intervening space.
The ridges extend downward, and are continuous with similar ridges on the inferior ramus of the ischium;
- to the external is attached the fascia of Colles.
- to the internal the inferior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm.
The lateral border is thin and sharp, forms part of the circumference of the obturator foramen, and gives attachment to the obturator membrane.
Insect sting allergy

# Overview
Insect sting allergy is the term commonly given to the allergic response of an animal in response to the bite or sting of an insect.  Typically, insects which generate allergic responses are either stinging insects (wasps, bees, hornets and ants) or biting insects (mosquitoes, ticks). Stinging insects inject venom into their victims, whilst biting insects normally introduce anti-coagulants into their victims.
The great majority of insect allergic animals just have a simple allergic response - a reaction local to the sting site which appears as just a swelling arising from the release of histamine and other chemicals from the body tissues near to the sting site. The swelling, if allergic, can be helped by the provision of an anti-histamine ointment as well as an ice pack. This is the typical response for all biting insects and many people have this common reaction to one extreme or another.
Mosquito allergy may result in a collection of symptoms called Skeeter Syndrome that occur after a bite. This syndrome may be mistaken for an infection such as cellulitis.
In anaphylactic patients the response is more aggressive leading to a systemic reaction where the response progresses from the sting site around the whole body. This is potentially something very serious and can lead to anaphylaxis which is potentially life threatening.
Venom Immunotherapy is a course of treatment which is now well established in North America and Europe and offers patients with a systemic allergic response a considerable reduction in the level of their allergic response.

# Epidemiology of Stinging Insect Reactions
The majority of individuals who receive a sting from an insect experience local reactions. It is estimated that 5-10% of individuals will experience a generalized systemic reaction that can involve symptoms ranging from hives to wheezing and even anaphylaxis. In the United States approximately 40 people die each year from anaphylaxis due to stinging insect allergy. Potentially life-threatening reaction occur in 3% of adults and 0.4-0.8% of children.
Interleukin receptor
An interleukin receptor is a cytokine receptor for interleukins.

# Types
There are two main families of Interleukin receptors, type 1 and type 2 cytokine receptors.

## Type 1
Type 1 interleukin receptors include:

## Type 2
Type 2 interleukin receptors include:

## Other
- Interleukin-1 receptor and interleukin-18 receptor belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily.
- Interleukin-8 receptor, RANTES receptors (CCR1, CCR3, CCR5), MIP-1 receptor, PF4 receptor, M-CSF receptor and NAP-2 receptor belong to the chemokine receptor family.
Interpersonal skills
"Interpersonal skills" refers to mental and communicative algorithms applied during social communications and interactions in order to reach certain effects or results.  The term "interpersonal skills" is used often in business contexts to refer to the measure of a person's ability to operate within business organizations through social communication and interactions. Interpersonal skills are how people relate to one another.
As an illustration, it is generally understood that communicating respect for other people or professionals within the workplace will enable one to reduce conflict and increase participation or assistance in obtaining information or completing tasks.  For instance, in order to interrupt someone who is currently preoccupied with a task in order to obtain information needed immediately, it is recommended that a professional utilize a deferential approach with language such as, "Excuse me, are you busy?  I have an urgent matter to discuss with you if you have the time at the moment".  This allows the receiving professional to make their own judgement regarding the importance of their current task versus entering into a discussion with their colleague.  While it is generally understood that interrupting someone with an "urgent" request will often take priority, allowing the receiver of the message to independently judge the request and agree to further interaction will likely result in a higher quality interaction.  Following these kinds of heuristics to achieve better professional results generally results in a professional being ranked as one with 'good interpersonal skills'.  Often these evaluations occur in formal and informal settings.
Having positive interpersonal skills increases the productivity in the organization since the number of conflicts is reduced.  In informal situations, it allows communication to be easy and comfortable.  People with good interpersonal skills can generally control the feelings that emerge in difficult situations and respond appropriately, instead of being overwhelmed by emotion.