Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Acne vulgaris overview
Main article: Acne Vulgaris

# Overview
Acne Vulgaris is a skin disease caused by changes in the pilosebaceous units (skin structures comprising a hair follicle and its related sebaceous gland). Severe acne is inflammatory, but acne can also manifest in noninflammatory forms. Acne lesions are defined as pimples, spots, or zits.  Acne diminishes with age, by early twenties acne disappears. There is no set age for acne to disappear, some individuals have acne decades later, into their thirties and forties and even beyond.
The term acne comes from a Greek word  (acme in the sense of a skin eruption) in the writings of Aetius Amidenus. The vernacular term bacne or backne is often used to show acne found specifically on one's back.

# Classification
There are multiple grading scales for rating the severity of acne vulgaris.  Three techniques include the Leeds acne grading technique, which counts and categorizes lesions into inflammatory and non-inflammatory (ranges from 0 to 10.0), Cook's acne grading scale, which uses photographs to rate severity from 0 to 8 (0 being the least severe and 8 being the most severe), and the Pillsbury scale, which classifies the severity of the acne from 1 (least severe) to 4 (most severe). 

# Epidemiology and Demographics
In the United States, acne affects 17 million people.  It is most common during adolescence, affecting more than 85% of teenagers, and frequently continues into adulthood. 

# Risk Factors
Acne is the most common skin disease that occurs in all races and ages, including teenagers and young adults. About 80 percent of all people between the ages of 11 and 30 have acne outbreaks in life. Some people in their forties and fifties still suffer from acne.
Acriflavinium chloride

# Overview
Acriflavine is a topical antiseptic. It has the form of an orange or brown powder. It may be harmful in the eyes or if inhaled. It is a dye and it stains the skin and may irritate. Commercial preparations are often mixtures with proflavine. It is known by a variety of commercial names.
Acriflavine was developed in 1912 by Paul Ehrlich, a German medical researcher, and was used during the First World War against sleeping sickness. It is derived from acridine. The hydrochloride form is more irritating than the neutral form.
Acriflavine is also used as treatment for external fungal infections of aquarium fish.
Acriflavine has been shown to have anti-cancer activity by inhibition of HIF-1 which prevents blood vessels growing to supply tumors with blood and interferes with glucose uptake and use.
Acriflavine is a controlled substance in Australia and dependent on situation, is considered either a Schedule 5 (Caution) or Schedule 7 (Dangerous Poison) substance. The use, storage and preparation of the chemical is subject to strict state and territory laws.
Acrocephalosyndactylia
Acrocephalosyndactylia (or acrocephalosyndactyly) is the common presentation of craniosynostosis and syndactyly.
It has several different types:
- type 1 - Apert syndrome
- type 2 - Apert syndrome
- type 3 - Saethre-Chotzen syndrome
- type 5 - Pfeiffer syndrome 
A related term, "acrocephalopolysyndactyly" (ACPS), refers to the inclusion of polydactyly to the presentation. It also has multiple types:
- type 1 - Noack syndrome. Now classified with Pfeiffer syndrome.
- type 2 - Carpenter syndrome 
- type 3 - Sakati-Nyhan-Tisdale syndrome 
- type 4 - Goodman syndrome. Now classified with Carpenter syndrome.
- type 5 - Pfeiffer syndrome
It has been suggested that the distinction between "acrocephalosyndactyly" versus "acrocephalopolysyndactyly" should be abandoned.
Actinic conjunctivitis
Synonyms and keywords: Klieg conjunctivitis, eyeburn, arc-flash, welders conjunctivitis, flash keratoconjunctivitis, actinic ray, ultraviolet ray ophthalmia

# Overview
Actinic conjunctivitis is an eye condition that results from prolonged exposure to ultraviolet rays. Symptoms include redness and swelling of the eyes. Actinic conjunctivitis is most commonly caused by prolonged exposure to Klieg lights, therapeutic lamps, and acetylene torches.

# Historical Perspective
Actinic conjunctivitis is often a condition reported by people who claim to have viewed a UFO. In particular the condition is mentioned under the name of Klieg Conjunctivitis in association with the mothman case in Point Pleasant, West Virginia (Point Pleasant) in John A. Keel's book The Mothman Prophecies.

# Causes

## Common Causes
- Acetylene torches
- Therapeutic lamps
- Ultraviolet radiation

## Causes by Organ System

## Causes in Alphabetical Order
- Acetylene torches
- Arc welding
- Sunlight
- Therapeutic lamps
- Ultraviolet radiation
Organic brain syndrome

# Overview
Organic brain syndrome is a general term referring to many acute and chronic physical disorders that cause impaired mental function. It does not usually include psychiatric disorders. Though OBS is a common diagnosis in the elderly, it is related to disease processes and is not an inevitable part of aging.
Acute organic brain syndrome is a temporary state of mental impairment caused by intoxication, overdose or infection.

# Associated conditions
Disorders that cause injury or damage to the brain and contribute to OBS include, but are not limited to:
- Alzheimer's Disease
- Concussion
- Encephalitis
- Epilepsy
- Fetal alcohol syndrome
- Hypoxia
- Intoxication/Overdose caused by Drug abuse or Alcoholism
- Intracranial Hemorrhage/Trauma
- Korsakoff Syndrome
- Meningitis
- Stroke/Transient ischemic attack(TIA)
- Withdrawal from Drugs/Alcohol
Other conditions that may be related to organic brain syndrome include: clinical depression, neuroses, and psychoses, which may occur simultaneously with the OBS.

# Symptoms
Symptoms of OBS vary with the disease that is responsible. However, the more common symptoms of OBS are confusion; impairment of memory, judgement, and intellectual function; dementia; delirium and agitation. Often these symptoms are contributed to psychiatric illness, which causes a difficulty in diagnosis.

# Treatment
Treatment of OBS varies with the causitive disorder or disease.

# Other names
- Chronic organic brain syndrome
- OBS
- Organic mental disorder
Acyclovir how supplied

# How Supplied
ZOVIRAX Capsules (blue, opaque cap and body) containing 200 mg acyclovir and printed with Wellcome ZOVIRAX 200.
Bottle of 100 (NDC 0173-0991-55).
Store at 15 to 25C (59 to 77F) and protect from moisture.
ZOVIRAX Tablets (light blue, oval) containing 800 mg acyclovir and engraved with ZOVIRAX 800.
Bottle of 100 (NDC 0173-0945-55).
Store at 15 to 25C (59 to 77F) and protect from moisture.
ZOVIRAX Tablets (white, shield-shaped) containing 400 mg acyclovir and engraved with "ZOVIRAX" on one side and a triangle on the other side.
Bottle of 100 (NDC 0173-0949-55).
Store at 15 to 25C (59 to 77F) and protect from moisture.
ZOVIRAX Suspension (off-white, banana-flavored) containing 200 mg acyclovir in each teaspoonful (5 mL).
Bottle of 1 pint (473 mL) (NDC 0173-0953-96).
Store at 15 to 25C (59 to 77F).
ZOVIRAX is a registered trademark of GlaxoSmithKline.
Adductor magnus muscle

# Overview
The adductor magnus is a large triangular muscle, situated on the medial side of the thigh.
The portion which arises from the ischiopubic ramus (a small part of the inferior ramus of the pubis, and the inferior ramus of the ischium) is called the "adductor portion", and the portion arising from the  tuberosity of the ischium is called the "hamstring portion". The hamstring portion is not considered part of the hamstring group of muscles, but it is adjacent to it.

# Adductor part
Those fibers which arise from the ramus of the pubis are short, horizontal in direction, and are inserted into the rough line leading from the greater trochanter to the linea aspera, medial to the gluteus maximus.
Those fibers from the ramus of the ischium are directed downward and lateralward with different degrees of obliquity, to be inserted, by means of a broad aponeurosis, into the linea aspera and the upper part of its medial prolongation below.

# Hamstring part
The medial portion of the muscle, composed principally of the fibers arising from the tuberosity of the ischium, forms a thick fleshy mass consisting of coarse bundles which descend almost vertically, and end about the lower third of the thigh in a rounded tendon which is inserted into the adductor tubercle on the medial condyle of the femur, and is connected by a fibrous expansion to the line leading upward from the tubercle to the linea aspera.

# Osseoaponeurotic openings
At the insertion of the muscle, there is a series of osseoaponeurotic openings, formed by tendinous arches attached to the bone. The upper four openings are small, and give passage to the perforating branches of the profunda femoris artery. The lowest is of large size, and transmits the femoral vessels to the popliteal fossa.

# Action
The function of the adductor magnus is to serve as a powerful extensor of the thigh, along with being able to flex and laterally rotate the thigh.
Adenosine A2B receptor
The adenosine A2B receptor, also known as ADORA2B, is a G-protein coupled adenosine receptor, and also denotes the human adenosine A2b receptor gene which encodes it.

# Mechanism
This integral membrane protein stimulates adenylate cyclase activity in the presence of adenosine. This protein also interacts with netrin-1, which is involved in axon elongation.

# Gene
The gene is located near the Smith-Magenis syndrome region on chromosome 17.

# Ligands
Research into selective A2B ligands has lagged somewhat behind the development of ligands for the other three adenosine receptor subtypes, but a number of A2B-selective compounds have now been developed, and research into their potential therapeutic applications is ongoing.

## Agonists
- BAY 60-6583
- NECA (N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine)
- (S)-PHPNECA - high affinity and efficacy at A2B, but poor selectivity over other adenosine receptor subtypes
- LUF-5835
- LUF-5845 - partial agonist

## Antagonists and inverse agonists
- Compound 38: antagonist, high affinity and good subtype selectivity
- ATL-801
- CVT-6883
- MRS-1706
- MRS-1754
- OSIP-339,391
- PSB-603
- PSB-0788
- PSB-1115
Adenosine A2a receptor
The adenosine A2a receptor, also known as ADORA2A, is an adenosine receptor, but also denotes the human gene encoding it.

# Biochemistry
The gene encodes a protein which is one of several receptor subtypes for adenosine. The activity of the encoded protein, a G-protein coupled receptor family member, is mediated by G proteins which activate adenylyl cyclase. The encoded protein is abundant in basal ganglia, vasculature and platelets and it is a major target of caffeine.

# Function
As with the A1, the A2a receptors are believed to play a role in regulating myocardial oxygen consumption and coronary blood flow.
The A2a receptor is responsible for regulating myocardial blood flow by vasodilating the coronary arteries, which increases blood flow to the myocardium, but may lead to hypotension. Just as in A1 receptors, this normally serves as a protective mechanism, but may be destructive in altered cardiac function.
Recent research on adenosine receptor function, and adenosine receptor antagonists such as theophylline has led to several randomized controlled trials using these receptor antagonists to treat bradyasystolic arrest.

# Agonists and antagonists
Specific antagonists include KW6002 and SCH-58261, while specific agonists include CGS21680 and ATL-146e.
Adenosine A2b receptor
The adenosine A2b receptor, also known as ADORA2B, is an adenosine receptor, and also denotes the human gene incoding it.

# Mechanism
This integral membrane protein stimulates adenylate cyclase activity in the presence of adenosine. This protein also interacts with netrin-1, which is involved in axon elongation.

# Gene
The gene is located near the Smith-Magenis syndrome region on chromosome 17.
Adenovirus serotype 14
Adenovirus serotype 14 (Ad14) is a serovar of adenovirus which, unlike other adenovirus serovars, is known to cause potentially fatal  adenovirus infections. According to the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), as of September 2007, outbreaks have been identified in four states with ten identified deaths since May 2006.

# Characteristics
Ad14 is a rare emerging virus that can cause severe respiratory infection, which can sometimes be fatal, even in healthy young adults. Ad14 isolates from all four states where outbreaks occurred were identical, based on DNA sequencing. However, the isolates were distinct from the 1955 Ad14 reference strain. This suggests that a new Ad14 variant is emerging and spreading in the United States.

# Reported illnesses
At least 140 illnesses have been caused by Ad14 in New York, Oregon, Washington, and Texas. Of these patients, 53 were hospitalized, 24 of whom were admitted to intensive care units. In all reported cases, the isolated Ad14 strain was found to be genetically identical.
The first death was that of a 12-day-old girl, born full-term and healthy, in New York in May 2006. Ad14 was isolated from postmortem swabs. No connection has been made between this case and cases in other states.
In February 2007, an outbreak of acute respiratory infections with fever was reported among trainees at Lackland Air Force Base (LAFB) in San Antonio. Of patients tested, 268 were positive for adenovirus. Of 118 serotyped patients, 106 (90%) were identified as Ad14. A total of 27 patients was hospitalized, one of whom, a nineteen-year-old Airman Basic, Paige Villers, died in the ICU..
Steadily declining numbers of cases continued to be reported at LAFB through November 2007, with only 39 positive for Ad14 that month. Cases have also been reported from three other Texas military bases, but no positive connection has been made with the cases at LAFB.
In early April 2007, 17 patients were reported to have been admitted at an Oregon hospital for severe pneumonia within the past month. Samples from 15 of these were positive for Ad14. The Oregon Public Health Division later identified samples from 31 patients from November 2006 to ? as positive for Ad14. Oregon reported a total of seven Ad14 deaths.
In the Washington cases, four cases of Ad14 infection were reported. All the patients were smokers between the ages of 40 and 62. Three suffered from lung disease and the fourth had AIDS; the latter patient later died.
Adiponectin receptor 1
Adiponectin receptor 1 (AdipoR1) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the ADIPOR1  gene. It is a member of the progestin and adipoQ receptor family (PAQR), and is also known as PAQR1.

# Structure
Similar to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), AdipoR1 also possesses 7 transmembrane domains. However, AdipoR1 is orientated oppositely to GPCRs in the membrane (i.e., cytoplasmic N-terminus, extracellular C-terminus) and does not associate with G proteins.

# Function
The adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, serve as receptors for globular and full-length adiponectin  and mediate increased AMPK and PPAR- ligand activities, as well as fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake by adiponectin. In 2016, the University of Tokyo announced it was launching an investigation into anonymously made claims of fabricated and falsified data on the identification of AdipoR1 and AdipoR2.

# Ligands

## Agonists

### Peptide
- Adiponectin
- ADP-355
- ADP-399

### Non-peptide
- AdipoRon
- ()-Arctigenin
- Arctiin
- Gramine
- Matairesinol

## Antagonists

### Peptide
- ADP-400
Adiponectin receptor 2
Adiponectin receptor 2 (AdipoR2) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the ADIPOR2 gene. It is a member of the progestin and adipoQ receptor (PAQR) family, and is also known as PAQR2.

# Structure
Similar to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), AdipoR2 also possesses 7 transmembrane domains.  However, AdipoR2 is orientated oppositely to GPCRs in the membrane (i.e., cytoplasmic N-terminus, extracellular C-terminus) and does not associate with G proteins.

# Function
The adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, serve as receptors for globular and full-length adiponectin  and mediate increased AMPK and PPAR- ligand activities, as well as fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake by adiponectin. In 2016, the University of Tokyo announced it was launching an investigation into anonymously made claims of fabricated and falsified data on the identification of AdipoR1 and AdipoR2.

# Ligands

## Agonists

### Peptide
- Adiponectin
- ADP-355
- ADP-399

### Non-peptide
- AdipoRon
- Deoxyschizandrin
- Parthenolide
- Syringing
- Taxifoliol

## Antagonists

### Peptide
- ADP-400
Adyar Cancer Institute

# Overview
Adyar Cancer Institute is a cancer specialty hospital situated in the city of Chennai, India.

# Foundation
Adyar Cancer Institute was started by Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy on June 18, 1954. Dr. Muthulakshmi was India's first female medical graduate and a prominent social reformer.

# Several firsts
The Institute's first break came on December 24, 1956, when Atomic Energy, Canada, gifted a Cobalt-60 Teletherapy unit (radiation therapy machine). It was the first such unit in Asia.
The Institute has several other firsts to its credit. They include:
- A department of Nuclear Medical Oncology in 1956;
- Paediatric oncology in 1960;
- Installing a linear accelerator in 1976;
- Introducing Blood Component Therapy in 1978;
- Introducing hypothermia treatment in 1984;
- Installing a ND-YAG Surgical Laser in 1985 and performing endoscopic laser surgery;
- The only institute where Intra-operative Electron Therapy is available since 1992.

# Present facilities
The Institute has a hospital, a research centre, a centre of preventive oncology, and a College of Oncology Sciences (a postgraduate college that conducts super-speciality courses in surgical oncology and medical oncology).
Its centre for preventive oncology has been working in conjunction with non-government organisations and government hospitals to conduct cancer screening camps and Pap smear tests at the district level and in various parts of the city.
The Institute's hereditary cancer clinic, the first in the country, is studying the genetic factors related to the disease.
The Tobacco Cessation Clinic has been helping people to fight various forms of tobacco consumption, which is the most common cause for cancer.
Annually, more than 95,000 to 100,000 patients from all parts of India visit the hospital; hardly 0.5% of whom are covered by health insurance. In fact, only 1520% of the population can afford treatment at private hospitals. The rest must depend on hospitals like the Adyar Cancer Institute or government hospitals, where treatment is either free or subsidised. The Institute has 428 beds, of which 297 are free. Last year alone saw nearly 100,000 patients, of which 60% received free treatment. The number of patients coming to the hospital has increased each year. Generally, 66% of them get free or subsidised treatment.

# Recognition
In 2005, Dr. V Shanta, honorary chairperson of the Cancer Institute, was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award.

# Links
Cancer Institute Home Page
Cancer Institute Donor Site
Alcohol detoxification
Alcohol detoxification, or 'detox', for individuals with alcohol dependence is the abrupt cessation of alcohol intake coupled with the substitution of alcohol with cross-tolerant drugs that have similar effects in order to prevent  alcohol withdrawal. Detoxification may or may not be necessary depending upon an individual's age, medical status, and history of alcohol intake. For example, a young man who binge drinks and seeks treatment one week after his last use of alcohol may not require detoxification before beginning treatment for alcoholism.  Benzodiazepines are the most common family of drugs used for this, followed by barbiturates.

# Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines such as diazepam (Valium), lorazepam (Ativan) or oxazepam (Serax) are the most commonly used drugs used to reduce alcohol withdrawal symptoms.  There are several treatment patterns in which it is used.
- The first option takes into consideration the varying degrees of tolerance. In it, a standard dose of the benzodiazepine is given every half hour until light sedation is reached. Once a baseline dose is determined, the medication is tapered over the ensuing 3-10 days.
- Another option is to give a standard dose of benzodiazepine based on history and adjust based on withdrawal phenomenon.
- A third option is to defer treatment until symptoms occur. This method should not be used in patients with prior alcohol related seizures. This has been effective in randomized controlled trials. A non-randomized, before and after, observational study found that symptom triggered therapy was advantageous.
Dosing of the benzodiazepines can be guided by the CIWA-Ar scale. The scale is available online.
Regarding the choice of benzodiazepine:
- Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) is the benzodiazepine of choice in uncomplicated alcohol withdrawal. 
- Lorazepam or diazepam are available parenterally for patients who cannot safely take medications by mouth.
- Lorazepam and oxazepam may be best in patients with cirrhosis (shorter half life).

# Sympatholytics
Randomized controlled trials have found benefit from atenolol and clonidine.

# Carbamazepine
A randomized controlled trial has found benefit from carbamazepine.

# Other drugs
Some hospitals administer alcohol to prevent alcohol withdrawal although there are potential problems with this practice.
Various vitamins, especially from the B group, are often used during withdrawal treatment.
Sodium oxybate is the sodium salt of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB).  It is used for both acute alcohol withdrawal and medium to long-term detoxification. This drug enhances GABA neurotransmission and reduces glutamate levels.  It is used in Italy in small amounts under the trade name Alcover.
Baclofen has been shown in animal studies and in small human studies to enhance detoxification. This drug acts as a GABA B receptor agonist and this may be beneficial.
Aldosterone antagonist
also see Congestive heart failure aldosterone antagonists

# Overview
Aldosterone antagonist refers to drugs which antagonise the action of aldosterone at mineralocorticoid receptors. This group of drugs is often used as adjunctive therapy, in combination with other drugs, for the management of chronic heart failure. Spironolactone, the first member of the class, is also used in the management of hyperaldosteronism (including Conn's syndrome) and female hirsutism.

# Mode of action
Aldosterone antagonists are, as the name suggests, receptor antagonists at the mineralocorticoid receptor. Antagonism of these receptors inhibits sodium resorption in the distal tubule of the nephron in the kidneys. This interferes with sodium/potassium exchange, reducing urinary potassium excretion and weakly increasing water excretion (diuresis). 
Their adjunctive use in congestive heart failure relates to their additive diuretic effect in combination with other drugs, reducing edema and decreasing the cardiac workload.

# Examples
Members of this class in clinical use include:
- Spironolactone
- Eplerenone

# Related Chapters
- Potassium-sparing diuretic
- ATC_code_C03#C03DA_Aldosterone_antagonists

# Resources
- Aldosterone+Antagonists at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
- Template:MeshPharmaList
Alesse-28 how supplied

# How supplied
Alesse-28 tablets (0.10 mg levonorgestrel and 0.02 mg ethinyl estradiol) are available in packages of 3 MINI-PACKTM dispensers of 28 tablets each, NDC 0008-2576-02, as follows:
- 21 active tablets, NDC 0008-0912, pink, round tablet marked W and 912.
- 7 inert tablets, NDC 0008-0650, light-green, round tablet marked W and 650.
Store at controlled room temperature 20 to 25C (68to 77F).
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.