Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Coronary venous anatomy

# Coronary Venography in CRT Implantation
After performing coronary venography the operator must then select the coronary vein tributary that will deliver the lead to a posterior and lateral location. Due to discrepancies between physicians in naming the branches of the coronary sinus and tributaries we rely on academic sources and journal reports for the correct nomenclature.

## Description of Anatomy
The coronary veins are described starting with the Anterior Interventicular Vein (AIV) which is defined as originating at the lower or middle third of the anterior interventricular groove.  It connects with Diagonal Veins (DV) supplying the lateral and anterolateral portion of the left ventricle.  It continues to run vertically and as it turns posterior at the AV groove and courses horizontally it becomes the Great Vein (GV). The Great Vein courses medial over the summit of the Left Ventricle.
The Great Cardiac vein becomes the coronary sinus (CS) at the Left Atrial Oblique Vein of Marshall (LAOV).  In cases were the LAOV is not present the Coronary Sinus begins at the valve of Vieussens.
The tributaries of the Coronary Sinus that originate off the lateral wall are referred to as Marginal Veins: These marginal veins are further defined by the location the veins empty into the Coronary Sinus in the LAO projection, such as the Anterolateral Marginal (AM), Lateral Marginal (LM), and Inferolateral Marginal (IM).  Since posterior is not an accepted in echocardiographic standards Inferolateral Marginal is used in naming the CS tributary here for consistency, but Posterolateral Marginal may be used.
The Posterior Ventricular Vein (PVV) drains the inferior (posterior) aspect of the Left Ventricle. The Posterior Ventricular Vein is often confused with the Posterolateral marginal vein due to the similar location.  The PVV is usually larger in caliber than the posterolateral marginal and sometimes drain into the Middle cardiac vein. The Middle Cardiac Vein (MCV) originates near the apex runs in the posterior interventricular groove and drains either directly into the rights atrium or into the Coronary Sinus just before it opens into the right atrium.
- Anterior View
- Posterior View

# Flouroscopic Views
Many cardiologists also prefer to use fluoroscopy for the identification of the location of the left ventricular lead tip after completion of the procedure. Since implantation of left ventricular leads occurs in the Electrophysiology lab with fluoroscopy we used fluoroscopic views to correspond with the short axis and long axis views of the heart. Using this method an accurate and consistent description of the location of the LV lead tip can be made at the time of implant and entered into the operative report rather than relying on the CXR for documentation of lead position. The RAO 30 projection is used to define the location of the left ventricle along the vertical axis of the heart dividing it into a basal, mid and apical third. The LAO 30 projection is used for the short axis views to define the circumferential location of the lead.
- RAO 30 View
- LAO 30 View
Corpus cavernosum penis
The corpus cavernosum penis is one of a pair of sponge-like regions of erectile tissue which contain most of the blood in the male penis during erection. There are corresponding structures and functions in the female clitoris. The term literally means "cave-like body" (plural: corpora cavernosa).
The corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum (also known as the corpus cavernosum urethrae in older texts and in the diagram to the right) are three expandable erectile tissues along the length of the penis which fill with blood during erection. The two corpora cavernosa lie along the penis shaft, from the pubic bones to the head of the penis, where they join. These formations are made of a sponge-like tissue containing irregular blood-filled spaces lined by endothelium and separated by connective tissue septa. The corpus spongiosum is one smaller region along the bottom of the penis, which contains the urethra and forms the glans penis.
In some circumstances, release of nitric oxide precedes relaxation of muscles in the corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum. The spongy tissue fills with blood, from arteries down the length of the penis. A little blood enters the corpus spongiosum; the remainder engorges the corpora cavernosa, which expand to hold 90% of the blood involved in an erection, increasing both in length and in diameter.   The function of the corpus spongiosum is to prevent compression of the urethra during erection.
Blood can leave the erectile tissue only through a drainage system of veins around the outside wall of the corpus cavernosum. The expanding spongy tissue presses against a surrounding dense tissue (tunica albuginea) constricting these veins, preventing blood from leaving. The penis becomes rigid as a result. The glans penis, the expanded cap of the corpus spongiosum, remains more malleable during erection because its tunica albuginea is much thinner than elsewhere in the penis.

# Additional images
- Structure of the penis
- The deeper branches of the internal pudendal artery.
- The penis in transverse section, showing the bloodvessels.
- Male pelvic organs seen from right side.
- Diagram of the arteries of the penis.
Propionibacterium acnes

# Overview
Propionibacterium acnes is a relatively slow growing, (typically) aerotolerant anaerobic gram positive bacterium that is linked to the skin condition acne; it can also cause chronic blepharitis and endophthalmitis, the latter particularly following intraocular surgery. The genome of the bacterium has been sequenced and a study of the bacterial genome has shown several genes that can generate enzymes for degrading skin and proteins that may be immunogenic (activate the immune system).
This bacteria is largely commensal and thus present on most people's skin; and lives on fatty acids in the sebaceous glands on sebum secreted by pores. It may also be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract in humans and many other animals. It is named after its ability to generate propionic acid.

# Role in disease
When a pore is blocked this anaerobic bacteria overgrows and secretes chemicals that break down the wall of the pore, spilling bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus into the skin, and 
forming an acne lesion (folliculitis).
It has also been found in corneal ulcers, and on very few occasions damaging heart valves leading to endocarditis, and infections of joints (septic arthritis) have been reported.

# Antibiotic sensitivity
P. acnes can be killed by benzoyl peroxide, tetracycline group and other antibiotics, and many antibacterial preparations. However, tetracycline-resistant P. acnes is now quite common. Clindamycin is also frequently used. New facts show,that P.acnes are sensitive to some macrolides such as Azithromycin, which has a wide spectrum of action. It is normally prescribed 500 mg by mouth, three times weekly for 4 to 6 weeks. Azithromycin exhibits post-antibiotic effect by concentrating in the lung tissue for approximately 5 days.Indeed some antibacterial cream or ointment should be used during the therapy, giving a good local effect. Another antibiotic is Nadifloxacin from the group of so called 4-fluoroquinolones (such as Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Levofloxacin). It has action against P. acnes and some other microorganisms that also take part of the poly-infection.

# Photosensitivity
P. acnes glows when exposed to Wood's lightbelieved to be due to the presence of endogenous porphyrins.
The bacteria is killed by ultraviolet light. P. acnes is also especially sensitive to light in the 405420 nm (near the ultraviolet) range due to an endogenic porphyrincoporphyrin III. A total irradiance of 320 J/cm^2 is found to inactivate this bacteria in vitro. This fact is used in phototherapy.
The photosensitivity can be enhanced by pretreatment with aminolevulinic acid which boosts production of this chemical, although this causes significant side-effects in humans.
Craniofacial prosthesis
Craniofacial Prostheses are made by either dental specialists trained in maxillofacial prosthodontics or individuals trained in anaplastology who medically help rehabilitate those suffering from facial defects caused by disease (mostly progressed forms of skin cancer, and head and neck cancer), trauma (outer ear trauma, eye trauma) or birth defects (microtia, anophthalmia).  The anaplastologist has the ability to replace almost any part of the face, but most commonly is the ear, nose or eye/eyelids.  An ocular prosthesis and hair prosthesis can also be classified as craniofacial prostheses.  Many of these are held in place by osseointegrated implants.
When surgical reconstruction is not ideal, craniofacial prosthetics are favored when they can better restore the form and function of the absent facial feature.  Craniofacial prosthetics are not considered as cosmetic because they replace the physical form and  functional mechanics of the absent anatomy and serve a significant role in the emotional stability and rehabilitation of those suffering from facial defects.
Surgeries which most often require prosthetic rehabilitation are:
- Rhinectomy - Surgical removal of nose (if part of the nose is removed it is called a partial rhinectomy.  For the entire nose it is called a total rhinectomy)
- Auriculectomy - Surgical removal of the ear
- Orbital exenteration - Surgical removal of the eye along with the eyelids and other structures
- Enucleation - Surgical removal of the eye,  but the eyelids and other structures are left in place
- Maxillectomy - Surgical removal of the upper jaw (maxilla) or the cheek bone, with or without orbital exenteration.  As the palate or the roof of the mouth is lost the person wears a device called an obturator.
The main reason for these above operations is cancer.
Craniopagus parasiticus
Craniopagus parasiticus is a medical condition in which a parasitic twin head with an undeveloped (or underdeveloped) body is attached to the head of a developed twin.

# Cases
There have only been ten documented cases of this phenomenon, though to-date there have been at least eighty separate cases of this phenomenon written about in various records . Only three ever have been documented by modern medicine to have survived birth.
- On December 10, 2003, Rebeca Martinez was born in the Dominican Republic with this rare condition. She was the first baby born with the condition to undergo an operation to remove the second head. She died on February 7, 2004, after an 11-hour operation.`
- On February 19, 2005, 10 month old Manar Maged underwent a successful 13-hour surgery in Egypt, but she died March 25, 2006 due to an infection in her brain. . Manar had been featured on an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show and in the British documentary series BodyShock.
- An earlier case was the so-called "Two-Headed Boy of Bengal," who was born in 1783 and died of a cobra bite in 1787. His skull remains in the collection of the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of London .

# Prognosis
Prognosis for craniopagus parasiticus is generally poor. As of 2007, only three cases are known to have survived childbirth. Everard Home described the first and longest-lived of these, the "Two-Headed Boy of Bengal", who survived until bitten by a cobra in 1787, at the age of four.  More recent cases have attracted considerable media attention as well as efforts to correct the condition through surgery.  An infant girl in the Dominican Republic died in 2004 from complications in surgery.  Egyptian doctors, having studied evidence of that operation, successfully removed the parasitic twin from an infant, named Manar Maged, in 2005; however, she succumbed to an infection the following year.  The twin removed in this case could smile, blink, cry, and tried to suckle  but never developed a body (except a small remnant), or lungs and heart, and instead was dependent on oxygen and nutrients provided by Manar. The case illustrates that there is a continuum from craniopagus parasiticus to the phenomenon of the conjoined twin.
Crossed extensor reflex
The crossed extensor reflex is a withdrawal reflex.
When the reflex occurs the flexors in the withdrawing limb contract and the extensors relax, while in the other limb the opposite occurs.
An example of this is when a person steps on a nail, the leg that is stepping on the nail pulls away, while the other leg takes the weight of the whole body.
Another example of a crossed extensor reflex is when someone violently grabs your arm, the arm that is grabbed retracts towards the body while the other arm moves towards the attacker for protection.
Crush syndrome overview

# Overview
Crush syndrome (also traumatic rhabdomyolysis is a medical condition characterized by major shock and renal failure after a crushing injury to skeletal muscle. Crush injury is compression of extremities or other parts of the body that causes muscle swelling and/or neurological disturbances in the affected areas of the body, while crush syndrome is localized crush injury with systemic manifestations.  Cases occur commonly in catastrophes such as earthquakes, to victims that have been trapped under fallen masonry.
Typically affected areas of the body include lower extremities (74%), upper extremities (10%), and trunk (9%). They typically are caused by building collapse from explosives, or earthquake and other natural disasters, or construction accidents. They also can be caused by cave-ins. Explosion-caused crush injury is quaternary blast injury.
Victims of crushing damage present some of the greatest challenges in field medicine, and may be among the few situations where a physician is needed in the field. The most drastic response to crushing under massive objects may be field amputation. Even if it is possible to extricate the patient without amputation, appropriate physiological preparation is mandatory: where permissive hypotension is the standard for prehospital care, fluid loading is the requirement in crush syndrome.
Cryptic species complex
In biology, a cryptic species complex is a group of species which satisfy the biological definition of species, that is, they are reproductively isolated from each other, but they are not morphologically distinguishable (or at least are not readily or reliably distinguishable on a morphological basis).
The individual species within the complex can usually only be separated using non-morphological data, such as from DNA sequence analysis, bioacoustics, or thorough life history studies. They can, but need not be, parapatric, quite often are sympatric, and sometimes allopatric.
Examples
- Gray-cheeked Thrush and Bicknell's Thrush
- tapaculos
- Two-barred Flasher (suspected)
A related concept is the superspecies. This is a group of at least two more or less distinctive species with approximately parapatric distributions. Not all cryptic species complexes are superspecies, and vice versa, but many are. A superspecies consisting of two sister species is called a species pair.
Examples:
- Puffinus puffinus group of shearwaters - not a superspecies, but the P. yelkouan group formerly contained therein  is indeed one.
- Phylloscopus collybita group of leaf warblers
- tapaculos
Evidence from the identification of cryptic species has led some to conclude that current estimates of global species richness are too low. For example, research published in January 2008 based on the mitochondrial DNA sequences of giraffes suggested that there are at least 11 genetically distinct populations in Africa. . Similar methods also found that the Amazonian frog Eleutherodactylus ockendeni is actually at least 3 different species that diverged over 5 million years ago. The authors concluded
Our research coupled with other studies suggests that species richness in the upper Amazon is drastically underestimated by current inventories based on morphospecies,
Cryptorchidism overview

# Overview
Cryptorchidism is the absence of one or both testes from the scrotum. This usually represents failure of the testis to move, or descend, during fetal development from an abdominal position, through the inguinal canal, into the ipsilateral scrotum. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis, making cryptorchidism the most common birth defect of male genitalia. However, most testes descend by the first year of life (the majority within three months), making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall.

# Historical Perspective
Cryptorchidism is derived from the Greek words "crypto" (meaning "hidden") and "orchid" (meaning "testicle"). During the last century, cryptorchidism was sometimes restricted to the subset of undescended testes that were not palpable above the scrotum or in the inguinal canal  those that were truly hidden in the abdomen or completely absent. In recent decades the distinction is no longer made in most contexts, and the two terms are used interchangeably. Cryptorchism is an older variant of the same term.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
There are usually no symptoms, except that the testicle cannot be found in the scrotum (this may be described as an empty scrotum).

## Physical Examination
The most common diagnostic dilemma in otherwise normal boys is distinguishing a retractile testis from a testis that will not/cannot descend spontaneously into the scrotum. Retractile testes are more common than truly undescended testes and do not need to be operated on. In normal males, as the cremaster muscle relaxes or contracts, the testis moves lower or higher ("retracts") in the scrotum. This cremasteric reflex is much more active in infant boys than older men. A retractile testis high in the scrotum can be difficult to distinguish from a position in the lower inguinal canal. Though there are various maneuvers used to do so, such as using a crosslegged position, soaping the examiner's fingers, or examining in a warm bath, the benefit of surgery in these cases can be a matter of clinical judgement.
Cryptosporidium hominis

# Overview
Cryptosporidium hominis, along with Cryptosporidium parvum, is among the medically important Cryptosporidium species to humans.  It is an obligate parasite that can colonize the gastrointestinal tract resulting in the gastroenteritis and diarrhea characteristic of cryptosporidiosis.   Unlike C. parvum, which has a rather broad host range, C. hominis is almost exclusively a parasite of humans.   As a result, C. hominis has a low zoonotic potential compared to C. parvum.   It is spread through the fecal-oral route usually by drinking water contaminated with oocyst laden feces. 

# Characteristics
C. hominis shares many similar characteristics with C. parvum including identical oocyst morphology and life-cycle.  As a result, C. hominis is most easily differentiated from C. parvum through genetic analysis at specific loci. 
In The Netherlands, C. hominis is responsible for an autumnal spike in cases of cryptosporidiosis, though reasons for this spike remain unclear. 

# Life cycle
The  life cycle of Cryptosporidium hominis is similar to that of others of the genus with infective sporozoites from ingested oocysts invading gut epithelium.  From there, they undergo merogony and generate merozoites which escape and can reinvade additional cells and form a secondary meront.  The secondary meront then releases secondary merozoites which reinvade and undergo gametogony forming micro and macrogametocytes.  The gametocytes can then fuse forming a zygote which starts the cycle again.

# Treatment
Though symptoms in most immunocompetent persons will resolve without treatment, Nitazoxanide has been approved for treatment of diarrhea resulting from cryptosporidiosis.  The effectiveness of Nitazoxanide in immunocompromised patients, however, is uncertain and current treatments revolve around boosting the host immune system to aid in symptom resolution.   Current avenues for treatment include scanning the Cryptosporidium hominis genome for possible targets for vaccine development. 

## Antimicrobial Regimen
- Cryptosporidium hominis Return to Top
- 1. Immunocompetent
- Preferred regimen: No specific therapy recommended since healthy patients usually recover within a few weeks, but if needed: Nitazoxanide 500 mg PO bid for 3 days.
- 2. HIV
- Preferred regimen: Nitazoxanide 500 mg PO bid for 3 days
- 3. HIV and Immunodeficiency
- Preferred regimen: Effective antiretroviral therapy
- Note: Nitazoxanide is not licensed for immunodeficient patients
Current density imaging
Current density imaging (CDI) is an extension of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), developed at the University of Toronto.
It employs two techniques for spatially mapping electrical current pathways through tissue:
- LF-CDI, low-frequency CDI, the original implementation developed at the University of Toronto. In this technique, low frequency (LF) electrical currents are injected into the tissue. These currents generate magnetic fields, which are then measured using MRI techniques. The current pathways are then computed and spatially mapped.
- RF-CDI, radio frequency CDI, a rotating frame of reference version of LF-CDI. This allows measurement of a single component of current density, without requiring subject rotation. The high frequency current that is injected into tissue also does not cause the muscle twitching often encountered using LF-CDI, allowing in-vivo measurements on human subjects.
Dichlorphenolindophenol
2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol, ( DCPIP ) is a blue chemical compound used as a redox dye. Oxidized DCPIP is blue, reduced DCPIP is colorless.
The rate of photosynthesis can be measured by the rate at which this dye is broken down (reduced) when exposed to light in a photosynthetic system.  This reaction is reversible, as colorless DCPIP can be reoxidized to blue. It is often used in measurements of the electron transport chain in plants because of its higher  for electrons than ferredoxin. For example, it is possible to compare rates of photosynthesis with DCPIP. Due to the reductions that occur during the light reactions, DCPIP can be substituted for NADPH, the final electron carrier in the light reactions. The light reactions will reduce the DPIP and turn it colorless. As DCPIP is reduced and becomes colorless, the following increase in light transmittance can be measured by a spectrophotometer.
The reduction of DCPIP

# DCPIP
DCPIP is a redox dye commonly used as a monitor of the light reactions in photosynthesis because it is an electron acceptor that is blue when oxidized and colourless when reduced.  DPIP is commonly used as a substitute for NADP+. The dye changes color when it is reduced, due to its chemical structure. The nitrogen atom in the center of the molecule is the atom that accepts electrons, and it changes the double N-C bond to a single bond, which forces bonds between carbons in the entire left ring to change. This microscopic shift in the DCPIP structure causes the macroscopic change in colour, from dark blue to colourless.
The rate of photosynthesis light-dependent reaction can be measured with this property of DCPIP, because one of the stages of the light reaction is an electron transport chain that normally ends with the reduction of NADP+. When DCPIP is present, it also gets reduced by the light reaction. The amount of DCPIP reduced can be found by measuring the solution's light transmittance with a spectrophotometer.
Using DCPIP to determine the concentration of ascorbic acid or Vitamin C in a solution.
DCPIP is commonly used as an indicator for Vitamin C. If vitamin C, which is a good reducing agent is present , the blue dye, which turns pink in acid conditions and is reduced to a colourless compound by ascorbic acid.
In a titration, when all the ascorbic acid in the solution has been used up, there will not be any electrons available to reduce the DCPIPH and the solution will remain pink due to the DCPIPH.  The end point is a pink colour that persists for 10 seconds or more.