Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Body cavity search
A body cavity search is either a visual search or a manual internal inspection of body cavities such as for prohibited material (contraband), such as illegal drugs, money, or weapons. It is far more invasive than the standard strip search that is typically performed on individuals taken into custody, either upon police arrest or incarceration at a jail, prison, or psychiatric hospital.  Often the procedure is repeated when the person leaves the institution. Body cavity searches may also be conducted by the United States Customs and Border Patrol when they suspect international travelers of hiding contraband - such as drugs - in their alimentary canal. 

# Visual vs. manual
Suspects and inmates can be highly creative in using their bodies to conceal contraband. For example, objects may be concealed by inserting them into the rectum.  Illegal drugs can be placed in condoms and temporarily stored in the colon.  Cylinders such as cigar tubes are used to hide money, intravenous syringes, and knives. Duplicate handcuff keys can be concealed in most body orifices.  These goods are considered valuable inside a prison and can pose a security risk to staff and inmates at such facilities.
Further, not all contraband flows into the prison.  In a thorough visual body cavity search, a flashlight is used to illuminate body orifices, including nostrils, ears, mouth, penis (urethra and foreskin) or vagina, and rectum.  Generally, the detainee is required to manipulate these body parts so that they can be examined.
During manual body cavity searches, body orifices are probed using fingers or instruments. Because of the risk of injury, most western authorities specify that these searches can only be done by medical professionals.  Further, the circumstance in which these inspections may be done is often restricted.  For example, they are done on individuals refusing to offer to consent to a visual body cavity search or in situations where there is strong evidence to suspect the presence of contraband.

# Legal standing
Inmates and human rights activists argue that body cavity searches are done not so much to stop the flow of contraband but rather to harass and humiliate detainees.  A visual inspection of the rectum will not reveal objects concealed deeply inside.  Likewise, it is possible to circumvent detection during manual body cavity searches. In some instances, suspects swallow packages of drugs protected by condoms and allow them to pass through their digestive tract.  Only diagnostic imaging will reveal the concealed contraband.
Because these searches are highly invasive and greatly compromise an individuals right of privacy, the legality of visual and manual body cavity searches is frequently contested.
In the United States, Bell v. Wolfish is the benchmark case on this issue.  In its judgment of the case, the U.S. Supreme Court established a standard of reasonable grounds for performing cavity searches. Among these are security concerns at prisons.
Bond dipole moment
The bond dipole moment is a measure for the polarity of a chemical bond  within a molecule.  The bond dipole  is given by:
The bond dipole is modeled as, +  - with a distance d between the partial charges + and -. It is a vector,  pointing from minus to plus, that is parallel to the bond.
Chemists generally measure electrical dipole moments in debyes, represented by the symbol D. The SI unit for dipole moment is the coulomb-meter (1 C m = 2.9979 1029 D), \delta is the amount of charge in coulombs, and d is in meters.
For a complete molecule the total molecular dipole moment may be approximated as the vector sum of individual bond dipole moments.
Often bond dipoles are obtained by the reverse process: a known  total dipole of a molecule can be decomposed into bond dipoles. The reason for doing this is the transfer of bond dipole moments to molecules that have the same bonds, but for which the total dipole moment is not yet known. The vector sum of the transferred bond dipoles gives an estimate for the total (unknown) dipole of the molecule.
The Bond Dipole is two atoms in a bond, such that the electronegativity of one atom changes and draws the electrons towards the other, causing a partial negative charge. There is an increase difference in polarity, and an increase in dipole.
Semicircular canal

# Overview
The semicircular canals are three half-circular, interconnected tubes located inside each ear that are the equivalent of three gyroscopes located in three orthogonal planes.
The vertical canals are positioned at an angle of about 100 degrees relative to one another, while the horizontal canal makes an angle of about 95 degrees with the posterior canal and an angle of about 110 degrees with the anterior canal. Deviations up to 10-15 degrees between individuals are normal. Because the angles between the canals are not perpendicular, movements of the head stimulate horizontal and vertical canals simultaneously.
The three canals are:
- Superior semicircular canal
- Posterior semicircular canal
- Horizontal semicircular canal
Each canal is filled with a fluid called endolymph and contains a motion sensor with little hairs (cilia) whose ends are embedded in a gelatinous structure called the cupula.
The Semicircular canals are a component of the Labyrinth.

# Additional images
- Transverse section of a human semicircular canal and duct
- Illustration of otolith organs
Brain stem gliomas
For patient information on this page, click here
Synonyms and keywords: Brainstem gliomata; brain stem glioma; brainstem glioma; brain stem gliomas; diffuse brainstem glioma; diffuse brainstem gliomas; diffuse brain stem glioma; diffuse brain stem gliomas; focal brainstem glioma; focal brain stem glioma; focal brainstem gliomas; focal brain stem gliomas; dorsal exophytic gliomas; dorsal exophytic glioma; cervicomedullary glioma; cervicomedullary gliomas

# Overview

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Brain Stem Gliomas from other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

# Diagnosis
History and Symptoms | Physical Examination | Laboratory Findings | X Ray | CT | MRI | Echocardiography or Ultrasound | Other Imaging Findings | Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment
Medical Therapy | Surgery | Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy | Future or Investigational Therapies

# Case Studies
Case #1

# Related chapters
- Glioma
Brain fag syndrome

# Overview
Brain fag syndrome (BFS) was described by RH Prince in 1960.  It was first discovered in Nigeria, describing high school and university students with symptoms including somatic, sleep-related and cognitive complaints, head and neck pains, difficulty in concentrating and retaining information, and eye pain. It is caused by excessive external pressure to be successful among the young.

# Classification
BFS is classified in the fourth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) as a culture-bound syndrome.  Individuals with symptoms of brain fag must be differentiated from those with the syndrome according to the Brain Fag Syndrome Scale (BFSS); Ola et al said it would not be "surpris if BFS was called an equivalent of either depression or anxiety".

# Causes
Morakinyo found in 20 persons with BFS an achievement drive that was anxiety-related that led to the use of psychostimulants and consequent sleep depriviation which contributed to cognitive disruption;  Omoluabi related BFS to test anxiety.

# Treatment
Anumonye reported treatment success with lorazepam; others found benefit with antidepressants and relaxation exercises.

# Epidemiology
BFS has been reported in other African cultures, and also in Brazil, Argentina, and Ethiopian Jews.   Historic higher reported prevalence among males may be due to more males being present in higher education in African countries.  Studies since the 1990s have not verified gender differences.  Other studies found a possible association with low socioeconomic status, an association with average or higher intelligence, and a high association with neuroticism.  Individuals with BFS have been found to have problems with isolation, poor study habits, and the use of psychostimulants as well as physical changes including in muscle tension and heart rate.

# History
Prince named the condition based on the term brain fag used by students who believed their symptoms were attributed to "brain fatigue". However, this term was used in the United States and Europe dating back to 1839
Locked-In syndrome
Synonyms and keywords: maladie de l'emmure vivant, closest thing to being buried alive; Cerebromedullospinal Disconnection; De-Efferented State; Pseudocoma; and ventral pontine syndrome.

# Overview
Locked-In syndrome is a condition in which a patient is aware and awake, but cannot move or communicate due to complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles in the body.  It is the result of a brain stem lesion in which the ventral part of the pons is damaged. The condition has been described as "the closest thing to being buried alive". In French, the common term is "maladie de l'emmure vivant", literally translated as walled-in alive disease. 

# Historical Perspective
The phrase "Locked-In syndrome" was created by Plum and Posner in 1966.

# Pathophysiology
Unlike persistent vegetative state, in which the upper portions of the brain are damaged and the lower portions are spared, locked-in syndrome is caused by damage to specific portions of the lower brain and brainstem with no damage to the upper brain.

# Causes
Possible causes of locked-in syndrome include:
- Traumatic brain injury
- Diseases of the circulatory system
- Medication overdose
- Damage to nerve cells, particularly destruction of the myelin sheath, caused by disease (e.g. central pontine myelinolysis secondary to overly rapid correction of hyponatremia).
- A stroke or brain hemorrhage

# Differentiating Locked-In Syndrome From Other Disorders
- Coma
- Unlike persistent vegetative state, in which the upper portions of the brain are damaged and the lower portions are spared, locked-in syndrome is caused by damage to specific portions of the lower brain and brainstem with no damage to the upper brain.

# Natural History, Complications, Prognosis
It is extremely rare for any significant motor function to return. The majority of locked-in syndrome patients do not regain motor control, but devices are available to help patients communicate.

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
Locked-in syndrome results in quadriplegia and inability to speak] in otherwise cognitively-intact individuals. Those with locked-in syndrome may be able to communicate with others by coding messages by blinking or moving their eyes, which are often not affected by the paralysis.
Patients who have locked-in syndrome are conscious and aware with no loss of cognitive function. They can sometimes retain proprioception and sensation throughout their body. Some patients may have the ability to move certain facial muscles, most often some or all of the extraocular eye muscles.

# Treatment
There is no standard treatment for Locked-In syndrome, nor is there a cure. Stimulation of muscle reflexes with electrodes (Neuromuscular stimulation) has been known to help patients regain some muscle function. Other courses of treatment are often symptomatic.
New direct brain interface mechanisms may provide future remedies.
Breast engorgement

# Overview
Breast engorgement occurs in the mammary glands when too much breast milk is contained within them.  It is caused by insufficient breastfeeding and/or blocked milk ducts.  When engorged the breasts may swell, throb, and cause mild to extreme pain.
Engorgement may lead to mastitis (inflammation of the breast) and untreated engorgement puts pressure on the milk ducts, often causing a plugged duct.  The woman will often feel a lump in one part of the breast, and the skin in that area may be red and/or warm.  If it continues unchecked, the plugged duct can become a breast infection, at which point she may have fever or flu-like symptoms.

# Treatment
Though it may seem natural to decrease breastfeeding, it is important to continue to reduce the levels of milk.  It is, in fact, generally beneficial to breastfeed very often to keep the breasts relatively empty (a lactating breast is never really empty).
Treatment for engorgement, plugged ducts, and infections all include frequent nursing to empty the breast.  Application of wet heat and gentle massage (from the part(s) of the breast that are engorged or lumpy towards the nipple) right before nursing often helps, as well.  Nursing with the baby's chin (the "moving part" of the baby's mouth) pointed towards the worst-affected part can also help clear it up.
If the problem has developed to the point of mastitis, care to eat and drink enough and well enough can help.  Bed rest and frequent nursing (no longer than 2 hours from the beginning of one feeding to the beginning of the next) are important.  An untreated (or ineffectively treated) breast infection can develop into a breast abscess, which may require surgical draining.  A breast infection that continues for more than 24 hours or gets severe should be reported to the woman's doctor; she may need antibiotics.
A very serious type of breast cancer called inflammatory breast cancer presents with similar signs/symptoms as mastitis - including a swollen breast. Inflammatory breast cancer has occurred in women who are breast feeding. It is the most aggressive type of breast cancer with the highest mortality rate, and it is usually not recognized via mammography or ultrasound.
Antibiotics are often prescribed for mastitis or a breast abscess. If the condition is not relieved after 2 weeks of antibiotic therapy, the physician should rule out inflammatory breast cancer.
Breusch-Pagan test

# Overview
In statistics, the Breusch-Pagan test is used to test for heteroskedasticity in a linear regression model.  It tests whether the estimated variance of the residuals from a regression are dependent on the values of the independent variables.
Suppose that we estimate the equation
y = x_0 + x_1\beta + u.\,
We can then estimate \hat{u}, the residual.  Ordinary least squares constrains these so that their mean is 0, so we can calculate the variance as the average squared values.  Even simpler is to simply regress the squared residuals on the independent variables, which is the Breusch-Pagan test:
\hat{u}^2 = x_0 + x_1\beta + v.\,
If an F-test confirms that the independent variables are jointly significant then we can reject the hypothesis of no heteroskedasticity.
The Breusch-Pagan test tests for conditional heteroskadicity.  It is a chi-squared test: the test statistic is  n2 with k degrees of freedom.  If the Breush-Pagan test shows that there is conditional heteroskadicity, it can be corrected by using the Hansen method, using robust standard errors, or re-thinking the regression equation.
Expressive aphasia

# Overview
Expressive aphasia, known as Broca's aphasia in clinical neuropsychology and agrammatic aphasia in cognitive neuropsychology, is an aphasia caused by damage to anterior regions of the brain, including (but not limited to) the left inferior frontal region known as Broca's area (Brodmann area 44 and Brodmann area 45).

# Presentation
Sufferers of this form of aphasia exhibit the common problem of agrammatism. For them, speech is difficult to initiate, non-fluent, labored, and halting. Intonation and stress patterns are deficient. Language is reduced to disjointed words and sentence construction is poor, omitting function words and inflections (bound morphemes). A person with expressive aphasia might say "Son ... University ... Smart ... Boy ... Good ... Good ... "
For example, in the following passage, a Broca's aphasic patient is trying to explain how he came to the hospital for dental surgery:
In extreme cases, patients may be only able to produce a single word. The most famous case of this was Paul Broca's patient Leborgne, nicknamed "Tan", after the only syllable he could say. Even in such cases, over-learned and rote-learned speech patterns may be retainedfor instance, some patients can count from one to ten, but cannot produce the same numbers in ordinary conversation.
While word comprehension is generally preserved, meaning interpretation dependent on syntax and phrase structure is substantially impaired.  This can be demonstrated by using phrases with unusual structures.  A typical Broca's aphasic patient will misinterpret "the dog is bitten by the man" by switching the subject and object.  Patients who recover go on to say that they knew what they wanted to say but could not express themselves. Residual deficits will often be seen.

# Classification and diagnosis
Expressive aphasia is also a classification of non-fluent aphasia, as opposed to fluent aphasia. Diagnosis is done on a case by case basis, as lesions often affect surrounding cortex and deficits are not well conserved between patients.
Brock Air Services
Brock Air Services is a Canadian charter and Medivac airline based in Kingston, Ontario.

# History
The airline was founded in 1978.

# Operations
Brock Air Services operates on-demand air charter services at Kingston Airport and Brockville Municipal Airport.
The airline provides air ambulance service under contract with Ornge (Ontario Air Ambulance).
The airline also manages the Brockville airport.

# Fleet
As of January 2006 the company operated:
- 1 Cessna 421
- 1 Cessna 172
Brownout (medical)
Synonyms and keywords: greying out; brown out; grey-out

# Overview
A brownout, or grey-out, is a transient loss of vision characterized by a perceived dimming of light accompanied by a brown hue and a loss of peripheral vision. It is a precursor to fainting or a blackout and is caused by hypoxia, a loss of blood pressure or restriction of blood flow to the brain. It is commonly experienced when suddenly standing up (see orthostatic hypotension), especially if sick, hungover, or suffering from low blood pressure or shock. Usually recovery is rapid and a brownout can be readily reversed by lying down.

# Causes
A brownout may be brought on intentionally, although inadvisedly, through hyperventilation, the process is described in the article the choking game under self-induced hypocapnia. Hyperventilation may also bring it about unintentionally as described in the article shallow water blackout.
A brownout, or grey-out, may also be experienced by aircraft pilots pulling high positive g-forces as when pulling up into a loop or a tight turn forcing blood to the lower extremities of the body and lowering blood pressure in the brain. This is the reverse of a redout, or a reddening of the vision, which is the result of negative G forces caused by performing an outside loop, that is by pushing the nose of the aircraft down. Redouts are potentially dangerous and can cause retinal damage and hemorrhagic stroke. Pilots of high performance aircraft can increase their resistance to brownout by using a G-suit, which controls the pooling of blood in the lower limbs but there is no suit yet capable of controlling a redout. In both cases symptoms may be remedied immediately by easing pressure on the joystick. Continued, or heavy G force will rapidly progress to g-LOC (G force induced Loss of Consciousness).
Another common occurrence of brownouts are in roller coaster riders. Many roller coasters put riders through high positive G forces, particularly in vertical loops and helices. Roller coasters rarely have high enough negative G forces to induce redouts, as most low-G elements are designed to simulate weightlessness.
Also, grey-out may occur after donating blood, resulting in a loss of blood pressure and insufficient blood reaching the brain.  However, the onset of such grey-outs is usually gradual and preventable by lying down so that the blood does not need to work against gravity to reach the brain.