Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Basophil granulocyte
Basophils are the least common of the granulocytes, representing about 0.01% to 0.3% of circulating leukocytes (white blood cells). They contain large cytoplasmic granules which obscure the cell nucleus under the microscope. However, when unstained, the nucleus is visible and it usually has 2 lobes. The mast cell, a cell in tissues, has many similar characteristics. For example, both cell types store histamine, a chemical that is secreted by the cells when stimulated in certain ways (histamine causes some of the symptoms of an allergic reaction). Like all circulating granulocytes, basophils can be recruited out of the blood into a tissue when needed.

# Secretions
When activated, basophils degranulate to release histamine, proteoglycans (e.g. heparin and chondroitin), and proteolytic enzymes  (e.g. elastase and lysophospholipase). They also secrete lipid mediators like leukotrienes, and several cytokines. Histamine and proteoglycans are pre-stored in the cell's granules while the other secreted substances are newly generated. Each of these substances contributes to inflammation. Recent evidence suggests that basophils are an important source of the cytokine, interleukin-4, perhaps more important than T cells. Interleukin-4 is considered one of the critical cytokines in the development of allergies and the production of IgE antibody by the immune system. There are other substances that can activate basophils to secrete which suggests that these cells have other roles in inflammation.
Basopenia (a low basophil count) is difficult to demonstrate as the normal basophil count is so low; it has been reported in association with autoimmune urticaria (a chronic itching condition). Basophilia is also uncommon but may be seen in some forms of leukaemia or lymphoma.
Magnesium salicylate
Magnesium salicylate is a common analgesic and Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to treat mild to moderate muscular pain.  It is also used to treat headaches, general back pain, and certain joint pains like arthritis.
It is found in a variety of over-the-counter (OTC) medications as an anti-inflammatory, primarily for back-pain relief.  Magnesium salicylate can be an effective OTC alternative to prescription NSAIDs, with both anti-inflamatory and pain-relieving effects.
Though the recommended dosage is 1160 mg every six hours, per package directions of the Doan's OTC brand (580 mg magnesium salicylate tetrahydrate, equivalent to 934.4 mg anhydrous magnesium salicylate), effective pain relief is often found with a half dosage, with reduced anti-inflammatory results.
Magnesium salicylate is also found in Pamprin, a Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) medication.

# Brand Names
- Doan's, Original (OTC)
- Extra Strength Doan's (OTC)
- Momentum (OTC)
- Arthriten (OTC)
- Keygesic-10 (Rx)
- Mobidin (Rx)
- Novasal (Rx)
Emergency Ultrasound

# Introduction
Emergency Ultrasound is the use of portable ultrasound at the bedside of patients in the emergency department to diagnose, guide treatment, and facilitate procedures.  In North America patients typically travel to a radiology suite adjacent to the Emergency Department for diagnostic radiology tests including ultrasound.  In the diagnositic suite the study is performed by a technician and then interpreted by a radiologist or other specialist.  Emergency Ultrasound (EUS, also known as bedside ultrasound) differs from the conventional paradigm for medical imaging in that the study is performed and interpreted contemporaneously by the emergency physician at the bedside of the patient in the Emergency Department.  The primary advantage of this approach is a more rapid diagnosis and expedited treatment for emergent conditions.  The major drawback is that studies are typically more limited due to the more limited imaging and interpretive skill set of emergency physicians.

# FAST Scan
The FAST scan consist of scanning four areas:
1) Subxiphoid - to visualize the heart.
2) Right upper quadrant (RUQ) - to visualize Morrison's pouch and paracolic gutter.
3) Left upper quadrant (LUQ) - to visualize the spleeno-renal recess and paracolic gutter.
4) Suprapubic - to visualize Douglas' pouch.
Behavioral neurology

# Overview
Behavioral neurology is a subspecialty of neurology that studies the neurological basis of behavior, memory, and cognition, the impact of neurological damage and disease upon these functions, and the treatment thereof.  Two fields associated with behavioral neurology are neuropsychiatry and neuropsychology.

# Historical Perspective
While descriptions of behavioral syndromes go back to the ancient Greeks and Egyptians, it was during the 19th century that behavioral neurology began to arise, first with the primitive localization theories of Franz Gall, followed in the mid 19th century by the first localizations in aphasias by Paul Broca and then Carl Wernicke.  Localizationist neurology and clinical descriptions reached a peak in the late 19th and early 20th century, with work extending into the clinical descriptions of dementias by Alois Alzheimer and Arnold Pick.  The work of Karl Lashley in rats for a time in the early to mid 20th century put a damper on localization theory and lesion models of behavioral function.  In the United States, the work of Norman Geschwind led to a renaissance of behavioral neurology.  Geschwind is famous for his work on disconnection syndromes and his legacy lives on through the generations of behavioral neurologists trained by Dr. Geschwind and his former fellows.  The advent of in vivo neuroimaging starting in the 1980s led to a further strengthing of interest in the cognitive neurosciences and provided a tool that allowed for lesion, structural, and functional correlations with behavioral dysfunction in living people.

# Classification
Syndromes and diseases commonly studied by behavioral neurology include but are not limited to:
- Agraphia
- Agnosias
- Agraphesthesia
- Alexia
- Amnesias
- Anosognosia
- Aphasias
- Apraxias
- Aprosodias
- Dementias
- Dyslexias
- Epilepsy
- Hemispatial Neglect
- Stroke
- Traumatic Brain Injury
BerryEsseen theorem
The central limit theorem in probability theory and statistics states that under certain circumstances the sample mean, considered as a random quantity, becomes more normally distributed as the sample size is increased. The BerryEsseen theorem, also known as the BerryEsseen inequality, attempts to quantify the rate at which this convergence to normality takes place.
Statements of the theorem vary, as it was independently discovered by two mathematicians, Andrew C. Berry (in 1941) and Carl-Gustav Esseen (1942), who then, along with other authors, refined it repeatedly over subsequent decades.
One version, sacrificing generality somewhat for the sake of clarity, is the following:
That is: given a sequence of Independent identically-distributed random variables, each having mean zero and positive variance, if additionally the third absolute moment is finite, then the cumulative distribution functions of the standardized sample mean and the standard normal distribution differ (vertically, on a graph) by no more than the specified amount.  Note that the rate of convergence is on the order of n1/2.
Calculated values of the constant C have decreased markedly over the years, from 7.59 (Esseen's original bound) to 0.7975 in 1972 (by P. van Beeck).  The best current bound is 0.7655 (by I. S. Shiganov in 1986).
Beta-2 microglobulin
2 microglobulin also known as B2M is a component of  MHC class I molecules, MHC class I molecules have 1, 2, and 3 proteins which are present on all nucleated cells (excludes red blood cells).  In humans, the 2 microglobulin protein is encoded by the B2M gene.

# Structure and function
2 microglobulin lies beside the 3 chain on the cell surface. Unlike 3, 2 has no transmembrane region. Directly above 2 (that is, further away from the cell) lies the 1 chain, which itself is next to the 2.
2 microglobulin associates not only with the alpha chain of MHC class I molecules, but also with class I-like molecules such as CD1 and Qa.
An additional function is association with the HFE protein, together regulating the expression of hepcidin in the liver which targets the iron transporter ferroportin on the cytoplasmic membrane of enterocytes and macrophages for degradation resulting in increased iron uptake from food and decreased iron release from recycled red blood cells in the MPS (mononuclear phagocyte system) respectively. Loss of this function causes iron excess and hemochromatosis.
Mice models deficient for the 2 microglobulin gene have been engineered. These mice demonstrate that 2 microglobulin is necessary for cell surface expression of MHC class I and stability of the peptide binding groove. In fact, in the absence of 2 microglobulin, very limited amounts of MHC class I (classical and non-classical) molecules can be detected on the surface. In the absence of MHC class I, CD8 T cells cannot develop. (CD8 T cells are a subset of T cells involved in the development of acquired immunity.)

# Clinical significance
In patients on long-term hemodialysis, it can aggregate into amyloid fibers that deposit in joint spaces, a disease, known as dialysis-related amyloidosis.
Low levels of 2 microglobulin can indicate non-progression of HIV.
Levels of  2 microglobulin can be elevated in multiple myeloma and lymphoma, though in these cases primary amyloidosis (amyloid light chain) and secondary amyloidosis (amyloid associated protein) are more common. The normal value of  2 microglobulin is 4 mg/L has a median survival of only 12 months.  2 microglobulin levels cannot, however, distinguish between monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS), which has a better prognosis, and smouldering (low grade) myeloma.
Loss-of-function mutations in this gene have been reported in cancer patients unresponsive to immunotherapies.
Binswanger's disease
Synonyms and keywords: Subcortical leukoencephalopathy; progressive vascular leukoencephalopathy; subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy

# Overview
Binswanger's disease is a rare form of multi-infarct dementia caused by damage to deep white brain matter. It is characterized by memory loss and intellectual function and by changes in mood.  It is associated with longstanding hypertension.

# Pathophysiology
The histologic findings are diffuse, irregular loss of axons and myelin accompanied by widespread gliosis. Small infarcts may be seen in the frontal lobes. The pathologic mechanism may be damage caused by severe atherosclerosis.
A patient with long term severe hypertension develops progressive dementia.

# Risk Factors
Hypertension

# Diagnosis

## CT
CT scans of the head demonstrates a diffuse loss of deep hemispheric white matter.

# Treatment
Binswanger's disease has no known treatment, let alone cure, although drugs used to treat high blood pressure, depression, arrhythmia and low blood pressure are used to treat the condition's symptoms.
Biological detergent
A biological detergent is a detergent used for washing clothing that contains enzymes. The description is commonly used in the United Kingdom, where other washing detergents are described as "non-biological". The terms are sometimes abbreviated to bio and "non-bio".
The purposes of the enzymes is to break down protein, starches and fat that may be found in dirt and stains upon clothing to be laundered, for example food stains, sweat or mud.
Some people may be allergic to the enzymes. The selling points of non-biological detergents is that they are gentler, causing less irritation to skin ("kinder on the skin") and less damage to the fabric. Some studies refute the claim that non-biological detergents are gentler.
Bis(benzene)chromium
Bis(benzene)chromium is the chemical compound with the formula Cr(6-C6H6)2.  It is sometimes called dibenzenechromium. The compound played an important historic role in the development of sandwich compounds in organometallic chemistry and is the prototypical complex of two arene ligands.

# Preparation
It was first prepared by Hafner and Fischer by the reaction of CrCl3, aluminium and benzene, in the presence of AlCl3. This so-called reductive Friedel-Crafts method was pioneered by E.O. Fischer and his students.  The product of the reaction was yellow +, which was then reduced to the neutral complex.  Slightly idealized equations for the synthesis are:
Compounds closely related to + had been prepared many years before Fischer's work by Franz Hein by the reaction of phenylmagnesium bromide and CrCl3.  Hein's reaction affords cationic sandwich complexes containing bi- and terphenyl, which baffled chemists until the breakthrough by Fischer and Hafner, and thus Hein had unknowingly discovered sandwich complexes a half century ahead of the work on ferrocene.  Fischer and Seus soon prepared Hein's +.. Illustrating the rapid pace of this research, the same issue of Chem. Ber. also describes the Mo(0) complex.

# Reactions
The compound reacts with carboxylic acids to give chromium(II) carboxylates, such as chromium(II) acetate, which have interesting structures.  Oxidation affords +.
The compound finds limited use in organic synthesis.
The substance is air sensitive and is handled using air-free techniques.
Pulmonary hemorrhage

# Overview
Pulmonary hemorrhage (or "pulmonary haemorrhage") refers to bleeding from the lung.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

## Drug Induced
- Rasburicase

# Differentiating Pulmonary hemorrhage from Other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

# Diagnosis

# =History and Symptoms

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging
- Chest X-ray Patient#1 Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Chest X-ray Patient#1 Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Patient#2 Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Patient#2 Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Iatrogenic pulmonary hemorrhage from lung biopsy Patient#3 Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Iatrogenic pulmonary hemorrhage from lung biopsy Patient#3 Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Iatrogenic pulmonary hemorrhage from lung biopsy Patient#3 Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted

# Treatment

## Surgery

## Medical Therapy

## Primary Prevention

## Secondary Prevention
Blunt splenic trauma

# Overview
Since the 1990s, the management of blunt splenic trauma injuries has changed significantly. In the past, routine splenectomy was the mainstay for both evaluation and treatment of most splenic injuries. With new research and new technology, the routine splenectomy is no longer policy. For the majority of cases, a switch to nonoperative management is now preferred.

# Diagnosis
A CT scan grading criteria was created to identify the need for intervention (surgery or embolization) in patients with splenic injury. The criteria were established using 20 CT scans from a database of hemodynamically stable patients with blunt splenic injury. These criteria were then validated in 56 consecutive patients retrospectively and appear to reliably predict the need for invasive management in patients with blunt injury to the spleen (sensitivity of 100%, specificity 88%, overall accuracy was 93%).
The study suggested that the following three CT findings correlate with the need for intervention:
- Devascularization or laceration involving 50% or more of the splenic parenchyma
- Contrast blush greater than one centimeter in diameter (from active extravasation of IV contrast or pseudoaneurysm formation
- A large hemoperitoneum.
- Splenic laceration Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Splenic laceration Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- Splenic laceration Image courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted

# Treatment
A recent retrospective review of 648 patients admitted with the diagnosis of blunt splenic injury to a Level I trauma center reported that splenic embolization has offered increased use of nonoperative management and higher salvage rates for American Association for the Surgery of Trauma splenic injury grades when compared with prior studies.
Board review project
For the Cardiology Board Review Project, click here.

# Overview
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# Statement of Need
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# How Can WikiDoc Meet Those Needs?
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- Provide a robust resource for medical students and graduates preparing for the boards
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# How Can You Help WikiDoc Meet Those Needs?
- WikiDoc encourages medical students, interns, residents, fellows, and attending level faculty members to submit board review questions.
- The WikiDoc Board Review Team meets every Monday at 10:30 AM in the Longwood Medical Area.  The meeting is led by Will Gibson, an M.D., Ph.D. candidate from Harvard Medical School.  For more details, you can send an email to willjgibson@gmail.com.
Body plethysmography
Body plethysmography is a method of obtaining the absolute volume of air within one's lungs. It is used in situations where several repeated trials are required or where the patient is unable to perform the multibreath tests.
The patient is enclosed in an airtight chamber often referred to as a body box; a pneumotachometer is used to measure airflow while a mouth pressure transducer with a shutter measures the alveolar pressure. The most common measurements made using body plethysmographs are thoracic gas volume (VTG) and airway resistance (RAW). This test is used mainly in the Pulmonary Function Testing laboratories.
Using body plethysmography, doctors can examine the lungs' resistance to airflow, distinguish between restrictive and obstructive lung diseases, determine the response to bronchodilators, and determine bronchial hyperreactivity in response to metacholine, histamine, or isocapnic hyperventilation.

# Flow and Pressure Plethysmographs
There are two types of plethysmographs: flow and pressure. In flow plethysmography, airway resistance is measured by two maneuvers. The patient first pants while the mouth shutter is open to allow flow changes to be measured. Then, the mouth shutter closes at the patient's end expiratory or FRC level and the patient continues panting while maintaining an open glottis. This provides a measure of the driving pressure used to move air into the lungs.
Pressure plethysmographs are usually measured at the end-expiratory level and are then equal to FRC. The patient sits in the box, which has the pressure transducer in the wall of the device, and breathes through a mouthpiece connected to a device that contains an electronic shutter and a differential pressure pneumotachometer. The mouth pressure and box pressure changes that are measured during tidal breathing and panting maneuvers which are performed during the test by the patient at the end of expiration are sent to a microprocessor unit that calculates thoracic gas volume.
Bone decalcification
Bone decalcification is the removal of calcium ions from the bone through histological process thereby making the bone flexible and easy for pathological investigation.
This is necessary in order to obtain soft sections of the bone using the microtome. Every thin section cut can be processed like any other soft tissue of the body. It should be noted that calcium ions found in the bones are responsible for its rigid posture, no wonder people suffering from diseases like osteomalacia and rickets have an unusually low amounts of calcium ions in their bones thereby rendering their bones flexible and most times unable to carry their body weight.
To prevent any of the bone diseases, eat/ drink foods high in calcium.
Bordetella pertussis

# Overview
Bordetella pertussis is a Gram-negative, aerobic, non-motile, non-spore-forming coccobacillus. It is the pathogen responsible for pertussis (whooping cough). Unlike B. bronchiseptica, B. pertussis is not motile. Humans are the only known reservoir for B. pertussis. The lipopolysaccharide-containing outer membrane of B. pertussis is unique and contains a different phosphate composition from other bacterial outer membranes.

# Bodetella pertussis

## Higher Order Taxa
- Kingdom: Bacteria
- Phylum: Proteobacteria
- Class: Betaproteobacteria
- Order: Burkholderiales
- Family: Alcaligenaceae
- Genus: Bordetella
- Species: B. pertussis

## Genome
- The genome of B. pertussis consists of 1 circular chromosome and plasmids.
- The circular chromosome contains 3867 genes and 4,086,189 nucleotides.
- The IncP-1 beta plasmid pBP136 carries 46 ORFs and contains 41,268 bp nucleotides.

## Structure
- B. pertussis is a Gram-negative, aerobic, non-spore forming coccobacillus.
- Compared with Bordetella bronchiseptica, B. pertussis is non-motile.
- It contains an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a periplasmic space between the 2 membranes.
- The rough lipopolysaccharide on the outer membrane (also called lipooligosaccharide) contains a phosphate composition (containing lipid X) that is different from other bacterial lipopolysaccharides (containing lipid A). The B. pertussis outer membrane is thus a distinguishing feature of B. pertussis.
Borrelia recurrentis

# Overview
Borrelia recurrentis is a species of Borrelia, a spirochaete bacterium associated with relapsing fever. B. recurrentis is usually transmitted from person to person by the human body louse. Since the 1800s, the body louse has been known as its only known vector.
B. recurrentis DNA was found in 23% of head lice from patients with louse-borne relapsing fever in Ethiopia. Whether head lice can transmit these bacteria from one person to another remains to be determined. 
It is notable for its ability to alter the proteins expressed on its surface. This is what causes the "relapsing" characteristic of relapsing fever.
Brachiocephalic vein

# Overview
The left and right brachiocephalic veins (or innominate veins) in the upper chest are formed by the union of each corresponding internal jugular vein and subclavian vein.
These great vessels merge to form the superior vena cava.
The brachiocephalic veins are the major veins returning blood to the superior vena cava.

# Additional images
- Diagram showing completion of development of the parietal veins.
- Front view of heart and lungs.
- The fascia and middle thyroid veins.
- The brachiocephalic veins, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, azygos vein and their tributaries.