Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Gymnopilus luteofolius
Gymnopilus luteofolius, also known as Yellow-Gilled Gymnopilus is a large and widely distributed mushroom which grows in dense clusters on dead hardwoods and conifers.  It has a rusty orange spore print and a bitter taste.  It contains the hallucinogen psilocybin.
In Japan this mushroom is called waraitake, which translates to "laughing mushroom".  This mushroom is often mistaken for Gymnopilus ventricosus, which contains no psilocybin.

# Description
The cap ranges from 7 to 42 cm across, is convex, and is bright orange, orangish brown, or reddish brown with a dry scaly surface.  The cap margin is inrolled well into maturity.   The flesh is yellow and the gills are crowded, yellow to orange, and adnate to subdecurrent.  The stem is dusted with rusty orange spores and has a cottony partial veil, and often narrows near the base.
Human Coronavirus NL63

# Overview
Human Coronavirus NL63 is a virus that was identified in 2003 in a child with bronchiolitis in the Netherlands.
Recent reports from several countries (Australia, Japan, Canada and Belgium) indicate that the virus has spread worldwide. The virus is found mainly in young children, elderly and immunocompromised patients with acute respiratory illness during the winter season.
Recent data suggest an association of HCoV-NL63 infection with Kawasaki disease, a systemic vasculitis in childhood that may result in aneurysms of the coronary arteries. In the developed world, Kawasaki disease is the most common cause of acquired heart disease in children. Further analysis of HCoV-NL63 pathogenicity seems warranted, in particular because of recent evidence that this virus uses the same cellular receptor as SARS-CoV (ACE2).
High grade astrocytoma

# Overview
- Astrocytoma is a primary intracranial tumor. They may arise in the cerebral hemispheres, in the posterior fossa, in the optic nerve, and rarely, the spinal cord. It originates in a particular kind of glial-cells, star-shaped brain cells in the cerebrum called astrocytes. This type of tumor does not usually spread outside the brain and spinal cord and it does not usually affect other organs. Astrocytoma is the most common glioma and can occur in most parts of the brain and occasionally in the spinal cord. To know more about astrocytoma, click here.
- Astrocytoma is classified broadly into low-grade and high-grade astrocytoma. To know more about low-grade astrocytoma, click here.
- High-grade astrocytoma is classified into two subtypes, and they are as follows:
Hamulus of hamate bone
The volar surface of the hamate bone presents, at its lower and ulnar side, a curved, hook-like process, the hamulus, directed forward and lateralward.
This process gives attachment, by its apex, to the transverse carpal ligament and the Flexor carpi ulnaris; by its medial surface to the Flexor digiti minimi brevis and Opponens digiti quinti; its lateral side is grooved for the passage of the Flexor tendons into the palm of the hand.
It is one of the four eminences on the front of the carpus to which the transverse carpal ligament of the wrist is attached; the others being the pisiform medially, the oblique ridge of the greater multangular and the tubercle of the navicular laterally.
Haplogroup I1a (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup I1a (M253, M307, P30, P40) is a Y-chromosome haplogroup occurring at greatest frequency in Scandinavia. It displays a very clear frequency gradient, with a peak frequency of approximately 35% among the populations of southern Norway, southwestern Sweden, and Denmark, and rapidly decreasing frequencies toward the edges of the historically Germanic-influenced world. Bryan Sykes in his book Blood of the Isles & his other book Saxons, Vikings & Celts gives the populations associated with I1a the name of the nordic deity Wodan for a clan patriarch, much as he did for mitochondrial haplogroups in his work The Seven Daughters of Eve.
Outside Fennoscandia, distribution of Haplogroup I1a is closely correlated with that of Haplogroup I1b2; but among Scandinavians (including both Germanic and Uralic peoples of the region) nearly all the Haplogroup I Y-chromosomes are I1a.  It is conjectured that this shared ancestral population of I1a and I2b, distinct from I1b1*, may have weathered the last ice age in a refuge located somewhere in the Iberian Peninsula or southern France, or perhaps the Italian Peninsula; after the end of the ice age, some of them headed northward and repopulated Northwest Europe and Scandinavia. This population appears to have carried haplogroups I1a and I1b2 at significant frequencies, with a numerical superiority of Haplogroup I1a. Their descendants are primarily found among the Germanic populations of Northern Europe and the bordering Uralic and Celtic populations. Although even in traditionally Germanic demographics, the carriers of I1a are often overshadowed by the more prevalent carriers of Haplogroup R.
When SNPs are unknown or untested, haplogroup I1a can be predicted correctly with a very high rate of accuracy as having 8 allele repeats at DYS 455. The said value of which is nearly exclusive & ubiquitous to the I1a haplogroup, with only a very few having a 7, 9 or otherwise different STR value at that marker.

# Modal haplotypes of I1a
Professor Ken Nordtvedt has given the following 'modal haplotypes' within the I1a haplogroup according to examples found in I1a populations.
I1a Anglo-Saxon (I1a-AS) Has its peak gradient in the Germanic lowland countries: north Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, as well as the British Isles & old Norman regions of France.
I1a Norse (I1a-N) Has its peak gradient in Sweden.
I1a Norse-Bothnia (I1a-N-Finn) Has its peak gradient in Finland.
I1a Ultra-Norse Type 1 (I1a-uN1) Has its peak gradient in Norway.

# Technical specification of mutation
The technical details of M253 are:

# Subclades
- I1a (M253, M307, P30, P40, S62, S63, S64, S65, S66)
I1a*
I1a1 (M227) formerly I1a4
I1a1a (M72) formerly I1a3
I1a2 (M21)
- I1a*
- I1a1 (M227) formerly I1a4
I1a1a (M72) formerly I1a3
- I1a1a (M72) formerly I1a3
- I1a2 (M21)

# Relationship to other haplogroups

# Famous individuals in Y-Haplogroup I1a
Alexander Hamilton, through genealogy and the testing of his descendants, has been placed within Y-DNA haplogroup I1a..
Healthcare in Scotland
Healthcare in Scotland is mainly provided by Scotland's public health service, NHS Scotland, that provides healthcare to all UK permanent residents that is free at the point of need and paid for from general taxation. Since 'Health' is a matter that is devolved, considerable differences are now developing between the public healthcare systems in the different countries of the United Kingdom. Though the public system dominates healthcare provision, private health care and a wide variety of alternative and complementary treatments are available for those willing to pay.
Accessing NHS Scotland comes initially through a primary care trust.  This means registering with a local doctor, known as a general practitioner (GP), and dentist. Access to secondary care - provision in hospitals or clinics - is usually by referral from a GP. Both primary and secondary care trusts operate under 14 health board regions which together makes up NHS Scotland.

# Public Healthcare
The National Health Service (NHS) in Scotland was created in 1948 at the same time as the NHS was created for England and Wales. It remains a separate body from the other public health systems in the UK although this is often not realised by patients when "cross-border" or emergency care is involved due to the level of co-operation and co-ordination. In 2006, the NHS in Scotland had around 158,000 staff including more than 47,500 nurses, midwives and health visitors and over 3,800 consultants. In addition, there are also more than 12,000 doctors, family practitioners and allied health professionals, including dentists, opticians and community pharmacists, who operate as independent contractors providing a range of services within the NHS in return for fees and allowances.
Healthcare policy and funding is the responsibility of the Scottish Government's Health and Wellbeing Directorate.  The current Cabinet Secretary for Health and Wellbeing is Nicola Sturgeon and the Director-General (DG) Health and Chief Executive, NHS Scotland is Dr Kevin Woods.
Hearing Voices Network

# Overview
The Hearing Voices Network is a self-help user-run organization for people who 'hear voices'. Although members may have a psychiatric diagnosis, the group promotes an alternative approach, where voices are not necessarily seen as signs of mental illness.
They argue that since some people can lead a valuable and productive existence while hearing voices, the largely drug-based and potentially coercive treatment of mainstream medicine might do more harm than good in people who can otherwise function adequately.
It was founded in 1989 in Manchester by five mental health workers, but has somewhat distanced itself from the psychiatric profession through its alternative philosophy. The general approach of the network is shared with other groups around the world, which are often grouped as the 'Hearing Voices Movement'.
Dutch psychiatrist Marius Romme, the co-author of Accepting Voices, has provided an intellectual basis for this group. He advocates a view that the hearing of voices is not necessarily an indication of mental illness, and that patients should be encouraged to explore their voices and negotiate with them.
Heart protection study

# Objective
The Heart Protection Study is a large randomized controlled trial by the Medical Research Council (MRC) and the British Heart Foundation (BHF) in the United Kingdom. It studies the use of statin (simvastatin 40 mg) medication and vitamin supplementation (vitamin E, vitamin C and beta carotene) in patients that are at risk for cardiovascular disease.

# Methods
20,536 patients with history of coronary artery disease, peripheral arterial disease or diabetes, were randomly allocated to receive either simvastatin (40 mg daily) or a placebo. These patients were followed up over a period of 5 years for occurrence of any fatal or non- fatal events, along with incidence of cancer and other causes of major mortality.

# Results
The results of this study are tabulated as follows:
- All cause mortality significantly reduced in the simvastatin group compared to the placebo group. A highly significant proportional reduction in the coronary death rate, marginally significant reduction in other vascular deaths and a non-significant reduction in non-vascular deaths was noted in the simvastatin group.
- A highly significant reduction in first event rate for non-fatal/fatal myocardial infarction or coronary death, non-fatal/fatal stroke, and for coronary/non-coronary revascularization was noted in the simvastatin group compared to the placebo group.
- This reduction in first event rate was not significant in the first year, whereas found to be highly significant in subsequent years during each separate year.
- The annual excess risk of myopathy with simvastatin 40 mg daily was about 0.01 %.

# Interpretation
The HPS is to date the largest study to investigate the use of statins in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. While there have been concerns about side-effects (myopathy and rhabdomyolysis), these were very rare in the study.
The number needed to treat in the study was 57 to prevent all deaths, and 19 to prevent all cardiovascular "events". Cancer risk was nonsignificantly lower in the treatment group (this has been the subject of other studies). No worsening of lung disease was found, an initial concern with statin drugs, but neither did simvastatin decrease osteoporosis (although it was expected to due to its pharmacological parallels with the antiosteoporotic bisphosphonates).

# Conclusion
Long term treatment with simvastatin in addition to the existing treatment protocols safely gives an additional benefit to a wide range of high risk patients by reducing mortality.
Heart rate variability
Overview
Heart rate variability (HRV) is a measure of variations in the heart rate. It is usually calculated by analysing the time series of beat-to-beat intervals from ECG or arterial pressure tracings.
Various measures of heart rate variability have been proposed, which can roughly be subdivided into time domain, frequency domain and phase domain measures. HRV is regarded by some as an indicator of the activity of autonomic regulation of circulatory function, although this is an area of some controversy. Alteration (mostly reduction) of HRV has been reported to be associated with various pathologic conditions like hypertension, hemorrhagic shock, and septic shock. It has found its role as a predictor of mortality after an acute myocardial infarction.
Supplementing with fish oil may increase heart rate variability.

# Time domain
A simple example of a time domain measure is the calculation of the standard deviation of beat-to-beat intervals.

# Frequency domain
A common frequency domain method is the application of the discrete Fourier transform to the beat-to-beat interval time series. That expresses the amount of variation for different frequencies. Several frequency bands of interest have been defined in humans.
- High Frequency band (HF) between 0.15 and 0.4 Hz. HF is driven by respiration and appears to derive mainly from vagal activity.
- Low Frequency band (LF) between 0.04 and 0.15 Hz. LF derives from both vagal and sympathetic activity and has been hypothesized to reflect the delay in the baroreceptor loop.
- Very Low Frequency band (VLF) band between 0.0033 and 0.04 Hz. The origin of VLF is unknown, but it had been attributed to physical activity.
- Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) band between 0 and 0.0033 Hz. The major background of ULF is day/night variation.

# Phase domain
Various methods from the theory of dynamical systems have also been applied in the context of HRV analysis.
Hemagglutination assay

# Overview
The hemagglutination assay (or haemagglutination assay; HA) is a method of quantification for viruses or bacteria by hemagglutination. It is an easy, simple and rapid method which can be applied to large numbers of samples. The hemagglutination assay and its extension, the hemagglutination inhibition assay, were invented in 194142 by American virologist George Hirst.
The hemagglutination assay of a virus, in contrast to other forms of virus quantification such as a plaque assay or 50% Tissue Culture Infective Dose, does not give any measure of viral infectivity, because no virus replication is required in this assay. The same may not be true when using HA for bacteria.

# Mechanism
Some viral families and many bacteria have envelope or surface proteins which are able to agglutinate (stick to) human or animal red blood cells (RBC) and bind to N-acetylneuraminic acid. As each of the agglutinating molecule attaches to multiple RBCs, a lattice-structure will form.

# Procedure
The detailed conditions depend on the type of virus or bacteria being assayed since certain pH values and ionic strengths can impact the activity of the proteins of interest in a difficult to predict manner.
Normally, a virus dilution (e.g. 2-fold from 1:4 to 1:4096) will be applied to an RBC dilution (e.g. 0.1% to 0.7% in steps of 0.2%) for approx. 30 min, often at 4 C, otherwise viruses with neuraminidase activity will detach the virus from the RBCs. Then the lattice forming parts will be counted and the titer calculated.
Virus concentration in virions per millilitre = 107 x HA titer.
The titer of a hemagglutination assay is determined by the last viable "lattice" structure found. This is because it is at the point where, if diluted anymore, the amount of Virus particles will be less than that of the RBCs and thus not be able to agglutinate them together.
For bacteria, depending on species, a bacterial dilution will be applied to an equal part RBC dilution and then incubated for 30 min to an hour at an optimal growth temperature before being observed.

# Hemagglutination Inhibition Assay
The hemagglutination inhibition assay is a common variation of the HA assay used to measure flu-specific antibody levels in blood serum.  In this variation, serum antibodies to the influenza virus will interfere with the virus attachment to red blood cells. Therefore hemagglutination is inhibited when antibodies are present at a sufficient concentration. The hemagglutination inhibition assay may also be used as a laboratory confirmatory method for dengue virus infection.

# Related Chapters
- Hemagglutination
Hematopoiesis overview

# Overview
Haematopoiesis (from Ancient Greek: haima blood; poiesis to make) (or hematopoiesis in the United States; sometimes also haemopoiesis or hemopoiesis) is the formation of blood cellular components. All of the cellular components of the blood are derived from haematopoietic stem cells. The term multipotent refers to the ability of a cell to become several different types of cell (but not all types in a germ layer). Multipotent haematopoietic cells can become any type of cell in the blood system. The multipotent cells determine what type of cell to become, or differentiate, in a step-wise fashion. It normally goes at a speed of 10111012 cells per day 

# Lineages
Blood cells are divided into three lineages: Erythroid, Lymphoid, Myeloid. Granulopoiesis is hematopoiesis of granulocytes.

# Locations
In developing embryos hematopoiesis occurs in yolk sac. In adults it occurs in bone marrow. In some cases extramedullary hematopoiesis is seen.

# Maturation
As a stem cell matures it undergoes changes in gene expression that determines a specific cell type. Location is an important factor determining maturation. Growth factors influencing the signal transduction  of various pathways altering transcription determining the different lineages of cells present.
Hermann Werner Siemens

# Overview
Hermann Werner Siemens (20 August 1891, Charlottenburg -21 December 1969, Leiden) was a German dermatologist who first described many skin diseases and was one of the inventors of the twin study.

# Biography
He studied at Berlin and Munich universities, receiving his doctorate in 1918. In 1929 he became chair of dermatology at Leiden University in the Netherlands.  
Siemens published "Zwillingspathologie" (Twin Pathology) in 1924 which introduced the widely used "classical twin method" . He was the first to use both identical and unidentical twins in a single study (to determine the role of genes over environment in skin moles). His influence on the invention of the twin study is not widely acknowledged, possibly due to his support during the Second World War of the Nazi party's eugenics program. 
. However, in 1942 he had lost his chair at Leiden and was temporarily held hostage due to his resistance to the German occupation policies, and after the war he regained his position, which he held until 1962.
Diseases named after H.W.Siemens: 
- Christ-Siemens-Touraine syndrome (Hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia)
- Hallopeau-Siemens syndrome (Recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa)
- Ichthyosis bullosa of Siemens
- Siemens' syndrome 1 (Keratosis follicularis spinulosa decalvans)
- Bloch Siemens syndrome (Incontinentia pigmenti)
Hip fracture treatment

# For more detailed information please refer to the treatment section of the hip fracture chapter.
The first step in managing a patient with a fracture is to stabilize the patient if he/she is unstable due to blood loss, etc by giving them intravenous fluids and giving them some painkillers if the pain is severe. If only one bone is broken, using cast or brace might be a possible treatment option.

## Non-surgical therapy
- The first step in managing a patient with a fracture is to stabilize the patient if he/she is unstable due to blood loss, etc by giving them intravenous fluids and giving them some painkillers if the pain is severe.
- In children, the usual plan is to attempt closed reduction followed by cast immobilization. In adults, treatment with immobilization in a molded long arm cast can be used in those rare occasions of a non-displaced fracture of the leg bone. If the fracture shifts in position, it may require surgery to put the bones back together.
- Rigid immobilization is suggested in preference to removable splints in nonoperative treatment for the management of Hip bone fractures.
- For all patients with Hip fractures, a post-reduction true lateral radiograph is suggested .
- Patients probably do not need to begin early leg motion routinely after stable fracture fixation.
- Adjuvant treatment of Hip fractures with vitamin C is suggested for the prevention of disproportionate pain.

# For more detailed information please refer to the treatment section of the hip fracture chapter.

## Complications of Non-surgical therapy
Failure of non-surgical therapy is common:
- Re-displacement to its original position
- Stiffness
- Post traumatic osteoarthritis leading to wrist pain and loss of function
- Other risks specific to cast treatment include:
Compression of the swollen leg causing compartment syndrome
Reflex sympathetic dystrophy is a serious complication
Stiffness is universal following a prolonged period of immobilization and swelling
- Compression of the swollen leg causing compartment syndrome
- Reflex sympathetic dystrophy is a serious complication
- Stiffness is universal following a prolonged period of immobilization and swelling

# For more detailed information please refer to the treatment section of the hip fracture chapter.