Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Communication disorder

# Background
A communication disorder is a disease or condition that partially or totally prevents human communication. The defect can be in producing, receiving or understanding the communication.
Examples of communication disorders:
- autism -- a developmental defect that affects understanding of emotional communication
- aphasia -- loss of the ability to produce or comprehend language
- Learning disability - Both speaking and listening components of the definition
- Dysnomia - Deficit involving word retrieval
- Asperger Syndrome - Areas of social and pragmatic language
- Semantic Pragmatic Disorder - Challenges with the semantic and pragmatic aspects of language
- blindness -- a defect of the eye or visual system
- deafness -- a defect of the ear or auditory system
- dyslexia -- a defect of the systems used in reading
- dyscalculia -- a defect of the systems used in communicating numbers
- expressive language disorder -- affects speaking and understanding where there is no delay in non-verbal intelligence.
- mixed receptive-expressive language disorder -- affects speaking, understanding, reading and writing where there is no delay in non-verbal intelligence.
- speech disorders such as
cluttering, a speech organization disorder
stuttering
-esophageal voice
speech sound disorder
specific language impairment
dysarthria
- cluttering, a speech organization disorder
- stuttering
- oesophageal voice
- speech sound disorder
- specific language impairment
- dysarthria
See also:
- Glossary of medical terms related to communications disorders
Complement component 2
Complement C2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C2 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is part of the classical pathway of the complement system, acting as a multi-domain serine protease. Deficiency of C2 has been associated with certain autoimmune diseases.

# Function
In the classical and lectin pathways of complement activation, formation of the C3-convertase and C5-convertases requires binding of C2 to an activated surface-bound C4b in the presence of Mg2+; the resultant C4bC2 complex is then cleaved by C1s or MASP2 into C2a and C2b. It is thought that cleavage of C2 by C1s, while bound to C4b, results in a conformational rotation of C2b whereas the released C2a fragment may retain most of its original structure.
C2b is the larger, enzymatically active fragment which is incorporated into the C3 convertase in this pathway, C4b2b (NB: some sources now refer to the larger fragment of C2 as C2b, making the C3 convertase C4b2b, whereas older sources refer to the larger fragment of C2 as C2a, making the C3 convertase C4b2a). The smaller fragment, C2a (or C2b, depending on the source) is released into the fluid phase.
Complement component 3
Complement component 3, often simply called C3, is a protein of the immune system. It plays a central role in the complement system and contributes to innate immunity. In humans it is encoded on chromosome 19 by a gene called C3.

# Function
C3 plays a central role in the activation of complement system. Its activation is required for both classical and alternative complement activation pathways. People with C3 deficiency are susceptible to bacterial infection.
One form of C3-convertase, also known as C4b2b, is formed by a heterodimer of activated forms of C4 and C2. It catalyzes the proteolytic cleavage of C3 into C3a and C3b, generated during activation through the classical pathway as well as the lectin pathway. C3a is an anaphylotoxin and the precursor of some cytokines such as ASP, and C3b serves as an opsonizing agent. Factor I can cleave C3b into C3c and C3d, the latter of which plays a role in enhancing B cell responses. In the alternative complement pathway, C3 is cleaved by C3bBb, another form of C3-convertase composed of activated forms of C3 (C3b) and factor B (Bb). Once C3 is activated to C3b, it exposes a reactive thioester that allows the peptide to covalently attach to any surface that can provide a nucleophile such as a primary amine or a hydroxyl group. Activated C3 can then interact with factor B. Factor B is then activated by factor D, to form Bb. The resultant complex, C3bBb, is called the alternative pathway (AP) C3 convertase.
C3bBb is deactivated in steps. First, the proteolytic component of the convertase, Bb, is removed by complement regulatory proteins having decay-accelerating factor (DAF) activity. Next, C3b is broken down progressively to first iC3b, then C3c + C3dg, and then finally C3d. Factor I is the protease that performs these cuts but it requires the help of another protein (Factor H, CR1, MCP or C4BP) to supply cofactor activity.

# Structure
Several crystallographic structures of C3 have been determined and reveal that this protein contains 13 domains.

# Biochemistry

## Biosynthesis
In humans, C3 is predominantly synthesised by liver hepatocytes and to some degree by epidermis keratinocytes.

# Clinical use
Levels of C3 in the blood may be measured to support or refute a particular medical diagnosis. For example, low C3 levels are associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
and some types of kidney disease such as post-infectious glomerulonephritis, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, and shunt nephritis.

# Interactions
Complement component 3 has been shown to interact with Factor H.

# Pathology
Deficiencies in C3 lead to genetic infections, usually fatal to the newborn.
Compressibility factor
The compressibility factor (Z) is a useful thermodynamic property for modifying the ideal gas law to account for the real gas behaviour.  The closer a gas is to a phase change, the larger the deviations from ideal behavior. Values for compressibility are calculated using equations of state (EOS), such as the virial equation and van der Waals equation. The compressibility factor for specific gases can be obtained, with out calculation, from compressibility charts. These charts are created by plotting Z as a function of pressure at constant temperature.

# Derivation
The compressibility factor is defined as:
where, P is the pressure, \tilde{V} is the molar volume of the gas, T is the temperature, and R is the gas constant.
The virial equation is especially useful to describe the causes of non-ideality at a molecular level as it is derived directly from statistical mechanics:
Where the coefficients in the numerator are known as virial coefficients and are functions of temperature.
The virial coefficients account for interactions between successively larger groups of molecules. For example, B accounts for interactions between pairs, C for interactions between three gas molecules, and so on. Because interactions between large numbers of molecules are rare, the virial equation is usually truncated after the third term.

# Physical Significance
For an ideal gas the compressibility factor is defined as Z=1. In real gases this is seldom the case. Z generally increases with pressure and decreases with temperature. At high pressures or low temperatures, molecules are moving less rapidly and are colliding more often. This allows attractive forces between molecules to dominate, making the volume of the real gas (V_{real}) less than the volume of an ideal gas (V_{ideal}) which causes Z to drop below one. When pressures are lower or temperatures higher, the molecules are more free to move. In this case repulsive forces dominate, making Z>1. The closer the gas is to its critical point or its boiling point, the more Z deviates from the ideal case.
Compression sportswear
Compression Sportwear or Compression tights are designed to help give athletes a physical and psychological competitive advantage over their opponents.
The main benefits of wearing compression tights are:
- Improving athletic performance by maintaining repeated jump performance
- Reduce muscle movement and vibration and focus the direction of the muscle
- Reducing the risk of Sports injuries
- Maintaining body temperature and moisture wicking
- Reducing the build up of Creatine Kinase which is an indicator of muscle tissue damage.
- Reducing the time taken for muscles to repair themselves 
- Reducing muscle soreness during post workout recovery
- As an alternative to Compression stockings they can be worn during long flights to reduce the risk of Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) caused by pooling of blood in the lower legs
These factors allow an athlete to increase both the duration and intensity of training and competition.
Mathematical chemistry
Mathematical chemistry is the area of research engaged in the novel and nontrivial applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. Mathematical chemistry has also sometimes been called computer chemistry, but should not be confused with computational chemistry.
Major areas of research in mathematical chemistry include chemical graph theory, which deals with topics such as the mathematical study of isomerism and the development of topological descriptors or indices which find application in quantitative structure-property relationships; chemical aspects of group theory, which finds applications in stereochemistry and quantum chemistry; and topological aspects of chemistry.
The term was coined in 1970s, although the history of the approach may be traced back into 18th century. Some of the early periodical publications specializing in the field are MATCH Communications in Mathematical and in Computer Chemistry, first published in 1975, and the Journal of Mathematical Chemistry, first published in 1987.
The basic models for mathematical chemistry are molecular graph and topological index.
Conformational entropy
Conformational entropy is the entropy associated with the physical arrangement of a polymer chain that assumes a compact or globular state in solution. The concept is most commonly applied to biological macromolecules such as proteins and RNA, but can also be used for polysaccharides and other polymeric organic compounds. To calculate the conformational entropy, the possible conformations assumed by the polymer may first be discretized into a finite number of states, usually characterized by unique combinations of certain structural parameters, each of which has been assigned an energy level. In proteins, backbone dihedral angles and side chain rotamers are commonly used as descriptors, and in RNA the base pairing pattern is used. These characteristics are used to define the degrees of freedom (in the statistical mechanics sense of a possible "microstate"). The conformational entropy associated with a particular conformation is then depends on the probability associated with the occupancy of that state, as determined by the sum of the energies associated with the value of each parameter assumed in the state.
The entropy of heterogeneous random coil or denatured proteins is significantly higher than that of the folded native state tertiary structure. In particular, the conformational entropy of the amino acid side chains in a protein is thought to be a major contributor to the energetic stabilization of the denatured state and thus a barrier to protein folding. The conformational entropy of RNA and proteins can be estimated; for example, empirical methods to estimate the loss of conformational entropy in a particular side chain on incorporation into a folded protein can roughly predict the effects of particular point mutations in a protein. Side-chain conformational entropies can be defined as Boltzmann sampling over all possible rotameric states:
where R is the gas constant and p_{i} is the probability of a residue being in rotamer i.
The limited conformational range of proline residues lowers the conformational entropy of the denatured state and thus increases the energy difference between the denatured and native states. A correlation has been observed between the thermostability of a protein and its proline residue content.
Cophenetic correlation
In statistics, and especially in biostatistics, cophenetic correlation (more precisely, the cophenetic correlation coefficient) is a measure of how faithfully a dendrogram preserves the pairwise distances between the original unmodeled data points. Although it has been most widely applied in the field of biostatistics (typically to assess cluster-based models of DNA sequences, or other taxonomic models), it can also be used in other fields of inquiry where raw data tend to occur in clumps, or clusters.

# Calculating the cophenetic correlation coefficient
Suppose that the original data {Xi} have been modeled using a cluster method to produce a dendrogram {Ti}; that is, a simplified model in which data that are "close" have been grouped into a heirarchical tree. Define the following distance measures.
- x(i, j) = | Xi  Xj |, the ordinary Euclidean distance between the ith and jth observations.
- t(i, j) = the dendrogrammatic distance between the model points Ti and Tj. This distance is always integral; it's the number of steps required to move from node i down the tree to the point at which i and j share a common node, then back up the tree to node j.
Then, letting x be the average of the x(i, j), and letting t be the average of the t(i, j), the cophenetic correlation coefficient c is given by
c = \frac {\sum_{i<j} (x(i,j) - x)(t(i,j) - t)}{\sqrt{ }}.
Perindopril/indapamide

# Form and Composition
Each scored tablet contains 2 mg of perindopril tert-butylamine salt and 0.625 mg of indapamide.

# Indication
Essential hypertension.

# Dosage and Administration
One tablet daily, preferably to be taken in the morning and before a meal.

# Pharmacological Action
PRETERAX, a fixed combination of an ACE inhibitor and a chlorosulfamoyl diuretic, leads to additive synergy of the antihypertensive effects of the two constituents. Its pharmacological properties are derived from those of each of the components taken separately, in addition to those due to the additive synergistic action of the two constituents, when combined, on vascular endothelium, arteriolocapillary microcirculation, and the target organs of hypertension.
Elderly patients: Normal dosage.
Renal failure: Creatinine clearance (CrCl) >30 mL/min: no dosage modification. CrCl <30 ml/min: treatment contraindicated.

# Contraindications
Absolute: Known allergy to perindopril, indapamide, or sulfonamides; history of Quincke's edema linked to previous ACE inhibitor therapy; severe renal failure; serious liver disorder; hypokalemia; pregnancy; lactation. 
Relative: Combination therapy with lithium, potassium salts, potassium-sparing diuretics, and certain medicines which can cause heart rhythm disorders.

# Side Effects
Asthenia, dizziness, headache, mood swings and/or sleep disturbances, cramps, hypotension, allergic reactions, skin rashes, gastrointestinal disorders, dry cough, dry mouth, risk of dehydration in the elderly and in patients suffering from heart failure; changes in blood test results may occur.

# Warnings
Immunosuppressed patients. Hemodialysis: risk of anaphylactoid reaction during hemodialysis with polyacrylonitrile membranes. Liver impairment.

# Precautions
Disorders of electrolyte balance, diabetes, gout, hypotension, or strict sodium-free diets, heart or renal failure, atherosclerosis, renal artery stenosis, elderly.

# Drug Interactions
Not recommended: Combinations with lithium, potassium-sparing diuretics, potassium (salts), antiarrhythmic drugs which cause torsade de pointes, anesthetic drugs, cytostatic or immunosuppressive agents.
Infarct related artery

# Overview
Infarct related artery or culprit artery refers to a coronary artery that is blocked or stenosed by atheroma and thrombosis, and responsible for an acute coronary syndrome. Although, there is one culprit artery in majority of cases, there may infrequently (approximately 1% in angioscopy studies) be multiple culprit arteries present in acute coronary syndromes.   

# Diagnosis of the Infarct Related Artery
Three diagnostic tools are useful in the identification of the culprit artery:
- Coronary angiography: The presence of an intracoronary filling defect to suggest coronary thrombosis or the presence of a coronary ulcer aids in the identification of the culprit artery. The presence of slow flow in the artery may suggests that it is the culprit artery. However, in the presence of both STEMI and NSTEMI, flow in the non-culprit artery may be slowed as well.
- The 12 lead EKG or 80 lead EKG may aid in identification of the culprit artery.
- Left ventriculography may demonstrate a wall motion abnormality which may also assist in the identification of the culprit artery.
Cycloserine overdosage

# Overdosage
Acute toxicity from cycloserine can occur if more than 1 g is ingested by an adult. Chronic toxicity from cycloserine is dose related and can occur if more than 500 mg is administered daily. Patients with renal impairment will accumulate cycloserine and may develop toxicity if the dosing regimen is not modified. Patients with severe renal impairment should not receive the drug. The central nervous system is the most common organ system involved with toxicity. Toxic effects may include headache, vertigo, confusion, drowsiness, hyperirritability, paresthesias, dysarthria, and psychosis. Following larger ingestions, paresis, convulsions, and coma often occur. Ethyl alcohol may increase the risk of seizures in patients receiving cycloserine.
The oral median lethal dose in mice is 5290 mg/kg.

## Treatment
To obtain uptodate information about the treatment of overdose, a good resource is your certified Regional Poison Control Center. Telephone numbers of certified poison control centers are listed in the Physicians Desk Reference (PDR). In managing overdosage, consider the possibility of multiple drug overdoses, interaction among drugs, and unusual drug kinetics in your patient.
Overdoses of cycloserine have been reported rarely. The following is provided to serve as a guide should such an overdose be encountered.
Protect the patients airway and support ventilation and perfusion. Meticulously monitor and maintain, within acceptable limits, the patients vital signs, blood gases, serum electrolytes, etc. Absorption of drugs from the gastrointestinal tract may be decreased by giving activated charcoal, which, in many cases, is more effective than emesis or lavage; consider charcoal instead of or in addition to gastric emptying. Repeated doses of charcoal over time may hasten elimination of some drugs that have been absorbed. Safeguard the patients airway when employing gastric emptying or charcoal.
In adults, many of the neurotoxic effects of cycloserine can be both treated and prevented with the administration of 200 to 300 mg of pyridoxine daily.
The use of hemodialysis has been shown to remove cycloserine from the bloodstream. This procedure should be reserved for patients with life-threatening toxicity that is unresponsive to less invasive therapy.
Cynoglossum officinale
Cynoglossum officinale  (houndstongue, dog's tongue, gypsy flower, and rats and mice due to its smell ) is a herbaceous plant of the family Boraginaceae, found in most parts of Europe, and also North America where it was accidentally introduced.
It can be either annual or biennial, with reddish-purple flowers blooming between May and September. It lives in wet places, waste land and hedges.

# Folklore
The name houndstongue comes from the belief that it could, if a leaf was worn in the shoe, ward off dog attacks.

# Herbalism
Herbalists use the plant as a treatment for piles, lung diseases and persistent coughs. Houndstongue ointment is said to cure baldness, and can be used for sores and ulcers. Not all of these uses are supported by scientific evidence.

# Notes
-  Template:ITIS
-  Cynoglossum officinale at USDA PLANTS Database
-  Howard, Michael. Traditional Folk Remedies (Century, 1987); p.161
Cystic medial necrosis
Synonyms and keywords: cystic medial degeneration; familial thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection; FTAAD; familial thoracic aortic aneurysm; familial aortic dissection; cystic medial necrosis of aorta ; it is sometimes called "Erdheim's cystic medial necrosis", after Jakob Erdheim; the term cystic medial degeneration is sometimes used instead of cystic medial necrosis, because necrosis is not always found; Erdheim disease, medionecrosis aortae idiopathica cystica, medionecrosis of the aorta, mucoid medial degeneration

# Overview
Cystic medial necrosis is an autosomal dominant disorder of large arteries.  There is a degenerative breakdown of collagen, elastin, and smooth muscle caused by aging which contributes to the weakening of the wall of the aorta.   This weakening of the wall of the aorta can result in the formation of an aneurysm.

# Pathology
Cystic media necrosis is a degenerative breakdown of collagen, elastin, and smooth muscle caused by aging which contributes to weakening of the wall of the artery.  There is a loss of elastic and muscle fibers in the medial layer of the aorta along with the accumulation of mucopolysaccharides in cystlike spaces between the fibers (hence the term cystic).  In the aorta, this can result in the formation of a fusiform aneurysm, and a subsequent risk of aortic dissection.

## Genetics
Genetic variants include ACTA2 as well as:

## Associated Conditions
There is an association between cystic medial necrosis and the following disorders:
- Marfan syndrome
- Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
- Annuloaortic ectasia
- Acromegaly

# Epidemiology and Demographics
The disease tends to percent after 40 years of age and is twice as common in men as in women.

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
Cystic medial necrosis is associated with an increased risk of aortic dissection.
Darent Valley Hospital
The Darent Valley Hospital is an 460-bed, acute general hospital in Dartford, Kent, England.
The hospital has an Accident and emergency department along side a 'walk-in' service.
The hospital is run by the Dartford & Gravesham NHS Trust. It was the first hospital to be procured under a Private Finance Initiative Contract. It was designed by Nightingale Paulley Associates and built by Carillion. It opened in July 2000.
On 2nd January 2007, a new on site Heart Centre was opened.
The hospital employs 1900 staff.
Darunavir how supplied

# How Supplied
PREZISTA (darunavir) 100 mg/mL oral suspension is a white to off-white opaque liquid supplied in amber-colored multiple-dose bottles containing darunavir ethanolate equivalent to 100 mg of darunavir per mL packaged with a 6 mL oral dosing syringe with 0.2 mL gradations.
PREZISTA (darunavir) 75 mg tablets are supplied as white, caplet-shaped, film-coated tablets containing darunavir ethanolate equivalent to 75 mg of darunavir per tablet. Each tablet is debossed with "75" on one side and "TMC" on the other side.
PREZISTA (darunavir) 150 mg tablets are supplied as white, oval-shaped, film-coated tablets containing darunavir ethanolate equivalent to 150 mg of darunavir per tablet. Each tablet is debossed with "150" on one side and "TMC" on the other side.
PREZISTA (darunavir) 400 mg tablets are supplied as light orange, oval-shaped, film-coated tablets containing darunavir ethanolate equivalent to 400 mg of darunavir per tablet. Each tablet is debossed with "400MG" on one side and "TMC" on the other side.
PREZISTA (darunavir) 600 mg tablets are supplied as orange, oval-shaped, film-coated tablets containing darunavir ethanolate equivalent to 600 mg of darunavir per tablet. Each tablet is debossed with "600MG" on one side and "TMC" on the other side.
PREZISTA (darunavir) 800 mg tablets are supplied as dark red, oval-shaped, film-coated tablets containing darunavir ethanolate equivalent to 800 mg of darunavir per tablet. Each tablet is debossed with "800" on one side and "T" on the other side.
PREZISTA is packaged in bottles in the following configuration:
100 mg/mL oral suspension  200 mL bottles (NDC 59676-565-01)
75 mg tabletsbottles of 480 (NDC 59676-563-01)
150 mg tabletsbottles of 240 (NDC 59676-564-01)
400 mg tabletsbottles of 60 (NDC 59676-561-01)
600 mg tabletsbottles of 60 (NDC 59676-562-01)
800 mg tabletsbottles of 30 (NDC 59676-566-30)