Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Dorsalis pedis artery

# Overview
In human anatomy, the dorsalis pedis artery (dorsal artery of foot), is a blood vessel of the lower limb that carries oxygenated blood to the dorsal surface of the foot.  It arises at the anterior aspect of the ankle joint and is a continuation of the anterior tibial artery.  It terminates at the proximal part of the first intermetatarsal space, where it divides into two branches, the first dorsal metatarsal artery and the deep plantar artery.
Along its course, it is accompanied by a deep vein, the dorsalis pedis vein.

# Palpation of the dorsalis pedis artery pulse
The dorsalis pedis artery pulse can be palpated readily lateral to the extensor hallucis longus tendon on the dorsal surface of the foot, distal to the dorsal most prominence of the navicular bone which serves as a reliable landmark for palpation.  It is often examined, by physicians, when assessing whether a given patient has peripheral vascular disease.  It is absent, unilaterally or bilaterally, in 2-3 % of young healthy individuals.
Artery of Adamkiewicz
In human anatomy, the Artery of Adamkiewicz, also Adamkiewicz artery, major anterior segmental medullary artery, artery of the lumbar enlargement and great anterior segmental medullary artery, is the largest anterior segmental medullary artery.
It typically arises from a left posterior intercostal artery, which branches from the aorta, and supplies the lower two thirds of the spinal cord via the anterior spinal artery.

# Anatomical variation
In a study of approximately 70 people that examined the spinal cord's blood supply it was found that:
- The Adamkiewicz artery sometimes arises from a lumbar vessel.
- In approximately 30% of people it arises from the right side.
- One quarter of people have two large anterior segmental medullary arteries.

# Disorders
When damaged or obstructed, it can result in anterior spinal artery syndrome, with loss of urinary and fecal continence and impaired motor function of the legs; sensory function is often preserved to a degree.
Ascending lumbar vein
The ascending lumbar vein is a vein that runs up through the lumbar region on the side of the vertebral column.

# Structure
The ascending lumbar vein is a paired structure (i.e. one each for the right and left sides of the body).  It starts at the lateral sacral veins, and it runs superiorly, intersecting with the lumbar veins as it crosses them.
When the ascending lumbar vein crosses the subcostal vein, it becomes one of the following:
- the azygos vein (in the case of the right ascending lumbar vein)
- the hemiazygos vein (in the case of the left ascending lumbar vein)
Aspergillus fumigatus
Aspergillus fumigatus is a fungus of the genus Aspergillus, and is one of the most common Aspergillus species to cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
A. fumigatus has a stable haploid genome, with no known sexual cycle, and reproduces by forming conidiospores that are released into the environment. Capable of growth at 37C (human body temperature), spores are common inhalation pollutants; typically, however, these are quickly eliminated by the immune system in healthy individuals.
When the fermentation broth of A. fumigatus was screened, a number of indolic alkaloids with anti-mitotic properties were discovered.  The compounds of interest have been of a class known as tryprostatins, with spirotryprostatin B being of special interest as an anti-cancer drug.

# Pathogenesis
A. fumigatus is common in the natural environment and can also be found in the upper respiratory tracts of healthy individuals. Exposure to A. fumigatus in immunocompromised individuals can lead to aspergillosis, a pulmonary infection. Leukemia or bone marrow transplant patients are at particular risk. Symptoms can include fever, weakness, chest pain, unexplained weight loss, aches, a heart murmur, blood in the urine or abnormal urine color, and straight, narrow red lines of broken blood vessels under the nails. Several virulence factors had been described .
A. fumigatus is also the causative pathogen in stonebrood, a disease of honeybees.

# Genome
The genome sequences of three Aspergillus speciesA. fumigatus, A. nidulans, and A. oryzaewere published in the journal Nature in December 2005.,,
Atheroembolic disease

# Overview
Atheroembolic disease is medical conditions caused by the embolization of ruptured atheromatous plaques into distal blood vessels.

# Risk factors
- Smoking
- Hypercholesterolemia
- Hypertension
- Diabetes mellitus
- Family history
- Previous atheroembolism

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

## Complications
- chronic renal failure
- acute renal failure
- stroke
- myocardial infarction (heart attack)
- ischemic limb requiring amputation
- bowel ischemic

## Prognosis
Prognosis of the condition is generally poor as embolization is usually chronic.

# Diagnosis

## Symptoms
- Pain, abdominal/flank, legs, thighs or foot - continuous
- Claudication
- Vascular insufficiency, purple toes
- Hypertension - high blood pressure
- Skin ulcers
- Hematuria - blood in the urine

## Laboratory Findings
- Urinalysis
- Blood work - CBC, creatinine, cholesterol

## Other Imaging Findings
- Pyelography
- Renal angiogram

# Treatment
Atheroembolic disease is difficult to treat.  The primary treatment is prevention, by controlling the risk factors (i.e. smoking, cholesterol, diabetes, hypertension).
Internal decapitation
Synonyms and keywords: Atlanto-occipital dislocation.

# Overview
Internal decapitation describes the rare process by which the skull separates from the spinal column during severe head injury. This injury is nearly always fatal, since it usually involves nerve damage or severance of the spinal cord.
Hanging relies on allowing the subject to break their neck under their own weight.
Atlanto-occipital dislocation is usually fatal. It occurs more frequently in children.
- Pediatric patient versus motor vehicle. The patient was dead on arrival.

# Related Chapters
- Cervical fracture
Authorship guidelines

# Authorship Rules regarding chapters on WikiDoc
- The fellow adding major content to a page should be the first author.
- If a fellow did relevant edits to a previously written page, he may add his name after the First author.
- If the whole page is copied from other sources, the content and name of the author may be removed.
- If there is no content on the page, the name of the author may be removed.
- If a fellow is reviewing language and grammar, he may add his/her name using template Grammar Reviewer:.

# Active Status Criteria
To meet the criteria of an active scholar, you have to fulfill ALL of the following criteria.
- Actively contributing to a topic on wikidoc.(meaningless edits in the sandbox won't be counted.)
- Completing a chapter in a 2-week duration.
- Being responsive to the emails and text messages posted on the group.
- Updating the coach regarding the progress of the assigned project at least on a weekly basis.
- Meeting the criteria of B or higher per Letter of Recommendation criteria for all the enlisted qualities.
- Fixing the page per the instruction of the reviewer.
- Not being inactive more than three weeks consecutively.
Aversion to happiness

# Overview
Aversion to happiness, also called cherophobia or fear of happiness, is an attitude towards happiness in which individuals may deliberately avoid experiences that invoke positive emotions or happiness.
One of several reasons that aversion to happiness may develop is the belief that when one becomes happy, a negative event will soon occur that will taint their happiness, as if that individual is being punished for satisfaction. This belief is thought to be more prevalent in non-Western cultures. In Western cultures, such as American culture, "it is almost taken for granted that happiness is one of the most important values guiding peoples lives."  Western cultures are more driven by an urge to maximize happiness and minimize sadness. Failing to appear happy is often a cause for concern. Its value is echoed through Western positive psychology and research on subjective well-being.

# Cultural factors
In non-Western cultures, personal happiness is valued less. There are four major reasons why happiness may be avoided by various people and cultures: "believing that being happy will provoke bad things to happen; that happiness will make you a worse person; that expressing happiness is bad for you and others; and that pursuing happiness is bad for you and others". For example, "some peoplein Western and Eastern culturesare wary of happiness because they believe that bad things, such as unhappiness, suffering, and death, tend to happen to happy people."
These findings "call into question the notion that happiness is the ultimate goal, a belief echoed in any number of articles and self-help publications about whether certain choices are likely to make you happy". Also, "in cultures that believe worldly happiness to be associated with sin, shallowness, and moral decline will actually feel less satisfied when their lives are (by other standards) going well", so measures of personal happiness cannot simply be considered a yardstick for satisfaction with one's life, and attitudes such as aversion to happiness have important implications for measuring happiness across cultures and ranking nations on happiness scores.
Aztreonam description

# Description
AZACTAM (aztreonam for injection, USP) contains the active ingredient aztreonam, a monobactam. It was originally isolated from Chromobacterium violaceum. It is a synthetic bactericidal antibiotic.
The monobactams, having a unique monocyclic beta-lactam nucleus, are structurally different from other beta-lactam antibiotics (eg, penicillins, cephalosporins, cephamycins). The sulfonic acid substituent in the 1-position of the ring activates the beta-lactam moiety; an aminothiazolyl oxime side chain in the 3-position and a methyl group in the 4-position confer the specific antibacterial spectrum and beta-lactamase stability.
Aztreonam is designated chemically as (Z)-2-carbamoyl]methylene]amino]oxy]-2-methylpropionic acid. Structural formula:
AZACTAM is a sterile, nonpyrogenic, sodium-free, white powder containing approximately 780 mg arginine per gram of aztreonam. Following constitution, the product is for intramuscular or intravenous use. Aqueous solutions of the product have a pH in the range of 4.5 to 7.5.
Basic metabolic panel
A basic metabolic panel (BMP) is a set of seven or eight blood chemical tests.

# Components
The version with seven tests is also known as "CHEM-7". The seven parts of a CHEM-7 include tests for:
- Four electrolytes:
sodium 
potassium 
chloride 
bicarbonate or CO2 
- sodium 
- potassium 
- chloride 
- bicarbonate or CO2 
- blood urea nitrogen (BUN) 
- creatinine 
- glucose 
Calcium is often considered part of the BMP, though, by definition, it is not part of the CHEM-7.

# Reporting
These lab values are often listed in a standard grid:
Glucose (and sometimes calcium) are listed to the right of this grid, but there is greater variation in how these values are reported.
Banded iron formation
Banded iron formations (also known as banded ironstone formations or BIFs) are a distinctive type of rock often found in primordial (Precambrian) sedimentary rocks.  The structures consist of repeated thin layers of iron oxides, either magnetite (Fe3O4) or hematite (Fe2O3), alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert.  Some of the oldest known rock formations, formed around three thousand million years before present (3 Ga), include banded iron layers, and the banded layers are a common feature in sediments for much of the Earth's early history.  Banded iron beds are less common after 1.8 Ga, although some are known that are much younger.
The total amount of oxygen locked up in the banded iron beds is estimated to be perhaps twenty times the volume of oxygen present in the modern atmosphere. Banded iron beds are an important commercial source of iron ore, such as the Pilbara region of Western Australia and the Mesabi Range in Minnesota.

# Origins
The conventional concept is that the banded iron layers were formed in sea water as the result of oxygen released by photosynthetic cyanobacteria (bluegreen algae), combining with dissolved iron in Earth's oceans to form insoluble iron oxides, which precipitated out, forming a thin layer on the substrate, which may have been anoxic mud (forming shale and chert). Each band is similar to a varve, to the extent that the banding is assumed to result from cyclic variations in available oxygen.  It is unclear whether these banded ironstone formations were seasonal, followed some feedback oscillation in the ocean's complex system or followed some other cycle.  It is assumed that initially the Earth started out with vast amounts of iron dissolved in the world's acidic seas.  Eventually, as photosynthetic organisms generated oxygen, the available iron in the Earth's oceans was precipitated out as iron oxides.  At the tipping point where the oceans became permanently oxygenated, small variations in oxygen production produced pulses of free oxygen in the surface waters, alternating with pulses of iron oxide deposition.

# Snowball Earth scenario
Until 1992, it was assumed that the rare, later (younger) banded iron deposits represent unusual conditions where oxygen was depleted locally and iron-rich waters could form then come into contact with oxygenated water. An alternate explanation of these later deposits is undergoing much discussion as part of the Snowball Earth hypothesis. This hypothesis states that an early equatorial supercontinent (Rodinia) was totally covered in an ice age (implying the whole planet was frozen at the surface to a depth of several kilometers). In this case the Earth's free oxygen may have been nearly or totally depleted during a severe ice age circa 750 to 580 million years ago (mya).
Another mechanism for BIF-formation, also proposed in the context of the Snowball Earth discussion, is by deposition from metal-rich brines in the vicinity of hydrothermally active rift zones. Alternatively, some geochemists suggest that BIFs could form by direct oxidation of iron by (non-photosynthetic) autotrophic microbes.
Barium follow-through

# Overview
A barium follow-through procedure is a type of medical imaging technique. It is used to evaluate the presence of disease in a person's small intestine.

# Examination
The patient drinks a contrast medium containing barium sulphate. This contrast medium appears white on x-rays, and shows the outline of the internal lining of the bowel.  X-ray images are taken as the contrast moves through the intestine, commonly at 0 minutes, 20 minutes, 40 minutes and 90 minutes. This enables the radiologist to assess the bowel as it becomes visible.  The test is completed when the Barium is visualised in the terminal ileum and Caecum, which marks the beginning of the large bowel.  This is one of the most common places for pathology of the bowel to be found, therefore imaging of this structure is crucial.  The test length varies from patient to patient as bowel motility is highly variable.
The barium is non-toxic and passed out normally as a stool, although the appearance may be paler than usual.

# Pathology
The Barium follow through test is used to diagnose conditions of the small bowel, most commonly Crohn's disease.  This shows up as intermitent sections of strictured bowel.  Other bowel pathologies which are picked up on this test include:
- Ulcerative colitis
- Bowel Cancer
Barrier contraception

# Overview
Barrier contraception methods prevent pregnancy by physically preventing sperm from entering the uterus through the os in in the cervix.

# Historical Perspective
The earliest recorded barrier methods are those of stem pessaries, found in Egypt.  The diaphragm and reusable condoms became common after the invention of rubber vulcanization in the early nineteenth century. Condoms became even more popular after the 1930s invention of latex, which enabled the creation of thinner, disposable prophylactics.

# Methods
The following are barrier methods of contraception.
- Condom
- Cervical cap
- Diaphragm (contraception)
- Female condom
- Lea's shield
- SILCS diaphragm (still in clinical testing)
The contraceptive sponge is usually considered a barrier method, but not always, as its effectiveness relies largely on spermicide.
The male condom provides excellent protection against sexually transmitted infections.  Using a condom is sometimes referred to as "practicing safer sex".

# Related Chapters
- Birth control
- Dental dam
Bartonella rochalimae
Bartonella rochalimae is a recently discovered strain of Gram-negative bacteria in the Bartonella genus, isolated by researchers at the University of California, San Francisco|University of California at San Francisco (UCSF), Massachusetts General Hospital, and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The bacterium is a close relative of Bartonella quintana, the microbe which caused trench fever in thousands of soldiers during World War I. Named after Brazilian scientist Henrique da Rocha Lima, B. rochalimae is also closely related to Bartonella henselae, a bacterium identified in the mid-1990s during the AIDS epidemic in San Francisco as the cause of Cat scratch fever, which still infects more than 24,000 people in the United States each year.
Scientists discovered the bacterium in a 43-year-old American woman who had traveled to Peru for three weeks. She suffered from possibly life-threatening anemia, an enlarged spleen, a 102 degree Fahrenheit (39 degree Celsius) fever, and insomnia two weeks after returning to the United States,
symptoms akin to those of typhoid fever and malaria. The patient's sickness was first attributed to Bartonella bacilliformis, a known related species with a similar appearance under a microscope that is spread by sand flies and infects 10% of the human population in some regions of Peru with Oroya fever.  Antibiotic treatment based on this diagnosis rapidly cured her infection, but further investigation proved the bacteria were of a formerly unknown species.  It is possible that other cases diagnosed as Oroya fever result from this species.
The findings were published in the New England Journal of Medicine on June 7, 2007. According to the senior author of the paper, Marryan Gaal, professor of infectious diseases at UCSF, the new discovery is the sixth identified Bartonella species that can infect humans.
Hailey-Hailey disease

# Overview
Hailey-Hailey disease, or familial benign pemphigus, was originally described by the Hailey brothers in 1939.
 It is a genetic disorder that causes blisters to form on the skin.
Familial benign pemphigus originally was described by the Hailey brothers in 1939, and is commonly called Hailey Hailey disease.
It is characterized by outbreaks of rashes and blisters in the skin, usually in the folds of the skins, but also often over large areas of the body.  The painful blisters break and sometimes become infected and raw, with new blisters forming over raw skin in a sometimes seemingly unending cycle of outbreaks.
The cause of the disease is a defect in the calcium pump ATP2C1 gene which is located on chromosome 3. This causes the cells of the skin to not adhere together properly, causing the blisters and rashes.  There is no cure.
Topical steroid preparations have some effect during outbreaks, but do not stop them. Secondary bacterial, fungal and/or viral infections are common and may exacerbate an outbreak. Avoiding heat and friction of affected areas and keeping the area clean and dry work about as well.
Some have found relief in laser resurfacing that burns off the top layer of the epidermis, allowing healthy non-affected skin to regrow in its place. Reducing sweat production is helpful in many cases. Some patients have found that outbreaks are triggered by certain foods, hormone cycles and stress.
Unfortunately, there is not much that really helps when the outbreaks come, except to suffer through them, "suffer" being the key word here, since the outbreaks are often extremely painful.

# Signs and symptoms
It is characterized by outbreaks of rashes and blisters in the skin, usually in the folds of the skins, but also often over large areas of the body.  The painful blisters break and sometimes become infected and raw, with new blisters forming over raw skin in a sometimes seemingly unending cycle of outbreaks.

# Causes
The cause of the disease is a defect in the calcium pump ATP2C1 gene which is located on chromosome 3. This causes the cells of the skin to not adhere together properly, causing the blisters and rashes.  There is no cure.

# Treatment
Topical steroid preparations have some effect during outbreaks, but do not stop them. Secondary bacterial, fungal and/or viral infections are common and may exacerbate an outbreak. Avoiding heat and friction of affected areas and keeping the area clean and dry work about as well.
Some have found relief in laser resurfacing that burns off the top layer of the epidermis, allowing healthy non-affected skin to regrow in its place. Reducing sweat production is helpful in many cases. Some patients have found that outbreaks are triggered by certain foods, hormone cycles and stress.
Mollaret's meningitis
Synonyms and keywords: Benign recurrent meningitis; Mollaret disease; benign multirecurrent endothelioleucocytal meningitis

# Overview
Mollaret's meningitis is a recurrent inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known collectively as the meninges. Mollaret's meningitis is caused by herpes simplex virus. It is a recurrent, benign, aseptic meningitis.

# Historical Perspectve
It is named for Pierre Mollaret.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Mollaret's meningitis is characterized by recurrent episodes of severe headache, meningismus, and fever.

## Laboratory Findings
Investigations include blood tests (electrolytes, liver and kidney function, inflammatory markers and a complete blood count) and usually X-ray examination of the chest. The most important test in identifying or ruling out meningitis is analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid (fluid that envelops the brain and the spinal cord) through lumbar puncture (LP). However, if the patient is at risk for a cerebral mass lesion or elevated intracranial pressure (recent head injury, a known immune system problem, localizing neurological signs, or evidence on examination of a raised ICP), a lumbar puncture may be contraindicated because of the possibility of fatal brain herniation. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis with large "endothelial" cells, neutrophils, and lymphocytes; and attacks separated by symptom-free periods of weeks to months; and spontaneous remission of symptoms and signs.

## CT/MRI
In such cases a CT or MRI scan is generally performed prior to the lumbar puncture to exclude this possibility. Otherwise, the CT or MRI should be performed after the LP, with MRI preferred over CT due to its superiority in demonstrating areas of cerebral edema, ischemia, and meningeal inflammation. During the lumbar puncture procedure, the opening pressure is measured. A pressure of over 180 mm H2O is indicative of bacterial meningitis. Mollaret's meningitis is suspected based on clinical criteria and confirmed by HSV 1 or HSV 2 on PCR of CSF.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
Acyclovir is the treatment of choice for Mollaret's meningitis.

# Related Chapters
- Encephalitis
- Herpes simplex virus
- Meningitis