Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Titanium tetraiodide
Titanium tetraiodide is TiI4.  It is a rare molecular binary metal iodide, consisting of isolated molecules of tetrahedral Ti(IV) centers; the other example is Ta2I10.  Reflecting its molecular character, TiI4 can be distilled without decomposition at one atmosphere.  The compound is a close relative to TiCl4.  The difference in melting point between TiCl4 (m.p. -24 C) and TiI4 (m.p. 150 C) is comparable to the difference between the melting points of CCl4 (m.p. -23 C) and CI4 (m.p. 168 C), reflecting the stronger intermolecular van der Waals bonding in the iodides.

# Production
Three methods are well known:
1) From the elements, typically using a tube furnace at 425 C:
This reaction can be reversed to produce highly pure films of Ti metal.
2) Exchange reaction from titanium tetrachloride and HI.
3) Oxide-iodide exchange from aluminium iodide.

# Reactions
Like TiCl4 and TiBr4 , TiI4 forms adducts with Lewis bases, and it can also be reduced.  When the reduction is conducted in the presence of Ti metal, one obtains polymeric Ti(III) and Ti(II) derivatives such as CsTi2I7 and the chain CsTiI3, respectively.  As a solution in CH2Cl2, TiI4 exhibits some reactivity toward alkenes and alkynes resulting in organoiodine derivatives.
Tolterodine overdose

# Overdosage topics
Human experience
Management

## Human experience
A 27-month-old child who ingested 5 to 7 Tolterodine Tablets 2 mg was treated with a suspension of activated charcoal and was hospitalized overnight with symptoms of dry mouth. The child fully recovered. Return to top

## Management
Overdosage with Tolterodine can potentially result in severe central anticholinergic effects and should be treated accordingly.
ECG monitoring is recommended in the event of overdosage. In dogs, changes in the QT interval (slight prolongation of 10% to 20%) were observed at a suprapharmacologic dose of 4.5 mg/kg, which is about 68 times higher than the recommended human dose. In clinical trials of normal volunteers and patients, QT interval prolongation was observed with tolterodine immediate release at doses up to 8 mg (4 mg bid) and higher doses were not evaluated. Return to top
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
Tramadol precautions

# List of precautions
General
Pediatric Use
Geriatric Use
Acute Abdominal Conditions
Use in Renal Disease
Use in Hepatic Disease

## General
The recommended dose of Tramadol should not be exceeded.
Do not co-administer Tramadol with other tramadol or acetaminophen-containing products. Return to top

## Pediatric Use
The safety and effectiveness of Tramadol has not been studied in the pediatric population.

## Geriatric Use
In general, dose selection for an elderly patient should be cautious, reflecting the greater frequency of decreased hepatic, renal, or cardiac function; of concomitant disease and multiple drug therapy. Return to top

## Acute Abdominal Conditions
The administration of Tramadol may complicate the clinical assessment of patients with acute
abdominal conditions. Return to top

## Use in Renal Disease
Tramadol has not been studied in patients with impaired renal function. Experience with tramadol
suggest that impaired renal function results in a decreased rate and extent of excretion of tramadol and its active metabolite, M1. In patients with creatinine clearances of less than 30 mL/min, it is
recommended that the dosing interval of Tramadol be increased not to exceed 2 tablets every 12
hours. Return to top

## Use in Hepatic Disease
Tramadol has not been studied in patients with impaired hepatic function. The use of Tramadol in
patients with hepatic impairment is not recommended. Return to top
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
Transferrin receptor
Transferrin receptor (TfR) is a carrier protein for transferrin. It is needed for the import of iron into the cell and is regulated in response to intracellular iron concentration. It imports iron by internalizing the transferrin-iron complex through receptor-mediated endocytosis. The existence of a receptor for transferrin iron uptake had been recognized over half a century back. Earlier two transferrin receptors in humans, transferrin receptor 1 and transferrin receptor 2 had been characterized and until recently cellular iron uptake was believed to occur chiefly via these two well documented transferrin receptors. Both these receptors are transmembrane glycoproteins. TfR1 is a high affinity ubiquitously expressed receptor while expression of TfR2 is restricted to certain cell types and is unaffected by intracellular iron concentrations. TfR2 binds to transferrin with a 25-30 fold lower affinity than TfR1. Although TfR1 mediated iron uptake is the major pathway for iron acquisition by most cells and especially developing erythrocytes, several studies have indicated that the uptake mechanism varies depending upon the cell type. It is also reported that Tf uptake exists independent of these TfRs although the mechanisms are not well characterized. The multifunctional glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH,EC 1.2.1.12) has been shown to utilize post translational modifications to exhibit higher order moonlighting behavior wherein it switches its function as a holo or apo transferrin receptor leading to either iron delivery or iron export respectively.

# Post-transcriptional regulation
Low iron concentrations promote increased levels of transferrin receptor, to increase iron intake into the cell. Thus, transferrin receptor maintains cellular iron homeostasis.
TfR production in the cell is regulated according to iron levels by iron-responsive element-binding proteins, IRP1 and IRP2. In the absence of iron, one of these proteins (generally IRP2) binds to the hairpin like structure (IRE) that is in the 3' UTR of the TfR mRNA. Once binding occurs, the mRNA is stabilized and degradation is inhibited.
Transfusion medicine
Synonyms and keywords: Transfusiology

# Overview
Transfusion medicine is the branch of medicine that is concerned with the transfusion of blood and blood components. The blood bank is the section of the clinical laboratory where medical technologists process and distribute blood products under the supervision of a medical director, often certified in Pathology or Transfusion Medicine. The blood donor center, also under the supervision of a physician who may be a Transfusion Medicine specialist, is the facility that collects and processes blood products. Transfusion medicine is a board-certified specialty recognized by the American Board of Pathology. Physicians from a wide range of backgrounds, including pathology, hematology, anesthesiology and pediatrics, are eligible for board certification in Transfusion Medicine following a 1-2 year fellowship.
Physicians certified in Transfusion Medicine are trained in blood product selection and management, immunohematology, apheresis, stem cell collection, cellular therapy, and coagulation. They are often considered a consultant for physicians who require expertise advice on the subjects listed above. 
In Denmark the subject is covered by the speciality "Clinical Immunology". Transfusiology is not a recognized term in the US.
Trendelenburg's sign

# Overview
Trendelenburg's sign  is found in people with weak abductor muscles of the hip.  It was named for the German surgeon Friedrich Trendelenburg.
The Trendelenburg sign is said to be positive if, when standing on one leg, the pelvis drops on the side opposite to the stance leg.  The weakness is present on the side of the stance leg. The body is not able to maintain the center of gravity on the side of the stance leg. Normally, the body shifts the weight to the stance leg, allowing the shift of the center of gravity and consequently stabilizing or balancing the body. However, in this scenario, when the patient/person lifts the opposing leg, the shift is not created and the patient/person cannot maintain balance leading to instability.
Essentially, Trendelenburg sign is caused by paralysis of the gluteus medius and minimus muscles. Paralysis may arise due to nerve damage, namely, the superior gluteal nerve.
Trichinella spiralis

# Overview
The species Trichinella spiralis is an important parasite, occurring in rats, pigs, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis.  It is sometimes referred to as the "pork worm" due to it being found commonly in pork products that are undercooked.

# Description
The small adult worms mature in the intestine of an intermediate host such as a pig. Each adult female produces batches of live larvae, which bore through the intestinal wall, enter the blood (to feed on it) and lymphatic system, and are carried to striated muscle tissue. Once in the muscle, they encyst, or become enclosed in a capsule.

## Life cycle
Larvae encysted in the muscles remain viable for some time. When the muscle tissue is eaten by a human, the cysts are digested in the stomach; the released larvae migrate to the intestine to begin a new life cycle. Female trichina worms live about six weeks and in that time may release larvae. The migration and encystment of larvae can cause fever, pain, and even death because of their potential to eat living tissue.  One of the classic signs of Trichinella spiralis infection is a combination of splinter hemorrhages (not to be confused with those of bacterial endocarditis) and periorbital edema (eye swelling). Trichina are classified in the phylum Nematoda.

# Treatment

## Antimicrobial Regimen
- Trichinella spiralis
- Preferred regimen (1): Albendazole 400 mg PO bid for 8-14 days
- Preferred regimen (2): Mebendazole 200-400 mg PO tid for 3 days THEN 400-500 mg PO tid for 10 days
- Note (1): Both treatment schemes are suitable for adult and pediatric dosages
- Note (1): Albendazole and Mebendazole are contraindicated during pregnancy and not recommended in children aged 2 years.
- Alternative regimen (1): (severe symptoms) Prednisone 30 mg/day-60 mg/day for 10-15 days
- Alternative regimen (2): Pyrantel 10-20 mg/kg single dose for 2-3 days
Trichorrhexis nodosa
Trichorrhexis nodosa is a defect in the hair shaft characterized by thickening or weak points (nodes) that cause the hair to break off easily. This group of conditions contributes to the appearance of hair loss, lack of growth, and damaged-looking hair.

# Causes, incidence, and risk factors
Trichorrhexis may have a genetic basis but appears to be precipitated by environmental factors. Among people of African origin, the hair may appear not to grow but microscopic examination shows that the hair shafts have nodes or swellings near the scalp which fracture easily. The hair actually grows but is broken before it can become long. Among whites the defect often appears at the ends of the hair shaft with splitting of the ends, thinning and whitish discoloration.
These conditions are directly related to environmental causes such as "perming", blow drying, aggressive hair brushing, and excessive chemical exposure.
In some cases, trichorrhexis nodosa may be caused be an underlying disorder such as argininosuccinicaciduria, Menkes' kinky hair syndrome, Netherton's syndrome, hypothyroidism, or trichothiodystrophy.

# Symptoms
- lack of apparent hair growth
- hair appears patchy
- hair breaks easily close to scalp
- hair may have thickenings or nodes in the shaft
- ends of hair thinned or split
- whitish discoloration of hair tips
- hair breaks easily at tips

# Signs and tests
Examination of the hair shafts with a microscope may reveal changes of trichorrhexis nodosa.

# Treatment
Improving environmental factors will reduce damage to the hair. Gentle brushing with a soft brush should replace more aggressive brushing, ratting, or other procedures. Harsh chemicals such as hair straightening compounds and permanents should be avoided. The hair should not be ironed. Excessively harsh shampoo should be avoided. Hair conditioners should be used.

# Prognosis
This condition is self-limiting. Improvements in grooming techniques and in environmental conditions will correct the abnormality.

# Complications
This condition is not dangerous but may affect self-esteem.

# Prevention
Avoid aggressive brushing and grooming, strong chemicals, permanents, straightening, and similar hair-damaging habits.

# Source
- Trichorrhexis nodosa. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. US Federal Government public domain. Update Date: 27 October 2003. Updated by: Jeffrey Drayer, M.D., Dermatologist, Los Angeles, CA. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network.
Tris-Buffered Saline
Tris-Buffered Saline (abbreviated TBS) is a buffer used in some biochemical techniques to maintain the pH.
Tris(with HCl) gives the buffering capacity on certain pH value
- 20 mM Tris
- 150 mM NaCl
Adjust pH with HCl to pH 7.6 
Note that concentration of Tris and NaCl as well as the pH can vary, and the resulting solution would still be referred to as "TBS". 
Tris concentration (gave buffering capacity) vary from 10 mM to 100 mM. As TBS is used to emulate physiological conditions (as in animal or human body), the pH value is slightly alkaline, ranged 7.4 - 8.0.  
NaCl gives the isotonic (mostly used 150Mm NaCl corresponds to physiological conditions: 0.9% NaCl) or hypertonic (500mM NaCl) salt concentration.

# Contents of TBS
Trousseau's syndrome
The Trousseau sign of malignancy or Trousseau's Syndrome is a medical sign involving episodes of vessel inflammation due to blood clot (thrombophlebitis) which are recurrent or appearing in different locations over time (thrombophlebitis migrans or migratory thrombophlebitis).  The location of the clot is tender and the clot can be felt as a nodule under the skin.  Trousseau's syndrome is a rare variant of venous thromboembolism (VTE) that is characterized by recurrent, migratory thrombosis in superficial veins and in uncommon sites, such as the chest wall and arms. This syndrome is particularly associated with pancreatic and lung cancer 
Trousseau's sign can be an early sign of gastric or pancreatic cancer, typically appearing months to years before the tumor would be otherwise detected.  Heparin therapy is recommended to prevent future clots. The Trousseau sign of malignancy should not be confused with the Trousseau sign of latent tetany caused by hypocalcemia.

# History
Armand Trousseau first described this finding in the 1860s; he later found the same sign in himself, was subsequently diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and died soon thereafter.
Dr. Trousseau presciently attributed thromboembolism in malignancy to changes in blood composition rather than local inflammatory or mechanical forces. By correlating clinical observation with surgical and autopsy findings, Dr. Trousseau recognized that a localized cancer could induce a generalized hypercoagulable state in which thrombosis could occur elsewhere in the body, such as in extremities with visceral malignancy. Dr. Trousseau described several cases in which recurrent thrombosis was the presenting feature of visceral cancer, and his confidence in the utility of this connection led him to say, "So great, in my opinion, is the semiotic value of phlegmasia in the cancerous cachexia, that I regard this phlegmasia as a sign of the cancerous diathesis as certain as sanguinolent effusion into the serous cavities."

# Pathophysiology
Some malignancies, especially gliomas (25%), as well as adenocarcinomas of the pancreas and lung, are associated with hypercoagulability (the tendency to form blood clots) for reasons that are incompletely understood, but may be related to factors secreted by the tumors, in particular a circulating pool of cell-derived tissue factor-containing microvesicles. Some adenocarcinomas secrete mucin that can interact with selectin found on platelets, thereby causing small clots to form 
In patients with malignancy-associated hypercoagulable states, the blood may spontaneously form clots in the portal vessels, the deep veins of the extremities (such as the leg), or the superficial veins anywhere on the body. These clots present as visibly swollen blood vessels (vasculitis), especially the veins, or as intermittent pain in the affected areas.
True hermaphroditism

# Overview
True hermaphroditism is a medical term for an intersex condition in which a person is born with both ovarian and testicular tissue.
There may be an ovary on one side and a testis on the other, but more commonly one or both gonads is an ovotestis containing both types of tissue.
External genitalia are often ambiguous, the degree depending mainly on the amount of testosterone produced by the testicular tissue between 8 and 16 weeks of gestation.
It is rare for both types of gonadal tissue to function.  Individuals are either 46, XX or 47, XXY.
Ukrainian LGM refuge
The Ukrainian LGM refuge is one of the postulated LGM refuge areas, located 'around' the Black Sea, where groups of humans sought shelter from the glacial climate around 13,000 years ago. From this and other LGM refuge areas a post-LGM recolonization of Europe and Central Asia is postulated.
This area is hypothetically attractive due to the thermal conditions. During the LGM, the European climate was very dry. Northern rivers did not carry waters frozen in glaciers. Sea levels tended to decrease. The Black Sea may have substantially evaporated. The temperature on the bottom would have been 12C warmer than at the 'sea level'.
Haplogroup M17 or Hg R1a1, with an inferred age of ~15,000 years, is considered a marker to the people that originate from this glacial refuge. This gene is found at high frequency in Poland, Russia, Ukraine, the Czech and Slovak Republics, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and is common throughout Central Asia, but is rare in East Asia and Western Europe. The microsatellite diversity of R1a1 is postulated to have been connected with population spread in the period subsequent to the LGM. The marker was involved in recent migrations by Indo-European speaking peoples from the steppes, bringing the gene to new frontiers and an ethnic distribution that add to the evidence that M17 is a diagnostic Indo-Iranian marker. To the North West this same gene spread into Scandinavian territory and is diagnostic as a marker to Viking movements between 800 and 1300 AD. To the East this gene found its way as far as Eastern Siberia, with considerable concentrations in Kamchatka and Chukotka, and it can't be ruled out the gene even entered into the Americas by this route.
The current distribution of this M17 (Hg R1a1) marker is characterized by high concentrations of the gene over wide areas from Lapland to Ukraine and from Poland to Kazakhstan and Pakistan, with sharp drops on the fringes where gene barriers are met, like caused by natural borders or the advance of peoples originally expanding from other LGM refuges, like postulated in Spain and the Balkans. The exceptionally high frequencies of R1a1 in the Kyrgyz, Tajik/Khojant, and Ishkashim populations are likely to be due to genetic drift, while lower concentrations elsewhere are partly due to documented intrusions, for instance of Turkish origin. There are several frequency variations across Eurasia, including intrusions of M89 (Hg F, common in Korea and India), M170 (Hg I, especially Hg I1a and Hg I1c (M223), originating from North Western Europe), and M172 (Hg J2, attributed to the spread of farming from the Near East). From Northeast Asia came M130 (Hg C, common in  Mongolia), while haplotypes M124 (Hg R2) show a maximum in Central Asia.
Ureterosigmoidostomy
A ureterosigmoidostomy is a surgical procedure where the ureters which carry urine from the kidneys, are diverted into the sigmoid colon. It is done as a treatment for bladder cancer, where the urinary bladder had to be removed.  It was also used several decades ago as a correctional procedure for patients born with bladder exstrophy.  In the case of some bladder exstrophy patients, occasional bowel incontinence (in this case, a mixture of urine and feces similar to diarrhea) at night is one uncontrollable consequence.
Another consequence of this procedure is an increased risk of kidney infections (nephritis) due to bacteria from faeces travelling back up the ureters (reflux).
As well as this, the urine entering the colon can cause diarrhea and salt imbalance due to the sodium and chloride in the urine. Urea levels in the blood are higher due to urea crossing the colon wall. In the large intestine, sodium is swapped for potassium, and chloride for bicarbonate, this causes an acidosis and hypokalaemia.
Patients with ureterosigmoidostomy have an increased chance of developing carcinoma of the colon after living with the modification for a number of years.
This operation is no longer popular in many countries, an ileal conduit (where the ureters lead into a loop of small intestine) being performed instead.
Utilization behavior

# Overview
Utilization behavior is a frontal lobe disorder in which the patient has difficulty resisting their impulse to "utilize" objects which are in their visual field and within reach. Unlike other impulse-control disorders, patients with this disorder confabulate reasons for their actions.

# References:
- Blakemore, Wolpert, and Frith 2002 "Abnormalities in Action Awareness", TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences Vol.6 No.6 June 2002
- Lhermitte, F. (1983) 'usingisation behaviour' and its relation to lesions of the frontal lobes. Brain 106, 237255
- Lhermitte, F. (1986) Human autonomy and the frontal lobes. Part II: Patient behavior in complex and social situations: the 'environmental dependency syndrome'. Ann. Neurol. 19, 335343
Vitamin K antagonist

# Overview
Vitamin K antagonists (VKA) are a class of anticoagulants which, as their name indicates, act by inhibiting the action of vitamin K.
They can be teratogens.

# Coumarins
Coumarins are the most commonly used VKA, and sometimes the terms are used synonymously.
In medicine, the most commonly used VKA is warfarin. The primary mechanism of warfarin is the inhibition of vitamin K epoxide reductase.
VKAs are also used as rodenticides.
- Warfarin or coumadin
Warfarin or coumadin
- Coumatetralyl
Coumatetralyl
- Phenprocoumon
Phenprocoumon
- Dicoumarol
Dicoumarol

# Other VKAs
Not all VKAs are coumarins. For example, fluindione is a VKA, but not a coumarin.
Another example is phenindione.
Many of the non-coumarin VKAs are 1,3-indandione derivatives.
- Phenindione
Phenindione
- Clorindione
Clorindione
- Diphenadione
Tioclomarol is another VKA, but it is neither a coumarin nor a diketone.
- Tioclomarol

# Related chapters
- Vitamin K deficiency
Valence (psychology)

# Overview
'Valence', as used in psychology, especially in discussing emotions, means the intrinsic attractiveness (positive valence) or aversiveness (negative valence) of an event, object, or situation. However, the term is also used to characterize and categorize specific emotions. For example, the emotions popularly referred to as "negative", such as anger and fear, have "negative valence". Joy has "positive valence". Positively valenced emotions are evoked by positively valenced events, objects, or situations. The term is also used about the hedonic tone of feelings, affect, certain behaviors (for example, approach and avoidance), goal-attainment or -non-attainment, and conformity with or violation of norms. Ambivalence can be viewed as conflict between  positive and negative valence-carriers.

# History of Usage
The term entered English usage in psychology with the translation from German in 1935 of works of Kurt Lewin. Ambivalence has a longer history.

# Criterion for Emotion
Valence is one criterion used in some definitions of emotion. The possible absence of valence is cited as a reason to exclude surprise, viewed as the startle reaction, from the list of emotions, though some would include it.

# Measurement
Valence could be assigned a number and treated as if it were measured, but the validity of a measurement based on a subjective report is questionable. Measurement based on observations of facial expressions, using FACS, and microexpressions (See Ekman.) or on modern functional brain imaging may overcome this objection.

# Footnotes
-  Nico H. Frijda, The Emotions. Cambridge(UK): Cambridge University Press, 1986. p. 207