Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Waterborne diseases

# Overview
Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms which are directly transmitted when contaminated drinking water is consumed. Contaminated drinking water used in the preparation of food can be the source of foodborne disease through consumption of the same microorganisms. According to the World Health Organization, diarrheal disease accounts for an estimated 4.1% of the total DALY global burden of disease and is responsible for the deaths of 1.8 million people every year. It was estimated that 88% of that burden is attributable to unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene and is mostly concentrated on children in developing countries.
Waterborne disease can be caused by protozoa, viruses, bacteria, and intestinal parasites.

# Protozoal infections

# Parasitic Infections

# Bacterial infections
- Botulism - Clostridium botulinum bacteria  - gastro-intestinal food/water borne; can grow in food
- Campylobacteriosis
- Cholera - Vibrio cholerae bacteria - gastro-intestinal often waterborne
- Chronic granulomatous disease - caused by the Mycobacterium marinum infection  and localized in skin, frequently occurred with aquarium keepers .
- Diarrhoeal diseases - caused by the water contamination of Cryptosporidium parvum .
- Dysentery - Shigella/Salmonella bacteria - gastro-intestinal food/water
- Legionellosis - cause Pontiac fever and Legionnaires' disease
- Leptospirosis-
- Otitis externa
- Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis
- Typhoid - Salmonella typhi bacteria - gastro-intestinal water/food borne
- Vibrio illness caused by the bacteria of Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus commonly found in seafood and recreational water .

# Viral Infections
- Adenovirus infection - its serotypes are typically waterborne .
- Astroviruses -
- Caliciviruses -
- Circoviruses - its human form of Transfusion Transmitted Virus found in feces, saliva, skin and hair 
- Coronaviruses - cause SARS and excreted in the feces 
- Enteric Adenoviruses -
- Hepatitis A  - Hepatitis A virus - gastro-intestinal water/food borne
- Parvoviruses - associated with Gastroenteritis .
- Picobimaviruses - associated with Gastroenteritis in AIDS patients, children and elderlies .
- Polio - polioviruses - gastro-intestinal exposure to untreated
- Polyomaviruses - its human form of JC virus cause Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and detected in sewage 
- Small Round Structured Virus

# Allergic infections
- Hay fever - a part of disease rate is associated with the high frequency of swimming pool attendance in childhood 
- Meningitis
- Trihalomethanes - a byproduct of chlorinated water which will cause bladder cancer through inhalation and dermal absorption during showering, bathing, and swimming in pools .
Whitehead Institute
Founded in 1982, the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research is a non-profit research and teaching institution located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Whitehead Institute was founded as a fiscally independent entity from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and its members and associate members hold faculty appointments in MIT's Biology Department.
The institute is one of the world's leading centers for genomic research. Its Center for Genome Research was active in the Human Genome Project, and reportedly contributed one-third of the human genome sequence announced in June 2000.
In June 2003, Eli and Edythe L. Broad pledged $100 million to build the Broad Institute, a joint venture of Whitehead, MIT, Harvard and local teaching hospitals. The new venture's mission is to expand tools for genomic medicine and apply them for the treatment of disease.
Whitehead has a world-renowned faculty that includes the recipient of the 1997 National Medal of Science (Robert Weinberg); eight Members of the National Academy of Sciences (Gerald Fink, Rudolf Jaenisch, Eric Lander, Susan Lindquist, Harvey Lodish, Terry Orr-Weaver, David Page, and Weinberg); three Members of the Institute of Medicine (Fink, Lander, and Weinberg); and six Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Jaenisch, Fink, Lander, Lindquist, Lodish, and Weinberg.) All Whitehead faculty are also members of the Biology Department at MIT. Members are tenured full and associate professors; Associate Members have tenure-track appointments. Whitehead also has an Affiliate Members program.
Wrist drop overview

# Overview
Wrist drop is a condition where a person can not extend their wrist and it hangs flaccidly.

# Anatomy
In anatomical parlance, the forearm is the part of the body which extends from the elbow to the wrist and is not to be confused with the arm which extends from the shoulder to the elbow.  The extensor muscles in the forearm are extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor digiti minimi, extensor digitorum, extensor indicis, extensor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor carpi radialis longus.  These extensor muscles are supplied by the radial nerve.  Other muscles in the forearm also innervated by the radial nerve are brachioradialis, supinator and abductor pollicis longus.  Note that all these muscles are situated in the posterior half of the forearm (posterior when in the anatomical position).

# Diagnosis

## X Ray
Plain films can help identify bone spurs and fractures that may have injured the nerve.

## MRI
Sometimes MRI imaging is required to differentiate subtle causes.

## Other  Diagnostic Studies
The workup for wrist drop frequently includes nerve conduction velocity studies to isolate and confirm the radial nerve as the source of the problem.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
The goal of treatment is to allow you to use the hand and arm as much as possible. The health care provider should find and treat the cause, if possible. In some cases, no treatment is needed and you will recover slowly on your own. Initial management includes splinting of the wrist for support along with occupational or physical therapy. Medical causes such as diabetes and kidney disease should be treated.

## Surgery
In some cases surgical removal of bone spurs or other anatomical defects that may be impinging on the nerve might be warranted.

## Primary Prevention
Avoid prolonged pressure on the upper arm.
Zestoretic overdose

# Overdosage topics
General
Lisinopril
Hydrochlorothiazide

## General
No specific information is available on the treatment of
-verdosage with ZESTORETIC. Treatment is symptomatic
and supportive. Therapy with ZESTORETIC should be
discontinued and the patient observed closely. Suggested
measures include induction of emesis and/or gastric lavage,
and correction of dehydration, electrolyte imbalance and
hypotension by established procedures. Return to top

## Lisinopril
Following a single oral dose of 20 g/kg no lethality occurred
in rats and death occurred in one of 20 mice receiving the
same dose. The most likely manifestation of overdosage
would be hypotension, for which the usual treatment would be
intravenous infusion of normal saline solution.
Lisinopril can be removed by hemodialysis. Return to top

## Hydrochlorothiazide
Oral administration of a single oral dose of 10 g/kg to mice
and rats was not lethal. The most common signs and
symptoms observed are those caused by electrolyte depletion
(hypokalemia, hypochloremia, hyponatremia) and dehydration
resulting from excessive diuresis. If digitalis has also been
administered, hypokalemia may accentuate cardiac
arrhythmias. Return to top
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
2,4-Dinitrotoluene

# Overview
2,4-Dinitrotoluene (DNT) or Dinitro is an organic compound with the formula CH3C6H3)(NO2)2. This pale yellow crystalline solid is well known as a precursor to trinitrotoluene (TNT) but is mainly produced as a precursor to toluene diisocyanate.

# Isomers of dinitrotoluene
Six isomers are possible for dinitrotoluene. The most common one is 2,4-dinitrotoluene.
The nitration of toluene gives sequentially mononitrotoluene, DNT, and finally TNT.  2,4-DNT is the principal product from dinitration, the other main product being about 30% 2,6-DNT.  The nitration of 4-nitrotoluene gives 2,4-DNT.

# Applications
Most DNT is used in the production of toluene diisocyanate, which is used to produce flexible polyurethane foams.  DNT is hydrogenated to produce toluenediamine, which in turn is phosgenated to give toluene diisocyanate.  In this way, about 1.4 billion kilograms are produced annually, as of the years 1999-2000.  Other uses include the explosives industry. It is not used by itself as an explosive, but some of the production is converted to TNT.
Dinitrotoluene is frequently used as a plasticizer, deterrent coating, and burn rate modifier in propellants (e.g., smokeless gunpowders). As it is carcinogenic and toxic, modern formulations tend to avoid its use. In this application it is often used together with dibutyl phthalate.

# Toxicity
Dinitrotoluenes are highly toxic with a TLV of 1.5 mg/m3.  It converts hemoglobin into methemoglobin.
2,4 Dinitrotoluene is also a listed hazardous waste under 40 CFR 261.30. Its United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) hazardous waste Number is D030. The maximum concentration that may be contained to not have toxic characteristics is 0.13 mg/L.
MMDA (psychedelic)

# Overview
MMDA, or 3-methoxy-4,5-methylenedioxyamphetamine, is a stimulant, a psychedelic drug, an entheogen, and an entactogen. It is a substituted Amphetamine and an analogue of MDA, Lophophine and MDMA (Ecstasy). It bears resemblance to the psychopharmacologically active essential oils elemicin and myristicin found in nutmeg. MMDA is most typically taken orally (as pressed tablets) or intranasaly (as a powder).
MMDA was written up by Alexander Shulgin in his book, "PiHKAL." Shulgin lists the dosage range of MMDA as 100-250 mg. The first symptoms appear within 30-60 minutes following oral administration. MMDA causes accentuation of feelings such as anxiety, euphoria, loneliness, and loving warmth. MMDA also produces eyes-closed visuals, a state of drowsiness and muscular relaxation, and time distortion. Side effects include moderate mydriasis, dizziness, sensations of heat or cold, and trembling. The imagery is generally realistic, and often related to everyday perception of people, landscapes, or objects. The effects of MMDA usually reach a peak after the first hour following the initial symptoms, and begin to wane during the second hour, and usually completely disappear by the end of the fifth hour.

# Analogs

## MMDA-2
Dosage: 25-50 mgs
Duration: 8-12 hours
Effects: slow, MDA-like effects, muscle stiffness, inability to defecate

## Methyl-MMDA-2
Dosage: unknown
Duration: unknown
Effects: Few to none

## MMDA-3a
Dosage: 20-80 mgs
Duration: 10-16 hours
Effects: mild open-eye visuals, visual enhancement of music, slowing of time, slight diarrhea and body load

## MMDA-3b
Dosage: unknown
Duration: unknown
Effects: Few to none

## 2T-MMDA-3a
Dosage: unknown
Duration: unknown
Effects: Few to none

## 4T-MMDA-2
Dosage: 25 mg
Duration: unknown
Effects: Slight tremors

# Psychotherapuetic actions
In his 1973 book, "The Healing Journey," Claudio Naranjo explored the psychotherapeutic potential of MMDA. Like MDA, he found that MMDA facilitates communication and suggested it has potential applications in psychotherapy. Worldwide as of 2005, MMDA has not been approved for any human applications.

# Pharmacology
The mechanism that produces the psychedelic activity of MMDA has not been definitively established. There are, as of the present time, no reported studies on the human pharmacokinetics or metabolism of MMDA. Based on its structural relationship with other similar drugs for which the pharmacology is known, it is likely that MMDA has multiple mechanisms of action, and probably acts both as a 5HT2A agonist in a similar manner to hallucinogenic amphetamines such as DOM, and also as a serotonin releaser by reversing the direction of the serotonin reuptake transporter in a similar manner to MDMA.

# Legality
MMDA is classified as a Schedule 1 substance in the United States, and is similarly controlled in other parts of the world. Internationally, MMDA is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
Abdominal epilepsy

# Overview
Abdominal epilepsy describes a group of gastrointestinal (GI) disturbances caused by epileptiform seizure activity seen on EEG tracing. While a causal relationship has not been proven, the GI symptoms cannot be explained by other pathophyisological mechanisms, and are seen to improve upon anticonvulsant treatment.
The phenomenon seems to be very rare, with a total of 36 case reports published in the English medical literature during the last 35 years. Trousseau is commonly credited as the first to describe the condition in 1868 in a boy with paroxysmal GI symptoms culminating in grand mal epileptic seizures.
The first account of abdominal epilepsy supported by EEG tracings came in 1944 in an article by M.T. Moore, followed by several subsequent case reports from the same group.

# Literature
- M.T. Moore, "Paroxysmal abdominal pain: a form of focal symptomatic epilepsy", JAMA.1944 124 561-563
- Zinkin,Peppercornet. al. "Abdominal epilepsy", Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2005 Apr;19(2):263-74.
Abdominal exercise
Abdominal exercises are those that affect the abdominal muscles (colloquially known as the stomach muscles).

# Breakdowns
The anterior abdominal wall is made up of 4 muscles-- the rectus abdominus  muscle, the internal and external obliques, and the transversus abdominus.

# Effectiveness of abdominal exercises
The effectiveness of abdominal exercise is measured using electromyography (EMG) relative to the  traditional crunch. The following ranks abdominal exercises from best to worst in terms of activity detected by the EMG measures: 

# Safety of abdominal exercises
Abdominal exercises also put some degree of compressive force on the lumbar spine, putting unwanted stress on the lower back.  A study of twelve exercises concluded that no single exercise covered all abdominal muscles with high intensity and low compression.
Deep inguinal ring
The deep inguinal ring (internal or deep abdominal ring, abdominal inguinal ring, internal inguinal ring) is the entrance to the inguinal canal.

# Location
The surface anatomy of the point is disputed, but in a recent study it was found to be at a point between the mid-inguinal point (situated midway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic symphysis) and the midpoint of the inguinal ligament. Traditionally either one of these 2 sites was claimed as its location.
Some sources state that it is at the layer of the transversalis fascia.

# Shape
It is of an oval form, the long axis of the oval being vertical; it varies in size in different subjects, and is much larger in the male than in the female.

# Boundaries
It is bounded, above and laterally, by the arched lower margin of the transversalis fascia; below and medially, by the inferior epigastric vessels.

# Transmission
It transmits the spermatic cord in the male and the round ligament of the uterus in the female.

# Extensions
From its circumference a thin funnel-shaped membrane, the infundibuliform fascia, is continued around the cord and testis, enclosing them in a distinct covering.

# Additional images
- The abdominal inguinal ring.
- The relations of the femoral and abdominal inguinal rings, seen from within the abdomen. Right side.
Absolute deviation

# Overview
In statistics, the absolute deviation of an element of a data set is the absolute difference between that element and a given point.  Typically the point from which the deviation is measured is the value of either the median or the mean of the data set.
where
The average absolute deviation (or simply average deviation) of a data set is the average (or expected value) of the absolute deviations and is a summary statistic of statistical dispersion or variability.
The average absolute deviation of a set {x1, x2, ..., xn} is
The choice of measure of Central tendency has a marked effect on the value of the average deviation.  For example, for the data set {2, 2, 3, 4, 14}:
The average absolute deviation from the median is less than or equal to the average absolute deviation from the mean.  In fact, the average absolute deviation from the median is always less than or equal to the average absolute deviation from any other fixed number.
The average absolute deviation from the mean is less than or equal to the standard deviation.  One way of proving that relies on Jensen's inequality.
The mean absolute deviation is the average absolute deviation from the mean and is a common measure of forecast error in time series analysis.  It should be noted that although the term mean deviation is used as a synonym for mean absolute deviation, to be precise it is not the same; in its strict interpretation (namely, omitting the absolute value operation), the mean deviation of any data set from its mean is always zero.
The mean absolute deviation of a sample is a biased estimator of the mean absolute deviation of the population.
Acacia berlandieri
Acacia berlandieri (Berlandier Acacia, Guajillo Acacia, guajillo, huajillo) is a shrub native to the Southwestern United States that belongs to the Fabaceae (bean family). It grows 1m to 5m tall, with blossoms that are spherical and white, occurring from February through April.  The berlandieri epithet comes from the name of Jean-Louis Berlandier, a French naturalist who studied wildlife native to Texas and Mexico. A. berlandieri contains a wide variety of alkaloids and has been known to cause toxic reactions in domestic animals such as goats.

# Uses
A. berlandieri is toxic to livestock and thus should not be used as forage or fodder.

# Alkaloids
A. berlandieri contains a number of diverse alkaloids, the most plentiful of which are N-methylphenethylamine, tyramine, and phenethylamine. In a recent study, researchers identified thirty-one alkaloids in samples of plant foliage, including trace amounts of five amphetamines previously believed to be human inventions: amphetamine, methamphetamine, N,N-dimethylamphetamine, p-hydroxyamphetamine and p-methoxyamphetamine. Other trace alkaloids include DMT (found in many related species), nicotine, and mescaline (found in many cacti but infrequently in other plants). The same group of researchers later reported finding most of the same alkaloids in A. rigidula, a related species also native to the Southwestern U.S.

# Some chemical compounds found in Acacia berlandieri
Total alkaloids in dried leaves 0.28-0.66%.
- Beta-methyl-phenethylamine
- Catechin
- Fisetin
- Hordenine
- Phenethylamine
- Quercetin
- Tyramine
- Tryptamine 90-124 ppb in spring, 287-334 ppb in fall
- Dimethyltryptamine fall only, 75-114 ppb
Acne medicamentosa
Acne medicamentosa is acne that is caused or aggravated by medication.  Because acne is generally a disorder of the pilosebaceous units caused by hormones, the medications that trigger acne medicamentosa most frequently are hormones.
Although the male's hormone testosterone is most often blamed, and although men with acne secondary to bodybuilding hormones is seen from time to time, the major hormonal medication that causes acne is the progestin / progestagen present in hormonal contraception.  Other medications can produce 'acneiform' eruptions (usually pimply bumps and pustules that look like acne).
Some conditions mimic acne medicamentosa.  The most common mimic is the yeast folliculitis produced by an overgrowth of the Malassezia species, often secondary to oral or systemic corticosteroids, or secondary to broad-spectrum antibiotics such as the tetracycline family used in acne. This is often misinterpreted as 'tetracycline-resistant acne'.
rosacea can also appear as bumps or pustules on the face
Acneiform eruption

# Overview
Acneiform eruption refers to a group of dermatoses including acne vulgaris, rosacea, folliculitis, and perioral dermatitis.
Restated, acneiform eruptions are follicular eruptions characterized by papules and pustules resembling acne.
The term "acneiform", literally, refers to an appearance similar to acne.
The terminology used in this field can be complex, and occasionally contradictory. Some sources consider acne vulgaris part of the differential diagnosis for an acneiform eruption. Other sources classified acne vulgaris under acneiform eruption. MeSH explicitly excludes perioral dermatitis from the category of "acneiform eruptions", though it does group acneiform eruptions and perioral dermatitis together under "facial dermatoses".
Carpenter syndrome
Synonyms and keywords: Acrocephalopolysyndactyly type 2, Goodman syndrome, Summitt syndrome, Acrocephalopolysyndactyly type 4

# Overview
Carpenter syndrome  is an extremely rare autosomal recessive congenital disorder characterized by craniofacial malformations, obesity, and syndactyly.

# Historical Perspective
It was first characterized in 1909.

# Pathophysiology

## Genetics
Carpenter syndrome has been associated with mutations in the RAB23 gene, which is located on chromosome 6 in humans.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination
Carpenter syndrome presents several features:
- Tower-shaped skull (craniosynostosis)
- Additional or fused digits (fingers and toes)
- Obesity
- Reduced height
- Mental deficiency is also common with the disorder, although some patients may have average intellectual capacity.
Adaptive radiation
An adaptive radiation is a rapid evolutionary radiation characterised by an increase in the morphological and ecological diversity of a single, rapidly diversifying lineage.  Phenotypes adapt in response to the environment, with new and useful traits arising. This is an evolutionary process driven by natural selection.

# Causes of adaptive radiation

## Innovation
The evolution of a novel feature may permit a clade to diversify by making new areas of morphospace accessible.  A classic example is the evolution of a fourth cusp in the mammalian tooth.  This trait permits a vast increase in the range of foodstuffs which can be utilised, with species able to specialise on feeding on a range of foodstuffs. The trait arose a number of times in different groups during the Cenozoic, and in each instance was immediately followed by an adaptive radiation. Birds provide another example; the evolution of flight opened new avenues for evolution to explore, initiating an adaptive radiation.

## Opportunity
Adaptive radiations often occur as a result of an organism arising in an environment with unoccupied niches, such as a newly formed lake or isolated island chain.  The colonising population may diversify rapidly to take advantage of all possible niches.
In Lake Victoria, an isolated lake which formed recently in the African rift valley, over 300 species of cichlid fish adaptively radiated from one parent species in just 15,000 years.
Adaptive radiations commonly follow mass extinctions: following an extinction, many niches are left vacant.  A classic example of this is the replacement of the non-avian dinosaurs with mammals at the end of the Cretaceous, and of brachiopods by bivalves at the Permo-Triassic boundary..