Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Skin allergy testing
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Skin allergy testing is a method for medical diagnosis of allergies. A microscopic amount of an allergen is introduced to a patient's skin by various means:
- by pricking the skin with a needle or pin containing a small amount of the allergen ('Prick Testing' or 'Scratch Testing')
- by applying a patch to the skin, where the patch contains the allergen.
If an immuno-response is seen in the form of a rash, hives, urticaria or (worse) anaphylaxis it can be concluded that the patient has a hypersensitivity (or allergy) to that allergen. Further testing can be done to identify the particular allergen.
The "scratch test" as it's called, is still very commonly used as an allergen test.  A similar test involving injecting the allergen is also used, but is not quite as common due to increased likelihood of infection and general ineffectiveness by comparison.
Allopurinol overdose

# Overdosage topics
Human data
Animal Data
Treatment
Hemodialysis/peritoneal dialysis

## Human data
Massive overdosing or acute poisoning by Allopurinol has not been reported. Return to top

## Animal data
In mice the 50% lethal dose (LD50) is 160 mg/kg given intraperitoneally (i.p.) with deaths delayed up to five days and 700 mg/kg orally (p.o.) (approximately 140 times the usual human dose) with deaths delayed up to three days. In rats the acute LD50 is 750 mg/kg i.p. and 6000 mg/kg p.o. (approximately 1200 times the human dose). Return to top

## Treatment
In the management of overdosage there is no specific antidote for Allopurinol. There has been no clinical experience in the management of a patient who has taken massive amounts of Allopurinol. Return to top

## Hemodialysis/peritoneal dialysis
Both Allopurinol and oxipurinol are dialyzable; however, the usefulness of hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis in the management of an Allopurinol overdosage is unknown. Return to top
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
Allyl isothiocyanate
Allyl isothiocyanate is the chemical compound responsible for the pungent taste of mustard, horseradish and wasabi.  It is a colorless to pale yellow liquid that is slightly soluble in water, but well soluble in most organic solvents.
Allyl isothiocyanate itself does not occur in the mustard seed.  Instead, when ground mustard seeds are mixed with water, vinegar, or other liquids or when they are chewed, a chemical reaction between the enzyme myrosinase and a glucosinolate known as sinigrin from the seeds of black mustard (Brassica nigra) or brown Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) leads to the production of allyl isothiocyanate.
Allyl isothiocyanate serves the plant as a defense against herbivores; since it is harmful to the plant itself, it is stored in the harmless form of the glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme.  When an animal chews the plant, the allyl isothiocyanate is released, repelling the animal.
Allyl isothiocyanate can also be liberated by heating during distillation.  The product obtained in this fashion is known as volatile oil of mustard and is usually around 92% pure.  It is used principally as a flavoring agent in a variety of foods.
Allyl isothiocyanate can also be produced synthetically, by the reaction of allyl iodide and potassium thiocyanate.  The product obtained in this fashion is sometimes known as synthetic mustard oil.
Synthetic allyl isothiocyanate is used as an insecticide, as an animal repellent, to denature alcohol, and as a topical anesthetic.  It is also highly antibacterial, and can also help combat mold growth.
Alternaria alternata
Alternaria alternata has been recorded infecting over 380 host species. It is opportunistic pathogen on numerous hosts causing leaf spots, rots and blights on many plant parts. It also causes upper respiratory tract infections in AIDS patients and asthma in people with sensitivity.

# Identification

## Teleomorph
Unknown

## Anamorph
Conidiophore
- Pale brown to olive brown
- 25-60 x 3-3.5 m
- Straight or flexuous
- Individual conidiophores arise directly from substrate forming bushy heads consisting of 4-8 large catenate conidia chains
- Secondary conidiophores are generally short and 1-celled
Conidia
- Pale brown to light brown
- Obclavate to obpyriform orellipsoid, short conical beak at the tip, or beakless
- Surface smooth to verruculose
- Size
20-63 x 9-18 m in size
(on PCA) mature conidia typically 10-30 x 5-12 m
- 20-63 x 9-18 m in size
- (on PCA) mature conidia typically 10-30 x 5-12 m
- Septa
Several vertical and -8 transverse septa
(on PCA) 3-7 transepta, 1-5 longisepta
- Several vertical and -8 transverse septa
- (on PCA) 3-7 transepta, 1-5 longisepta
- Chains
Produced in an often branched, long chain more than 5 conidia.
(on PCA) individual chains of 5-15 conidia, complex of branching chains may contain up to 50-60 conidia
- Produced in an often branched, long chain more than 5 conidia.
- (on PCA) individual chains of 5-15 conidia, complex of branching chains may contain up to 50-60 conidia
Alternate hypothesis

# Overview
The alternate hypothesis (or maintained hypothesis or research hypothesis) and the null hypothesis are the two rival hypotheses whose likelihoods are compared by a statistical hypothesis test. Usually the alternate hypothesis is the possibility that an observed effect is genuine and the null hypothesis is the rival possibility that it has resulted from random chance.
The classical (or frequentist) approach is to calculate the probability that the observed effect (or one more extreme) will occur if the null hypothesis is true. If this value (sometimes called the "p-value") is small then the result is called statistically significant and the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternate hypothesis. If not, then the null hypothesis is not rejected.  Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis is a Type I error; incorrectly failing to reject it is a Type II error.
Bayesian statisticians would challenge this approach in that it takes no account of a priori beliefs in the two hypotheses or the different consequences of taking a wrong decision; there may be good reasons (extraneous to the statistical data) for believing the null hypothesis to be correct. This must be weighed against the damning evidence of a low p-value before the null hypothesis can be rejected.
An example: In the trial of Sally Clark, a solicitor accused of killing both her babies, pediatrician Sir Roy Meadow testified that the probability of two infants in the same family dying of natural causes was 1 in 73,000,000. If natural death is the null hypothesis and murder the alternate hypothesis, then the p-value is 1/73,000,000. The smallness of this value means that the null hypothesis that the deaths had had natural causes should be rejected and therefore murder concluded.
The problem was that even if the 73,000,000 figure were correct (this calculation was itself challenged as being flawed by the ecological fallacy), double murder is a rare event and there is therefore a good a priori reason for believing the null hypothesis. The standard hypothesis test was therefore not a good indicator of Clark's guilt.
American Winterberry
American Winterberry (Ilex verticillata), also known as Black Alder, Black Alder Winterberry, Brook Alder, Coralberry, Deciduous Holly, Deciduous Winterberry, False alder, Fever bush, Inkberry, Michigan Holly, Possumhaw, Striped Alder, Swamp Holly, Virginian Winterberry, White Alder, or Winterberry Holly, is a species of holly native to a very large area in the eastern United States and southeast Canada, particularly in wetlands. The winterberry is one of a number of hollies which are deciduous, losing their leaves in the fall. Like most hollies, it is dioecious, with separate male and female plants; the proximity of at least one male plant is required to pollenize the females in order to bear fruit.
The plant can show a lot of variation, ranging in size from 1-5 m tall. It also shows variation in width; in wet sites, it will spread to form a dense thicket, while in dry soil it remains a tight shrub. The winterberry possesses the glossy green foliage typical of hollies, and small white flowers which give rise to the numerous small red berries which give the plant its name.
The winterberry is prized for the midwinter splash of bright color from densely packed berries, whose visibility is heightened by the loss of foliage; therefore it is popular even where other, evergreen, hollies are also grown. The bare branches covered in berries are also popular for cutting and use in floral arrangements. It is a tough plant which is easy to grow, with very few diseases or pests. Although wet acidic soils are optimal, the winterberry will grow well in the average garden. Numerous cultivars are available, differing in size and shape of the plant and color of the berry. As described above, at least one male plant must be planted in proximity to one or more females for them to bear fruit.
The winterberry is also popular because its berries attract numerous species of birds; however this can also be a drawback as they also attract deer and small mammals. The berries were used by Native Americans for medicinal purposes, the origin of the name "fever bush".
Ammonium bicarbonate

# Overview
Ammonium bicarbonate, also called bicarbonate of ammonia, ammonium hydrogen carbonate, hartshorn, or powdered baking ammonia, is the bicarbonate salt of ammonia.
Ammonium bicarbonate is formed as shown below, or by passing carbon dioxide through a solution of the normal compound, when it is deposited as a white powder, which has no smell and is only slightly soluble in water. The aqueous solution of this salt liberates carbon dioxide on exposure to air or on heating, and becomes alkaline in reaction. The aqueous solutions of all the carbonates when boiled undergo decomposition with liberation of carbon dioxide and the substance with which the carbonate ion reacted to form the bicarbonate, in this case, ammonia:

# Properties
At room temperature ammonium bicarbonate is a white, crystalline powder with a slight odour of ammonia that can dissolve in water to give a mildly alkaline solution. It is however insoluble in acetone and alcohols. Ammonium bicarbonate decomposes at 36 to 60 C into ammonia, carbon dioxide and water vapor in an endothermic process (as it is with many ammonium salts) and so causes a drop in the temperature of the water. When reacted with acids carbon dioxide is produced, while reactions with alkalis give ammonia.

# Uses
Ammonium bicarbonate was used in the food industry as a raising agent (e.g., for gingerbread or Chinese youtiao) before the introduction of baking soda.  Ammonium bicarbonate is still used in many food products, in addition to baking soda. Many baking cookbooks (especially from Scandinavian countries) may still refer to it as hartshorn or hornsalt . It is fine to replace it with baking soda.
It is commonly used as an inexpensive nitrogen fertilizer in China, but is now being phased out in favor of urea because of its relatively low quality and instability. This compound is used as a component in the production of fire-extinguishing compounds, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pigments and it is also a basic fertilizer being a source of ammonia. Ammonium bicarbonate is still widely used in the plastic and rubber industry, in the manufacture of ceramics, in chrome leather tanning and for the synthesis of catalysts.

# Safety
Ammonium bicarbonate is an irritant to the skin, eyes and respiratory system. Additionally, the acrylamide that is formed during the baking process has been connected to cancer in lab animals.
Ammonium perchlorate
Ammonium perchlorate (AP) is a chemical compound with the formula NH4ClO4.
It is the salt of ammonia and perchloric acid. Like other perchlorates, it is a powerful oxidizer.
It is produced by reaction between ammonia and perchloric acid, or by double decomposition between an ammonium salt and sodium perchlorate.
It crystallises in colorless rhombohedra with a relative density of 1.95. Like most ammonium salts, it decomposes before melting. Mild heating results in chlorine, nitrogen, oxygen and water, while strong heating may lead to explosions.
The combustion of such compound is quite complex and is widely studied in literature.
Ammonium perchlorate crystals decompose before melting, even though a thin liquid layer has been observed on crystal surface during high pressure combustion processes.
The gaseous decomposition products are in general ammonia- and chlorine-based and can react together generating a thin premixed flame very close to the crystal surface. Pure crystals cannot sustain a flame below the pressure of 20 bar (2 MPa). Nevertheless, the material is considered hazardous if ground under 15 micrometres. When AP is mixed with a fuel (like a metal powder or mixed with a polymeric binder) it can generate self-sustained combustion also far under atmospheric pressure.
It is an important oxidizer used in solid rocket propellants known as Ammonium perchlorate composite propellants (APCP). Uses include the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, as well as many other solid rockets including some fireworks, amateur and hobby high powered rockets, and larger rockets used for space launch and military purposes.
The PEPCON disaster happened at an ammonium perchlorate manufacturing plant. The resulting explosions measured 3.5 on the Richter scale some 600 miles (1000 km) away.  Over 400 people were injured, but only 2 died in the monstrous blast.
Ammonium thiocyanate
Sodium thiocyanate is the chemical compound with the formula NaSCN.  This colourless deliquescent salt is one of the main sources of the thiocyanate anion.  As such, it is used as a precursor for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other specialty chemicals.  Thiocyanate salts are typically prepared by the reaction of cyanide with elemental sulfur:
NaSCN crystallises in an orthorhombic cell.  Each Na+ center is surrounded by three sulfur and three nitrogen ligands provided by the triatomic thiocyanate anion.

# Applications in chemical synthesis
NaSCN is employed to convert alkyl halides into the corresponding alkylthiocyanates.  Closely related reagents include ammonium thiocyanate and potassium thiocyanate, which has twice the solubility in water. Silver thiocyanate may be used as well; the precipitation of insoluble silver halides help simplify workup. Treatment of isopropyl bromide with NaSCN in hot ethanolic solution affords isopropyl thiocyanate.  Protonation of NaSCN affords isothiocyanic acid, S=C=NH (pKa = -1.28).  This species is generated in situ from NaSCN; it adds to organic amines to afford derivatives of thiourea.
Amoxicillin overdose

# Overdosage topics
Treatment
Manifestations
- Interstitial nephritis
- Crystalluria
- Renal impairment

## Treatment
In case of overdosage, discontinue medication, treat symptomatically, and institute supportive
measures as required. If the overdosage is very recent and there is no contraindication, an
attempt at emesis or other means of removal of drug from the stomach may be performed. A
prospective study of 51 pediatric patients at a poison-control center suggested that overdosages
-f less than 250 mg/kg of amoxicillin are not associated with significant clinical symptoms and
do not require gastric emptying. Return to top

## Interstitial nephritis
Interstitial nephritis resulting in oliguric renal failure has been reported in a small number of
patients after overdosage with amoxicillin. Return to top

## Crystalluria
Crystalluria, in some cases leading to renal failure, has also been reported after amoxicillin
-verdosage in adult and pediatric patients. In case of overdosage, adequate fluid intake and
diuresis should be maintained to reduce the risk of amoxicillin crystalluria. Return to top

## Renal impairment
Renal impairment appears to be reversible with cessation of drug administration. High blood
levels may occur more readily in patients with impaired renal function because of decreased
renal clearance of amoxicillin. Amoxicillin may be removed from circulation by hemodialysis.
Return to top
Adapted from the FDA Package Insert.
Androgen suppression
Synonyms and keywords: Androgen ablation, androgen deprivation, androgen deprivation therapy, ADT

# Overview
Androgen suppression is a medical treatment to suppress or block the production or action of male sex hormones, typically in order to attempt to treat certain types of cancer that rely upon male hormones for their growth.  Androgen suppression therapy, which includes GnRH agonist, antiandrogens and bilateral orchiectomy, is used for the treatment of prostate cancer.  Androgen suppression therapy use has been associated with increased incidence of cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity, decreased insulin sensitivity and dyslipidemia.  The association between androgen suppression therapy and increased cardiovascular mortality is controversial.

# Types of Androgen Suppression Therapy
- GnRH agonist
- Antiandrogens
- bilateral orchiectomy
- Treatment with female hormones

# Cardiovascular Effects of Androgen Suppression Therapy in Prostate Cancer
Androgen suppression therapy, which includes GnRH agonist, antiandrogens and bilateral orchiectomy, is used for the treatment of prostate cancer.  Androgen suppression therapy use has been associated with increased incidence of cardiovascular risk factors.  In fact, androgen suppression therapy contributes to an increase in obesity, modification of the body composition, a decrease in insulin sensitivity and dyslipidemia.  The science advisory from the American Heart Association, American Cancer Society, and American Urological Association recommends regular follow up for the evaluation of cardiovascular risk factors among patients with prostate cancer on androgen suppression therapy.  Among patients with pre-existing cardiovascular disease, secondary prevention should be optimized.
In addition, androgen suppression therapy use is associated with increased risk of myocardial infarction (MI), stroke and shorter time to MI.  A cohort of 73,196 patients with prostate cancer, among which one third received GnRH agonist revealed an association between GnRH agonist use and increased incidence of diabetes (HR=1.44; P < 0.001), coronary heart disease (HR=1.16; P < 0.001) and MI (HR=1.11; P = 0.03).
The association between androgen suppression therapy use and increased cardiovascular mortality is controversial.  While this association has been reported in some studies, others suggest that this association is only valid when the subject has co-existing comorbidities or other cardiac risk factors.  A metanalysis of 8 randomized clinical trials of 4141 patients demonstrates that androgen suppression therapy use in prostate cancer is not significantly associated with increased cardiovascular mortality (RR=0.93; 95% CI, 0.79-1.10; P = 0.41).  However, a metanalysis of 11 randomized clinical trials of 4805 patients reports that androgen suppression therapy use is associated with decreased prostate cancer related mortality (RR=0.69; 95% CI, 0.56-0.84; P < 0.001) and decreased overall mortality (RR=0.86; 95% CI, 0.80-0.93; P <0.001).
Ectodermal dysplasia
Ectodermal dysplasia is not a single disorder, but a group of closely related conditions. More than 150 different syndromes have been identified.
Ectodermal dysplasias are described as "heritable conditions in which there are abnormalities of two or more ectodermal structures such as the hair, teeth, nails, sweat glands, cranial-facial structure, digits and other parts of the body." 

# Hair
Individuals affected by an ED syndrome frequently have abnormalities of the hair follicles. Scalp and body hair may be thin, sparse, and very light in color, even though beard growth in affected males may be normal. The hair may be excessively brittle, curly, or even twisted. Wigs and make-up can mask defects in hair development.

# Nails
Fingernails and toenails may be thick, abnormally shaped, discolored, ridged, slow-growing, or brittle. The cuticles may be prone to infections.

# Skin
The skin may be lightly pigmented. In some cases, red or brown pigmentation may be present. Skin can be prone to rashes or infections and can be thick over the palms and soles. Care must be taken to prevent cracking, bleeding, and infection.

# Sweat glands
Many individuals affected by ED syndromes cannot perspire. Their sweat glands may function abnormally or may not have developed at all. Without normal sweat production, the body cannot regulate temperature properly. Therefore, overheating is a common problem, especially during hot weather. Access to cool environments is important.

# Teeth
Abnormalities in the development of tooth buds usually result in missing teeth or in the growth of teeth that are peg-shaped or pointed. The enamel may also be defective. Dental treatment almost always is necessary and children may need dentures as early as two years of age. Multiple denture replacements are often needed as the child grows, and dental implants may be an option in adolescence. In other cases, teeth can be crowned. Orthodontic treatment also may be necessary. Because dental treatment is complex, a multi-disciplinary approach is best.

# Other features
In some types of ED, abnormal development of parts of the eye can result in dryness of the eye, cataracts, and vision defects. Professional eye care can help minimize the effects of ED on vision. Similarly, abnormalities in the development of the ear may cause hearing problems. Respiratory infections can be more common because the normal protective secretions of the mouth and nose are not present. Precautions must be taken to limit infections.
Prepatellar bursitis
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Synonyms and keywords: Housemaid's knee

# Overview
Prepatellar bursitis, also known as housemaid's knee, is a common cause of swelling and pain above the patella (kneecap), and is due to inflammation of the prepatellar bursa. This structure is a superficial bursa with a thin synovial lining located between the skin and the patella. The bursa develops within the first years of life as a result of mechanical pressure and friction, and it serves the purpose of reducing friction on underlying structures and allowing maximal range of motion in the knee.
Aseptic prepatellar bursitis is commonly caused by repetitive work in a kneeling position, hence the name "housemaid's knee".
Inflammation of the prepatellar bursa may be aseptic (most common) or septic (e.g. bacterial infection), the septic variants being most common in children and immunocompromised individuals.
Prepatellar bursitis is more common in men than women.

# Physical Examination
- Prepatellar Bursitis: Redness and swelling of left prepatellar bursa caused  by bacterial infection.
- Prepatellar Bursitis: Redness and swelling of prepatellar bursa caused by bacterial infection. Inflammation and edema have led to desquamation.
- Prepatellar Bursitis: Extensive redness and swelling caused by bacterial    infection involving pre patellar bursae.
- Normal knee
- Infrapatellar Bursitis: Redness and swelling of right infrapatellar bursa
- Infrapatellar Bursitis: Redness and swelling of left infrapatellar    bursa.
Copyleft Images courtesy of Charlie Goldberg, M.D., UCSD School of Medicine and VA Medical Center, San Diego, CA

# Differential diagnosis
Prepatellar bursitis must be differentiated from other causes of bursitis

# Treatment
Aseptic bursitis is usually managed conservatively, but complicated cases may be treated with oral NSAIDs or corticosteroid injections when infection has been ruled out. Surgical excision is seldom necessary.
Acute bursitis can develop into a chronic issue if the cause is not identified and addressed.