Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Collagenous colitis

# Overview
Collagenous colitis is an inflammatory colonic disease with peak incidence in the 5th decade of life, affecting women more than men.  Its clinical presentation involves watery diarrhea, usually in the absence of rectal bleeding.  It is often classified under the umbrella entity microscopic colitis, along with a related condition, lymphocytic colitis.

# Diagnosis
On colonoscopy, the mucosa of the colon typically looks normal, but biopsies of affected tissue usually show deposition of collagen in the lamina propria, which is the area of connective tissue between colonic glands.  Radiological tests, including barium enemas are typically normal.

# Treatment
Treatment of collagenous colitis is often challenging, and many agents have been used therapeutically:
- Bismuth agents, including Pepto-Bismol
- 5-aminosalicylic acid
- Budesonide
- Immunosuppressants, including azathioprine
- Corticosteroids

# Disease associations
An association between collagenous colitis and celiac disease has been reported, but there is no evidence that dietary restrictions used in celiac disease management are of benefit in collagenous colitis therapy.
There have also been reports of an association between collagenous colitis and lymphoma.
Colony-forming unit

# Overview
In microbiology, colony-forming unit (CFU) is a measure of viable bacterial numbers. Unlike in direct microscopic counts where all cells, dead and living, are counted, CFU measures viable cells. By convenience the results are given as cfu/mL (colony-forming units per milliliter).

# Theory
The theory behind the technique of CFU establish that a single bacteria can grow and become a colony, via binary fission. These colony are clearly different between each other, both microscopical and macroscopical. However, some bacteria do not separate completely during the sample preparation process (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus) and the results of the count will be below the number of individual cells using direct methods.

# Uses
This technique allows the user to know how many CFU are per mL in the sample. Therefore, it allows knowing which is the microbiological load and the magnitude of the infection in humans and animals, or the degree of contamination in samples of water, vegetables, soil or fruits and in industrial products and the equipment.

# Other applications
Irradiated mice can have their immune systems reconstituted by the injection of bone marrow cells from a non irradiated animal. The injected cells form colonies in the spleen (hence s), each colony representing the progeny of a pluripotent stem cell. Operationally, therefore, the number of colony-forming units is a measure of the number of stem cells.
Common hepatic duct

# Overview
The common hepatic duct is the duct formed by the convergence of the right hepatic duct (which drains bile from the right functional lobe of the liver) and the left hepatic duct (which drains bile from the left functional lobe of the liver). The common hepatic duct then joins the cystic duct coming from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct.

# Clinical significance
The hepatic duct transports more volume in people who have had their gallbladder removed.
The common hepatic duct has an important relationship with the right hepatic artery and the cystic artery.  All of these must be identified during a cholecystectomy to avoid cutting or clipping the wrong structure.

# Dimensions
Approximate length: 8 cm
Approximate width: 8 mm

# Additional images
- The portal vein and its tributaries.
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Ichthyosis vulgaris

# Overview
Ichthyosis vulgaris is a skin disorder causing dry, scaly skin.
It is the most common form of ichthyosis, affecting around 1 in 250 people
For this reason it is known as common ichthyosis. It is also referred to as fish skin disease on account of its appearance.

# Pathophysiology
It is overwhelmingly a dominant inherited disease (often associated with filaggrin), although a very rare variant, acquired ichthyosis vulgaris, is not inherited.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
It is the most common form of ichthyosis, affecting around 1 in 250 people

# Risk factors
The climate or weather where someone afflicted with severe cases live will have a deterministic impact on the condition.
Paradoxically, those at risk of "prickly itch" should seek rather than avoid hot and humid climate. Living year-round in a tropical climate would facilitate sweating; sweating would in turn facilitate the clearing of the scales and keep the condition leading to "prickly itch" at bay.
On the other hand, cold and dry climate has the opposite effect. Not only would harsh winters inhibit sweating, but they would contribute to the build up of scales. Overexposure to strong air-conditioning and overconsumption of alcohol would also aggravate the build up of scales, and heighten the risk of "prickly itch."

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
The symptoms of the inherited condition manifest themselves at around four years old. The symptoms will often improve with age, although they may grow more severe again in old age.
The acquired variant usually becomes evident during adulthood.
The condition is not life-threatening; the impact on the patient, who has a mild case, is generally restricted to mild itching and the social impact of having skin with an unusual appearance. People afflicted with "mild" cases have symptoms which include " mosaic lines" or scaly patches on the shins, fine white scales on the forearms and rough palms.
However, severe cases, although rare, do exist. Severe cases would entail the build up of scales everywhere, with areas of the body that have a concentration of sweat glands being least affected. Areas where the skin rubs against each other, such as the arm pits, the groin, and the "folded" areas of the elbow and knees, would also be less affected. When the build up of scales is bad, the person with a severe case would suffer from "prickly itch" when he or she needs to sweat but cannot as a result of the scales.

# Treatment
Various topical treatments are available to "exfoliate" the scales. These include various lotions that contain alpha-hydroxy acids.

# Physical examination
- Ichthyosis Vulgaris.  With permission of the Dermatology Atlas
- Ichthyosis Vulgaris.  With permission of the Dermatology Atlas
- Ichthyosis Vulgaris.  With permission of the Dermatology Atlas
Common iliac artery

# Overview
The common iliac arteries are two large arteries, about 4cm long in adults but more than a centimetre in diameter, that originate from the aortic bifurcation and terminate when bifurcating into the external iliac artery and internal iliac artery. The common iliac artery, and all of its branches, exist as paired structures (that is to say, there is one on the left side and one on the right).
The distribution of the common iliac artery is basically the pelvis and lower limb on the corresponding side.
Both common iliac arteries are accompanied along their course by common iliac veins.

# Additional images
- The abdominal aorta and its branches.
- Deep and superficial dissection of the lumbar plexus.
- Dissection of side wall of pelvis showing sacral and pudendal plexuses.
- Sacral plexus of the right side.
- Abdominal portion of the sympathetic trunk, with the celiac and hypogastric plexuses.
- Lower half of right sympathetic cord.
- Transverse section of human embryo eight and a half to nine weeks old.
- Posterior abdominal wall, after removal of the peritoneum, showing kidneys, suprarenal capsules, and great vessels.
Compression garment
Compression garments are pieces of clothing such as socks, pantyhose, sleeves, etc, that provide support that is especially useful for people who have to stand for long periods, or people with poor circulation.  The garments can come in varying degrees of compression.  The higher degrees require a doctor's prescription.  Compression garments worn on the legs can help prevent deep vein thrombosis and reduce swelling, especially while traveling.
Compression tights are also worn by some athletes.

# Research
The Australian Physiotherapy Physiotherapists Association (APA) has endorsed skins products. The APA chief executive officer David Malone said that the endorsement shows that physiotherapists can now recommend Skins, as it meets the stringent criteria involved with an APA endorsement. 
Through testing repeat-sprint and throwing performance in cricket players, it was found that there was a significant difference (p<0.05) by way of higher mean skin temperature, lower 24 h post exercise CK values and lower 24 h post exercise ratings of muscle soreness when wearing compression garments. 
In materials testing, the compressive garment provided increased flexion and extentsion, which could help reduce hamstring injuries. They also reduced impact by 27% compared to american football pants alone. 

# Sources
- Duffield, Rob 1; Portus, Marc 2  Comparison of three types of full-body compression garments on throwing and repeat-sprint performance in cricket players. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 41(7):409-414, July 2007 (C) 2007 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd and British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine
- BRANDON DOAN1; YOUNG-HOO KWON2; ROBERT NEWTON3; JAEKUN SHIM4; EVA POPPER4; RYAN ROGERS4; LORI BOLT4; MIKE ROBERTSON4; WILLIAM KRAEMER5 Evaluation of a lower-body compression garment. Journal of Sports Sciences, Volume 21, Number 8, August 2003 , pp. 601-610(10) Publisher: Taylor and Francis Ltd
Compulsive behavior
Compulsive behavior is behavior which a person does "compulsively", i.e., not because he enjoys it but because he feels he "has to". The two most common forms are:
- obsessive-compulsive disorder - obsessive, distressing, intrusive thoughts and related compulsions which attempt to neutralize the obsessions
- drug addiction - a condition where a person takes a drug compulsively, despite potential harm to themselves, or their desire to stop
Concealed ovulation
Human females have concealed ovulation or hidden estrus.  Most female animals show distinctive signs when they are "in heat".  These include swelling and redness of the genitalia in baboons and bonobos, pheromone release in the feline family, etc.  By comparison, human females have few external signs of fertility.  It is  difficult to tell, by means of external signs only, whether or not a woman is ovulating at the time.  Humans are the only mammal to lack obvious, visible manifestations of ovulation, although some argue that the extended estrus period of the bonobo (reproductive-age females are in heat for 75% of their menstrual cycle) has a similar effect to the lack of a "heat" in human females.
While women can be taught to recognize their own ovulation (fertility awareness), whether men can detect ovulation in women is highly debated.  At least one recent study has argued that men are more likely to initiate sex with fertile women, while another has found male-initiated sex to occur at a constant rate throughout the menstrual cycle.
One group of authors has theorized that concealed ovulation and menstruation were key factors in the development of symbolic culture in early human society.
Concussion overview
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# Overview
Concussion, from the Latin concutere ("to shake violently"), is the most common and least serious type of traumatic brain injury. The terms mild brain injury, mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), mild head injury (MHI), and minor head trauma and concussion may be used interchangeably,
although the latter is often treated as a narrower category. The term 'concussion', has been used for centuries and is still commonly used in sports medicine, while 'MTBI' is a technical term used more commonly nowadays in general medical contexts. Frequently defined as a head injury with a transient loss of brain function, concussion can cause a variety of physical, cognitive, and emotional symptoms.

# Pathophysiology
It is not known whether the concussed brain is structurally damaged the way it is in other types of brain injury (albeit to a lesser extent) or whether concussion mainly entails a loss of function with physiological but not structural changes. Cellular damage has reportedly been found in concussed brains, but it may have been due to artifacts from the studies. A debate about whether structural damage exists in concussion has raged for centuries and is ongoing.

# Causes
Common causes include sports injuries, bicycle accidents, auto accidents, and falls; the latter two are the most frequent causes among adults . Concussion may be caused by a blow to the head, or by acceleration or deceleration forces without a direct impact. The forces involved disrupt cellular processes in the brain for days or weeks.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
Due to factors such as widely varying definitions and possible underreporting of concussion, the rate at which it occurs annually is not known; however it may be more than 6 per 1000 people.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Repeated concussions can cause cumulative brain damage such as dementia pugilistica or severe complications such as second-impact syndrome.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Concussion can be diagnosed and assigned a level of severity based largely on symptoms.
Condensing osteitis
Condensing osteitis is an area of bone sclerosis under teeth which show signs of inflammation.  The most common site is near premolars and molars.  On radiographs, condensing osteitis appears a radiopaque or lighter area around the roots of a tooth.  There is no associated bone expansion.

# Description
Condensing osteitis is a reaction to infection. It differs from other periapical inflammatory diseases in that there is a bone production rather than bone destruction. The result is a radiopaque lesion. This sclerotic reaction is apparently brought about by good patient resistance coupled with a low degree of virulence of the offending bacteria. It is more commonly seen in the young and seems to show special predilection for the periapical region of lower molars. The associated tooth is carious or contains a large restoration. Whether or not the pulp is irreversibly diseased is not known. Current level of knowledge suggests that the pulp is irreversibly inflamed. Uncommonly, condensing osteitis occurs as a reaction to periodontal infection rather than dental infection.

# Etiology
Infection of periapical tissues by organisms of low virulence.

# Treatment
General protocol is to treat only those cases which are symptomatic. This is done by endodontic therapy or extraction. In those cases which are asymptomatic in which there is no obvious caries in the associated tooth, we follow them with periodic x-ray examination.

# Prognosis
In those cases in which the offending tooth is extracted, the area of condensing osteitis may remain in the jaws indefinitely.

# Differential diagnosis
Idiopathic osteosclerosis and cementoblastoma. An abnormal result with electric pulp testing strongly suggests condensing osteitis and tends to rule out osteosclerosis and cementoblastoma.

# Synonyms
- Garre's disease (described by Dr. Carl Garre in 1893)
- Sclerosing osteitis
Congenital anorchia
Synonyms and keywords: TRS; vanishing testes syndrome; vanishing testes; empty scrotum; testicular regression syndrome

# Overview
Anorchia, is a medical condition where both testes are absent at birth.  Individuals with this condition have a 46,XY chromosome constellation.

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

## Natural History
Within a few weeks of fertilization, the embryo develops rudimentary sex organs, which are crucial to the development of the reproductive system. In the human male, if these fail to develop within eight weeks, the baby will have female genitalia (see Swyer syndrome). If the testes are lost between eight and 10 weeks, the baby will have ambiguous genitalia when it's born. However, if the testes are lost after 14 weeks, the baby will have a normal male reproductive system, other than the absence of testes.

# Physical Examination

## Appearance of the Patient
- Lack of secondary sex characteristics

## Genitals
- Empty scrotum

# Laboratory Findings

## Electrolyte and Biomarker Studies
Tests and findings include:
- Low testosterone levels
- Elevated follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone levels
- X,Y karyotype
- Low anti-Mullerian hormone levels

## MRI
- Imaging showing absent gonadal tissue

## Ultrasound
- Imaging showing absent gonadal tissue

## Other Imaging Findings
- Low bone density

# Other Diagnostic Studies
- Surgical exploration for evidence of male gonadal tissue

# Treatment
Treatment includes psychological support.

## Pharmacotherapy
Treatment includes androgen (male hormone) supplementation.

## Surgery and Deviced Based Therapy
Treatment includes testicular prosthetic implantation.
de:Anorchie
Subglottic stenosis
Subglottic stenosis is a congenital or acquired narrowing of the subglottic airway. Although it is relatively rare, it is the third most common congenital airway problem (after laryngomalacia and vocal cord paralysis). Subglottic stenosis can present as a life-threatening airway emergency. It is imperative that the Otolaryngologist be an expert at dealing with the diagnosis and management of this disorder. Subglottic stenosis can affect both children and adults.
Subglottic stenosis can be of two forms, namely Congenital subglottic stenosis and Acquired Subglottic stenosis.
As the name suggests, Congenital subglottic stenosis is a birth defect. That is a child is born with it. Acquired Subglottic Stenosis generally follows as an after-effect of airway intubation.
Subglottic stenosis are graded from one to four based on the severity of the block.
Grade 1 - <50% obstruction, Grade 2 - 51-70% obstruction, Grade 3 - 71-99% obstruction, Grade 4 - no detectable lumen.

# Differentiating sunglottic stenosis from other diseases
The table below outlines the differences between subglottic stenosis and other diseases.
Contagious shooting
A contagious shooting or "mass reflexive response" is "gunfire that spreads among officers who believe that they, or their colleagues, are facing a threat. It spreads like germs, like laughter, or fear."   

# Incidents
- 2006 Five officers fired 50 shots at Sean Bell who was unarmed and leaving his bachelor party in New York, including 31 by one detective - who reloaded his weapon during the incident.
- 2006 Three officers fired 26 shots at a pit bull that had bitten a chunk out of an officers leg in the Bronx, New York in July
- 2005 Eight officers fired 43 shots at Brian Allen, an armed man, in Queens, New York killing him
- 2005 June, six Los Angeles County, California sheriff's deputies fired more than 50 shots into the car in which drunken driving suspect Carl Williams was driving, after his car rammed a police vehicle following a chase. One deputy had to reload his weapon during the incident.
- 2004 44-year-old drug suspect Winston Hayes' SUV lurched forward he hit a police car, deputies unloaded their weapons, firing 120 shots. Four bullets ended up hitting Hayes who survived, one hit a deputy sheriff, 11 hit patrol cars and 11 hit five homes in the neighborhood, one of them ended up tearing a hole in a homeowner's hat. 
- 1999 Four officers fired 41 shots at Amadou Diallo, an unarmed man in the Bronx, New York on February 4, 1999
- 1998 New Jersey State Police fired 11 shots at Daniel Reyes and three other basketball players in their car in April 

# Usage
- United Press International; November 27, 2006; Police experts have suggested "contagious shooting" may have played a role in a deadly New York incident when five officers fired 50 rounds at a man.
- Baltimore Sun; May 24, 2006; "If one fires, the rest fire. It is called contagious shooting," Mamet said. "People start shooting; they don't even know why."
- New York Times; March 26, 1999; "Some law enforcement officials said that it was possible that only one or two of the officers perceived a danger, and that the others opened fire simply because their comrades had begun firing  a phenomenon known in law enforcement circles as contagious shooting."
- New York Daily News; March 10, 1999; "A lawyer for one of four cops who shot Amadou Diallo hinted yesterday that a phenomenon known as "contagious shooting"  in which a cop's shot sparks a volley from other officers  may have caused his client to fire 16 shots... According to the NYPD patrol guide, contagious shooting occurs when "a shot fired by one officer sets off a chain reaction of shooting by other personnel ... Thomas Reppetto, head of the Citizens Crime Commission, said the term contagious shooting was used during 1960s riots when a cop would fire at what he thought was a sniper and other officers would follow."
Conversion of units
Conversion of units refers to conversion factors between different units of measurement for the same quantity.

# Techniques

## Dimensioned values
Carrying units through a mathematical operation is sometimes performed.
e.g. to convert 6 feet into metres. From below one foot is exactly 0.3048 metre. Thus:
This leaves only metres, the desired result.
This works because the numerator and denominator describe the same quantity, the factor is equivalent to the number 1. Therefore, multiplication by this factor does not change the measured quantity, only its units.

## Rounding of results
The process of making a conversion cannot produce a more precise result than the original quoted figure. Appropriate rounding of results is normally performed after conversion. (See significant figures).
In the above example the 0.3048 metre per foot is precise by definition, but the precision of the answer is determined by the precision of the 6 ft figure and in many cases the result would need rounding perhaps to 1.8 m.

# Tables of conversion factors

## Legend

## Luminance

## Length

## Area

## Volume

## Angle

## Solid angle

## Mass
Note: see Weight for detail of mass/weight distinction and conversion
In physics, the pound of mass is sometimes written lbm to distinguish it from the pound-force (lbf). It should not be read as the mongrel unit "pound metre".

## Time

## Speed or velocity
A velocity consists of a speed combined with a direction; the speed part of the velocity takes units of speed.

## Acceleration

## Force
See also: Conversion between weight (force) and mass

## Pressure or mechanical stress

## Torque

## Energy
Subscript textSuperscript text===Power===

## Angular momentum

## Electric current

## Electric charge

## Electromotive force

## Electrical resistance

## Inductance

## Dynamic viscosity

## Kinematic viscosity

## Information entropy
Often, information entropy is measured in shannons, whereas the (discrete) storage space of digital devices is measured in bits. Thus, uncompressed redundant data occupy more than one bit of storage per shannon of information entropy.  The multiples of a bit listed above are usually used with this meaning. Other times the bit is used as a measure of information entropy and is thus a synonym of shannon.

## Temperature
Note: see Temperature conversion for more detail

## Radioactivity

## Radioactivity - absorbed dose

## Radioactivity - equivalent dose

# Software tools
Home and office computers come with converters in bundled spreadsheet applications or can access free converters via the Internet. Units and measurements can be easily converted using these tools, but only if the units are explicitly defined and the conversion is compatible (e.g., cmHg to kPa).

## Free conversion software
- Units (Unix program)  a popular command-line utility.

## General commercial sources of converters
- Advanced electronic calculators have unit-conversion functionality.
- Spreadsheet programs usually provide conversion functions or formulas or the user can write their own.
- Commercial mathematical, scientific and technical applications often include converters.