Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Hypertrophy (medical)
Hypertrophy is the increase of the size of an organ or in a select area of the tissue. It should be distinguished from hyperplasia which occurs due to cell division increasing the number of cells while their size stays the same; hypertrophy occurs due to an increase in the size of cells, while the number stays the same.

# Examples of Hypertrophy

## Muscular hypertrophy
One of the most common and visible forms of organ hypertrophy occurs in skeletal muscles in response to strength training (known as muscle hypertrophy).  Depending on the type of training, the hypertrophy can occur through increased sarcoplasmic volume or increased contractile proteins.

## Ventricular hypertrophy
Ventricular hypertrophy is the increase in size of the ventricles of the heart.  Changes can be beneficial or healthy if they occur in response to aerobic or anaerobic exercise, but ventricular hypertrophy is generally associated with pathological changes due to high blood pressure or other disease states.

## Hypertrophy of breast
Gigantomastia is the extreme growth of the breasts, i.e. 10 pounds per breast and more. In severe cases it is possible for women to have breasts that weigh well in excess of 20 lb each. Gigantomastia can occur as a rare complication of pregnancy, but also with the more frequently juvenile gigantomastia during puberty (virginal breast hypertrophy).
Hysterosalpingography

# Overview
Hysterosalpingography  (HSG) is a radiologic procedure in which the vagina is investigated for examination of the uterus and fallopian tubes. It entails the injection of a radio-opaque material into the cervical canal and usually fluoroscopy with image intensification.

# Indication
- It is useful to diagnose uterine malformations, Asherman's syndrome, tubal occlusion and used extensively in the work-up of infertile women.
- It has been claimed that pregnancy rates are increased in a cycle when an HSG has been performed. Using catheters, an interventional radiologist can open tubes that are proximally occluded.

# Procedure
- The procedure involves ionizating x-rays and should be done in the preovulatory phase of the cycle; it is contraindicated in pregnancy. The procedure was introduced in 1910.
- The test is usually done with radiographic contrast medium (dye) injected into the uterine cavity through the vagina and cervix.
- If the fallopian tubes are open the contrast medium will fill the tubes and spill out into the abdominal cavity.
- It can be determined whether the fallopian tubes are open or blocked and whether the blockage is located at the junction of the tube and the uterus (proximal) or whether it is at the end of the fallopian tube (distal).

# Interpretation
- A normal result shows the filling of the uterine cavity and the bilateral filling of the fallopian tube with the injection material.
- To demonstrate tubal patency spillage of the material into the peritoneal cavity needs to be observed.

# Complication
Complications of the procedure include infection, allergic reactions to the materials used, intravasation of the material, and, if oil-based material is used, embolisation.
I-123 thyroid imaging

# Patient preparation
- Discontinue any medications that interfere with thyroid uptake of radioiodine.
- NPO for 4 hours prior to study.

# Radiopharmaceutical
I-123

# Dose and route of administration
100-400 microCi orally in capsule form

# Time of imaging
At 4-6 or 24 hours

# Equipment
- Camera: Gamma camera
- Collimator: 3- to 6-mm aperture pinhole collimator
- Window: 20% energy window centered at 159 keV.

# Procedure
- Position the patient supine with the chin up and the neck extended.
- Position the collimator so that the thyroid fills about two-thirds of the diameter of the field of view.
- Obtain anterior, 45-degree LAO and RAO views (move the collimator, if possible, rather than the patient).
- Obtain 100k-250k counts per view.
- Mark the chin and suprasternal notch.
- Note the position and mark palpable nodules and surgical scars.
- Place marker sources lateral to the thyroid to calibrate size.
Intraosseous infusion

# Overview
Intraosseous (IO) infusion is the injection of fluids or medications directly into the bone marrow through a specialized intraosseous needle. Fluids and medications administered via IO infusion are picked up by the venous network draining the bone marrow for delivery to the central venous circulation.
This route of venous access is typically used when peripheral IV is not obtainable in a timely manner and central venous access via central line is not appropriate.
The purpose of Intraosseous access could be fluid resuscitation, drug administration or blood sample collection for investigation.

# Sites
The Proximal tibia is the preferred site. Other recommendation include proximal humerus, distal femur, distal tibia, sternum, iliac crest and clavicle. The most commonly used location in both children and adults is the proximal tibia, although the proximal humerus is gaining popularity due to decreased time to medication reaching the central venous system.

# Clinical practice guidelines
In 2005, the American Heart Association first recommended intraosseous infusion as an option for delivery of resuscitation drugs, "If IV access cannot be established, intraosseous (IO) delivery of  resuscitation drugs will achieve adequate plasma concentrations".

# Effectiveness
This American Heart Association guideline cited two randomized controlled trials, one of 60 children and one of electively cannulated hematology/oncology patients. In addition, uncontrolled studies have been performed, one of which reported 72% to 87% rates of successful insertion.
Inositol triphosphate

# Overview
Inositol trisphosphate or inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (also commonly known as triphosphoinositol; abbreviated InsP3 or IP3), together with diacylglycerol, is a second messenger molecule used in signal transduction in biological cells. It is made by hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), a phospholipid that is located in the plasma membrane, by phospholipase C.

# Mechanism
IP3 binds to and activates the InsP3 receptor on the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) opens a calcium channel, resulting in the release of Ca2+ into the sarcoplasm. This increase in Ca2+ activates the ryanodine receptor-operated channel on the SR, leading to a further increase in the Ca2+.

# Function

## Human
Its main functions are to mobilize Ca2+ from storage organelles and to regulate cell proliferation and other cellular reactions.
In smooth muscle cells, for example, the increase in calcium concentration cell results in contraction of the muscle cell..
For further reading of Ca2+-mediated functions, see functions of calcium in humans.

## Fruit fly
For example, in the fruit fly Drosophila, InsP3 is used for intracellular transduction of light recognition in eye cells.
Incision and drainage

# Overview
Incision and drainage and clinical lancing are minor surgical procedures to release pus or pressure built up under the skin, such as from an abscess or boil. It is performed by treating the area with an antiseptic, such as iodine based solution, and then making a small incision to puncture the skin using a sterile instrument such as a sharp needle, a pointed scalpel or a lancet. This allows the pus fluid to escape by draining out through the incision.
Good medical practice for large abdominal abscesses requires insertion of a drainage tube, preceded by insertion of a PICC line to enable readiness of treatment for possible septic shock.

# Role of curettage
Linear incision and curettage is an effective as deroofing and drainage in subcutaneous abscess, but incision and curettage heals faster (9 versus 15 days). Curettage is also important in treating pilonidal abscesses.

# Adjunct antibiotics
Uncomplicated cutaneous abscesses do not need antibiotics after successful drainage.

# Video of incision and drainage
Indications and usage
For patient information about Nifedipine, click here.

# INDICATIONS AND USAGE

## Vasospastic Angina
Nifedipine is indicated for the management of vasospastic angina confirmed by any of the following criteria: 1) classical pattern of angina at rest accompanied by ST segment elevation, 2) angina or coronary artery spasm provoked by ergonovine, or 3) angiographically demonstrated coronary artery spasm. In those patients who have had angiography, the presence of significant fixed obstructive disease is not incompatible with the diagnosis of vasospastic angina, provided that the above criteria are satisfied. Nifedipine may also be used where the clinical presentation suggests a possible vasospastic component but where vasospasm has not been confirmed, e.g., where pain has a variable threshold on exertion or in unstable angina where electrocardiographic findings are compatible with intermittent vasospasm, or when angina is refractory to nitrates and/or adequate doses ofbeta blockers.

## Chronic Stable Angina (Classical Effort-Associated Angina)
Nifedipine is indicated for the management of chronic stable angina (effort-associated angina) without evidence of vasospasm in patients who remain symptomatic despite adequate doses of beta blockers and/or organic nitrates or who cannot tolerate those agents.
In chronic stable angina (effort-associated angina) nifedipine has been effective in controlled trials of up to eight weeks duration in reducing angina frequency and increasing exercise tolerance, but confirmation of sustained effectiveness and evaluation of long-term safety in these patients is incomplete.
Controlled studies in small numbers of patients suggest concomitant use of nifedipine and beta-blocking agents may be beneficial in patients with chronic stable angina, but available information is not sufficient to predict with confidence the effects of concurrent treatment, especially in patients with compromised left ventricular function or cardiac conduction abnormalities. When introducing such concomitant therapy, care must be taken to monitor blood pressure closely since severe hypotension can occur from the combined effects of the drugs. (See WARNINGS.)

## Hypertension
Nifedipine extended-release tablets are indicated for the treatment of hypertension. They may be used alone or in combination with other antihypertensive agents.
Indinavir description

# Description
CRIXIVAN (indinavir sulfate) is an inhibitor of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease. CRIXIVAN Capsules are formulated as a sulfate salt and are available for oral administration in strengths of 100, 200, and 400 mg of indinavir (corresponding to 125, 250, and 500 mg indinavir sulfate, respectively). Each capsule also contains the inactive ingredients anhydrous lactose and magnesium stearate. The capsule shell has the following inactive ingredients and dyes: gelatin and titanium dioxide.
The chemical name for indinavir sulfate is -2,3,5-trideoxy-N-(2,3-dihydro-2-hydroxy-1H-inden-1-yl)-5-carbonyl]-4-(3-pyridinylmethyl)-1-piperazinyl]-2-(phenylmethyl)-D-erythro-pentonamide sulfate (1:1) salt. Indinavir sulfate has the following structural formula:
Indinavir sulfate is a white to off-white, hygroscopic, crystalline powder with the molecular formula C36H47N5O4 - H2SO4 and a molecular weight of 711.88. It is very soluble in water and in methanol.
Induced radioactivity

# Overview
Induced radioactivity is when a previously stable material has been made radioactive by exposure to specific radiation. Most radioactivity does not induce other material to become radioactive.
Neutron activation is the main form of induced radioactivity, which happens when free neutrons are captured by nuclei. This new heavier isotope can be stable or unstable (radioactive) depending on the element involved. 
Due to the fact that free neutrons disintegrate within minutes outside of an atomic nucleus, neutron radiation can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). Neutrons that have been slowed down through a neutron moderator (thermal neutrons) are more likely to be captured by nuclei than fast neutrons.
A less common form involves removing a neutron with the photoneutron effect. This is where a high energy photon (gamma ray) strikes a nucleus with an energy greater than the binding energy of the atom, releasing a neutron. This starts at energies at 2 MeV (for hydrogen) and most radionuclides do not produce gamma rays that powerful.
The isotopes used in food irradiation (Cobalt-60, Caesium-137) both have peaks below this. Caesium-137 at 662 keV and Cobalt-60's two peaks are 1.2 and 1.3 MeV.
Some induced radioactivity is produced by background radiation, which is mostly natural. However, since natural radiation is not very intense in most places on Earth, the amount of induced radioactivity in a single location is usually very small.
The conditions inside certain types of nuclear reactors with high neutron flux can cause induced radioactivity. The components in those reactors may become highly radioactive from the radiation they are exposed to. Induced radioactivity increases the amount of nuclear waste that must eventually be disposed, but it is not referred to as radioactive contamination unless it is uncontrolled.
Inferior phrenic vein

# Overview
The Inferior Phrenic Veins follow the course of the inferior phrenic arteries;
- the right ends in the inferior vena cava;
- the left is often represented by two branches,
-ne of which ends in the left renal or suprarenal vein,
while the other passes in front of the esophageal hiatus in the diaphragm and opens into the inferior vena cava.
- one of which ends in the left renal or suprarenal vein,
- while the other passes in front of the esophageal hiatus in the diaphragm and opens into the inferior vena cava.
Inflammatory myopathy

# Overview
Inflammatory myopathies are a group of disorders that involve muscles and skin. Latest classification by European League Against Rheumatism and American College of Rheumatology (EULAR/ACR) classified idiopathic inflammatory myopathy into 6 subtypes including polymyositis, dermatomyositis, inclusion body myositis, immunemediated necrotizing myopathies (IMNM), amyopathic dermatomyositis, and juvenile dermatomyositis. It is considered that autoimmunity has a major role on pathogenesis of these diseases. Inflammatory myopathies might present with involvement of other organs including blood vessels, lungs, connective tissue, solid organs, or joints. Inflammatory myopathies are rare and may affect both children and adults. There are no definitive therapy for inflammatory myopathies. However, corticosteroids and symptomatic therapy are the first line treatment for inflammatory myopathies. Immunosuppressants might be used in patients who have recurrent or resistant symptoms. Lifestyle modifications including physical therapy, watching diet, and controlling weight are recommended. The prognosis of inflammatory myopathies varies and it depends on extramuscular involvement, early initiation of treatment, and presence of certain autoantibodies. Diagnosis is usually made by biopsy and detecting inflammation on muscle or skin biopsies.

# Classification
- The 2017 European League Against Rheumatism and American College of Rheumatology (EULAR/ACR) classified idiopathic inflammatory myopathy into 6 subtypes:
Polymyositis
Dermatomyositis
Inclusion body myositis
Immunemediated necrotizing myopathies (IMNM)
Amyopathic dermatomyositis
Juvenile dermatomyositis
- Polymyositis
- Dermatomyositis
- Inclusion body myositis
- Immunemediated necrotizing myopathies (IMNM)
- Amyopathic dermatomyositis
- Juvenile dermatomyositis
Probability of IIM including muscle biopsy=1/
Probability of IIM without muscle biopsy=1/
To use the calculator to assess the probability of IIM, click here.

## Classification algorithm for subgroups of IIM
Abbreviation: ACR, American College of Rheumatology; EULAR, European League Against Rheumatism; IIM, idiopathic inflammatory myopathies;
- Muscle weakness manifested as objective progressive symmetric muscle weakness of proximal upper or lower extremities, neck flexors relatively weaker than extensors, or in the legs proximal muscles relatively weaker than distal

# Differentiating Inflammatory Myopathy from other Diseases
Inhalant use disorder
Synonyms and keywords: Inhaling vapors; huffing

# Overview
Inhalant use disorder is a condition characterized by the intentional misuse of inhalant substances, typically volatile hydrocarbons, for their psychoactive effects. The DSM-V criteria defines this condition as a classical substance abuse disorder lasting 12 months or more.  The prevalence of inhalant use disorder is 200 to 4,000 per 100,000 (0.02 to 0.4%) of the overall population and is more common among individuals 12 to 17 years of age.  Psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy are the cornerstones of the treatment of inhalant use disorder.

# Differential Diagnosis
- Intentional inhalant use, without meeting criteria for inhalant use disorder
- Unintentional inhalant exposure from industrial or accidents
- Inhalant intoxication, without meeting criteria for inhalant use disorder
- Use of sedating substances
- Disorders impairing central or peripheral nervous system function
- Disorders of other organ systems

# Epidemiology and Demographics
The prevalence of inhalant use disorder is 200 to 4,000 per 100,000 (0.02 to 0.4%) of the overall population.

# Risk factors
- Conduct disorder
- Antisocial personality disorder
- Environmental gases inhalation
- Youths with behavioral inhibition

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Poor prognostic factors include:
- Working with industrial gas exposure
- Behavioral inhibition
- Antisocial personality disorder

# Diagnosis Criteria

## DSM-V Diagnostic Criteria for Inhalant Use Disorder
A. A problematic pattern of use of a hydrocarbon-based inhalant substance leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by at least two of the following, occurring within a 12-month period:
- The inhalant substance is often taken in larger amounts or over a longer period than was intended.
- There is a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control use of the inhalant substance.
- A great deal of time is spent in activities necessary to obtain the inhalant substance, use it, or recover from its effects.
- Craving, or a strong desire or urge to use the inhalant substance.
- Recurrent use of the inhalant substance resulting in a failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home.
- Continued use of the inhalant substance despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of its use.
- Important social, occupational, or recreational activities are given up or reduced because of use of the inhalant substance.
- Recurrent use of the inhalant substance in situations in which it is physically hazardous.
- Use of the inhalant substance is continued despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by the substance.
- Tolerance, as defined by either of the following:
Specify the particular inhalant: When possible, the particular substance involved should be named (e.g., solvent use disorder').
Specify if:
Specify if:
Injury Severity Score
The Injury Severity Score (ISS) is an established medical score to asses trauma severity. It correlates with mortality, morbidity and hospitalization time after trauma. It is used to define the term polytrauma.

# Abbreviated Injury Scale AIS
The ISS is based (see below) upon the Abbreviated Injury Scale AIS. The AIS describes the severity of injury to one body region: 1 Minor, 2 Moderate, 3 Serious, 4 Severe, 5 Critical, 6 Maximal (currently untreatable).

# ISS Definition
ISS = A^2 + B^2 + C^2; A, B, C being the AIS score of the three most injured of the following body regions: head, face, thorax, abdomen, extremities (incl. pelvis).

# Polytrauma Definition
A Polytrauma is defined as ISS >= 16
Inocybe aeruginascens
Inocybe aeruginascens is a member of the genus Inocybe which is widely distributed in Europe.  This mushroom species was first documented by J. Ferencz in Osca, Hungary on June 15, 1965.

# Description
Inocybe aeruginascens is a small mycorrhizal mushroom with a conic to convex cap which becomes plane in age and is often fibrillose near the margin.  It is usually less than 5cm across, has a slightly darker blunt umbo and an in incurved margin when young.  The cap color varies from buff to light yellow brown, usually with greenish stains which disappear when the mushroom dries.  The gills are adnate to nearly free, numerous, colored pale brown, grayish brown, or tobacco brown.  The fruiting body has greenish tones and bruises blue where damaged.  The spores are smooth and ellipsoid, measuring 6-9.5 x 4.5 micrometres and forming a clay brown spore print.  The stem is 2-7 cm long, 3 to 8 mm thick, and is equal width for the whole length, sometimes with some swelling at the base.  It is solid, pale grey, becoming bluish green from the bottom up.  The stem is fibrous and appears to be covered with fine powder near the top.  It has a partial veil which often disappears in age and an unpleasant soapy odor.

# Distribution and habitat
Inocybe aeruginascens is widely distributed in temperate areas and has been reported in central Europe and western North America.
This mushroom grows in moist sandy soils in a mycorrhizal relationship with poplar, linden, oak and willow trees.

# Edibility
Contains psilocybin, baeocystin and a newly discovered Indole which Gartz named aeruginascine. (N, N, N-trimethyl-4-phosphoryloxytryptamine)  In the 1980s several mushroom collectors in Europe ate this species believing it to be edible, causing accidental intoxications which were reported as being very euphoric.
Some experts believe the euphoria is due to the aeruginascine,  which is closely related to psilocybin and the frog skin toxin bufotenidine, and has been found exclusively in Inocybe aeruginascens so far. Aeruginascine is a trimethylammonium analogue of psilocybin.
Inspection (medicine)
In medicine, inspection (Latin word "Inspectio" or the act of beholding) is the thorough and unhurried visualization of the client. This requires the use of the naked eye.

# During inspection, the examiner observes:

## External signs:
- Body features and symmetry appearance
- Nutritional state or weight
- Skin color
- Frequency and volume of breaths during respiration
- Movement of the abdomen and each side of the chest during respiration
- Hair distribution
- divercation of recti muscle
- umbilicus (site-shape-color- infiltration)
- Gait and manner of speaking

## Gross Deviation:
- Abnormal contour
- Scars and striae
- Visible masses
- Discoloration
- Swelling
- Tremor
In medical practice, inspection is however not limited to visual information alone. Inspection also involves:
- Listening to any sounds emanating from the client
- Odors that may be present