Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Reverse transcribing virus
A reverse transcribing virus is any virus which replicates using reverse transcription, the formation of DNA from an RNA template. Both Group VI and Group VII viruses fall into this category. Group VI contains single-stranded RNA viruses which use a DNA intermediate to replicate, whereas Group VII contains double-stranded DNA viruses which use an RNA intermediate during genome replication.

# Group VI
All members of Group VI use virally encoded reverse transcriptase, an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, to produce DNA from the initial virion RNA genome. This DNA is often integrated into the host genome, as in the case of retroviruses and pseudoviruses, where it is replicated and transcribed by the host.
Group VI includes:
- Family Metaviridae
- Family Pseudoviridae
- Family Retroviridae - Retroviruses, e.g. HIV

# Group VII
Both families in Group VII have DNA genomes contained within the invading virus particles. The DNA genome is transcribed into both mRNA, for use as a transcript in protein synthesis, and pre-genomic RNA, for use as the template during genome replication. Virally encoded reverse transcriptase uses the pre-genomic RNA as a template for the creation of genomic DNA.
Group VII includes:
- Family Hepadnaviridae - e.g. Hepatitis B virus
- Family Caulimoviridae - e.g. Cauliflower mosaic virus
nl:ReverseTranscriptase virus
Ductus arteriosus aneurysm

# Overview
Aneurysm of the ductus arteriosus is a rare entity in adults The ductus arteriosus is a short tubular connection between the left pulmonary artery and aorta. A remnant of the left sixth aortic arch, it normally undergoes physiologic closure soon after birth. In the few reports of aneurysms involving a patent ductus arteriosus in adults, it is uncertain whether the ductus arteriosus recanalized or original patency persisted. Normal closure proceeds from the pulmonary artery to the aortic end. Therefore, when closure is incomplete, the pulmonary side closes and the aortic side remains patent. 60% fatality rate due to complications rupture (i.e. dissection, infection, and distal embolization occur) Criteria for resection include lesions greater than 3 cm in diameter, symptomatic aneurysms, and any that show progressive enlargement.

# Diagnosis

## Chest X-ray
- Ductus arteriosus aneurysm maybe perceived as a change in the contour of the aortic arch or aortopulmonary window (adenopathy, neoplasms,or aneurysms related to the aorta itself are certainly more common masses at this site).
- Calcifications at the periphery of the lesion suggesting its vascular nature.

## CT
- CT will show the relationship of the aneurysm to the aortic arch and pulmonary artery, while possibly revealing calcifications not detected by plain radiographs.
- The diameter of the lesion and presence of mural thrombus also will be identified.
Familial dysfibrinogenemia
Synonyms and keywords: Dysfibrinogenemia, familial

# Overview
The dysfibrinogenemias are a group of autosomal dominant disorders of qualitatively abnormal fibrinogens.  There are various different fibrinogen abnormalities, each named after the place where it was discovered.  Each dysfibrinogenemia is associated with slightly different effects on the thrombin time and on normal clotting.

# Classification
Some dysfibrinogenemias cause abnormal bleeding or even thrombosis, while others have no affect on either bleeding or thrombosis. Some examples are;
- Amsterdam is a major defect, characterized by aggregation of fibrin monomers, prolonged thrombin time, and an inhibitory effect on normal clotting -  but it is asymptomatic.
- Detroit is a major defect, there is fibrinopeptide release, the thrombin time is prolonged, there is an inhibitory effect on normal clotting and there is abnormal bleeding.
- Wiesbaden is a major defect, there is aggregation of fibrin monomers, the thrombin time is prolonged, there is an inhibitory effect on normal clotting and there is both bleeding and thrombosis.
Dysuria primary prevention

# Primary Prevention

## Bladder Bacteria
To flush out bacteria from the bladder, you should take the following precautions:
- Drink several glasses of water each day.
- Women should wipe from front to back after having a bowel movement.
- Women should urinate after sexual intercourse.

## Irritation Dysuria
To prevent dysuria caused by irritation:
- Women
should keep the genital area clean and dry
change tampons and sanitary napkins frequently
avoid using irritating soaps, vaginal sprays and douches.
- should keep the genital area clean and dry
- change tampons and sanitary napkins frequently
- avoid using irritating soaps, vaginal sprays and douches.
- Female children
Should limit bubble baths
Wash girls thoroughly but gently after playing in sand and be wary of extended play in wet swimsuits, all of which can lead to irritation and redness of the vulva (vulvitis).
- Should limit bubble baths
- Wash girls thoroughly but gently after playing in sand and be wary of extended play in wet swimsuits, all of which can lead to irritation and redness of the vulva (vulvitis).

## STD-Induced Dysuria
To help prevent dysuria caused by sexually transmitted diseases:
- Avoid sex or have a sexual relationship with one uninfected person
- If you have more than one sex partner or if you think your partner could be infected, use latex condoms during sexual activity.
Escherichia coli infection

# What are you looking for?
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a Gram-negative bacillus that is associated with the development of infections.
- To learn about the E. coli organism, click here.

# Categories in E. coli Infections
- E. coli infections may be categorized into either enteric, uropathogenic, meningitis- and sepsis-associated, and other extraintestinal:
- Enteric (Diarrheagenic): Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), enterotoxicogenic E. coli (ETEC), enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC), and diffusely adherent E. coli (DAEC)
- Uropathogenic: Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC)
- Meningitis- and sepsis-associated: Meningitis-associated E. coli (MNEC)
- Other extraintestinal: Extraintestinal E. coli (ExPEC)

# List of Organ-Based E. coli Infections
- E. coli is often the causative pathogen responsible for the following diseases:
- Cystitis
- Enteritis (gastroenteritis and/or colitis)
- Infectious arthritis
- Intra-abdominal and peritoneal infection
- Meningitis
- Osteomyelitis
- Pneumonia
- Prostitis
- Pyelonephritis
- Sepsis
- Skin and soft tissue infection
- Urethritis
Enterochromaffin-like cell

# Overview
Enterochromaffin-like cells or ECL cells are a type of neuroendocrine cells found in the gastric glands of the gastric mucosa beneath the epithelium, particularly in the vicinity of parietal cells. They are also considered a type of enteroendocrine cell.

# Function
ECL cells synthesize and secrete histamine being stimulated by the hormones gastrin, acetylcholine and pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating peptide.
Gastrin is transferred from a specific type of G cell in the gastric epithelium to the ECL cells by blood. Histamine and gastrin act synergistically as the most important stimulators of hydrochloric acid secretion from parietal cells and stimulators of secretion of different pepsins from oxyntic cells.
Enterochromaffin-like cells also produce pancreastatin and probably other peptide hormones and growth factors.

# Pathology
A prolonged stimulation of these cells causes their hyperplasia. This is especially important in gastrinoma (the tumors in which there is an excessive secretion of gastrin), as this is one of the factors contributing to Zollinger-Ellison's syndrome. It was once believed that tumors of ECL origin form after a prolonged inhibition of gastric acid secretion, however there is no data to support this conclusion and proton pump inhibitors are not thought to contribute to gastric cancer.

# Name
The name is derived from their location in the enteric system and their chromaffin-like staining pattern in histologic sections, which is characterized by silver staining.
Endovenous Laser Treatment
Endovenous Laser Treatment is a minimally invasive image-guided technique in which a catheter bearing a laser fiber is inserted under ultrasound guidance into the great saphenous vein (GSV) or small saphenous vein (SSV) through a small puncture.
The catheter is then advanced (also under ultrasound guidance) to the level of the groin or knee crease and the laser activated resulting in obliteration of the vein. The catheter is then slowly withdrawn and the saphenous vein is ablated along its entire length. The treatment, which is performed without sedation, using local anesthetic typically takes less than an hour and the patient typically walks out under his or her own power and can return to work the same day. A compression stocking and/or bandage is applied which must be worn for 48 hours continuously. The compression bandage is removed after 48 hrs to allow the patient to shower. The compression stocking must be worn for one or two weeks while the patient is awake.
Foam sclerotherapy or ambulatory phlebectomy is often performed at the time of the procedure or within the first 1-2 weeks to treat branch varicose veins.
Results to date suggest a cure rate of over 95%.
Ectopic pregnancy overview
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# Overview
In a normal pregnancy, the fertilized egg enters the uterus and settles into the uterine lining where it has plenty of room to divide and grow. About 1% of pregnancies are in an ectopic location with implantation not occurring inside of the womb, and of these 98% occur in the Fallopian tubes. In a typical ectopic pregnancy, the embryo does not reach the uterus, but instead adheres to the lining of the Fallopian tube. The implanted embryo burrows actively into the tubal lining. Most commonly this invades vessels and will cause bleeding. This bleeding expels the implantation out of the tubal end as a tubal abortion. Some women thinking they are having a miscarriage are actually having a tubal abortion. There is no inflammation of the tube in ectopic pregnancy. The pain is caused by prostaglandins released at the implantation site, and by free blood in the peritoneal cavity, which is locally irritant. Sometimes the bleeding might be heavy enough to threaten the health or life of the woman. Usually this degree of bleeding is due to delay in diagnosis, but sometimes, especially if the implantation is in the proximal tube (just before it enters the uterus), it may invade into the nearby sampson artery, causing heavy bleeding earlier than usual. If left untreated, about half of ectopic pregnancies will resolve without treatment. These are the tubal abortions. The advent of methotrexate treatment for ectopic pregnancy has reduced the need for surgery; however, surgical intervention is still required in cases where the Fallopian tube has ruptured or is in danger of doing so. This intervention may be laparoscopic or through a larger incision, known as a laparotomy.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
Ectopic pregnancy (EP) remains one of the few life threatening diseases where the incidence is increasing (19.7/1000 pregnancies in 1992) but the mortality is decreasing.

# Risk Factors
There are a number of risk factors for ectopic pregnancies.  They include: pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, those who have been exposed to DES, tubal surgery, smoking, previous ectopic pregnancy, multiple sexual partners, current IUD use, tubal ligation, and previous abortion.

# Diagnosis

## Laboratory Findings
Diagnosis can be made by the 7th week of pregnancy (~ 4.5 weeks after conception).

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
There has only been one randomized controlled trail comparing medical to surgical therapy, and there was no difference as far as elimination of the EP or tubal preservation, however the methotrexate (MTX) group had a higher incidence of  side effects.

## Surgery
About half of ectopics result in tubal abortion and are self limiting. The option to go to surgery is thus often a difficult decision to make in an obviously stable patient with minimal evidence of blood clot on ultrasound.
Elective caesarean section

# Overview
Elective caesarean section (AE elective cesarean section) refers to a caesarean section (CS) that is done on a pregnant woman who is not in labor, either on the basis of an obstetrical or medical indication or at the request of the pregnant patient. The elective CS is therefore also a "planned CS". In contrast, a CS done during labor by necessity is termed an emergency caesarean section.

# Indication based
When it is clear during a pregnancy, but prior to labor, that there is a medical or obstetrical reason to choose delivery via a CS, physicians will commonly perform the operation at a scheduled time, rather than waiting for the onset of labor. Such planned CSs are performed for many reasons, including repeat caesarean sections, placenta previa, abnormal presentations, multiple pregnancy,  known obstructions of labor, medical conditions (such as heart disease), and more. The advantages of performing the delivery at a time of choice include use of daytime services when staffing and access to resources are at the maximum,  and   the ability to plan and prepare, both on the patients side and her family as well as on the healthcare providers side. The risk of the approach is that the timing of the CS could be set too early and that the baby then could be premature or compromised. Prenatal testing usually safeguards against this complication.
Critics of this practice maintain that too often the indications are too soft, that a trial of labor could have been successful, and that physicians and institutions may benefit inappropriately by reducing night time and weekend work and do so at the cost of the patient who may undergo an unnecessary procedure, or to the detriment of the baby that would benefit from a natural delivery. 
The fear of litigation is cited to drive the elective CS rate higher:  While a repeat CS can be avoided for many women who wish to labour after a caesarean,  (a process called  vaginal birth after caesarean section, or  VBAC), some argue that this can lead to an increase likelihood of uterine rupture.

# Patient request
Increasingly, CSs are performed in the absence of  obstetrical or medical necessity at the patient's request, and the term the term Caesarean delivery on maternal request has been used. Another term that has been used is "planned elective cesarean section". As of 2006, there is no ICD code, thus the extent of the use of this indication is difficult to determine. The mother is the only party who may request such an intervention without indication.
Electrophilic halogenation
In organic chemistry, an electrophilic aromatic halogenation is a type of electrophilic aromatic substitution. This organic reaction is typical of aromatic compounds and a very useful method for adding substituents to an aromatic system.
A few types of aromatic compounds, such as phenol, will react without a catalyst, but for typical benzene derivatives with less reactive substrates, a Lewis acid catalyst is required. Typical Lewis acid catalysts include AlCl3, FeCl3, FeBr3, and ZnCl2. These work by forming a highly electrophilic complex which attacks the benzene ring.

# Reaction mechanism
The reaction mechanism for chlorination of benzene is the same as bromination of benzene. Ferric bromide and ferric chloride become inactivated if they react with water, including moisture in the air. Therefore, they are generated in situ by adding iron fillings to bromine or chlorine.
The mechanism for iodination is slightly different: iodine (I2) is treated with an oxidizing agent such as nitric acid to obtain the electrophilic iodine (2 I+). Unlike the other halogens, iodine does not serve as a base since it is positive. In one study the iodinization reagent is a mixture of iodine and iodic acid .
Halogenation of aromatic compounds differs from the halogenation of alkenes, which do not require a Lewis Acid catalyst. The formation of the arenium ion results in the temporary loss of aromaticity, which has a higher activation energy compared to carbocation formation in alkenes. In other words, alkenes are more reactive and do not need to have the Br-Br or Cl-Cl bond weakened.

# Scope
If the ring contains a strongly activating substituent such as -OH, -OR or amines, a catalyst is not necessary, for example in the bromination of p-cresol:
However, if a catalyst is used with excess bromine, then a tribromide will be formed.
Halogenation of phenols is faster in polar solvents due to the dissociation of phenol, with phenoxide ions being more susceptible to electrophilic attack as they are more electron-rich.
Chlorination of toluene with chlorine without catalyst requires a polar solvent as well such as acetic acid. The ortho to para selectivity is low:
No reaction takes place when the solvent is replaced by tetrachloromethane. In contrast, when the reactant is 2-phenyl-ethylamine, it is possible to employ relatively apolar solvents with exclusive ortho- regioselectivity due to the intermediate formation of a chloroamine making the subsequent reaction step intramolecular.
Emtricitabine how supplied

# How Supplied/Storage and Handling

## Capsules
The size 1 hard gelatin capsules with a blue cap and white body contain 200 mg of emtricitabine, are printed with "200 mg" in black on the cap and "GILEAD" and the corporate logo in black on the body, and are available in unit of use bottles (closed with induction sealed child-resistant closures) of:
30 capsules (NDC 6195806011).
Store at 25 C (77 F); excursions permitted to 15 C30 C (59 F86 F).

## Oral Solution
The oral solution is a clear, orange to dark orange liquid, contains 10 mg/mL of emtricitabine, and is available in unit of use plastic, amber bottles (closed with child resistant closures and packaged with a marked dosing cup) of:
170 mL (NDC 6195806021).
Store refrigerated, 2 C8 C (36 F46 F). EMTRIVA oral solution should be used within 3 months if stored by the patient at 25 C (77 F); excursions permitted to 15 C30 C (59 F86 F).
Endocardial fibroelastosis
Endocardial fibroelastosis is a rare heart disorder that is characterized by a thickening within the muscular lining of the heart chambers (the endocardium) due to an increase in the amount of supporting connective tissue and elastic fibers. It is an uncommon cause of unexplained heart failure in infants and children. It is one component of HEC syndrome. The term was introduced by Weinberg and Himmelfarb in 1943. 

# Pathological Findings

## Gross Images
Images courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission  PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology
- Endocardial fibroelastosis: Gross, an excellent example
- Endocardial fibroelastosis: Gross, an excellent example, infarct heart
- Gross, fixed tissue, good demostrated myocardial scars and marked endocardial thickening. This has been called endocardial fibroelastosis in an adult.
- Endocardial fibroelastosis: Gross, an example of LV endocardial thickening associated with anomalous origin of left coronary artery from pulmonary artery
Epidemiological transition

# Overview
In demography and medical geography, epidemiological transition refers to a change in the pattern of disease in a country away from infectious diseases towards degenerative diseases. This theory was orinially proposed by Omran in 1971.
This transition is event as a country completes the process of modernization or economic development. Less economically developed countries have higher rates of infectious diseases as standards of medical care are lower than that found in more economically developed countries.
In those more economically developed countries more people die from degenerative diseases as those infectious diseases such as cholera and typhoid are easily treated causing more people to die from cancers as they live longer.
Commonly, there are two epidemiological transitions. The first transition was from hunting-gathering to primary food production. During this transition, infectious and parasitic diseases became prevalent. The shift to agriculture provides a more sedentary way-of-life and this creates more opportunities for contact with infected animals and human waste (i.e. vectors and vehicles of transmission). The second epidemiological transition occurred in modern times with infectious diseases under control and chronic, noninfectious, degenerative diseases rising. This second epidemiological transition is typically in the wealthy or first-world nations. Third-world nations still suffer from infectious diseases more than chronic diseases.
de:Epidemiologische Transition
Eschweiler-Clarke reaction
The Eschweiler-Clarke reaction (also called the Eschweiler-Clarke methylation) is a chemical reaction whereby a primary (or secondary) amine is methylated using excess formic acid and formaldehyde. Reductive amination reactions such as this one will not produce quaternary ammonium salts, but instead will stop at the tertiary amine stage. It is named for the German chemist Wilhelm Eschweiler (1860-1936) and the British chemist Hans Thacher Clarke (1887-1927).

# Mechanism
The first methylation of the amine begins with imine formation with formaldehyde.  The formic acid acts as a source of hydride and reduces the imine to a secondary amine.   The driving force is the formation of the gas carbon dioxide.  Formation of the tertiary amine is similar, but slower due to the difficulties in iminium ion formation.
From this mechanism it is clear that a quaternary ammonium salt will never form, because it is impossible for a tertiary amine to form another imine or iminium ion.
Chiral amines typically do not racemize under these conditions.
Eukaryotic release factors
Eukaryotic translation termination factor 1 (eRF1), also known asTB3-1, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ETF1 gene.
In eukaryotes, this is the only release factor (eRF) which recognizes all three stop codons. The overall process of termination is similar in prokaryotes, but in the latter 3 separate release factors exist, RF1, RF2 and RF3.

# Function
Termination of protein biosynthesis and release of the nascent polypeptide chain are signaled by the presence of an in-frame stop codon at the aminoacyl site of the ribosome. The process of translation termination is universal and is mediated by protein release factors (RFs) and GTP. A class 1 RF recognizes the stop codon and promotes the hydrolysis of the ester bond linking the polypeptide chain with the peptidyl site tRNA, a reaction catalyzed at the peptidyl transferase center of the ribosome. Class 2 RFs, which are not codon specific and do not recognize codons, stimulate class 1 RF activity and confer GTP dependency upon the process. In prokaryotes, both class 1 RFs, RF1 and RF2, recognize UAA; however, UAG and UGA are decoded specifically by RF1 and RF2, respectively. In eukaryotes, eRF1, or ETF1, the functional counterpart of RF1 and RF2, functions as an omnipotent RF, decoding all 3 stop codons.
Familial renal amyloidosis
Synonyms and keywords: Familial visceral amyloidosis; hereditary amyloid nephropathy; Ostertag type

# Overview
Familial renal amyloidosis is a form of amyloidosis primarily presenting in the kidney.

# Historical Perspective
It is also known as "Ostertag" type, after B. Ostertag, who characterized it in 1932 and 1950.

# Pathophysiology

## Associated Conditions
It is associated with fibrinogen alpha chain, apolipoprotein A1, and lysozyme.