Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Etravirine description

# Description
INTELENCE (etravirine) is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1).
The chemical name for etravirine is 4--4-pyrimidinyl]oxy]-3,5-dimethylbenzonitrile. Its molecular formula is C20H15BrN6O and its molecular weight is 435.28. Etravirine has the following structural formula:
Etravirine is a white to slightly yellowish brown powder. Etravirine is practically insoluble in water over a wide pH range. It is very slightly soluble in propylene glycol and slightly soluble in ethanol. Etravirine is soluble in polyethylene glycol (PEG)400 and freely soluble in some organic solvents (e.g., N,N-dimethylformamide and tetrahydrofuran).
INTELENCE 25 mg tablets are available as white to off-white, oval scored tablets for oral administration. Each 25 mg tablet contains 25 mg of etravirine and the inactive ingredients hypromellose, microcrystalline cellulose, colloidal silicon dioxide, croscarmellose sodium, magnesium stearate and lactose monohydrate.
INTELENCE 100 mg tablets are available as white to off-white, oval tablets for oral administration. Each 100 mg tablet contains 100 mg of etravirine and the inactive ingredients hypromellose, microcrystalline cellulose, colloidal silicon dioxide, croscarmellose sodium, magnesium stearate and lactose monohydrate.
INTELENCE 200 mg tablets are available as white to off-white, biconvex, oblong tablets for oral administration. Each 200 mg tablet contains 200 mg of etravirine and the inactive ingredients hypromellose, silicified microcrystalline cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, colloidal silicon dioxide, croscarmellose sodium and magnesium stearate.
PROVE IT-TIMI 22 Trial

# Objective
To determine whether intensive LDL-C lowering with atorvastatin 80 mg/day was more efficacious than standard LDL-C lowering with pravastatin 40 mg/day in reducing the incidence of cardiovascular events in patients hospitalized with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) within the preceding 10 days.

# Methods
Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 (PROVE IT-TIMI 22) trial was a randomized comparative study where in 4162 patients who had been hospitalized for an acute coronary syndrome within the preceding 10 days were enrolled and randomly assigned to treatment with either 40 mg a day pravastatin or 80 mg a day atorvastatin. The primary end point was a composite of death from any cause, myocardial infarction, documented unstable angina requiring re-hospitalization, revascularization (performed at least 30 days after randomization), and stroke.

# Results
- High-dose atorvastatin group achieved a mean LDL-C level of 62 mg per deciliter compared to 95 mg per deciliter in the standard-dose pravastatin  group.
- The composite end point at 30 days occurred in 3.0% of patients receiving atorvastatin 80 mg versus 4.2% of patients receiving pravastatin 40 mg.

# Conclusion
Among patients who have recently had an acute coronary syndrome, an intensive lipid-lowering statin regimen provides greater protection against death or major cardiovascular events than does a standard regimen. These findings indicate that such patients benefit from early and continued lowering of LDL-C to levels substantially below current target levels.
Evolutionary arms race
In evolutionary biology, an evolutionary arms race is an evolutionary struggle between competing sets of co-evolving genes that develop adaptations and counter-adaptations against each other, resembling an arms race.  The co-evolving gene sets may be in different species, as in an evolutionary arms race between a predator species and its prey (Vermeij, 1987), or a parasite and its host.   Alternatively, the arms race may be between members of the same species, as in the manipulation/sales resistance model of communication (Dawkins & Krebs, 1979) or as in runaway evolution or Red Queen effects. One example of an evolutionary arms race is in sexual conflict between the sexes. Thierry Lode emphasized the role of such antagonist interactions in evolution leading to character displacements and antagonist coevolution.
Co-evolution itself is not necessarily an arms race. For example, mutualism may drive co-operative adaptations in a pair of species. This is the case with certain flowers' ultra-violet color patterns, whose function is to guide bees to the center of the flower and promote pollination. Co-evolution is also interspecific by definition; it excludes intraspecific (within species) arms races such as sexual conflict.
It can even be displayed between humans and micro-organisms, where medical researchers make antibiotics, and micro-organisms keep making more resistant strains.

# Symmetrical versus asymmetrical arms races
Arms races may be classified as either symmetrical or asymmetrical. In a symmetrical arms race, selection pressure acts on participants in the same direction.  An example of this is trees growing taller as a result of competition for light, where the selective advantage for either species is increased height.  An asymmetrical arms race involves opposite selection pressures, such as the case of parasitism, where the parasite is driven to enhance infection rate and the host is pressured to develop resistance.

# Introduced species
When a species has not been subject to an arms race previously, it may be at a severe disadvantage and face extinction well before it could ever hope to adapt to a new predator, competitor, etc. This should not seem surprising, as one species may have been in evolutionary struggles for millions of years while the other might never have faced such pressures.  This is a common problem in isolated ecosystems such as Australia or the Hawaiian Islands.  In Australia, many invasive species, such as cane toads and rabbits, have spread rapidly due to a lack of competition or natural predators and a lack of adaptations to cane toads on the part of its prey.  Introduced species are a major reason why some indigenous species become endangered.
Exon splicing enhancer

# Overview
An Exonic Splicing Enhancer (ESE) is a sequence of 6 bases within an exon that directs, or enhances, accurate splicing of hetero-nuclear RNA (hnRNA) or pre-mRNA into messenger RNA (mRNA).

# The Basics
The central dogma of biology states that all of the information that makes you unique is housed in the  nucleus of every cell in your body in the form of DNA.  The Human DNA is a string of 3.2 billion base pairs.  Short sequences of DNA are transcribed to RNA; then this RNA is translated to a protein.  A gene located in the DNA will contain introns and exons.  Part of the process of preparing the RNA includes splicing out the introns, sections of RNA that do not code for protein.  The presence of Exon splicing Enhancers (ESEs) is essential for proper identification of splice sites by the cellular machinery.

# Research
Computational methods were used to identify 238 candidate ESEs Listed here.
ESEs are clinically significant because synonymous point mutations previously thought to be Silent mutations located in an ESEs can lead to exon skipping and the production of a non functioning protein.
Disruption of an exon splicing enhancer in exon 3 of MLH1 gene is the cause of HNPCC (human non polyposis colorectal cancer) in a Quebec family. abstract.
There is evidence that these 236 hexamers that signal splicing are evolutionarily conserved. abstract
External fertilization

# Background
External fertilization is a form of fertilization in which a sperm cell is united with an egg cell external to the body of the female.  Thus, the fertilization is said to occur "externally".  This is distinct from internal fertilization where the union of the egg and sperm occur inside the female after insemination through copulation.
Many aquatic animals reproduce by external fertilization, including fish, whose females spawn ova which are fertilized by the sperm that male fish secrete into the water.
In sexual reproduction, there must be some way of getting the sperm to the egg. Since sperm are designed to be motile in a watery environment, aquatic animals can make use of the water in which they live.  In many aquatic animals such as coral or Hydra, eggs and sperm are simultaneously shed into the water, and the sperm swim through the water to fertilize the egg in a process known as broadcast fertilization.  In many fish species, including salmon, the female will deposit unfertilized eggs in the substrate and the male will swim by and fertilize them.
Many land plants make use of external fertilization as well. For example, bees and butterflies brush against pollen when gathering nectar from flowers and spread them to another flower of the same species, pollinating that plant.
Extra-axial hemorrhage
Synonyms and keywords: Extra-axial hematoma

# Overview
Extra-axial hematoma, or extra-axial hemorrhage, is a subtype of intracranial hemorrhage, or bleeding within the intracranial space, that occurs within the skull but outside of the brain tissue itself.  All intracranial hemorrhages constitute serious medical emergencies because they can increase intracranial pressure and crush delicate brain tissue, with potentially fatal results.
The category of extra-axial hematomas includes:
- Epidural, which occur between the dura mater (the outermost meninx) and the skull
- Subdural, which occur in the subdural space between the dura and the arachnoid mater
- Subarachnoid, which occur between the arachnoid and pia meningeal layers
The other type of intracranial hemorrhages are intra-axial hemorrhages, which occur within the brain tissue itself.
False neurotransmitter
A false neurotransmitter is a chemical compound which closely imitates the action of a neurotransmitter in the nervous system. An example would be 5-MeO-MT mimicking serotonin.
These chemicals can be taken up by a nerve and then released with other neurotransmitters when an action potential provides the necessary stimulus for release.
There is growing evidence that a large number of well known exogenous chemicals work as substitute neurotransmitters, though the distinction between the classical model and the substitute neurotransmitter model only becomes apparent with neurotransmitters central to the signaling in the conscious brain, like dopamine and serotonin (as mentioned above). By extension, drugs that affect the uptake affinity of neurotransmitter transporters directly affect the efficacy of these substitute neurotransmitters, as shown by the interference that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have on serotonergic psychedelic drugs.
Farmer's lung overview

# Overview
Farmer's lung is an allergy related disease usually caused by breathing in the dust from moldy hay. However, dust from any moldy crop - straw, corn, silage, grain, or even tobacco - can also cause Farmer's Lung. Other potential sources of dust particles include, grain handling, feed handling and processing, and livestock confinement systems.
The disease causes shortness of breath and a feeling of general illness, either in a sudden attack or as a slow, progressive disease. When people with Farmer's Lung can avoid breathing in dust from moldy crops or feed, they seldom have further problems. On the other hand, lengthy exposure can cause permanent lung damage, physical disability, or even death.
Usually, people with Farmer's Lung do not associate their health problem with exposure to moldy hay. Instead, they go to their doctor complaining of breathing problems. It is important to recognize the danger of working with moldy crops and to be able to recognize the signs and symptoms of Farmer's Lung. This enables people with symptoms to get medical help before it becomes a serious illness.

# Historical Perspective

## Overview
Feminization (biology)
In biology and medicine, feminization refers to the development in an organism of physical or behavioral characteristics unique to the female of the species. This may represent a normal developmental process, contributing to sexual differentiation.
Feminization can also be induced by environmental factors, and this phenomenon has been observed in several animal species.  

# Pathological feminization
In animals, when feminization occurs in a male, or at an inappropriate developmental age, it is often due to a genetic or acquired disorder of the endocrine system. In humans, one of the more common manifestations of abnormal feminization is gynecomastia, the inappropriate development of breasts which may result from elevated levels of feminizing hormones such as estrogens. Deficiency or blockage of virilizing hormones (androgens) can also contribute to feminization. Interestingly, in some cases, high levels of androgens may produce both virilizing effects (increased body hair, deepened voice, increased muscle mass, etc.) and feminizing effects (gynecomastia) since androgens can be converted to estrogens by aromatase in the peripheral tissues.
Ferriman-Gallwey score
The Ferriman-Gallwey score is a method of evaluating and quantifying hirsutism in women, a condition where there is too much body hair.
Hair growth is rated from 0 (no growth of terminal hair) to 4 (complete and heavy cover), in nine locations, giving a maximum score of 36. In Caucasian women, a score of 8 or higher is regarded as indicative of androgen excess. With other ethnic groups, the amount of hair expected for that race should be considered.
The nine locations measured are the upper lip, chin, chest, upper back, lower back, upper abdomen, lower abdomen, the upper arms and the thighs.
Fibrinogen alpha chain
Fibrinogen alpha chain is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FGA gene.

# Function
The protein encoded by this gene is the alpha component of fibrinogen, a blood-borne glycoprotein composed of three pairs of nonidentical polypeptide chains. Following vascular injury, fibrinogen is cleaved by thrombin to form fibrin, which is the most abundant component of blood clots. In addition, various cleavage products of fibrinogen and fibrin regulate cell adhesion and spreading, display vasoconstrictor and chemotactic activities, and are mitogens for several cell types. Mutations in this gene lead to several disorders, including dysfibrinogenemia, hypofibrinogenemia, afibrinogenemia, and renal amyloidosis. Alternative splicing results in two isoforms that vary in the carboxy-terminus.

# Interactions
Fibrinogen alpha chain has been shown to interact with Tissue plasminogen activator.
Fibrous rings of heart
The right and left fibrous rings of heart (anulus fibrosus cordis) surround the atrioventricular and arterial orifices, and are stronger upon the left than on the right side of the heart.  The right fibrous ring is known as the anulus fibrosus dexter cordis, and the left is known as the anulus fibrosus sinister cordis.
The atrioventricular rings serve for the attachment of the muscular fibers of the atria and ventricles, and for the attachment of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves.
The left atrioventricular ring is closely connected, by its right margin, with the aortic arterial ring; between these and the right atrioventricular ring is a triangular mass of fibrous tissue, the trigonum fibrosum, which represents the os cordis seen in the heart of some of the larger animals, as the ox and elephant.
Lastly, there is the tendinous band, already referred to, the posterior surface of the conus arteriosus.
The fibrous rings surrounding the arterial orifices serve for the attachment of the great vessels and semilunar valves.
Each ring receives, by its ventricular margin, the attachment of some of the muscular fibers of the ventricles; its opposite margin presents three deep semicircular notches, to which the middle coat of the artery is firmly fixed.
The attachment of the artery to its fibrous ring is strengthened by the external coat and serous membrane externally, and by the endocardium internally.
From the margins of the semicircular notches the fibrous structure of the ring is continued into the segments of the valves.
The middle coat of the artery in this situation is thin, and the vessel is dilated to form the sinuses of the aorta and pulmonary artery.
Fischer esterification

# Overview
Fischer esterification is a special type of esterification and the process of forming an ester by refluxing a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst. Most carboxylic acids are suitable for the reaction, but the alcohol should generally be a primary or secondary alkyl. Tertiary alcohols are prone to elimination, and phenols are usually too unreactive to give useful yields. Commonly used catalysts for a Fischer esterification include  sulfuric acid, tosic acid, and lewis acids such as scandium(III) triflate. For more valuable or sensitive substrates (for example, biomaterials), dicyclohexylcarbodiimide is often used. The reaction is often carried out without a solvent (particularly when a large reagent excess e.g. of MeOH is used) or in a non-polar solvent (e.g. toluene) to facilitate the Dean-Starck method. Typical reaction times vary from 1-10 hours at temperatures of 60-110C.
Direct acylations of alcohols with carboxylic acids is preferred over acylations with anhydrides (poor atom economy) or acid chlorides (moisture sensitive). The main disadvantage of direct acylation is the unfavorable chemical equilibrium that must be remedied e.g. by a large excess of one of the reagents, or by the removal of water (for example by Dean-Stark distillation, the use of molecular sieves, or the use of a stoichiometric quantity of concentrated sulfuric acid as the catalyst). In one study  it is found that Tetrabutylammonium tribromide (TBATB) is a very effective catalyst. For example the acylation of 3-phenyl propanol with glacial acetic acid and TBATB at reflux generates the ester in 15 minutes in a 95% chemical yield without the need to remove water. It is believed that hydrobromic acid released by TBATB protonates the alcohol over the acid making the carboxylate the actual nucleophile in a reversal of the standard esterification mechanism.

# Mechanism
The reaction mechanism for this reaction has several steps:
- Proton transfer from acid catalyst to carbonyl oxygen increases electrophilicity of carbonyl carbon.
- The carbonyl carbon is then attacked by the nucleophilic oxygen atom of the alcohol leading to the formation of an oxonium ion.
- Proton transfer from the oxonium ion to a second molecule of the alcohol gives an activated complex
- Proton transfer from one of the hydroxyl groups of the activated complex gives a new oxonium ion.
- Loss of water from this oxonium ion gives the ester and water
A generic mechanism for an acid Fischer esterification is shown below using acetic acid.
An example of an esterification is in the formation of benzocaine.
Fixed dose combination
A fixed dose combination (FDC) is a formulation of two or more active ingredients combined in a single dosage form available in certain fixed doses.  Fixed dose combination drug products may improve medication compliance by reducing the pill burden of patients.
Typically, fixed dose combination drug products are developed to target a single disease (such as with antiretroviral FDCs used against AIDS).  However, FDCs may also target multiple diseases, such as Caduet.  Caduet contains atorvastatin to treat hypercholesterolemia and amlodipine to treat hypertension.
Since FDCs are reviewed by the Food and Drug Administration, the active ingredients used in the FDC are unlikely to exhibit adverse drug interactions with each other.  However, FDCs may interact with other drugs that a patient is taking.
While FDCs may reduce pill burden, there are some disadvantages.  If a dosing adjustment is warranted, there may not be a FDC available in the most appropriate strength for the patient.  Additionally, if an adverse drug reaction occurs from using a FDC, it may be difficult to identify the active ingredient responsible for causing the reaction.  However, this problem may be avoided by starting the medications individually and monitoring for reactions, and then switching to a FDC when no problems have been observed.

# Profit motive
Fixed dose combination drug products may be developed by a pharmaceutical company as a way to extend the marketability of a drug product.  Since FDCs may be protected by patents, a company may obtain exclusive rights to sell the FDC, even though the individual active ingredients may be off-patent.
Fluconazole overdosage

# OVERDOSAGE
There have been reports of overdose with fluconazole accompanied by hallucination and paranoid behavior.
In the event of overdose, symptomatic treatment (with supportive measures and gastric lavage if clinically indicated) should be instituted.
Fluconazole is largely excreted in urine. A three-hour hemodialysis session decreases plasma levels by approximately 50%.
In mice and rats receiving very high doses of fluconazole, clinical effects in both species included decreased motility and respiration, ptosis, lacrimation, salivation, urinary incontinence, loss of righting reflex, and cyanosis; death was sometimes preceded by clonic convulsions.
Flucytosine overdosage

# Overdosage
There is no experience with intentional overdosage. It is reasonable to expect that overdosage may produce pronounced manifestations of the known clinical adverse reactions. Prolonged serum concentrations in excess of 100 g/mL may be associated with an increased incidence of toxicity, especially gastrointestinal (diarrhea, nausea, vomiting), hematologic (leukopenia, thrombocytopenia) and hepatic (hepatitis).
In the management of overdosage, prompt gastric lavage or the use of an emetic is recommended. Adequate fluid intake should be maintained, by the intravenous route if necessary, since Ancobon is excreted unchanged via the renal tract. The hematologic parameters should be monitored frequently; liver and kidney function should be carefully monitored. Should any abnormalities appear in any of these parameters, appropriate therapeutic measures should be instituted.
Since hemodialysis has been shown to rapidly reduce serum concentrations in anuric patients, this method may be considered in the management of overdosage.
Flunitrazepam overdose

# Overview
Flunitrazepam/Rohypnol is a prescription drug - the only sedative that has been used in many date rapes in the US. Rohypnol's medical use is a preoperation anesthetic or strong sleeping pill, but stronger doses can bring on amnesia. It takes effect very quickly - sometimes as quick as 10 minutes after taken - and reaches its peak eight hours later when it can render a patient totally unconscious. 
Rohypnol comes as a pill that can diissolve in liquids. Some are round , small and white. Newer pills are oval and green-grey in colour. When slipped into a drink , a dye in these new pills makes clear liquids turn blue and the dark drinks turn cloudy. But this colour change might br hard to see in a dark drink, or in a dark room.Also the pills with no dye are available. these pills may be grounded up into a powder.

# Overdose
Rohypnol overdose may result in excessive sedation, impairment of balance and speech, and may progress in severe overdoses to respiratory depression, coma, and possibly death. The risk of rohypnol overdose increases if the
drug is taken in combination with central nervous system depressants such as alcohol and opiates. In a retrospective study of deaths, when benzodiazepines were implicated, the benzodiazepines, rohypnol and flunitrazepam were the most common benzodiazepines involved.