Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Interstitial cell of Cajal

# Overview
The Interstitial cell of Cajal (ICC) is a type of cell found in the gastrointestinal tract.  It serves as a pacemaker that triggers gut contraction.
Many types of smooth muscle tissues have now been shown to contain ICC, but with few exceptions the function of these cells is not known and an area of active research. An international society (International Society for ICC, www.isicc.org) has recently been formed to provide a forum to discuss research in ICC in a variety of tissues.

# Role in slow wave activity
ICC serve as electrical pacemakers and generate spontaneous electrical slow waves in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.  Electrical slow waves spread from ICC to smooth muscle cells and the resulting depolarization initiates calcium ion entry and contraction.  Slow waves organize gut contractions into phasic contractions that are the basis for peristalsis and segmentation.

# Frequency of ICC pacemaker cells
The frequency of ICC pacemaker activity differs in different regions of the GI tract:
- 3 per minute in the stomach
- 12 per minute in the duodenum
- 10 per minute in the ileum
- 3 per hour in the colon
ICC also mediate neural input from enteric motor neurons. Animals lacking ICC have greatly reduced responses to the transmitter, acetylcholine, released from excitatory motor neurons, and to the transmitter, nitric oxide, released from inhibitory motor neurons. Loss of ICC in disease, therefore, may interrupt normal neural control of gastrointestinal (GI) contractions and lead to functional GI disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome.
ICC also express mechano-sensitive mechanisms that cause these cells to respond to stretch. Stretching GI muscles can affect the resting potentials of ICC and affect the frequency of pacemaker activity.
ICC are also critical in the propagation of electrical slow waves.  ICC form a network through which slow wave activity can propagate actively. If this network is broken, then 2 regions of muscle will function independently.

# Pathology
ICCs are thought to be the cells from which gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GISTs) arise. Also, abnormalities in the ICC network is one cause of chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction.

# Eponym
The interstitial cells of Cajal are named after Santiago Ramon y Cajal, a Spanish pathologist and Nobel laureate.
Intraepithelial lymphocyte

# Overview
Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) are lymphocytes found in the epithelial layer of mammalian mucosal linings, such as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and reproductive tract. In the GI tract, they are components of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT).
IELs express gamma-delta heterodimers. Most gamma-delta T cell receptors (TCRs) lack the CD4+ and CD8+ marker, howerver, gamma-delta TCRs are unique in that they are CD8+.

# Pathology
An elevated IEL population, as determined by biopsy, typically indicates ongoing inflammation within the mucosa. In diseases such as coeliac sprue, IEL elevation throughout the small intestine is one of many specific markers.
Alternatively, elevated IEL populations can be a marker for developing neoplasia in the tissue (such as found in cervical and prostate cancers). IELs themselves can of course, undergo mutation to become lymphoma.
Intravenous sugar solution

# Overview
An intravenous sugar solution is a solution with a sugar (usually glucose, a.k.a. dextrose, with water as the solvent) used for intravenous therapy, where it may function both as a means of maintaining tissue hydration and a means of parenteral nutrition.

# Types
Types of glucose/dextrose include:
- D5W (5% dextrose in water), which consists of 278 mmol/L dextrose
- D5NS (5% dextrose in normal saline), which, in addition, contains normal saline (0.90% w/v of NaCl).
D5 1/2NS (5% dextrose in half amount of normal saline (0.45% w/v of NaCl).
- D5 1/2NS (5% dextrose in half amount of normal saline (0.45% w/v of NaCl).
The percentage is a mass percentage, so a 5% glucose/dextrose solution contains 50 mg/ml of glucose/dextrose (Quite simply, 5% dextrose means the solution contains 5g/100ml of solution).
Glucose provides energy 4 kcal/gram, so a 5% glucose solution provides 0.2 kcal/ml. If prepared from dextrose monohydrate, which provides 3.4 kcal/gram, a 5% solution provides 0.17 kcal/ml.

# Indications
Administering a 5% sugar solution peri- and postoperatively usually achieves a good balance between starvation reactions and hyperglycemia caused by sympathetic activation. A 10% solution may be more appropriate when the stress response from the reaction has decreased, after approximately one day after surgery. After more than approximately 2 days, a more complete regimen of total parenteral nutrition is indicated.
In patients with hypernatremia and euvolemia, free water can be replaced using either 5% D/W or 0.45% saline.

# See Also
- Parenteral nutrition
Iodine deficiency overview
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# Overview
Iodine is an essential trace element; the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodotyronine contain iodine. In areas where there is little iodine in the diettypically remote inland
areas where no marine foods are eateniodine deficiency gives rise to
goiter (so-called endemic goitre), as well as cretinism, which results in developmental delays and other health problems
In some such areas, this is now combatted by the addition of small amounts of iodine to table salt in form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide, potassium iodatethis product is known as iodized salt. Iodine compounds have also been added to other foodstuffs, such as flour, in areas of deficiency.

# Historical Perspective

# Classification

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Iodine Deficiency from Other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

# Diagnosis

## Diagnostic Criteria

## History and Symptoms

## Physical Examination

## Laboratory Findings

## Imaging Findings

## Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy

## Surgery

## Prevention
JAK-STAT signaling pathway

# Overview
The JAK-STAT signaling pathway takes part in the regulation of cellular responses to cytokines and growth factors. Employing Janus kinases (JAKs) and Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (STATs), the pathway transduces the signal carried by these extracellular polypeptides to the cell nucleus, where activated STAT proteins modify gene expression. Although STATs were originally discovered as targets of Janus kinases, it has now become apparent that certain stimuli can activate them independent of JAKs. The pathway plays a central role in principal cell fate decisions, regulating the processes of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. It is particularly important in hematopoiesis - production of blood cells.

# Mechanism
JAKs, which have tyrosine kinase activity, bind to some cell surface cytokine receptors. The binding of the ligand to the receptor triggers activation of JAKs. With increased kinase activity, they phosphorylate tyrosine residues on the receptor and create sites for interaction with proteins that contain phosphotyrosine-binding SH2 domain. STATs possessing SH2 domains capable of binding these phosphotyrosine residues, are recruited to the receptors and are themselves tyrosine-phosphorylated by JAKs. These phosphotyrosines then act as docking sites for SH2 domains of other STATs, mediating their dimerisation. Different STATs form hetero- as well as homodimers. Activated STAT dimers accumulate in the cell nucleus and activate transcription of their target genes. STATs may also be tyrosine-phosphorylated by other non-receptor tyrosine kinases, such as c-src, as well as receptor tyrosine kinases, such as the epidermal growth factor receptor.
The pathway is negatively regulated on multiple levels. Protein tyrosine phosphatases remove phosphates from cytokine receptors as well as activated STATs. More recently identified Suppressors of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS) inhibit STAT phosphorylation by binding and inhibiting JAKs or competing with STATs for phosphotyrosine binding sites on cytokine receptors. STATs are also negatively regulated by Protein Inhibitors of Activated STATs (PIAS), which act in the nucleus through several mechanisms. For example, PIAS1 and PIAS3 inhibit transcriptional activation by STAT1 and STAT3 respectively by binding and blocking access to the DNA sequences they recognise.
Jumping Frenchmen of Maine

# Background
Jumping Frenchmen of Maine is a rare disorder originally described by G. M. Beard in 1878. It results in an exaggerated "startle" reflex, and was first noted among related French-Canadian lumberjacks in the Moosehead Lake area of Maine. It is not clear if the disorder is neurological or psychological.
The "Jumping Frenchmen" seemed to react abnormally to sudden stimuli. Beard recorded, for instance, individuals who would obey any command given suddenly, even if it meant striking a loved one, and repeat back unfamiliar or foreign phrases uncontrollably. Beard also noticed that the condition was often shared within a family, suggesting that it was inherited.
The interest sparked by Beard's publication about the disorder inspired Georges Gilles de la Tourette to investigate what later became known as Tourette's syndrome.  Further studies of the condition in the 1980s, however, cast doubt on whether the "Jumping Frenchmen" phenomenon was in fact a physical condition like Tourette's. Documentation of direct observation of "Jumping Frenchmen" has been scarce, and while videotape evidence was recorded by several researchers that showed the condition to be real, Saint-Hilaire concluded from studying eight affected people that it was brought on by conditions at their lumber camps and was psychological, not neurological.
Kugelberg-Welander disease
Kugelberg-Welander disease (also known as "juvenile spinal muscular atrophy, "spinal muscular atrophy type 3, or "spinal muscular atrophy type III") is an autosomal recessive muscular disease. It is a form of spinal muscular atrophy, or SMA. It appears between 2 and 17 years of age, and include abnormal manner of walking; difficulty running, climbing steps or rising from a chair and slight tremor of the fingers.

# Treatment
Treatment is symptomatic and supportive and includes treating pneumonia, curvature of the spine and respiratory infections if present. Also, physical therapy, orthotic supports, and rehabilitation are useful. Genetic counseling is imperative.

# Prognosis
Children with Kugelberg-Welander disease / spinal muscular atrophy type 3 may appear "normal" until they are five or 10 or even older. These children achieve independent walking and their weakness may be so mild that medical attention is not sought for years. Many children have a very benign course and may remain ambulatory for decades after the onset of symptoms. Other patients exhibit slowly progressive symptoms resulting in a loss of independent walking. Respiratory complications are uncommon and swallowing problems are rarely encountered.
Leukemia inhibitory factor
Leukemia inhibitory factor, or LIF, is an interleukin 6 class cytokine that affects cell growth by inhibiting differentiation. When LIF levels drop, the cells differentiate.

# Function
LIF derives its name from its ability to induce the terminal differentiation of myeloid leukemic cells, thus preventing their continued growth. Other properties attributed to the cytokine include: the growth promotion and cell differentiation of different types of target cells, influence on bone metabolism, cachexia, neural development, embryogenesis and inflammation. p53 regulated LIF has been shown to facilitate implantation in the mouse model and possibly in humans. It has been suggested that recombinant human LIF might help to improve the implantation rate in women with unexplained infertility.

# Binding/activation
LIF binds to the specific LIF receptor (LIFR-) which forms a heterodimer with a specific subunit common to all members of that family of receptors, the GP130 signal transducing subunit. This leads to activation of the JAK/STAT (Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription) and MAPK (mitogen activated protein kinase) cascades.

# Expression
LIF is normally expressed in the trophectoderm of the developing embryo, with its receptor LIFR expressed throughout the inner cell mass. As embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell mass at the blastocyst stage, removing them from the inner cell mass also removes their source of LIF. Recombinant LIF has been produced in plants by InVitria.

# Use in stem cell culture
LIF is often added to stem cell culture media as an alternative to feeder cell culture, due to the limitation that feeder cells present by only producing LIF on their cell surfaces. Feeder cells lacking the LIF gene do not effectively support stem cells. LIF promotes self-renewal by recruiting signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3). Stat3 is recruited to the activated LIF receptor and phosphorylated by Janus kinase. It bears noting that LIF and Stat3 are not sufficient to inhibit stem cell differentiation, as cells will differentiate upon removal of serum. During the reversibility phase of differentiation from naive pluripotency, it is possible to revert cells back to naive pluripotency through the addition of LIF.
Removal of LIF pushes stem cells toward differentiation, however genetic manipulation of embryonic stem cells allows for LIF independent growth, notably overexpression of the gene Nanog.
LIF is typically added to stem cell culture medium to reduce spontaneous differentiation.
Large plaque parapsoriasis

# Overview
Large plaque parapsoriasis (also known as "parapsoriasis en plaques") are skin lesions that may be included in the modern scheme of cutaneous conditions described as parapsoriasis. These lesions, called plaques, may be irregularly round-shaped to oval and are 10 cm (3.93700787 in) or larger in diameter. They can be very thin plaques that are symptomatic or mildly pruritic. Large-plaque parapsoriasis is a common associate of retiform parapsoriasis, can be accompanied by poikiloderma vasculare atrophicans, and can in rare occasions be a precursor to cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Skin
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.
- Large plaque parapsoriasis. With permission from Dermatology Atlas.

# Treatment
Parapsoriasis treatment consists primairly of Light therapy (more specifically PUVA therapy or UVB therapy) possibly in combination with Topical steroids. 
 Large plaque parapsoriasis is usually a chronic condition that needs long-term treatment.
Left gastro-omental artery
The left gastro-omental artery (or left gastroepiploic artery), the largest branch of the splenic artery, runs from left to right about a fingers breadth or more from the greater curvature of the stomach, between the layers of the greater omentum, and anastomoses with the right gastroepiploic.
In its course it distributes:
- "Gastric branches":  several ascending branches to both surfaces of the stomach;
- "Omental branches": descend to supply the greater omentum and anastomose with branches of the middle colic.

# Additional images
- Branches of the celiac artery.
Levatores costarum muscles

# Overview
The Levatores costarum, twelve in number on either side, are small tendinous and fleshy bundles, which arise from the ends of the transverse processes of the seventh cervical and upper eleven thoracic vertebrae
They pass obliquely downward and lateralward, like the fibers of the Intercostales externi, and each is inserted into the outer surface of the rib immediately below the vertebra from which it takes origin, between the tubercle and the angle (Levatores costarum breves).
Each of the four lower muscles divides into two fasciculi, one of which is inserted as above described; the other passes down to the second rib below its origin (Levatores costarum longi).
List of Schedule III drugs

# Overview
This is a list of Schedule III drugs under the Controlled Substances Act for the United States.
Required findings for drugs to be placed in this schedule: 
- The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II.
- The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
- Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.
The complete list of Schedule III drugs are as follows.   The Administrative Controlled Substances Code Number for each drug is included.

# Stimulants

# Depressants

# Narcotics

# Anabolic steroids

# Hallucinogens
List of U.S. state fossils
Though every state in the United States has a State Bird and a State Flower, not every state in the United States has a State Fossil.
State fossils tend to be quite dramatic. California has chosen the Pleistocene saber-toothed cat, Smilodon fatalis familiar from the La Brea Tar Pits, and Alaska has the Woolly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius. Of course there are plenty of dinosaurs (Colorado's Stegosaurus, New Jersey's duck-bill Hadrosaurus foulki  or Montana's Maiasaura peeblesorum) and even sets of dinosaur footprints (both Connecticut and Massachusetts). Nevada recalls its days as beachfront property with a Triassic Ichthyosaur, Shonisaurus popularis. Idaho has chosen an early horse, Equus simplicidens. Alabama and Mississippi have a pair of Eocene archaeocete whales, and Vermont has the most recent fossil, Charlotte, the Vermont Whale, a Beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) from an arm of the sea that extended into Pleistocene Vermont. Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and Ohio are represented by trilobites. New York has the less-familiar Eurypterid, and Maine has gone out on a limb with an early vascular plant from the Devonian, Pertica quadrifaria.
Some of the State Fossils are a little generic, like Georgia's unspecified shark's tooth, but Illinois is represented by the unique and mysterious Tully Monster Tullimonstrum gregarium from the Carboniferous swamplands.

# List of State Fossils
List of elements by number
A table of chemical elements ordered by atomic number and color coded according to type of element.  Given is each element's name, element symbol, group and period, Chemical series, and atomic mass (or most stable isotope).

# Notes
-  Jump up to: 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 The isotopic composition of this element varies in some geological specimens, and the variation may exceed the uncertainty stated in the table.
-  Jump up to: 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 The isotopic composition of the element can vary in commercial materials, which can cause the atomic weight to deviate significantly from the given value.
-  Jump up to: 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 The isotopic composition varies in terrestrial material such that a more precise atomic weight can not be given.
-  The atomic weight of commercial Lithium can vary between 6.939 and 6.996analysis of the specific material is necessary to find a more accurate value.
-  Jump up to: 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 The element does not have any stable nuclides, and a value in brackets, e.g. , indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element or characteristic isotopic composition.
-  This element has not been discovered/synthesized.
List of hospitals in Nepal
This is a list of hospitals in Nepal, based on the list from the American Nepal Medical Foundation.

# Notes
-  Kathmandu University
-  Abstract of B & B Hospital
-  Bir Hospital Appeal
-  Images from Bir Hospital lab facilities in both histopathology and tissue typing
-  Synopsis of the high level committee report in the Royal Palace Incident
-  Dhulikhel Hospital website
-  Dhulikhel Hospital contact information
-  Contact address for Lions Eye Care Centre
-  Om Hospital website
-  Friends of Patan Hospital
-  Shahid Gangalal National Heart Center website
-  Tilganga Eye Center website
Loss of side branch case 2

# Loss of Side Branch

## Pre-intervention
Shown below is a pre-intervention angiogram with significant lesion in the mid left circumflex artery.

## Intervention
Shown below is an angiogram with ongoing intervention on the significant lesion described above.

## Post-intervention
Shown below is a post-intervention angiogram with occlusion of the obtuse marginal branch after intervention on the mid left circumflex artery depicting loss of side branch.
Loss of side branch case 3

# Loss of Side Branch

## Pre-intervention
Shown below is a pre-intervention angiogram with significant lesion in the mid left circumflex artery.

## Intervention
Shown below is an angiogram with ongoing intervention on the significant lesion described above.

## Post-intervention
Shown below is a post-intervention angiogram with occlusion of the marginal branch after intervention on the mid left circumflex artery depicting loss of side branch.
Loss of side branch case 4

# Loss of Side Branch

## Pre-intervention
Shown below is a pre-intervention angiogram with significant lesion in the mid RCA.

## Intervention
Shown below is an angiogram with ongoing intervention on the significant lesion described above.

## Post-intervention
Shown below is a post-intervention angiogram with occlusion of the acute marginal branch after intervention on the mid RCA depicting loss of side branch.
Loss of side branch case 5

# Loss of Side Branch

## Pre-intervention
Shown below is a pre-intervention angiogram with significant lesion in the mid LAD.

## Intervention
Shown below is an angiogram with ongoing intervention on the significant lesion described above.

## Post-intervention
Shown below is a post-intervention angiogram with occlusion of the diagonal branch after intervention on the mid LAD depicting loss of side branch.
Loss of side branch case 8

# Loss of Side Branch

## Pre-intervention
Shown below is a pre-intervention angiogram with significant lesion in the mid RCA.

## Intervention
Shown below is an angiogram with ongoing intervention on the significant lesion described above.

## Post-intervention
Shown below is a post-intervention angiogram with occlusion of the acute marginal branch after intervention on the mid RCA depicting loss of side branch.
Loss of side branch case 9

# Loss of Side Branch

## Pre-intervention
Shown below is a pre-intervention angiogram with significant lesion in the mid RCA.

## Intervention
Shown below is an angiogram with ongoing intervention on the significant lesion described above.

## Post-intervention
Shown below is a post-intervention angiogram with occlusion of the acute marginal branch after intervention on the mid RCA depicting loss of side branch.