Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Mycobacterium szulgai

# Overview
Mycobacterium szulgai is a species of Mycobacterium. It is a Scotochromogen and is currently ungrouped. It is known to cause skin infections.

# Treatment

## Antimicrobial Regimen
- Mycobacterium szulgai 
- 1. in vitro susceptibility
- M. szulgai is susceptible in vitro to most antituberculous drugs including Quinolones and newer Macrolides
- 2. Infection
- 2.1 Pulmonary infection
- Three- or four-drug regimen based on susceptibility that includes 12 months of negative sputum cultures while on therapy
- 2.2 Extrapulmonary infection
- Combination anti-tuberculous medications based on in vitro susceptibilities for 4-6 months
Myringotomy and Tubes
Myringotomy is the incision of the tympanic membrane (or eardrum).  It is done for variety of reasons but usually in order to drain the middle ear of fluid or infection.  It may also be done when no fluid is present but the tympanic membrane is retracted due to low middle ear pressure.  Middle ear fluid, infection, or pressure gradients cause decreased compliance (malfunction) of the tympanic membrane and a conductive hearing loss.
Pressure equalization tubes, or myringotomy tubes, are usually placed at the time of myringotomy to stent the eardrum open.  Otherwise the rapid healing of the eardrum (a few days) would necessitate future myringotomies before the underlying condition is fully treated.  Most tubes are made of a synthetic plastic material.  They typically stay in place about nine months before they are naturally extruded by the rapidly healing eardrum.
Otolaryngologists can perform myringotomy and tube placement in the clinic using a topical anesthetic, but children usually require general anesthesia or strong sedation in the operating room.  Typically an operating microscope is used, but is not always necessary.  Most people report rapid return of their hearing.
The most common complications to myringotomy and tube placement include early extrusion of the tube and failure of the eardrum to heal after the tube has fallen out.  Rarely the tube can extrude inward into the middle ear or mastoid and therefore be retained.  These complications may require additional procedures to rectify.
N-Acetylaspartic acid
N-Acetylaspartic acid, or N-acetylaspartate (NAA), is a derivative of aspartic acid with a formula of C6H9NO5  and a molecular weight of 175.139.
NAA  is the second-most-concentrated molecule in the brain after the amino acid glutamate.  It is synthesized in neurons from the amino acid aspartic acid and acetyl-coenzyme A. The various functions served by NAA are still under investigation, but the primary proposed functions include its being:
- A neuronal osmolyte that is involved in fluid balance in the brain
- A source of acetate for lipid and myelin synthesis in oligodendrocytes, the glial cells that myelinate neuronal axons
- A precursor for the synthesis of the important neuronal dipeptide N-Acetylaspartylglutamate
- A contributor to energy production from the amino acid glutamate in neuronal mitochondria.
NAA gives off the largest signal in magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the human brain, and the levels measured there are decreased in numerous neuropathological conditions ranging from brain injury to stroke to Alzheimer's disease. This fact makes NAA a reliable diagnostic molecule for doctors treating patients with brain damage or disease.
N-acetyltransferase 2
N-acetyltransferase 2 (arylamine N-acetyltransferase), also known as NAT2, is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the NAT2 gene.

# Function
This gene encodes a type of N-acetyltransferase. The NAT2 isozyme functions to both activate and deactivate arylamine and hydrazine drugs and carcinogens. Polymorphisms in this gene are responsible for the N-acetylation polymorphism in which human populations segregate into rapid, intermediate, and slow acetylator phenotypes. Polymorphisms in NAT2 are also associated with higher incidences of cancer and drug toxicity. A second arylamine N-acetyltransferase gene (NAT1) is located near NAT2.

# Phenotype prediction
The NAT2 acetylator phenotype can be inferred from NAT2 genotype (a combination of SNPs observed in a given individual).
Night eating syndrome
Synonyms and keywords: NES

# Overview
Night eating syndrome is an eating disorder that has only been recognized as such since 1999, and affects between 1 and 2% of the population.  NES is also characterized as a sleeping disorder.  NES is often accompanied by or confused with sleep-related eating disorder (SRED), although the two are distinct.
This is an ongoing, persistent behavior, unlike the occasional late snack or skipped meal that most people have from time to time.  In fact, people with this disorder are often unaware of their nocturnal meals, although some feel they won't be able to sleep without eating first.  ( Note:  a person falls asleep more easily on a full stomach. )  Among those who are aware of their night eating, there is often an emotional component;  the diet of the night eater is comfort food.

# Symptoms / Behavior
People who suffer from night eating syndrome generally:
- Skip breakfast, and go several hours after waking before their first meal.
- Consume at least half their calories after dinner.  (Many sources would list this as after 9 or 10 pm;  dessert is generally not included, if one is eaten)
Late night binges almost always consist of carbohydrates.  However, this eating is typically spread over several hours, which is not consistent with a typical eating binge as seen in other eating disorders.
- Late night binges almost always consist of carbohydrates.  However, this eating is typically spread over several hours, which is not consistent with a typical eating binge as seen in other eating disorders.
- Suffer from depression or anxiety, often in connection with their eating habits.
These night eating episodes typically bring guilt rather than hedonic enjoyment.
- These night eating episodes typically bring guilt rather than hedonic enjoyment.
- Has trouble sleeping in general;  see insomnia.
Is more likely than the general public to sleepwalk.
- Is more likely than the general public to sleepwalk.
To be considered a bona fide disorder, this pattern should continue for two months or more.

# Treatment
Night eating disorder tends to lead to weight gain;  as many as 28% of those seeking gastric-bypass surgery were found to suffer from NES in one study.  In fact, while sufferers are not always overweight, one in four people who are overweight by 100 lbs or more are thought to suffer from night eating syndrome.  The disorder is accompanied by what sufferers describe as an uncontrolable desire to eat, akin to addiction, and is often treated chemically.
The antidepressant drug Zoloft has shown some ability to help NES sufferers.
Nasopharyngeal airway
In medicine, a nasopharyngeal airway, also known as an NPA or a nasal trumpet because of its flared end, a type of airway adjunct, is a tube that is designed to be inserted into the nasal passageway to secure an open airway. When a patient becomes unconscious, the muscles in the jaw commonly relax and can allow the tongue to slide back and obstruct the airway.  The purpose of the flared end is to prevent the device from becoming lost inside the patient's head. A safety pin is often included in the NPA kit to be attached to the outside for just such a purpose.

# Indications and contraindications
Nasopharygeal airways are sometimes used by people who have sleep apnea.
These devices are also used by emergency care professionals such as EMT'S and paramedics in situations where an artificial form of airway maintenance is necessary but it is impossible or unadvisory to use an oropharyngeal airway, the preferred type of airway adjunct. For example, in a patient having epileptic seizures whose teeth are clenched shut. In an unconscious patient, suction of the upper airways may also be applied via an NPA.
Insertion of an NPA is contraindicated in patients with severe head or facial injuries, or have evidence of a basal skull fracture (Battle's sign) due to the possibility of direct intrusion upon brain tissue.  An oropharyngeal airway may be used instead, but these devices frequently trigger a patient's gag reflex, while nasopharyngeal airways often do not.

# Insertion
The correct size airway is chosen by measuring the device on the patient: the device should reach from the patient's nostril to the earlobe or the angle of the jaw.  The outside of the tube is lubricated with a water-based lubricant so that it enters the nose more easily.  The device is inserted until the flared end rests against the nostril.

# Reference
-  Jump up to: 1.0 1.1 Daniel Limmer and Michael F. O'Keefe.  2005.  Emergency Care 10th ed.  Edward T. Dickinson, Ed.  Pearson, Prentice Hall.  Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Page 147.

# External link
- Medical sales site with a picture of a nasopharyngeal airway
National DNA database
A National DNA database is a national database of DNA samples against which law enforcement agencies can match suspect DNA. The first national database was set up by the United Kingdom in April 1995. The second one was set up in New Zealand . France set up the FNAEG in 1998. In the USA, the FBI has organized the CODIS database.  Originally intended for sex offenders, they have since been extended to include almost any criminal offender.
In England and Wales, anyone arrested on suspicion of a recordable offence must submit a DNA sample to the database, which is then kept on permanent record. In Scotland, the law is different and most people are removed from the database if they are acquitted. In Sweden, only criminals who have spent more than two years in prison are recorded. In Norway and Germany, court orders are required, and are only available, respectively, for serious offenders and for those convicted of certain offences and likely to reoffend. All 50 states in the USA keep profiles of violent offenders, and a few keep profiles of suspects. Portugal has plans to introduce a DNA database of its entire population 

# DNA databases and medicine
The database became the common meeting ground for computer scientists and molecular biologists. This is because the goal of certain projects like the genome project was to construct maps, which were built from information contributed to databases. They enabled an entirely new way of information analysis. The intrusion of computers into molecular biology shifted power into the hands of those with mathematical aptitudes and the computer savvy. However, the information gained from mapping and sequencing genetic information would very likely have ethical implications for individuals, families and society in general. There is a concern about genetic information being used in ways that affect chances of employment or chance of getting life insurance. Furthermore, secondary applications of personal, genetic information mean that citizens do not know what their genetic information will be used for.
Natural Killer T cell
Natural killer T (NKT) cells are a heterogeneous group of T cells that share properties of both T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. Many of these cells recognize the non-polymorphic CD1d molecule, an antigen-presenting molecule that binds self- and foreign lipids and glycolipids. They constitute only 0.2% of all peripheral blood T cells.

# Nomenclature
The term NK T cells was first used in mice to define a subset of T cells that expressed the natural killer (NK) cell-associated marker NK1.1 (CD161). It is now generally accepted that the term NKT cells refers to CD1d-restricted T cells, present in mice and humans, coexpressing a heavily biased, semi-invariant T cell receptor (TCR) and NK cell markers.
Natural killer T (NKT) cells should not be confused with natural killer (NK) cells.

# Molecular Characterization
NKT cells are a subset of T cells that co-express an  T cell receptor (TCR), but also express a variety of molecular markers that are typically associated with NK cells, such as NK1.1. They differ from conventional  T cells in that their TCRs are far more limited in diversity and in that they recognize lipids and glycolipids presented by CD1d molecules, a member of the CD1 family of antigen presenting molecules, rather than peptide-MHC complexes. NKT cells include both NK1.1+ and NK1.1-, as well as CD4+, CD4-, CD8+ and CD8- cells. Natural Killer T cells share other features with NK cells as well, such as CD16 and CD56 expression and granzyme production.

# Classification
Classification of natural killer T cells into three groups has been proposed.

# iNKT cells
The best known subset of CD1d-dependent NKT cells expresses an invariant T cell receptor  (TCR-) chain. These are referred to as type I or invariant NKT cells (iNKT) cells.These cells are conserved between humans and mice and are implicated in many immunological processes.

# Function
Upon activation, NK T cells are able to produce large quantities of interferon-gamma, IL-4, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, as well as multiple other cytokines and chemokines (such as IL-2 and TNF-alpha).

# Significance
NKT cells seem to be essential for several aspects of immunity because their dysfunction or deficiency has been shown to lead to the development of autoimmune diseases (such as diabetes or atherosclerosis) and cancers. NKT cells have recently been implicated in the disease progression of human asthma.
The clinical potential of NKT cells lies in the rapid release of cytokines (such as IL-2, IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and IL-4) that promote or suppress different immune responses.
Neocallimastigomycota
Neocallimastigomycota is a phylum of anaerobic fungi, found mainly within the stomachs of ruminants, but with possible distributions elsewhere. It encompasses only one family.

# Reproduction and growth
These fungi reproduce in the stomach of ruminants through the use of zoospores lacking a centriole, and have been known to utilize horizontal gene transfer in their development of xylanase (from bacteria) and other glucanases. The nuclear envolopes of their cells are notable for remaining intact throughout mitosis.

# Metabolism
Neocallimastigomycota lack mitochondria, using hydrogenosomes to oxidize NADH to NAD+, evolving H2 as a product.

# Spelling of name
The Greek termination, "-mastix", referring to "whips", i.e. the many flagella on these fungi, is changed to "-mastig-" when combined with additional terminations in Latinized names. The family name Neocallimastigaceae was originally incorrectly published as "Neocallimasticaceae" by the publishing authors which led to the coinage of the misspelled, hence incorrect "Neocallimasticales", an easily forgiven error considering that other "-ix" endings such as Salix goes to Salicaceae. Correction of these names is mandated by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, Art. 60. The corrected spelling is used by Index Fungorum. Both spellings occur in the literature and on the WWW as a result of the spelling in the original publication.
NeuroElectric Therapy

# Overview
NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) is a new form of addiction treatment in early clinical trials.

# History
In the late 1970s, a Scottish surgeon, Dr. Meg Patterson (MBE, MBChB, FRCS Edinburgh), discovered that by applying small, precisely structured electrical waveforms to chemically dependent people, she could stimulate the human body to rapidly accelerate its rate of detoxification.
Published clinical results showed that by coupling NeuroElectric Therapy with approximately two weeks of a residential rehabilitation program, participants being treated with such a protocol exhibited a dropout rate of less than 2% and experienced long-term drug abstinence rates of approximately 80%, based upon a follow-up study that determined the sampled participants abstinence status anywhere from 1 - 8 years after their initial treatment (n=186).  This is compared with about a 3% long-term average abstinence rate for people who are treated using traditional methods.
Approximately 130 addicts have been treated in pilot tests in the USA and UK in 2006 and early 2007.
Nicholas J. Vogelzang

# Overview
Dr Nicholas J. Vogelzang was appointed as the Director of the Nevada Cancer Institute (NVCI) in January of 2004. His research interests are in clinical trials in genitourinary malignancies and mesothelioma. He is also involved in new therapies for patients with metastatic kidney cancer, including gene therapy and cytokine therapy.

# Career
Dr. Vogelzang received his M.D. degree from the University of Illinois at Chicago in 1974. He completed his internship, residency, and chief residency in internal medicine at Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center in Chicago, followed by his fellowship in medical oncology at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis.
He served as a faculty member at the University of Chicago since 1982 including serving as the director of the University of Chicago Cancer Research Center.

# Research
In 2002, Vogelzang directed the largest Phase II trial for mesothelioma using pemetrexed (brand name Alimta, by Eli Lilly).  Pemetrexed is an antifolate, a class of drugs that targets the folic acid metabolic pathway. The results of the trial show that tumors shrank in 41 percent of patients on pemetrexed in combination with a more commonly used chemotherapy agent called cisplatin. Only 17 percent of patients receiving cisplatin alone experienced tumor shrinkage. Additionally, those on the pemetrexed combination lived nearly three months longer than those on cisplatin alone.  

# Professional memberships
Dr. Vogelzang has served on committees of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO), as well as on its Board of Directors from 1993 to 1996. He is a former president of the Illinois Division of the American Cancer Society. Dr. Vogelzang was the principal investigator at the University of Chicago for Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) from 1988 to 1999, Chair of the CALGB Prostate Committee from 1993 to 1999.
He is a founding board member of the Mesothelioma Applied Research Foundation (MARF) and is a member the American Association for Cancer Research, the American Urological Association, the Society of Urologic Oncology and the European Society for Medical Oncology.

# Corporate relationships
Vogelzang is a member of the scientific advisory board for Advanced Life Sciences which is a biopharmaceutical company focused on the discovery, development and commercialization of novel drugs in the areas of infectious disease, inflammation and oncology.
Non-epileptic seizure
Non-epileptic seizures are paroxysmal events that mimic an epileptic seizure but do not involve abnormal, rhythmic discharges of cortical neurons. They are caused by either physiological or psychological conditions. The latter is discussed more fully in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures.

# Types
Reflex anoxic seizures are a condition of the brain where the child may become pale and limp and cease breathing, only to recover a short time later. Anoxic seizures are caused by a reflex asystole of the heart due to increased vagal responsiveness. They are non-epileptic.

# Misdiagnosis
A wide spectrum of phenomena may resemble epileptic seizures, which may lead to people who do not have epilepsy being misdiagnosed. Indeed, a significant percentage of people diagnosed with epilepsy later have this revised. In one study, the majority of children referred to a secondary clinic with "fits, faints and funny turns" did not have epilepsy, with syncope (fainting) as the most common alternative. In another study, 39% of children referred to a tertiary epilepsy centre did not have epilepsy, with staring episodes in mentally retarded children as the most common alternative. In adults, the figures are similar, with one study reporting a 26% rate of misdiagnosis.

# Terminology
The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) define an epileptic seizure as "a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain." Epileptic seizures can occur in someone who does not have epilepsy  as a consequence of head injury, drugs, toxins, eclampsia or febrile convulsions, for example.
Medically, when used on its own, the term seizure implies an epileptic seizure. The lay use of this word can also include sudden attacks of illness, loss of control, spasm or stroke. Where the physician is uncertain as to the diagnosis, the medical term paroxysmal event and the lay terms spells, funny turns or attacks may be used.

# Causes
The various pathophysiological causes include:
- Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
- Breath-holding spells of childhood
- Cataplexy
- Hyperekplexia, also called startle syndrome
- Hypoglycemia and associated neuroglycopenia
- infantile gratification / masturbation (onanism)
- Migraine
- Narcolepsy
- Non-epileptic myoclonus
- Opsoclonus
- Parasomnias, including night terrors
- Paroxysmal kinesiogenic dyskinesia
- Repetitive or ritualistic behaviours
- Syncope (fainting)
- Tics
Runyon classification

# Overview
The Runyon classification of nontuberculous mycobacteria based on the rate of growth, production of yellow pigment and whether this pigment was produced in the dark or only after exposure to light. It was introduced by Ernest Runyon in 1959. On these bases, the nontuberculous mycobacteria are divided into four Runyon groups. The first three groups (Runyon I, II, and III) are classified as slowly growing mycobacteria.

# Runyon I:  Photochromogens
Runyon I organisms are slow growing, and produce a yellow-orange pigment when exposed to light.
- Mycobacterium intermedium
- Mycobacterium simiae
- Mycobacterium szulgai (photochromogenic when grown at 24 degrees and scotochromogenic at 37 degrees)
Yellow and smooth
- Mycobacterium asiaticum
- Mycobacterium marinum
Yellow and rough
- Mycobacterium kansasii

# Runyon II: Scotochromogens
Runyon II organisms are slow-growing and produce a yellow-orange pigment regardless of whether they are grown in the dark or the light.
- Mycobacterium scrofulaceum
- Mycobacterium szulgai (photochromogenic when grown at 24 degrees and scotochromogenic at 37 degrees)
Yellow
- Mycobacterium conspicuum
- Mycobacterium botniense
- Mycobacterium farcinogenes
- Mycobacterium heckeshornense
- Mycobacterium interjectum
- Mycobacterium kubicae
- Mycobacterium lentiflavum
- Mycobacterium nebraskense
- Mycobacterium nebraskense
- Mycobacterium palustre
- Mycobacterium tusciae
Yellow-Orange
- Mycobacterium cookii
- Mycobacterium flavescens
- Mycobacterium gordonae
Rose-Pink
- Mycobacterium hiberniae

# Runyon III: Nonchromogens
Runyon III organisms are slow-growing and never produce pigment, regardless of culture conditions.
Rough
- Mycobacterium africanum
- Mycobacterium bovis
- Mycobacterium caprae
- Mycobacterium lacus
- Mycobacterium lepraemurium
- Mycobacterium microti
- Mycobacterium pinnipedii
- Mycobacterium shottsii
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Smooth
- Mycobacterium branderi
- Mycobacterium heidelbergense
- Mycobacterium intracellulare
- Mycobacterium malmoense
Smooth to rough
- Mycobacterium gastri
- Mycobacterium haemophilum
Small and Transparent
- Mycobacterium avium avium
- Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis
- Mycobacterium avium silvaticum
- Mycobacterium genavense
- Mycobacterium montefiorense
- Mycobacterium ulcerans

# Runyon IV: Rapid Growers
Runyon IV organisms are rapid growing for mycobacteria (colonies in 5 days).  They do not produce pigment. Some rapidly growing mycobacteria are considered "late-pigmenting".
- Mycobacterium abscessus
- Mycobacterium chelonae
- Mycobacterium fortuitum
- Mycobacterium peregrinum
- Mycobacterium thermoresistibile