Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Carbon-nitrogen bond
A carbon-nitrogen bond is a covalent bond between carbon and nitrogen and one of the most abundant in organic chemistry and biochemistry .
Nitrogen has five valence electrons and in simple amines it is trivalent with two remaining electrons forming a lone pair. Through it, nitrogen can form an additional bond to hydrogen making it tetravalent and with a positive charge in ammonium salts. Many nitrogen compounds can thus be potentially basic but its degree depends on the configuration: the nitrogen atom in amides is not basic due to delocalization of the lone pair into a double bond and in pyrrole the lone pair is part of an aromatic sextet.
In common with carbon-carbon bonds, these bonds can be stable double bonds for instance imines and triple bonds such as nitriles. Bond lengths range from 147.9 pm for simple amines to 147.5 pm for C-N= compounds such as nitromethane to 135.2 pm for partial double bonds in pyridine to 115.8 pm for triple bonds as in nitriles . The bond strength in a CN bond is higher (184 kcal/mol) than that of the CC bond (145 kcal/mol) 
A CN bond is strongly polarized towards nitrogen (Electronegativity C vs N = 2.55:3.04) and subsequently molecular dipole moments can be high: cyanamide 4.27D, diazomethane 1.5 D, methyl azide 2.17, pyridine 2.19. For this reason many compounds containing CN bonds are water-soluble.

# Nitrogen functional groups
Carbonic anhydrase 4
Carbonic anhydrase 4 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CA4 gene.

# Function
Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are a large family of zinc metalloenzymes that catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide.  They participate in a variety of biological processes, including respiration, calcification, acid-base balance, bone resorption, and the formation of aqueous humor, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, and gastric acid.  They show extensive diversity in tissue distribution and in their subcellular localization.  CA IV is a glycosylphosphatidyl-inositol-anchored membrane isozyme expressed on the luminal surfaces of pulmonary (and certain other) capillaries and of proximal renal tubules.  Its exact function is not known, however, it may have a role in inherited renal abnormalities of bicarbonate transport.
CA IV has been identified in pulmonary epithelium of many mammalian species and may be uniquely adaptive for gas exchange necessary for the high metabolic requirements of mammals. A majority of the CO2 produced by metabolism is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-).  At the tissue capillary, CO2 diffuses from tissue to plasma.  Other forms of carbonic anhydrase enzyme are not present in the plasma, restricting the equilibrium reaction of CO2+H2O = H2CO3 = H+  HCO3-. CO2 in the plasma diffuses into the Red Blood Cell.  CA is present within the Red Blood Cell, facilitating the conversion of CO2 to HCO3-. HCO3- so produced is transferred by the HCO3-/Cl- "shuttle" from the interior of the Red Blood Cell to the plasma.  HCO3- doers not diffuse across cell membranes and, in the absence of CA, stays as HCO3- and concentrates in plasma. Up to 80% of metabolically produced CO2 is transported in plasma in the form of HCO3-.  Blood moves from the tissue capillary to the pulmonary capillary where CO2 is exchanged at the lung. In the pulmonary capillary, bicarbonate can not simply diffuse either into the Red Blood Cell or the alvioli.  It is traditionally thought that HCO3- is returned to the interior of the Red Blood Cell by a reversal of the HCO3-/CO2- shuttle, where, in the presence of CA, it is returned to a CO2 form to diffuse from the interior of the Red Blood Cell, to the plasma and then into the alvioli.  Membrane bound CA (CA IV) on the luminal side of the pulmonary membrane would have direct contact with plasma HCO3- and would enzimatically convert HCO3- to CO2 in the area immediately proximal to the exchange membrane, greatly increasing the concentration gradient for exchange. In this way, plasma HCO3- can be converted to CO2 within the plasma compartment and exchanged with the alvioli without the requirement of returning the HCO3- to the interior of the Red Blood Cell.

# Interactions
CA4 has been shown to interact with Band 3.
Carolina horsenettle
Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), also known as Bull nettle, Carolina horse nettle, Horse nettle, Apple of Sodom, Radical Weed,  Sand Brier and, Tread-softly, is not a true nettle, but a member of the Solanaceae, or nightshade family. It is known for producing painful spines along the stems that penetrate the skin and break off. It is a perennial, herbaceous plant native to southeastern United States that has spread widely throughout North America.
Leaves are alternate, elliptic-oblong to oval, and each is irregularly lobed or coarsely toothed. Both surfaces are covered with fine hairs. The flowers have five petals and are usually white or purple with yellow centers, though there is a blue variant that resembles the tomato flower. The fruits also resemble tomatoes. The immature fruit is dark green with light green stripes, turning yellow and wrinkled as it matures. Each fruit contains around 60 seeds. It flowers throughout the summer, from April to October.
All parts of the plant are poisonous. Children and cattle have been poisoned by eating the green fruit. The mature fruit is reputedly non-poisonous or less poisonous.
These plants can be found growing in pastures, roadsides, railroad margins, and in disturbed areas and waste ground. They grow to about 1 m tall, but are typically shorter, existing as subshrubs. They prefer sandy or loamy soils.
Carolina horsenettle is considered a noxious weed in several US states. It can spread vegetatively by underground rhizomes as well as by seed. It is resistant to many herbicides; in fact, herbicide use often selects for horsenettle by removing competing weeds. It is an especially despised weed by gardeners who hand weed as the spines tend to penetrate the skin and then break off when the plant is grasped. The deep root also makes it difficult to remove.
Horsenettle is also written "horse nettle" or "horse-nettle", though USDA publications usually use horsenettle. Other common names include Wild tomato, Devil's tomato and Sand Briar.
Carrier's constraint
Carrier's constraint is the observation that air-breathing vertebrates which have two lungs and flex their bodies sideways during locomotion find it very difficult to move and breathe at the same time, because:
- the sideways flexing expands one lung and compresses the other.
- this shunts stale air from lung to lung instead of expelling it completely to make room for fresh air.

# Consequences of Carrier's constraint
Most lizards move in short bursts, with long pauses for breath.

# Ways of avoiding Carrier's constraint

## Partial solutions
Sea snakes have only one lung.
Monitor lizards increase their stamina by using bones and muscles in the throat and floor of the mouth to "gulp" air.
Crocodilians have three modes of locomotion: crawling for short distances (this sprawling gait is subject to Carrier's Constraint); "high walk" for longer distances (the erect limb posture minimizes sideways flexing); "gallop" in emergencies (avoids Carrier's Constraint but they can only gallop for a few seconds).

## Complete solutions
Birds have erect limbs and rigid bodies, and therefore do not flex sideways when moving. In addition many of them have a mechanism which pumps both lungs simultaneously when the birds rock their hips.
Most mammals have erect limbs and flexible bodies, which makes their bodies flex vertically when moving fast. This aids breathing as it expands and compresses both lungs simultaneously.
Cefaclor description

# Description
Cefaclor, USP is a semisynthetic cephalosporin antibiotic for oral administration. It is chemically designated as 3-chloro-7-D-(2-phenylglycinamido) -3-cephem-4-carboxylic acid monohydrate. The chemical formula for cefaclor is C15H14ClN3O4SH2O and the molecular weight is 385.82.
Each 250-mg capsule contains cefaclor monohydrate equivalent to 250 mg (0.68 mmol) of anhydrous cefaclor and inactive ingredients: magnesium stearate,sodium starch glycolate, lactose monohydrate, talc.  The 250 mg capsule shell contains gelatin, titanium dioxide, and imprinting ink components: shellac, strong ammonia solution, potassium hydroxide, black iron oxide, dehydrated alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, butyl alcohol and propylene glycol.
Each 500-mg capsule contains cefaclor monohydrate equivalent to 500 mg (1.36 mmol) of anhydrous cefaclor and inactive ingredients: magnesium stearate,sodium starch glycolate, lactose monohydrate, talc. The 500 mg capsule shell contains gelatin, titanium dioxide, and imprinting ink components: shellac, strong ammonia solution, titanium dioxide, aluminum lake, dehydrated alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, butyl alcohol and propylene glycol.
Cefepime description

# Description
MAXIPIME (cefepime hydrochloride, USP) is a semi-synthetic, broad spectrum, cephalosporin antibiotic for parenteral administration. The chemical name is 1--2-carboxy-8-oxo-5-thia-1-azabicyclo oct-2-en-3-yl]methyl]-1-methylpyrrolidinium chloride,72-(Z)-(O-methyloxime), monohydrochloride, monohydrate, which corresponds to the following structural formula:
Cefepime hydrochloride is a white to pale yellow powder. Cefepime hydrochloride contains the equivalent of not less than 825 mcg and not more than 911 mcg of cefepime (C19H24N6O5S2) per mg, calculated on an anhydrous basis. It is highly soluble in water.
MAXIPIME for Injection is supplied for intramuscular or intravenous administration in strengths equivalent to 500 mg, 1 g, and 2 g of cefepime. (See DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION.) MAXIPIME is a sterile, dry mixture of cefepime hydrochloride and L-arginine. It contains the equivalent of not less than 90 percent and not more than 115 percent of the labeled amount of cefepime (C19H24N6O5S2). The L-arginine, at an approximate concentration of 707 mg/g of cefepime, is added to control the pH of the constituted solution at 4 to 6. Freshly constituted solutions of MAXIPIME will range in color from pale yellow to amber.
Cefixime description

# Description
Cefixime is a semisynthetic, cephalosporin antibacterial for oral administration. Chemically, it is (6R,7R)-7--8-oxo-3-vinyl-5-thia-1-azabicyclo  oct-2-ene-2-carboxylic acid, 72-(Z)- trihydrate.
Molecular weight = 507.50 as the trihydrate. Chemical Formula is C16H15N5O7S2.3H2O
The structural formula for cefixime is:
- Inactive ingredients contained in Suprax (cefixime) 400 mg tablets are: dibasic calcium phosphate, hypromellose, lactose monohydrate, magnesium stearate, microcrystalline cellulose, polyethylene glycol, pregelatinized starch, titanium dioxide, and triacetin.
- Inactive ingredients contained in Suprax (cefixime) 400 mg capsules are: colloidal silicon dioxide, crospovidone, low substituted hydroxy propyl cellulose, magnesium stearate, and mannitol. The capsule shell contains the following inactive ingredients: ferric oxide black, ferric oxide red, gelatin, potassium hydroxide, propylene glycol, shellac, sodium lauryl sulfate, and titanium dioxide.
- Inactive ingredients contained in Suprax (cefixime) 100 mg or 150 mg or 200 mg chewable tablets are: aspartame, colloidal silicon dioxide, crospovidone, FD&C Red # 40 Aluminium Lake, low substituted hydroxypropyl cellulose, magnesium stearate, mannitol, fantasy flavor permaseal, and tutti frutti flavor.
- Inactive ingredients contained in Suprax (cefixime) powder for oral suspension are: colloidal silicon dioxide, sodium benzoate, strawberry flavor, sucralose (only in 500 mg/5 mL strength), sucrose, and xanthan gum.
Cefpirome properties

# Properties
Cefrom is a cephalosporln antibiotic for parenteral use. As a beta-lactam antibiotic, it acts by preventing cell wall synthests in bacteria. Cefrom is effective against numerous significant Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including both aerobes and anaerobes. It Is stable against the action of beta-lactamases.
Cefrom is rapidly and widely distributed in body fluids and achieves excellent tissue penetration, reaching concentrations which exceed the minimum inhibitory concentrations for most pathogens.
In vitro studtcs on combinations of CEFROM and Aminoglycoslde antibiotics showed synergistic effects.
Cefpodoxime warnings
BEFORE THERAPY WITH CEFPODOXIME PROXETIL IS INSTITUTED, CAREFUL INQUIRY SHOULD BE MADE TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE PATIENT HAS HAD PREVIOUS HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS TO CEFPODOXIME, OTHER CEPHALOSPORINS, PENICILLINS, OR OTHER DRUGS. IF CEFPODOXIME IS TO BE ADMINISTERED TO PENICILLIN SENSITIVE PATIENTS, CAUTION SHOULD BE EXERCISED BECAUSE CROSS HYPERSENSITIVITY AMONG BETA-LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS HAS BEEN CLEARLY DOCUMENTED AND MAY OCCUR IN UP TO 10% OF PATIENTS WITH A HISTORY OF PENICILLIN ALLERGY. IF AN ALLERGIC REACTION TO CEFPODOXIME PROXETIL OCCURS, DISCONTINUE THE DRUG. SERIOUS ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS MAY REQUIRE TREATMENT WITH EPINEPHRINE AND OTHER EMERGENCY MEASURES, INCLUDING OXYGEN, INTRAVENOUS FLUIDS, INTRAVENOUS ANTIHISTAMINE, AND AIRWAY MANAGEMENT, AS CLINICALLY INDICATED. PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS COLITIS HAS BEEN REPORTED WITH NEARLY ALL ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS, INCLUDING CEFPODOXIME, AND MAY RANGE IN SEVERITY FROM MILD TO LIFE-THREATENING. THEREFORE, IT IS IMPORTANT TO CONSIDER THIS DIAGNOSIS IN PATIENTS WHO PRESENT WITH DIARRHEA SUBSEQUENT TO THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS.
Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea (CDAD) has been reported with use of nearly all antibacterial agents, including VANTIN, and may range in severity from mild diarrhea to fatal colitis. Treatment with antibacterial agents alters the normal flora of the colon leading to overgrowth of C. difficile.
C. difficile produces toxins A and B which contribute to the development of CDAD. Hypertoxin producing strains of C. difficile cause increased morbidity and mortality, as these infections can be refractory to antimicrobial therapy and may require colectomy. CDAD must be considered in all patients who present with diarrhea following antibiotic use. Careful medical history is necessary since CDAD has been reported to occur over two months after the administration of antibacterial agents.
If CDAD is suspected or confirmed, ongoing antibiotic use not directed against C. difficile may need to be discontinued. Appropriate fluid and electrolyte management, protein supplementation, antibiotic treatment of C. difficile, and surgical evaluation should be instituted as clinically indicated.
A concerted effort to monitor for C. difficile in cefpodoxime-treated patients with diarrhea was undertaken because of an increased incidence of diarrhea associated with C. difficile in early trials in normal subjects. C. difficile organisms or toxin was reported in 10% of the cefpodoxime-treated adult patients with diarrhea; however, no specific diagnosis of pseudomembranous colitis was made in these patients.
In post-marketing experience outside the United States, reports of pseudomembranous colitis associated with the use of cefpodoxime proxetil have been received.
Ceftazidime warnings
BEFORE THERAPY WITH FORTAZ IS INSTITUTED, CAREFUL INQUIRY SHOULD BE MADE TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE PATIENT HAS HAD PREVIOUS HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS TO CEFTAZIDIME, CEPHALOSPORINS, PENICILLINS, OR OTHER DRUGS. IF THIS PRODUCT IS TO BE GIVEN TO PENICILLIN-SENSITIVE PATIENTS, CAUTION SHOULD BE EXERCISED BECAUSE CROSS-HYPERSENSITIVITY AMONG BETA-LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS HAS BEEN CLEARLY DOCUMENTED AND MAY OCCUR IN UP TO 10% OF PATIENTS WITH A HISTORY OF PENICILLIN ALLERGY. IF AN ALLERGIC REACTION TO FORTAZ OCCURS, DISCONTINUE THE DRUG. SERIOUS ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS MAY REQUIRE TREATMENT WITH EPINEPHRINE AND OTHER EMERGENCY MEASURES, INCLUDING OXYGEN, IV FLUIDS, IV ANTIHISTAMINES, CORTICOSTEROIDS, PRESSOR AMINES, AND AIRWAY MANAGEMENT, AS CLINICALLY INDICATED.
Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea (CDAD) has been reported with use of nearly all antibacterial agents, including FORTAZ, and may range in severity from mild diarrhea to fatal colitis. Treatment with antibacterial agents alters the normal flora of the colon leading to overgrowth of C. difficile.
C. difficile produces toxins A and B which contribute to the development of CDAD. Hypertoxin producing strains of C. difficile cause increased morbidity and mortality, as these infections can be refractory to antimicrobial therapy and may require colectomy. CDAD must be considered in all patients who present with diarrhea following antibiotic use. Careful medical history is necessary since CDAD has been reported to occur over two months after the administration of antibacterial agents.
If CDAD is suspected or confirmed, ongoing antibiotic use not directed against C. difficile may need to be discontinued. Appropriate fluid and electrolyte management, protein supplementation, antibiotic treatment of C. difficile, and surgical evaluation should be instituted as clinically indicated.
Elevated levels of ceftazidime in patients with renal insufficiency can lead to seizures, encephalopathy, coma, asterixis, neuromuscular excitability, and myoclonia (see PRECAUTIONS).
Cicatricial alopecia

# Overview
Cicatricial alopecia presents clinically with the effacement/scarring of follicular orifices, always in a patchy or focal distribution.

# Differential Diagnosis of Causes of Cicatricial Alopecia
Causes of noncicatricial alopecia include:648:
- Acne necrotica
- Alopecia mucinosa
- Atrichia with papular lesions
- Central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia
- Erosive pustular dermatitis of the scalp (Erosive pustular dermatosis of the scalp)
- Folliculitis decalvans
- Hot comb alopecia
- Keratosis pilaris atropicans
- Lichen planopilaris
- Lupus erythematosus
- Perifolliculitis capitis abscedens et suffodiens (Dissecting cellulitis of the scalp, Dissecting folliculitis, Perifolliculitis capitis abscedens et suffodiens of Hoffman)
- Pressure alopecia
- Pseudopelade of Brocq (Alopecia cicatrisata)
- Sarcoidosis
- Traction alopecia
- Tufted folliculitis
- Tumor alopecia
Centromere protein B
Centromere protein B also known as major centromere autoantigen B is an autoantigen protein of the cell nucleus. In humans, centromere protein B is encoded by the CENPB gene.

# Function
Centromere protein B is a highly conserved protein that facilitates centromere formation. It is a DNA-binding protein that is derived from transposases of the pogo DNA transposon family. It contains a helix-loop-helix DNA binding motif at the N-terminus and a dimerization domain at the C-terminus. The DNA binding domain recognizes and binds a 17-bp sequence (CENP-B box) in the centromeric alpha satellite DNA. This protein is proposed to play an important role in the assembly of specific centromere structures in interphase nuclei and on mitotic chromosomes. It is also considered a major centromere autoantigen recognized by sera from patients with anti-centromere antibodies.

# Clinical significance
Centromere protein B is a potential biomarker of small-cell lung cancer.
Cerebral angiography

# Overview
Cerebral angiography or arteriography is a form of medical imaging that visualizes the arterial and venous supply of the brain. It was pioneered by Dr Egas Moniz in 1927, and is now the gold standard for detecting vascular problems of the brain.

# Method
Any form of angiography involves the passing of a catheter into a large artery (e.g. the femoral artery) and advancing this catheter through the carotid artery. When this has been achieved, a contrast agent that is relatively impervious to the passage of x-ray photons is injected, and a rapid series of radiographs is taken while this radiopaque fluid passes through the vasculature. Another series, taken when the contrast agent has passed through the tissues, visualizes the venous supply. Using modern equipment, this method offers better visual representation of cerebral blood vessels than less invasive methods such as computed tomography angiography and magnetic resonance angiography.

# Uses
Most vascular abnormalities of the brain, e.g. arteriovenous malformations and aneurysms, can be detected on cerebral angiography.
In some countries, cerebral angiography is required to confirm brain death.

# Interventions
One of the advantages of angiography over alternative techniques (e.g. magnetic resonance angiography / MRA) is the possibility of performing interventions. Aneurysms, in particular, may be amenable to the angiographic insertion of metal coils, which lead to connective tissue formation and the obliteration of the aneurysm.
- Cranial Angiography: A large basilar artery aneurysm
- Cranial Angiography: A large basilar artery aneurysm

## Complications of Interventions
Images shown below are courtesy of RadsWiki and copylefted
- CT: Vertebral artery dissection
- CT: Vertebral artery dissection
- CT: Vertebral artery dissection
- CT: Vertebral artery dissection
- CT: Vertebral artery dissection
- CT: Vertebral artery dissection
- CT: Vertebral artery dissection
Chest x ray template
To go to the main page, click here.

# Introduction to the Chest X-Ray Page
- The page name should be "(Disease name) chest x-ray", with only the first letter of the title capitalized.
- Goal: To provide a description and examples of key chest x ray findings that may occur in the disease you are describing.
- As with all microchapter pages linking to the main page, at the top of the edit box put {{CMG}}, your name template, and the microchapter navigation template you created at the beginning.
- Remember to create links within Wikidoc by placing ] around key words which you want to link to other pages. Make sure you makes your links as specific as possible. For example if a sentence contained the phrase anterior spinal artery syndrome, the link should be to anterior spinal artery syndrome not anterior or artery or syndrome.  For more information on how to create links click here.
- Remember to follow the same format and capitalization of letters  as outlined in the template below.

# Overview
- The overview section should include the disease name in the first sentence.
- The goal is to summarize the chest x-ray findings page in several sentences. This section can be the same as the chest x-ray segment on the overview page.
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## Template
- First Sentences:
- Examples:

# Preferred Template Statements
IF there are no x-ray findings associated with the disease:
- There are no x-ray findings associated with .
IF an x-ray is useful for diagnosis:
- An x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of . Findings on an x-ray suggestive of/diagnostic of  include , , and .
IF an x-ray is not helpful for diagnosis, but may be helpful in identifying complications of the disease:
- There are no x-ray findings associated with . However, an x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of , which include , , and .

# Key Chest X-Ray Findings in (Disease Name)
- Describe in detail the key chest x-ray findings that may be seen in the disease you are describing, as well as in sub-classifications of the disease, and associated conditions.
- Describe the reason for the findings, and any special names that may be designated to the findings (eg. Hampton's hump).
- For an example of the Chest x-ray findings segment in an chest x ray page, click here.

# Chest X-Ray Examples of (Disease Name)
- Here you should provide visual examples of chest x-rays for the disease you are describing.
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