Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Nervous system disease
Nervous system disease refers to a general class of medical conditions affecting the nervous system.
They can be divided into:
- Central nervous system disease in the CNS
- Peripheral neuropathy in the PNS
The term neuropathy is sometimes defined to include any disorder of the nervous system. With this usage, the terms "nervous system disease" and "neuropathy" would be synonymous.
-  "eMedicine/Stedman Medical Dictionary Lookup!". Retrieved 2008-11-30..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Neural backpropagation
Neural backpropagation is the phenomena in which the action potential of a neuron creates a voltage spike both at the end of the axon (normal propagation) and back through to the dendritic arbor or dendrites, from which much of the original input current originated. It has been shown that this simple process can be used in a manner similar to the backpropagation algorithm used in multilayer perceptrons, a type of artificial neural network.

# History
Since the 1950s, evidence has existed that neurons in the central nervous system generate an action potential, or voltage spike, the travels both through the axon to signal the next neuron and backpropagates through the dendrites sending a retrograde signal to its presynaptic signaling neurons. This current decays significantly with travel length along the dendrites, so effects are predicted to be more significant for neurons whose synapses are near the postsynaptic cell body, with magnitude depending mainly on sodium-channel density in the dendrite. It is also dependent on the shape of the dendritic tree and, more importantly, on the rate of signal currents to the neuron. On average, a backpropagating spike loses about half its voltage after traveling nearly 500 microns.
Backpropagation occurs actively in the neocortex, hippocampus, substantia nigra, and spinal cord, while in the cerebellum it occurs relatively passively. This is consistent with observations that synaptic plasticity is much more apparent in areas like the hippocampus, which controls memory, than the cerebellum, which controls more unconscious and vegetative functions.
The backpropagating current also causes a voltage change that increases the concentration of Ca2+ in the dendrites, an event which coincides with certain models of synaptic plasticity. This change also affects future integration of signals, leading to at least a short-term response difference between the presynaptic signals and the postsynaptic spike.

# Algorithm
While a backpropagating action potential can presumably cause changes in the weight of the presynaptic connections, there is no simple mechanism for an error signal to propagate through multiple layers of neurons, as in the computer backpropagation algorithm. However, simple linear topologies have shown that effective computation is possible through signal backpropagation in this biological sense.
Neurofibrillary tangle

# Overview
Neurofibrillary tangles were first described by Alois Alzheimer in one of his patients suffering from the disorder now referred to as Alzheimer's disease.

# Pathophysiology
Neurofibrillary tangles are pathological protein aggregates found within neurons in cases of Alzheimer's disease. Tangles are formed by hyperphosphorylation of a microtubule-associated protein known as tau, causing it to aggregate in an insoluble form. (These aggregations of hyperphosphorylated tau protein are also referred to as PHF, or "Paired Helical Filaments"). The precise mechanism of tangle formation is not completely understood, and it is still controversial whether tangles are a primary causative factor in the disease or play a more peripheral role.
It is also believed that neurofibrillary tangles are seen in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Neurofibrillary tangles are also found in Supranuclear Palsy.

# See Also
- Neurofibrillary tangles
Nevirapine description

# Description
VIRAMUNE XR is the brand name for nevirapine extended-release tablets. Nevirapine is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) with activity against Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1). Nevirapine is structurally a member of the dipyridodiazepinone chemical class of compounds.
The chemical name of nevirapine is 11-cyclopropyl-5,11-dihydro-4-methyl-6H-dipyrido  diazepin-6-one. Nevirapine is a white to off-white crystalline powder with the molecular weight of 266.30 and the molecular formula C15H14N4O. Nevirapine has the following structural formula:
VIRAMUNE XR Tablets are for oral administration. Each tablet contains 100 mg or 400 mg of nevirapine and the inactive ingredients lactose monohydrate, hypromellose, iron oxide, and magnesium stearate.
Nitrate reductase test
The nitrate reductase test is a test to differentiate between bacteria based on their ability or inability to reduce nitrate (NO3) to nitrite (NO2) using anaerobic respiration.

# Procedure:
- Inoculate nitrate broth with an isolate and incubate for 48 hours.
- Add 10-15 drops each of sulfanilic acid and N,N-dimethyl-1-naphthylamine. If the bacterium produces nitrate reductase, the broth will turn a deep red within 5 minutes at this step.
- If no color change is observed, then the result is inconclusive. Add a small amount of zinc to the broth. If the solution remains colorless, then both nitrate and nitrite reductase are present. If the solution turns red, nitrate reductase is not present.
Non-ionizing radiation
Non-ionizing radiation (or, esp. in British English, non-ionising radiation) refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energy per quantum to ionize atoms or molecules  that is, to completely remove an electron from an atom or molecule. Instead of producing charged
ions when passing through matter, the electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only for excitation, the movement of an electron to a higher energy state.  Nevertheless, different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation.
Near ultraviolet, visible light,  infrared, microwave, radio waves, low frequency RF and static fields are all examples of non-ionizing radiation. Visible and near ultraviolet may induce photochemical reactions, ionize some molecules or accelerate radical reactions, such as photochemical aging of varnishes or the breakdown of flavoring compounds in beer to produce the 'lightstruck flavor'. The light from the Sun that reaches the earth is largely composed of non-ionizing radiation, with the notable exception of some ultraviolet rays. However, most ionizing radiation is filtered out by the atmosphere (see Earth's atmosphere).  Static fields do not radiate.

# Ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet light can cause burns to skin and cataracts to the eyes. Ultraviolet is classified into near, medium and far UV according to energy, where near ultraviolet is non-ionizing. Ultraviolet light produces free radicals that induce cellular damage, which can be carcinogenic. Ultraviolet light also induces melanin production from melanocyte cells to cause sun tanning of skin. Vitamin D is produced on the skin by a radical reaction initiated by UV radiation.
Plastic sunglasses (polycarbonate) generally absorb UV radiation. UV overexposure to the eyes causes snow blindness, which is a risk particularly on the sea or when there is snow on the ground.

# Visible and infrared, lasers
Visible light causes few effects to the human body. Bright visible light irritates the eyes. Visible-light lasers have much more powerful effects and may damage the eyes even at small powers. Very strong visible light is used for cauterizing hair follicles.

# Microwave and radio frequency radiation
- Biological effects
- Effects on the Skin
- Effects on the Eyes
- Other Hazards
- Occupational Exposure Standards

# Low frequency ELF
- Biological effects
- Effects on the Skin
- Effects on the Eyes
- Other Hazards
- Occupational Exposure Standards

# Static fields
- Biological effects
- Effects on the Skin
- Effects on the Eyes
- Other Hazards
- Occupational Exposure Standards
Non-mevalonate pathway
The non-mevalonate pathway or 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate/1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate pathway (MEP/DOXP pathway) of isoprenoid biosynthesis is an alternative metabolic pathway leading to the formation of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) that has been elucidated only recently.

# Diversity of isoprenoid biosynthesis
The classical mevalonate pathway or HMG-CoA reductase pathway  is an important cellular metabolic pathway present in all higher eukaryotes and many bacteria. It is important for the production of IPP and DMAPP that serve as the basis for the biosynthesis of molecules used in processes as diverse as protein prenylation, cell membrane maintenance, hormones, protein anchoring and N-glycosylation.
In contrast to the classical mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis, plants and apicomplexan protozoa such as malaria parasites have the ability to produce their isoprenoids (terpenoids) using an alternative pathway, the non-mevalonate pathway, which takes place in their plastids. In addition, most eubacteria including important pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis synthesize IPP and DMAPP via the non-mevalonate pathway.

# Reactions
Pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are converted by DOXP synthase (Dxs) to 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate, and by DOXP reductase (Dxr, IspC) to 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP).
The subsequent three reaction steps catalyzed by 4-diphosphocytidyl-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol synthase (YgbP, IspD), 4-diphosphocytidyl-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase (YchB, IspE), and 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase (YgbB, IspF) mediate the formation of 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclopyrophosphate (MEcPP).
Finally, MEcPP is converted to (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMB-PP) by HMB-PP synthase (GcpE, IspG), and HMB-PP is converted to IPP and DMAPP by HMB-PP reductase (LytB, IspH).

# Inhibition
Fosmidomycin specifically inhibits DOXP reductoisomerase, a key enzyme in the non-mevalonate pathway, and therefore represents an attractive candidate as antibiotic or antimalarial drug.

# T cell activation
The intermediate HMB-PP is the natural activator for human V9/V2 T cells, the major  T cell population in peripheral blood.
Small cell lung cancer
Mirdula Sharma, MBBS Dildar Hussain, MBBS 
Synonyms and related keywords: Oat cell carcinoma; Oat cell cancer; reserve cell carcinoma; round cell carcinoma; small cell lung carcinoma; SCLC

# Overview

# Historical Perspective

# Pathophysiology

# Causes

# Differentiating Small Cell Carcinoma of the Lung from other Diseases

# Epidemiology and Demographics

# Risk Factors

# Screening

# Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

# Diagnosis
Staging | Diagnostic study of choice | History and Symptoms | Physical Examination | Laboratory Findings | Chest X Ray | CT | MRI | Other Imaging Findings | Other Diagnostic Studies

# Treatment
Medical therapy | Surgery | Prevention | Future or Investigational Therapies

# Case Studies
Case #1

# Related Chapters
- Lung Cancer
Oculomotor nerve palsy

# Overview
Damage to the oculomotor nerve, termed oculomotor nerve palsy is known by the down n' out symptoms.

# Causes

# Pathophysiology
The affected eye looks downward, because the superior oblique (innervated by cranial nerve IV), is unantagonized by the paralyzed superior rectus and inferior oblique and looking outwards, because the lateral rectus (innervated by cranial nerve VI) is unantagonized by the paralyzed medial rectus.

# Diagnosis

## Physical Examination

### Neurology
- The affected eye looks downward and outward
- Ptosis, or drooping of the eyelid, because the levator palpebrae superioris muscle (eyelid lifting muscle) is innervated by the oculomotor nerve.
- Strabismus
Odontogenic keratocyst

# Overview
An odontogenic keratocyst is a benign but locally aggressive developmental odontogenic cyst.  It is thought to arise from the dental lamina.  Pain is usually not associated with odontogenic keratocysts until swelling occurs.  It commonly affects the posterior mandible.  Multiple odontogenic keratocysts are associated with nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome.
recently it is named Keratocystic Odontogenic Tumour (KCOT)in both solitary cases and syndrome related cases. 
ref. WHO Classification of Head and Neck Tumours.2005 WHO press
the neoplastic transformation is reported, few cases of SSC have been reported, along with several cases of ameloblastic transformation in the epithelium of OKCT.
Ofloxacin microbiology

# Microbiology
Ofloxacin has in vitro activity against a broad range of gram-positive and gram-negative aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Ofloxacin is bactericidal at concentrations equal to or slightly greater than inhibitory concentrations. Ofloxacin is thought to exert a bactericidal effect on susceptible bacterial cells by inhibiting DNA gyrase, an essential bacterial enzyme which is a critical catalyst in the duplication, transcription, and repair of bacterial DNA.
Cross-resistance has been observed between ofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones. There is generally no cross-resistance between ofloxacin and other classes of antibacterial agents such as beta-lactams or aminoglycosides.
Ofloxacin has been shown to be active against most strains of the following organisms both in vitro and clinically, in conjunctival and/or corneal ulcer infections as described in the INDICATIONS AND USAGE section.
The safety and effectiveness of OCUFLOX ophthalmic solution in treating ophthalmologic infections due to the following organisms have not been established in adequate and well-controlled clinical trials. OCUFLOX ophthalmic solution has been shown to be active in vitro against most strains of these organisms but the clinical significance in ophthalmologic infections is unknown.
One-electron reduction

# Overview
A one-electron reduction in organic chemistry involves the transfer of an electron from a metal to an organic substrate. It serves to differentiate between true organic reductions and other reductions such as hydride transfer reactions that actually involve two-electron species.
The first intermediate in a one-electron reduction is often a radical anion which then engages in secondary reactions. In the Birch reduction the secondary reaction is proton abstraction from an alcohol. This reaction type is also called a dissolving metal reduction. Alkyne reduction to an alkene in the liquid ammonia / sodium system follows the same theme. The first radical anion intermediate abstracts a proton from ammonia to the free radical. A second one-electron transfer leads to the anion which also abstracts a proton to the neutral alkene.
In the Wurtz reaction two radical intermediates dimerize in a coupling reaction. Likewise acetone is converted to pinacol with a magnesium - mercury amalgam in a pinacol coupling reaction. Acyloin condensation couples two carboxylic acids to a -hydroxyketone. Reactions of this type are also called reductive couplings. In the Clemmensen reduction of ketones to alkanes with zinc-mercury amalgam the intermediate is an organozinc carbenoid. 
Electron rich organic molecules like tetrakis(dimethylamino)ethylene (TDAE) are effective reducing agents capable of generating the anion from alkyl halides such as 5-chloromethyl-6-nitrobenzodioxole 1.
Ossification of radius
The radius is one of the two bones in the forearm.
The radius is ossified from three centers: one for the body, and one for either extremity. That for the body makes its appearance near the center of the bone, during the eighth week of fetal life.
About the end of year, ossification commences in the lower end; and at the fifth year, in the upper end.
The upper epiphysis fuses with the body at the age of seventeen or eighteen years, the lower about the age of twenty.
An additional center sometimes found in the radial tuberosity, appears about the fourteenth or fifteenth year.
Protein pigeon homolog
Protein pigeon homolog also known as gamma-secretase activating protein (GSAP) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PION gene.

# Gene
The human PION gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 7 at band 11.23, from base pair 76,778,007 to base pair 76,883,653. Highly conserved PION orthologs have been identified in most vertebrates for which complete genome data are available.  More distantly related orthologs are also expressed in insects including the pigeon gene in Drosophila melanogaster that when mutated produces the "pigeon" phenotype. The name of the human PION gene derives the corresponding Drosophila gene.

# Protein
The transcribed human pigeon homolog protein is 854 amino acid residues in length. A 16 kDa fragment (GSAP-16K) derived from 121 residues from the C-terminus region of the full length protein is known as the -secretase activating protein (GSAP).

# Function
-secretase activating protein (GSAP) increases -amyloid production through a mechanism involving its interactions with both -secretase and its substrate, the amyloid precursor protein (APP).  By binding to both the -secretase enzyme and its APP substrate, GSAP increases the affinity and the selectivity of the enzyme for this particular substrate.

# Therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease
The activating function of GSAP can be inhibited by the anticancer drug imatinib (Gleevec) which in turn prevents -secretase from converting APP into plaque forming -amyloid without affecting the other functions of -secretase. Imatinib itself does not get into the brain so imatinib could not be used as an AD therapeutic. However it may be possible to identify imatinib-like drugs that do get into the brain. Hence GSAP represents a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD).
The drug semagacestat in contrast to imatinib, works by directly inhibiting the -secretase.  While semagacestat reduces -amyloid plaque formation in AD patients, -secretase is also needed to make other important proteins.  The failure of semagacestat to improve the cognitive function of AD patients may be due to its non-selective blockade of -secretase.  The more selective blockade of -secretase provided by inhibiting GSAP may make GSAP a more efficacious and safer drug target than -secretase.

# Discovery
The PION gene was originally discovered through a large scale genome sequencing effort. However the function of the PION gene product remained a mystery. In the laboratory of Paul Greengard, a screen of compounds that could inhibit the formation of -amyloid identified imatinib, however it was not immediately known how it accomplished this. Later it was discovered by Greengard's lab that imatinib inhibited the function of GSAP and that GSAP in turn functions as an activator of -secretase.
Panaeolus subbalteatus
Panaeolus subbalteatus, also known as Panaeolus cinctulus is a very common hallucinogenic mushroom which is widely distributed. The mushroom is a coprophiliac (dung-inhabiting) species which also grows well in other habitats including fertilized lawns, haystacks, compost heaps, and riding stables. It grows abundantly year round after rain nearly everywhere and is common in Oregon, Washington and Northern California but also known to occur in all 50 states, Great Britain, Europe, Russia, Asia, Australia, Mexico, Central and South America and British Columbia.  According to David Arora, Panaeolus subbalteatus is the most common psilocybin mushroom in California.
During the early part of the 20th century this species was often referred to as the "weed Panaeolus" because it was a common occurrence in beds of the commercially grown grocery store mushroom Agaricus bisporus. Because of its intoxicating properties the mushroom farmers had to weed it out from the edible mushrooms. 
Although not specifically scheduled in the United States, psilocybin containing mushrooms are considered "containers" of a scheduled substance, and their usage and possession is illegal in most states.
Parathyroid chief cell
Parathyroid chief cells are cells in the parathyroid glands which produce parathyroid hormone.
The end result of increased secretion by the chief cells of a parathyroid gland is an increase in the serum level of Calcium. Parathyroid chief cells constitute one of the few cell types of the body that regulate intracellular calcium levels as a consequence of extracellular (or serum) changes in calcium concentration.
The calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) is sensitive to an increase in serum calcium, and stimulates the uptake of calcium by the parathyroid chief cell.  This mechanism is critically important, as it describes a physiological feed-back loop by which parathyroid hormone secretion is down-regulated in response to a restoration of serum calcium.
Paroxysmal AV Block CT

# Overview
CT offers superior information regarding calcification of cardiac structures and has some advantages in evaluating coronary artery anatomy when epicardial coronary atherosclerotic disease is suspected.

# CT scan

## 2018 ACC/AHA/HRS Guideline on the Evaluation and Management of Patients With Bradycardia and Cardiac Conduction Delay
- Cardiac computer tomography is helpful in situations where a MRI is contraindicated or unavailable.
- It may help in the diagnosis of congenital heart disease and highlights calcifications and coronary artery anatomy.