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The people who contributed to this manual are numerous and very dedicated to this field. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the following groups:
- Those who gave their time in August 1991 to sit in a crowded room and discuss and debate points of content and advise CDC on the direction of this manual.
- Those who provided written and oral comments on drafts of the document.
- All who attended the Forum on Youth Violence in Minority Communities in December 1990 at which many of the ideas in this manual were first expressed, and the Minority Health Professions Foundation and the Morehouse School of Medicine, the co-sponsors of that forum.
- The staff at Education Development Center, Inc., who prepared the background papers for the Forum on Youth Violence in Minority Communities.
Most importantly, we would like to acknowledge the many people in the United States who work to prevent youth violence: people in communities who know the problem first hand, schools, and social service and law enforcement agencies, and the researchers who seek answers to troubling questions. Their work has been hard, but not unnoticed. They have opened the door for the rest of us to enter.

# INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Violence is a large and important health problem in the United States. More than 20,000 people die from homicide every year and more than 2,000,000 people suffer injuries received in violent con flicts. The emotional toll is immense. Violence and violence-related injuries and deaths are particularly common among young people and have escalated in recent years.
In December 1990, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the Minority Health Professions Foundation responded to the growing concern of African-American and other minority communities about violence among youth by convening a conference entitled Forum on Youth Violence in Minority Communities: Setting the Agenda for Pre vention. Thepurpose ofthisforum was to review what is known about programs designed to prevent youth violence. This framework for community action originated from the discussions in that forum. It has grown and developed through subsequent discussions and meet ings with many concerned individuals throughout the country. As this manual progressed, the complex distribution of violence across the United States became clear. Some communities of color are severely affected by violence. Others are not. Some white commu nities have high rates of violence while others do not. However, the potential for violence exists everywhere. Therefore, this manual can be used by any community dealing with present or potential problems of violence.
Each communitymust assess its own needs and adapt the framework to its own characteristics. The underlying causes of violence vary from community to community. Urban, suburban, and rural commu nities differ; each community is unique.
Experts provide no simple explanations of the causes of violent injuries and deaths. Deeply imbedded cultural problems such as racism, sexism, poverty, drug and alcohol abuse, drug trafficking, and frequent exposure to violence are but a few of the important pieces of this complicated puzzle. Efforts to reduce these problems and to increase educational and economic opportunities are needed. How ever, the presence of these large and stubborn problems should not make us forget that vve can do something-we can take action to reduce violence.
American society has traditionally looked to the criminal justice system for protection from violence. Criminal justice measures have been useful. However, they have not enabled us to satisfactorily reduce the burden of violence upon society. One important reason is that much of the violence does not begin in a criminal setting but arises instead between companions involved in arguments, some times over trivial matters. In fact, more than 40 percent of all homicides occur between friends and acquaintances.
Throughout the country, community organizations are addressing the problem of violence at the local level. These organizations are starting activities based on their understanding of local problems and local conditions. Conflict resolution training is provided in a number of schools. Schools are seeking ways to reduce the number of weap ons brought on campus. In several cities, programs are redirecting the energies of young people in gangs from violent confrontations to more peaceful pursuits.
In preparing this manual, we were aware that a great deal of evalu ation needs to be done to determine which of the many activities that have been tried or proposed actually do prevent youth violence. However, the seriousness of the problem of violence demands im mediate action.

# THE PURPOSE OF THIS MANUAL
Many concerned individuals and community-based organizations want to reduce violence and prevent injuries and deaths from vio lence among youths in their community. This manual is designed to help. It includes a menu of specific activities for communities to undertake plus a framework for putting those activities effectively into place.

# Introduction
The manual is divided into two major sections.
"Activities To Prevent Youth Violence" describes the target groups, settings, and strategies for the prevention of youth violence. The chapter takes into account
- What is known about youth violence through scientific research
- What has been learned through innovative community efforts
- What has been learned from interventions used to prevent other types of health or social problems "Program Management" covers basic principles of effective commu nity-based health promotion programs. This section describes the processes of
- Organizing the community
- Gathering and analyzing the information needed to describe adequately the problem of youth violence in the community
- Setting goals and objectives
- Locating resources
- Monitoring the progress of the program

# ACTIVITIES TO PREVENT YOUTH VIOLENCE
To prevent violent injury and death, we need to weaken or break the chain of events that leads to violence. Often we do not know exactly why people behave violently, why one adolescent will react violently in a given situation while another who has a similar background will not. We need to learn much more about the causes of violence in American society.
Yet even with imperfect knowledge, helpful action can be taken. We can teach, we can enact and enforce regulations, we can change the environment. Youth can be taught skills to help them deal with violent situations. They can be helped to develop the self-esteem needed to solve differences without violence. Young people can be taught about the situations or actions that are likely to result in violence or violent injuries, such as associating with violent peers, using alcohol or drugs, and possessing a firearm or other weapon. They can be provided with mentors, or special teachers, who can serve as role models. Laws and regulations can be developed specifi cally to reduce injuries and deaths, such as stronger laws governing the use, ownership, and sale of guns. Teenage parents, abused chil dren, or bored or wayward teenagers can be provided with training, support, and recreation.
In selecting the activities for any community, you should consider the following general principles:
1. Each activity should have  an identified target group (e.g., high school students, youths in detention centers) - a setting in which that target group is reached (e.g., schools, detention centers) - a method or strategy to accomplish the objective (e.g., class room instruction, mentors)
2. No single activity in isolation is likely to solve the problem of youth violence. There are too many types and too many causes of violent injury and death to be solved by one strategy. The most effective programs include several types of activities. Most programs will need to begin with one activity and add more activities as they gain expe rience and resources.
3. Activities should complement one another. For example, instruc tion on how to avoid gang membership may be complemented by alternative activities. Instruction on nonviolent conflict resolution maybe accompanied by more monitors in the school hallways.
4. Activities may address different steps in the chain of events that lead to injury and death. For example, activities may address
- factors that influence behavior (e.g., knowledge and attitudes)
- the behavior itself (e.g., carrying weapons or fighting)
- health outcomes (e.g., injury or death)
5. The activities selected should be determined by the unique char acteristics of the community and the goals and objectives of the program. Activities that have worked in other communities maybe a good place to start. They can often be modified to meet the specific needs of your community. However, an activity should not be se lected simply because it is or appears to be working in another community.

# TARGET GROUPS
A target group is the group of people whom the program or acti vity is designed to influence. Depending on the activity, the target group may be broad or specific. For example, some activities may address adolescents who are out of school or who have a history of violent or criminal behavior. Other activities may address all young children. Still others may address parents, teachers, employers, or others who interact directly or indirectly with youth. Activities suitable for one group may be inappropriate for another because groups and indi viduals vary in terms of culture, values, knowledge, attitudes, skills, behaviors, experience, and other attributes.
The selection of target groups should take into account the specific nature of the problem being addressed, the major goals and objec tives of the program, and community characteristics. For example, members of youth gangs would not be an appropriate target group if gangs are not a problem in the community.
Successful programs will have activities that address many target groups. However, this takes time, and a decision must be made about which target groups to address first. There are a few broad categories of target groups (Table 1) that are useful to consider.

# The General Population of Youth
Many activities designed to reduce injuries from youth violence can be applied to all youth (or to the environment that affects them). An example of such an effort is teaching conflict resolution skills to high school students. In this instance, the purpose of the intervention is to affect the manner in which all students resolve conflicts, not just those students who are thought to be most likely to engage in violent behavior. Programs with activities directed toward the general popu-lation of youth, if successful, are likely to produce early and possibly substantial reductions in violent injuries and deaths. However, to be successful they must reach large numbers of youths.

# Youth Who Engage in High-Risk Behaviors
Youth with high-risk behaviors are those most likely to be injured, those most likely to engage in violent behavior that injures others, or both. These groups include young people who consistently engage in physical fights to resolve problems, those with a criminal record or a history of inflicting or receiving a violent injury, drug users, gang members, or those who have failed or dropped out of school. Other youth who maybe at risk for fighting are relocated youth. This group includes immigrants and migrants, and can also include youth who live in communities that are highly mobile. One other group that may be prone to fighting are those with emotional or mental deficiencies who may not have the personal skills to settle disputes nonviolently.
If successful, activities directed toward this group of youth may show early and possibly substantial reductions if these groups account for much of the violent injuries and deaths among youth in the commu nity.
Special efforts are often necessary to locate and contact youth with high-risk behaviors. Outreach workers may help. They can meet youths on street corners, parks, fast-food restaurants, or other places where they gather. They work to establish trust. Once trust is estab lished, outreach workers may be able to refer or guide adolescents with high-risk behaviors into helpful activities. Outreach is important in making contact with youth who engage in high-risk behavior, but it is only a part of a program. Other activities are also necessary. The Community Youth Gang Services (CYGS) of Los Angeles, Califor nia, is a good example of a program that has a strong outreach component with a number of other program activities. This program is described on pages 27 and 28.

# Young Children (10 Years Old or Less)
Violence is a learned behavior. The basic values, attitudes, and interpersonal skills acquired early in life are likely to be pivotal in developing predispositions for violent behavior later in life. There fore, activities for young children that promote nonviolent values, attitudes, and interpersonal skills are important to consider. Also, any long-term strategy to prevent violence may also want to include children who are abused or witness violence and activities that lessen the consequences of exposures to violence. If successful, these inter ventions may show substantial reductions in violent injuries and deaths when these children become adolescents.

# Other Target Groups
The above three categories of target groups-the general population of youth, youth with high-risk behaviors, and young children-may be considered direct target groups because activities are intended to reduce violent injuries and deaths among those groups or caused by those groups. Programs focusing on these groups will also need activities for indirect target groups-those people who have a par ticular relationship with the primary target f oup. Examples of indirect target groups are family members, adun role models, or the general population.
Family members. Family experiences play a critical role in causing, promoting, or reinforcing violent behavior among youth. Conse quently, the family is an important target for activities to prevent youth violence. Activities that target families can focus on parents, siblings, or the entire family unit. Typically, these activities reinforce health promotion or prevention messages, support the parents in raising and managing children and youth, or provide help in coping and responding to family crises.
Special groups of adults. Teachers, coaches, clergy, health profes sionals, counselors, athletes, entertainers, and other adults often have special relationships with children and youth. They may be important role models. They may also recognize or decide which children and youth need or receive special services. Adult role models are an important target for youth violence-prevention activi ties because they are very influential in the lives of children and youth, frequently serving as confidants. As such, they can reinforce health promotion and prevention messages, including those pertain ing to violence.
General population. The general population is an important target group for several reasons. First, people need to be educated about the role of society as a whole in promoting violent behavior. Second, activities such as modifying or passing gun control legislation may affect wide segments of the population. For such activities to be successful, we must address the entire population.

# SETTINGS
The setting is the location where a prevention activity occurs. There are four important considerations involved in selecting settings for a prevention activity (Table 2).
- First, select a setting where you can reach the target group. Schools, for example, may be an appropriate setting for the general population of youth, but are not an appropriate setting if the target group is youth who are no longer in school.
- Second, select a setting appropriate for the strategy. A classroom curriculum probably will not be effective if administered on the playground.
- Third, select multiple settings for each target group. The fre quency of violent behavior is more likely to decrease if comple mentary messages or experiences occur in several settings and if the environment is made less conducive to violence. For exam ple, a young boy is less likely to be violent when he is taught alternatives to violent behavior in the school, is exposed less often to violence in the home, and plays in supervised areas where fights are not likely to take place.
 Fourth, when appropriate, select one setting suitable for several target groups. Churches, for example, may be an appropriate setting for reaching both youths and parents.
Settings in which the general population of youth may be reached include schools, churches, streets, playgrounds, youth activity sites, and homes. Additional settings where certain groups with high-risk behaviors may be found include juvenile justice facilities, mental health facilities, social service facilities, and the medical care facili ties. Young children may also be reached in child care settings (e.g., Head Start locations).

# STRATEGIES
Activities to prevent youth violence typically employ one of three general prevention strategies: education, legal and regulatory change, and environmental modification. Each of these general strategies has a role in a comprehensive youth violence prevention program (Table 3).

# Education
Education provides information and teaches skills. New knowledge and new skills change or reinforce a person's attitude and behavior thus reducing the chances that the person will behave violently or become a victim of violence. Educational efforts can be directed toward a wide variety of target groups to help convey knowledge and skills. Face-to-face teaching may occur in the classroom, in worksite or recreational settings, or through special teachers, such as nurses on home visits.
Knowledge and skills are a crucial part of the process, but they are often insufficient by themselves. The acquisition of knowledge is usually not followed immediately by the adoption of new behaviors. Behavioral change requires time and repeated effort and is more likely to occur if the physical and social environment support and encourage it.
The following are examples of types of educational strategies. With each example are several brief descriptions of the strategy as it is being implemented in a U.S. community.

# Adult Mentoring
Mentors are special adults who provide a positive, caring influence and standard of conduct for young people. Mentors provide models for young people who have none, or they offer alternatives to negative role models. Mentors may reinforce positive attitudes or behaviors that children are trying to express. Adult role models may be teach ers, counselors, friends, and confidants, or simply members of the community. Mentoring activities can be conducted in almost any setting, such as schools, churches, businesses, or other community locations. The attention and interest bestowed on the youngsters by people who care enhance the youth's self-esteem and strengthen his or her ability to choose nonviolent methods to resolve conflict.

# Baltimore, Maryland, Project RAISE (410) 685-8316
In 1988, Project RAISE recruited mentors for more than 400 sixth-grade students. The mentors contact the students at least weekly and meet with them face to face at least every other week. The mentors serve as role models, provide academic support, and strive to boost the youths' self-confi dence. The mentors are recruited from two churches, two businesses, and two colleges that serve as sponsors of the project. A Project RAISE staff member coordinates the project with the schools, matching mentors with students after informal contacts and information exchanges with mentors and students. A private foundation is funding the project.______________________________________ Atlanta, Georgia, Go to High School, Go to College (404) 766-5744
The Atlanta "Go to High School, Go to College" project has paired 100 successful older men with adolescent African-American males at four Atlanta area high schools and one middle school. Each mentor meets twice a week with a student who is struggling academically, has discipline problems, or is at risk of dropping out of school. The mentors are provided with a 40-page curriculum of instructions and ideas. Mentors strive to increase the students' self-esteem and improve their grades.
A local fraternity chapter provides scholarships to students who qualify and want to attend college.

# Conflict Resolution Education
Classes in conflict resolution are designed to provide students with the opportunity to develop empathy with others, learn ways to control impulses, develop problem-solving skills, and manage their anger. Usually this curriculum is delivered in the classroom setting, al though other settings, such as churches, multi-service centers, boys and girls clubs, recreation centers, housing developments, juvenile detention centers, and neighborhood health centers may be appro priate also. Courses in conflict resolution have been developed for students in both elementary and high schools.
The methods used to teach conflict resolution usually include role playing conflict situations and analyzing the responses to, and conse quences of, violence. Generally, students are trained for 15 or 20 hours, after which they may work in pairs mediating conflicts that occur in the classroom or cafeteria, on the playground, or elsewhere. These conflicts cover a wide range of situations, including bullying, stealing, and spreading rumors. Teaching materials can be designed to meet individual needs of different groups of students.

# Boston, Massachusetts, The Boston Conflict Resolution Program (617) 492-8820
The Boston Conflict Resolution Program (BCRP) is a violence prevention program that helps elementary school teachers and students understand and deal with conflicts frequently encountered in schools. These conflicts often result from prejudice, competition, miscommunication, an inability to constructively express feelings, and a lack of respect and concern for others. The School Initiatives Program in San Francisco grew out of a community program that began in 1977 to train community residents to help their neighbors resolve disputes peacefully. In 1982, this program expanded to the schools because of growing conflict and violence in that setting.
This program has two components: classroom curricula and a conflict manager's program. Class room materials are designed for elementary and secondary school students. These materials help students acquire self-esteem and the skills needed to resolve conflict and build a stronger sense of cooperation and community at school. To become conflict managers, students at the middle-and high-school level participate in 15 hours of training over two and one-half days. They learn communication, leadership, problem-solving, and assertiveness. Once trained, these students help their fellow students to express and resolve their conflicts nonvioiently.

# Training in Social Skills
Teaching young people social skills provides them with the ability to interact with others in positive and friendly ways. Training in social skills includes many things that help students successfully interact with others. Aspects of social-skills training include maintaining self-control, building communication skills, forming friendships, re sisting peer pressure, being appropriately assertive, and forming good relationships with adults. Nonviolent conflict resolution train ing may be included with these other social skills. Acquiring these skills provides students with appropriate standards of behavior, a sense of control over their behavior, and improved self-esteem. They maybe less likely to resort to violence or become victims of violence.
These educational activities can be conducted in schools, day-care settings, after-school programs, and youth organizations.

# New Haven, Connecticut, The New Haven Social Development Program (203) 432-4530
Since 1983 the Yale University Psychology Department has collaborated with the New Haven public school system to provide training in social skills in the middle schools of the district. The major components of this activity are classroom activities for sixth and seventh graders that teach social development, and modeling of socially competent behavior by school staff. The curriculum empha sizes self-control, stress management, problem-solving, decision-making, and communication skills.
Once students have learned a general problem-solving framework, they apply their critical-thinking skills to specific issues, such as substance use. The emphasis is on providing accurate information about the topic and focusing on realistic situations. Finally, school, family, and community resources are identified that are available to help students cope with personal or family difficulties. Methods used are role-playing, videotaping, and live modeling; classroom presentations; smallgroup discussion; and competitive and cooperative games. Classroom teachers undergo training that includes practice modeling and review of techniques for dialogue, discussion of students' reactions to the lessons, and adaptation of the lessons to the special needs of their students.

# Activities to.Prevent Youth Violence

# Education To Prevent Injuries from Firearms
The meaning of education to prevent injuries from firearms varies from community to community. For some, this means avoiding firearms altogether and for others it means the proper handling of firearms. Activities providing education about firearm safety can be conducted in school settings and in the community. A number of educational techniques have been developed, including the use of audiovisual materials and curricula that deal with situations that involve firearms.

# Dade County Florida, Kids + Guns = A Deadly Equation (305) 995-1986
A program designed to teach students from kindergarten age through high school about the dangers of playing with or carrying guns was developed jointly by the Dade County Public Schools, the Center to Prevent Handgun Violence, and Youth Crime Watch of Dade. Kids+ Guns= A Deadly Equation includes classroom instruction and schoolwide activities that center on helping students recognize unsafe situations, react appropriately when encountering guns, resist peer pressure to play with or carry guns, and distinguish between real-life and media violence. The curriculum includes a video program for students in grades 7 through 12; a component for parents includes a brochure and video program.

# Parenting Centers
Improving parenting skills through specially designed classes for parents can improve how the parent and child interact. The improve ment in this relationship may reduce the risk of childhood behavior problems and subsequent antisocial behavior that may predispose an individual to violence in later life. Programs targeted toward parents must address the psychological needs of the parents, especially their sense of being competent parents; the parental behaviors that influ ence the physical and social development of their children; and the stresses and social supports that can either help or hinder parents' ability to adapt to their children's needs.
Minneapolis, Minnesota, Project STEEP (612) 624-0210
Project STEEP (Steps Toward Effective, Enjoyable Parenting) serves low-income, first-time parents. Most parents are single and have no more than a high-school education. The program includes both group sessions and home visits. It begins during the second trimester and continues until the baby is at least one year old. Prenatal visits focus on the mother's feelings about pregnancy and preparation for parenting. After the baby is born, transportation to the group sessions is provided by the project. The focus of demonstration and interactive sessions is on child-care skills, infant development, and infant-mother communication. Interactions between mother and infant are vide otaped, reviewed, and discussed with the parent.

# State of Missouri, Parents as Teachers (PAT) (314)553-5738
Parents as Teachers is a home/school partnership that serves all parents, including single parents, teenage mothers, and two-parent families. PAT parent educators, trained in child development, go to homes of participating parents to help them understand each stage of their child's development and learn ways to encourage that development. The program also conducts group meetings for parents to get together to gain new insights and to share their experiences, common concerns, and successes. They conduct periodic screening of overall develooment, language, hearing, and vision to detect potential problems, and refer families to special services.

# Peer Education
Programs that use students to teach their peers about violence pre vention are a powerful force among adolescents and can be used effectively to help shape norms and behaviors in this group. Re search on peer education for other health issues such as alcohol, cigarette, and drug use, has had positive results and shows promise for violence prevention programs.

# Ferguson, Missouri, RAPP (Resolve All Problems Peacefully) (314) 521-5792
RAPP was begun to reduce the number of physical fights among students. Students selected by teachers and other students are trained in mediation skills. Students found in conflict are given the choice of going to mediation or going to the office. Those who choose mediation meet with one of the trained mediators who works with them to peacefully resolve the conflict. During the first semester of the project, the number of fights was less than half the average for the same semester over the previous three years.
Oakland, California, Teens on Target (510) 635-8600, Ext. 415
Teens on Target is a peer education and mentoring group that was formed by the Oakland Safety Task Force in California after two junior high students were shot in the schools by other students. The task force, made up of a coalition of elected officials, parents, and school and community agency representatives, felt that students would do a better job of dealing with the youth violence problem than adults. Selected high school students are trained in an intensive summer program to be violence prevention advocates, particularly in the areas of guns, drugs (including alcohol), and family violence. These students become peer educators to other high school students and mentors to younger students in the middle and elementary schools. Teachers provide ongoing guidance and supervision to the teen educators.

# Public Information and Education Campaigns
Public information campaigns reach a broad audience. They draw attention to an issue and help establish acceptable behavior for a community. They also convey a limited amount of information, which by itself is rarely enough to change behaviors. Therefore, activities that provide general information to the public are most effective when combined with other activities in a violence preven tion program.
There are a number of ways to inform the public through media. Some examples are public service announcements, educational video programs, appearances on public talk shows, posters, brochures, and other print materials.

# Charlotte, North Carolina, The Police Executive Research Forum and the Center to Prevent Handgun Violence (202) 289-7319
The Center to Prevent Handgun Violence in conjunction with Police Executive Research Forum developed and ran a public awareness campaign in Charlotte, North Carolina, that attempted to change people's knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors concerning the protection they believed firearms offered. Together these two groups developed guidelines, produced print and broadcast media messages, distributed brochures, made community presentations, and conducted safety demonstrations. The messages developed through this awareness campaign included safe storage of firearms, instructing children about handgun safety, and checking firearms before cleaning.

# Baltimore, Maryland, The Baltimore County Police Department and the Center to Prevent Handgun Violence (202) 289-7319
The Center to Prevent Handgun Violence has also helped the Baltimore County Police Department develop advertisements, public service announcements, pamphlets, brochures, and police presen tations for both gun owners and people who do not own guns. The materials cover the dangers of misusing firearms, how to childproof handguns, legal issues including liability, and the psychological and practical issues of ownership.

# The Prevention of Youth Violence

# Legal and Regulatory Change
Laws or rules may lower the risk of violent behavior or victimization. Some regulations that would help reduce injuries and deaths from violence have already been enacted, but many are neither widely known nor well enforced. In many cases, it is easier to enforce existing laws than it is to enact new laws. In other cases, existing regulations are inadequate and new ones are needed. You can find out your state laws by contacting your state attorney general's office. You can find out your local laws by contacting your local police agency.
The success of making or enforcing rules depends on the willingness of the population to support and obey the rules and the ability of regulatory agencies, such as the police, to enforce them. Examples of laws or regulations intended to reduce injuries and deaths from violence include laws prohibiting the carrying of firearms in public and rules prohibiting the wearing of gang colors in schools.

# Regulations Concerning the Use of and Access to Weapons
Guns, knives, and other dangerous weapons may not actually cause violence, but they can convert an argument with no associated inju ries into one with severe injuries or even death. A variety of strate gies have been used to reduce the likelihood that weapons will be used. Many communities already have existing laws and regulations concerning the sale, ownership, use, or carrying of guns or other weapons.
- Most schools prohibit students from bringing weapons into schools. Methods used to help enforce the prohibition include rules requiring students to carry books in see-through bags rather than solid cloth or opaque containers in which weapons can be hidden, random locker searches, rules prohibiting the wearing of clothing in which weapons can be hidden easily, or metal-detector checks at the school entrance, of selected classrooms, or at se lected sites in the school.
- Some cities prohibit carrying a firearm within the city limits or carrying a concealed weapon. Recently enacted legislation that increased the penalty for disobeying these laws in Detroit and Massachusetts were apparently effective in reducing the number of homicides and assaults with guns.

# Massachusetts Bartley-Fox Act (1975)
This law mandated prison terms for anyone carrying an unlicensed firearm. In the two-year period following passage of this law and the accompanying publicity, the incidence of assaults with guns was reduced by 13.5 percent. _
- Some laws ban the possession of particular types of guns, such as handguns or machine guns, except for police or others with a demonstrated need. Individuals who wish to buy these types of guns must obtain special permits. These laws are generally called restrictive licensing laws.

# Washington, D.C., Prohibition of Handgun Ownership
in 1976, the District of Columbia banned the purchase, sale, transfer, or possession of handguns by civilians. A study that compared homicide rates in the District with rates in the surrounding counties showed that the handgun ban had an effect. The homicide rate in the District dropped about 25 percent in 1977, the first year after the ban went into effect and remained lower than expected until the end of the study in 1988. An estimated 40 homicides per year have been prevented by the ban on handguns. Homicide rates remain high in Washington, D.C., however, indicating other actions besides prohibiting handgun ownership are necessary.
- Twenty-six states currently require a waiting period, a police background check, or both before a handgun maybe purchased. For example, in Tennessee, there is a 15-day waiting period to purchase handguns. In Massachusetts, there is no waiting period to purchase any legally sold firearm, but the buyer must have a permit-to-purchase and must wait 40 days after obtaining the permit-to-purchase before purchasing any guns.
- Local citizens may be aware of a particular gun dealer who is selling to underage youths or otherwise not obeying the local laws concerning the sale of guns and ammunition. These violations can be brought to the attention of the local police. Local police are generally quite willing to enforce the laws against the illegal sale of weapons.

# Regulation of the Use of and Access to Alcohol
Alcohol consumption appears to play an important role in many violent situations. Youth who have been drinking are more likely to become involved in physical fights. In all 50 states and the District of Columbia, the minimum drinking age is now 21 years. Laws prohibit the sale or public possession of alcoholic beverages by anyone under the age of 21.
- Sale of alcohol to underage youth may be limited by stricter enforcement of laws. As a general rule, regulations are most poorly followed in convenience stores. Establishments that fre quently violate the regulations are often known to the local residents and can be targeted by law enforcement officers. Police are much more likely to take the time to enforce the alcohol laws if they know they have strong community support to do so.
- Keg-labeling laws can be established. Liquor stores can be re quired to increase the deposit and to place a numbered band on beer kegs. The numbered band identifies the purchaser, making it possible to trace and arrest people who supply kegs to under aged drinkers.
- Clubs, organizations, and those sponsoring entertainment events can prohibit the consumption of alcohol on the premises and refuse admittance to youth who have been drinking.
- All states have laws about the liability of alcohol servers for injuries to their patrons or for injuries caused by their patrons because they had too much to drink. These laws can be publi cized, better enforced, and, if necessary, strengthened.
- Cooperation between the owners and managers of places that sell or serve alcohol and community organizations concerned about violence could lead to required instruction for servers and man agers. Bartenders and managers of drinking establishments or special events can be taught about their important role in the prevention of irresponsible drinking, how to determine if a cus tomer has had too much to drink, and how to detect underage youth.

# Oregon, Alcohol Server Education Program (503) 653-3030
Since 1987, Oregon law has required servers, managers, and owners of establishments that serve alcohol for on-premise consumption to pass a server education course. Participants are taught about the effects of alcohol on the body and its interaction with other drugs. They also learn about their responsibility to prevent irresponsible drinking. They learn to estimate the drinking capacity of customers, to look for signs of intoxication, to cut off people who have had too much to drink without causing an argument, and to identify minors. Courses include a minimum of 4.5 hours of instruction and participation. The Oregon Liquor Control Commission monitors the classes to assure their quality. The servers, managers, and owners must take the course every 5 years.

# Other Types of Laws and Regulations
In addition to regulations concerning weapons and alcohol, other types of regulations may also reduce youth violence. For example, prohibiting corporal punishment and enforcing some dress codes in schools may be helpful.
 Corporal punishment in schools is now banned in 23 states and in many large cities in other states. Corporal punishment of students by school officials contributes to the perception that fighting and physically injuring another person is acceptable. On occasion, it may actually cause physical injuries.
- Dress codes for organizations or schools may reduce the identi fication with gangs or make it more difficult to conceal weapons.

# Los Angeles, California, Challengers Boys Club (213) 971-6141
The Prevention of Youth Violence

# Environmental Modification
Fnvironmental modification includes changes in both the social and the physical environments.

# Modification of the Social Environment
Methods of changing the social environment of children and adoles cents who may be at risk for being violent or for becoming a victim of violence include such activities as providing preschool education and appropriate or therapeutic day care programs for abused chil dren. For older children and adolescents, this includes providing constructive, alternative activities, such as recreational opportunities and employment. Small, personal after-school programs that offer contact with caring adults, counseling, help with homework, and recreation can create a safe, constructive alternative to violent street cultures.

# Home Visitation
Home visitation is an activity that provides services in the home either for an individual or the entire family. Home visitation pro grams performed during the prenatal and infancy years of the child focus on preventing health and developmental problems in children born to mothers who are teenagers, unmarried, or of low socioeco nomic status. These activities have been found effective in prevent ing child abuse. Because research shows that abused children are more likely to be violent or be victims of violence as adults, prenatal and infancy home visitation programs maybe an effective long-term strategy for preventing youth violence. These programs are typically designed to meet the needs of parents for information, emotional support, stress management, and other factors that undermine par ents' health habits and the care of their children.

# Elmira, New York, The Prenatal/Early Infancy Project (716) 275-3738
This home visitation project was designed to prevent a wide range of health and developmental problems among children born to young, poor, or unmarried women. In this program, nurses visit pregnant women to provide information and support that encourage the mothers to adopt good health habits, learn the skills needed to care for their infant children, get access to needed community services, achieve educational or occupational goals, and prevent unwanted future pregnancies. Home visits begin in the early stages of pregnancy and continue through the second year of life of the child. Evaluation of this project showed that the health and social skills of participants had improved. In addition, there was a substantial reduction in verified cases of child abuse among the children of at-risk women who were visited at home by the nurses.

# Preschool Programs Such as Head Start
Project Head Start is designed to help children of low-income fami lies develop a greater degree of social competence through develop ing the child's intellectual skills, fostering emotional and social development, meeting the child's health and nutritional needs, and involving parents and the community in these efforts.
A 1990 report of the Milton S. Eisenhower Foundation, which grew out of the bipartisan National Commission on the Causes and Pre vention of Violence, reported that preschool programs like Head Start are among the most cost-effective inner-city crime and drug prevention strategies ever developed. (See Other Useful Things To Read on page 54.)

# Therapeutic Activities
Therapeutic activities provide medical, psychological, or other treat ment for children who have been abused, injured by violence, or witnessed an unusually violent event. The provision of medical, psychological, and nurturing services helps break the cycle of vio lence. In addition to child and family counseling, here are several special types of therapeutic services:
- Foster care programs provide basic physical care and safety from abusive parents. They can be very effective if multiple placements are avoided and foster parents are caring and knowledgeable about the needs of the child.
 Respite day care and therapeutic day care provide services in a safe, nurturing, stimulating, organized environment without tak ing the child entirely out of the home. Day care programs are often the abused child's first contact with other children besides family members. This interaction helps the child adjust to the separation from parents, attain skills during play, and build self esteem through interaction with peers.
- Residential treatment programs target school-age children with special needs, such as emotional disturbances or substance abuse problems.
- Crisis management services help groups or individuals deal with the anger, fear, sadness, hopelessness, confusion, and irrational thinking associated with witnessing or being victims of violence.
Dallas, Texas, Dallas Independent School District Crisis Management Plan (214) 565-6700
The Dallas Independent School District Crisis Management Plan divides crises into three levels. The most severe level includes terrorist activities or a death at the school. This level also includes severe natural disasters and suicide clusters. For each level, there is a planned coordinated response. The pian includes methods of informing students, families, and the public about the event. It also includes the identification and provision of counseling services to students in need. Each school has a local crisis team. There is also a District crisis team consisting of psychological and social service experts.
The District crisis team participates in the most stressful events, such as a death at the school.

# Recreational Activities
Recreational activities offer young people opportunities to spend time in a structured and purposeful environment. Recreational in terventions cannot be considered a sole answer to youth violence. However, activities that provide outlets for tension, stress, or anger and opportunities for social interactions and constructive problem ' solving are important parts of a program with other violence preven tion components. Many recreational activities are conducted with these goals across the nation in Boys and Girls Clubs, Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts, YMCAs and YWCAs, and local recreation departments.

# Modification of the Physical Environment
The physical environment does not cause violence, but it may make violent events more or less likely to occur. Some environmental modifications by themselves may appear to merely displace the undesirable behavior to another location. Better lighting on a play ground, for example, may move the undesirable activity to another location in a community. Sometimes, however, the new location is less conducive to violence, more difficult to reach, or easier for potential victims to avoid. In these cases, the overall amount of violence may decrease even though some violence has merely moved to a new location. Protective landscaping, changes in traffic flow, speed bumps, dress codes, visible identification cards, and closed-cir cuit television monitoring are other examples of enviornmental changes. Environmental change maybe particularly effective when combined with educational and regulatory strategies.

# Ithaca, New York, Cornell University Blue Light System (607) 255-1111
The Blue Light system on the university campus has three components: an emergency phone system, a bus system, and an escort service. The Blue Light phone system has 61 emergency phones outdoors across the campus, placed so that at least one phone is easily visible to pedestrians. Additionally, there are 158 emergency phones in academic buildings and dormitory entrances. All phones are directly connected to the Public Safety Dispatch Office. When callers pick up the receiver or push a special button, they are automatically connected with the Public Safety office. The location of the phone is displayed and recorded automatically. A patrol unit Is sent to all calls for assistance and to all hang-up calls.
The Blue Light bus system is a free transportation system that operates every day from 6:00 p. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a concept that is attracting interest in many police departments. Al though its purpose is to prevent crime, the CPTED principle prob ably will help prevent violence also. CPTED relies primarily on increasing visibility and encouraging a sense of ownership. Undesir able acts are less likely to occur in places where they will be observed, and people naturally use and protect things they own.  Visibility can be improved by designing areas so that they are more easily observed by people during their normal daily behav ior. For example, parking lots could be placed so they can be clearly seen from the school or office building with which they are associated.
- Visibility can be improved by attracting more people to the area. For example, volleyball or basketball courts can be placed in the center of parks or playgrounds. The players will make it more difficult for illicit or violent activity to occur unobserved .
- Limiting the ways in which people enter a building also increases visibility. That makes it more difficult for people who do not belong to enter or depart unobserved. Receptionists can be placed at the entryway of schools or offices. The sales desk can be placed near the entrance in stores.
- Creating a sense of ownership will increase the use of the envi ronment for desirable-purposes, Cleaning and maintaining an area may give a. sense of ownership.
- Changing traffic flow can make a neighborhood belong more to the residents. Limiting the number of through streets, making one-way streets, creating dead-ends, and narrowing the entrances to some streets can reduce traffic by nonresidents. This helps residents feel like the neighborhood is their own.

# Los Angeles, California, Community Youth Gang Services (213) 266-4264
Community Youth Gang Services is a program with many components, but some of the most innovative involve reclaiming the community that has been taken by gangs. One aspect of the program carefully plots on maps the physical areas of the community that are affected by gangs. These areas are targeted for reclaiming, and community residents are mobilized to do that through such activities as a Saturday in the Park, in which a particular day is designated for clean-up of the park and family activities.
Another activity of this program is the removal of graffiti. Community Youth Gang Services staff have the professional staff and equipment to eradicate graffiti without damaging surfaces. Staff hires and supervises local youth and selected youth on probation to do this task.

# Combining Activities for an Effective Program
The activities listed in this manual are presented individually so that the reader can investigate the different types of activities available to communities. In reality, activities are rarely conducted inde pendently. Effective programs combine a number of activities to render the maximum impact on the problem and reach as many young people as possible. There are a number of examples of programs that combine three, four, or five strategies that have been discussed.

# Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, House of Umoja Boystown (215) 473-5893
The House of Umoja Boystown is a home for African-American boys in Philadelphia, an area with high numbers of youth in gangs. In addition to providing a home with food and shelter, the program offers extensive services that offer emotional and spiritual support. These services cover a number of the types of activities described earlier in these guidelines, such as outreach, educational activities, recreational opportunities, and work/academic opportunities.

# Boston, Massachusetts, The Violence Prevention Project (617) 534-5196
The'Violence Prevention Project in Boston, Massachusetts, is a multi-institutional, community-based program designed to reduce the incidence of interpersonal violence among adolescents, along with associated medical and social hazards. The major activity used in this program is a violence prevention curriculum that focuses on conflict resolution. However, in the initial phases of develop ment, it became apparent that a school-based activity was not enough and activities in the community were added to reinforce nonviolent options learned in the classroom.
Staff from the program train providers in diverse community settings In the use of the curriculum's strategies. They also help providers find ways to incorporate these strategies into the delivery of services to adolescents and encourage consensus from the community that supports the prevention of violence. As a result, educational materials are available in waiting areas of health centers, and staff at these centers offer violence prevention counseling. This program also includes activities at Boston City Hospital. Adolescents are screened in the emergency room to identify those at high risk of violence, and a special violence prevention clinic at the hospital offers services to these adoles cents. Services include comprehensive assessment, educational interventions, counseling, therapy, and referral to other community services.

# Chicago, Illinois, African-American Male Education Network (AMEN) (708) 720-0235
The African-American Male Education Network centers its activities on Rites of Passage programs, which foster self-esteem and pride in one's cultural heritage and provide guidance for youth as they move from one stage of life to another. The program provides the guidance and support to overcome the confusion and frustration that lead to youth choosing destructive alternatives such as violence, gangs, and substance abuse. The program accomplishes these goals through education, teaching life and social skills, and mentoring.

# Los Angeles, California, Community Youth Gang Services (213) 266-4264
The Community Youth Gang Services (CYGS) of Los Angeles is a program with many activities. CYGS has crisis intervention teams that negotiate disputes among gangs in the target area and try to convince youth not to join gangs. The program also has activities to reclaim areas of the community from gangs, areas such as parks or playgrounds that were not considered safe because of gang activity. Volunteers work with program staff and local agencies and community groups to develop cultural, recreational, and other activities that are alternatives to gang involvement. Educa tional programs in the schools are complemented with parent education and teacher education. In the job development section of the program, staff work with youth to prepare them for employment and also encourage local employers to hire youth. One other active part of the program is the removal of graffiti from community landmarks. Staff hire youth in the community to do this task under professional supervision.
This program has an aggressive outreach effort that works continually In the community to discourage gang membership and direct youth already in gangs to other activities.

# PROGRAM MANAGEMENT
Certain steps are necessary in building a successful community pro gram to prevent youth violence. These steps, which are essentially the same for all community-action activities, are based on two prin ciples:
- Community programs require the input of the entire community.
- A problem must be clearly identified before it can be addressed.

# COMMUNITY OWNERSHIP
A united community can produce powerful changes. Even large and complicated problems like violence can be reduced by the creative energy of a community. One necessary ingredient is the participation of many residents. Community-based health promotion programs in other areas have been effective because they combined the efforts of many different organizations and individuals. In these programs, diverse organizations and individuals recognize their common inter est and work together for a common purpose. A single individual or organization may provide the initial stimulus or the ongoing leader ship, but sustained and effective community-wide action depends upon the coordinated efforts of many individuals and groups.
In the process of building a community effort, you should do the following:
- Keep leadership and ownership of the program at the community level. Many organizations and government agencies may pro vide support or be involved, but the community should be the leader. Community ownership is the best way to assure that the violence prevention program becomes a permanent program in the com munity.
- While keeping leadership of the program at the community level, do not miss opportunities to gain the support and resources that can be provided through the involvement of government agencies or private organizations, such as businesses and churches.
Throughout the life of the program, one of the major challenges will be to maintain a productive working relationship among all individuals and organizations interested in working to prevent youth violence.
- Include young people of the community in as many parts of the program as possible. They are the most important target group and can be a big help to the program.
- Establish a leadership and organizational structure. Initially, both leadership and organizational structure are likely to be informal and flexible. As the program grows, they become more formal. Members of the target population, neighborhood, or community must be part of the leadership group.
- Determine the resources available to you. Resources may be divided into three groups: money, ideas, and people. All three types of resources maybe scarce. In addition, the need for each type of resource will vary at different stages of program develop ment. Groups or organizations that may be available to supply some of the necessary resources are listed in Table 4. Not every group on the list is appropriate for every community. Most communities will also have unique organizations and individuals who are not on the list but should be included.
- Coordinate efforts. The carefully planned and c-.Vidinated ac tivities of multiple groups, each doing a little bit, accomplish more than the same efforts applied in an uncoordinated fashion. There are several types of information that help describe the nature and extent of the problem in a community. There is factual informa tion from statistical records and opinions about the nature of the problem from people in the community (Table 5).

# Factual Information
Factual information can describe
- The outcome of violent events, such as those that cause injuries and deaths. This information can be obtained from the vital statistics division of the state or local health departments, medical examiner records, hospital or emergency room records, outpa tient records from public or private clinics, emergency medical service (ambulance) records, and school nurse records. Once you have these statistics, it maybe helpful to compare them with state and national data, if possible, to see how your community com pares with other areas. When possible, collect information spe cific to the neighborhood-for example, incident reports from local schools.
- The time, place, and circumstances of violent events (e.g., fights over girl-or boyfriends, fights over clothing, fights about drugs, fights between gangs). This information is not routinely assem bled. However, you may find this information byreviewingpolice records, hospital records, or school records. This type of infor mation may help identify times, places, or circumstances that deserve special attention.
Because much of this information maybe confidential, you may have to make arrangements to get summary data (e.g., number of firearm injuries) which do not contain information that identifies the people involved. If you are working with a research organi zation or university, they should knowhow to legally have access to records.
It is usually best to begin with statistics on the number of violencerelated injuries and deaths. When these are described as well as possible, then look for information about the times, places, and circumstances of the events.

# Opinions from Members of the Community
You must learn what your community members see as a problem and what they think is causing the problem. You can find this out through surveys of residents and discussions with community leaders, school personnel, legal and police personnel, health workers, and parents. For example, ask school principals and guidance counselors about the violence they see in the schools and listen to their ideas for reducing it. It is also important to talk to children and adolescents themselves, particularly those who might be in trouble or at risk for trouble (for example, those who are expelled from school). Contact youth and their parents in as many community sites as possible, including supermarkets and shopping areas, basketball courts and other recreational areas, churches, schools, and homes. Local schools and universities may be able to help with opinion surveys.
- The results of opinion surveys reflect the personal beliefs, view points, and judgments of community members, including victims, offenders, community leaders, and, most importantly, youngpeople.
- People who respond to such surveys will give you valuable infor-mation about knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs concerning vio lence in the community. They will also identify what is acceptable in the community and how certain activities may be perceived by community members.
- Be sure that workers collecting the information have credibility in the community.

# Community Background Information
Other types of information on such topics as racism, poverty, unem ployment, and other social, cultural, or economic factors provide helpful background information about the community and the prob lem of violence. Some of this information can be obtained through the U.S. Census (available through your local library), the Depart ment of Labor employment statistics, and from the Department of Housing and Urban Development. When approaching an organiza tion, ask for information specifically related to the institution. For example, ask schools about attendance, truancy, suspensions, expul sions, and failures.
The information you acquire from opinion surveys of local leaders and citizens is valuable and may not be available anywhere else. Academic institutions or university research organizations in the community may be able to help you obtain and assemble this type of information.

# Data Presentation
Statistics from public sources are usually set up for the needs of the particular agency or organization. They may not be tabulated, ex plained, or displayed in ways that you need. You can ask, but do not expect the people or the organizations from whom you get data to modify it for your use. You may find it useful to include people in your effort who have the data or who know how to organize, interpret, and use it.
The causes of violent behavior are multiple and complex. The com bination of statistics and opinions is important when you are deciding what you want to do. Statistics will suggest several possible areas for activities. However, the opinions from the community may identify information not provided by the statistics and could indicate the areas that should be addressed first. In addition, information about the community is a powerful tool to convince law-makers and other decision-makers about the importance of the problem and the need to address it.

# GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Effective community programs have both goals and objectives. A goal is a broad, general statement about what the program is designed to accomplish. Goals determine the direction of the program. Ob jectives are statements of specific things to be achieved by a specific time, and they determine what activities the community will do.

# Example:
Goal-Reduce violent behavior in the schools.
Objective-In the 1994-95 school year, 100 eighth grade students will study the curriculum on non violent conflict resolution.
An objective should tell who should achieve how much of what. where, and by when.
. Who means the individuals or groups expected to accomplish a task or change a behavior.
- What tells the desired action, such as a change in behavior or health practice. The what should be based on your list of priori ties. At least one of the objectives should be a change in an important health event such as injuries from fights. Other objec tives might relate to the number of fights, the number of students who learn how to avoid a fight, or even the number of students who take a class about avoiding fights.
- How much indicates the amount of change you expect. This amount partially depends on available resources.
- When means the time by which the desired action or change will be attained. The time will depend on a number of factors-in cluding the resources available to make the change.
- Where indicates a geographical area such as a county, city, school system, or neighborhood that has been identified as the target community.
As you develop goals and objectives, the following guidelines should be helpful:
- Ensure that program members agree upon goals and major ob jectives. The goals and objectives need to be consistent with the overall goals and objectives of each participating group. How ever, they do not need to include all the goals and objectives of each individual organization. Participating groups need to rec ognize their common interests but they cannot be expected to have ah their interests in common.
- Create objectives that fit the unique characteristics and resources of the community.
 Modify the objectives as new information becomes available, as resources change, or as activities go faster or slower than planned.
No program ever goes exactly as planned.
- Make objectives detailed enough so you can see what steps need to be taken to successfully implement the activities.
- Do not create objectives just to satisfy someone else's research objective. (Be smart, however. Do not miss an opportunity to get resources if it only requires minor additions or modifications to your program.)
- If appropriate, divide objectives into categories depending upon whether they pertain to health effects (e.g., injuries), behaviors (e.g., fights), participation (e.g., students in a class), or other aspects of the program (e.g., the number of newspaper articles published on violence).
Table 6 shows how objectives flow from a goal. Objectives are important because they clarify the tasks that need to be done, call attention to areas of needed effort, and document the progress of the program and its activities. Example: By 1996, the number of visits by high school students to the school nurse for injuries re lated to weapons violence in Ajax County will be reduced from an average of 2 per month to an av erage of 1 per month.
Who: High school students What: Injuries related to weapons violence How much: Reduce from an average of 2 visits per month to 1 visit per month When: By 1996
Where: Ajax County
The above example is a possible final objective. Often several intermediate objectives (steps) must be achieved first to ultimately meet the final objective.

# Objectives:
1. By 1993, principals will have placed posters about the policy forbidding weapons in schools in all classrooms and on all public announcement boards in all Ajax County high schools. As you can see from this example, an objective:
- Is specific and quantitative. It specifies the group involved, a single result, and a target date.
 Tells what will happen and when, not why or how this should be done.
- Is readily understandable to those involved.
- Is realistic, attainable, yet a challenge.
 Identifies criteria for evaluating achievement.

# LOCATING RESOURCES FOR YOUR PROGRAM
You will need many resources to run a community violence preven tion program. The greatest resource you can have is the time and efforts of community people. There are also a number of resources, such as office space, equipment, and supplies, that m aybe donated by organizations that cannot contribute money to a program. All these resources cost real dollars if they are not donated. Therefore, their contribution is very important. Although having funds will allow you to conduct more activities and reach more people, money does not assure success.
There are two major sources of funds for community programs: public and private (Table 7). Public funds come from federal, state, or local governments. Particularly in tight financial times, govern ment funds often go to support existing programs. In addition, because people administering public funds are held accountable to the public for their management, government agencies usually retain a great deal of control over how the money is spent.
Private funds come from a number of private organizations, such as foundations, corporations and other businesses, voluntary organiza tions, charitable institutions, churches, and a wide variety of local concerns. Usually private organizations are more flexible than pub lic agencies in the types of programs they fund and in the manage ment of the program.
Your own program can also raise funds by sponsoring events that bring attention to the program and also raise money. For example, you can conduct walk-a-thons or community road races, solicit pledges through media programs, conduct bake sales, or conduct contests or raffles with prizes donated by local businesses. Although the amount of money raised in this manner varies, the community's willingness to participate and to take on responsibility provides your program a good record when you approach private or public organi zations to request funding. In fact, some granting organizations require that a percentage of the program's costs be provided by the community or other sources.

# Private Organizations

# Community Organizations
Many organizations within local communities want to help worthy causes, often because of their sense of "corporate citizenship." You should consider the following types of organization's as possible sources of funding: 
- Businesses (including banks)
- Civic organizations, such as the Kiwanis and Lions Clubs
- Religious organizations
- Local divisions of state or national voluntary organizations (such as the American Heart Association and the American Cancer Society)
- Hospitals and other health care facilities
- Local television and radio stations and newspapers (Community media often contribute publicity and the help of local media personalities for community efforts.)
- Schools, including local colleges and universities with programs aimed at violence prevention (Educational organizations often provide volunteers as well as conduct fund-raising activities through student organizations.)
- Community service organizations, such as sororities, fraternities, and associations of retired teachers Some organizations may not have funds to contribute, but may donate facilities, equipment, or labor. Because these resources would probably cost a program real dollars to acquire, their donation is as good as money.
Community organizations may not require formal grant proposals or extensive written requests. However, you must convince the person making decisions that the project is good for the community. Also, these organizations are not easily located. One of the best ways to find them is to talk with people who are likely to know about different kinds of community organizations and their leaders. You can also contact people with authority in organizations that have donated to local activities in the past.

# Foundations
The sole purpose of foundations is philanthropic giving. One major advantage to grants from foundations is that it is usually easier to request money from foundations than from public agencies. Foun dations also have the reputation for funding programs with good ideas but little experience. They are more likely to take a chance on a new organization.
Because foundations may support only specific types of projects or projects in certain geographic areas, it is important to find out what foundations support violence prevention projects. The Foundation Center is an authoritative guide to foundations and provides detailed information on the interests and restrictions of individual founda tions and on the money they have granted.
The Foundation Center has four main offices as well as libraries in all 50 states. To locate the nearest library, call 1-800-424-9836. You can also find listings of foundations and information on what they support in your local library.
After identifying a potential foundation funding source, write a letter to the foundation that briefly states what you want to do in the community and ask whether the foundation is interested in this type of project. Through this inquiry, you will also find ou t how to submit a grant proposal.

# Corporations
Large business and nonprofit organizations in the United States donate a great deal of money each year. You may find a large company with facilities in your community, such as a factory or major distribution office, that is interested in donating money to your program.
In addition, each state receives Federal funds in the form of block grants. These block grants are divided into four areas: preventive health; maternal and child health; alcohol, drug abuse, and mental health; and primary care. For information about these block grants, you can contact the appropriate administrative agency:
Preventive Health Other Federal agencies and organizations that have an interest in violence programs are listed here. These programs may not provide grant money or may have very restrictive qualifications for grantees. You should write the agency or talk with someone there to determine whether they are interested in your program.

# CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION

# MONITORING THE PROGRESS OF YOUR PROGRAM
Program monitoring or evaluation is essential. It helps you adjust your program to meet unanticipated circumstances. Monitoring things daily is how we improve things. Monitoring also enables the workers, the funding agencies, and, most importantly, the community members to know whether the program is making progress. Moni toring includes the collection of both objective data (e.g., the number of children who took a conflict resolution class) and subjective data (e.g., the number of students who say they are less likely to get into a fight). Monitoring should indicate v aether your activities are on track and whether the intended outcomes are being achieved. Here are some of the questions that should be answered:
- Have the activities or interventions been implemented? For example: Has the conflict resolution curriculum actually been used?
- Has the activity been properly implemented? For example: Were teaching materials provided? Were the teachers trained?
Were the classes given in all the schools? Did all eighth grade students take the classes?
- Did the activity achieve its intermediate objectives? For exam ple: Did the students pass the test at the end of the course?
- Did the activity achieve its long-term objectives? For example: Were there fewer fights in school and on the school grounds?
One of the major difficulties in violence prevention is that very few activities have been proven to work. Although some appear promis ing, thorough scientific evaluations of these programs are badly needed. However, such evaluations are complicated, expensive, and often too difficult for a community to do alone. Communities with a local university have a good opportunity to develop a community/academic partnership. In this type of relationship, the university could help design and carry out detailed evaluation of the community's violence prevention program.
Even communities with limited resources must monitor and evaluate their progress. The specific evaluation activities undertaken and data collected are determined by the goals and objectives of the program. At the very least, community-based programs should do the following to monitor their progress:
1. Examine the objectives. Properly prepared objectives will help identify the information necessary to determine whether the pro gram is on track. Keep records and collect data to see whether the objectives are being achieved.

# CONCLUSION
Effective community programs must do two general things:
1) Include activities that are appropriate for the community and the problem.
2) Create the organization to carry out the activities effectively.
The descriptions of the strategies (pp. 11-28) provide a "menu" of violence prevention activities that maybe appropriate for your com munity. Few of these activities are scientifically proven, but they appear promising. Many can be adapted to the specific needs of most communities. The chapter on 'Program Management" (pp. 29-49) provides suggestions about how to define the problem, select activi ties, get them started, and see them through to success. In general, one should strive to do the following:
- Empower the community to take active leadership, responsibil ity, and control of the program.
- Enlist and coordinate multiple community organizations and groups.
- Include many activities targeted at specific risk groups in a variety of settings.
- Support individual behavioral change through policy and envi ronmental change.
 Provide necessary training for all community people, both volun teers and professionals, who are working in the program.
To be successful, a program also requires attention day by day. Here are a few suggestions:  Be flexible. Nothing goes exactly as planned. Make adjustments but do not lose sight of the long-term goal.
 Seek new individuals and organizations to broaden the scope of the program and enhance the probability of its success.
- Search for ways to provide special training and specific experi ence for the workers. Violence prevention is a new area and few experienced and trained people are available. The natural talents of many of the workers often can be rapidly improved with training. In particular, staff members might receive conflict reso lution training.
- Listen to your co workers. Theyknow the community. They often have original and practical ideas.
- Be alert for and seek new resources. Do not lose sight of the long-term goal, but be willing to bend a little or add a little in order to get the resources to move the whole program ahead.
- Set up numerous milestones so that workers can appreciate their progress. Violence is a big problem. For a community effort to work, the problem needs to be divided into pieces that are small enough to be realistically addressed with goals that have a chance of being reached. Success builds enthusiasm and commitment.
- Continually evaluate the progress of the program. Note whether the objectives are being reached.
- Be persistent. However, do not set impossible goals and objec tives.
- Design activities for hard-to-reach groups who are also the groups most at risk of violence. Outreach activities are necessary to help youth in gangs or those who are separated from the mainstream: the homeless, runaways, or youth who are out of school.
- When you do not know what to do, ask someone for help. If you do not know who to ask, call one of the projects mentioned in this manual or listed in the appendix.