Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Ciprofloxacin overdosage
In the event of acute overdosage, reversible renal toxicity has been reported in some cases. The stomach should be emptied by inducing vomiting or by gastric lavage. The patient should be carefully observed and given supportive treatment, including monitoring of renal function, urinary pH and acidify, if required, to prevent crystalluria and administration of magnesium, aluminum, or calcium containing antacids which can reduce the absorption of ciprofloxacin. Adequate hydration must be maintained. Only a small amount of ciprofloxacin (< 10%) is removed from the body after hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis.
Single doses of ciprofloxacin were relatively non-toxic via the oral route of administration in mice, rats, and dogs. No deaths occurred within a 14-day post treatment observation period at the highest oral doses tested; up to 5000 mg/kg in either rodent species, or up to 2500 mg/kg in the dog. Clinical signs observed included hypoactivity and cyanosis in both rodent species and severe vomiting in dogs. In rabbits, significant mortality was seen at doses of ciprofloxacin > 2500 mg/kg. Mortality was delayed in these animals, occurring 10-14 days after dosing.
In mice, rats, rabbits and dogs, significant toxicity including tonic/clonic convulsions was observed at intravenous doses of ciprofloxacin between 125 and 300 mg/kg.
Clinical Dementia Rating

# Overview
The Clinical Dementia Rating or CDR is a numeric scale used to quantify the severity of symptoms of dementia (i.e. its 'stage').
Using a structured-interview protocol developed by John C. Morris and colleagues at Washington University School of Medicine, a qualified health professional assesses a patient's cognitive and functional performance in six areas: memory, orientation, judgment & problem solving, community affairs, home & hobbies, and personal care. Scores in each of these are combined to obtain a composite score ranging from 0 through 3.
Qualitative equivalences are as follows:
CDR is credited with being able to discern very mild impairments, but its weaknesses include the amount of time it takes to administer, its ultimate reliance on subjective assessment, and relative inability to capture changes over time.
Clinical neurophysiology
Clinical neurophysiology is a medical speciality that studies the central and peripheral nervous systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated.
In some countries it is a part of neurology, for example USA and Germany. In others it is an autonomous speciality, such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, the United Kingdom, Finland, Sweden and Norway.
Its main parts are:
- Electromyography and nerve conduction study; acronyms include EMG, NCS
- Electroencephalography; acronyms include EEG
- Evoked potentials; acronyms include EP, SSEP, TCeMEP, TCmMEP
- Polysomnography
- Intraoperative monitoring, Intraoperative neurophysiologic monitoring, surgical neurophsyiology; acronyms include IOM and IONM.
Clinical prediction rule

# Overview
A clinical prediction rule is type of medical research study in which researchers try to identify the best combination of medical sign, symptoms, and other findings in predicting the probability of a specific disease or outcome.
Physicians have difficulty in estimated risks of diseases; frequently erring towards overestimation, perhaps due to cognitive biases such as base rate fallacy in which the risk of an adverse outcome is exaggerated.

# Methods
In a prediction rule study, investigators identify a consecutive group of patients who are suspected of a having a specific disease or outcome. The investigators then compare the value of clinical findings available to the physician versus the results of more intensive testing or the results of delayed clinical follow up.
A survey of methods concluded "the majority of prediction studies in high impact journals do not follow  current methodological recommendations, limiting their reliability and  applicability."

# Effect on Health Outcomes
Few prediction rules have had the consequences of their usage by physicians  quantified.
When studied, the impact of providing the information alone (for example, providing the calculated probability of disease) has been negative.
However, when the prediction rule is implemented as part of a critical pathway, so that a hospital or clinic has procedures and policies established for how to manage patients identified as high or low risk of disease, the prediction rule has more impact on clinical outcomes.
The more intensively the prediction rule is implemented the more benefit will occur.

# Examples of Prediction Rules

## Cardiovascular Diseases

### Acute MI / Unstable Angina
For the main page on acute coronary syndromes, click here

### Stroke, Atrial Fibrillation

### Deep Venous Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism

### Hypertension, Lipid and Screening

### Chest Pain and CAD

### Angioplasty

### Valve and Endocarditis

## Others

## Orthopedics Scores

## Other Organ System
- Various rules are used in the Intensive Care Unit and are grouped as ICU scoring systems (Glasgow coma scale, Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale, APACHE II, SAPS II, PIM2).

# Adverse Effects
Patients may not be comfortable with the way a doctor may integrate decision support into practice.
Collective consciousness
Collective consciousness refers to the shared beliefs and moral attitudes which operate as a unifying force within society. This term was used by the French social theorist Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) in his books The Division of Labour (1893), The Rules of Sociological Method (1895), Suicide (1897), and The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912).
In The Division of Labour, Durkheim argued that in "traditional" or "simpler" societies (those based around clan, family or tribal relationships), religion played an important role in uniting members through the creation of a common consciousness (conscience collective in the original French). In societies of this type, the contents of an individual's consciousness are largely shared in common with all other members of their society, creating a mechanical solidarity through mutual likeness. As societies develop and become increasingly individualised, the organisation of the division of labour replaces this with an organic solidarity, displacing the need for collective consciousness. With this diminishing of the collective consciousness, individuals are left open to anomie, the lack of a sense of shared values and an increasing sense of purposelessness.

# Other uses of the term
The term "collective consciousness" is also referred to in Sahaja Yoga as an outcome of meditation and "self-realization."
Various forms of what might be termed "collective consciousness" in modern societies have been identified by other sociologistsTemplate:Who, going from solidarity attitudes and memes to extreme behaviors like groupthink or herd behavior. It has developed as a way of describing how an entire community comes together to share similar values.
Common-sense metaphysics

# Infant metaphysics
Infants make strong ontological inferences about how the world works and what kinds of things it contains. Developmental psychology studies the stages in which the metaphysical lessons are learned.
Infants make the following metaphysical inferences: 
- that the world contains rigid objects that are continuous in space and time
- they treat any surface that is cohesive, bounded, and moves as a unit as a single object. When one solid object appears to pass through another, these infants are surprised.
- Babies less than a year old distinguish causal events from non-causal ones that have similar spatio-temporal properties
- they distinguish objects that move only when acted upon from ones that are capable of self-generated motion (the inanimate/animate distinction)
- they assume that the self-propelled movement of animate objects is caused by invisible internal states -- goals and intentions -- whose presence must be inferred, since internal states cannot be seen
- When an adult utters a word-like sound while pointing to a novel object, toddlers assume the word refers to the whole object, rather than one of its parts
Some of these conclusions are not reached when an infant has autism.
With newborns, as far as anyone can tell, raw sensory data stimulate them but do not take on meaning; they cannot differentiate between themselves and anything beyond themselves.  Self-awareness is widely believed among psychologists not to develop until mid-childhood, and arguably is present in only a few species of animals. Tests performed for self-consciousness include applying a dot on a subject's body, and then placing them in front of a mirror  if they start to investigate the dot, it appears that they may realize their own existence in a self-aware sense. Other species will assume that the animal in the mirror is another animal.
Object permanence is an important stage of cognitive development for infants. Numerous tests regarding it have been done, usually involving a toy, and a crude barrier which is placed in front of the toy, and then removed, repeatedly (peekaboo). In early sensorimotor stages, the infant is completely unable to comprehend object permanence. Psychologist Jean Piaget conducted experiments with infants which led him to conclude that this awareness was typically achieved at eight to nine months of age. Infants before this age are too young to understand object permanence, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone. "Out of sight, out of mind." A lack of Object Permanence can lead to A-not-B errors, where children reach for a thing at a place where it should not be.
Studies in recent psychology also suggest that three dimensionality is not intuitive, and must be learned in infancy using an unconscious inference. (see depth perception)
Commotio cordis overview

# Overview
Commotio cordis (from Latin commotion of the heart - a functional effect of mechanical stimulation in the absence of structural damage, as opposed to myocardial contusion which involves tissue damage) is a sudden disturbance of heart rhythm observed nowadays mostly in young people during participation in sports. It occurs as the result of a blunt, non-penetrating impact to the precordial region, often caused by impact of a ball, a bat or other projectile. The impact is transmitted to the heart muscle, and depending on the precise timing in relation to the cardiac cycle, it may affect the heart's electrical activity, causing an arrhythmia, such as an ectopic beat, ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation.
Pre-existing conditions, such as undetected electrical or structural abnormalities in the heart of these individuals, have been speculated to render individuals more vulnerable, but this view is not currently corroborated by hard evidence. The phenomenon was confirmed experimentally in the 1930s, with research in anaesthetized rabbits, cats and dogs.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
Commotio cordis is a very rare event, but nonetheless is often considered when an athlete presents with sudden cardiac death. Some of the sports which have a risk for this cause of trauma are baseball, soccer, ice hockey, polo, rugby, cricket, softball, pelota, fencing, lacrosse, boxing, karate, kung fu and other martial arts. Children are especially vulnerable due to their more fragile thoracic skeleton. The USA Commotio Cordis Registry had more than 130 cases recorded by September 2001, with most of the cases occurring in Little League baseball, lacrosse and softball. The real number of cases may be much larger.

# Risk Factors
Young athletes who are involved in sports such as baseball, soccer, ice hockey, polo, rugby, cricket, softball, pelota, fencing, lacrosse, boxing, karate, kung fu and other martial arts where there is a likelihood of sustaining blow to the chest.

# Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Commotio cordis has a poor prognosis with only about a quarter of these victims surviving after immediate resuscitation.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
Fulminant death is the most common outcome, because cardiopulmonary resuscitation requires quick action by a specialized medical team, using a defibrillator and cardioactive drugs, and these are rarely on hand in sports arenas. Due to the significant danger to children (death by commotio cordis is the first cause of fatalities in youth baseball in the US, with 2 to 3 deaths per year, it has been recommended that "communities and school districts reexamine the need for accessible automatic defibrillators and cardiopulmonary resuscitation-trained coaches at organized sporting events for children."
Community Blood Services
Community Blood Services is a blood bank that collects blood donations, and offers cord blood banking and bone marrow registration and donations. Founded in 1953, Community Blood Services is a not-for-profit organization located in Paramus, New Jersey and is devoted to serving the communitys transfusion medicine needs.
Community Blood Services provides blood and blood products to 37 hospitals and medical centers in Bergen, Passaic, Morris, Essex and Hudson counties in New Jersey, as well as in New York City and Rockland and Orange counties in New York. Community Blood Services is a member of the American Association of Blood Banks and America's Blood Centers.

# Mission
To advance the quality of health care in the communities we serve by continually increasing the supply of blood and providing safe, high quality transfusion products and services

# Vision
High quality blood products to more patients

# Mission Goals
To serve patients, physicians and hospitals quality transfusion products and services.
To assure the donors safety while giving blood, using the most recent high quality methods.

# Website
Complement fixation test
The complement fixation test is an immunological medical test that can be used to detect the presence of either specific antibody or specific antigen in a patient's serum. It was widely used to diagnose infections, particularly with microbes that are not easily detected by culture methods, and in rheumatic diseases. However, in clinical diagnostics labs it has been largely superseded by other serological methods such as ELISA and by DNA-based methods of pathogen detection, particularly PCR.
The CF test uses sheep red blood cells (sRBC), pre-bound by anti-sRBC antibody, and serum (usually from rabbit) as a source of complement, which is a system of serum proteins that react with antigen-antibody complexes. If this reaction occurs on a cell surface, it will result in the formation of trans-membrane pores and therefore destruction of the cell. Accordingly, if the antibody-sensitized sRBC are brought into contact with active complement, they will undergo disintegration (hemolysis).
Complement will also react with antigen-antibody complexes in solution. The complement is thereby expended and can no longer trigger hemolysis; inhibition of complement hemolysis therefore indicates the presence of antigen-antibody complexes. A patient's serum containing a certain antibody (specific for, say, rubella virus) will yield antigen-antibody complexes after addition of the corresponding antigen (inactivated rubella virus in our example). Complement added to the mixture will be consumed, and sensitized sRBC added subsequently will not undergo hemolysis. Therefore, absence of hemolysis constitutes a positive CF test.
While detection of antibodies is the more common test format, it is equally possible to test for the presence of antigen. In this case, the patient's serum is supplemented with specific antibody to induce formation of complexes; successive addition of complement and indicator sRBC is performed as before.
The test can be made quantitative by setting up a series of dilutions of patient serum and determining the highest dilution factor that will still yield a positive CF test. This dilution factor corresponds to the titer.
Contraction (childbirth)

# Background
In medicine (obstetrics), a contraction is a forceful and painful motion of the uterus as part of the process of childbirth.  Contractions, and labor in general, is one condition that releases the hormone oxytocin into the body.
Prior to actual labor, women may experience Braxton Hicks contractions, sometimes known as "false labor."
The uterus also contracts during menstruation.  These contractions may be uncomfortable or even painful, but they are generally significantly less painful than contractions during labor.
The harder and longer the contractions, the more the women has the urge to push. The women pushes on a contraction, which, as the labour intensifies, become longer.
de:Wehe
Cordis (medical company)
Cordis  is a medical device company owned by Johnson & Johnson. The company was founded in Miami, Florida in 1959.
Their products include stents, distal protection devices, catheters, and guidewires.
They are the makers of a sirolimus-eluting stent marketed under the name Cypher.
They are also the makers of the ANGIOGUARD Embolic Protection Device. This Embolic Protection Device is used in procedures which include carotid stenting.
Coronary artery aneurysm
Synonyms and keywords: CAA, coronary artery ectasia

# Overview
Coronary artery aneurysm is an abnormal dilatation of a coronary artery segment over 1.5 times the diameter of normal adjacent segment.  An aneurysm can be classified as either saccular (wider than it is long) or fusiform (elongated).  Coronary artery aneurysm must be differentiated from coronary artery ectasia; in fact, coronary artery ectasia is a localized arterial dilatation that is graded according to the size of the dilatation in comparison to the normal artery diameter located anywhere in the culprit artery.  A coronary artery ectasia is considered as an aneurysm when the coronary artery dilatation is 1.5 times the normal artery diameter located anywhere in the culprit artery.

# Grading System
A localized arterial widening (dilatation) that usually manifests itself as a bulge. Its presence may lead to weakening of the wall and eventual rupture.

## Grade 0
None  no ectasia present.

## Grade 1
Ectasia  visual assessment of ectasia >1 & < 1.5 times the normal artery diameter located anywhere in the culprit artery.

## Grade 2
Aneurysm  visual assessment of an aneurysm > 1.5 times the normal artery diameter located anywhere in the culprit artery.
Shown below are an animated image and a static image depicting an aneurysm in the left coronary artery.  Outlined in yellow in the image on the right is the localized aneurysm which is a dilatation of the coronary artery segment >1.5 times the diameter of the adjacent segments on the LCA.

# Causes
- Atherosclerosis
- Collagen vascular diseases
- Coronary catheterization
- Kawasaki disease
- Vasculitides

# Epidemiology and Demographics
- The incidence of CAA ranges widely between 0.3-5.3% within angiographic series with a mean incidence of 1.65%. A highest incidence of 10-12% was reported in a study from India. Perhaps reflecting a specific genetic and/or environmental predisposition.
- CAA most commonly occurs in right coronary artery accounting for 40-87% followed by left anterior descending artery and left circumflex artery.
- CAA of left main artery or triple-vessel CAA are rare.

# Prognosis
Coronary artery aneurysm has a good prognosis.

# Diagnosis
It is often found coincidentally on coronary angiography.
CronkhiteCanada disease

# Overview
CronkhiteCanada disease is a rare syndrome characterised by multiple  polyps of the digestive tract. It is sporadic (i.e. it does not seem to be a hereditary disease), and it is currently considered idiopathic (i.e. cause remains unknown).

# Presentation
Polyps are most frequent in the stomach and large intestine, are also found in the small intestine, and are least frequent in the oesophagus. A biopsy will reveal them to be hamartomas; the possibility that they progress to cancer is generally considered to be low, although it has been reported multiple times in the past. Chronic diarrhoea and protein-losing enteropathy are often observed. Possible collateral features include variable anomalies of  ectodermal tissues, such as alopecia, atrophy of the nails, or skip pigmentation of the skin.
Cronkhite-Canada syndrome is a rare disease affecting mainly patients between 50-60 years of age, characterised by skin changes and gastrointestinal distrubances. Patients present with epidermal changes such as hair loss, nail loss, and hyperpigmentation. There can also be varying degrees of malabsorption, malnutrition, hematochezia, and in some cases, colorectal cancer.

# Cause
The cause of the disease is unknown. It was originally thought that the epidermal changes were secondary to profound malnutrition as a result of protein-losing enteropathy. Recent findings have called this hypothesis into question; specifically, the hair and nail changes may not improve with improved nutrition.

# Treatment
Treatments proposed include cromolyn sodium and prednisone.
Curtin-Hammett principle
In chemical kinetics, the Curtin-Hammett principle states that, for a reaction that has a pair of  reactive intermediates or reactants that interconvert rapidly (as is usually the case for conformers), each going irreversibly to a different product, the product ratio will depend only on the difference in the free energy of the transition state going to each product, and not on the equilibrium constant between the intermediates .
For example, given species A and B that equilibrate rapidly while A turns irreversibly into C, and B turns irreversibly into D:
File:Hammet.png
K is the equilibrium constant between A and B, and k1 and k2 are the rate constants for the formation of C and D, respectively. When the rate of interconversion between A and B is much faster than either k1 or k2 then the Curtin-Hammett principle tells us that the C:D product ratio will not reflect K, but the relative energy of the transition states.
The reaction coordinate free energy profile can be represented by the following scheme:
File:Hammet2.png
The ratio of products will depend only on the value labeled G in the figure: C will be the major product, because the energy of TS1 is lower than the energy of TS2. It doesn't matter whether A is more stable than B or not, or by how much. This can be understood qualitatively by thinking what would happen if the free energy of A were increased, while keeping everything else constant. On one hand, G1 would become smaller, which would make k1 larger, therefore favoring the formation of C. But on the other hand, the amount of A in equilibrium would decrease, because the change in G would increase the value of K, favoring B. These two effects cancel out, leading to the conclusion that the relative energies of A and B don't matter. This can also be proved algebraically:
The rate of formation for compound C from A is given as
and that of D from B as:
with Kc the equilibrium constant.  The ratio of the rates is then:
The product ratio can also be written as:

# Application to stereoselective reactions
The Curtin-Hammett principle is used to explain the selectivity ratios for stereoselective reactions, such as in kinetic resolution. A typical example is the following: a prochiral molecule binds to a chiral catalyst, forming a pair of diastereomeric intermediates, depending on which face of the substrate was bound to the catalyst. These intermediates equilibrate rapidly (like A and B in the diagram above), and each one then leads to a different enantiomer of the product through the rate-determining step.