Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Fries rearrangement
The Fries rearrangement, named for the German chemist Karl Theophil Fries, is a rearrangement reaction of a phenyl ester to a hydroxy aryl ketone by catalysis of lewis acids.

# Mechanism
Despite many efforts a definitive reaction mechanism for the Fries rearrangement is not available. Evidence for inter- and intramolecular mechanisms have been obtained by so-called cross-experiments with mixed reactants. Reaction progress is not dependent on solvent or substrate. A widely accepted mechanism involves a carbocation intermediate.
In the first reaction step a lewis acid for instance aluminium chloride AlCl3 co-ordinates to the carbonyl oxygen atom of the acyl group. This oxygen atom is more electron rich than the phenolic oxygen atom and is the preferred lewis base. This interaction polarizes the bond between the acyl residue and the phenolic oxygen atom and the aluminium chloride group rearranges to the phenolic oxygen atom. This generates a free acylium carbocation which reacts in a classical electrophilic aromatic substitution with the aromat. The abstracted proton is released as hydrochloric acid where the chlorine is derived from aluminium chloride. The orientation of the substitution reaction is temperature dependent. A low reaction temperature favors para substitution and with high temperatures the ortho product prevails.

# Scope
Phenols react to esters but do not react to hydroxyarylketones with acylhalogen compounds under Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction conditions and therefore this reaction is of industrial importance for the synthesis of hydroxyarylketones which are important intermediates for several pharmaceutics such as paracetamol and salbutamol. As an alternative to aluminium chloride, other Lewis acids such as boron trifluoride and bismuth triflate or strong protic acids such as hydrogen fluoride and methanesulfonic acid can also be used. In order to avoid the use of these corrosive and environmentally unfriendly catalysts altogether research into alternative heterogeneous catalysts is actively pursued.

# Limits
In all instances only esters can be used with stable acyl components that can withstand the harsh conditions of the Fries rearrangement. If the aromatic or the acyl component is heavily substituted then the chemical yield will drop due to steric constraints. Deactivating meta-directing groups on the benzene group will also have an adverse effect  as can be expected for a Friedel-Crafts acylation.

# Photo-Fries rearrangement
In addition to the ordinary thermal phenyl ester reaction a so-called photochemical Photo-Fries rearrangement exists that involves a radical reaction mechanism. This reaction is also possible with deactivating substituents on the aromatic group. Because the yields are low this procedure is confined to the laboratory.

# Anionic Fries rearrangment
In addition to Lewis acid and photo-catalysed Fries rearrangements, there also exists an anionic Fries rearrangement. In this reaction, the aryl ester undergoes ortho-metallation with a strong base, which then rearranges in a nucleophillic attack mechanism.
Fumarase deficiency

# Overview
Fumarase deficiency is an enzyme irregularity that causes severe mental retardation, unusual facial features, brain malformation, and epileptic seizures due to an abnormally low amount of fumarase in cells. The condition is congenital and is the result of receiving two defective recessive genes on the first chromosome that influence the functioning of the Krebs Cycle.

# Epidemiology
Fumarase deficiency is extremely rare. Until a few years ago scientists knew of only thirteen cases worldwide. However, recently twenty additional cases have been documented in the border towns of Colorado City, Arizona, and Hildale, Utah. These two towns constitute a closed and controlled community, and were settled in the 1930s by the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, which is a breakaway sect of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. As such, many of the surrounding communities refer to this disease as "Polygamist's Down's"
The fumarase deficiency gene has become very common in this community, due to the practice of inbreeding. It is believed that either Joseph Smith Jessop or one of the founders of the communities, or his wife carried the gene and passed it on to their descendants.
The populations of Colorado City and Hildale are examples of the founder effect.

# Dignosis

## Signs and symptoms
- Seizures
- Hepatomegaly
- Microcephaly
- Reduced level of consciousness
- Skull bossing
- Splenomegaly

## Laboratory findings
- Ammonia levels raised (blood)
- Organic aciduria
- Neutropenia
- Polycythaemia

## Associated abnormalities
- Corpus callosum hypoplasia
- Polyhydramnios
- Learning disability
Fumiichiro Yamamoto
Fumiichiro Yamamoto, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Burnham Institute for Medical Research (formerly known as La Jolla Cancer Research Foundation), La Jolla, CA
Contact: mailto:fyamamoto@burnham.org; Phone 858-646-3116
Address: Fumiichiro Yamamoto, Ph.D., BURNHAM INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037.

# Education
1978:							Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
								B.S., Biology
1983:					Osaka City University Graduate School, Osaka, Japan
Ph.D., Developmental & Cellular Biology
1983-1986:					State University of NY at Stony Brook, New York 
								Postdoc, Molecular Biology

# Employment/Experience
1986:	Research Associate, Department of Biochemistry, State University of New York at Stony Brook, NY
1987-1994:	Staff Scientist and Head, Molecular Biology Laboratory, The Biomembrane Institute, Seattle, WA
1987-1988:				Biosafety Officer, The Biomembrane Institute, Seattle, WA	 
1988-1993:	Research Assistant Professor, Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
1991-1994:				Radiation Safety Officer, The Biomembrane Institute
1992-1996:				Member of the Graduate Faculty, University of Washington
1992-1996:	Faculty in the Interdisciplinary Molecular and Cellular Biology Program (IMCBP), University of Washington
1993-1996:	Research Associate Professor, Dept. of Pathobiology, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of Washington
1995:	Staff Scientist, California Institute of Biological Research, La Jolla, CA
1995-present:	Associate Professor, Burnham Institute for Medical Research (formerly known as La Jolla Cancer Research Foundation), La Jolla, CA

# Awards
- The Jean Julliard Prize from the International Society of Blood Transfusion for his contributions on Elucidation of molecular genetic basis of histo-blood group ABO system (1992).
- Keynote Lecture Award from the Japanese Society of Blood Transfusion (1994).
- State of the Art Lecture Molecular Genetics of ABO at the ISBT meeting, Vienna, Austria (2000)
Fundamental science
Fundamental science is the part of science that describes the most basic objects, forces, relations between them and laws governing them, such that all other phenomena may be in principle derived from them, following the logic of scientific reductionism. There is a difference between fundamental or pure science and practical science; sometimes called by the two phases pure science and applied science. Pure science, in contrast to applied science, is defined as a basic knowledge it develops. Basic science is the heart of all discoveries, and progress is based on well controlled experiments. Pure science is dependent upon deductions from demonstrated truths, or is studied without regard to practical applications.

# In medicine
Pure scienes of medicine include e.g. anatomy and histology. Preclinical research is research in medical pure science, which precedes the clinical trials, and is almost purely based on theory and animal experiments.

# External articles
-  American Association for the Advancement of Science, Science. 1917. Page 645
- Henry James Clarke, The fundamental science. 1885.
Gallium trichloride
Gallium trichloride  is the chemical compound with the formula GaCl3.  Solid gallium trichloride exists as a dimer with the formula Ga2Cl6.  It is colourless and soluble in virtually all solvents, which is unusual for a metal halide.  It is the main precursor to most derivatives of gallium and a reagent in organic synthesis.
As a Lewis acid, GaCl3 is milder than aluminium trichloride.  Gallium(III) is easier to reduce than Al(III), so the chemistry of reduced gallium compounds is more extensive than for aluminium.  Ga2Cl4 is known whereas the corresponding Al2Cl4 is not.  The coordination chemistry of Ga(III) and Fe(III) are similar, and gallium(III) compounds have been used as diamagnetic analogues of ferric compounds.

# Preparation
Gallium trichloride can be prepared from the elements, heating gallium metal in a stream of chlorine, and purifying the product by sublimation under vacuum.

# Structure
The dimeric structure involving two chlorine bridging atoms with the gallium atoms essentially tetrahedrally coordinated by chlorine is surprising, as the chlorides of the two members of group 13 above and below gallium, AlCl3 and InCl3 both contain 6 coordinate metal atoms in a three dimensional structure. As a consequence of its structure where there are no significant lattice forces, gallium trichloride has the lowest melting point of all of the aluminium, gallium and indium trihalides. The formula of Ga2Cl6 is often written as Ga2(-Cl)2Cl4. In the gas phase the dimers dissociate to trigonal planar monomers.

# Complexes
Gallium is the lightest member of group 13 to have a full d shell, (gallium has the electronic configuration Ar 3d10 4s2 4p1) below the valence electrons that could take part in d- bonding with ligands. This in terms, hard and soft acid-base theory allows gallium(III) to behave as "soft" acid. The strength of the bonds between gallium halides and ligands have been extensively studied. What emerges is:
- GaCl3 is a weaker Lewis acid than AlCl3 towards N and O donors e.g. pyridine
- GaCl3 is a stronger Lewis acid than AlCl3 towards thioethers e.g. dimethylsulfide, Me2S
With a chloride ion as ligand the tetrahedral GaCl4 ion is produced, the 6 coordinate GaCl63 cannot be made. Compounds like KGa2Cl7 that have a chloride bridged anion are known
In a liquid solution of KCl and GaCl3, the following equilibrium exists:

# Use in detection of solar neutrinos
110 tons of gallium trichloride solution has been used in GALLEX experiment performed by Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy to detect solar neutrinos. In this experiment, isotope germanium-71 is produced and being measured.
Geniculate ganglion
The geniculate ganglion (from Latin genu, for "knee") is an L-shaped collection of fibers and sensory neurons of the facial nerve located in the facial canal of the head. It receives fibers from both the motor, sensory, and parasympathetic components of the facial nerve and sends fibers that will innervate the lacrimal glands, submandibular glands, sublingual glands, tongue, palate, pharynx, external auditory meatus, stapedius, posterior belly of the digastric muscle, stylohyoid muscle, and muscles of facial expression.
Sensory and parasympathetic inputs are carried into the geniculate ganglion via the nervus intermedius. Motor fibers are carried via the facial nerve proper. The greater petrosal nerve, which carries sensory fibers as well as preganglionic parasympathetic fibers, emerges from the anterior aspect of the ganglion.
The geniculate ganglion is one of several ganglia of the head and neck. Like the others, it is a bilaterally distributed structure, with each side of the face having a geniculate ganglion.

# Additional images
- Plan of the facial and intermediate nerves and their communication with other nerves.
Trigeminal ganglion

# Overview
The trigeminal ganglion (or Gasserian ganglion, or semilunar ganglion) is a sensory ganglion of the trigeminal nerve which occupies a cavity (Meckel's cave) in the dura mater covering the trigeminal impression near the apex of the petrous part of the temporal bone.

# Relations
It is somewhat crescentic in shape, with its convexity directed forward: medially, it is in relation with the internal carotid artery and the posterior part of the cavernous sinus.
The motor root runs in front of and medial to the sensory root, and passes beneath the ganglion; it leaves the skull through the foramen ovale, and, immediately below this foramen, joins the mandibular nerve.
The greater superficial petrosal nerve lies also underneath the ganglion.
The ganglion receives, on its medial side, filaments from the carotid plexus of the sympathetic.
It give off minute branches to the tentorium cerebelli, and to the dura mater in the middle fossa of the cranium.
From its convex border, which is directed forward and lateralward, three large nerves proceed, viz., the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular.
The ophthalmic and maxillary consist exclusively of sensory fibers; the mandibular is joined outside the cranium by the motor root.

# Clinical significance
After recovery from a primary herpes infection, the virus is not cleared from the body, but rather lies dormant in a non-replicating state within the trigeminal ganglion.  Thus, herpes zoster may follow from chickenpox.

# Rodent
In rodent, the trigeminal ganglion is important as it is the first part of the pathway from the whiskers to the brain.  Cell bodies of the whisker primary afferents are found here.  These afferents are mechanoreceptor cells which fire in response to whisker deflection.
There are around 26,000-43,000 cell bodies in rodent Trigeminal ganglion.  Is is possible that there are two distinct (or perhaps continuous) populations of cells having slowly and rapidly adapting responses to stimuli.
It is found at the base of the skull and projects to trigeminal brain stem areas including principalis, spinal trigeminal nucleus, interpolaris and caudalis.

# Additional images
- Base of the skull. Upper surface.
- Nerves of the orbit, and the ciliary ganglion. Side view.
- The otic ganglion and its branches.
Genetic determinism
Genetic determinism is the belief that genes determine physical and behavioral phenotypes.  The term may be applied to the mapping of a single gene to a single phenotype or to the belief that most or all phenotypes are determined mostly or exclusively by genes.  While it is well-established that most phenotypic variability is strongly influenced by genes, non-genetic mechanisms of inheritance are also known to exist.

# General information
Evidence for the genetic influence on phenotypes comes from hereditary diseases, for instance, cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia, which are caused by mutations in single genes, and Down syndrome and Klinefelter's syndrome by the abnormal duplication of a chromosome.  Genetic determinism of behavioral traits is related to the field of neuropsychology.
Definitions of genetic determinism vary.  It is usually thought of as the belief that all physical and behavioural phenotypes are determined mostly or exclusively by the genes.  This belief is sometimes attributed to biologists by the media or some in the social sciences, or attributed to proponents of evolutionary psychology, though in this sense many biologists would consider it a straw man. Although there is considerable evidence that some behavioral traits in animals and humans are influenced by genetics to some extent, there is, however, no empirical support for the hypothesis that genes act unaffected by environmental factors, and virtually no modern-day geneticists would take a strong determinist stance in this regard.
Some proponents of belief in free will charge that genetic determinism removes culpability.  With diseases such as Down Syndrome and Huntingtons there is a clear "one chromosome aberration one disease" or "one gene one disease" diagnosis.  Behavioral traits are more complex.

## Political implications of genetic determinism
As a result of believing genetic determinism, many genetic determinists support social policies that are very controversial.  Such policies deal mainly with the death and reproduction of criminals, psychopaths, and generally aggressive people.

# In Fiction
- Children of the revolution A Comedy about Stalin's son's inescapable path into rebellion and eventually a revolution of any sort.
- In the television series Andromeda, the nietzschean species was genetically programmed to be ambitious, treacherous, and brutal.
Glenn Dale Hospital
Glenn Dale Hospital was a tuberculosis sanitarium in Prince Georges County, Maryland in the United States. Although the complex is located in Maryland, it is owned by the government of Washington, D.C..  It is a large facility, consisting of 23 buildings on 210 acres, that was built in 1934 and closed in 1982 due to asbestos.  Though it is now closed and will be eventually demolished, for decades it was an important public health institution near Washington, D.C.. Park Police patrol the hospital grounds regularly. A local police officer, Howard Johnson, also resides on the premises. His most recent "busts" were three Annapolis-area teenagers at 10:10 PM on October 10th 2007.
It is said that Glenn Dale is a haunted institution and many teenagers and young adults sneak in to see if ghosts and other paranormal things actually exist. It has been confirmed by Howard Johnson that gang members from the MS13 and other gangs, have taken up residency on the premises. Also, Howard Johnson reported that there is a fugitive, wanted for assault, that they have been trying to find on the 210 acres of the hospital.
Despite popular belief, the large incinerator present on the hospital grounds was not used for the destruction of human remains. Instead, hospital waste was burned.
The hospital grounds consist of several buildings:
- Children's Nurses Home
- Children's Hospital Building
- Residence "D" Dormitory
- Building "C" Nurses Home
- Building "F" Duplex House
- Building "D" Doctor's House
- Building "G" Duplex House(Superintendent's Residence)
- Building "E" Doctor's House
- Adult Hospital Building
- Warehouse and Garage
- Heating Plant
- Sludge Bed Enclosure
- Sedimentation and Control Building
- Water Softener House
- Pump House
- Employee Building
- Laundry
- Residence "C" Dormitory
- Hot House
- Four Apartment Building No.1
- Four Apartment Building No.2
- Paint Shop
- Incinerator
The buildings are characterized by broken glass and overgrown vines. Several of the buildings also have collapsed roofs.
The children's hospital building and adult hospital building are the most widely explored structures by local trespassers. This is primarily due to their close distance to Glenn Dale Road, a local street that bisects the hospital grounds.
Both the children's and adult's buildings are connected underground by a series of underground walkways. These walkways join the basements of both buildings together. The basements of the hospital buildings are extremely dangerous. Large pieces of rusty, sharp, metal and debris hang from the ceiling. Also, the buildings contain large amounts of asbestos. Each hospital basement has its own morgue. Today, these walkways are littered with garbage, broken glass, and graffiti. In addition, parts of the walkways are flooded with nearly 3 feet of water.
Glucose intolerance
Synonyms and keywords: Glucose intolerance; impaired glucose intolerance; impaired glycemia

# Overview
Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT) is a pre-diabetic state of dysglycemia, that is associated with insulin resistance and increased risk of cardiovascular pathology. IGT may precede type 2 diabetes mellitus by many years.  IGT is also a risk factor for mortality.

# Criteria
According to the criteria of the World Health Organization and the American Diabetes Association, impaired glucose tolerance is defined as:
- two-hour glucose levels of 140 to 199 mg per dL (7.8 to 11.0 mmol) on the 75-g oral glucose tolerance test. A patient is said to be under the condition of IGT when he/she has an intermediately raised glucose level after 2 hours, but less than would qualify for type 2 diabetes mellitus. The fasting glucose may be either normal or mildly elevated.
From 10 to 15 percent of adults in the United States have one of these conditions.

## Causes

## Drug Side Efect
- Asparaginase Erwinia Chrysanthemi
- Estramustine
- Medroxyprogesterone acetate
- Megestrol
- Pegaspargase

# Treatment
The risk of progression to diabetes and development of cardiovascular disease is greater than for Impaired fasting glycaemia.
Although some drugs can delay the onset of diabetes, lifestyle modifications play a greater role in the prevention of the disease. Patients identified as having an IGT should exercise regularly and have a balanced diet removing the empty calories of sugar.
Carnitine has been shown to improve glucose uptake, regulation, and oxidation, though temporarily (i.e. only when levels are sustained in the blood).
GlycinetRNA ligase
GlycinetRNA ligase also known as glycyl-tRNA synthetase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the GARS gene.

# Function
This gene encodes glycyl-tRNA synthetase, one of the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases that charge tRNAs with their cognate amino acids. The encoded enzyme is an (alpha)2 dimer which belongs to the class II family of tRNA synthetases.

# Reaction
In enzymology, a glycine-tRNA ligase (EC 6.1.1.14) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
The 3 substrates of this enzyme are ATP, glycine, and tRNA(Gly), whereas its 3 products are AMP, diphosphate, and glycyl-tRNA(Gly).
This enzyme belongs to the family of ligases, to be specific those forming carbon-oxygen bonds in aminoacyl-tRNA and related compounds.  The systematic name of this enzyme class is glycine:tRNAGly ligase (AMP-forming). Other names in common use include glycyl-tRNA synthetase, glycyl-transfer ribonucleate synthetase, glycyl-transfer RNA synthetase, glycyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetase, and glycyl translase.  This enzyme participates in glycine, serine and threonine metabolism and aminoacyl-trna biosynthesis.

# Interactions
Glycyl-tRNA synthetase has been shown to interact with EEF1D. Mutant forms of the protein associated with peripheral nerve disease have been shown to aberrantly bind to the transmembrane receptor proteins neuropilin 1 and Trk receptors A-C.

# Clinical relevance
Glycyl-tRNA synthetase has been shown to be a target of autoantibodies in the human autoimmune diseases, polymyositis or dermatomyositis.
The peripheral nerve diseases Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2D (CMT2D) and distal spinal muscular atrophy type V (dSMA-V) have been liked to dominant mutations in GARS. CMT2D usually manifests during the teenage years, and results in muscle weakness predominantly in the hands and feet. Two mouse models of CMT2D have been used to better understand the disease, identifying that the disorder is caused by a toxic gain-of-function of the mutant glycine-tRNA ligase protein. The CMT2D mice display peripheral nerve axon degeneration  and defective development and function> of the neuromuscular junction.
Golfer's vasculitis
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# Overview
Golfer's vasculitis is a form of vasculitis (swelling of the blood vessels) experienced in the lower legs caused by excessive exercise in hotter temperatures. It is more common among older people.
It is called 'Golfer's' due to the large amount of walking done in golf, as well as it being a sport more popular among older people, resulting in greater incidence of the condition.
Great cerebral vein
The great cerebral vein is one of the large blood vessels in the skull draining the cerebrum (brain).
It also has the named after "vein of Galen" (VG), named for its discoverer, the Greek physician Galen. However, it is not the only vein with this eponym.

# Disorders
It is prone to congenital defects, such as vein of Galen aneurysmal malformations (VGAM) and vein of Galen aneurysmal dilation (VGAD).

# Additional images
- Dura mater and its processes exposed by removing part of the right half of the skull, and the brain.