Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Squamous cell papilloma
A Squamous cell papilloma is a generally benign papilloma that arises from the stratified squamous epithelium of the skin, lip, oral cavity, tongue, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, cervix, vagina or anal canal. Squamous cell papillomas are a result of infection with Human papillomavirus (HPV).

# Oral squamous cell papilloma
Squamous cell papilloma of the mouth or throat is generally diagnosed in people between the ages of 30 and 50, and is normally found on the inside of the cheek, on the tongue, or inside of lips. Oral papillomas are usually painless, and not treated unless they interfere with eating or are causing pain. They do not generally mutate to cancerous growths, nor do they normally grow or spread. Oral papillomas are most usually a result of the infection with types HPV-6 and HPV-11.

# Conjunctival squamous cell papilloma
Normally found in children or young adults, a common cause of conjunctival squamous cell papilloma is during childbirth, when the mother passes the virus to her child.

# Treatment
While most cases require no treatment, therapy options include cryotherapy, application of a topical salicylic acid compound, and surgical excision.
Stenosing tenosynovitis
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# Overview
Stenosing tenosynovitis is the progressive restriction of the sheath surrounding a tendon, causing inflammation (tenosynovitis).
Two common diagnoses fall into this category: DeQuervain's Syndrome and trigger finger. Stenosing tenosynovitis occurs more often in hand and the wrist than anywhere else in the body. When extensor pollicis brevis and the abductor pollicis longus tendons in the first dorsal compartment are affected, the condition is known as de Quervain's disease. When the long flexor tendons are involved, trigger thumb, trigger finger or snapping finger occurs. Less often, the tensor pollicis longus may be affected at the level of Lister's tubercles. Any of the other tendons that pass beneath the dorsal wrist retinaculum may also be involved.

## Texting Tenosynovitis
Texting tenosynovotis is de Quervain tenosynovitis caused by excessive use of the thumb for texting. It can be unlilateral or bilateral. The following strategies may be helpful in the treatment of texting tenosynovitis:
- Naproxen
- Cock-up wrist splints
- Decrease in texting

# Related Chapters
- Repetitive stress injury
-  Ashurst JV, Turco DA, Lieb BE (2010). "Tenosynovitis caused by texting: an emerging disease". J Am Osteopath Assoc. 110 (5): 2946. PMID 20538752.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
Steroid 11-hydroxylase
Steroid 11-hydroxylase is a steroid hydroxylase found in the zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculata. Named officially the cytochrome P450 11B1, mitochondrial, it is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CYP11B1 gene.
This gene encodes a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. The cytochrome P450 proteins are monooxygenases that catalyze many reactions involved in drug metabolism and synthesis of cholesterol, steroids and other lipids. This protein localizes to the mitochondrial inner membrane and is involved in the conversion of 11-deoxycortisol to cortisol in the adrenal cortex. Transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been noted for this gene.
It is reversibly inhibited by etomidate  and metyrapone.

# Function
It generates cortisol from 11-deoxycortisol and corticosterone from 11-deoxycorticosterone. Note the extra "OH" added at the 11 position (near the center, on ring "C"):
- 11-Deoxycortisol
11-Deoxycortisol
- Cortisol
- 11-Deoxycorticosterone
11-Deoxycorticosterone
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Corticosterone

# Mechanism of action
As a mitochondrial P450 system, P450c11 is dependent on two electron transfer proteins, adrenodoxin reductase and adrenodoxin that transfer 2 electrons from NADPH to the P450 for each monooxygenase reaction catalyzed by the enzyme. In most respects this process of electron transfer appears similar to that of P450scc system that catalyzes cholesterol side chain cleavage. Similar to P450scc the process of electrons transfer is leaky leading to superoxide production. The rate of electron leakage during metabolism depends on the functional groups of the steroid substrate.

# Regulation
The expression of the enzyme in adrenocortical cells is regulated by the trophic hormone corticotropin (ACTH).

# Clinical significance
A mutation is associated with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 11-hydroxylase deficiency.
User:Steven C. Campbell
Steven C. Campbell, MD, PhD, Professor of Surgery, Residency Program Director, Section of Urologic Oncology, Glickman Urological and Kidney Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation.
Contact Office: 216-444-5595, Fax: 216-636-0770, Email: mailto:campbes3@ccf.org
Dr. Campbell serves as Editor-In-Chief of Urology for WikiDoc.

# Education
1989:	M.D., (Honors), Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
1987:	Ph.D., Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, Thesis: Posttranslational Processing of the Core Protein of Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan
1982:	B.A. Biological Sciences (General and Special Honors), University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

# Post-Doctoral Training
7/1995  6/1996:	Urologic Oncology Fellowship, Department of Urology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY
7/1989  6/1995:	Urology Residency, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, Ohio

# Academic & Hospital Appointments
2005-present: Professor of Surgery, Residency Program Director, Section of Urological Oncology, Glickman Urological Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation
20012005: Associate Professor, Co-Director of Urologic Oncology, Department of Urology, Loyola University Medical Center and The Cardinal Bernardin Cancer Center
2001-2005: Chief of Urology Service,Hines VA Hospital, Maywood, IL
1996-2001: Assistant Professor, Department of Urology, Co-Director Division of Urological Oncology, Northwestern University Medical School and The Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center Northwestern Memorial Hospital, Chicago, IL

# Honors and Awards
2008: Best Doctors, 2008
2007: Best Reviewer Award, The Journal of Urology
2006: Best Doctors in Cleveland, 2006
2004-2006: Americas Top Doctors for Cancer
2004-2005: Americas Top Physicians
2003-2005: Best Doctors in America
2000: Elk Grove High School Alumni Achievement Award
1999-2001: Kimmel Research Scholar
1996-1998: American Foundation for Urologic Disease Research Scholar
1996: Outstanding poster in session, AUA Meeting, Orlando, Florida
1994: George and Grace Crile Traveling Fellowship Award, Cleveland Clinic Foundation
1994: Ohio Urologic Resident Essay Contest: Basic Science Category, First Place
1993: Cleveland Urologic Resident Essay Contest Category: 1st Place
1982-1989: Medical Scientist Training Program Scholarship Recipient
1978-1982: A.A. Stagg Academic/Athletic Scholarship, University of Chicago
1989: Leon O. Jacobson Award: Best Presentation in the Basic Biological Sciences: Senior Scientific Session, Pritzker School of Medicine Graduating Class
1989: Alpha Omega Alpha
1981: Phi Beta Kappa
1982: Sigma Xi
Stimulus-response model
The stimulus-response model describes a statistical unit as making a quantitative response to a quantitative stimulus administered by the researcher. The object of this kind of research is to establish a mathematical function that describes the relation f between the stimulus x and the expected value (or other measure of location) of the response Y:
The most common form assumed for such functions is linear, thus we expect to see a relationship like
Statistical theory for linear models has been well developed for more than fifty years, and a standard form of analysis called linear regression has been developed.
de:Reiz-Reaktions-Modell
Superficial palmar arch
The superficial palmar arch (superficial volar arch) is formed predominantly by the ulnar artery, with a contribution from the superficial palmar branch of the radial artery.
The arch passes across the palm in a curve with its convexity downward.
If one were to fully extend the thumb, the superficial palmar arch would lie approximately at the level of a line drawn from the distal border of the thumb across the palm.  The superficial palmar arch is more distal than the deep palmar arch.
Three common palmar digital arteries (also called ulnar metacarpal arteries) arise from the arch, proceeding down on the second, third, and fourth lumbrical muscles, respectively.  They each receive a contribution from a palmar metacarpal artery.  Near the level of the metacarpophalangeal joints, each common palmar digital artery divides into two proper palmar digital arteries.
Superior cluneal nerves
The superior clunial nerves innervate the skin of the upper part of the buttocks.  They are the terminal ends of the posterior rami of lumbar spinal nerves (L1, 2, 3).

# Clinicals
Superior Cluneal Nerve Entrapment
The medial branch of the superior cluneal nerve passes over the iliac crest through a tunnel formed by the thoracolumbar fascia and the superior rim of the iliac crest.  This branch of the superior cluneal nerve may become restricted in its osteofibrous tunnel against the iliac crest, just as osteofibrous tunnels affect other nerves, such as in carpal tunnel syndrome.  Active release is a common treatment.

# Additional images
- Diagram of the distribution of the cutaneous branches of the posterior divisions of the spinal nerves.
- Areas of distribution of the cutaneous branches of the posterior divisions of the spinal nerves.
Superior gluteal artery
The superior gluteal artery (gluteal artery)  is the largest branch of the internal iliac artery, and appears to be the continuation of the posterior division of that vessel.
It is a short artery which runs backward between the lumbosacral trunk and the first sacral nerve, and, passing out of the pelvis above the upper border of the Piriformis, immediately divides into a superficial and a deep branch.
Within the pelvis it gives off a few branches to the Iliacus, Piriformis, and Obturator internus, and just previous to quitting that cavity, a nutrient artery which enters the ilium.

# Superficial branch
The superficial branch enters the deep surface of the Glutus maximus, and divides into numerous branches, some of which supply the muscle and anastomose with the inferior gluteal, while others perforate its tendinous origin, and supply the integument covering the posterior surface of the sacrum, anastomosing with the posterior branches of the lateral sacral arteries.

# Deep branch
The deep branch lies under the Glutus medius and almost immediately subdivides into two.
Of these, the superior division, continuing the original course of the vessel, passes along the upper border of the Glutus minimus to the anterior superior spine of the ilium, anastomosing with the deep iliac circumflex artery and the ascending branch of the lateral femoral circumflex artery.
The inferior division crosses the Glutus minimus obliquely to the greater trochanter, distributing branches to the Gluti and anastomoses with the lateral femoral circumflex artery.
Some branches pierce the Glutus minimus and supply the hip-joint.
Superior sagittal sinus
The superior sagittal sinus (also known as the superior longitudinal sinus) occupies the attached or convex margin of the falx cerebri.
Commencing at the foramen cecum, through which it receives a vein from the nasal cavity, it runs from anterior to posterior, grooving the inner surface of the frontal, the adjacent margins of the two parietals, and the superior division of the cruciate eminence of the occipital; near the internal occipital protuberance it deviates to one or other side (usually the right), and is continued as the corresponding transverse sinus.
It is triangular in section, narrow in front, and gradually increases in size as it passes backward.
Its inner surface presents the openings of the superior cerebral veins, which run, for the most part, obliquely forward, and open chiefly at the back part of the sinus, their orifices being concealed by fibrous folds; numerous fibrous bands (chord Willisii) extend transversely across the inferior angle of the sinus; and, lastly, small openings communicate with irregularly shaped venous spaces (venous lacun) in the dura mater near the sinus.
There are usually three lacun on either side of the sinus: a small frontal, a large parietal, and an occipital, intermediate in size between the other two.
Most of the cerebral veins from the outer surface of the hemisphere open into these lacun, and numerous arachnoid granulations (Pacchionian bodies) project into them from below.
The superior sagittal sinus receives the superior cerebral veins, veins from the diploe and dura mater, and, near the posterior extremity of the sagittal suture, veins from the pericranium, which pass through the parietal foramina.

# Additional images
- Left parietal bone. Inner surface.
- Frontal bone. Inner surface.
- Base of the skull. Upper surface.
- Diagrammatic representation of a section across the top of the skull, showing the membranes of the brain, etc.
- Diagrammatic section of scalp.
Superior petrosal sinus
The superior petrosal sinus, small and narrow, connects the cavernous with the transverse sinus.
It runs lateralward and backward, from the posterior end of the cavernous sinus, over the trigeminal nerve, and lies in the attached margin of the tentorium cerebelli and in the superior petrosal sulcus of the temporal bone; it joins the transverse sinus where the latter curves downward on the inner surface of the mastoid part of the temporal.
It receives some cerebellar and inferior cerebral veins, and veins from the tympanic cavity.

# Additional images
- Left temporal bone. Inner surface.
- Base of the skull. Upper surface.
- Sagittal section of the skull, showing the sinuses of the dura.
- Tentorium cerebelli from above.
Superior thyroid artery

# Course
The superior thyroid artery arises from the external carotid artery just below the level of the greater cornu of the hyoid bone and ends in the thyroid gland.

# Relations
From its origin under the anterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus it runs upward and forward for a short distance in the carotid triangle, where it is covered by the skin, Platysma, and fascia; it then arches downward beneath the Omohyoideus, Sternohyoideus, and Sternothyreoideus.
To its medial side are the Constrictor pharyngis inferior and the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve.

# Branches
It distributes twigs to the adjacent muscles, and numerous branches to the thyroid gland, anastomosing with its fellow of the opposite side, and with the inferior thyroid arteries.
The branches to the gland are generally two in number; one, the larger, supplies principally the anterior surface; on the isthmus of the gland it anastomoses with the corresponding artery of the opposite side: a second branch descends on the posterior surface of the gland and anastomoses with the inferior thyroid artery.
Besides the arteries distributed to the muscles and to the thyroid gland, the branches of the superior thyroid are:
- Hyoid (infrahyoid) artery
- Sternocleidomastoid artery
- Superior laryngeal artery
- Cricothyroid artery

## Hyoid (infrahyoid) branch
The Hyoid Branch (ramus hyoideus; infrahyoid branch) is small and runs along the lower border of the hyoid bone beneath the Thyreohyoideus and anastomoses with the vessel of the opposite side.

## Sternocleidomastoid branch
The Sternocleidomastoid branch (ramus sternocleidomastoideus; sternomastoid branch) runs downward and lateralward across the sheath of the common carotid artery, and supplies the Sternocleidomastoideus and neighboring muscles and integument; it frequently arises as a separate branch from the external carotid.

## Superior laryngeal artery
The superior laryngeal artery, larger than either of the preceding, accompanies the internal laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, beneath the Thyreohyoideus

## Cricothyroid branch
The Cricothyroid Branch (ramus cricothyreoideus) is small and runs transversely across the cricothyroid membrane, communicating with the artery of the opposite side.
Superior vesical artery
The superior vesical artery supplies numerous branches to the upper part of the bladder.
From one of these a slender vessel, the artery to the ductus deferens, takes origin and accompanies the duct in its course to the testis, where it anastomoses with the internal spermatic artery.
Other branches supply the ureter.
The first part of the superior vesical artery represents the terminal section of the previous portion of the umbilical artery (fetal hypogastric artery).
Supernumerary body part
Supernumerary body parts are most commonly a congenital disorder involving the growth of an additional part of the body and a deviation from the body plan.  Body parts may be easily visible or hidden away, such as internal organs.
Many additional body parts form by the same process as conjoined twins: the zygote begins to split but fails to completely separate. This condition may also be a symptom of repeated occurrences of continuous inbreeding in a genetic line.

# Specific types of occurrence
Specific types of additional body parts include:
- Accessory breast  one or more additional breasts
- Cervical rib  an additional rib
- Diphallia - Having two penises.
- Hermaphroditism  having both sex organs
- Hyperdontia  additional teeth
- Polycephaly  an extra head
- Polydactyly  additional fingers or toes
- Polymelia  an extra arm or leg.
- Polyorchidism  having three or more testicles
- Supernumerary kidney  a third kidney
- Supernumerary nipples  an additional nipple
- Syndactyly  webbing between the fingers or toes
- Uterine Didelphys  (also Uterine Septum) have two vaginal canals and/or uteri

# Related conditions and concepts
Vestigial structures are anatomical structures of organisms in a species which are considered to have lost much or all of their original function through evolution.  These body parts can be classed as additional to the required functioning of the body.  In human anatomy the vermiform appendix is sometimes classed as a vestigial remnant.
Prosthesis is an artificial extension that replaces a body part, and cybernetics is the study of computer technology in relation to organisms which can include replacement or additional body parts.
Body integrity identity disorder (BIID) is a psychiatric disorder in which a person thinks that they have one or more additional limbs than they should, despite having two arms and two legs.  People with this condition often wish to amputate what they see as additional body parts.
A phantom limb is the sensation that a missing limb is still attached to the body.
In zoology a chimera is an animal that has two or more different populations of genetically distinct cells that originated in different zygotes; they do not have additional body parts but do have different sets of chromosomes within one body.

# Popular culture
Additional body parts can be used to represent monsters, mutants and aliens.  In many cases these "additional body parts" may be normal for the species but are only viewed as additional when compared to humans.

# Mythology
In Hindu mythology additional limbs and heads are considered a sign of power.
In Greek mythology, Artemis, the goddess of fertility, was sometimes represented as having numerous breasts.  This was particularly notable in the cult of Artemis (Diana) celebrated in the ancient city of Ephesus, in modern Turkey.
Swimmer's itch overview

# Overview
Swimmers itch is a short-term, immune reaction occurring in the skin of humans that have been infected by water-borne trematode parasites. Symptoms, which include itchy, raised papules, commonly occur within hours of infection and do not generally last more than a week.

# Historical Perspective
Since it was first described in Michigan in 1928, swimmer's itch has been reported from around the world.

# Causes
The  genera most commonly associated with swimmers itch in humans are Trichobilharzia and Gigantobilharzia. Trematodes in these groups normally complete their life cycles in birds. However, swimmers itch can also be caused by schistosome parasites of non-avian vertebrates, such as Schistosomatium douthitti, which infects snails and  rodents. Other  taxa reported to cause the reaction include Bilharziella polonica and Schistosoma bovis.

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
Most cases are caused by parasites that use waterfowl as the vertebrate host. These avian schistosomes cannot complete their  life cycles in mammals, but can  accidentally infect humans, giving rise to mildly itchy spots on the skin. Within hours, these spots become raised papules that are more intensely itchy. The papules are caused by localized inflammatory immune reactions, each corresponding to the penetration site of a single parasite, which dies in the skin within hours.

# Treatment

## Medical Therapy
Orally adiministered hydroxyzine, an antihistamine, is sometimes prescribed to treat swimmer's itch and similar dermal allergic reactions.