Persius/hicric huggingface dataset:
Collagen, type VI, alpha 3
Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain is a protein that in humans is encoded by the COL6A3 gene. This protein is an alpha chain of type VI collagen that aids in microfibril formation. As part of type VI collagen, this protein has been implicated in Bethlem myopathy,  Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy (UCMD), and other diseases related to muscle and connective tissue.

# Structure
This gene encodes the alpha 3 chain, one of the three alpha chains of type VI collagen, a beaded filament collagen found in most connective tissues. The alpha 3 chain of type VI collagen is much larger than the alpha 1 and 2 chains. This difference in size is largely due to an increase in the number of subdomains, similar to von Willebrand Factor type A domains, found in the amino terminal globular domain of all the alpha chains. In addition to the full length transcript, four transcript variants have been identified that encode proteins with N-terminal globular domains of varying sizes.

# Function
The  alpha 3 type VI chain has been shown to bind extracellular matrix proteins, an interaction that explains the importance of this collagen in organizing matrix components. Microfibril formation has been traced to interactions between its N-terminal subdomain N5 and its C-terminal C5 domain in adjacent type VI collagen monomers.

# Clinical Significance
Mutations in the type VI collagen genes are associated with Bethlem myopathy and  Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy (UCMD). Typically, both Bethlem myopathy and autosomal recessive UCMD patients are heterozygous for mutations in the three type VI collagen alpha chains, but only the former exhibit symptoms. Of the three alpha chains, COL6A3 mutations contribute to only 18% of the Bethlem myopathy and UCMD cases. A study on UCMD mutations by Zhang et al found only one non-pathogenic mutation in COL6A3. Nonetheless, knockdown of mutant COL6A3 in patient fibroblast cells using siRNA has successfully improved cellular deposition of type VI collagen in autosomal dominant UCMD, and may become a promising treatment for it.
Though high expression levels of COL6A3 have been correlated with obesity and diabetes in mice, this relationship was not observed in humans.
Other disorders involving muscle and connective tissue include weakness, joint laxity and contractures, and abnormal skin.
Collagen, type XI, alpha 1
Collagen alpha-1(XI) chain is a protein that in humans is encoded by the COL11A1 gene.

# Function
The COL11A1 gene encodes one of the two alpha chains of type XI collagen, a minor fibrillar collagen. Type XI collagen is a heterotrimer but the third alpha chain is a post-translationally modified alpha 1 type II chain. Three transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been identified for this gene.

# Clinical significance
Mutations in this gene are associated with type II Stickler syndrome and with Marshall syndrome.
Stickler syndrome, type II is an autosomal dominant condition caused by a mutation in the COL11A1 gene. Features of Stickler syndrome type II include: sensorineural hearing loss, facial features (flat facial profile, anteverted nares, micrognathia), cleft palate, visual disturbances (type 2 vitreous anomaly, childhood-onset myopia, glaucoma, cataracts and retinal detachment), spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia, and arthropathy.
Compartmentsyndrome Causes

# Overview
Any internal or external event that increases pressure within a compartment can cause compartment syndrome. Thus, increased fluid content or decreased compartment size can lead to the condition.

# Causes
Increased fluid content can be caused by the following :
- Hemorrhage (commonly due to the Fractures or gunshot wounds. specifically from a large vessel injury)
- Surgery
- Intensive muscle use (eg, tetany, vigorous exercise, seizures)
- Everyday exercise activities (eg, stationary bicycle use, horseback riding)
- Burns
- Envenomation
- Decreased serum osmolarity (eg, nephrotic syndrome)
- Postischemic swelling
- Drug/alcohol abuse and coma
- Rhabdomyolysis
- Gastrocnemius or peroneus muscle tear (lower extremity)
- Ruptured Baker cyst
- Influenza myositis
- Autoimmune vasculitis
- Androgen abuse/muscle hypertrophy
- Deep venous thrombosis
- hemorrhage (due to the Fractures or gunshot wounds)
- Upper extremity fractures

## Iatrogenic causes
Iatrogenic causes of compartment syndrome include the following:
- Military antishock trousers
- Tight splints, casts, dressings
- Lithotomy position (lower extremity cases)
- Malfunctioning sequential compression devices
- Intramuscular, intra-arterial, or intracompartmental injection
- Intraosseous infusion
- Massive hypertonic IV fluid infusion
- Pressurized intravenous (IV) infusion of parenteral hypertonic contrast agent
- Attempts at cannulating veins and arteries of the arm in patients on systemic anticoagulants or patients treated with thrombolytic drugs
- Intraoperative use of a pressurized pulsatile irrigation system
- Use of a pump for infusion of fluids into the joint during an arthroscopic procedure
- Chemotherapy drugs
Coronary artery tortuosity
Synonyms and keywords: Serpentine coronary artery

# Overview
Coronary tortuosity (CT) is a common finding in coronary angiography settings.  Although the unclear clinical importance of this phenomenon, the importance of CT comes from the possibility of reducing the coronary blood supply, through the reduced coronary perfusion pressure distal to the tortuous point of the coronary artery, as a result to this kinking and tortuosity, which may lead to ischemia.

# Definition
Although coronary artery tortuosity still has unclear fixed definition, some authors describe this phenomenon as a fixed 3 bends during both systole and diastole, in at least a single epicardial artery, with each bend 45 change in the vessel direction.  On the other hand, severe CT is described as a two following 180turns of a major epicardial artery.

# Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of coronary artery tortuosity is still unclear, and it is believed to be a result of an arterial remodeling due to elastin degeneration in the arterial wall.  Elastin degeneration may occur with age, atherosclerosis, hypertension, aneurysms, ectasias, and diabetes mellitus.
CT can result from a congenital defect as well, and called arterial tortuosity syndrome, which is an autosomal recessive connective tissue condition, and characterized by generalised tortuosity and elongation of all major arteries, associated with hyperextensible skin and hypermobility of joints, and may involve other organs.

# Diagnosis

## Coronary Angiography
A highly curved or tortuous vessel segment may result in substantial foreshortening of the artery. The length of the stenosis should therefore be assessed in the most unforeshortened projection so that the appropriate length of stents and balloons can be selected.

# Clinical Significance
The presence of severe vessel tortuosity and  eccentric angulated lesions have been identified as a significant predictors of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) failure, as well as worse clinical outcomes.  In general, high procedural success (>85%) and low complication rates (60 degrees is associated with an increased risk of failure.
Challenges in the treatment of angulated lesions and lesions in tortuous segments includes:
- Difficulty in delivering the interventional equipment
- Increased risk of vessel dissection
- Increased risk of vessel perforation.
The degree of angulation at bifurcation lesions, which is a possible independent predictor of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) outcome, can be assessed with three-dimensional quantitative coronary angiography. The feasibility of this analysis is currently being investigated.
Furthermore, it is suggested that PCI affects the distal bifurcation angle (between the LAD and LCx). Both the proximal (between the left main and circumflex branch of left coronary artery) and distal bifurcation angles are affected by motion during the cardiac cycle.

# PCI in the Angulated or Tortuous Lesion
Coronary artery ulceration

# Overview
An ulcerated lesion is defined as a cavity in the vessel wall with disruption of the intima and flow observed within the plaque cavity.  Coronary artery ulceration is assessed visually using a well defined grading system.  Grade 0 corresponds to no angiographic evidence of ulceration, grade 1 ulceration is present when the lesion contains a neck with contrast material dissecting under the plaque either proximally or distally, and grade 2 ulceration is present when there is distinct extravascular extravasation of contrast material with the appearance of a mushroom.

# Examples

## Grade 0
Grade 0: No angiographic evidence of ulceration
Shown below are an animated image and a static image depicting a normal RCA with no evidence of ulceration.

## Grade 1
Grade 1: The lesion contains a neck with contrast material dissecting under the plaque either proximally or distally.

## Grade 2
Grade 2: Distinct extravascular extravasation of contrast material with the appearance of a mushroom
Shown below are an animated image and a static image depicting grade 2 ulcerated lesion.  Encircled in yellow in the image on the right is the ulcerated lesion which has a "mushroom" appearance.
Coronary artery dual ostia
Synonyms and keywords: Separate ostia

# Overview
In cases of dual ostia, the left anterior descending artery (LAD) and left circumflex artery (LCx) arise from separate but adjacent ostia in the left sinus of Valsalva.  This anomaly is considered as one of the most common benign anatomic variants of the coronary system.

# Dual Ostia
The length of the left main coronary artery may vary from 1 mm to 10 mm.  Occasionally, the left anterior descending artery (LAD) and left circumflex artery (LCx) may have separate openings in the left sinus of Valsalva.  The anomaly generally does not cause hemodynamic alterations and the vessels are otherwise normal regarding to the territory they supply.

# Epidemiology and Demographics
Dual ostia is reported to account for about 0.4% of the cases in a review and is considered as the most common benign coronary anomalies.  This anomaly is found with increased incidence in the left-dominant coronary system as well as in aortic valve diseases.

# Angiographic Considerations
Angiographically, it may be difficult to determine whether the left main coronary artery is short or absent and a LAO caudal projection is usually obtained to provide optimal view to make the distinction.  In cases of dual ostia, LAD generally has a more anterior and superior trajectory and selective engagement with the Judkins left (JL) catheter may be achieved by counterclockwise manipulations.  The opposite maneuver can be used for selective cannulation of the LCx.

# Additional Images
LAD = Left anterior descending artery; LCx = Left circumflex artery
Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia
Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia (also known as CDD or lionitis) is an extremely rare autosomal recessive bone disorder that causes calcium to build up in the skull, disfiguring the facial features and reducing life expectancy.  The calcium deposits decrease the size of cranial foramina, and can also decrease the hole in the cervical spinal canal. In the few cases recorded, most of the sufferers died in childhood. Among the medical signs are dacryocystitis, seizures, mental retardation, and paralysis, each of which is a complication resulting from the diminutive foramina.
Peter Bogdanovich's 1985 film Mask drew public attention to the case of Roy L. "Rocky" Dennis, an American boy who died of the disorder in 1978.
In the American medical television series comedy-drama Grey's Anatomy episode "Yesterday", a teenage boy is depicted with lionitis.

# Diagnosis
Among the medical signs are dacryocystitis, seizures, intellectual disability, and paralysis, each of which is a complication resulting from the diminutive foramina.  A common sign reported as a result of the disease has been a difference of the size of the eyes.
File:Autorecessive.svg

# Depiction
Peter Bogdanovich's 1985 drama film Mask drew public attention to the case of Roy L. "Rocky" Dennis, an American boy who died of the disorder in 1978.
In the American medical drama Grey's Anatomy episode "Yesterday", a teenage boy is depicted with lionitis.
The main character of the two-issue comic book miniseries Friday the 13th: How I Spent My Summer Vacation by Wildstorm is a 13-year-old boy suffering from the disorder (with its effects and name being stated).
Critical relative humidity
The critical relative humidity (CRH) of a salt is defined as the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere (at a certain temperature) at which the material begins to absorb moisture from the atmosphere and below which it will not absorb atmospheric moisture.
When the humidity of the atmosphere is equal to (or is greater than) the critical relative humidity of a sample of salt, the sample will take up water until all of the salt is dissolved to yield a saturated solution. All water-soluble salts and mixtures have characteristic critical humidities; it is a unique material property.
The critical relative humidity of most salts decreases with increasing temperature. For instance, the critical relative humidity of ammonium nitrate decreases 22% with a temperature from 0C to 40C (32F to 104F).
The critical relative humidity of several fertilizer salts is given in table 1:
Table 1: Critical relative humidities of pure salts at 30C.
Mixtures of salts usually have lower critical humidities than either of the constituents. Table 2 shows CRH data for two-component mixtures:
Table 2: Critical relative humidities of mixtures of salts at 30C (values are percent relative humidity).
As shown, the effect of salt mixing is most dramatic in the case of ammonium nitrate with urea. This mixture has an extremely low critical relative humidity and can therefore only be used in liquid fertilisers (so called UAN-solutions).
Cystic Fibrosis Foundation
The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation (CFF) is a non-profit organization in the United States established to provide the means to cure and control cystic fibrosis. The Foundation provides information about cystic fibrosis (CF) and finances CF research that aims to improve the quality of life for people with the disease. The Foundation also engages in legislative lobbying for cystic fibrosis.

# History
The Foundation was established in 1955 by a group of volunteers in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In addition to providing grants for research into cystic fibrosis and supporting clinical trials, the foundation promotes and accredits 115 specialized centers for treatment of individuals with cystic fibrosis. The Foundation has over 80 chapters and offices across the US.
In 1989, scientists working for the Foundation discovered the gene that causes cystic fibrosis, considering the key to developing a cure for CF.
The Foundation has been a pioneer of CF treatment, having played a major role in the development and use of four FDA-approved therapies.

# 65 Roses
In the United States, the Foundation has popularized the usage of the registered trademark 65 Roses as an alternative to the sometimes more difficult to pronounce term cystic fibrosis. According to Foundation folklore, the term 65 Roses came into being after a Foundation volunteer, Mary Weiss, heard it from her four year old son, Richard Weiss, in 1965. The term 65 Roses is used by children to describe their disease and has been intertwined with the Foundation, which uses a rose as a symbol of the Foundation.
D-amino acid dehydrogenase

# Overview
D-amino-acid dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.99.1) is a bacterial enzyme that catalyses the oxidation of D-amino acids into their corresponding oxoacids. It contains both flavin and nonheme iron as cofactors. The enzyme has a very broad specificity and can act on most D-amino acids.
D-amino acid + H2O + acceptor  a 2-oxo acid + NH3 + reduced acceptor
This reaction is distinct from the oxidation reaction catalysed by D-amino acid oxidase that uses oxygen as a second substrate, as the dehydrogenase can use many different compounds as electron acceptors, with the physiological substrate being coenzyme Q.
Dietary inflammatory index

# Overview
The Dietary inflammatory index (DII) was developed in 2009 to measure the role of inflammation induced by diet and cardiovascular disease. The rationale was based on the association between inflammatory states and cardiovascular disease.

# Dietary Inflammatory Index
The components of the Index are listed at / with larger scores indicating greater anti-inflammatory effects of foods.
The Index has also been scored for populations.

# Association with diseases
The index was associated with cardiovascular disease in the PREDIMED study.
The DII was found to be associated with colorectal cancer in two observational studies, although the significant was only significant in men in one study.
Nucleic acid hybridization

# Overview
Hybridization is the process, discovered by Alexander Rich, of combining complementary, single-stranded nucleic acids into a single molecule.  Nucleotides will bind to their complement under normal conditions, so two perfectly complementary strands will bind to each other readily. This is called annealing. However, due to the different molecular geometries of the nucleotides, a single inconsistency between the two strands will make binding between them more energetically unfavorable. Measuring the effects of base incompatibility by quantifying the rate at which two strands anneal can provide information as to the similarity in base sequence between the two strands being annealed. Annealing may be reversed by heating the double stranded molecule of DNA (or RNA or DNA:RNA) to break the hydrogen bonds between bases and separate the two strands. This is called melting or denaturation.

# Experimental Procedure
- The double-stranded DNA helix is heated in solution, usually buffered for pH.
- Due to external conditions, the hydrogen-bonded base pairing becomes thermodynamically unfavorable and the complementary strands separate.
- One set of denatured DNA is then mixed with another set of denatured DNA.
- The combined sets are then cooled slowly to allow the DNA to reanneal and form a new "hybridized" DNA molecule.
By analyzing the rate at which different sets of denatured DNA reannealed, the relative differences and similarities between species or between individuals within a species can be mapped and compared based on a DNA Difference Score.

# Southern and Northern blotting
There exist two kinds of nucleic acid hybridization. Both are methods in which radioactive labeled single DNA strands of known base sequences are used as a probe to detect the nucleotide sequence of another single stranded DNA or RNA molecule.
The first one is widely used for detection of specific genes in cellular DNA. It was developed by E.M. Southern and is called Southern Blotting. The DNA is digested with a restriction enzyme and the fragments are separated by electrophoresis. The gel is then overlaid with a nitrocellulose filter, to which the DNA fragments are transferred (blotting) to yield a replica of the gel. Following, the filter is incubated with a radiolabeled probe, which hybridizes to the complementary strand. This fragment is then visualized by exposure of the filter to X-ray film.
The second method is called northern blotting, it is used to identify the base pair sequence of RNA. RNA is extracted and fractionated according to size by electrophoresis. Then the procedure is the same as in Southern Blotting. Northern blotting is frequently used in studies of gene expression (e.g. whether specific mRNA is present in different types of cells).
DURACLON drug interactions

# Drug Interactions
Clonidine may potentiate the CNS-depressive effect of alcohol, barbiturates or other sedating drugs. Narcotic analgesics may potentiate the hypotensive effects of clonidine. Tricyclic anti-depressants may antagonize the hypotensive effects of clonidine. The effects of tricyclic anti-depressants on clonidines analgesic actions are not known.
Beta-blockers may exacerbate the hypertensive response seen with clonidine withdrawal. Also, due to the potential for additive effects such as bradycardia and AV block, caution is warranted in patients receiving clonidine with agents known to affect sinus node function or AV nodal conduction, e.g., digitalis, calcium channel blockers, and beta-blockers.
There is one reported case of a patient with acute delirium associated with the simultaneous use of fluphenazine and oral clonidine. Symptoms resolved when clonidine was withdrawn and recurred when the patient was rechallenged with clonidine.
Epidural clonidine may prolong the duration of pharmacologic effects of epidural local anesthetics, including both sensory and motor blockade.
Hemiparesis and Hemiplegia

# Overview
Hemiplegia refers to a complete lack of motor function. Hemiparesis refers to decreased motor function. Both are usually a result of a problem with the brain

# Causes
In alphabetical order.  
- Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
- Brain tumors
- Brown-Sequard Syndrome
- Cerebral abscess
- Cerebral Palsy
- Chronic subdural hematoma
- Complicated Migraine
- Congenital structural anomalies
- Demyelinating syndrome
- Guillain-Barre Syndrome
- Inflammatory conditions
- Intracerebral hemorrhage
- Meningitis
- Multiple Sclerosis
- Periodic paralysis
- Psychogenic or hysterical weakness
- Reversible ischemic neurologic deficits (RINDs) last 24-72 hours
- Syphilis
- Thromoboembolic infarction
- Todd's Paralysis
- Transient ischemic attacks
- Transverse Myelitis
- Trauma

# Diagnosis

## History and Symptoms
- Onset
- Past history
- Associated symptoms/findings
- Pattern of weakness

# Laboratory Findings
- Complete blood count (CBC)
- Prothrombin time / partial thromboplastin time (PT / PTT)
- Glucose
- Calcium
- Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) / creatinine

## Electrolyte and Biomarker Studies
- Electrolytes

## MRI and CT
- Both MRI and CT scans are the diagnostic tool of choice

## Other Diagnostic Studies
- Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) anaylsis is useful for patients suspected of having multiple sclerosis

# Treatment
- Identifying and treating the underlying cause are the best ways to manage hemiplegia and hemiparesis
- Physical therapy
- Occupational therapy
- Orthotics
- Management of blood pressure and blood sugar (cerebral infarction)

# Pharmacotherapy

## Acute Pharmacotherapies
- Thrombolytics (cerebral infarction)
- Steroids (multiple sclerosis)

# Surgery and Device Based Therapy
- Assistive devices for general measures
- Surgical management for mass lesions affecting the brain
Deep branch of ulnar nerve
The deep branch of the ulnar nerve, accompanied by the deep branch of the ulnar artery, passes between the abductor digiti minimi and the flexor digiti minimi brevis.
It then perforates the opponens digiti minimi and follows the course of the deep palmar arch beneath the flexor tendons.
At its origin it supplies the hypothenar muscles.
As it crosses the deep part of the hand, it supplies all the interosseous muscles and the third and fourth lumbricals.
It ends by supplying the adductor pollicis and the medial head of the flexor pollicis brevis.
It also sends articular filaments to the wrist-joint.
Dehydroemetine precautions

# Precautions
Dehydroemetine should only be considered as a last resort in patients with preexisting cardiac, renal or neuromuscular disease.
It should always be administered in a hospital setting.
Heart rate and blood pressure should be carefully monitored and treatment should be stopped immediately if tachycardia, severe hypotension or electrocardiographic changes develop.
Weakness and muscular pain frequently precede more serious toxic effects and serve as a warning to reduce dosage.