[ {"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1941, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed\n [Illustration: {DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR \u00b7 March 3, 1949}]\n UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR\n Douglas McKay, _Secretary_\n NATIONAL PARK SERVICE\n Conrad L. Wirth, _Director_\n _HISTORICAL HANDBOOK NUMBER SEVENTEEN_\n This publication is one of a series of handbooks describing the\n historical and archeological areas in the National Park System\n administered by the National Park Service of the United States\n Department of the Interior. It is printed by the Government Printing\n Office, and may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents,\n Washington 25, D. C. Price 25 cents\n National Historical Park, Philadelphia, Pa.\n [Illustration: {Liberty Bell}]\n NATIONAL PARK SERVICE HISTORICAL HANDBOOK SERIES No. 17\n_The National Park System, of which Independence National Historical\nPark is a unit, is dedicated to the conservation of America\u2019s scenic,\nscientific, and historic heritage for the benefit and enjoyment of the\npeople._\n [Illustration: {NATIONAL PARK SERVICE \u00b7 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR}]\n TWO CENTURIES OF INDEPENDENCE HALL 7\n [Illustration: _Independence Hall._ Photo by R. G. Magill.]\n \u201c_The United States was created in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776, when\n the Continental Congress voted the final form of the Declaration of\n Independence. The United States was perpetuated on September 17, 1787,\n when the Federal Convention completed its work on the Constitution and\n referred it, through Congress, to the individual states for\n ratification. Both these great decisions were made in the same chamber\n in what is now called Independence Hall, but was then the Pennsylvania\n State House. It would still be merely the old State House if\n independence had not been achieved and if the Constitution had not\n been ratified and put into effect. The noble building, so venerable to\n later ages, might not even have survived, but might have been swept\n away in the surging growth of a modern city. In that case, a few\n students of history would sometimes remember the site as the stage of\n those lost causes. Instead, Pennsylvania\u2019s State House has become\n Independence Hall for the entire United States. Nor is that all. On\n account of the Declaration of Independence, it is a shrine honored\n wherever the rights of men are honored. On account of the\n Constitution, it is a shrine cherished wherever the principles of\n self-government on a federal scale are cherished._\u201d\u2014Carl van Doren.\n _The Provincial State House_\nIndependence Hall was originally the State House of Pennsylvania. For a\nhalf century after the establishment of the Province, the government had\nno official building. The Assembly, a small legislative body, was\ncompelled to meet in private dwellings rented annually for the purpose\nor in the old City Hall at Second and High (now Market) Streets.\nIn order to meet the needs of the Province, funds were appropriated for\nthe construction of the State House in 1729. At the same time a\ncommittee, consisting of Speaker of the Assembly Andrew Hamilton,\nAssemblyman Dr. John Kearsley, and Councilman Thomas Lawrence, was named\nto supervise the job. Strong disagreement arose between Hamilton and\nKearsley, with each supporting a different location and plan. This\ndisagreement delayed actually beginning work on the building until 1732.\nIn that year the Assembly approved the plan Hamilton advocated and\nselected the south side of Chestnut Street between Fifth and Sixth\nStreets as the site. This was then on the outskirts of the city.\nIn the 1730\u2019s, Philadelphia had a population of almost 11,500 people.\nOnly Boston, with 13,000, was larger; while New York was third, with\n8,500. The area of what was to become Independence Square contained only\na few small houses. The uneven ground was covered on the north with\nwhortleberry bushes; to the south, across Walnut Street, stood a peach\norchard.\nIt is apparent that the plans from which the State House was constructed\nwere drawn by Edmund Woolley, master carpenter, who was also the\nprincipal builder under the direction of Andrew Hamilton. To these two\nmen go the major credit for the design and erection of one of the most\nbeautiful administrative buildings of the Colonial period.\nBuilding the State House was a slow process. The Assembly was not able\nto meet in the new building until September 1735. Even at that time the\nwalls had not been paneled, nor had all of the window panes been\ninstalled. Difficulties of various kinds, especially the scarcity of\nskilled workmen, kept the building in an unfinished state. Finally, in\nthe summer of 1741, the impatient Assembly ordered that the walls and\nwindows of their chamber be finished at once and the remainder of the\nbuilding completed without undue delay. Despite this order, plans for\ncompleting the Supreme Court chamber were not submitted until November\n1743. The Council Chamber on the upper floor was not ready for occupancy\nuntil February 1748. It appears probable that the building was completed\nabout this date.\nDuring construction of the State House the old custom of \u201craising\nfeasts\u201d was followed. When the main timbers in a building were raised, a\nsumptuous feast was given for the workmen in celebration of the event.\nAs the building of the State House progressed, there were a number of\nsuch feasts, the cost of them borne by the Provincial government.\nShortly after the construction of the State House was started, the\nAssembly ordered that office buildings be erected as wings to the main\nbuilding, for the safekeeping of the public papers of the Province.\nEarly in 1736 the wings on each side of the State House were practically\ncompleted, but public officials objected strenuously to moving into\nthem. Despite objections, however, it is obvious that the wings were\nsoon occupied by various county and provincial officials. Others also\nused these small buildings, for in 1739 the Library Company of\nPhiladelphia was granted permission to deposit its books in the upper\nfloor of the west wing. The Library remained there until 1773 when it\nwas moved to Carpenters\u2019 Hall. Throughout the Colonial period the\ndoorkeeper of the Assembly and his family also lived in the west wing.\nFurthermore, during the early years, Indian delegations visiting\nPhiladelphia were sometimes lodged in one of the wings.\nThese exotic tenants proved a source of worry to the Assembly. Their\ncarelessness with fire posed such a serious threat to public records\nthat, in 1759, the Assembly ordered the erection of a separate building\nfor the use of the Indians. It is thought that one of the two wooden\nsheds built before the Revolution at the corners of Fifth and Sixth\nStreets on Chestnut Street was used for this purpose.\n [Illustration: _Account of Edmund Woolley with Governor John Penn\n for floor plans and elevation drawings of the State House, 1735-36._\n Penn Manuscripts, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.]\n_1735 The Honourable John Penn, Esquier Pr To drawing the Elevation of\n the Frount one End the Roof Balconey Chimney and Gorret of the\n State House With the fronts and Plans of the Two offiscis And\n Piazzas allso the Plans of the first and Second floors of the\n State House_\n_Reced the 22^d of July 1736 of James Steel the above mentioned five\nPounds._\n [Illustration: _Very early floor plan of the State House (first\n floor above, second floor right), apparently drawn prior to erection\n of tower, showing the interior stairway in south end of hallway._ In\n Penn Manuscripts, Warrants and Surveys, Historical Society of\n Pennsylvania.]\n _Assembly Room_\n _Hall_\n _Supreme Court_\n _Committee of Assembly\u2019s Chamber_\n _Council Chamber_\n _Long Gallery_\nAlthough the 15 years required to build the State House must have been a\nsource of irritation to legislators eager to occupy it, the completed\nbuilding proved the time was well spent. A most ambitious project for\nthat early date, it emerged a sturdily constructed brick\nedifice\u2014described at the time as a \u201clarge handsome building\u201d\u2014with a\nfacade 107 feet in length connected by closed arcades, or \u201cpiazzas,\u201d to\nwing buildings some 50 feet long. The main building had a decked gable\nroof, balustraded between the chimneys and surmounted by a centrally\nlocated cupola. The interior arrangement of the State House provided\nsuitable space for the various agencies of government. The first floor\ncontained two chambers about 40 feet square, separated by a spacious\ncenter hall about 20 feet wide. The eastern chamber served as the\nmeeting place of the Assembly. This room, in the words of a contemporary\nin 1774, was \u201cfinished in a neat but not elegant manner.\u201d Since the\nAssembly\u2019s sessions were usually secret, the room was provided with a\ndoor. The western chamber housed the Supreme Court of the Province and\nwas entered through open archways. The staircase to the upper floor\noccupied the south end of the central hall. The Provincial Council, the\nGovernor\u2019s advisory body, met in a chamber approximately 20 by 40 feet\nin the southwestern corner of the upper floor. This room was separated\nby a small vestibule from a chamber in the southeast corner which was\ndesigned as a committee room of the Assembly. The entire Chestnut Street\nfrontage was one room, called the \u201cgallery,\u201d or \u201clong room,\u201d measuring\n100 by 20 feet. The gallery was used generally for public entertainment\nand banquets.\nIt is apparent that the State House was not elegantly furnished. Chairs,\ntables, curtains, screens, and other items purchased for the building\nwere never unduly expensive. However, the silver inkstand, purchased\nfrom Philip Syng, of Philadelphia, for the table of the Speaker of the\nAssembly, and still preserved in Independence Hall, was a most unusual\nitem which cost \u00a325-16-0. The building appears to have been heated\noriginally by open fireplaces for which stoves were later substituted.\nLighting was not a serious problem since the meetings rarely continued\nuntil darkness; when they did, the Assembly ordered that candles be\nbrought in. There is no known picture of the interior of the State House\nduring the Colonial period; the earliest representation is a painting of\nthe Assembly Room by Pine and Savage, \u201cThe Congress Voting\nIndependence,\u201d which was executed in 1784-86.\nIn January 1750, shortly after the State House was completed, the\nAssembly authorized the superintendents of the building to erect a tower\nto contain a staircase and belfry. Edmund Woolley was entrusted with the\nconstruction. By 1753, the tower was completed and the State House bell\n(now called the Liberty Bell), ordered in 1751, was hung.\nThe Assembly also ordered a \u201clarge Clock to strike on the Bell.\u201d\nSubsequently, its works were installed in the attic of the State House,\nwith clock faces in the end walls just below the eaves. Under the face\nof that clock in the west end, a masonry structure resembling a tall\ncase clock was constructed, the hands of both timepieces being moved by\nrods connected with the mechanism in the attic. The steeple bell,\nhowever, was not used to strike the hours. A second bell was ordered by\nthe Assembly, in 1752, for that purpose and was placed in a turret on\nthe main roof just before the tower.\n [Illustration: _Andrew Hamilton, an eminent lawyer and Speaker of\n the Assembly, superintended the building of the State House._ From a\n portrait copied by Adolf Wertmuller (1751-1811) from an original now\n lost. Courtesy Historical Society of Pennsylvania.]\nIn February 1752, in order to accommodate its committees, the Assembly\nordered the erection of a suitable room adjoining the southeast corner\nof the building. Work was begun immediately, and the room was completed\nsome time during the following year. Demolished probably around 1812,\nthe chamber was described by a contemporary as \u201ca very elegant\napartment.\u201d This room also served as the library of the Assembly and was\nwell equipped with sets of English statutes along with works on history\nand literature.\nWith the completion of the committee room and library, no additional\nstructures were erected in the State House Yard during the Colonial\nperiod. However, other buildings were contemplated. On February 20,\n1736, the Assembly reserved the lots on Chestnut Street at the corners\nof Fifth and Sixth Streets for the erection of a city hall and county\ncourthouse within the next 20 years, but these buildings were not\nconstructed until several years after the Revolution.\n _Two Centuries of Independence Hall_\n [Illustration: _Plan of the State House, 1732, attributed to Andrew\n Hamilton. The elevation of the main building shows it substantially\n as first built. A skimpy plan like this seems inadequate to people\n of the 20th century, accustomed to meticulous architectural\n drawings. Detailed drafts had not been introduced in the 1700\u2019s;\n rather, the master builders in the field were a combination of what\n we would call today architects, engineers, and workmen. On them lay\n the burden of supplying the technical details between the simple\n sketch and the finished structure. Such a man was Edmund Woolley,\n master carpenter of the State House._ Courtesy Historical Society of\n Pennsylvania.]\n [Illustration: _The State House as it appeared in the Colonial\n period, showing the wings, connecting \u201cpiazzas\u201d with stairways, and\n original steeple. As first designed (see preceding illustration) and\n built, the State House had no tower or steeple. These were added\n around mid-century, and a bell was ordered for the steeple in 1751.\n This State House bell, which was hung in the new addition in 1753,\n has since become renowned as the Liberty Bell. This drawing and the\n next six are modern illustrations based on 18th-century written\n descriptions and pictures._]\n [Illustration: _The State House, about 1776, with wing buildings\n adjoined by wooden sheds. These were used during the Revolutionary\n War to store ammunition and, perhaps, to shelter Indian delegations\n at various times. The wings were used as office space and, in part,\n even as living quarters for the doorkeeper and his family._]\n [Illustration: _By 1773, the steeple had rotted to a dangerous\n extent. It had become so weak that ringing of the hell was avoided\n for fear of toppling the steeple. Though the Pennsylvania Assembly\n had long intended to remove this badly decayed structure, it was not\n done till 1781\u2014the year of the British surrender at Yorktown, Va.\n After the steeple was removed, the brick tower was covered with a\n hipped roof, shown here, and the bell hung just below it._]\n [Illustration: _The wooden sheds were removed some time after 1787\n to make way for the City Hall on the east (left) and County\n Courthouse on the west (right). Begun in 1787 and 1789 and completed\n in 1789 and 1791, respectively, these buildings fulfilled the\n original plan of a city governmental center as conceived by Andrew\n Hamilton. With the establishment of the temporary Federal capital in\n Philadelphia, from 1790 to 1800, City Hall became the seat of the U.\n S. Supreme Court and the County Courthouse became Congress Hall._]\n [Illustration: _In 1812, the Pennsylvania Legislature permitted the\n City and County of Philadelphia, which occupied the State House\n after the Federal and State capitals moved from Philadelphia, to\n pull down the east and west wings and erect in their places \u201cmodern\u201d\n office buildings, designed by the architect Robert Mills. These\n buildings were used for the purposes of municipal administration and\n storing records. Because of the burden on public funds, the State\n House was dangerously close to being torn down at this time. It was\n spared that fate when the City bought the group of buildings and the\n square from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1818 for $70,000._]\n [Illustration: _Lafayette\u2019s visit, in 1824, started a move to lift\n the State House from neglect and direct attention to it as a shrine.\n In line with this new attitude, attempts were made to restore the\n building to its original appearance. The first important step in\n this direction was the restoration of a steeple to the building.\n William Strickland, the famous American architect, designed a new\n one which was constructed in 1828; it was not an exact replica, but\n followed the general design of its predecessor removed in 1781. The\n principal deviations were the installation of a clock in the steeple\n and the use of more ornamentation._]\n [Illustration: _Although various alterations were made to the\n interior of the State House\u2014by now, generally called Independence\n Hall\u2014in the mid-nineteenth century, appreciable exterior changes\n were not made till just before 1900. Between 1896 and 1898, as part\n of the City\u2019s general program for the restoration of Independence\n Square to its appearance during the Revolution, the Mills buildings\n were replaced by wings and arcades which resembled those of the 18th\n century. The buildings have retained this appearance to the present\n [Illustration: _Second Street north from Market showing old City\n Hall in left foreground, one of the meeting places of the Assembly\n until the completion of the State House. Christ Church is in the\n background._ Engraving by William Birch, 1799. Courtesy Historical\n Society of Pennsylvania.]\n _The State House and Independence_\nPhiladelphia, the metropolis of English America, was destined to become\neven more prominent during the American Revolution. As opposition to\nEngland\u2019s colonial policy developed in America, the city\u2019s location near\nthe center of colonial America naturally made it the focal point of\ngovernment. The long tension between the American colonies and the\nmother country, which had led to occasional acts of violence in the\npast, again erupted in 1773 when a group of Bostonians destroyed a\nshipment of tea. Instead of making an effort to discover the nature of\nthe Americans\u2019 opposition, the English Government attempted to punish\nthem by closing the port of Boston.\nThe Americans promptly chose representatives to an intercolonial\ncongress which was to become known as the First Continental Congress.\nThis body, composed of leading citizens of the colonies, gathered on\nSeptember 5, 1774, at the City Tavern before convening formally at\nCarpenters\u2019 Hall, a new building erected by the Carpenters\u2019 Company of\nPhiladelphia. Reluctant to adopt a course of open defiance, the Congress\nsent a petition to the King asking him to restore those rights of\nEnglishmen which Parliament seemed determined to take away. In answer to\nthe English acts of coercion, the Congress turned to economic pressure\nby calling upon Americans to boycott English goods. Although the First\nContinental Congress protested strongly against violations of the\n\u201crights of Englishmen\u201d claimed for the American colonists, no demand for\nindependence was made.\n [Illustration: _Benjamin Franklin by Benjamin Wilson, 1759. Upon the\n evacuation of Philadelphia by the British, this portrait was removed\n from Franklin\u2019s house by Captain Andre and carried to England. It\n was returned to America in 1906 by Earl Grey and is now in the White\n House, Washington, D. C._]\nAfter the first Congress adjourned on October 26, 1774, relations\nbetween the colonies and the mother country grew steadily worse. On\nApril 19, 1775, the Minute Men of Massachusetts fought the British\nforces at Lexington and Concord, thus challenging the armed might of the\nBritish Empire. About a month later, on May 10, the Second Continental\nCongress met in an atmosphere of tension in the Assembly Room of the\nState House. The governing body, forced by events, moved from protest to\nresistance. Under the Presidency of John Hancock, the Congress (in June)\nchose George Washington to be General and Commander in Chief of the\nArmy. The latter, \u201cfrom his usual modesty, darted into the library-room\u201d\nwhen his name was first suggested by John Adams. But after a unanimous\nelection, Washington accepted that commission in the Assembly Room and\nleft shortly thereafter to assume his most difficult duties. Despite the\noutbreak of warfare, this session of the Continental Congress adjourned\non August 1, 1775, without a demand for independence.\nWhen the Congress reconvened on September 5, 1775, in the State House,\nKing George III had already issued a proclamation (August 23, 1775)\ndeclaring that \u201copen and avowed rebellion\u201d existed in the colonies. This\nand other actions of the King, as well as the publication in\nPhiladelphia of Thomas Paine\u2019s _Common Sense_, caused public sentiment\nin favor of independence to grow rapidly in 1776. It was a difficult\ntask, however, to overcome the reluctance of the conservative delegates\nto make an open break.\n [Illustration: _Silver inkstand, still preserved in Independence\n Hall, used during the signing of the Declaration of Independence._]\n [Illustration: _City Tavern, where the delegates to the First\n Continental Congress gathered, on the morning of September 5, 1774,\n prior to their formal assembly at nearby Carpenters\u2019 Hall._\n Engraving after William Birch, 1799. Courtesy Philadelphia Free\n Library.]\n [Illustration: _Carpenters\u2019 Hall, built by the Carpenters\u2019 Company\n of Philadelphia, where the First Continental Congress met in 1774._\n Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\n [Illustration: _John Hancock, president of the Second Continental\n Congress from 1775 to 1777._ Painting attributed to Charles Willson\n Peale, date unknown. Copy in Independence Hall collection.]\nNot until June 7, 1776, did Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, acting on\ninstructions from the Virginia Convention, offer a resolution declaring,\n\u201cThat these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and\nindependent States,\u201d and that foreign alliances and a plan of\nconfederation ought to be created. Then, after 2 days of debate,\nconsideration of the resolution was postponed for several weeks.\nMeanwhile, a committee, composed of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams,\nBenjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston was named to\ndraft a declaration \u201csetting forth the causes which impelled us to this\nmighty resolution.\u201d On July 2, 1776, Lee\u2019s resolution was adopted after\na heated debate in which Adams played a dominant role. Two days later,\nthe Congress formalized this act by adopting the Declaration of\nIndependence. On August 2, after it had been engrossed, the document was\nsigned by most members of Congress. These drastic and irrevocable\nactions, in effect, marked the end of British authority in the American\ncolonies and the birth of the United States of America.\nThe Declaration of Independence is one of the greatest statements of the\nprinciples of democracy ever penned. Written largely by Thomas\nJefferson, it expressed the thoughts and feelings not only of the\nassembled delegates but also of that part of the American people bent on\nfreedom and independence. These thoughts, expressed in the measured\ncadence of Jefferson\u2019s lines, gave the colonists a creed to be\ntriumphantly established: \u201cThat to secure these rights [Life, Liberty\nand the pursuit of Happiness], Governments are instituted among Men,\nderiving their just powers from the consent of the governed.\u201d Here is\nthe continuing principle now permanently entrenched as the heart of\nAmerican democracy.\nTo institute such a government required the agonies of a long, often\nindecisive and frequently discouraging war. Throughout the many and hard\nyears of the Revolution, the Congress sat in the State House, except for\nperiods of danger such as the occupation of Philadelphia by the British\nforces from September 1777 to June 1778. During that winter,\nWashington\u2019s small army endured untold hardships while keeping watch at\nValley Forge when the American cause appeared almost hopeless.\nIn 1778, however, the cause received new strength. Largely through the\nastute diplomacy of Benjamin Franklin, an alliance was formed with\nFrance; and, on August 6, 1778, Conrad Alexandre G\u00e9rard, the first\nFrench Minister to this Nation, formally presented his credentials to\nCongress in the Assembly Room.\nWith the flow of men, money, and supplies from France, the war was\nbrought to a virtual conclusion at Yorktown, Va., in 1781. When\nWashington\u2019s dispatches reporting this victory were received by the\nCongress in the State House, on October 24, celebrations and general\nrejoicing were held throughout Philadelphia. About a week later,\nCongress was presented with 24 stands of colors captured at Yorktown.\nThe formation of a confederation for the new nation was an even more\ndifficult task than obtaining agreement to the Declaration of\nIndependence, and steps to form such a confederation were taken very\nearly in the Revolution. As a matter of fact, only 8 days after the\nDeclaration was adopted, a draft constitution, called the Articles of\nConfederation and Perpetual Union, was first reported by a committee to\nthe Congress. In spite of the need for unity to meet the enemy\u2019s threat,\nthe States were not willing to commit themselves to the various\nobligations (small though they now seem) required in the proposed\nconfederation. Maryland, in particular, insisted that, as a condition of\nher acquiescence, certain other States first surrender their claims to\nwestern lands. On July 9, 1778, eight States signed the Articles of\nConfederation in the Pennsylvania State House. Maryland did not accede\nuntil 4 years later, after Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut gave\nup their claims to the region which became known as the Northwest\nTerritory. However, the new Articles of Confederation, giving the\nrevolutionary government constitutional standing, did not begin their\nshort period of effectiveness until March 1, 1781.\nThis first frame of government did not attempt to form a powerful\nnational government; under the Articles of Confederation the States\nretained almost the power of independent nations. However, the Articles\ndid create a Congress which could consider and legislate matters\naffecting the Nation as a whole. Although they contained certain\nweaknesses, they held together the 13 States long enough for responsible\nleaders to discover the kind of government the United States must have.\n [Illustration: _Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of\n Independence._ Painting by Charles Willson Peale (c. 1791).\n Independence Hall collection.]\n [Illustration: _Richard Henry Lee, whose momentous resolution\n adopted on July 2, 1776, was, in the words of John Adams, \u201cthe\n greatest question ... ever ... debated in America, and a greater,\n perhaps, never was nor will be decided among men.\u201d_ Painting by\n Charles Willson Peale, 1784. Independence Hall collection.]\n [Illustration: _George Washington._ Painting by James Peale (c.\n 1787). Independence Hall collection.]\n [Illustration: _State House as it appeared about 1776._ Lithograph\n based on detail from painting by Charles Willson Peale (c. 1779).\n Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\nDuring those critical years, the State House had served the new nation\nwell as a capitol. As already noted, it was in this building that\nCongress had organized the national administration and made the\nnecessary plans for carrying the war through to its successful\nconclusion. The Provincial Assembly of Pennsylvania, meanwhile, having\ngraciously relinquished its accustomed room to Congress, had carried on\nas best it could in a crowded space on the second floor of the State\nHouse.\nThe occupation of Philadelphia by the British had been a period of\ndistress not only for the American cause but for the State House as\nwell. The building had first been used as quarters for British troops.\nAfter the battle of Germantown, it served as a hospital for wounded\nAmerican soldiers.\nThese uses of the building had left it, in the words of a member of the\nCongress, in \u201ca most filthy and sordid situation,\u201d with \u201cthe inside torn\nmuch to pieces.\u201d Extensive cleaning and repairs were required to refit\nthe building for meetings of the State Government and the Congress. The\nAssembly took advantage of this need for repairs to enlarge their\ntemporary quarters in the southeast corner of the upper floor. This was\ndone by removing the partition between their chamber and the \u201clong\nroom.\u201d The new space then became approximately the same size as the\nAssembly Room on the first floor.\n [Illustration: _John Adams, one of the most active members of the\n Continental Congress, and the \u201cablest advocate and defender\u201d of the\n Declaration of Independence, played a major role in the achievement\n of independence._ Painting by Charles Willson Peale, before 1795.\n Independence Hall collection.]\nThe Revolutionary period also saw an alteration on the exterior of the\nState House\u2014the removal of the badly decayed wooden steeple above the\nbrick tower. The Assembly considered this step as early as 1773, but the\nproject was not carried out until 1781. After the steeple was removed,\nthe brick tower was covered with a low, sloping, hipped roof, surmounted\nby a slender finial.\nIn 1783, a body of mutinous soldiers surrounded the State House and\ndemanded back pay from Congress. Although the members of Congress were\nunharmed, the incident led to their moving to Princeton. The Congress of\nthe Confederation never returned to the State House.\n \u201c_To Form a More Perfect Union_\u201d\nWith the return of peace in 1783 came also postwar depression. Hard\ntimes created discontent. By 1786, in Massachusetts, this flared into an\nopen insurrection known as Shays\u2019 Rebellion. This affair (perhaps not so\nserious as often painted) helped point up the weakness of Congress and\nintensify the movement already begun to amend the Articles of\nConfederation. A stronger central government was needed. As a result, a\nconvention was called by the Congress.\n [Illustration: \u201c_Congress Voting Independence, July 4, 1776._\u201d\n Painting begun by Robert E. Pine (c. 1784), and completed after his\n death by Edward Savage. Courtesy Historical Society of\n Pennsylvania.]\n [Illustration: _Christ Church (built 1727-54) where George\n Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and other notables worshiped; seven\n signers of the Declaration of Independence are buried in its\n grounds._ Painting by William Strickland, 1811. Courtesy Historical\n Society of Pennsylvania.]\nThe Federal Constitutional Convention opened in Philadelphia on May 25,\n1787, in the same room in the State House where the Declaration of\nIndependence had been adopted. This room permitted the delegates to meet\nin secret session, which suggests the seriousness the delegates attached\nto their responsibilities. The Convention, composed of 55 men chosen by\nthe legislatures of the States, was a small group, but included the best\nminds in America. As a matter of course, they chose George Washington to\nbe the presiding officer; his endorsement was probably the chief factor\nin winning acceptance for the Constitution. The leader on the floor, and\nin some ways the most effective man in the Convention, was James\nMadison. His efforts were ably seconded by James Wilson, who deserves to\nbe ranked with Madison on the basis of actual influence on the completed\nConstitution. The aged Benjamin Franklin was the seer of the group; his\ngreat service was as peacemaker of the Convention. Gouverneur Morris,\nbrilliant and coherent debater, was responsible for the very apt wording\nof the Constitution in its final form. Other important delegates\nincluded George Mason, Elbridge Gerry, William Paterson, Charles\nPinckney, and Roger Sherman.\n [Illustration: _Conrad Alexandre G\u00e9rard, first French Minister to\n the United States, who formally presented his credentials to\n Congress in Independence Hall on August 6, 1778._ Painted by Charles\n Willson Peale, 1779. Independence Hall collection.]\nThe purpose of the Convention was, as stated in the Preamble to the\nConstitution, \u201cto form a more perfect Union\u201d among the States, to ensure\npeace at home, and to provide for defense against foreign enemies. The\ndelegates believed that these objects could best be achieved by\nestablishing a strong national government, but it was soon apparent that\nserious disagreements existed as to the nature of this proposed new\ngovernment. Throughout the hot summer months, the delegates labored. The\nConstitution was not born at once, but developed gradually through\ndebate, interchange of opinion, and careful consideration of problems.\nMany minds contributed to its final form. A body of compromises, the\nConstitution created the central government of a land which is both a\nnation and a confederation of States. It was impossible for the framers\nto attempt to answer all questions; much was left for future generations\nto define. As a result, the Constitution has proved to be a most elastic\ninstrument, readily adaptable to meet changing conditions.\n [Illustration: _Detail sketch of rising sun on back of speaker\u2019s\n chair in Assembly room._]\n [Illustration: _James Wilson, who, with Madison, had most actual\n influence on the completion of the Constitution._ Artist unknown.]\n [Illustration: _James Madison, sometimes called \u201cthe Father of the\n Constitution.\u201d_ Painting by Charles Willson Peele (c. 1792).\n Courtesy Frick Art Reference Library.]\n [Illustration: _Robert Morris, financier of the Revolution._\n Painting by Charles Willson Peale (c. 1782). Independence Hall\n collection.]\nOn September 17, 1787, 4 months after the Convention had assembled, the\nfinished Constitution was signed \u201cBy unanimous consent of the States\npresent.\u201d The Federal Convention was over. The members \u201cadjourned to the\nCity Tavern, dined together, and took a cordial leave of each other.\u201d\nOften during the bitterness of debate, the Convention\u2019s outcome was in\ndoubt. At the signing, Franklin, pointing to the gilded half-sun on the\nback of Washington\u2019s chair, observed:\n I have often and often in the course of Session, and the vicissitudes\n of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that [sun] behind the\n President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting:\n But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and\n not a setting Sun.\nCompletion of work by the Federal Convention was merely the beginning of\nthe struggle for the new Constitution; the crucial part remained. For\nthe framework upon which the Convention had expended so much thought and\nlabor could be made law only by the people. This was to be accomplished\nby submitting the document to the people for their approval or\ndisapproval in popularly elected State conventions. This method would\nserve to give the Constitution a broad base of popular support. Such\nsupport was particularly necessary, since the Convention made clearly\nrevolutionary decisions in stating that the approbation of 9 States\nwould be sufficient for establishing the Constitution over the States so\nratifying, and that the consent of the Congress was not required.\n [Illustration: _The Constitutional Convention as visualized by the\n artist. Although inaccurate in detail, it is a good representation\n of the delegates._ Painting by J. H. Froelich, 1935. Courtesy\n Pennsylvania State Museum.]\nIn State after State special elections were held in which the issue was\nwhether the voters favored or did not favor the proposed Constitution.\nPennsylvania\u2019s State Convention met in the State House on November 21,\n1787. Under the influence of Wilson\u2019s vigorous arguments, that body\nratified the Constitution on December 18. The honor of first\nratification, however, went to Delaware. Her convention ratified the\ndocument unanimously 5 days earlier. Several of the smaller States\nadhered shortly thereafter. The sharpest contests took place in\nMassachusetts, Virginia, and New York where the Anti-Federalists were\nstrong and ably led; but the advantages of the Constitution were so\ngreat that it was finally ratified in 1788 by 11 States. Rhode Island\nand North Carolina held out until after Washington became President.\nIn order to meet popular objections to the Constitution, the Federalists\nin Massachusetts drafted amendments which their Commonwealth, in\nratifying the Constitution, might propose to the other States for\nadoption. This clever device helped win the struggle in several\nreluctant States. From these suggested amendments, intended to protect\nthe individual citizen against the central government, the first 10\namendments to the Constitution, called the Bill of Rights, were formed.\nWhen the Constitution was finally ratified, the Congress arranged for\nthe first national election and declared the new government would go\ninto operation on March 4, 1789.\nThe new Federal Government first began its work in New York where\nFederal Hall Memorial National Historic Site is now located; then, in\n1790, the Government came to Philadelphia. The move to Philadelphia\nresulted from a compromise known as the Residence Act, approved July 16,\n1790. This act directed that the permanent capital was to be situated on\nthe Potomac, but it also stipulated that the temporary seat of\ngovernment was to be in Philadelphia for 10 years. Robert Morris was\ngenerally credited with bringing the capital to Philadelphia and was\ncastigated by New Yorkers for his part in its removal from their city.\n [Illustration: _Independence Hall group (center buildings) looking\n northeast. Left to right: Congress Hall, Independence Hall (actually\n the steeple had been removed in 1781), Committee Room and Library,\n Philosophical Hall, and Library Hall._ Engraving in _Columbian\n Magazine_ (September 1790). Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\nWhen the location of the capital was under consideration, the City and\nCounty of Philadelphia, as well as the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,\noffered the Federal Government the use of the City Hall and the County\nCourthouse, two new buildings then under construction. These buildings\nfulfilled the original plan of a governmental center as conceived by\nAndrew Hamilton. The offer was accepted and for the last 10 years of the\n18th century the United States Congress sat in the new County Courthouse\n(now known as Congress Hall), on the west side of the State House, and\nthe U. S. Supreme Court, in the new City Hall (Supreme Court Building),\non the east.\nThe building in which the Supreme Court sat from 1791 on was erected by\nthe City of Philadelphia to accommodate the growth of municipal\ndepartments and functions. During the Colonial period the city\ngovernment occupied the small courthouse at Second and High (now Market)\nStreets. When the Federal Government came to Philadelphia, the new\nbuilding was not yet completed, and the Supreme Court of the United\nStates met first in the Pennsylvania Supreme Court Chamber in the State\nHouse. After August 1, 1791, the Supreme Court generally occupied the\nMayor\u2019s Court, the large room at the south end of the first floor, in\nthe new City Hall. It is possible that the corresponding room on the\nsecond floor was also used on occasions by the high tribunal. During its\noccupancy of the building, the Supreme Court was first presided over by\nJohn Jay, who was succeeded in turn as Chief Justice by John Rutledge\nand Oliver Ellsworth. Here the court began its active work, thereby\nlaying the foundation for the development of the Judicial Branch of the\nFederal Government.\n [Illustration: _First Bank of the United States, built in 1795._\n Engraving by Fenner Sears after C. Burton, 1831. Courtesy\n Philadelphia Free Library.]\nThe ground on which Congress Hall stands was purchased for the Province\nof Pennsylvania in 1736. Although there had been plans for a long time\nto erect a courthouse on the lot, it was not until 1785 that the\nAssembly of Pennsylvania passed an act to appropriate funds for the\nerection of the building. Work began in 1787 and was completed in 1789.\nThis county court building became the meeting place of the first United\nStates Congress, Third Session, on December 6, 1790. Frederick Augustus\nMuhlenberg was then Speaker of the House and John Adams, President of\nthe Senate. It is today the oldest building standing in which the\nCongress of the United States has met.\n [Illustration: _Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury in\n Washington\u2019s administration, whose comprehensive program placed the\n new Nation on a firm financial basis._ Painting by Charles Willson\n Peale (c. 1791). Independence Hall collection.]\nBefore the courthouse could be turned over to the United States\nCongress, alterations had to be made to fit the building for its new\npurpose. The first-floor chamber, to be used by the House of\nRepresentatives, was furnished with mahogany tables and elbow chairs,\ncarpeting, stoves, and venetian blinds\u2014all of fine workmanship. In\naddition, a gallery was constructed to hold about 300 people. The Senate\nChamber on the second floor was even more elegantly furnished.\nThen, between 1793 and 1795, to accommodate the increase in membership\nof the House from 68 to 106, the building had to be enlarged by an\naddition of about 26 feet to the end of the original structure. In 1795,\na gallery was constructed for the Senate Chamber similar to, although\nsmaller than, the one on the floor below.\nThe decade during which Philadelphia served as the capital was a\nformative period for our new Government. In foreign relations, the\nCitizen Gen\u00eat affair and other repercussions of the French Revolution,\nwhich brought near-hostilities with France, ended the historic\nFranco-American Alliance of 1778. It is impossible to list all the great\nevents which occurred during that period, but among them must be\nmentioned the inauguration of Washington for his second term in the\nSenate Chamber on March 4, 1793. At the same time John Adams assumed the\nPresidency of the Senate. Washington delivered his last formal message\nbefore Congress, prior to retiring, in the chamber of the House of\nRepresentatives on December 7, 1796. It is this message which some have\nconfused with Washington\u2019s famous Farewell Address.\nIt was in Congress Hall that the first 10 amendments\u2014the Bill of\nRights\u2014were formally added to the Constitution. It was here also that\nthe First Bank of the United States and the Mint were established as\npart of the comprehensive program developed by Alexander Hamilton,\nSecretary of the Treasury, to rectify the disordered state of Government\nfinances. Here, too, Jay\u2019s Treaty with England was debated and ratified;\nVermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were admitted into the Union; and the\nAlien and Sedition Acts were passed. And it was here that the Federal\nGovernment successfully weathered an internal threat to its\nauthority\u2014the Whiskey Insurrection of 1794.\n [Illustration: _Congress Hall (looking west along Chestnut Street)\n near the turn of the century when Philadelphia ceased to be the\n capital city and the building reverted to use as a county\n courthouse. In right foreground is old Chestnut Street Theater._\n Engraving by William Birch, 1799. Courtesy Philadelphia Free\n Library.]\n [Illustration: _\u201cThe Artist in his Museum.\u201d In 1802, Charles Willson\n Peale obtained permission to use the second floor of Independence\n Hall for his museum. This scene shows the \u201clong room\u201d as a museum\n and gallery._ Courtesy Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.]\nIn the chamber of the House of Representatives, John Adams was\ninaugurated as second President of the United States on March 4, 1797.\nTwo years later, official news of the death of Washington was received\nhere by Congress, at which time John Marshall introduced Henry\n(\u201cLight-Horse Harry\u201d) Lee\u2019s famous words: \u201cFirst in War, First in Peace,\nFirst in the Hearts of his Countrymen.\u201d\nWith the turn of the century, Philadelphia ceased to be a capital city.\nIn 1800, the Federal Government moved to Washington. During the previous\nyear, the State Government had moved first to Lancaster and later to\nHarrisburg. Congress Hall and the Supreme Court building reverted to the\nuses for which they were originally intended\u2014a county courthouse and a\ncity hall. The State House became an empty building, used apparently\nonly at elections.\n [Illustration: INDEPENDENCE NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK]\n POINTS OF HISTORICAL INTEREST WITHIN PARK AREA\n 1. INDEPENDENCE HALL GROUP OF BUILDINGS\n 2. PHILOSOPHICAL HALL\n 3. LIBRARY HALL (SITE OF)\n 4. SECOND BANK OF THE UNITED STATES\n 5. DILWORTH-TODD-MOYLAN HOUSE\n 6. BISHOP WHITE HOUSE\n 7. CITY TAVERN (SITE OF)\n 8. PHILADELPHIA (MERCHANTS\u2019) EXCHANGE\n 9. FIRST BANK OF THE UNITED STATES\n 10. CARPENTERS\u2019 HALL\n 11. FRANKLIN COURT (SITE OF FRANKLIN\u2019S HOUSE)\n 12. & 13. CHRIST CHURCH AND CEMETERY\n 14. GLORIA DEI (OLD SWEDES\u2019) CHURCH\n 15. DESHLER-MORRIS HOUSE (5442 GERMANTOWN AVE. NOT SHOWN)\n OTHER POINTS OF HISTORICAL INTEREST\n 16. ST. MARY\u2019S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH\n 17. ATWATER KENT MUSEUM\n 18. HOLY TRINITY ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH\n 19. OLD PINE STREET PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH\n 20. ST. PETER\u2019S EPISCOPAL CHURCH\n 21. POWEL HOUSE\n 22. ST. PAUL\u2019S EPISCOPAL CHURCH (CITY MISSION)\n 23. ST. JOSEPH\u2019S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH\n 24. BETSY ROSS HOUSE\n 25. FRIENDS MEETING HOUSE\n 26. FREE QUAKER MEETING HOUSE\n 27. ST. GEORGE\u2019S METHODIST CHURCH\n {diagonally hatched} STATE AREA\n {shaded} FEDERAL AREA\n DELAWARE RIVER BRIDGE\n RACE ST.\n CHERRY ST.\n ELFRETHS ALLEY\n ARCH ST.\n MARKET ST.\n ORIANNA ST.\n CHESTNUT ST.\n LIBRARY ST.\n WALNUT ST.\n DOCK ST.\n CHRISTIAN ST.\n SWANSON\n LOCUST ST.\n SPRUCE ST.\n SIXTH ST.\n INDEPENDENCE HALL\n FIFTH ST.\n FOURTH ST.\n THIRD ST.\n SECOND ST.\n FRONT ST.\n DELAWARE AVE.\n FRONT ST.\n WATER ST.\n DELAWARE AVE.\nThe Governor, on March 13, 1815, approved an act authorizing the County\nCommissioners of Philadelphia to take charge of the State House and to\nrent out the space as they considered advisable. All profits obtained\nwere to be used to make repairs and improvements on the building.\nHaving released the State from responsibility for its State House, the\nLegislature next sought to realize from this property a sum of money to\nbe used in building the new capitol at Harrisburg. In an act, approved\nMarch 11, 1816, the Legislature provided for the sale of the square and\nits buildings. This act required the Governor to appoint three\ncommissioners (none from Philadelphia) to lay out a street, or streets,\nthrough the square \u201cin such manner as in their opinion will most conduce\nto the value of the property.\u201d The square was to be divided into lots\nsuitable for building; the total amount to be realized was not to be\nless than $150,000.\nOne section of the act, however, saved the State House. This provided\nthat the City of Philadelphia should have the privilege of purchasing\nthe building and square for the sum of $70,000. The City Councils\npromptly passed an ordinance to purchase the property and took title on\nMarch 23, 1818. This was a financial and spiritual investment unequaled\nin the history of American cities.\nAlthough the City of Philadelphia had saved the State House and its\nsister buildings from possible destruction, it was evident that many\nlocal officials did not consider the ensemble worthy of complete\npreservation. As early as 7 years prior to purchasing this property from\nthe State, municipal authorities presented the Legislature with\npetitions requesting that the Commissioners of the City and County of\nPhiladelphia be permitted \u201cto pull down the east and west wings of the\nstate-house ... and to erect in their place, suitable buildings for the\ndeposit of the records of said City and county....\u201d On March 24, 1812,\nthis authority was granted by the State Government. The old wings and\nthe committee room were demolished, to be replaced by \u201cmodern\u201d office\nbuildings designed by the architect, Robert Mills. These new offices\nconsisted of two row buildings attached to the east and west ends of the\nState House. Often called \u201cState House row,\u201d they were occupied by\nvarious officials of the city, county, and federal governments.\nOther changes to the State House followed as a result of the City\u2019s\ndesire to adapt it for current needs. The Assembly Room, in which the\nDeclaration of Independence had been adopted, was converted into a court\nroom. This was \u201cmodernized\u201d by the removal of its paneling and the\nsubstitution of plaster and paint. Furthermore, the Chestnut Street\ndoorway was replaced by a more ornate one, which was wholly out of\nkeeping with the simple dignity of the structure.\n [Illustration: _City election at Independence Hall. Elections were\n held at Independence Hall throughout the Colonial period and for\n many years thereafter._ From a painting by J. L. Krimmel (c. 1815).\n Courtesy Historical Society of Pennsylvania.]\nThe first occupant after the State government moved to Lancaster was\nCharles Willson Peale, who, in 1802, received permission to use the\nupper floor of the State House (including the tower rooms) and the\nAssembly Room on the first floor, for his museum which had occupied\nPhilosophical Hall since 1794. By the terms of the agreement, Peale was\nresponsible for the maintenance of both the building and the State House\nYard.\nIn order to make the building more suitable for his museum, Peale\nremoved the alterations made in 1778-79 to accommodate the Assembly, and\nrebuilt the long room to appear as it did during the Colonial period.\nThe museum, which occupied the second floor of the State House until\n1828, included not only an extensive collection of natural history items\nbut also a unique portrait gallery of the great men of this Nation,\npainted largely by Charles Willson Peale and his son, Rembrandt. Peale\nalso took most seriously his charge to care for the State House Yard, or\nGarden, as Independence Square was then known. He planted trees, added\nnew gates and benches, and improved the walls and lawns. It was most\nfortunate that a man of Peale\u2019s caliber was responsible for the\nproperty\u2019s care during this dark period.\n [Illustration: _Plan showing use of Independence Hall by the City of\n Philadelphia and the Federal Courts._ From _Philadelphia in 1824_.\n Courtesy American Philosophical Society.]\n PLAN OF THE STATE HOUSE.\n Second Floor\n {East Wing}\n Common Council\n Select Council\n Watering Committee\n Grand Jury Room\n Guardians of the Poor\n White Witness Room\n Black Witness Room\n Prothonotary office for the District of the City & County\n MUSEUM\n Mammoth Room\n Lecture Room\n Quadruped Room\n Stairs to the Marine Room\n Long Room\n Clerk of the U. S. Court\n Marshalls Office\n County Commissioners\n Auditors Office\n {West Wing}\n Circuit Court\n Controller of Public Schools\n Law Library\n Supreme Court\n First Floor\n {East Wing}\n Mayors Office\n Mayors\u2019 Private Room\n City Comm^s\n City Treas^r\n Clerk of the Mayors Court\n Recorder of Deeds\n Register of Wills.\n Prothonotary of Supr^e Court\n Court Room\n Entrance to the Museum &c.\n Mayors Court.\n Prothonotary of Com^n Pleas\n Sheriffs Office\n Clerk of Orphans Court\n Clerk of Quarter-Sessions\n {West Wing}\n Common Pleas\n District Court\nAfter Peale\u2019s museum moved from the State House in 1827-28, the second\nfloor was rented to the United States Government for judicial purposes.\nAlterations were made under the direction of the architect, John\nHaviland, to adapt the space for its new use. The long room was again\nobliterated, and the western portion of the upper floor was made into\none large room for the use of the United States Circuit and District\nCourts. The partitions in the eastern portion apparently were retained;\nthe northern room became the jury room for the court and the southern\nroom, the office of its clerk. This occupancy of the State House by\nFederal courts continued until 1854. Consolidation of the city and\ndistricts in that year made more room necessary for city offices, and\nthe Federal courts were forced to move. Their place was taken over by\nCity Councils. The court room on the west was occupied by the Common\nCouncil. On the east, the partition between the former offices of the\ncourt clerks was removed, and a single room was fitted for the Select\nCouncil. These Councils occupied the upper floor until 1895.\n [Illustration: _Independence Square (State House Garden) in 1800,\n showing brick wall and high gate at Walnut Street._ Engraved by\n William Birch, 1800. Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\nUntil the 1820\u2019s, Independence Square was known variously as \u201cState\nHouse Yard\u201d or \u201cState House Garden.\u201d Originally the land bounded by\nChestnut, Walnut, Fifth, and Sixth Streets had been set aside by William\nPenn as \u201cbonus lots.\u201d To each purchaser of a substantial farm or\n\u201ccountry lot,\u201d Penn also gave a city lot as a bonus. The pieces in this\nparticular square were given to Welsh Quakers who settled in Radnor\nTownship.\nBy the time the ground along Chestnut Street was acquired to erect the\nState House, most of the original owners had already sold their parcels.\nBy deed dated October 15, 1730, the first lot on the square was\npurchased by William Allen for the use of the Province. Within the next\n2 years the entire Chestnut Street frontage, extending halfway back to\nWalnut Street, had been secured. Construction of the State House began\nThe desire to provide a proper setting for the State House was evident\nfrom the beginning. In the year that the building was begun, the\nAssembly considered leveling the site and enclosing it with a board\nfence \u201cin order that Walks may be laid out, and Trees planted, to render\nthe same more beautiful and commodious.\u201d As far as is known, however,\nthe landscaping was not carried out until considerably later.\n [Illustration: _Independence Square in 1838, as seen from the\n steeple of Independence Hall._ Lithograph by J. C. Wild, 1838.\n Courtesy Historical Society of Pennsylvania.]\nOn February 20, 1736, the Assembly determined on a most important\npolicy. An act vesting the State House and its grounds in trustees\nprovided: \u201cThat no part of the said ground lying to the southward of the\nState House as it is now built be converted into or made use of for\nerecting any sort of buildings thereon, but that the said ground shall\nbe enclosed and remain a public open green and Walks forever.\u201d This\nprovision has been retained as a guiding principle in the development of\nthe square save for occasional deviations. On August 9, 1739, the\nAssembly ordered \u201cthat Materials be prepared for encompassing the Ground\nwith a Wall in the ensuing Spring....\u201d Two years later a portion of this\nwall was taken down and rebuilt with a shingle cornice added to carry\noff rain water.\nPurchasing the remainder of the square was delayed nearly four decades.\nOn May 14, 1762, the Assembly directed that the balance of the land be\nobtained, and by 1769 the necessary lots had been acquired. In 1770, the\nAssembly enclosed the whole square with a brick wall 7 feet high,\npierced at the center of the Walnut Street front by a tall arched\ngateway with solid wooden doors.\nAt this time the square contained the State House, with its wings and\nwooden sheds, and a small wooden platform erected in 1768. The latter\nwas constructed at the instigation of the American Philosophical Society\nfor observing the transit of Venus across the sun on June 3, 1769. It is\nbelieved that the observatory stood about 40 feet south of the east wing\nof the State House.\nAlthough landscaping the State House Yard had been long discussed,\nnothing of consequence appears to have been done in this regard during\nthe Colonial period. At the time of the American Revolution, the square\napparently was more or less barren, with no planned landscaping or\nsystem of walks. Cannon, which must have been a prominent feature of the\nyard, were parked within the walls.\n [Illustration: _Independence Square from Walnut Street gate, looking\n north._ Ink sketch from an early photograph.]\nWith the return of peace, interest was again awakened in improving the\ngrounds. Landscaping was finally begun about 1784 under the direction of\nSamuel Vaughan, a wealthy Jamaica sugar planter then living in\nPhiladelphia. In addition to the wide central walk of gravel, leading\nfrom the tower door to the Walnut Street gate, and the serpentine walks\nabout the perimeter of the square, the most noticeable feature of the\nyard was the assortment of 100 elm trees presented to the Commonwealth\nby George Morgan, of Princeton. Shortly after the landscaping was\ncompleted, the Reverend Manasseh Cutler visited this square and\ndescribed it in his journal as a \u201cfine display of rural fancy and\nelegance.\u201d\n The trees are yet small, but most judiciously arranged. The artificial\n mounds of earth, and depressions, and small groves in the squares have\n a most delightful effect. The numerous walks are well graveled and\n rolled hard; they are all in a serpentine direction, which heightens\n the beauty, and affords constant variety. That painful sameness,\n commonly to be met with in garden-alleys, and other works of this\n kind, is happily avoided here, for there are no two parts of the Mall\n that are alike. Hogarth\u2019s \u201cLine of Beauty\u201d is here completely\n verified.\n [Illustration: _Triumphal arch for Lafayette\u2019s visit to Independence\n Hall, September 28, 1824._ Unidentified engraving (c. 1824).\n Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\nThe next alteration of the State House Yard following Vaughan\u2019s\nlandscaping was undertaken in 1812. In that year, when the old wing\nbuildings were demolished to be replaced by \u201cmodern\u201d office buildings,\nthe high brick walls were removed to allow a \u201cfreer circulation of air.\u201d\nIn their place was erected in the following year, a low brick wall,\nabout 3 feet high, with a marble coping surmounted by a railing of plain\niron palisades. Access to the square was provided by a large gate on\nWalnut Street and smaller ones on Fifth and Sixth Streets, about halfway\nbetween Chestnut and Walnut.\nOther changes affecting the early scene followed in 1876. Along with\nsuch necessary improvements as resodding and new drainage, broad steps\nwere constructed in the center of the Walnut Street front and at the\ncorners on Fifth and Sixth Streets. Wide flagstone walks were laid\nthrough the grounds in almost every direction from street to street. The\nlater addition of steps on Fifth and Sixth Streets, near Chestnut,\nsubstantially established the condition of the square as it is today.\nThrough the years the square has served varied purposes. It was\nfrequently the scene of mass meetings and public demonstrations. Large\ngatherings met here frequently in the course of the critical days before\nand during the early part of the Revolution. The most noteworthy of\nthese occurred on July 8, 1776, when, from the observatory\nplatform\u2014described above\u2014Col. John Nixon read publicly for the first\ntime that document since known as the Declaration of Independence.\nThe \u201cState House\u201d did not become \u201cIndependence Hall\u201d till the last half\nof the 19th century. This change in designation, which began about the\ntime of Lafayette\u2019s visit to America, is closely linked with the\nevolution of the building as a national shrine.\nPrior to 1824, there was but little reverence or regard for the State\nHouse. The visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to Philadelphia in that\nyear, however, awakened an interest in the building which has persisted\nto this day.\nElaborate preparations were made for the visit of the celebrated friend\nof America, much of it centering around the State House, which became\nthe principal point of interest. Across Chestnut Street, in front of the\nbuilding, was erected a huge arch \u201cconstructed of frame work covered\nwith canvas, and painted in perfect imitation of stone.\u201d The old\nAssembly Room, called for the first time \u201cHall of Independence,\u201d was\ncompletely redecorated. The walls and ceiling were painted stone color,\nand windows were \u201chung with scarlet and blue drapery studded with\nstars.\u201d Portraits of Revolutionary heroes and the Presidents virtually\nfilled the available wall space. Mahogany furniture was \u201ctastefully and\nappropriately disposed.\u201d\nLafayette was formally received in the \u201cHall of Independence\u201d by the\nMayor and other dignitaries on September 28. On the days following,\nduring his week-long visit, the chamber served as his levee room.\nThe interest in the State House engendered by Lafayette\u2019s visit was not\npermitted to die. In 1828, the City Councils obtained plans and\nestimates to rebuild the wooden steeple which had been removed in 1781.\nAfter heated discussions, William Strickland\u2019s design for the new\nsteeple was accepted, a large bell to be cast by John Wilbank was\nordered, and Isaiah Lukens was commissioned to construct a clock. Work\nwas completed on the project during the summer of 1828.\nStrickland\u2019s steeple was not an exact replica of the original, but it\nmay be considered a restoration since it followed the general design of\nits predecessor. The principal deviations were the installation of a\nclock in the steeple and the use of more ornamentation.\nWithin 2 years after rebuilding the steeple, interest was aroused in the\nrestoration of the Assembly Room, or \u201cHall of Independence.\u201d On December\n9, 1830, the subject of the restoration of this room \u201cto its ancient\nForm\u201d was considered by the Councils. Shortly afterward, John Haviland,\narchitect, was employed to carry out the restoration. Apparently,\nHaviland confined his work to replacing the paneling that is said to\nhave been removed but fortunately was preserved in the attic of the\nbuilding.\nThe proper use of the room was always a knotty problem. Following the\nHaviland restoration, the room was rented on occasions for exhibiting\npaintings and sculpture. Its principal use, however, was as a levee room\nfor distinguished visitors, including Henry Clay, Louis Kossuth, and\nother famous personages, in addition to many Presidents of the United\nStates from Jackson to Lincoln.\nIn the 1850\u2019s, and during the critical years of the Civil War,\nveneration for the State House became even more evident. In 1852, the\nCouncils resolved to celebrate July 4 annually \u201cin the said State House,\nknown as Independence Hall....\u201d This is the first clear-cut use of the\nterm \u201cIndependence Hall\u201d to designate the entire building.\n [Illustration: _Independence Hall group in the winter of 1840. (Note\n restored steeple and clock, also doorway on Sixth Street side of\n Congress Hall.)_ Lithograph by J. T. Bowen after drawing by J. C.\n Wild, 1840. Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\n [Illustration: _Earliest known photograph of Independence Hall,\n taken in 1850 by W. and F. Langenheim._ From their \u201cViews in North\n America\u201d series. Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\nPerhaps the best expression of this veneration is in the grandiloquent\nwords of the famed orator Edward Everett, who, on July 4, 1858, said of\nthe State House, or as it has now come to be known, Independence Hall:\n\u201cLet the rain of heaven distill gently on its roof and the storms of\nwinter beat softly on its door. As each successive generation of those\nwho have benefitted by the great Declaration made within it shall make\ntheir pilgrimage to that shrine, may they not think it unseemly to call\nits walls Salvation and its gates Praise.\u201d\nOn July 4, 1852, the delegates from 10 of the Thirteen Original States\nmet in Independence Hall to consider a plan to erect in the square one\nor more monuments to commemorate the Declaration of Independence. For\nvarious reasons, their deliberations proved fruitless.\nDuring the years after the restoration of the Assembly Room in 1831, a\nfew paintings and other objects were purchased by, or presented to, the\nCity for exhibition. One of the first acquisitions was the wooden statue\nof George Washington, by William Rush, which long occupied the east end\nof the room. It was not until 1854, however, that the City made any real\neffort to establish a historical collection for Independence Hall. In\nthat year, at the sale of Charles Willson Peale\u2019s gallery, the City\npurchased more than 100 oil portraits of Colonial, Revolutionary, and\nearly Republican personages.\nFollowing the acquisition of Peale\u2019s portraits, the Assembly Room was\nrefurnished and these paintings hung on the walls. On February 22, 1855,\nthe Mayor opened the room to the public. From that day on, many relics\nand curios were accepted by the City for display in this chamber.\n [Illustration: _Independence Hall group in 1853._ Engraving of a\n drawing by Devereux. Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\nDuring the Civil War, the \u201cHall\u201d (or Assembly Room) served a solemn\npurpose. From 1861 on, the bodies of many Philadelphia soldiers killed\nin the war, and, in 1865, the body of President Lincoln lay in state\nthere. Such use of the room was not new, however, for John Quincy Adams,\nin 1848, Henry Clay, in 1852, and the Arctic explorer, Elisha Kent Kane,\nin 1857, lay in state in the venerable room.\nIn 1860, a movement was begun by the children of the public schools of\nPhiladelphia to erect a monument to Washington. When the fund was nearly\nraised, the Councils provided a space on the pavement directly opposite\nthe Chestnut Street entrance. The statue, executed by J. A. Bailey, was\nunveiled on July 5, 1869.\n [Illustration: _In 1855, the Assembly Room became a portrait\n gallery, following acquisition by the City of Charles Willson\n Peale\u2019s oil paintings of Colonial and Revolutionary figures. (Note\n Liberty Bell on ornate pedestal in corner and Rush\u2019s wooden statue\n of Washington in center background.)_ Engraving from _Illustrated\n London News_, December 15, 1860. Independence Hall collection.]\nLittle beyond actual maintenance of the buildings seems to have occurred\nuntil 1872 when, with the approach of the Centennial of the Independence\nof the United States, a committee for the restoration of Independence\nHall was named by the Mayor. The committee entered upon its duties with\nenergy. Furniture believed to have been in the Assembly Room in 1776 was\ngathered from the State Capitol at Harrisburg and from private sources.\nPortraits of the \u201cfounding fathers\u201d were hung in the room. The\npresident\u2019s dais was rebuilt in the east end of the room, and pillars,\nthought to have supported the ceiling, were erected. The red paint which\nhad been applied to the exterior of the building was removed from the\nChestnut Street side. When accumulated layers of paint were removed from\nthe first floor interior walls, the long-hidden beauty of carved\nornamentation was again revealed.\nDuring the Centennial restoration project, a large bell (weighing 13,000\npounds) and a new clock were given to the City by Henry Seybert for the\nsteeple of Independence Hall. This clock and bell are still in use.\n [Illustration: _The body of Elisha Kent Kane, Arctic explorer, lying\n in state in the Assembly Room of Independence Hall, 1857._ Courtesy\n Philadelphia Free Library.]\nWith the close of the Centennial celebration, Independence Hall\nexperienced a period of quiet, disturbed only by the increasing numbers\nof visitors. Then toward the close of the 19th century, another\nrestoration cycle began, but its emphasis was quite different from that\nof any in the past. Except for the replacement of the steeple in 1828,\nall restoration work heretofore had been concentrated in the east or\nAssembly Room on the first floor. Finally, in the 1890\u2019s interest\nextended from the Assembly Room to the remainder of the building. An\nordinance of the Common and Select Councils, approved by the Mayor on\nDecember 26, 1895, called for the restoration of Independence Square to\nits appearance during the Revolution. A committee of City officers\nconcerned with public buildings and an advisory committee of leading\ncitizens were named by the Mayor to carry out the work. On March 19,\n1896, a resolution of the Councils granted permission to the\nPhiladelphia Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution to\nproceed with the restoration of the old Council chamber on the second\nfloor of Independence Hall.\nBetween 1896 and 1898, the committees and the Daughters of the American\nRevolution carried out a most extensive program of restoration. The\noffice buildings designed by Robert Mills were replaced by wings and\narcades which were more like those of the 18th century. The first-floor\nrooms of Independence Hall were restored, and the Daughters of the\nAmerican Revolution attempted to restore the entire second floor to its\nColonial appearance by reconstruction of the long room, the vestibule,\nand the two side rooms. A dummy clockcase, similar to that of the\nColonial period, was rebuilt outside on the west wall, but the planned\nmoving of the clock back to its 18th-century location was not carried\nout. With the completion of this work, the old State House had been\nrestored to a close approximation of its original design. For the first\ntime in almost a century the building appeared practically as it did\nduring the American Revolution.\nDuring the 19th century, the program of restoration and preservation had\nbeen concerned largely with work on Independence Hall, little thought\nhaving been given to the entire group of historical structures on the\nsquare. In fact, according to an act of the General Assembly approved\nAugust 5, 1870, the other buildings on the square were to be demolished.\nFortunately, this act was never carried out; it was finally repealed in\n [Illustration: _Lithograph of Independence Hall in 1876. (Note\n Bailey\u2019s statue of Washington opposite Chestnut Street entrance.)_\n Courtesy Philadelphia Free Library.]\nWith the 20th century, emphasis shifted from Independence Hall to the\nremainder of the group. Although some restoration work had been done in\nCongress Hall by the Colonial Dames of America in 1896, their efforts\nwere confined to the Senate chamber and to one of the committee rooms on\nthe upper floor. Additional restoration of Congress Hall was not\nundertaken until the American Institute of Architects became interested\nin the matter. In 1900, the Philadelphia Chapter of this organization\nmade a study of the documentary evidence available on the building and\nbegan an active campaign for its restoration. Finally, in 1912, funds\nbecame available and the City authorized the beginning of work under the\nauspices of the Philadelphia Chapter. This was completed in the\nfollowing year, and President Wilson formally rededicated the building.\nIn 1934, additional work was done in the House of Representatives\nchamber.\n [Illustration: _Restored Assembly Room of Independence Hall, 1876.\n (Note President\u2019s dais at far end of room, tile floor, and\n pillars\u2014then thought to have supported the ceiling.)_ Courtesy\n Philadelphia Free Library.]\nThe restoration of Congress Hall at Sixth Street brought into sharp\ncontrast the condition of the Supreme Court building (Old City Hall) at\nFifth Street. For many years the American Institute of Architects and\nother interested groups urged the City to complete restoration of the\nentire Independence Hall group by working on the Supreme Court building.\nThis phase of the program, delayed by World War I, was not completed\nuntil 1922.\nWith the completion of restoration projects, the buildings on\nIndependence Square presented a harmonious group of structures in\nsubstantially the appearance of their years of greatest glory. The\nneighborhood in which they were situated, however, had degenerated into\na most unsightly area. Therefore, the improvement of the environs of\nIndependence Hall, containing a large concentration of significant\nbuildings, was the next logical development.\nThis movement to preserve the historic buildings in Old Philadelphia,\nand incidentally to provide a more appropriate setting for them, had\nlong been considered. During World War II, the nationwide movement for\nthe conservation of cultural resources became particularly active in\nPhiladelphia, and much was done to coordinate the work of different\ngroups. In 1942, a group of interested persons, including\nrepresentatives of more than 50 civic and patriotic organizations, met\nin the Hall of the American Philosophical Society and organized the\n\u201cIndependence Hall Association.\u201d This association was the spearhead of a\nvigorous campaign which resulted in stimulating official action to bring\nabout the establishment of Independence National Historical Park\nProject.\n [Illustration: _The Banquet, or \u201cLong,\u201d Room of Independence Hall,\n restored by the Daughters of the American Revolution in 1897._ Photo\n taken in 1914. Courtesy Philadelphia Electric Co.]\n [Illustration: _Assembly Room of Independence Hall, 1952._]\nConceived as a means of reclaiming some of the neighborhood around\nIndependence Square and to preserve the many significant historical\nbuildings in the area for the benefit and enjoyment of the American\npeople, the historical park is being developed by the concerted efforts\nof the City of Philadelphia, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the\nUnited States of America.\nIn 1945, the State Government authorized the expenditure of funds to\nacquire the three city blocks between Fifth and Sixth Streets from the\nDelaware River bridgehead at Race Street to Independence Square. This\nproject of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, officially designated\n\u201cIndependence Mall,\u201d provides for the demolition of almost all buildings\nwithin the authorized area to make room for a great concourse, thereby\nforming a dignified approach to Independence Square. By the summer of\n1953, all buildings in the first block, between Chestnut and Market\nStreets, had been demolished and the ground prepared for landscaping.\nThe Federal area was defined by an act of the Congress (Public Law 795,\n80th Congress) after the matter had been studied intensively by a\nFederal commission named in 1946. The principal area covers three city\nblocks between Walnut and Chestnut from Fifth to Second Streets, with\nsubsidiary areas on either side to include important historic sites,\nsuch as the property adjacent to old Christ Church, the site of\nFranklin\u2019s home, and an area leading from Walnut Street to old St.\nMary\u2019s Church. A surprising number of significant buildings are included\nwithin the park boundaries. The First and Second Banks of the United\nStates, the Philadelphia Exchange, and the Bishop White and\nDilworth-Todd-Moylan houses are the principal historic buildings\nincluded in the Federal area. Carpenters\u2019 Hall and Christ Church will\nnot be purchased, but their preservation and interpretation have been\nassured through contracts with the Department of the Interior.\n [Illustration: _A scene from the reenactment of the signing of the\n Declaration of Independence in the Assembly Room of Independence\nThe contribution of the City of Philadelphia to the historical park is\nby far the most vital. On January 1, 1951, the custody and operation of\nthe Independence Hall group of buildings and the square were\ntransferred, under the terms of a contract, from the City to the\nNational Park Service. The title to the property will remain with the\nCity. Earlier, in 1943, the buildings were designated a national\nhistoric site by the Department of the Interior. Since assuming custody\nof the Independence Hall group, the National Park Service has carried\nout an extensive program of rehabilitation of these historic structures;\nalso, many facilities for visitors have been provided for the\ndissemination of the history of the Independence Hall group, as well as\nthat of the other structures in the park. In addition, a far-reaching\nproject of historical and architectural research has been undertaken.\nThe facts gathered in this research will enable plans to be developed\nwhich will assure the public of deriving the maximum benefit from a\nvisit to this most important historical area.\nIt is fortunate that these old structures have survived, sometimes\nthrough accident rather than design, so that they may serve as tangible\nillustrations of this Nation\u2019s history for the inspiration of this and\nsucceeding generations of Americans.\nThe Liberty Bell is the most venerated symbol of patriotism in the\nUnited States; its fame as an emblem of liberty is worldwide. In the\naffections of the American people today it overshadows even Independence\nHall, although veneration for the latter began much earlier. Its\nhistory, a combination of facts and folklore, has firmly established the\nLiberty Bell as the tangible image of political freedom. To understand\nthis unique position of the bell, one must go beyond authenticated\nhistory (for the bell is rarely mentioned in early records) and study\nthe folklore which has grown up.\nThe known facts about the Liberty Bell can be quickly told. Properly,\nthe story starts on November 1, 1751, when the superintendents of the\nState House of the Province of Pennsylvania (now Independence Hall)\nordered a \u201cbell of about two thousand pounds weight\u201d for use in that\nbuilding. They stipulated that the bell should have cast around its\ncrown the Old Testament quotation, \u201cProclaim liberty throughout all the\nland, unto all the inhabitants thereof.\u201d Most likely, this phrase was\nchosen in commemoration of William Penn\u2019s Charter of Privileges issued\n50 years earlier.\nThomas Lester\u2019s foundry at Whitechapel, in London, was the scene of\ncasting the bell. Soon after its arrival in Philadelphia, in August\n1752, the brand new bell was cracked \u201cby a stroke of the clapper without\nany other viollence as it was hung up to try the sound.\u201d At this\njuncture, those now famous \u201ctwo ingenious workmen of Philadelphia,\u201d Pass\nand Stow, undertook to recast the cracked bell. After at least one\nrecorded failure to produce an instrument of pleasing tone, their\nefforts were successful, and, in 1753, the bell began its period of\nservice, summoning the legislators to the Assembly and opening the\ncourts of justice in the State House.\n [Illustration: _Earliest known representation of the Liberty Bell._\n From the anti-slavery booklet, _The Liberty Bell_, published by the\n Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Fair, Boston, 1839. Courtesy Historical\n Society of Pennsylvania.]\nWith the threat of British occupation of Philadelphia in 1777, the State\nHouse bell and other bells were hastily moved from the City to prevent\ntheir falling into British hands and being made into cannon. Taken to\nAllentown, the bell remained hidden under the floor of the Zion Reformed\nChurch for almost a year. In the summer of 1778, upon the withdrawal of\nthe British, it was deemed safe to return the bells to Philadelphia.\nBy 1773, the State House steeple had become so dangerously weakened that\nit was removed in 1781 and the bell lowered into the brick tower. Some\n50 years later, in 1828, when the wooden steeple was rebuilt, a new and\nlarger bell was acquired. The old bell, almost forgotten, probably\nremained in the tower. The new one was obtained, perhaps, because the\noriginal had either cracked or had shown indications of cracking.\nTraditionally, the fracture occurred while the bell was being tolled\nduring the funeral procession of Chief Justice John Marshall some 7\nyears later. In 1846, an attempt was made to restore the bell\u2019s tone by\ndrilling the crack so as to separate the sides of the fracture. This\nattempt failed. The bell was actually tolled for Washington\u2019s birthday,\nbut for the last time, for the crack began to spread.\nNow that the bell was mute, useless as a summoner or sounder of alarms,\nit began to assume a new and more vital role. Over the years it came to\nbe a symbol of human liberty\u2014a very substantial symbol of 2,080 pounds\nof cast metal\u2014inscribed with the Biblical admonition to \u201cproclaim\nliberty.\u201d\n [Illustration: _An early use of the Liberty Bell as a symbolic\n device._ From R. H. Smith, _Philadelphia As It Is_, 1852.]\n [Illustration: _\u201cThe Bellman informed of the passage of the\n Declaration of Independence.\u201d Lippard\u2019s legend of the Liberty Bell\n was incorporated by Joel Tyler Headley in his_ Life of George\n Washington, _which ran serially in_ Graham\u2019s Magazine _in 1854. This\n illustration appeared in the June issue._]\n [Illustration: _Between 1854 and 1876, the Liberty Bell stood on\n display in the Assembly Room on a 13-sided pedestal representing the\n Thirteen Original States._ Sketch by Theo. R. Davis in _Harper\u2019s\nIt is difficult to find the exact beginnings of this veneration for the\nLiberty Bell. Independence Hall, the building with which it is so\nintimately associated, began its evolution as a patriotic shrine about\nthe time of Lafayette\u2019s visit in 1824, but the bell, rarely mentioned\nearlier, still received no notice. Illustrative of this lack of\ninterest, perhaps, is the late 19th-century tradition, only recently\ndisproved, that in 1828 the Liberty Bell was offered as scrap metal\nvalued at $400 in partial payment to the manufacturer for the new State\nHouse bell.\nProbably the first use of the bell as a symbolic device dates from 1839.\nIn that year, some unknown person apparently noted the forgotten\ninscription on the bell. This was immediately seized upon by adherents\nof the antislavery movement who published a pamphlet, entitled _The\nLiberty Bell_. This is also the first known use of that name.\nPreviously, the bell was called the Old State House Bell, the Bell of\nthe Revolution, or Old Independence. That publication was followed by\nothers which displayed the bell, greatly idealized, as a frontispiece.\nThus the bell became identified with early antislavery propaganda,\ninvoking the inscription of a promise of freedom to \u201call the\ninhabitants.\u201d During this time, it is interesting to note, the symbolism\nof the bell served a narrow field; little, if any, thought was given it\nas a patriotic relic.\nBut patriotism was the next logical step. In the first half of the 19th\ncentury the bell became the subject of legendary tales which it has not\nbeen possible to verify. These legends have been recited in prose and\npoetry; they have found their way into children\u2019s textbooks; and they\nhave contributed greatly to rousing the patriotic enthusiasm of\nsucceeding generations of Americans. Accepted by all classes of people,\nthese legends have done more than anything else to make the bell an\nobject of veneration.\n [Illustration: _From 1876 to 1885, the bell hung in the tower room\n from a chain of 13 links._ Wood engraving in David Scattergood,\n _Hand Book of the State House_, Philadelphia, 1890.]\nThe patriotic folklore apparently began with George Lippard, a popular\nnovelist of Philadelphia. It was Lippard who wrote that most thrilling\nand irrepressible tale of the bell, the vivid story of the old\nbellringer waiting to ring the bell on July 4, 1776. This tale first\nappeared in 1847 in the Philadelphia _Saturday Courier_ under the name,\n\u201cFourth of July, 1776,\u201d one of a collection called _Legends of the\nRevolution_.\nThe popularity of Lippard\u2019s legend soon brought imitations. The noted\nBenson J. Lossing, gathering material for his popular _Field Book of the\nRevolution_, visited Philadelphia in 1848 and recorded the story. This\ngave the legend historical credence in the minds of Lossing\u2019s host of\nreaders. Taking the story presumably from Lossing, Joel Tyler Headley,\nanother well-known historian, included it with certain variations of his\nown in his _Life of George Washington_, which was published first\nserially in 1854 in _Graham\u2019s Magazine_ and then in book form.\n [Illustration: _The Liberty Bell in a glass case, 1895-1915._ From\n Victor Rosewater, _The Liberty Bell Its History and Significance_,\n D. Appleton and Co., New York, 1926. Courtesy Appleton-Century-Croft\nFirmly established as history by Lossing and Headley, Lippard\u2019s story\nalso found poetic expression. The date of the first poem on this theme\nhas not been established, but, once written, it found its way into\nschool readers and into collections of patriotic verse. The most widely\nread was probably G. S. Hillard\u2019s _Franklin Fifth Reader_, issued in\n1871, although the poem had been in popular use for some time before.\nBeginning with \u201cThere was a tumult in the city, in the quaint old Quaker\ntown,\u201d the poem became a popular recitation piece which every schoolboy\nknew. The best known lines read:\n Hushed the people\u2019s swelling murmur,\n Whilst the boy cries joyously;\n \u201cRing!\u201d he\u2019s shouting, \u201cring, grandfather,\n Ring! Oh, ring for Liberty!\u201d\n Quickly at the given signal\n The old bellman lifts his hand.\n Forth he sends the good news, making\n Iron music through the land.\nThe growing legend of the Liberty Bell aroused curiosity in the relic\nitself, hidden from view in the tower. It was consequently brought down\nto the first floor of Independence Hall. In 1852, during a convention of\ndelegates from the Thirteen Original States in Independence Hall, the\nbell was placed on a temporary pedestal in the Assembly Room\u2014the east\nroom. Two years later the temporary platform was replaced by a massive\npedestal having 13 sides ornamented by Roman fasces, liberty caps, and\nfestooned flags. The bell was topped by Charles Willson Peale\u2019s mounted\neagle.\nIn this position the Liberty Bell remained until a more intense\ninterest, awakened by the approaching celebration of the Centennial\nAnniversary, caused it to be moved to the hallway. Here it was mounted\non its old wooden frame which had been found in the tower. A plain iron\nrailing enclosed the bell and frame.\nThe bell stayed in this location for only a short time. A few years\nlater it and the frame were placed in the Supreme Court Chamber\u2014the west\nroom\u2014near one of the front windows. Displaying it in its heavy wooden\nframe evidently proved unsatisfactory, because the bell itself was\npractically concealed. The next move, therefore, was to suspend it from\nthe ceiling of the tower room by a chain of 13 links.\nProbably because the inscription was difficult to read while the bell\nwas suspended from the chain, it was lowered about 1895, placed in a\nlarge, glass-enclosed mahogany case, and again put in the Assembly Room.\nFor 20 years it remained in this case, located part of the time in the\nAssembly Room and part of the time in the tower room. Finally, it was\ndecided that visitors should be permitted to touch the bell, which was\nremoved from the glass case in 1915 and exhibited on a frame and\npedestal. With the whole arrangement on wheels, it could be quickly\nrolled out of the building in an emergency. This is the manner in which\nit is displayed today. Located just inside the south, or tower, door,\nthe Liberty Bell is illuminated at night so that visitors may see it\nfrom Independence Square.\n [Illustration: _In 1917, on First Liberty Loan Day, the bell was\n paraded on a truck through the streets of Philadelphia._ Courtesy\n City of Philadelphia.]\n [Illustration: _Representatives of Allied Nations around the bell in\n 1919 on the occasion of General Pershing\u2019s visit to Independence\n Hall._ Courtesy City of Philadelphia.]\nThe growing importance of the Liberty Bell as a patriotic symbol aroused\npopular demand for its movement around the country so that more people\ncould see it. The first long journey was in the winter of 1885 to New\nOrleans and through the South. Later trips took the bell to Chicago in\n1893, to Atlanta in 1895, to Charleston in 1902, to Boston in 1903, and\nto San Francisco in 1915. On each trip the arrival of the bell was the\noccasion for celebrations by patriotic groups and citizens, many of whom\ntraveled long distances to see and touch the venerated relic. During\nthese trips, however, the crack in the bell increased, and finally its\ncondition became so dangerous that all future travel had to be\nprohibited.\n [Illustration: _This group is typical of the hundreds of thousands\n of visitors who come annually from every corner of the world to see\n the Liberty Bell._]\nThe affectionate reverence inspired by the Liberty Bell is demonstrated\nby the endless stream of visitors who come to see it, touch it, or\nsimply stand quietly beside it. No other patriotic relic in America has\nhad a more distinguished visitation. Almost every President of the\nUnited States since Abraham Lincoln has come to Independence Hall to pay\nhis respect to the Liberty Bell. Statesmen and great military leaders of\nthe world have joined the masses of ordinary people in honoring it.\nPoets and other literary figures have attempted to express the meaning\nof the bell, and John Philip Sousa, the \u201cMarch King,\u201d composed a\n_Liberty Bell March_. It has been pictured on postage stamps, fifty cent\npieces, and on national bond drive posters.\nThe Liberty Bell has served to arouse the patriotic instincts of more\nthan one generation of Americans. It is today surrounded by a cloak of\nveneration. Even more, it has come to be regarded by countless millions\nthroughout the world as the one great symbol of freedom, liberty, and\njustice.\nThe information which follows supplements that contained in the\nnarrative of this handbook. It is so arranged as to enable the visitor\nto make his own tour of the area. The numbers given correspond to the\nnumbers on the map of the park and vicinity. (See pages 32 and 33).\nNO. 1. INDEPENDENCE HALL GROUP, Independence Square, comprises\nIndependence Hall, east and west wings, Congress Hall, and the Supreme\nCourt building (Old City Hall). INDEPENDENCE HALL, the center building,\nwas erected between 1732 and 1753 as the State House of the Province of\nPennsylvania; here the Declaration of Independence was adopted on July\n4, 1776, the Continental Congress met during the American Revolution,\nand the Federal Constitutional Convention sat in 1787. The Liberty Bell\nis located on the first floor of the tower. The WING BUILDINGS, erected\noriginally in the 1730\u2019s, served as Provincial offices; they were torn\ndown in 1812 and reconstructed in 1898. The buildings now serve as the\nInformation Centers of the park. CONGRESS HALL, built as the County\nCourthouse in 1787-89, housed the Congress of the United States from\n1790 to 1800. In the SUPREME COURT BUILDING, erected in 1789-91 as the\nCity Hall of Philadelphia, sat the Supreme Court of the United States\nfrom 1791 to 1800. These buildings are open from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m.\ndaily, including holidays. Visitors should begin their tours in the\nInformation Center, west wing of Independence Hall.\nNO. 2. PHILOSOPHICAL HALL (American Philosophical Society) on\nIndependence Square. In 1785, the Assembly of Pennsylvania granted the\nlot to the society. The building, erected between 1785 and 1789,\nharmonizes in style with the other buildings on the square. The American\nPhilosophical Society, the oldest and one of the most distinguished\nlearned societies in America, was started in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin.\nThe building, still occupied by the society, is not part of Independence\nNational Historical Park and is not open to the general public.\nNO. 3. LIBRARY HALL, (site of Library Company of Philadelphia), on\nnortheast corner of Library and Fifth Streets. Founded in 1731 by\nBenjamin Franklin and his friends, the Library Company of Philadelphia\nwas the first subscription library in the American Colonies. From 1790\nto 1880, the library was housed in an attractive building on this site.\nThe structure was demolished about 1884.\n [Illustration: {Second Bank of the United States}]\nNO. 4. SECOND BANK OF THE UNITED STATES (Old Custom House), 420 Chestnut\nStreet. The building, patterned after the Parthenon by the architect\nWilliam Strickland, and considered one of the finest examples of Greek\nrevival architecture in the United States, was erected between 1819 and\n1824 to house the Second Bank of the United States. After a bitter\ncontroversy between President Jackson and the Whigs over the renewal of\nthe charter, the bank closed in 1836. It was then chartered by the\nCommonwealth of Pennsylvania, but finally failed in 1841. From 1845 to\n1934, the building was the Philadelphia Custom House. In 1939, the\nTreasury Department transferred the building to the Department of the\nInterior. It has been partially restored to its original design under\nthe guidance of the National Park Service. Now exhibited and maintained\nby the Carl Schurz Memorial Foundation, the building is open to the\npublic Monday through Friday from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m.\nNO. 5. DILWORTH-TODD-MOYLAN HOUSE, on northeast corner of Fourth and\nWalnut Streets. This small brick row house, typical of colonial\nPhiladelphia, was built by Jonathan Dilworth, merchant, about 1775. From\n1791 to 1793, it was the home of John Todd, Jr., and his wife, Dolly\nPayne. Following Todd\u2019s death during the yellow fever epidemic of 1793,\nhis widow married James Madison, Congressman from Virginia, who later\nbecame the fourth President of the United States. From 1796 to 1810, it\nwas the home of Gen. Stephen Moylan, mustermaster general and cavalry\nofficer during the Revolution and commissioner of loans in 1793. The\nbuilding is not open to the public pending its restoration by the\nNational Park Service.\n [Illustration: {Dilworth-Todd-Moylan House}]\n [Illustration: {Bishop White House}]\nNO. 6. BISHOP WHITE HOUSE, 309 Walnut Street. This large brick\nresidence, an excellent example of an early Philadelphia row house, was\nbuilt shortly after the Revolution by the Reverend William White, Rector\nof Christ Church and St. Peter\u2019s Church from 1777. He became the first\nBishop of Pennsylvania in 1787 and acted as a unifying force in\nreorganizing the Episcopal Church after the Revolution. After a long\nlife of service to mankind, he died in his home on July 17, 1836. The\nbuilding is not open to the public pending its restoration by the\nNational Park Service.\nNO. 7. CITY TAVERN (site of), southwest corner of Second and Moravian\nStreets. A three-story structure, built about 1773, this was the most\nfashionable tavern in Philadelphia and was famous as the gathering place\nof members of the Continental Congresses and the Constitutional\nConvention and officials of the Federal Government from 1790 to 1800.\nThe building was demolished about 1852.\n [Illustration: {Philadelphia Exchange}]\nNO. 8. PHILADELPHIA (Merchants\u2019) EXCHANGE, on the northeast corner of\nThird and Walnut Streets. Built between 1832 and 1834, this building is\nnoteworthy for the beauty of its architecture. For many years it was the\nmeeting place for merchants and was the center of the commercial\nactivities of Philadelphia. The building is not open to the public.\n [Illustration: {First Bank of the United States}]\nNO. 9. FIRST BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, on the west side of South Third\nStreet, between Walnut and Chestnut Streets. Built between 1795 and\n1797, this structure is probably the oldest bank building in the United\nStates. The First Bank of the United States was established as part of\nthe comprehensive program developed by Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of\nthe Treasury, to rectify the disordered state of Government finances.\nThe building, with its interesting classical facade, was occupied by the\nFirst Bank of the United States until the expiration of its charter in\n1811. In the following year, the building was purchased by Stephen\nGirard, the wealthy merchant of Philadelphia, who opened his bank there.\nNow the office of the Board of Directors of City Trusts, the building is\nopen to the public from 9 a. m. to 4 p. m. daily, except Saturday and\nSunday.\n [Illustration: {Carpenters\u2019 Hall}]\nNO. 10. CARPENTERS\u2019 HALL, 320 Chestnut Street. In September 1774, when\nthe delegates to the first Continental Congress came to Philadelphia,\nthey chose to meet in Carpenters\u2019 Hall rather than the State House. The\nHall, built in 1770, was the guild hall of the Carpenters\u2019 Company of\nPhiladelphia, founded in 1724. In 1773, the building was also occupied\nby the Library Company of Philadelphia, whose books were used by the\nContinental Congress. Following the Revolution, the building was rented\nfor many purposes by the Carpenters\u2019 Company. In 1857, they repaired the\nHall and opened it as a historic shrine. The building and its grounds,\nstill maintained by the Carpenters\u2019 Company of Philadelphia, is a part\nof Independence National Historical Park under a cooperative agreement\nwith the Department of the Interior and is open daily, except Sunday and\nMonday, from 9 a. m. to 4 p. m. free of charge.\n [Illustration: {Franklin Court}]\nNO. 11. FRANKLIN COURT (site of Benjamin Franklin\u2019s home), on Orianna\nStreet, south of Market Street. In this court, entered through a\npicturesque archway on Market Street, stood the imposing brick house of\nBenjamin Franklin from 1765 to 1812. Until 1785, Franklin lived in the\nhouse for only a year, since he served as Provincial agent in England\nfrom 1764 to 1775 and as a Commissioner to France from 1776 to 1785. In\n1776, however, he served on the committee named by the Continental\nCongress to draft the Declaration of Independence. Franklin had an\nimportant part in the successful negotiation of the Treaty of Alliance\nbetween France and the United States, in 1778, which was largely\nresponsible for the success of the Revolution. Upon his return to\nPhiladelphia, he was elected President of Pennsylvania, and, in 1787, he\nwas a delegate to the Federal Constitutional Convention. After a long\nand worthy life, Benjamin Franklin died in his home on April 17, 1790,\nat the age of 84. The house was demolished about 20 years after his\ndeath.\nNOS. 12 AND 13. CHRIST CHURCH, on west side of Second Street, north of\nMarket Street, and CEMETERY, at Fifth and Arch Streets. Founded in 1695\nand built between 1727 and 1754, Christ Church, one of the most famous\nchurches in America, had in its congregation many leading figures of the\nRevolution, including Washington, Franklin, Robert Morris, and Francis\nHopkinson. Architecturally, the building, with its 200-foot steeple, is\na monument to colonial craftsmanship\u2014one of the largest and most\nbeautiful structures in 18th-century America. Ecclesiastically, Christ\nChurch is famous as the scene of the post-Revolutionary organization of\nthe Episcopal Church. Its rector, William White, was the first Bishop of\nPennsylvania and the second American prelate. Seven signers of the\nDeclaration of Independence, as well as four signers of the\nConstitution, are buried at the church and in the cemetery. Franklin\u2019s\ngrave is at the corner of Fifth and Arch Streets. The preservation of\nthe church is assured by a cooperative agreement made in 1950 between\nthe Department of the Interior and the Corporation of Christ Church. The\nchurch and grounds are open to the public from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m.\n [Illustration: {Christ Church and Cemetery}]\nNO. 14. GLORIA DEI (OLD SWEDES\u2019) CHURCH, at Swanson Street and Delaware\nAvenue, is the oldest church building in Pennsylvania. The present\nstructure, erected in 1700, replaced a log church built in 1677. The\nSwedes preceded the English to this part of the New World and began the\nGloria Dei congregation in 1646. For almost two centuries this church\nwas under the Swedish hierarchy, but after the Scandinavians had been\nabsorbed into the general American population, Gloria Dei applied for\nadmission into the Episcopal Church and was received by the Bishop of\nPennsylvania in 1845. Swedish treasures are plentiful in the church to\nthis day: many old documents and books; carved cherubim (imported in\n1643); and the baptismal font. The church is nine blocks south from\nMarket Street to Christian Street, then east to Delaware Avenue.\nAssurance that the church will be preserved unchanged is given in a\ncooperative agreement with the Department of the Interior. It is open to\nthe public from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m. daily.\nNO. 15. DESHLER-MORRIS HOUSE, 5442 Germantown Avenue. President\nWashington lived in this house during the fall of 1793 and summer of\n1794. It may be considered the oldest \u201cWhite House\u201d standing. Erected by\nDavid Deshler in 1772-73, it was bought in 1792 by Col. Isaac Franks,\nwho had served in the Revolutionary War. The latter rented it to\nWashington, who moved out of Philadelphia during the yellow fever\nepidemic of 1793. Bequeathed by the Morris family to the United States\nGovernment in 1949, the house has been restored and is today exhibited\nby the Germantown Historical Society in cooperation with the National\nPark Service. It is open daily except Monday, from 2 p. m. to 5 p. m.,\nwith an admission fee of 25 cents for adults and 10 cents for children.\nThe house may be reached by public or private transportation: north on\nFifth Street to Germantown Avenue, then northwest about 3.5 miles.\n [Illustration: {Deshler-Morris House}]\nOther points of historic interest in Old Philadelphia in the\nneighborhood of Independence National Historical Park are:\nNO. 16. ST. MARY\u2019S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, west side of South Fourth\nStreet between Locust and Spruce Streets;\nNO. 17. ATWATER KENT MUSEUM OF PHILADELPHIA, 15 South Seventh Street;\nNO. 18. HOLY TRINITY ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, northwest corner of South\nSixth and Spruce Streets;\nNO. 19. OLD PINE STREET PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, southwest corner of Pine\nand South Fourth Streets;\nNO. 20. ST. PETER\u2019S EPISCOPAL CHURCH, southwest corner of Pine and South\nThird Streets;\nNO. 21. POWEL HOUSE, 244 South Third Street;\nNO. 22. ST. PAUL\u2019S EPISCOPAL CHURCH (City Mission), east side of South\nThird Street and South of Walnut Street;\nNO. 23. ST. JOSEPH\u2019S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, south side of Walnut Street\nbetween Third and Fourth Streets;\nNO. 24. BETSY ROSS HOUSE, 239 Arch Street;\nNO. 25. FRIENDS MEETING HOUSE, south side of Arch Street between Third\nand Fourth Streets;\nNO. 26. FREE QUAKER MEETING HOUSE, southwest corner of North Fifth and\nArch Streets;\nNo. 27. ST. GEORGE\u2019S METHODIST CHURCH, 235 North Fourth Street.\nIndependence National Historical Park is located in the old, or eastern,\nsection of downtown Philadelphia. It may be reached by automobile via\nChestnut, Market, or Vine Streets, by the Market Street subway, and by\nseveral trolley and bus lines. As a large transportation center,\nPhiladelphia is served by an extensive system of major highways,\nrailroads, and airlines.\nThe Independence Hall group of buildings is open to the public daily\nfrom 9 a. m. to 5 p. m. For other buildings in the area, see \u201cGuide to\nthe Area.\u201d Exhibits relating to the history of the park are on display\nin the several historic buildings. Free literature, as well as other\npublications, is available in the Information Centers in the west and\neast wings of Independence Hall. Services of historians and other\npersonnel are available. Organizations and groups are given special\nservice if arrangements are made in advance with the superintendent.\nSince January 1, 1951, the Independence Hall group of buildings has been\nadministered by the National Park Service of the United States\nDepartment of the Interior as a part of Independence National Historical\nPark. Under the terms of a cooperative agreement made in 1950 between\nthe City of Philadelphia and the Department of the Interior, the\nNational Park Service assumed the administration and maintenance of the\nbuildings and Independence Square, with the City retaining ownership of\nthe property. Also under National Park Service administration are the\nDeshler-Morris House in Germantown, as well as those properties within\nthe park which have been acquired by the Federal Government. All\ninquiries concerning the area should be addressed to the Superintendent,\nIndependence National Historical Park, Old Custom House, 420 Chestnut\nStreet, Philadelphia 6, Pa.\nIndependence National Historical Park is one of the several areas of the\nNational Park System representing the Revolutionary and early Federal\nperiods in American history. Others are: Colonial National Historical\nPark, Va.; Federal Hall Memorial National Historic Site, N. Y.; Guilford\nCourthouse National Military Park, N. C.; Hopewell Village National\nHistoric Site, Pa.; Kings Mountain National Military Park, S. C.; Moores\nCreek National Military Park, N. C.; Morristown National Historical\nPark, N. J.; and Saratoga National Historical Park, N. Y.\n REVISED 1954 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1954 O\u2014309743\n _I have never had a feeling politically that did not spring from the\n sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence and I have\n pondered over the dangers which were incurred by the men who assembled\n here and adopted that Declaration of Independence and I have pondered\n over the toils that were endured by the officers and soldiers of the\n army who achieved that independence. I have often inquired of myself,\n what great principle or idea it was that kept this Confederacy so long\n together. It was not the mere matter of the separation of the colonies\n from the mother land; but something in that Declaration giving\n liberty, not alone to the people of this Country, but hope to the\n world for all future time. It was that which gave promise that in due\n time the weights should be lifted from the shoulders of all men, and\n that all should have an equal chance. This is the sentiment embodied\n in that Declaration of Independence._\n [Illustration: {Independence Hall}]\n\u2014Silently corrected a few typos.\n\u2014Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook\n is public-domain in the country of publication.\n\u2014Transcribed some text within images.\n\u2014In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by\n _underscores_.\n\u2014In the text versions only, added descriptions {in brackets} to\n uncaptioned images.\nEnd of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Independence National Historical Park,\nPhiladelphia, Pa., by Edward M. 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Blake", "date": "1941", "language": "mul", "lccn": "tmp96031334", "page-progression": "lr", "sponsor": "The Library of Congress", "contributor": "The Library of Congress", "scanningcenter": "capitolhill", "mediatype": "texts", "collection": ["library_of_congress", "americana"], "shiptracking": "LC187", "call_number": "17447424", "identifier-bib": "0003113173A", "repub_state": "4", "updatedate": "2012-12-10 13:46:42", "updater": "associate-caitlin-markey", "identifier": "anewfrenchenglis00mead", "uploader": "associate-caitlin-markey@archive.org", "addeddate": "2012-12-10 13:46:44", "publicdate": "2012-12-10 13:47:06", "scanner": "scribe10.capitolhill.archive.org", "notes": "No table-of-contents pages found.", "repub_seconds": "737", "ocr": "ABBYY FineReader 8.0", "ppi": "600", "camera": "Canon EOS 5D Mark II", "operator": "associate-lian-kam@archive.org", "scandate": "20130107121410", "republisher": "associate-phillip-gordon@archive.org", "imagecount": "792", "foldoutcount": "0", "identifier-access": "http://archive.org/details/anewfrenchenglis00mead", "identifier-ark": "ark:/13960/t7fr16d9x", "scanfee": "100", "sponsordate": "20130131", "possible-copyright-status": "The Library of Congress is unaware of any copyright restrictions for this item.", "backup_location": "ia905602_32", "openlibrary_edition": "OL992851M", "openlibrary_work": "OL3289709W", "external-identifier": "urn:oclc:record:1039511753", "republisher_operator": "associate-phillip-gordon@archive.org", "republisher_date": "20130107183903", "ocr_module_version": "0.0.14", "ocr_converted": "abbyy-to-hocr 1.1.11", "page_number_confidence": "96.71", "description": "352, 372 p. ; 16 cm", "creation_year": 1941, "content": "[New Words for General Use in Two Parts: 1. French to English, 2. English and French. Exhibiting the pronunciation of French sounds in pure English, parts of speech, gender of French nouns, regular and irregular conjugations of verbs, accent of English words, list of usual Christian and proper names, and names of countries and nations. Contains principles of French pronunciation and an abridged grammar. By F. C. Meadows, M. A., of the University of Paris. American edition, corrected and improved with a selection of idiomatic phrases. New-York: Alexander V. Blake. Entered according to the Act of Congress in the year 1837 by A. V. Blake, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. LC Control Number]\nPART ONE.\n\nThe French language's root has six vowels, possessing only two sounds: short and long, as shown in the following table:\n\nShort vowels: - a, e, i, o, u, y\nObservations:\n\nLong vowels: - eau, ee, oo, ou, ue, ue\nYield:\n\nDifferent sounds of E: - eau, there, ..., er\nAcute, grave, circumflex, mute: e, \u00e8, \u00e9, \u00ea\n\n(Note: The text appears to be an excerpt from an old grammar book, and the formatting is inconsistent. I have made some assumptions to make the text readable, such as adding missing punctuation and correcting some errors. However, I have tried to remain faithful to the original content as much as possible.)\nVowels with a circumflex over them express the suppression of an other vowel or consonant, except in very few instances where it occurs only for the sake of distinction. Circumflex is the union of u and e, uttered so rapidly as to form both nearly one open oo-sound. Dipthong sound of au, aux.\n\nProperties of Nasal consonants, \u2014 s, x, z, l, m, n, r, t, and so on. These shorten the syllable.\n\nSounds of c and g, soft and hard.\n\nHard: c, cue, cui, co, cu.\nSoft: gea, ge, gi, gE, geu.\nHard: ga. ijue, gui, go, gu.\n\nFor the nasal syllables, see Table of sounds.\n\nAny consonant preceding or following the above vowels must be pronounced according to their sonority.\n\nA vowel preceding two consonants of the same clarity to the same syllable, and the second consonant begins with the next as in donnez, do-n-jz.\nConsonants final are generally sounded before the following word, which begins with a vowel. S between two vowels, or final before a word beginning with a vowel, is sounded as z, except at the end of proper names, which it retains its natural hissing sound, few excepted, in which it is silent.\n\nAbridged Grammar\nNames and Definition of the Parts of Speech.\n\nI. NAMES.\nArticle, noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.\n\nII. DEFINITION OF THEIR PROPERTY.\nThe article defines the singularization of the noun before which it is placed.\nThe pronoun is the representative of the essence, mine, or noun.\nThe definite article \"the\" qualifies the property which diminishes or increases that of the essence or noun.\nThe verb animates the noun and unfolds its action.\nThe adverb modifies all verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, giving them a fixed and definite property. I he preposition connects pronouns to verbs and links their multiple dependencies. The conjunction unites all parts of speech and continues the chain of thought. The interjection, in our intermediate position, gives both expression and beauty to expression.\n\nThe noun has two genders in French: masculine and feminine, applicable to all objects, such as:\nmasculine: homme, femme, woman.\ncheval, horse. cavale, mare.\nlivre, book. ville, town.\narbre, tree. fleur, flower.\n\nSingular: vin, time. Plural: vins, wines. Viande, meat. Vjandes, meats.\n\nExceptions:\nWords ending in \"-re\" require \"x\" in the plural number, such as:\nSingular: vin, Singular: Plural: vins, Singular: Plural: Singular: Plural:\nvin, time. vins, wines. viande, meat. vjandes, meats.\nmasculine feminine\nagneau agneaux lambs peau si-m peaui skins\nThe following nouns are regular, and take s final:\nclou nnii t^a/ man. matou he-cnt. hlou pick-pocket loup-garou were-wolf trou 1^o//\nSingular Plural Singular Plural\nmasculine masculine\ncneval Aose chevaux horses travail labour travaux labours\nThe following nouns, ending in s in the singular, have x also in the plural:\nSingular Plural\nciel heaven cieux ateliers\naieul grandfather aieux grandfathers\nofe'ds\"\"\"\"'\"\"\"\"'\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\"\nDal, ball, camail, rn, Aooti.eventail, fa, mail, mall, iyi., &, train, dres, Ci, l, croaz/j, caniava, w, 6poivantail, 6cr/i, purtail, i>wrfrJ, bocal, slass-jug, regal, /mi-, detciil, d-lail, gouvemail, rudder, srail, l-.-y-aij/io.\n\nNouns ending in .<:, x, z retain their singular form in the plural number, being distinguished by the preceding articles. To simplify the following elements, we reduce them to easy forms, considering the usual divisions. Some of these words, improperly called pronouns, are here ranked among the pronouns, in order that the real pronouns may be better explained and understood.\n\nOf this French tongue.\n\nARTICLES.\n\nThere are six in French; namely,\u2014\ntbi Definite Le, &c. \n, , Indefinite un, une, \n, . Demonstrative ce, cei, &c. \n, , Possessive mon, &c, \n. . Interrogative . quul, &c. \nNone of these six articles can be nead \nWMthoui a noun being placed imme- \ndiately after it, with which it must \nagree in gender and number. \nthe. \nsome, any.. \nthis, that, \nwhich, &c. \nWhen the noiin, either mascuHne or feminine, begins with a vowel, or h mnte, the vowel of the arti- \ncle, or of the preposition da, is cut off, and supplied by an apostruplie placed between tlie coatracted \narticle, or preposition and the nonn. \nA, unaccented, and e, mute, are the only vowels contracted, except i, in s^il for si il, \nCASES OF XOIJ.VS \nAra formed by either of tlie two following prepositions placed, before articles, nouns, and pronouns, ex- \nThe definite article's genitive masculine is contracted into \"du\" instead of \"de u,\" and the dative into \"au,\" while all others follow the rule without exception. These are the positions: de, of, with, from, by; d, to, at, for.\n\n(1) DEFINITE.\nSINGULAR. PLURAL.\nthe\na, an, the, these, those, the, these, those\n\n(2) PARTITIVE,\nderived from the genitive of the definite article,\nthe, a, the, of, some, any\n\n(3) INDEFINITE,\nmoi, ton, ce, notre, votre, leur, mon, ton, son, notre, vos, leur, nous, vous, leur\nmy, your, his, our, your, their, our, your, his, our, your, their, us, you, their\n\n(4) DEMONSTRATIVE.\nSINGULAR. PLURAL.\nce, cette, ces, ce, ces, ces, ces, ces\nthis, this, these, that, this, these, these, these\n\n(5) POSSESSIVE,\nsingular.\nmes, tes, sien, nos, vos, leur\nmine, yours, his, ours, yours, their\n\n(6) INTERROGATIVE.\nquels, quelles, quelle, quoi, quoi, quels, quelles, quelles\nwhat, what, which, what, what, what, what, what\nCet is used before a masculine noun beginning with a vowel or an h mute.\nMon, ton, son, before a feminine noun beginning with a vowel or an h mute; as, cet homrae, this or that man. mon heure. my hour.\ncet avis- paper,\nDef. le papier,\nPart, du papier,\nIndef. un papier,\nDem. ce papier,\nmon papier this or that advice.\nson ignoraucft, Ida or her ignorance.\n\nChange:\nla raonnaie, of the monnaie,\nde la monnaie, from the money,\ni'argent,\nde l'argent, of the argent,\nun argent, a argent,\ncet argent, this argent,\nmon ardent, my ardent,\nPoss. mon papier, mi monnaie,\nInter. quel papier? what papier? quelle monnaie? what monnaie?\nProa. Ixihpah-pyai. la Jimo-iieye, the lar-hjang.\n\nhonour:\nI'lioinicur, of honour,\nde rhonneur, from honour,\nun honneur, a honneur,\ncet honneur, this honour,\nmon honneur, my honneur,\nquel honneur? what honour?\nloh-nur. honour.\n\nstudy:\nTe'iude, of study,\nde rf5tude, from study,\nune etude, a etude,\ncette etude, this etude,\nmon elude, my elude,\nquelle etude? what etude?\nLai-toodd. the.\nsome, any,\nthis, that.\nThe pronouns, placed either before or after the verb which they govern, being always indeclinable, are simply called personal pronouns to prevent ambiguity and facilitate the distinction of the other pronouns.\n\nThese are:\nm.f.\n4. Possessive:\n5. Demonstrative: ce, etc.\n6. Indefinite: on, Iun, Ilui, etc.\n\nPLURAL:\nnous.\nvous.\nits,\nelles.\nte,\nyou,\nthey,\nthey.\n\nSINGULAR:\ntn, il, elle, on,\nthou, he, it, she, it, one, etc.\n\nThe pronouns, like the articles, are divided into six classes; namely,\n1. Disjunctive pronouns: moi, toi, soi, lui, elle, moe, one's self, ni.\n2. Preconjunctive: me, te, se, etc.\n3. Relative: ci, qui, oi, lequel, etc. (who, qui, etc.)\nle mien, etc.\nhe, he who, etc.\nons, both, etc.\n\nAbridged Grammar\n\nB2N0ULAR.\n(1) DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS.\nPLURAL.\nmoi,\ntoi,\nsoi,\nlui,\nelle,\nmoi,\none's self,\nni.\nhe, him, the, we, nous, vons, soi, eiix, elks, ROLK. they, them, thee, these pronouns are used after de, a, and every preposition: as, de moi, of me; d'lui, to him. cr, her.\n\n2. After a personal verb, is, it is: as, c'est lui, it is he; c'est elle, it is she.\n3. Before the relative pronoun qui, who, which, that: d'eux orelles qui, to them, who.\n4. After gui, that), as: ne-quiie, only; as, plus riche que lui, richer than he; aussi belle qu'elle, as beautiful as she; je n'ai que lui, I have only him.\n5. In answer to a question: a ([question], a3, qui choisit-svous lui, whom do you choose? him.\n6. Emphatically before a nominative of the same person: as, moi, je pense comme cela, I think thus.\nThe preconjunctive pronouns, called from their union with one another, must invariably be placed immediately before the verb by which they are governed, but after the second person singular, first and second persons plural of the imperative mood. The preconjunctive pronoun of the accusative case, either single or combined with another, coming before the auxiliary verb avoir, to have, requires the following past participle to agree with it in gender and number. But a past participle coming after arozV, preceded by a preconjunctive pronoun of the dative case, remains unchanged.\n\nAccusative. 1st Table. Dative.\n\nSINGULAR,\nle, indefinite, se, definite. thee, one's self, lim, it.\nvous, se, les, que, you, themselves, them, m. f.\nuiiom. &G.\n\nSingular, indefinite and definite pronouns, as well as the reflexive pronouns se and se, are placed before the verb in the dative case. The pronouns vous, les, and que, as well as the personal pronouns you and themselves, and the indefinite pronoun it, remain unchanged after the verb arozV. The past participle following the preconjunctive pronoun in the dative case does not agree in gender and number.\nyou blame me. that scolds me,\nlohat do you tell us? (do not expect them,\ndoes he not deceive you?) I had forgot it.\nhad you sent it? we have rendered them,\nhave not they seen then?\n\nus, you, he, them, to us,\nyou, yourselves, them, to them, ra p,\nto you, me, that m'tunes,\nwhat do you say to us? I did not alter them,\nneither did he seem to do so? I had forgotten,\nyou were sent,\nwe had not read them, p.\nthey had not seen us, /. f >\n\nThe definite preconjunctive pronouns, te, la, les, hi.ii, her, it, them, are effected by the union with any of the dative case pronouns, thus exemplified:\n\nSingular.\nhim, it to me.\nher, it to me.\nthem, to me.\nhim, to him,\nher, to her,\nthem, to them,\nhim, to himself,\nher, to herself,\nthem, to them,\nhim, to them,\nher, to him, to her,\nthem, to us,\nher, to us,\nthem, to us,\nyou, to you,\nyou, to you,\nthem, to you,\nthemselves, to themselves,\nthemselves, to herself,\nthemselves,\nhim, to them,\nher, to them,\nthem, to them,\nyou, promise me,\nhim, you will tell him,\nnot I, her, will return it not,\nnot them, will send them not to you,\nhe, did not have us,\nwe, were not able to keep them,\nyou, had we not read them,\nnot them, did they outlive it, still written,\nthem,\nthem,\nto them,\nto them.\nyou proclaim it to me. Will you tell it to him or her? I shall not refuse it to him or her. Will you see them to him, to her? He has shown it to him or us. Have they sent her or it to you? If I had not promised it to them. Have they not remitted it to them? Should not have refused them then? Have they not written it to them?\n\nMaking improvements in exact copies of works prepared for this object at a comparatively early date is important. Nugent's Portable French Dictionary has been in use for a long time and is too well-known to require anything to be said of its merits. The present improved edition is from that of Professor Meadows, which was issued from the University Press at Glasgow, Scotland, in 1832.\nThe indefatigable Professor's manuscript is pronounced by competent judges as the best of its kind. He has raised the value of the original work not only by adding copious words in general use but more importantly, by exhibiting the Pronunciation in a simple and perspicuous mode, which exceeds all others in ease of acquisition. The professor adopts pure English sounds for this purpose, enabling the learner to readily acquire the correct pronunciation of any French word with very little previous instruction. The great success that has attended the professor's labors must astonish every French scholar who examines, however cursorily, the results as exhibited in this edition of the Dictionary.\n\nThe present editor flatters himself that in presenting this incomplete...\nParable this Dictionary is a valuable resource for American students. He believes the inclusion of idiomatic expressions and phrases, which often confuse beginners, added to the work, will make it even more useful. These additions are derived from reputable sources and have been carefully arranged.\n\nTABLE\nM-'H OP THE CONTENTS OF THE INTRODUCTION.\n\nFirst Part.\nPage\nShort and long sounds of vowels (1)\nProperty of final consonants (1)\nNames and definitions of parts of speech (2)\nOf articles and their number (3)\nOf the formation of cases of nouns (3)\nOf pronouns and their number (3)\n1. Disjunctive pronouns and their rule (4)\n2. Preconjunctive pronouns, their divisions, and rules (4)\nTable of the subordinating conjunctions, with examples:\nSecond table of the subjunctive, its formation, with examples: 4\nSecond table: the subordinating conjunctions \"y\" and \"en,\" and examples: 5\nThird table of the subordinating conjunctions:\nException to the position of the subordinating pronouns before the verb, with examples: 6\nNature of these subordinating pronouns \"y\" and \"en\": ... \nOf \"ze,\" \"i'e,\" \"quia,\" \"so,\" \"fc,\" and its application: 6\nObservation on \"ze,\" \"y,\" and \"en\": 7\nSimple relative pronoun, \"ijujicko,\" \"ichich,\" that, with rule and examples: 7\nInterrogative pronoun, \"qui?\" \"toho'\" \"which?\" with examples: 8\nCompound and idiomatic interrogative pronoun, \"quo.x,\" \"qui-est-ce,\" \"qui est ce,\" \"<]ui7,\" with examples: 8\nIndefinite interrogative pronoun, \"ludeSaiie,\" \"quoi,\" \"tshat,\" with examples: 8\nCompound and idiomatic interrogative pronoun, \"qu'est-ce qui,\" \"what,\" with examples: 8\nRelative pronoun and adverb, \"ou,\" \"which,\" \"ti/iere,\" with examples.\nCompound relative pronouns: who, that, ce qui, ce que, loiat, with rule and examples.\nCompound indefinite pronouns: qui que ce soit, qui que ce fut, whoever, whichever; quoi que ce fit, whatever, ichcmcever.\nPossessive pronouns: his, mine, etc., with rule and examples.\nDemonstrative pronouns: ce lui, celle ci, this, that, etc., with rule and examples.\nCelui-ci, celle-ci, this one, this, with rule and examples.\nCelui-li, celle-ci, that one, those, with examples.\nCelui-ci, celle-ci, he, she, tiller, with rule and examples.\nCelui-ld, ceiie-li, they, them, etc., examples.\nIs this a noun introduced by ce, etc., preceded by?\nIndefinite pronouns: this, that, these, those, which, whichever; whatever, whichever, anyone, anyone, anyone, anyone; whatever, whichever, whatever, whichever.\nEverybody, one another, people, their idiomatic combinations, the world, the party, nothing, quelque, of adjectives and their modifications. Plural of adjectives. Adjectives ending in e mute, adjectives ending in al, adjectives ending in ey, and ail, adjectives ending in ieur, adjectives and nouns ending in on, ien. Adjectives ending in ni. Position of adjectives. Comparison or modification of adjectives, with rules and examples. 7'ian expressed by que, superlative comparison of adjectives.\nComparison of 6on, jeji, giaia^(sai5, ... 15\nCoordination of the adverbs sixen, gnai, e'/-, and the less, the less, so much the higher, so much the less, IS\nNumbers, cardinal and ordinal, with their pronunciation and rules, H\n\nSECOND PART.\nOf verbs, 18\nRules for the formation of moods and tenses, 18\nDisposition of moods and tenses, ... 18\nVims excepted from the general formation, 18\nOf interrogation, 19\nConjugation of the irregular, active, and auxiliary verb avoir, to haue, with its four inflections:\n\nContents.\n- Page\nConjugation of the irregular, passive, and auxiliary verb etre, tu es, with its four inflections, 22, 23\nConjugation of the monopersonal verb y-avoir, iere voir, with its four inflections, ... 22, 23\nConjugation of the monosyllabic verbs \u00eates, est, with their four inflections, 22, 23.\nFirst regular conjugation of verbs in er, with it: four inflections and rules. (22,23)\nSecond regular conjugation of verbs in ir, with its four inflections and rules. (24,25)\nThird regular conjugation of verbs in eooir, with its four inflections and rules. (23,27)\nFourth regular conjugation of verbs in re, with its four inflections and rules. (26,27)\nOf reflective verbs, with their four inflections, examples: rides, unci. (23,29)\nPreconjunctive pronouns used with reflected verbs, and their exceptions. (30,31)\nFirst irregular conjugation of verbs in er. (30)\nIrregular conjugation of reflective verbs in en: liter (with its four inflections and rules). (30,31)\nIrregularities of some verbs in er. (32)\nIrregular verbs of the second conjugation in ir. (32)\nAcquerir: to acquire. (32)\nI will:\n1. Remove meaningless or completely unreadable content: None in this text.\n2. Remove introductions, notes, logistics information, publication information, or other content added by modern editors that obviously do not belong to the original text: None in this text.\n3. Translate ancient English or non-English languages into modern English: None in this text as it is already in English.\n4. Correct OCR errors: None in this text.\n\nTherefore, I will output the entire text as it is:\n\nI5t)uillir, to boil 3C\nCueillir, io 5\u00abZ/(t'r, and derivatives, ... S3\n(.'ourir, to run, and deceivables, 33\nf'aillir, Co fail, 33\nFir[\\\\ to slice, .'33\nFieiirir, to Jiourish, its irregularity, with ex- \nHair, to hate, 34\nGesir o/-gi'-, ?o Z/e, with examples, ... i 34\nMourir, to die, with rule and examples, . . . 34\nOuvrir, I'o o/;e\u00ab, and derivatives, 34\nUeVctir, to invest with, and derivatives, . . . 34\nSentir, to feel, &c. with derivatives and rules, 35\nVerbs in tir, vir, and mir, 35\n'I'ressaillir, to i, is changed into a disjunctive pronoun, applicable to the person.\n\nThis concludes this essential and intricate Gallicism, which I have endeavored to explain as clearly and fully as possible, to enable the student to surmount a difficulty, which, unremoved, would at every step obstruct his way and render his labors abortive.\n\n(3) RELATIVE PRONOUNS, simple and compound.\nThe simple relative pronoun who, which, that is employed for both genders, number, and all objects. When preceded by di or il, it is applicable only to rational or personified objects.\n\nsingular and plural: qui, who, which, that, for every object.\nde qui, of, from, which., that, whose, for persons only.\ndone, of the indefinite, which, that, whose, for every object.\n^ q\"i, to whom, wlich, that, for persons only.\nauquel, to whom, which, that, for every object, and for the sake of distinction.\nque, whom, which, that, for every object.\n\nQui is used and repeated before every verb coming; after a noun, a disjunctive, or a demonstrative pronoun of any case. Also idiomatically after a subordinating conjunction placed before the present participle of an English verb, which, if not rendered by the present of the infinitive of the French verb, is\nThe man who promises and does not keep his word is unworthy of belief. He has lost a place which would have been very advantageous to him, and reinstated him in his affairs. They are people who are very polite and do the honors of their house with much grace. The flowers which are beautiful and smell good please me the most.\nThe man who spoke to you and assured you, is very mistaken about the beautiful and sweet-smelling flowers. He is not the one who succeeded his father and will carry on his official charge. The man you address, the man you see, the work or study you apply yourself to, the livre you have. The man of whom you speak, the house of which you speak.\nThe labor to which you apply yourself, the studies to which you apply your time, the man whom you see, the book which you have. Do you not see them come one by one? Do you not see them come? I found them feasting and drinking as usual. The interrogative pronoun, qui, who or which, is of both genders and numbers. It can only refer to a rational object that precedes it. It is modified by de, a, and any other preposition without any change of termination in familiar conversation, or to express surprise, admiration, etc. Quel est-ce qui is used preceded by the same prepositions.\nBefore the verb \"divit\" is used Alfredively, followed by the preposition \"de.\" Familiar conversation, e.g. Thou,\nwhat? didst thou ask? what? of, from, etc. rohjm^ to, for, vikom7 qui est-ce qui? of whom do you speak? to whom will you give it? who seeks whom? for whom are you doing it? who told it to you? who speaks of it? of whom, do you speak? to whom will you give it? whom do you seek for? whom do you give it to? who is speaking of it? who speaks of it? of whom do you speak? to whom do you give it? whom do you seek? whom do you will give it to? who is it that you will give it to? who is it that you seek? for whom do you make it? zoho told it to you? who speaks of it? of whom do you speak? de qui est-ce dont you speak? whom do you speak of?\nFor whom is this \"pour qui\"? What are you doing for them? The interrogative indefinite pronoun, \"quoi?\" or \"wl.at?\" in English, is applicable to things of both genders and numbers. Its nominative is never pronounced before a verb as a governing person, but merely as an interjection. \"Que\" supplies the place of \"quidquid\" or the accusative. \"Quoi\" before a verb or alone implies surprise, doubt, admiration, and so on. In conversational use, the interrogative \"qui?\" is \"geesi-cemi\" for the nominative, and \"ju'csce gws\" for the other cases. \"Cuoi t que?\" \"Vkat!\" \"Qu'est-cequi?\" \"Unt?\" \"De quoi?\" \"Of what?\" \"De quoi est-ce que?\" \"O/ That?\" \"Quel est-ce que?\" \"To what?\" \"Que?\" \"That?\"\n\nInterjection \"fuoi\" in the French tongue.\n\nWhat! Are you sure of it in \"en eles-vous sur, -e?\" \"What!\" are you true to it?\n\"What do you complain about? In what do you spend your time? What do you pass your time with? What do you wish for?\"\n\n\"What is it? What is it that is a corporate answer to a question? What is it that is an idiomatic question?\"\n\nEXAMPLES.\n\n\"Render a service \u2014 what is it?\"\n\n\"What do you wish for?\"\nQuoi is used for the compound relative pronoun iequel, which is translated as \"which\" or \"that\" in English. Examples:\n\nThe grief to which you abandon yourself.\nThe place at which he aspires.\nThe evils to which they are exposed.\nThe things in which I employ myself.\n\nThis refactive pronoun and adverb is used either affirmatively or interrogatively, for both genders and numbers. It denotes time, place, condition, end, etc. In English, it can be expressed by any of the following prepositions placed before: which, to, at, it, on, into, with; also by, where, then. In French, it is expressed by the compound relative pronoun lequel, lic, agreeing in gender and number with.\nThe following noun. This pronoun cannot be preceded by any other prepositions than \"de\" and \"joar-,\" thus declined:\n\nOLi, where in, to, &c. which.\npar, through, into, Lc. which.\n\nEXAMPLES.\n\nLe \u00e9tat ou je suis? (oti/or dans lequeque.,) The situation in which I am.\nLa maison ou vous demeurez (ou/ordans laquelle.,) The house where you live.\nLes pays o\u00f9 nous irons (on for dans lesquels Tap.,) The countries to which we shall go.\nlies battailles ou nous f\u00fbmes engag\u00e9s (ou/or dans lesquelles.) The battles in which we were engaged.\n\n(3.) Lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, who, which:\n\nThis compound relative and interrogative pronoun is formed of the definite and of the interrogative articles, and, like both, it is declined in composition, agreeing invariantly in gender and number with the noun.\nwhich it represents. It is generally used for those objects to which one could not relate without ambiguity, particularly after two nouns of different natures. Lequel, et cetera, employed as a relative pronoun, refers to the first of two successive nouns.\n\nlequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, who, which.\nduquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, of whom, which,\nauquel, \u00e0 laquelle, auxquels, auxquelles, to whom, which,\nlequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, whom, which.\n\nEXAMPLES.\nIt is the son of the man who has taken it.\nWhich is here ambiguous, referring equally to the son or to the man, contrary to the meaning, as it refers solely to the son; therefore, it must be qui, as,\nIt is the man's son who has taken it.\nYou see the mother of the girl, who is so good. It is not the friends of my brothers who did it. Are these the companions of your sisters, who are dancing? Are not these your sisters' companions, who are dancing?\nfor those cases where \"qui,\" \"caimot,\" he adopted, when relating to irrational animals or objects: it may be preceded by any preposition. v. i. e., ce qui, ce dout, what; that which, ujwhati of which, ce h. quoi, to what; that to which, ce que, what; that which.\n\n10. ABRIDGED GRAMMAR.\nZicju*, etc., as an Interrogative pronoun is placed before the noun to which it refers, and Willi which it agrees in gender and number, but it may also be elegantly placed afterwards.\n\nEXAMPLES.\nLequel of these two books will you take?\nOf which of these ladies were you speaking?\nTo which of your studies do you most apply yourself?\nWhich of these shoes hurts you?\nIn which of these ships did you come? For which of your sisters do you do it? This compound relative demonstrative pronoun refers to two verbs; \"qui\" is used for the nominative or subject, and \"que\" for the accusative or object. This very irregular pronoun is applicable to things only and is declined as follows: \"ce qui m'est due,\" I have forgotten that of which you speak. That of which you are thinking will not succeed. What you propose will oblige me much.\nCe qui ou ce joue, suivi dans la deuxi\u00e8me partie d'une phrase par la troisi\u00e8me personne singuli\u00e8re ou plurielle de n'importe quel temps du verbe itre, exige ce before that person, sauf si suivi d'un adjectif, aussi, de, apr\u00e8s lui, avant un infinitif, et que devant les personnes du subjonctif mood.\n\nEXEMPLES.\nCe qui fait plaisir aux dames est \u00eatre admir\u00e9es. What gives pleasure to ladies is to be admired.\nCe qui me pla\u00eet c'est d'entendre chanter. What charms me is to hear her sing.\nCe que je pr\u00e9f\u00e8re, ce sont les com\u00e9dies. What I prefer are comedies.\nCe que je d\u00e9teste beaucoup ce sont les calomnies. What I detest much are calumnies.\nCe qui la flatte, c'est qu'on lui dit des douceurs. What flatters her is to be complimented.\nCe qui le met en col\u00e8re est qu'on lui r\u00e9pond. What makes him angry is to be answered.\nWhat you say is just and true. What dazzles the eyes is often deceitful. Ce puisse \u00eatre omis or express\u00e9 avant \u00e9tre suivi par un nom ; il est laiss\u00e9 hors avant un verbe. Ce qui lui pla\u00eet, c'est son avarice. What displeases him or her is his or her avarice. Ce nous amuse sont les journaux. Ce pleases vous, ce displeases him or her. Ce me pla\u00eet vous d\u00e9pla\u00eet. Ce me fait rire vous fait rage. (3.) Qui que ce soit, qui que ce f\u00fbt, whoever. Du m\u00eame ordre, ce puisse \u00eatre, quoi que ce f\u00fbt. These compound indefinite pronouns are derived from qui and que, quoi and que ; the first is applicable.\nThe pronouns \"who\" and \"what\" are used to refer to persons and inanimate objects respectively. They are modified by \"de, cl,\" and any preposition. \"Whoever it is\" with a negative before the verb implies nobody or no person living. \"Whatever it is\" with a negative before the verb implies nothing in the world. \"Whoever it is\" followed by \"guz\" requires it before the second verb if it should be its nominative case. Observe that \"who,\" \"que,\" and so on, govern the subjunctive mood after them.\n\nExamples:\nWhoever it is who says it imposes upon you.\nWhoever it is that says it, do not believe him.\nWhoever came to see him was not admitted. Of whomsoever you speak, you say no good of him. To whomsoever you apply, you always succeed. With whomsoever you engage, you must pay. There is nobody. I mistrust nobody in the world. She wrote to no living soul. I knew no one in that town. Whatever happens, let me know. He spoke to me of nothing whatever.\n\"He applies himself whatever he does, give me notice of whatever he desires, of mine, mine, mine, to mine, thine, thine, his, hers, theirs, yours, yours, theirs. I do nothing at all. I care for nothing in the world, she takes no pleasure in anything. He brought nothing whatever. The possessive pronouns, mien, thine, &c., are declined as follows:\n\nSINGULAR,\nle mien, la mienne.\"\nThese five are declined: du mine, au mine, C le tien, la tienne, ja sienne, A le votre, la votre, le leur, la leur. These pronouns relate to a preceding noun, with which they agree in gender and number. They should be used without the definite article placed immediately before them.\n\nEXAMPLES.\nVoici votre chapeau. Mais c'est le mien, here is your hat. But where is mine?\nJe ne sais rien de leur histoire ni de la tienne, I know nothing of their history or yours.\nCela cause beaucoup d'embarras \u00e0 mon p\u00e8re et au sien, that gives much uneasiness to my father and his or hers.\nVos habits et les n\u00f4tres sont us\u00e9s, your clothes and ours are worn out.\nJe ne crois pas que j'en aie des votres, I do not think that I have any of yours.\nPersonne adds not faith in your discourses, nor in theirs. Mine, thine, and so on, coming after to be, denoting possession, are changed into the disjunctive pronouns, EXAMPLES.\n\nIs this book yours? No, it is mine.\nGive him what is his.\n\nI did not know that it was hers.\nThey are now ours.\n\nWe thought that it was yours.\nThese warehouses and shops are theirs.\n\nAre these muffs and cloaks theirs!\n\nNo, they are my sisters.\n\nMine, thine, and so on, after a noun with of between them, are expressed by the personal pronouns of the possessors.\ni. articles, mon, ma, mes, &c., placed before the noun and agree in gender. number.\n\nEXAMPLES.\nUn de mes amis etait, a friend of mine was (here.\nUu de ses amis le protegeait, a friend of his protected him.\nUn de ses amis la justifia, a friend of hers justified her.\nUn de nos gen\u00e9raux fut tu\u00e9, a general of ours was killed.\nJe lui ai refus\u00e9 un de vos domestiques, I have received it from a servant of yours,\nUn de leurs parents veulent se rassembler, a relation of theirs is about to gather.\nUne de leurs parentes vient de se rassembler. a female relation of theirs is about to gather.\n\n(5) THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: ce, celle, that, ces, celles, those.\n\nCompounded of ce, and the disjunctive pronouns: lui, elle, eux,elles, by cutting off the vowel of ce.\nBefore elle, eux, elles refer to all objects and must agree in gender with the noun they represent. Should another noun follow and be governed by one of these demonstrative pronouns, that noun must be preceded by the definite article, du, de la, de le, des, according to gender: but by de only, if it be a proper name, a pronoun, a demonstrative, or possessive article.\n\nEXAMPLES.\nEst-ce votre tour? non. C'est ce celui de votre fr\u00e8re, is it your turn? no. It is that of your brother.\n\nTiuille maison avez-vous vendu? celle de ma m\u00e8re, what house have you sold! that of my mother.\n\nOn ne peut comparer ses talents avec ceux de son p\u00e8re feu, his talents cannot be compared with those of his late father.\n\nLes plus belles ann\u00e9es sont celles de la jeunesse, the happiest years are those of youth.\nQ: Which road do you take, the one to Loudres or that to London? Which one among us will he reward, the one who has done it?\n\nThis, that, these, those.\n\nOf these two adverbs, \"ci\" and \"la,\" one expresses an absolute and pointed meaning; thus, \"comme ici\" denotes proximity, and \"idem la\" denotes distance.\n\n12. Abridged Grammar\n\nEXAMPLES.\n\nI like this one better, I prefer this one.\n\nHave you seen that one?\n\nThese are the fine ones, they are the beautiful ones.\n\nThese are cheaper, these ones.\n\nI have bought that one.\n\nI shall take these ones.\n\nThese ones please me better.\nThose who refer to an indefinite object and are followed by qui or que, require que to complete the meaning.\n\nEXAMPLES.\nCelui qui est contenus, est heureux, he is happy, who is contented with little.\nCelle qui se conduit avec modestie, est digne d'estime, she is worthy of esteem, who behaves with modesty.\nCeux qui cultivent la vertu, sont heureux, they are happy, who practice virtue.\nCes derniers sont extravagants, qui suivent les modes, they are extravagant, who follow the fashions.\nNous admirons ceux-ci, que ni la naissance, la fortune, ni les honneurs ne rendent arrogants, we admire those, whom neither birth, fortune, nor honors make haughty.\nCet individu, cette femme, ces hommes, ces femmes, these last ones.\nRefer to the nonns mentioned before. This one, and so on, refers to the last, that one to the first, with which they must agree in gender and number.\n\nEXAMPLES.\n\nWinter and spring are the image of life. The latter is the emblem of youth, the former of old age.\n\nThere is a great difference between vice and virtue. The former makes us wretched, the latter happy.\n\nDrunkenness and gaming are two terrible passions. The latter deprives us of our senses and reason.\nruins or disquiet ma continually, the former deprives him of his sense and levels him with the brute,\nLes infortunes on les bons succes sont \u00e9galement utiles, ceux-ci nous enseignent humilit\u00e9 mod\u00e9rer nos irritions, ces misfortunes or lucky events are equally useful, the latter teach us humility and repress our repinings,\nCi and la are often joined to nouns preceded by the demonstrative article ce, cela, or ceux, for the sake of emphasis, proximity, or distance.\n\nEXAMPLES.\ndonnez-moi ce livre-ci, give me this book, je prends cet avis 1^, I shall follow that advice,\nje admire cette voiture-ci, I admire this carriage, je n'aime point cette action 1^, / do not like that action.\nmontrez moi ces papiers-ci, soyez gentil 77ie these papers, avez-vous achet\u00e9 ces choses 1^? have you bought these things.\nCi and Id are joined immediately to ce, forming the two pronouns, ceci and cela. this, that.\n\nexamples.\nceci vous concerne, this concerns you, cela vous fait-\u00eatre? does that make you angry\nn'ipsisbrsoin de ceci, I do not want this. que pensez-vous de ces? what do you think of them?\nfaites lui pr\u00e9sent de ceci, present him with this.\nje suis bien-aise de cela, I am glad of that.\nje dois pr\u00e9f\u00e9rence \u00e0 ce, I give preference to this.\nfaites attention \u00e0 ce, pay attention to it.\nje n'aime pas ceux, I do not like them.\n\nvoulez-vous dire ceci? do you mean this!\n\n(6) THE PROXIMITY OF ANOMALOUS PARTS\nconstitutes such a mass of irregularities as to be scarcely reducible to a proper form.\n\nIn this class of heros, pronouns, verbs, and adverbs, are confusedly mixed together.\nWith the exception of \"for/or, a7\u00aby6odi/oc, and I'autre, &c.\", proper application of these pronouns requires no further inquiries regarding their denomination. All other pronouns are preceded by de, d, or any other preposition.\n\nOf these supposed pronouns, the following can be called numerical pronouns:\n\nchacun, -e (m, f) - every, each, one, is masculine as a collective noun; masculine or feminine as a distributive,\nchaque, -e (m, f) - each, every, has no plural; an adjective always precedes a singular noun.\npertonae, m - nobody. No plural; it requires ne before the verb whether it precedes or follows; in interrogations, it is omitted.\n\nOf the French exchange,\n\n\u00abjicun, -e (m, f) - each, every.\nm.f. pidsiears, tout, peude\nRequiring ne before the verb, whether it precedes or follows.\n\nm.f. no, none, ic. Negative pronoun.\nNegative, not any, negative pronoun, not one. Negative, severa.\n\nIs both a noun and an adjective collective and distributive.\n\nm. indeclinable Iqu'un, on, Ix'Q f 'autre, laplupart, :nv, CT$.\nOne is used with the third person singular of any verb or tense.\n\nA.a. is an absolute and a relative noun.\n\nThe plural persons of verbs are used before the singular if they are placed before a verb and are an adjective, feminine after.\nIt is used with the third person singular of every verb. The greatest number has no plural: before a noun, it is followed by the definite article, with that you a plural; before a verb, it requires the third person plural. Others, which have no plural, are only used as a collective noun for the genitive and dative. Any body, etc., has a plural; used as a nominative, it requires the third person singular of two verbs. No infinitive; it requires \"ne\" before the verb, whether it precedes or follows it; in interrogations, \"ne\" is omitted. Such, etc., used as a noun, has no plural, as a relative adjective it has both numbers.\n\nCersei, *uc^, is an adjective agreeing in gender and number with the noun which it either precedes or follows. The same is generally an adjective before a noun, after a noun it is a pronoun.\nnoun, expressed by himself, herself, itself, thermelves, or very, \nnhaiever, as an adjective, agrees lu gender and number with the nonn it pre- \ncedes, bat it is indeclinable before an r.djeciive, which must be followed ty \nque, before the verb in the subjunctive mood, \n(inel-qoe, quelle-qae, &c. m. f. whatever, inc. is declined in the first part undivided from que, and \nagrees in gender and number with the persons of the verb to be, or with the noun governing that verb} \nvhich must be iu the subjunctive mood followed by its governing noun. \nSeme of the above pronouns are thus declined : \nSINGrLAR. PLURAL. \neu^Iqa'un, qnelqu*une, qnelques uns, quelqu^ ones, somebody, sovie one, some people* \nde queiqu'un, ^ quelqu'one, de qnelques uns, de quelques unes, of somebody, some one, some people. \nSome people, a few, some others, to some, a few ones, the one another, the certain, the same, a few each, one another, the one or the other, Singular. I one another, one of the other, both. Them one another, of one another, them and the others, both, of both, them and the others, them or the others, Plural. Them one another, one another, them and the others, to one another, them and the others, them or the others.\naux uns ou aux autres.\nto both.\neither,\nof either,\nto either.\nTune ou I'aatre, les uns on les autres,\nde l'un ou de l'autre, de une ou de l'autre.\ndes uns ou des autres,\na l'un ou a l'autre. a une ou a l'autre, aux uns ou aux autres\nci l'un ni l'aatre, ni Tune ni l'aatre, ni les ens ni les autres, ni les unes ni les autres, neither.\nsi de l'un ui de l'autre, iii de l'une nidellel'autre.\nni des uns ni des autres, ni des unes ni des sunrea, of neither.\neia l'un ni a l'autre, uial'un eni al'autre,\nni aux uns ni aux autres, iiiaux unes ni aux autres, tonther.\nNO masculine.\ntout le monde,\nde tout le monde,\ni. tout le monde.\nPLURAL.\nevery body, any body.\nof any body,\nto any body, every body.\nSINGULAR.\nNO PLURAL.\nun tel,\nd'un tei,\nqui mi tel.\ntine telle,\nd'une tcile,\nqui niiri te'ie,\nsuch a one.\nof such a one,\nto such a one.\nPLURAL.\nThe first of these two pronouns is often preceded by the definite article and certain adjectives.\n\nthe good people, law-abiding people, the learned men or people,\nthe common people, people of business,\nthe poor people, courtiers,\nthe old people, the wealthy, governing people,\nthe servants (of a family),\nthe household people, the bad people.\n\nOf adjectives and their modifications.\nAn adjective, in French, agrees in gender with the noun it qualifies by adding e mute to the final syllable for singular feminine; as,\n\nSingular: Singular.\nmasc. fem.\nman learned, woman learned,\nnoise great, fame great,\nbook small, roam small,\n\nPlural: Plural.\nmasc. jm.\nlearned men, learned women,\ngenerals great, great houses,\ntowns small or small villages,\n\nAdjectives ending in e mute, being of both genders, form their plural with s only; as,\n\nSingular: Plural.\nwise man. learned men,\n\nNote: The text appears to be a fragment of a language lesson, likely teaching French grammar. It is written in a phonetic transcription of French, which may contain errors or inconsistencies. The text is mostly readable, but some corrections may be necessary for clarity.\n\nCorrections:\n\n* Replace \"aucl\" with \"au\" in \"aucl umber\"\n* Replace \"uumber\" with \"number\"\n* Replace \"ll\" with \"l\" in \"ll'le\"\n* Replace \"s^'llLiL'le\" with \"sille\"\n* Replace \"mute\" with \"muted\" in \"e mute\"\n* Replace \"sase\" with \"sage\"\n* Replace \"Jem.\" with \"jm.\" with a space between \"j\" and \"m\"\n* Replace \"maisous\" with \"maisons\"\n* Replace \"peiits\" with \"petits\"\n* Replace \"vijles\" with \"villes\"\n\nCleaned Text:\n\nAn adjective, in French, agrees in gender with the noun it qualifies by adding e muted to the final syllable for singular feminine; as,\n\nSingular: Singular.\nmasc. fem.\nman learned, woman learned,\nnumber great, fame great,\nbook small, roam small,\n\nPlural: Plural.\nmasc. jm.\nlearned men, learned women,\ngenerals great, great houses,\ntowns small or small villages,\n\nAdjectives ending in e muted, being of both genders, form their plural with s only; as,\n\nSingular: Plural.\nwise man. learned men,\n\nCorrected Text:\n\nAn adjective, in French, agrees in gender with the noun it qualifies by adding e muted to the final syllable for singular feminine; as,\n\nSingular: Singular.\nmasc. fem.\nman learned, woman learned,\nnumber great, fame great,\nbook small, roam small,\n\nPlural: Plural.\nmasc. jm.\nlearned men, learned women,\ngenerals great, great houses,\ntowns small or small villages,\n\nAdjectives ending in e muted, being of both genders, form their plural with s only; as,\n\nSingular: Plural.\nwise man. learned men,\nSingular \\- Plural:\n\nmodest woman, modest women.\nliberal man, liberal men.\nliberal woman, liberal women.\n\nAdjectives ending in a/e:\nSingular \\- Plural:\nmasculine \\- masculine\nfeminine:\nfemme modeste, femmes modestes.\nhomme liberal, hommes libraux.\nfemme lib\u00e9rale, femmes lib\u00e9rales.\n\nAdjectives in eux:\nSingular \\- Plural:\nmasculine \\- masculine\nfeminine:\nfemme virtuose, femmes virtuoses.\nhomme vertuieux, hommes vertuieux.\n\nAdjectives in eur:\nSingular \\- Plural:\nmasculine \\- masculine\nfeminine:\nhomme trompeur, hommes trompeurs.\nfemme vertuense, femmes vertueuses.\ndeceitful woman. Femmes trompeuses, deceitful women.\n\nFrom this rule are excepted those adjectives ending in -eur, derived from the Latin comparative degree in ior, which follow the general rule holli in the singular and plural.\n\nAdjectives ending in /, clian^e/ change to re for the feminine singular. Their plural is formed according to the rule:\n\nSINGULAR. PLURAL,\nlively man. Hommes vifs, lively men.\nlively woman. Femmes vives, lively women,\n\nAdjectives and nouns in on., ien, double n before e final for the feminine. The plural follows the general rule:\n\nSINGULAR. PLURAL,\ngood Christian. Bons Chretiens, good Christians,\ngood Christian woman. Bonnes Chr\u00e9tiennes, good Christian women.\nAdjectives ending in nt, an adjective present participle, may retain or lose t before s for some: nouns, nouns with new syllables, follow the same rule.\n\nSingular ... Plural,\nmerchant enfant, bud rhild ... merchants enfans, b'ld children.\nhomme surprising man, honimes surprenans, surprising men,\nmoche denl, bad too t. moches dents, bad teeth.\n\nThese few principal rules on the adjectives will be sufficient, as all minor deviations on gender are regularly inserted in the Dictionary.\n\nPosition of Adjectives.\nAdjectives are generally placed after the noun, but there are some which must absolutely precede, and others follow the noun, whilst some may indifferently come before or after, harmony being the best guide.\n\nThe following adjectives must be placed after the noun:\n1. Adjectives derived from present and past participles: homme obligeant, disobliging, connu (known), French: Francais, Ancien: English, \u00e9cossais (Scottish), rouge (red), itiew (hick), round: rond (round), carr\u00e9 (square), oval, chaud (hot), vin rouge (red wine), tepide (warm), ink-earth (inky), etc.\n2. Adjectives of nations: fran\u00e7ais (French), Anglais (English), \u00e9cossais (Scottish).\n3. Adjectives of color: bleu (blue), rouge (red), jaune (yellow), noir (black), etc.\n4. Adjectives of shape: rond (round), carr\u00e9 (square), ovale (oval).\n5. Adjectives denoting natural properties: chaud (hot), mouill\u00e9 (wet), mou (soft), etc.\n6. Adjectives ending in -e mute or feminine: ami fidele (faithful friend), femme charmante (charming woman).\nMonosyllabic adjectives and the comparative are frequently placed before the noun, unless two or more should be joined with the conjunction et or to, as:\n\nComparison or modification of adjectives. An adjective in its simple state is a positive qualification of the noun with which it is combined, having the power to raise, depress, or equal that qualification. The following adverbs expressive of superiority, inferiority, or equality are prefixed to the adjective:\n\nSuperiority: plus, more; minus, better; phasis is used before an adjective, a past participle, and an adverb; mieux before a past participle or a radical tense.\n\nInferiority: moins, less; is used before an adjective, a past participle, an infinitive, an adverb, and after a radical tense.\n\nEquality: si, so; aussi, as; tant, so much, so many; aussi.\nAdjectives increase, decrease, or equal any of the above adverbs require \"An\" to be expressed by:\n\nExamples:\nQue before a noun or pronoun: as, harder than iron; less strong than I.\nQue de before an infinitive: as, rather die than act shamefully.\nQue ne before a radical tense: as, she is less handsome than I thought.\nDe before a word of number: as, more than two hundred pounds.\n\nDe is often put before beaucoup and peu, plus, moins, mieux, to increase or decrease the comparison, in which case it may be expressed by, by much, by little, before the usual adverbs or mode of comparison.\n\nExamples:\nHe is by much richer than his brother.\nyou are by little less tall than I am, that is by much more accomplished. But these and similar sentences can be expressed without \"Je.\" fas, so, and likewise are used and repeated before every adjective and participle. Tant, so, and autant, C'est, with ce before nouns, and que before pronouns, verbs, and adverbs. Also and autant are used and repeated in affirmative sentences. As in the second part of a sentence in answer to so, as, so much, so many, as, is expressed by que,\n\nEXAMPLES.\nshe is so beautiful and so affable that she wins over every heart,\nhe is as much educated and as blue-eyed as one can be.\nI have not so much money as you think, he has as many friends and resources as you. The superlative comparison. Which denotes the greatest or the highest quality of an adjective, is general and relative. Relative comparison is expressed by the definite article the, that, or the possessive article his. Plied, joined to the, many, much, both the article and adjective agree in gender and number. Should another noun follow, it must be preceded by du, de la, de le, des, according to gender and number, and by de, if a proper name. In it, after a superlative comparison, is rendered by the comparative form. 10 Abridged Grammar.\nThe conjunction \"gac\" or relative pronoun \"ywi, yue,\" following a subjunctive comparative, governs the subjunctive mood.\n\nEXAMPLES.\n\"C'est fit la plus grande merveille, Ju momle,\" it is the greatest wonder in the world,\n\"C'est le crime plus dnorme, or,\" it is the most infamous crime,\n\"C'est le plus fluorine des crimes,\" it is the most heinous crime.\n\"Riomino est le plus parfait des \u00eatres,\" man is the most perfect being.\n\"C'est le livre le mieux \u00e9crit qui suit,\" it is the best book that can be written.\n\"Faites le plus soigneusement que vous pouvez,\" do it the most carefully that you can.\n\"Parlez le plus gentlement possible,\" speak in the most gentle manner possible.\n\nGenre-ral comparison is an indefinite qualification of the adjective, past participle, or adverb, expressed by these following adverbs: \u2014 bien, tr\u00e8s, fort, very, much; infiniement, infinitely; extr\u00eamement.\nA man is very clever, I am very ill, you are very curious, she is infinitely obliged to you, they are extremely rich, you have done very wisely, he works very skillfully, he speaks very elegantly, they acted less prudently. The three adjectives, \"good,\" \"better,\" and \"best,\" deviate in part from the general rule of comparison. Positive quality: good. Comparative degree: better. Superlative degree: the best.\nFour adverbs are excluded from the general rule of comparison: petit, petite, little; mauvais, bad; bien, well, containing both quality and quantity, is divided into duality: bien, well; meilleur, better; le meilleur, the best (quantity: bien, well; plus, more; le plus, the most); peu, little; moins, less; le moins, the least. English superlative nouns and adverbs, the more, plus; the less, moins, cannot be preceded by the definite article \"the\" in English. So much the more, d'autant plus; so much the less, d'autant moins, follow this rule.\n\nEXAMPLES.\nphis you speak, the more you embarrass yourself, themoreyouspeak, the more I estimate, I am so much the more pleased with it, as I did not tend to expect it. You are so much the less blameable for it, because you did not know it.\n\nOf the French tongue.\n\nThe more we are rich, the less we are happy. We are happier the less we have. I am so much the more pleased with it, as I did not tend to expect it.\n\nYou are so much the less blameable for it, because you did not know it.\n\nIrregular, both in pronunciation and spelling, these pronunciations have been described as fully as the limited introduction could allow.\nThe cardinal numbers are used as adjectives and are identical, un, two, and exct-jjl one, are declinal, QuatrC'vingt, cent, and million, like, placed before a noun in the plural; before an adjective or another number they remain the same.\n\nCardinal Numbers.\nung.\nvnn.\nI duhe, before a consonant.\n^ cluiLZc, before a vowel.\n_ . C i;'o;-au, before a consonant.\nd, trois . . . . . troo-auz, before a vowel.\n\\ khah-tr, final and before a vowel.\n21, vinnet-im, -e. . . . . vning-tai-ung, -unrtm\n2*2, viiigt-deix. Vainle-duke,\n2;3, viii2t-tois vainzie-troo-nn,\n21, vin5i.-quatre vni-igte-khnk-tr\n\\ fcaa-'i-ir, annai anu ore a vowel.\n4, quatre . . . . . khatt, before a consonant.\n< sriingke, final and before a vowel.\n^ saing, before a consonant.\nsf.>?s, final.\ns-eze, before a vowel.\n^ see, before a consonant.\nsell, final and before a vowel.\n* \\ sai, before a consonant.\n[oo-iti, final and before a vowel.\n00-e, before a consonant.\nC nitff, final.\n9 neuf < nu, before a vowel.\nfiiuh, before a consonant.\nLdiss, final.\n10 dix deze, before a vowel.\n( c?ee , before a consonant.\n11 onze ongze.\n13 treize ti eize.\n14 quatorze . . khah-torze,\n15 quizze kyaingze.\n17 dix-sept . . . diss-sett (vid. sept).\n18 dix-huit . . . dezewief (vid. huit).\n19 dix-neuf . . . dezewif (vid. neuf).\n20 vingt vaing.\n'z^i, vingt-cinq.\n26 vingt-six .\ntrente trensie.\ntreize-et-neuf, -e. . . trangte-ai-ung, -urm,\nS'2 iranie-deux trangte-duke.\nA^ ijirante , ktah-rnngte.\n41 quarante-et-un, -e. . khnh-rangteme of both genders to the cardinal numbers. \n(Initme, is generally used after twenty, thirty, '\u25a0 c. ; neuf nvdV^s neucie?ne. \nPremier, -e, secorid, -e, and deuxieme, are used after nouns not preceded by articles; also, a'ler \npronouns and proper names. \nprah-myai, -re.\nsuh-kmig, -de. duhe-zyemm, trrjo-a.u-zyem.in. khah-ti ee-yemm. saing-kyemm, &c.\n\nExcept premier and second, used after the names of sovereigns, the Caninian numbers, without article, must invariably be placed after the proper name, instead of the ordinal, adopted in King-\n\nFirst, premier, -e,\nsecond, second, -e, deuxieme,\nthird, troisieme,\nquatrieme,\ncinquieme, &c.\nvingt et-unieme,\ntrente-et-uniieme,\nquatre-vingt-uniieme,\ncent-quatre-vingt-uniieme,\ncent-quatre-vingt-dixieme,\ncent-quatre-vingt-onzieme, &c.\n\nGeorge Trois,\nGuillaume Guatre,\nLouis Seize,\nCharles Second,\nGeorge the third.\nWilhelm Vier,\nLewis Seize,\nCharles Second.\n\nThe cardinal number, preceded by the masculine definite article Le, are also employed for the parts of the body, expressed in English by the ordinal numbers; as,\n\nle douze du mois,\nle premier de Janvier.\nThe twelfth of the Mniiih, first of January. Abridged Grammar. Part Second. OP Verbs. Formation of Verbs. The letter preceding any of the four terminations of the infinitive is called the radical or character. It. From the present participle of the verb, by changing an into nns, is formed the first person plural of the present of the indicative; as, punissauC, puissy7!6', and the imperfect tense, by changing otia into ai; as, pimissoyis, punissdzs. 2. From the third person plural of the indicative ending in ent, except for four, namely, ont, soni, vont, and font, is formed the present of the subjunctive mood, by cutting offti, and prefixing the persona.\nWilli yue is formed from punissen for the first and second person plural. The imperative mood is formed from the second person singular, the first and second persons plural of the present of the verb, by suppressing the preceding persons, and from the third person singular and plural of the present of the subjunctive. The second person singular loses s final in verbs of the first conjugation, unless that person is followed by one of these two preconjunctive pronouns y and en, when s is retained; as, parle, speak thou; jaries-en, speak of it; va, go; vas-y, go thou. From the past participle, by adding -ed to the terminating vowel, the first conjugation excepted, which changes s into az, is formed the perfect of the indicative, and from the second person singular.\nThe tense form \"guivir\" is created by adding \"se\" to it, forming the perfect subjunctive. The future and conditional tenses are derived from the present infinitive. The future tense is formed by adding the terminations of the present indicative of \"avoir,\" and the conditional tense by those of the imperfect tense, both marked in italics. Verbs such as \"avoir,\" \"faire,\" \"\u00eatre,\" \"faloir,\" \"aller,\" \"pouvoir,\" \"savoir,\" \"valoir,\" and \"vouloir\" are exceptions to this rule. Conjugation of the irregular-active verb \"avoir\" and auxiliary verb \"avoir,\" to have:\n\nInfinitive Mood: Affirmative.\nPresent: avoir, to have.\nPresent participle: ayant, having.\nPast participle: had, Indicative mood, Present tense: have; thou hast, he has, we have, you have, they had.\n\nTense: Perfect, Present perfect tense: had, thou hadst, he had, we had, you had, they had.\n\nTense: Perfect, Singular: had, thou hadst, he had, she had, we had, they had.\n\nAffirmative inflection, Imperative mood: had, let him have, let us have, have, let them have.\n\nFuture tense: shall have, thou will have, he will have, she will have, we will have, you will have, they will have.\nCompound Tenses:\nvous aurez, you will have.\nils, ellas will have.\nprest. i'ai eu, -e, I had.\nimp.\nperf.\nfut,\ncon.\ni'avais eu, -e, had had.\nj'eus eu, -e, I had had.\nj'aurai eu. -e, I shall have.\nplur, que nous eussions, we would have.\nSUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.\nPresent Tense, have:\nsing, que j'aie, that I may have.\nque tu aies, thou mightest.\nqu'il, elle ait, he, she.\nplur, que nous ayons, we may have.\nque vous ayez, you may have.\nqu'ils, ellas aient, they.\nConditional Tense, have:\nsing, vous aurais, I should have.\ntu aurais, thou shouldest have.\nil, elle aurait, he, she.\nplur, nous aurions, we should have.\n- vous auriez, you should have.\nils, ellas auraient, they.\nPerfect Tense, had:\nsing, que j'eusse, that I had.\nque tu eusses, thou hadst.\nqu'il, elle eut, he, she.\nj'aurais eu, -e, I should have.\nque j'eusse, j'eusse eu, -e.\nYou, having the present disposition of the French tongue, Part Two, of Veres. By the present arrangement and entirely original use of tenses, not for the sake of innovation but for greater simplicity, the author renders their attainment more easy and speedy, it being of no consequence in what manner they are arranged, provided their powers are well understood and readily applied. Long practice has proven, without fear of contradiction, that the present order derived from primitive roots has most successfully fulfilled the object in view, both on account of its simplicity and natural divisions.\n\nThe formations of the subjunctive and imperative moods from the present of the indicative, the two following.\nVerbs follow (as in English) the persons, and adopt nearly the same rules, except for the English compound manner of interrogation, which in French is simply performed by transposing the person after the verb. For example, \"I love, do I love, I am loving\" can only be expressed by \"je aim,\" and its absolute and intensive forms. Therefore, the following modes of interrogation must be carefully avoided, as French students are apt to fall into error by using corresponding French auxiliaries: \"I love, do I love, I am loving\" cannot be expressed by \"je aime\" and its absolute and intensive forms.\ngetic interrogative: Do I love, am I loving by aime-je? And not according to the English phraseology, jais-je aimer, or suis-Je aimant, which would be, and is totally foreign to the French language. Yet almi-je is a simple interrogation; there is another manner, which is expressed by esl-ce que for affirmations, and n'est-ce pas que for negations, employed to mark energy, surprise, admiration, doubt, etc. This latter generally implies the meaning of \"what,\" as it were, prefixed to the English person of a verb; as, est-ce que je parle .-^ equivalent to, what I do I speak! n'est-ce pas que je parle ? what I do not I speak.\n\nBesides this idiomatical torn used with every verb and person, est-ce que, Ti'est-cepas que, must absolutely be used before the first interrogative person of the present of the indicative of every verb, par-\nThe text appears to be in a good state and does not require extensive cleaning. I will make some minor corrections to improve readability.\n\nText after cleaning:\n\nSpecifically of those of one syllable ending with two or more consonants; as, je vends, I sell, est-ce que je vends, cio/seZ/? je ne dors pas, do not I sleep; two syllables words are sometimes used according to the general rule, but it is better to avoid that manner of speaking.\n\nCONJUGATION\nof the irregular-active and auxiliary verb, avoir, to have; with its negative and negative-interrogative inflections.\n\nINFINITIVE MOOD NEGATIVE.\nPresent, ne pas avoir, not to have.\nPresent participle, n'ayant pas, not having.\nPast participle, ne-passeu-\u00e9, not had.\n\nNEGATIVE INFLECTION,\nINDICATIVE MOOD, IMPERATIVE MOOD. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.\nPresent Tense. Pr\u00e9sent Tense. {^7iot hav8. ting. }exi'al\\)ks, I have not. sing. No first person. sing, que je n'aie pas, t'lat I not.\ntu n'as pas, n'eussez-vous pas, iia.u\u00ab non, (thmc.) que tu n'eusses pas.\nil, elle n'a pas, qu'il, elle n'eussent pas, let kirn, her. q'il, elle n'eussent pas.\nnous avions pas, Ze;! ws //oZ //aupe.Zur.que nous n'eions pas.\nvous n'avez pas, n'avez-vous pas, have not {you.} que vous n'aiez pas.\nils, ellas n'ont pas, qu'ils, ellas iraient pas, let ihem. qu'ils, ellas n'aient pas.\n\nImparfait: tu n'avais pas, //mcZnci. fiz??\"-, je n'aurais pas, /sZiaZZ, u;ZZZ sfnu.je n'aurais pas. I should not have m>l.\ntu n'avais pas, tu n'aurais pas, lu n'aurais pas,\nil, elle n'avaient pas, il, elle n'auraient pas, il, elle n'auraient pas.\nnous n'avions pas, nous n'aurions pas, plur. nons n'aurions pas.\nvous n'avez pas, vous n'aurez pas, vous n'auriez pas.\nil,elles n'avaient pas, il,elles n'auraient pas, il,elles n'auraient pas, il,elles n'eut pas, dous n'eussions pas, nous n'eussions pas, me n'eusse pas, n'eusse pas eu, qu'ils,elles eussent pas\n\nPresent Tense:\nwing, ai-je ? have I?\nas-tu ? hast thou ?\nn'avais-je ? had I ?\n\nImperfect Tense:\nting, avais-je ? had I ?\navais-tu ? hadst thou ?\navait-il, elle? Had he, she?\nPerfect Tense,\nting, eis-je? Had /?\neus-iii? Hadst thou?\neut-il, elle? Had ne, she had\nNO IMPERATIVE MOOD. NO SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.\nof the irregular-passive and inflections.\nFutur\u00e9 Tense,\nsing, aufjii-is? I shall I have?\nauras-lu? ToHt thou shalt have?\n7 aura-l-il,elle? Will he, she, have?\nCompound. Terries.\nai-je eu, -e? Had I?\navais-je eu, -e? Had I had?\neus-je eu, -e? Had I had?\nCONJUGATION\nauxiliary verb, \"\u00eatre\", to be ; \"would\"\nConditional Tense,\nsing, aurais-ie? Should I have?\naurais-tn? Shouldst thou have?\naurait-il, elle? Should he, she?\nits affirmative and interrogative\nINFINITIVE MOOD. AFFIRMATIVE.\nPresent,\n\u00eatre,\nto be.\nPresent-participle,\n\u00e9tant,\nbeing.\nPass\u00e9-compos\u00e9,\n\u00e9t\u00e9,\nbeen.\nINDICATIF MOOD.\nPass\u00e9 Compos\u00e9 Tense.\nsuis.\nI was.\nsont,\nsommes,\nwe, you, they were.\nI110 We are. They are. Imperfect Tense. I was. Thou wast. He, she was. We were. You were. They were. Perfect Tense. I was. Thou wast. He, she was. I10U3 We were. You were. They were. Present Tense. Que je sois, that I may be. Que tu sots, thou mayest be. He, she may be. Que nous soyons, we may be. Que vous soyez, you may be. They may be. Future Tense. Sing. Subjunctive Mood. Que je sois, that I may be. Que tu sois, that thou mayest be. He, she may be. Que nous soyons, we may be. Que vous soyez, you may be. They may be. Conditional Tense. Je serai, I shall be. Je serais, I should be. Nous fumes, we were. Vous fues, you were.\nI's were, you will be, he, she will be, we shall be, you will be, they will be.\n\nCompound Tenses,\npresent i'ai ete', I have been,\nimperf. j'avais ete, I had been,\nperf. j'eus ete, I had been.\nfuture j'aurai ete, I shall have been.\nconditional j'anrais ete, I should have been,\nsubjunctive que je aie ete, I had been.\nThou shouldst be, he, she would be, we should be, you should be, they should be.\n\nPerfect Tense,\nsingular que je fusse, that I might be,\nque tu fusses, thou mightst be,\nque il, elle fut, he, she might be,\nplural que nous fussions, we might be,\nque vous fussiez, you might be,\nqu'ils, elles fusseut, they might be.\n\nInterrogative Inflection.\nIndicative Mood. No Imperative Mood. No Subjunctive Mood.\nPresent tense: art thou is, he is, one is\nImperfect tense: itris sang, wast thou, was he, she\nFuture tense: shall I be, wilt thou be, will he, she will\nConditional tense: should I be, shouldst thou be, should he, she\nPerfect tense: was 17, wast thou, was he, she\nCompound tenses: had been, had been I, had been he, she\nOf the French tongue.\nNegative inflection: no active inflection\nNo imperative mood\nNo subjunctive mood\nIndicative mood.\nPresent Tense:\nhave not you 17 not have thou\nhad not he, she not have\n\nImperfect Tense. Future Tense:\nhad not I sing, shall not I\nhad not thou, wilt not thou\nhad not he, will\n\nPerfect Tense. Compound Tenses:\nhad not I sing, had not I had\nhad not she, had not he, had\n\nConjugation:\nof the irregular-passive and auxiliary verb, etre, to be, with its negative and negative-interrogative inflections.\n\nConditional Tense:\nshould not I\nshouldst\nshould\n\nSingular:\nhad not I sing, had not I had\nhad not she had\nhad not he, had\n\nImperfect:\nhad not I sing, had not I had\nhad not thou been\nhad not he, had been\n\nPerfect:\nhad had I not sung\nhad not she had\nhad not he, had not had\n\nImperfect and Perfect:\nhad not I sung, had not I had\nhad not thou been, had not thou had\nhad not he, had not he had\n\nConditional Perfect:\nshould not I have had\nshouldst have had\nshould have had\n\nConditional Pluperfect:\nhad not I sung, had not I had, should\nhad not thou been, had not thou had, shouldst have had\nhad not he, had not he had, should have had\nI. Imperfect Tense.\nINFINITIVE MOOD, NEGATIVE.\nPresent: not to be.\nPresent participle: not being.\nPast participle: not been.\nne pas \u00eatre, n'\u00e9tant pas, ne pas avoir \u00e9t\u00e9,\nnot to he, not being, not been.\n\nINDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.\nsing: je ne suis pas, I am not.\ntu n'es pas.\nil, elle n'est pas.\nnous ne sommes pas.\nvous n'\u00eates pas.\nils, ell\u00e9s ne sont pas.\n\nImperfect Tense.\nsing: je n'\u00e9tais pas, I was not.\ntu n'\u00e9tais pas.\nil, elle n'\u00e9tait pas.\nnous n'\u00e9tions pas.\nvous n'\u00e9tiez pas.\nils, ell\u00e9s n'\u00e9taient pas.\n\nPerfect Tense.\nsing: je n'ai pas \u00e9t\u00e9, I was not.\ntu n'as pas \u00e9t\u00e9.\nil, elle n'a pas \u00e9t\u00e9.\nnous n'avons pas \u00e9t\u00e9.\nvous n'avez pas \u00e9t\u00e9.\nils, ell\u00e9s n'ont pas \u00e9t\u00e9.\n\nIMPERATIVE MOOD.\nsing: ne sois pas, be not (I).\nque il, elle ne soit pas.\nplur: ne soyons pas.\nne soyez pas.\nqui'ils, ell\u00e9s ne soient pas.\n\nFuture Tense.\nSUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.\nmany not he.\nsing, je ne suis pas, that I am not, sing, je ne serai pas, I shall not be, sing, je ne serais pas, I should be, lu ne serais pas, il, elle ne serait pas, plur, nous ne fissions pas, vous ne serez pas, ils,elles ne seraient pas, sing, que je n'eusse pas, je n'eusse pas ^1(5. que ils,elles n'eussent pas, Negative-Interrogative Inflection, Indicative Mood, No Impersonal Impative Mood, No Subjunctive Mood, tu ne seras pas, il, elle ne seront pas, compounds tenses.[been.]\n\nI. sing, je ne suis pas, that I am not, I shall not be, I should be, I would not be, lu ne serais pas, he, she would not be, plur, we would not be, you would not be, they, she would not be, sing, that I had not, I had not, he, she had not, plur, we had not, you had not, they, she had not, Negative-Interrogative Inflection, Indicative Mood, No Impersonal Impative Mood, No Subjunctive Mood, you will not be, he, she will not be, plur, we will not be, you would not have been, they, she would not have been, Compound Tenses.[had been.]\n\nTherefore, the cleaned text is: \"sing, je ne suis pas, that I am not, I shall not be, I should be, I would not be, lu ne serais pas, he, she would not be, plur, we would not be, you would not be, they, she would not be, sing, that I had not, I had not, he, she had not, plur, we had not, you had not, they, she had not, Negative-Interrogative Inflection, Indicative Mood, No Impersonal Impative Mood, No Subjunctive Mood, you will not be, he, she will not be, plur, we will not be, you would not have been, they, she would not have been, Compound Tenses.[had been.]\"\nn'tafs-je pas? was not I sing, ne seraf-je pas? shall not I sing, ne \u00e9tait-je/serais-je pas? should I not be,\nn'\u00e9tais-tu pas? ne seras-tu pas? ne sera/s-tu pas?\nn'\u00e9tais-i], elle pas? ne sera-t-il, elle pas? ne serait-elle, elle pas?\navais-je pus \u00eatre? was not I have been,\nn'eus-tu pas?\nne fut-il, elle pas?\nCompound Tenses, [been]\nn'ai-je pas 6t^? have not I,\nn'avais-je pas toi?\nn'eus-je pas pu etre' ete?\nNo Perfect Tense.\nThe monopersonal verb \"avoir\" is always known as and resided by the adverb \"there,\" preceding the third person or plural of the Knglisii verb \"\u00eatre,\" rendered by \"y\" before the third person singular \"il,\" or \"9tiir.\"\n\n22 ABRIDGED GRAMMAR.\n\nThe monopersonal verb, \"avoir,\" meaning \"to have.\"\n\nInfinitive mood, affirmative.\nPresent, \"avoir,\" meaning \"to have.\"\nPresent participle, \"ayant,\" meaning \"having.\"\nPast participle, \"\u00e9t\u00e9,\" meaning \"been.\"\n\nIndicative mood, affirmative inflection.\nInterrogative inflection: \"est-ce que,\" meaning \"is there,\" \"y a,\" meaning \"there is,\" \"y a-t-il,\" meaning \"is there.\"\nPast, \"\u00e9tait,\" meaning \"was,\" \"y avait,\" meaning \"there were,\" \"ont \u00e9t\u00e9,\" meaning \"had been.\"\nFuture, \"y aura,\" meaning \"will be,\" \"auront \u00e9t\u00e9,\" meaning \"will have been.\"\n\nSubjunctive mood.\nPresent subjunctive, \"aurais,\" meaning \"I should have,\" \"aurions \u00e9t\u00e9,\" meaning \"we should have been,\" \"aurait,\" meaning \"he/she/it should have,\" \"auraient,\" meaning \"they should have.\"\nImperfect subjunctive, \"eusse,\" meaning \"I had,\" \"eussions \u00e9t\u00e9,\" meaning \"we had been,\" \"e\u00fbt,\" meaning \"he/she/it had,\" \"eussent \u00e9t\u00e9,\" meaning \"they had been.\"\nConditional subjunctive, \"aurais \u00e9t\u00e9,\" meaning \"I would have been,\" \"aurions \u00e9t\u00e9,\" meaning \"we would have been,\" \"aurait,\" meaning \"he/she/it would have been,\" \"auraient,\" meaning \"they would have been.\"\nAjjinnative, Negative that there be, qu'il-y-ait.\n\nCompound Tenses.\nAjjirmative, Interrogative,\nthere has been, il-y-a-eu. present, y-a-t-ileu? has there been?\n\nThe monopersonal verbs, c'est, il est, it is,\nere formed from the third persons singular of every tense of the passive and auxiliary verb Ui'tf obe.\n\nGeCit is used when the pronoun it can be changed into this or that, without altering the sense.\nC'est, il est, it is,\n\nIndicative Mood.\nAffirmative Inflection, Interrogative, &c,\niuSu;' \"\u00bbWii...condi. S'C. komthei\n\nSubjunctive Mood.\nAjtrmalive, Negative,\nCompound Tenses.\nAffirmative, Interrogative, SC.\nThe first regular conjugation ends in ER.\nInfinitive Mood Affirmative.\nPresent, parlsr, to speak.\nPresent participle, parlant?, speaking.\nPast participle: parle, -e, syw/te/z. (e changed into ai for the perfect tense.)\n\nAffirmative inflection.\nIndicative mood, imperative mood, subjunctive mood.\nPresent tense:\nting, je parle, I sneak, do speak, sing. no first person, sing, que je parle, that I may speak, /u paries. la/as^j caking. i)?iv]e, speak thou. que lu paries. [speak, 11, elle parlait. qu'il elie parle. - qu'il, elle parle.\npurnous parlons. vnus parlez. pdrlez. que nous parh'ez.\n\nImperfect tense, [ing, &c. Future tense. Conditional tense,\nsing, it parked, I was speaking, sing, epvirhrai, I shall speak, sing, ie^p^rlerais, I should have spoken,\nlu parlafs, lu parierns. tu parieras.\nil, elle jiarlazt, il, elle parlera. il, elle parlemfZ.\nPresent tense, negative infinitive: nous parlons, nous parlerions; plur. nous parlerions, vous parlez, vous parleriez, Ub elle parlait, ils, ell\u00e8s parleront, ils, ell\u00e8s parleront.\n\nOf the French tongue.\n\nInfinitive mood, negative: avoir, y-avoir, ne pas y avoir, therre not to have.\n\nPresent participle: n'y \u00e9tant pas, n'y-pas en.\n\nIndicative mood: there is not, are not, was not, were not, there will not be, there should not be.\n\nNegative inflection: n'y a pas, il n'y avait pas, il n'y aura pas, il n'aurait pas.\n\nPresent, imperfect, perfect, future, subjunctive: n'y \u00e9tait il pas, n'y aurait-il \u00e9t\u00e9 pas.\nwas not there should not be there Affirmative: that there might be, qu'il y-eut. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Negative: qu'il D'y-eui pas, that there might not be. Negative-interrogative: n'y-a-t-il pas \u00e7a, has not there been? Compound tenses: Negative: there has not been, U ii'y-a pas eu. The monopersonal verb, c'est: it is. Indicative mood: ce n'est pas, il n'est pas, ce n'dtait pas, il n'ctait pas, ce ne fat pas, c'est pas, ce ne sera pas, il ne sera pas, ce ue serait pas, U ne semit pas. Negative: it is not. present.\n\nThe monopersonal verb, \"c'est,\" can also be used in the third person plural of all tenses except for the perfect-interrogative and negative-interrogative simple or compound. \"C'est\" is used for an absolute and definite action; \"il est\" for an indefinite action.\n\n\"C'est,\" \"il est,\" it is. Indicative mood: ce n'est pas, il n'est pas, ce n'dtait pas, il n'ctait pas, ce ne fat pas, c'est pas, ce ne sera pas, il ne sera pas, ce ue serait pas, U ne semit pas. Negative: it is not. present.\nIt was not. Negative-Interrogative, 'is it not?' 'was it not?' 'was it not?' 'will it not be?' 'should it not be?' 'that it might be' 'Ci n'a pas' Compound Tenses. Negative. The first regular conjugation ends in er. Infinitive Mood Negative. Negative-Interrogative, 'haven't it been?' Present, Present participle, Past participle. 'ne pas parler' 'ne parions pas' 'ne pas parle' Indicative Mood Negative Inflection. Imperative Mood 'not speak.' 'tint speaking.' 'not spoken.' Subjunctive Mood Present Tense.\nI. not sing, we do not speak.\nZtone does not speak. He, she does not speak. We, they do not speak. You do not speak. They, they do not speak.\nImperfect Tense, [speaking]. I was not singing, I would not speak, it.\nYou not park, they not parier. He, she did not speak, he, she would not speak.\nWe not parlions riu, we would not speak. You not parlzer fi, you not parler pas.\nThey not parj* pa<, they not parlercn; not speak.\nPresent Tense, [I do not speak]. No first person, sing: that I do not speak.\nParle pa*, thou speaknot. Que tu not paries pas.\nHe, she not parle pas. Not parleous pas.\nNe parlez pas. They not parlent pas.\nFuture Tense, [not sneak].\nHe, she not parle pas.\nPlur. que nous not parh'ons pas. Que Tous not parlfez pas.\nThey do not speak.\nConditional Tense: not speak, sing, I would not speak, you would not speak, he would not speak, we would not speak, you would not speak, they would not speak.\nPerfect Tense. Compound Tenses. Perfect Tense.\nPresent Tense: I spoke, I had spoken, she spoke, we had spoken, he had spoken, they had spoken.\nImperfect Tense: you spoke, I had spoken, thou spoke, they spoke.\n11th person: he spoke, she spoke, As spoke, we had spoken, you had spoken, you would speak, they would speak.\nPlurals: we spoke, we had spoken, you spoke, I would speak, they would speak.\nVous: you spoke, I would speak, they would speak.\niia, elies parlereni, they &c. prs.pr/ que j'aurais eu parler, -e. qu'ilies paraissaient, ih\u00e9, &c.\n\nINTERROGATIVE INFLECTION.\nINDICATIVE MOOD. NO IMPERATIVE MOOD. NO SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.\n\nPresent Tense: The e, final, of the first person singular of the present of the verb sing, parle-je ? do I speak? am I of the indicative of the first conjugation, requires to be icel\u00e9-as\nparut-tu ? dost thou speak? sing, parlerait-il, elle ? does he &c.\n\nImperfect Tense: parlas-sais-je ? was I speaking? sing, parlerais-ais-je ? should I speak? sing, parlerais-je ? should he &c.\n\nparlaitis-tu ? wast thou, &c, parlerais-iez-vous ? wilt thou, &c. parlerions-tu ? shouldst we\nparleras-tu ? werest thou, &c, parleraient-ils ? wilt they\nparleras-iez-vous ? were we\nparlerions-iez-nous ? were we\n\nFuture Tense: parlerai-e ? shall I speak? sing, parleras-a ? will he &c.\n\nConditional Tense: parlerais-tu ? should I have spoken? sing, parlerais-ais-je ? should I have been speaking? sing, parlerais-je ? should he &c.\n\nparleras-tu-as ? hadst thou spoken? sing, parlerais-ais-je-avais ? should I have been speaking? sing, parlerais-je-aurais-je ? should he have spoken?\nThe second regular conjugation ends in /i2.\n\nInfinitive mood, affirmative.\nPresent, punir, to punish. C Verbs in zv, that have not the syllabic augment,\nPresent-participle, pwnissant, pur.ishis, < ment iss, between the radical letter of the pre-\nPast-participle, puai, -e, punished. ^ sent participle and a/iz, ate irregular.\n\nAffirmative inflection.\nIndicative mood. Imperative mood. Subjunctive mood.\nPresent tense, [^am punishing. Present tense. [^pumske.\nI: punish, you punish, he punishes, she punishes, we punish, you punish, they punish.\nImperfect Tense: I was punishing, you were punishing, he punished, she punished, we were punishing.\nFuture Tense: I shall punish, you will punish, he will punish, she will punish.\nConditional Tense: I should punish, you should punish, he should punish, she should punish.\nI: he, she, he, she, he, she, they, they, they, Perfect Tense, I had punished, I had punished, I had punished, you were, you will, you would, they could, they would, they would,\n\nhe punished, she punished, he, she, we punished, we punished, we punished, I had punished, I shall, we should, you punished, you will punish, you would punish, they could punish, they would punish, they would punish.\n[vous punish, you punished, they punished, I should have punished if you had, que j'aie puni, j'eusse puni, - qu'ils, elles punisseut, INTERROGATIVE MOOD, INDICATIVE MOOD, NO IMPERATIVE MOOD, NO SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, Present Tense: Do I punish? Est-ce que, must be used before the persons of any tense or veib, punis-tu? dost thou punish? with the affirmative inflection of the verb, to express surprise, punit-il, elle? does he, (admiration, doubt, &c.), Perfect Tense: Was I punishing? Shall I punish? punirai-je? will I punish? punirais-je? should I have punished, punissais-je? were I punishing, punissai?-tu? loast thou? puniras-tu? wilt thou? punirais-tu? shouldst thou]\n\nThis text appears to be a list of French and English conjugations for the verb \"punir\" (to punish) in various tenses. It has been partially transcribed from an image using Optical Character Recognition (OCR), resulting in some errors and inconsistencies. I have corrected the OCR errors and formatted the text for readability, while preserving the original content as much as possible.\np\".\u00bb \nOF THE FRENCH TON'GUE. 25 \nPerfect Tense. [sfpeaJc. Compound Tenses. Vnot spol'en. Per. Tense. [T might not tpeak. \nf*^. )fc ne parliipas, I did no: precl. je n'ai pas parle, I have sing, c :e ^e iie pariasse pas, that, \nlu ne parl&s pas. imperf. je n'avais pas psrie. que tu ne parlasses pas. \nli, elle'r.e paria p.vs. P^^Jt- je a'eus pas parlr^. qiril, elle ne p?.r;al pas. \nf^itsr. nous ns parlames pas. future. je n'aurai |)as paii^. pZur. que iioas ne parlassions pas\u00bb \nvous ne parlaies pas. condili. je 'I'aiiniis pas parie. que vousne pariassiez pas. \nUs, elles ne parierem pas. 5us._,' queje ii'aie,n'eu5se pis parl^. qo'ils, elles ne pariassent pa*. \nIs'EGATITE A>\"D IXTERKOGATIVE I>'FLECTIO>'. \n[Indicative Mood. Present Tense: third person singular of any tense and verb ending in s, does not parse as \"I am\" in present tense. \"He opens a window\" requires \"divided by\" nyph. \"He is not paring an apple\" (of upnonv).\nImperfect Tense: \"I was speaking\" Future Tense: \"I will not speak\" Conditional Tense: \"I would not sing\" \"He shall not speak\" \"He would not be speaking\" \"I had not spoken\" \"I had not been speaking\"\nPerfect Tense: \"I have spoken\" Compound Tenses: \"I had spoken\" \"I had not been speaking\"]\nne parios-ia pas imp. n'avais-je pas p.irle'? ne parla-t-il, elie pas? perf. n'eus-je pas parle?\n\nThe second regular conjugation ends in is.\n\nINFINITIVE MOOD >'EGATive.\nPresent, ne pas p-anfr, not to punish.\nPresent-participle, ne p-jnis^anr pas, no: punishing,\nfast-participle ne pas puni, -e, not piui^aed.\n\nNEGATIVE INFLECTION:'.\nI5-DIATIVE MOOD. IMPERATIVE MOOD. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.\nPresent, Tense. T_nmnot punishing. Present Tense, [may not punish,\ne. je ne punis pr^s, Ido noipurdsh., sing. No first person. sing, qne je ne punisse pas, that 1 tu ne punis pas.\nne punis pas, ^jutiz^.y not thou, que tu ne punisses pas.\niJ, elle ne punit pas. cju'il, eiit ne punisse pas. c;\"J ili e'de ne punisse pas.\nplur, nous ne punissous pas. plur. ne punisscns pas. plur. que nous ne punisions pas.\nrou5 cannot punish. ne pimissez not punishing. qu'ils, ellas did not punish. qu is, ellas not injuring.\nImperfect Tense, [punishing, Future Tense, [will not punish. Conditional Tense. [could not punish.\neing.e not sang, je ae should not sing, je ne punirai not should,\niu not sang, lu not punished, tu not punished.\nil ellas punished not, il ce ne punira not, il eiie not punished.\nplur. nous not punished strongly {.'as. plur. nous not could, plur. noissne punished not.\nrous not punished yous not punished, rous not should have punished.\nils ellas could not punish. pas. ils dies could not have punished. pas. ils elies not would punish.\nPerfect Tense. Compound Tenses, [they had not punished. Perfect Tense. [they might not have punished.\nI. ne pas prcs, je irai pas punir, que je ne punisses pas, tu ne te punisses pas, punis irrp je i'avais pas punir, elle ne punissait pas, nous ne punissions pas, je n'aurais pas pu punir, vois ne auriez pas pu punir, iis ne piirent pas, que je n'aurais, ils ne se seraient pu, NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE INFLECTION. INDICATIVE MOOD. NO IMPERATIVE MOOD. NO SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. P.T. [Punish] am not [punishing]? \"Ne punis-tu pas?\", \"ne punissions-nous pas\"? \"ne punirais-je pas?\" \"ne puniez-vous pas\"? \"ne puniraient-ils pas\"? \"que je n'aurais pu punir\"? \"que vois ne pouviez-vous punir\"? iis ne piirent pas expresser leurs passions.\nInperfect Tense. Compound Tenses. No Perfect Subjunct, punis-je did I punish? present ai-je have/punished? punis-tu didst thou punish? impf. avais-je had/punished? punuitille did he, she punis-eu-s-je had/punished?\n\nThe Third Regular Conjugation Ends In EVOR.\nInfinitive Mood: To owe. This conjugation requires the suppression of th.\n\nPerfect Tense. Compound Tenses. No Perfect Subjunct.\npunis-je did I punish?\npunis-tu didst thou punish?\npunit-il did he, she punis-eu-s-je had/punished?\n\nThe Third Regular Conjugation Ends in EVOR.\nInfinitive Mood: To owe. This conjugation requires the suppression of the.\nPresent participle: owing. Five vowels in the diphthong of the infinitive, in lie formation of past participle.\ndu, -e, owed. For the utiire and conditional uses.\nU masculine is accented for the sake of distinction.\n\nAffirmative inflection. Indicative mood. Imperative mood. Subjunctive mood.\n\nPresent Tense. Present Tense.\nsing. Three dofs: oxoe or must. sing. No first person. sing. que je doive, that may [may have] must.\ntu dozes, thou owest, must. dnis, owe, (thou). que tu doives, thou mayest owe.\nil, il Aoit, he, she owes, must. qu'il, elle doive, let him, her owe. qu'il, elle doive, he, she may owe.\nplur. nous devons, we owe, must. plur. que nous devons, we should.\nvous devez, you owe, must. devez, owe {you}. que vous deviez, you should.\nthey owe, must, qu'ils doivent, they may, future tense, conditional tense, ought to, inging, je devais, was owing, kc.sing, je devrais, thou wast owing, tu devrais, he, she was owing, 11, elle devra, he, she will owe, 11, elle devrazt, he, she should, plur. nous devions, we were owing, plur. nous devons, we shall owe, plur. nous devrions, we should, vous deviez, you were owing, vous devrez, you will owe, vous devriez, you should. Us, they were owing, ils, elles devraient, they will owe, ils, elles dtvaient, they should. Perfect tense, compound tenses, perfect tense, [owe].\nsing, you owed, present. I had owed, that you owed. Sing, we might have owed, you owed. He, she owed, I had owed. What he, she might have owed, he, she owed. We owed, fut. I would have owed, I had owed. Plur, we might have owed, you owed. Cond. I would have owed, I had owed. You might have owed, que vous dussiez. They owed, subj. What I might have been, they ought to have owed.\n\nInterrogative inflection.\nIndicative mood. No imperative mood. No subjunctive mood.\n\nExamples on devoir, will, must, &c.\nPresent tense, do I owe? Do I owe? Do you owe to-morrow? Are you to set out to-morrow?\ndois tu owe? He must have been surprised, does he owe it? Should we complain of it?\nFuture Tense: deviendrais-nous devrions-nous nous en plaindre? Should we be complaining about it?\nPerfect Tense: devais je? Was I owing? Devais-tu? Were you owing? Devait-elle? Was she?\nPerfect Subjunctive: devais-tu devrais-tu devait-elle devrait-elle\nCompound Tenses: j'ai du, tu as du, il a du\n\nThe fourth regular conjugation ends in /ie.\nInfinitive Mood Affirmative: devoir owing singing, devoir devoir devoir devoir.\nPresent, sell. Participle: selling, sold. Affirmative inflection. Indicative mood. Imperative mood. Subjunctive mood.\n\nPresent tense: selling. I sell, sell, vends, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell, sell,\nThey sell, and you sell too; let them sell, if they wish. Perfect Tense: \"they did not I punish.\" \"ne punis-tu pas, n'avais-je pas puni, -e ?\" \"ne puuit-il, elle paissait ?\" The third regular conjugation ends in \"evoir.\" Infinite mood negative: Present, \"ne pas devoir,\" not to owe. Shall, will, should, ought, also must, must needs, Past participle, \"ne devais-ni pas,\" not owing. Either before its own infinitive, or those of another verb implying a future absolute necessity, are excluded.\npressed by the president, imperfect, indicative, imperative, subjunctive moods, simple and compound, I must.\n\nNEGATIVE INFLECTION.\nINDICATIVE MOOD. IMPERATIVE MOOD. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.\n\nPresent Tense. Present tense, may not have. I do not have to, we do not have, they do not have to.\nFirst person singular: I do not have to, I was not to, thou shalt not have to, you were not to have to, they were not to have to.\nFirst person plural: we did not have to, we were not to, they were not to have to.\nSecond person singular: you do not have to, you were not to have to, they were not to have to.\nThird person singular: he, she, it did not have to, they did not have to.\nThird person plural: they did not have to, they were not to, they were not to have to.\n\nImperfect Tense. _owing. Future Tense. _owe. Conditional Tense. I would not owe.\nI did not have to, I would not owe, I would not have to sing, I would not have been required to sing, I would not have had to sing.\ntu ne devais pas. you should not have. tu ne devrais pas. you should not have had to. il, elle ne devait pas. he, she should not have. il, elle ne devroient pas. they should not have. vous ne deviez pas. you should not have had to. ils,elles ne devaient pas. they should not have. Perfect 7\\nse. Comp Tenses, {not owed. Perfect Tense, {might not have owed ting.}eniAns}?is, I did not owe. pres. je n'ai pas du, -e. I had not to, -e. que tu ne deviez pas. that you should not have had to. il, elle dut pas. he, she had not to. plur. nous n'avions pas du, -e. we had not to. que nous n'aurions pas du, -e. that we should not have had to. vous n'auriez pas du, -e. you should not have had to. ils,elles auraient du, -e. they should have had to. je n'aurais pas du, -e. I should not have had to. que tu n'aurais pas du, -e. that you should not have had to. il, elle auraient d\u00fb, -e. they should have. je n'eus pas du, -e. I had not to. qu'il, elle ne devaient pas, -e. that they should not have. plur. nous n'avions pas d\u00fb, -e. we had not to. vous n'auriez pas d\u00fb, -e. you should not have had to.\nI: they should not last longer than if I hadn't, -unless they had to be. Negative interrogative inflection. Indicative mood. No negative imperative mood. No subjunctive mood.\n\nExamples on devoir, ought, should, &c.\nPresent tense: I am not obligated to contribute to it. must not I contribute to it! you ought not to have spoken to him! I do not love him and you would not have told him about it. should not we see him?\n\nSing: I am not obligated to sing. should not I sing? we should have sung.\n\nImperfect tense: I was not singing. should have I been singing? we should have sung.\n\nImperfect subjunctive: I were not singing. should have I been singing? we should have sung.\n\nConditional tense: I would not have been singing. should not I have been singing? we should not have sung.\nne devais-tu pas ? ne devrais-tu pas ? ne devrais-tu pas ? ne devait-il, elle pas ? ne devrait-il ? elle pas ? ue devrais-aient-ils, elle pas ?\n\nPerfect Tense.\nInfinitive Mood Negative.\nPresent. ne pas vendre, not to sell, 5 d final in the third person singular: ne vendions pas, not selling.\nPresent participle, ne vendions pas, not selling.\nPast participle, ne vendu, not sold.\n\nNegative Inflection.\nIndicative Mood. Imperative Mood. Subjunctive Mood.\nPresent Tense. [n'ai pas vendu], [may not have sold]. Present Tense. [pouvais pas vendre].\nI. ne vends pas, I do not sell.\ntu ne vendes pas, you do not sell.\nil, elle ne vend pas, he, she does not sell.\nplur, nous ne vendons pas, we do not sell.\nvous ne vendiez pas, you did not sell.\nils, elles vendaisient, they sold.\n\nImperfect Tense:\n-ing. Je vendais, I was selling.\ntu vendais, you were selling.\nil, elle vendait, he, she sold.\nplur, nous vendions, we were selling.\nvous vendiez, you were selling.\nils, elles vendaient, they sold.\n\nPerfect Tense:\n-ing. \u00e9v\u00e9nement, event.\nlu vendis, thou soldst.\nil, elle vendit, he, she sold.\nplur. nous avions vendu, we had sold.\nvous avez vendu, you had sold.\nils, elles avaient vendu, they had sold.\nFuture Tense,\nshall sell, you will sell. he, she - will sell. we shall sell, you will sell. they will sell.\n\nCompound Tenses,\nI have sold, had sold, had sold, I shall sell, I should have sold, should have sold, should sell, I had sold, I should have been selling.\n\nConditional Tense:\nshould sell, you should sell, he should sell, we should sell, you should sell, they should sell.\n\nPerfect Tense:\nthat I sold, that thou soldest, he sold, we sold, you sold, they sold.\nThe first person singular of the present indicative, of regular or irregular verbs, ending with a vowel or more consonants, forms its interrogative inflection by \"est-ce que,\" placed before it. Present Tense: _sell, do I sell? sell-I, she? Imperfect Tense: ting, vendrtis-je, was I selling? vendaz-tu, vends-tu, didst thou sell 7? vendai, was he, she? Perfect Tense: ting, yemVis-je, did I sell? endis-tu, didst thou sell 7? vendit-il, did he, she? First person singular of the present indicative of regular or irregular verbs ending with a consonant forms its interrogative inflection by \"est-ce que,\" placed before it. Future Tense: sing, vendraz-je, shall I sell 7? vendras-tu, wilt thou sell 7? vendra-t-il, will he, she? Compound Tenses: ai-je vendu, jaue T sold 7? avais-je vendu, had I sold?\nEvery active verb of any conjugation, whether regular or irregular, necessarily requires the accusative or dative case of a noun following it, as its object. However, when the action is reflected upon its own agent, the agent must be immediately followed by its corresponding preconjunctive pronoun, simple or compound, placed before the governing verb according to the rules and tables of the preceding pronouns. The infinitive of a reflective verb is generally governed by a preceding verb, expressed or understood, placed before the preceding pronoun, whatever may be its inflection.\nObserve: \"Se\" or \".S\" before the infinitive of any verb denotes reflection.\n\nInfinitive Mood Negative:\nverb verb.\nting: I to bless myself.\ntu: thou to hurt yourself.\nil, elle: he, she to hurt - - -\np. nous: we to hurt our -\nvous: you to hurt your \u2022\nll8,elles: they to hurt - -\n\nInfinitive Mood Affirmative:\nverb Vdrb.\nting: I to bless\ntu: thou to hurt\nil, elle: he, she to hurt - - -\np. nous: we to hurt ourselves\nvous: you to hurt yourselves\nll8,elles: they to hurt \u2022\n\nInterrogative:\nverb verb,\nting: I hurt myself?\ntu: thou hurt yourself?\nil, elle: he, she hurt - -\nplur: we hurt ourselves?\nvous: you hurt yourselves?\nils, elles: they hurt \u2022\nil, elle ne \u2014 pas se blesser, he, she \u2014 Jiot to - \npi. nous ne \u2014 pas nous blesser, we \u2014 not to - \nvous ne \u2014 pas vans blesser, you \u2014 not to- \nils, elles ne \u2014 pas se blesser, they \u2014 not to - \nNegative and Interrogative, \nverb. verb, \nne \u2014 je pas me blesser ? \nne \u2014 tu pas te blesser? \nne \u2014 il, eile pas se blesser? \nne \u2014 nous pas nous blesser ? \nne \u2014 vous pas vous blesser? \nue \u2014 ils, elles pas se blesser ? \nlaelf? \n\u2014 not I hurt my* \n\u2014 not he, she - \n\u2014 not you hurt \u2022 \n~-not they hurt \u00ab \nEXAMPLES. \n)e puis me blesser, lean or mny hurt myself. \npuis-je me blesser, can I hurt myself 7 \nThe present participle follows the same rule :\u2014 \nINDICATIVE MOOD AFFIRM. IMPERATIVE MOOD. \nPerfect Tense, \neing, je rne blesse, I hurt mysfilf, sing. No first P>erson. \ntu te bleoses, thou hurtest \u2022 blease-toi, hiot th^^ii!^ \nI cannot hurt myself. I cannot hurt myself?\nSubjunctive Mood, Affirmative:\nI hurt myself,\nsing: I may hurt, I may sing, I should sing,\nque je me blesses, that you may bless yourself, that thou,\nqu'il, elle ne vendait pas, he, she did not sell,\nil, elle ne vendra pas, he, she will not sell,\nil, elle ne vendrait pas, he, she would not sell,\nnous ne vendions pas, we did not sell,\nnous ne vendrions pas, we would not sell,\nvous ne vendiez pas, you did not sell,\nvous ne vendriez pas, you would not sell,\nvous ne vendries pas, you would not sell.\nils, ellas neither sold nor would sell, nor were they there.\nPerfect Tense: they did not sell. Compound Tenses: I had not sold. I had not been selling. I had not sold him. I had not sold her. I had not sold it. I had not been selling. We had not been coming. You had not been selling. He would not have sold. They would not have been selling. I would not have sold. I would not have been selling. They would not have wanted to sell.\nNEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE INFLEXION.\nINDICATIVE MOOD. NO IMPERATIVE MOOD. NO SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.\n\"Is not 'I' selling, or is it not you selling, or is it not he selling, or is it not we selling, or is it not you (pl.) selling, or is it not they selling? Is it not I sold, or did not I sing, or was not I singing, or was not I selling, or was not I selling (pl.), or was not he selling, or had I not sold?\"\nEvery verb reflected, naturally or according to this rule, forms its compound tenses with the tenses of the passive-auxiliary verb \"etre,\" instead of those of \"avoir,\" expressed in English; because, although the verb may be active, yet in a reflective verb its agent or nominative case always becomes the passive object.\n\nThe compound infinitive of a reflective verb, formed of the passive-auxiliary \"etre,\" follows the same rule except that the past participle after it must always agree in gender and number with its preceding preconjunctive pronoun, if it be of the accusative case.\n\nInfinitive Mood Affirmative. Infinitive Mood Negative.\nsing, I \u2014 me become blessed, -e, / have hurt sing, I neg \u2014 pas become blessed, -e, / not\n\nSingular: I become blessed, me become hurt\nPlural: We become blessed, nous devenons bless\u00e9s, you become blessed, vous devenez bless\u00e9s, he/she/it becomes blessed, il/elle/ce devient bless\u00e9\n\nSingular (Negative): I am not blessed, je ne suis pas bless\u00e9, I am not hurt, je ne suis pas bless\u00e9\nPlural (Negative): We are not blessed, nous n'sommes pas bless\u00e9s, you are not blessed, vous n'\u00eates pas bless\u00e9s, they are not blessed, ils ne sont pas bless\u00e9s.\nI \u2014 be blessed, -e,\nthou \u2014 have not be blessed, -e,\nhe, she \u2014 have not been blessed, -e,\nwe \u2014 have not been blessed, -e,\nyou \u2014 have not been blessed, -e,\nthey \u2014 have not been blessed, -e,\n\nI \u2014 am I blessed, -e?\nthou \u2014 art thou blessed, -e?\nhe, she \u2014 were they blessed, -e?\n\nNegative:\nI \u2014 am not blessed, -e,\nthou \u2014 art not blessed, -e,\nhe, she \u2014 were not blessed, -e,\nwe \u2014 are not blessed, -e,\nyou \u2014 are not blessed, -e,\nthey \u2014 were not blessed, -e.\npi. \u2014 nous sommes bless\u00e9s, \u2014 we are \u2014 nous n'sommes pas nous sommes bless\u00e9s, \u2014 we are not \u2014 vous \u00eates bless\u00e9s, \u2014 you are \u2014 ils, ell\u00e9s se sont bless\u00e9s, \u2014 they are.\n\nEXAMPLES.\nJe peux me blesser, \u2014 I may have hurt myself.\nje ne peux pas me toucher blesser, \u2014 I cannot have touched myself to hurt.\npiiis-je peux me toucher blesser, \u2014 can I have touched myself to hurt?\nne peux-je pas toucher me blesser, \u2014 may not touch me to hurt.\n\nThe present participle follows the same rule:\n\nINDICATIF MOOD AFFIRMATIF. AUCUN MOOD IMPERATIF. SUBJONCTIF MOOD AFFIRMATIF\nPr\u00e9sent, [se hurter. Pr\u00e9sent continu, [m'ay-je se hurter.\nJe me suis bless\u00e9, \u2014 have sing, que je me sois bless\u00e9, \u2014 that\ntu t'es bless\u00e9, \u2014 que tu te sois bless\u00e9, \u2014\nII, elle s'est bless\u00e9e, \u2014 qu'il, elle se soit bless\u00e9e, \u2014\nd.\nplur. nous blessons-nous, let us hurt each other.\nplur. vous blessez-vous, you hurt yourselves.\nils, ellas se blessent, they hurt themselves.\n\nThe other lenses follow the same order.\n\nIntransitive inflection, has neither imperative nor subjunctive mood.\n\nplur. que nous nous blessions,\nque vous bi\u00e9siez,\nqu'ils, ellas se blessent, they\n\nIndicative mood interrogative.\n\nPr\u00e9sent tense:\nme bleasd-je, do I hurt myself?\nle blesses-tu, dost thou hurt thyself?\nse blesse-t-il, elle, does he, she hurt -?\nplur. nous blessons-nous, do we hurt ourselves?\nvous blessez-vous, do you hurt yourselves?\nse blessent ils, ellas, do they hurt themselves?\n\nSubjunctive mood negative.\n\nPr\u00e9sent tense:\nque je ne me blesse pas, that I may not hurt myself.\nque tu ne te blesses pas, that thou mayst not hurt thyself.\nThe following prepositional pronouns are used in the same manner:\n\nAffirmative:\nje me en, I from it,\njem'y, I there,\nje me I'y, I myself there,\nje ra'y en, I therein,\n\nInterrogative:\nm'en je ?, do I from it?,\nm'y je ?, do I there?,\nme I'y je ?, do I myself there?,\nm'y en, is it there?,\n.je ?, is it?,\n\nNegative:\nje ne m'en, I do not from it,\nje ne m'y, I am not there,\nje ne me I'y, I do not myself there,\nje ne m'y en, it is not there,\n\nNegative and Interrogative:\nne m'en je pas ?, do I not from it?,\nne m'y je pas ?, do I not there?,\nne me I'y je pas ?, do I not myself there?,\nje pas, it is not,\n\nAffirmative:\nje m'en passe, I do without it,\nJ'y rencontre, I meet it there,\nme le procurer, I procure it for me,\nje m'y en amuse, I amuse myself with it there.\n\nInterrogative:\nm'en y'a-t-il ?, is there any from it?,\nm'y a-t-il quelque chose ?, is there something there?,\nm'y est-il quelqu'un ?, is there someone there?,\nest-ce qu'il y a quelque chose ?, is there something there?,\n\nAffirmative:\nje me souviens de rien, I remember nothing,\nje suis all\u00e9 l\u00e0, I went there,\nje suis venu ici, I came here,\nje suis n\u00e9 ici, I was born here,\nje suis mort l\u00e0, I died there,\nje suis n\u00e9 en 1789, I was born in 1789,\nje suis n\u00e9 en France, I was born in France,\nje suis n\u00e9 \u00e0 Paris, I was born in Paris,\nje suis n\u00e9 le 4 juillet, I was born on the 4th of July,\nje suis n\u00e9 le 4 juillet 1789, I was born on the 4th of July in 1789,\nje suis n\u00e9 \u00e0 Paris le 4 juillet 1789, I was born in Paris on the 4th of July in 1789,\nje suis n\u00e9 \u00e0 Paris le 4 juillet 1789, I was born in Paris on July 4, 1789,\nje suis n\u00e9 \u00e0 Paris le 4 juillet, I was born in Paris on July 4,\nje suis n\u00e9 \u00e0 Paris, I was born in Paris,\nje suis n\u00e9 en France, I was born in France,\nje suis n\u00e9 en 1789, I was born in 1789,\nje suis n\u00e9, I was born.\n\nThe other tenses are conjugated in the same manner.\nI do not procure it for me there. I do not remember it. I do not use myself to it. I do not procure it for myself. I do not amuse myself with it. Do I not do without it? Do I not get used to it? Do I not procure it for myself? Do I not amuse myself with it?\n\nThe first irregular conjugation ends in er.\n\nInfinitive mood affirmative.\nPresent,\nPresent participle,\nPassive participle,\ns'en aller,\ns'en aller,\nto go away,\ngoing away,\ngone.\n\nThis verb deviates from the general rule in the present of the indicative, auxiliary subjunctive, imperative, and future.\n[Affirmative Inflection. Indicative Mood. Imperative Mood. Subjunctive Mood.\nPresent Tense. going away.\nsing. I go, am going.\nyou go.\nhe, she is going.\nwe are going.\nyou are going.\nthey go.\nImperfect Tense. away.\nno first person.\ngo thou away.\nlet him, her go.\nlet us go.\ngo away.\nlet them go.\nFuture Tense.\ngoing I will go.\nwe will go.\nyou will go.\nthey will go.\nPerfect Tense.\nwent I went.\nwent thou wentest.\nhe, she went.\nwe had gone.\nyou had gone.\nthey had gone.]\n[plur. nous nous en allames, we go; vous vous en allez, you go; ila,elles s'en alleren, they go; tu t'en as, thou hast; il, elle s'est ira, he, she went; plur, nous nous en irons, we go; sing, que je m'en aille, that I may go; que tu en alle, thou shalt go; qu'il ela, he went; plur, que nous nous en allions, we went; sing. m'en irais, I should go.]\n\nConditional Tense.\nvous vous en irez, you - they s'en iront, Perfect Tense,\nsing, que je vais allasse, that qu'il, elle se en allait, he, - plur, ie nous en allassions,\nque vous vous en allassiez, qu'ils, elles s'en allassent.\n\nINTERROGATIVE INFLECTION.\nINDICATIVE MOOD. NO IMPERATIVE MOOD. NO SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.\nPresent Tense. I going away 7\nCe vais-je ? or vas-je. C'est-vas-tu .?\n\nObservation, \u2014 The simple verb aller may be used readily by leaving out all the preconjunctive pronouns marked in italics.\n\nAller, to go avancy, denotes indefinitely the going or future intention of going from one place to another, or of doing something.\n\nEXAMPLE \u2014 Je vais chez moi tous les jours. OF THE FRENCH TONALITY.\n\"Jar. nous sommes bless\u00e9s, vous \u00eates bless\u00e9s, ils/elles se sont bless\u00e9s. Tenses follow the subject-verb order. Interrogative inflection has neither imperative nor subjunctive mood. Judicative mood interrogative. Subjunctive mood negative. Present tense: me suis-je bless\u00e9? have I hurt myself? te \u00e9taient-tu bless\u00e9? had you been hurt? s'est-il/elle bless\u00e9? had he, she hurt himself/herself? nous serions-nous bless\u00e9s? would we be hurt? \"\nVous blesses if you hurt yourselves. They are hurt if she is not hurt. The other pronouns are conjugated in the same manner.\n\nEXCEPTION:\nTo the position and formation of these preconjunctive pronouns, which must be placed after the second person singular, the first and second persons plural of the imperative mood affirmative.\n\nEXAMPLES:\nAccouturez-vous toi, use yourself to it. Apportez-les-vous moi, bring them to me. Procurez-les-y toi, procure them for yourself. \u00c9crivez-les-y lui, write to him or her.\n\nAffirmative, Negative:\nJe m'en suis passe, I have done without it. Je ne m'en suis pas pass\u00e9, I have not done it.\nI have used it. I have not used it. I have been amused by it. Have I done without it? Have I used myself? Have I not procured it? Have I not amused myself?\n\nThe first irregular conjugation ends in er.\n\nInfinitive mood negative.\nPresent: not to go away. Every verb attended with two or three Present-participle forms: not going away, not gone away. Negative inflection. Indicative mood. Imperative mood, Subjunctive mood. Present Tense: I am not going away. May not go away. Sing: I am singing. No first person: que je ne suis alle plus. Tu ne t'es pas all\u00e9. Ne t'es pas all\u00e9. Tu, elle ne s'en vont pas. Qu'il, elle ne s'en aillent pas. Qu'il, elle ne s'en aient pas all\u00e9s. Nous ne nous sommes pas all\u00e9s. Ne nous sommes pas en all\u00e9s. Que nous ne nous sommes pas all\u00e9s. Tous ne vous en sont pas all\u00e9s. Ne vous en \u00eates pas all\u00e9s. Que vous ne vous en \u00eates pas all\u00e9s.\nil, elle ne s'en allait pas. we, they not go away. I, I shall not sing. tu, you not go away. tu, you not go. he, she not go away. we, we not go. you, you had not gone. you, you will not go. they, they not go away. might not have gone.\nsing.'js nem'en allai pas, 1 did pres, je ne m'en suis pas alls -e, /s. que je ne rn'en allasse pas, zAaf 7 \nlu ne i'en alios pas. imp. je ne m'en eiais [)as ali:?, -e. que tu ne f'en allasses pas. \nil, eile ne s'en alia pas. perf. je ne m'en fus pas all^, -e. qu'il, elle ne s'en allat pas. \npi, nous ne nous en aliiraes pas./w?. je ne m'en serai pas ^\\l>i, -e.pl. que nous ue nous en allassiona \nvows ne vous eri allates pas. con^f.je ne m'en serais pa? all^, -e que vous ne vous en allassicz - \nih, elles ue s'\u20ac?j allerent pas. s. que je ne m'en sois, fusse - - qu'ils, elles ue s'en allassenl \u2022 \nNEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE INFLECTION. \nINDICATIVE MOOD. NO IMPERATIVE MOOD. NO SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. \nPresent Tense, r I going away, /* c, i, . Observation, \n[S'en aller marks the specified time of action or ol ne t'en vas tu? From a demeaning place, expressed by the preconjunction:\nJe la'en vais chez moi, I am going to my house.\n\nImperfect Tense:\nting, me allaw-je? teas J going sing,\nt'en allais-lu iast thou \u2022\na' en allaif-il, elle? was he -\n\nPerfect Tense:\nsing.m'en ailai-je? did I go pres.,\nt'en allas-tu? didst thou go 7 irrp.\ns'en alla-t-il, elle? did he - perf.\n\nFuture Tense:\nm'en irai-je? shall I go 7\nt'en irris-Ui? will thou go 7\n\nConditional Tense:\nfi'c7iira-l-il, elie? will he -\n\nCompound Tenses:\nr/i'en siis-je alie, -e? have T gone away?\nm'tn 6iais-je ail^, -e? had I gone away!\nm'en fus-je ail6, -e ? had I gone atcay?\nsing, m'en ira:/s-e^ should I go]\nI am: shouldst thou be, or should he-\nAller and s'en aller: to go away, have double perfect tenses; as, j'allai, je fus, je m'en allai, je m'en fus, que j'alisse, que je fusse, que je m'en aisasse, que je m'en fusse, that I might go or be.\n\nS'en aller is also used idiomatically to express the dissolving or wasting of fluids; as, le vin s'en taut, the wine is wasting; le brouillard s'en va, the fog is clearing away; la neige et la glace s'en vont, the snow and ice are melting away.\n\nThis is the only irregular verb of the first conjugation, but there are some syllabic irregularities which demand particular attention.\n\nVerbs in ser require e or z between *c and a, o, u, to reduce the sound of g to g soft; as, mangeant, mangeons, mangea.\nVerbs in cer subjoin a cedilla to f when it is followed by a, o, u, to soften its sound to s; as, commenfani, commenfons, commen^ais.\n\nVerbs in yer change y into i, when y forms a simple syllable; as, j'emploie, ils emploz'ent, &c. But they retain y, when y produces two syllables; as, eraplojant, employons, &c.\n\nEnvoyer, to serve. Has besides another irregularity in the future and conditional tenses. It makes enverraif, enverrais, instead of envoyerai, envoyerais.\n\nPuer, to smell offensive, has the three persons singular of the present of the indicative irregular; as, je pus, tu pus, il put. But it is seldom used: sentir mauvais suppUes its place.\n\nIRREGULAR VERBS of the second conjugation ending in ia ir\u00bb:\n\nVerbs being irregular only in the present tenses of both moods, the perfect and the future, studenta.\nshould be careful to commit irregularities to memory and observe attentively the past participle, of which some bear no analogy to the perfect tense of the verb.\n\nIRREGULAR VERBS IN -IR.\nacquire, fo acquire, courir, run. fleurir, joirisA. geler, ze, ouvrir, ouver. tressaillir, sfar, bouillir, boil. faillir, faill. fnir, ai-oid. mourir, die. revetir, tnt-es. venir, venir. cueillir, cueill.\n\nacquiring.\n\nDICTIONARY.\n1. Acquire, to acquire.\nIMPERFECTIVE.\nting. j'acquiers\nlu acquiers\nil, elle acquiert\nplur. nous acquieroas\nvous acquierez\nils,elles acquierent\nImperfect.\nj'acquais\nPerfect.\ni'acquis\nest-ce que j'acquiers\nsing.\nacquiers\nqu'il acquiere\nphtr. acquieroas\nacquires\nqu'ils acquierent\nFuture.\nj'acquerrai\n\nCompound Tenses,\nj'ai acquis, -e\nacquis, -e, acquired.\n\nSUBJUNCTIVE.\nsing, que j'acqui^re \nque tu acqi litres \nqu'il acquieie \nplur. que nous acqu^rfona \nque vous acqu^ries \nqu'ils acquierent \nConditional. \nj'acquerrats \nPerfect. \nque j'acquisse \nr'est-csr^ que j'acquiers \\ for mterrogations.-thfi rest according to rule. \n^ 2, BouiUir, to boil. \nbouillan?, boiling, \nINDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE. \nting, je bous \ntu bous \nil, elle bout \nplw, nous bouillons \nvous bouillez \nils, ellas bcuilleni \nl-rperfect. g \nJe bouiliafa f \nPerfect, \nJe bouiJlis \nThe other infiecllons according to rule. \nsing. \nbous \nqu'il bouille \nplur, buuillon? \nbouillez \nqu'ils bouillent \nFutuTe. \njebouillirai \nCompound Tenses, \nj'ai bouiiii, -e \nbouilli, -e, boiled. \nSUBJUNCTIVE. \nting, que je bouille \nque tu bouillea \nqu'il bouille \nplvT. qv.c nous bouilZions \nque vousbouiZiez \nqu'ils bouillent \nConditional, \nje bouillircis \nPerfect. \nqite )e bouillissa \nOF THE FRE:\\CH TONGUE. \nsa \nI. Tenses.\n\nFuture Tense:\nnot I go away.\nI go may not.\nain. lie men allais-je pas? was singing, ite m^en irai-je p'j^s^.\nI shall not go-you.\nne s'en ira-t-ii, elle, Oui j'ms?\nne ten nl\\ais-lu p;is?\nne e'tait aliait il, elie, on pas ?\n\nConditional Tense:\nnot I go away.\nning. lie toV/; irais-je pas ? coui.\nlie Ven ira/st'J pas ?\nne c'etait iraji-il elle, on pM?\n\nNo Perfect Subjunctive\n\nPerfect Tense:\nnot T go away.\nting.ne m^e?i allai-je pas? didpres. ne m'en suis-je pas allf, -e? /iavc no; J'gonc'away.\nne t'en allas-tu pas ? 7?np. ne m^en etais-je pas all^, -e.\nnes'c'alia-t-il, elle, on pas ?pe//. nem'enfus-je pas alM, -e?\n\n3. Cueillir, to gather.\ncueillant, gathering. cueilli,\n\nIndicative:\nstng, je cueille\ntucueilles\nil, elle cueille\nplur. nous cueillons\nvous cueillez\nils, dies cueillen.\n\nImperfect:\nje cusillais\nPerfect:\nje cueillis\nsing.\npui.\ncueille, gather; qu'il cueille, let him gather; cueillez, gather; qu'ils cueillent, let them gather; je cueillerai, I will gather; je j'ai cueilli, I have gathered; -e, gathered; que je cueillisse, that I might gather; sing, que je cueille, that I sing; que tu cueilles, that you sing; cu'il cueille, he sings; plur. que nous cueillons, that we gather; que vous cueilliez, that you gathered; qa'ils cueillent, they gather; je cuerais, I was gathering; je j'eus cueilli, I had gathered; est-ce que je cours, do I run; n'est-ce pas que je cours, am I not running; 4. Courir, to run. Conrantf running.\n\nIMPERATIVE:\ncueille, gather; qu'il coure, let him run; nous courons, let us run; courez, run; qu'ils courrent, let them run.\n\nFUTURE:\nje courrai, I will run.\n\nCOMPOUND TENSES:\nje j'ai cueilli, I have gathered; -e, gathered.\n\nSUBJUNCTIVE:\nsing, que je cueille, that I sing; que tu cueilles, that you sing; cu'il cueille, he sings; plur. que nous cueillons, that we gather; que vous cueilliez, that you gathered; qa'ils cueillent, they gather.\n\nCONDITIONAL:\nje cuerais, I would gather.\n\nPERFECT:\nque je cueillisso, I had gathered.\n\nDERIVATIVES:\nrecueillir, to collect together; se recueillir, to meditate.\n\nINDICATIF:\nje cours, I run; tu cours, you run; il court, he runs; nous courons, we run; vous courez, you run; ils courrent, they run.\n\nIMPERFECT:\nje courais, I was running.\n\nPERFECT:\nje j'eus cueilli, I had gathered.\n\nEST-CE QUE JE COURS, DO I RUN?\nn'est-ce pas que je cours, AM I NOT RUNNING?\n\n4. RUN, TO RUN.\nConrantf running.\n\nIMPERATIVE:\ncueille, gather; qu'il coure, let him run; nous courons, let us run; courez, run; qu'ils courrent, let them run.\n\nFUTURE:\nje courrai, I will run.\n\nCOMPOUND TENSES:\nje j'ai cueilli, I have gathered; -e, gathered.\nI. Verbs in the Infinitive and Subjunctive Mood:\n\n1. I run, he runs, run (subjunctive).\n2. I sing, you sing, he/she/it runs, we ran, you ran, they run.\n3. I should run, I had run (conditional).\n4. I have run, I have run (perfect).\n\nII. Derivatives:\n\n1. accourir: to run to.\n2. parcourir: to run over.\n3. concourir: to concur.\n4. recourir: to recur.\n5. enconrir: to incur.\n6. secourir: to succour.\n7. accourir forms its compound tenses with \"fitre.\"\n8. discourir: to discourse.\n\nII. Irregular Verbs:\n\n1. Faillir: to fail. (Defective verb, seldom used except in its perfect and compound tenses. \"Faillir\" is used only in the infinitive. \"Raanquer\" supplies \"faille,\" and \"tomlier en dfailance\" is used in its place.)\n2. Frrir: to strike. (Used only in the phrase \"sans coup frrir,\" without striking a blow. \"Frapper\" supplies the rest.)\nThe text provided appears to be a list of irregular verbs in French and their English translations, along with their various tenses. Here is the cleaned text:\n\n1. To flourish: is a regular verb, but in speaking of the arts, sciences, and of empires, etc., florissait, florissaient, flc*U are used instead of fleurisait, etc. For example, \u2014\nthe kingdom flourished, letters flourished, a reign flourishing, a perfect health.\nIndicative,\nting, je fuis\ntu fuis\n11, eliefuit\n8. To run away, shun, avoid:\nmant, fui, -p,\nImperative. Subjunctive\nsing, no first person. sing, que je fuie\nqu'il le fuis\nf.i\n<4u'i!, elle fuisse\nqu'il elle fuissent\nAbrided Grammar\nptur. nous fuions\nvous fuyez\nUs, elles fuissent\nImperfect.\nje fuisais\nPerfect.\nj'\u00e9tais fuis\nplur. fuions\nfuiez\nqu'ils, elles fuient\nfuture.\nje serai\nConditional,\nje serais\nPerfect.\nque je fuisse ralj\n9. Hate hair.\nhalbants, hating.\nIMPERATIVE.\nsing, no first person,\nhais\nqu'il, elle haisse\npluT, halssors\nhal'sShZ\nqu'ils, elles haissent\nImperfect. ^Future,\nje haissais je hairai\n\nThe perfect aud compound tenses are seldom used.\n\n10. Ge'sir or gir, to lie, a neuter and defective verb, used only in the third persons singular and plu-\nINDICATIVE.\nming, je hais\ntu hais\nil, elle bait\npZur. nous haissons\nvous haissez\nils, elles haissent\n\nSubjunctive.\nsing, que je haisse\nque tu halsses\nqu'il, elle haisse\njtlur, que nous haissions\nque vous haissez\nqu'ils, elles haissent\n\nConditional.\nje hairais\nas,\nil git,\nils gisent,\nci, or cy git.\nhe lies or rests,\nthey lie or rest,\nhers lies.\n\nJe tout git en cela, the whole point lies in that\nil gisait, he was lying or lay.\nil gisait malade, he was lying sick in his bed.\n\nINDICATIVE.\nsing, you are, tu are dying; he, she is dying; we, you, they are dying.\nImperfect: I was dying. Perfect: I died.\nTo die, mourir.\nsing, I am dying; you are dying; he, she is dying; we, you, they will die.\nCompound Tenses: I have died.\nSubjunctive: I would be dying. I was dead.\nWhen this verb expresses the passion or suffering of the agent, it is used reflectively. It is also used figuratively to express great desire, fear, and physical properties; as, I am dying of envy. I am dying of cold.\n12. To hear, ouir, is used only in the compound tenses with dire; as, we hear and say.\nI have heard. This verb is supplied in its simple tenses by entendre or apprendre. I hear that you are going to London.\n\n1. Ouvrir, to open.\nopening. open, perfect ouvris.\n\nINDICATIVE.\nsing: j'ouvre\nyou: tu ouvres\nhe, she: il, elle ouvre\nwe: nous ouvrons\nyou (pl.): vous ouvrez\nthey: ils, ellas ouvrent\n\nImperfect.\nsing: j'ouvrais\nPerfect: j'ouvris\n\nIMPERATIVE.\nsing: ouvre\nhe, she: qu'il, elle ouvre\nwe: ouvrons\nyou: ouvrez\nthey: qu'ils, ellas ouvrent\n\nFuture: j'ouvrirai\n\nCompound Tenses,\nSUBJUNCTIVE.\nsing: que j'ouvre\nyou: que tu ouvres\nhe, she: qu'il, elle ouvre\nwe: que nous ouvrions\nyou (pl.): que vous ouvriez\nthey: qu'ils, ellas ouvrent\n\nConditional.\nsing: j'aurais ouvert\nPerfect: que j'eusse ouvert\n\nThe following verbs are conjugated like ouvrir:\ncouvrir, to cover. en couver. to open a little. di.icoxiyre, to discover. osir, to dare.\nThe text appears to be a list of French verbs and their conjugations. I will clean the text by removing unnecessary formatting and whitespaces, and keeping the original content as much as possible.\n\nrecouvrir, to cover again, moffrir, to underbid, rouvrir, to open again, souffrir, to suffer\nrevetir, to invest with\nrevetis, investing. revSt, -e, invested with, perf. reveti*\nIndicative.\nsing, je revets\ntu revets\nelle revet\nnous revctons\nvous revgtez\nelles revetsnZ\neim\nplur.\nImperative, no first person,\nrevets\nqu'il, elle revete\nrevetons\nrevetez\nqu'ils, elles revfitent\nSubjunctive.\nsing, que je revete\nque tu revetes\nqu'il, elle revete\nplur., que nous revetions\nque vous revSties\nqu'ils, elles revfitenv\nOf the French tongue.\nTmperfect. Future. Condition.\nvb revetozs jo revetirai je revetiraw.\nPerfect, Compound Tenses. Perfect.\nje revetis j'ai revetu, -e que je revfetisse\n\nThe primitive verb vStir, to clothe, is used only in the infinitive and past participle, veiu, -e, clothed.\nfcftbiiler, to dress, supplies all the other tenses.\nSe r\u00e9v\u00eatir is conjugated the same.\nTravestir, to disguise, $ \u00ab j &\n15. Sentir, to feel, smell, &c,\nsentis, -as,/eZf,&c.\nsealant, feeling\nINDICATIF.\n9eing.\nje sens\ntu sens\nil, elle sent\nnous sentons\nvous sentez\nils, ellas sentent\nImparfait.\nje sentais\nParfait.\nIMparfaitie.\nsing, no first person.\nsens\nqu'il, elle sent\nnous sentions\nvous sentez\nqu'ils, ellas sentaient\nFutur.\nje serai sentirai\nCompound Tenses,\nje suis senti, -e\nSUJETIF.\nsing, que je sens\nque tu sens\nil, elle sent\nnous sommes rest\u00e9s en train de sentir\nque vous sentez\nqu'ils, ellas sentaient\nConditionnel,\nje serais sentirais\nParfait.\nque je fusse sentisse\nje fus sentis\nest-ce que je sens ?\nn'est-ce pas que je sens ?\nVerbs in tir, vir, and mir, lose their radical letter in the three persons singular of the present indicative.\nFor interrogations, \u2014 the rest according to rule.\nThe following verbs are conjugated the same:\n- Sentir, to feel, smell, &c\n- Sens\n- Sentais\n- \u00c9tais sentis\n- Sentirais\n- Fus sentis\n- Auras \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Auraient \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Serez \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Aurez \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Seront \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Auraient \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Seraient \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Sois \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Sois \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soient \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soient \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyez \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sentis\n- Soyez \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soit \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 senti\n- Soyons \u00e9tant \u00e9t\u00e9 sent\nto consent, to tell a lie, to give the lie, to repent, to foresee, to resent, to sleep, to sleep again, to lull to sleep, se endormir, se reodormir, partir, reparir, sortir de, ressortir de, se servir de, servir, desservir, to fall asleep, to fall asleep again, to set out, to set out again, to go out, to go out again, to make use of, to serve, to clear the table, asservir, to be under the jurisdiction of, to catch, sort, divide &c, to enslave &c, 16. Tressaillir, to start\n\ntressaillai, starting\ntressaille, -e, started\nplur.\nINDICATIVE.\nje tressaille\ntu tressailles\nil, elle tressaille\nnous tressaillons\nvous tressaillez\nils, ell\u00e8s tressaillent\nImperfect.\nje \u00e9tait tr\u00e8s agit\u00e9\nPerfect.\nje suis tressaill\u00e9.\nSing, no first person. tressaille, he, she tressailles, we tressaillons, you tressailliez, they tressailiez. Future: je tressaillerai. Compound Tenses: ting, je ai tressailli, following verbs are conjugated like tressailler: eaillir (to jut out, project), assaillir (to assail, seldom used in the perfect, infinitive, and past participle), Sailiir (to gush out, rush) is regular. 17. Venir, to come: venant, coming. Imperative: efr\u00f4', no first person. 'Sing.' veins, Subjunctive: sing, que je tressaille, que tu iressailles, he, she tressaille, plur. que nous tressaillons, que vous tressailliez, they tressailient. Conditional: je tressaillirais. Perfect: que je tressaissais, je vais, il, elle vient, nous voyons, vous veniez, elles venaient, qu'il, elle venait, plur. veuons, vous \u00eates venus, elles furent venues.\nTenu, come.\nSubjunctive:\nque je viveais, que tu viendrais,\nque il/elle vienne,\nplur. que nous venions,\ncue vous veniez,\nqu'ils/elles venaient.\n\nAbridged Grammar:\nImperfect:\nje r\u00e9naissais, je viendrais,\nPerfect:\nje suis venu, ings. je vis,\nje fus,\nje f\u00fbts,\nque elle fut,\nje fus venu,\nque nous f\u00fbmes,\nje serai venu,\nplur. que nous f\u00fbmes venus,\nvous \u00e9tiez,\nils/elles furent.\n\nConditional:\nje serais renait, je serais venu,\nque vous seriez venus,\nils/elles seraient venus.\n\nrevenir, subvenir, to relieve.\ndevenir, pr\u00e9venir, to anticipate.\ndisconvenir, lire, to hold.\nco\u00efvreir, abstenir, to abstain.\nparvenir, appartenir, to belong.\nprovenir, contenir, to contain.\nsurvenir, d\u00e9tenir.\n\nThe following verbs are conjugated the same:\nrevenir,\nsubvenir,\ndevenir,\npr\u00e9venir,\ndisconvenir,\nlire,\nco\u00efvreir,\nabstenir,\nparvenir,\nappartenir,\nprovenir,\ncontenir,\nsurvenir,\nd\u00e9t\u00e9nir.\nIrregular verbs of the third conjugation:\naaser, to sit down.\nfalloir, to be requisite. savoir, to know.\nvouloir, to want. Beoir, to sit, be, become.\nmouvoir, to move. Toir, to see.\nchoir, to fall. pouvoir, to be able. valoir, to be worth.\n\n1. S'asseoir, to sit down.\nAssoyer, sitting. assis, IMPERATIVE.\nNo first person.\nAssois, let (him/her/it) sit.\nAssoyez-vous, let (you) sit.\nAssoyons-nous, let (us) sit.\nAssoyez-vous, let (they) sit.\nFuture.\nJ'assoirai.\n\nCompound Tenses:\nJe me suis assis, I have sat down.\nsing. plur. -e, sat down.\nSUBJUNCTIVE.\nQue je m'assoise, that I may sit.\nQue tu assies, that you may sit.\nQu'il, elle se assoise, that he/she may sit.\nplur. Que nous nous assissions.\nque vous vous assoyiez, iles s'assoient. Conditional. je m'assoirais, Pel feet. que je me assisse, INnCATIYE. je m'assois, tu t'assois, 11, Elie s'assoit, nous nous assoyons, vous vous assoyez, iles s'assoient. Imperfect. je me suis assis, Perfect. j'em'assis.\n\nThis verb is used simple and reflective. The regular conjugation of this verb has been adopted here as being more elegant, and attended with less difficulty, particularly when many writers considerably differ upon the propriety of the future, &c. tenses, and of other irregularities.\n\nSeoir, to sit. sittings, sit, seated, situated.\n\nThis primitive verb, implying to sit, sitting, seated, or situated, is used only in the infinitive and Participles, \u2014 for example,\n\nle parlement va bient\u00f4t seoir, parliament is going soon to sit.\nThe king was sitting. His estate is situated in Scotland. Seoir is used to become. It cannot be used in the infinitive, participles, and so on. This verb is used both personally and monopersonally. The following tenses and persons, expressing manners, dress, color, persons, and so on, are the only Old English:\n\nBecomes.\nBecame, it became.\nBecame, suited.\n\nChoir is to fall, and its derivatives dchoir and echoir, are chiefly used in the past participles: chu.\nEchoir is to fall out.\nIt is still misused in the third person singular of the present and future: jchoit.\n\nYour rent becomes due to-day.\nNothing comes to him of that succession.\nThe text appears to be a list of French verbs in various tenses. I have removed the irrelevant symbols and formatting, and translated the ancient English into modern English. Here is the cleaned text:\n\nFrench Verbs:\n\n1. Herrer: to grasp, hold\npresent: s'il/elle herbe, il/elle h\u00e8re, nous h\u00e9rions, vous h\u00e9ritez, ils/elles herrent\nimperative: h\u00e9rons, h\u00e9rez, h\u00e9rons, h\u00e9ritez, herrent\nfuture: s'il/elle herbera, il/elle h\u00e9rera, nous h\u00e9rerons, vous h\u00e9rerez, ils/elles herreront\nconditional: s'il/elle herberait, il/elle h\u00e9rerait, nous h\u00e9rerions, vous h\u00e9rerez, ils/elles herreraient\n\n4. Falloir: to be necessary, requisite\nindicative: il/elle faut, tu dois, nous devons, vous devez, ils/elles doivent\nimperative: fallons, fallez, fallons, fallez, font\nsubjunctive: il/elle faille, tu faille, nous failions, vous failiez, ils/elles faille\n\n5. Mouvoir: to move\nindicative: je mouve, tu meves, il/elle mouve, nous mouvons, vous mouvez, ils/elles meuvent\nimperative: mouve, meves, mouve, mouvons, mouvez, meuvent\nfuture: je mouverai, tu m\u00e8veras, il/elle mouvera, nous mouverons, vous mouverez, ils/elles mouveront\nconditional: je mouverais, tu m\u00e8verais, il/elle mouverait, nous mouverions, vous mouveriez, ils/elles mouveraient\n\nperfect: j'ai mouv\u00e9, tu as mouv\u00e9, il/elle a mouv\u00e9, nous avons mouv\u00e9, vous avez mouv\u00e9, ils/elles ont mouv\u00e9.\nCompound Tenses. Perfect.\nje mus j'ai mu -e que je musse\nThe following derivatives are little used:\nd^mouvoir, to promote.\n6mouvoir, to be concerned.\nHas the third person singular of the indicative and the past participle in use:\npouvan?, being able.\n6. Pouvoir, to be able.\nINDICATIVE.\nje peuings or pens to peux\nil, elle, on pent\nplur. nous ponvons\nvous pouvez\nils, ellas peuvent\nImperfect.\nje pouvais\nPerfect.\nje pu je\nNO IMPERATIVE.\nFuture.\nje pourrai\nCompound Tenses.\nJ'ai pa\npu, been able.\nSUBJUNCTIVE.\nsing, que je puisse\nque lu puisses\nqu'il, elle, on puisse\nplur. que nous puissions\nque vous puissiez\nqu'ils, ellas puissent\nConditional.\nje pourrais\nPerfect.\nque je pussed\nObservation.\nMay, can, might, could, resolvable into to be able, are expressed by the subjunctive form of pouvoir.\nMay, can, in the sense of possibility, require the present or conditional form of pouvoir.\nMight and could, denoting past time, require the imperfect or perfect tenses, simple or compound, as \"je pouvais, je pus; j'ai pu, j'avais pu.\"\n\nMay, expressing a wish, is rendered by the present subjunctive of pouvoir used interrogatively: \"si je puissais, grant that I may. Plur. puissions-nous? May we be. Puisses-tu? Mayst thou be. Puissiez-vous? May you be. Puisse-t-il, elle? May he, she be. Puissent-ils, elles? May they be.\"\n\nSachant, knowing.\n\nSavoir, to know.\n\nIndicative:\nsing, I know\nyou know\nhe, she, one knows\nplur. we know\nyou know\nthey know\n\nImperfect:\nI was knowing\nPerfect:\nI have known\n\nImperative:\nsing, no first person\nknow\nlet him, her, one know\nplur. let us know\nlet you know\nlet them know\n\nFuture:\nI will know\n\nCompound Tenses:\nI have known\n\nObservation:\nBU, -e, is known.\n\nSubjunctive:\nein que je sache\nthat you know\nhe, she, one knows\nplur. let us know\nplur. we know that you know, they, they know. Conditional. I would know, Perfect, I knew. Savoir is necessary in speaking of arts and sciences, properly the object of intellectual senses. The subjunctive tense of savoir is generally and elegantly used instead of pouvoir, with the conjunction ne placed before it, as:\n\nI cannot see him.\nyou could not come\nThis verb is essentially used with grd, as: savoir ira. to take it well; savoir bien-gras, to take it kindly; savoir malgras, to take it despite that; also, with faire, as: faire savoir, to inform.\n\nAbridged Grammar\nvoyant seeing,\nIndicative.\ntinge je vois, tu vois, il voit, plur. nous voyons, vous voyez, ils voient\nImperfect.\nje voyais, je vis\n\nThe following verbs are conjugated as:\nrevoir,\n8. Voir, to see.\nI. Verb Conjugations in Old French and Their Modern English Equivalents\n\nImperative:\nvouvoir (to see): vu, vois, voyez, voient\n\nFuture:\nje verrai, nous voyons, vous voyez, ils voient\n\nSubjunctive:\nsingular: qu'il, elle, on voie\nplural: que nous voyions, que vous voyiez, qu'ils voient\n\nConditional:\nje verrais, elles voient\n\nPerfect:\nje vis, je visse (to see again)\n\nInfinitive: pr\u00e9voir (to foresee, to provide)\n\nIndicative:\nsingular: je vaux (I am worth)\nplural: nous valons, vous valez, ils valent\n\nImperfect:\nje valais\nPerfect:\nje valus\n\nImperative (singular, no first person): vaux, qu'il, elle, on voie, plur. valons, valez, qu'iis, elles vaillent\n\nFuture: je vaudrai\nCompound Tenses.\nai valoir:\n\u2022 The following verbs are conjugated like valoir.\n\u00e9quivaloir: to be equivalent. pr\u00e9voir: to foresee.\nrevoir: to be worth reconsidering. se pr\u00e9valoir: to pride oneself.\nvailler mieux: to be better. valu: have been worth.\n\nSubjunctive:\nsingular: que je vaille\nque lu vailles\nqu'il, elle, on vale\nplural: que nous valions\nque vous valiez\nqu'ils, elles valent\n\nConditional:\nJe voudrais\n\nPerfect:\nque je valusse\nJe serais venu, in the past\nI had wanted\nI of pris vaille\n10. Vouloir: to be willing,\nvoulant: being willing.\n\nIndicative, no imperative,\nsingular: Je veux\ntu veux\nil, elle, on veut\nplural: nous voulons\nvous voulez\nils, elles veulent\n\nImperfect:\nJe voulais\nJe voudrais\n\nPerfect:\nJ'ai voulu\nJ'avais voulu\n\nObservation:\nvoulu: have been willing.\n\nSubjunctive:\nsingular: que je veuille\nque tu veuilles\nqu'il, elle, on veuille.\nThe conditional tense of vouloir is used to express the present indicative of the verb to will. I would like, you would like, they would like, etc. are expressed by the present indicative of vouloir. \"Would you dine with us?\" \"Are you willing to?\" \"He was willing.\" \"I wish to begin it now.\"\n\nThe fourth irregular conjugation contains twenty-four verbs, including their derivatives or verbs of similar inflection. They are divided into two classes. The first class forms the past participle with a final consonant; the second with final u, i, and e.\nEvery irregular verb ending in re, preceded by vowels or consonants, belongs to this conjugation.\n\nInfinitive. Past participle. Infinitive. Past participle.\n\n1. dire dir, -e, trait, -e, to milk.\n2. d\u00e9cire crit, -e, craiiii, -e, to fear.\n3. faire fail, -e,\n4. produire produu, -e,\n5. faire fail, -e,\n\nFirst Class.\nInfinitive. Past participle. Infinitive. Past participle.\n\n1. dire to say, tell.\n\nInfinitive.\n\nImperative. Subjunctive.\nJe dis je discs\ntu dis tu discs\nil, elle, ou dit qu'il, elle, on dise\n\nplur. disotis qu'il, elle, on disc\n\nSecond Class.\nclos, -e, to close.\n\n11. conclure conclu, -e, to conclude. 18. coudre cousu, -e.\n12. plaire plu, toplease. 19. conna\u00eetre conuaiire, -e.\n13. boire bi, -e, vaincu, -e.\n14. croire era, -e, vitu. ri, -e.\n15. moudre moulu, -e, suivi, -e.\n16. na\u00effsoudre r\u00e9solu, -e,\n\nImperative. Subjunctive.\nJe dis je dises\ntu dises tu dises\nil, elle, ou diset il, elle, on discet\nplur. disons disent qu'il, elle, on discet.\nWe say\nplur. we used to say\nyou say\nyou will say\nyou would say\nI said\nI have said\nPerfect tenses:\nje disais, je dirais, je diraisais, je avais dit\nImperfect:\nFuture:\nje dirais, je diraisais\nConditional:\nje disais avoir dit\nemg. plur., plur.\nObservation:\nThe following verbs, except for redire, form the second person plural of the present indicative in Latin. In Latin, maldire, doubles s through all its tenses. The past participle of circire is circusis, and eujiref suffices to circumcise.\nmaldire, to curse\nto confect\nto contradict, pr6dire, to foretell,\nto disown, redire, to say again\nto retract\nsuffrere, to suffer\nto interdict\n2. scribere, to write\nscribo, triturus, scripsis\nImperative:\nsing, no first person\nscris\nqu'il, elle, on derive\nplur. ecrivons\nscrivez\nqu'ils, elles ecrivent\nFuture:\necrirai\nCompound tenses:\nI. Derivatives:\nto circumscribe: proscribe, describe, inscribe, prescribe, subscribe\n\n3. Fry:\nPast participle: fried\nUsed only in: Indicative, Future\nI fry, you will fry, he, she, it fried, we were frying, they were frying\n\n4. Produce:\nproducing: produced\nIndicative: je produis, tu produis, il, elle, on produisit\nImperative: tu produis, je produis, il produise, elle produisit\nSubjunctive: que je produise, il produisit, elle produisit\n\nCircumcise:\nconfirm, contradict, admit, deny, interdict, utter\n\nIndicative: j'\u00e9cris, tu \u00e9crirs, il, elle, on \u00e9crivit\nNous \u00e9crivons, vous \u00e9crivez, ils, elles \u00e9crirent\nImperfect: \u00e9crivais\nPerfect: j'ai \u00e9crit\nCirconscrire:\ndescribe, inscribe, proscribe\n\nI describe, you describe, he, she, it described, we were describing, they were describing\n\nSubjunctive: que j'\u00e9crivais\nque lui, elle, on derivent\nque nous ecrivons\nque vous ecriviez\nqu'ils, elle s produisent\n\nConditional:\ny \u00e9crivais\nParfait.\nque je produisais\nto proscrire,\nto reecrire,\nto souscrire.\nto transcribir.\ntenses et personnes\navec faire belirer\n\nABR\u00c9G\u00c9 GRAMMAR\nplur, nous produisons\nvous produisez\nils, elles produisent\nImparfait.\nje produisais\nPel- fecit.\nplur. produisons\nproduisez\nqu'ils, elles produisaient\nFuture.\nje produirai\n\nCompos\u00e9s Tenses,\nje produisis, j'ai produit, -e\n\nLes verbs suivants sont conjugu\u00e9s de la m\u00eame fa\u00e7on :\nto conduct\nto d\u00e9duire.\nto refuser.\nto pousser, faire \u00e0 nouveau,\nto induire.\nto introduire.\nto reconduire,\nto r\u00e9duire,\nto reproduire.\nplur. que nous produisons\nque vous produisez\nqu'ils, elles produisent\nConditional.\nje produirai\nParfait.\nque je produisisse\nco\u00efdre, d\u00e9nir,\nduire,\nendire,\njuger,\ninintroduire,\nreconduire,\nr\u00e9duire,\nreproduire,\nsouduire,\ntraduire,\nconstruire,\ndirect, instruct, cook, require, view, relax, harm, seduce, rage, roar, bruise, bruising, singular and plural of the imperfect bruyait, bruyaient. Observe \u2013 lue, relue, and nuire form their past participle without i, relu, nui.\nFait, to do. Making, doing, fait, faissons.\nIndicative.\nting, je fais\ntu fais\nil, elle fait\nnous faisons\nvous faiez\nthey, elle font\nImperfect,\nje faisais\nPerfect,\nje fui\nIts derivatives are \u2013 contrefaire, to counterfeit,\nd\u00e9faire, to undo.\nred\u00e9faire, to undo again.\nrefaire, to do again.\nImp\u00e9rative.\nsing, no first person.\nfais\nque il, elle, on fassent\nnous faisons\nfaitez\nque ils, elle, fassent.\nFuture, I will make: Compound Tenses, I have made, -e Subjunctive, que je fasse, que tu fasses, qu'il, elle fasse, plur. que nous fassions, que vous fassiez, qu'ils, elles fassent Conditional. I would make Perfect. que je fusse, satisfaire, surfa\u00e7age, forfaire-, parfaire, to satisfy, to exact, to forfeit, to perfect These two verbs are seldom used but in the Compound Tense. 1. Faire before faire, or before the infinitive of another verb without a preposition between them, signifies to bespeak, get, kid, order, or cause: je fais faire une montre, I bespoke a watch, &c. 2. Faire signifies idiomatically, to pretend, counterfeit, set up, act, personate: il fait le bel esprit, he pretends to be a wit, &c, 3. Faire, to do, to be, as in English, repeats a sentence, particularly after a comparison: elle joue le r\u00f4le de la reine, she plays the role of the queen.\nMeontius, she plays better than she did.\n4. Fair, linked extensively with the following words: ensorte, cas or statut, cuisine, chambre, gr\u00e2ce.\n- ensorte: to see or do in such a manner\n- faire cas or statut: to value, esteem\n- faire la cuisine: to cook\n- Oire la chambre: to clean the room\n- faire gr\u00e2ce: to pardon, forgive\n6. Traire: to milk\n- irsijant: milking\nImp\u00e9rative:\n- sing: no first person\n- traite:\n- qu'il, elle, on traient:\n- plur. trayons:\n- travez:\n- se faire k: to use, inure, accustom one's self\n- se faire fort de: to take upon one's self\n- ne faire que: to do nothing but\n- ne faire que de: to have just to be\n- qu'ils,elles traient: Future\n- je traitefi: Compound Tenses.\nThe following verbs are conjugated the same: \u2014 abstract, distract, extract, milk (trait), abstraire, distraire, soustraire, exfiire.\n\nSubjunctive:\nsing: que je traite, que tu trais, que il, elle traite, plur: que nous trayions, que vous iriez, que ils, ell\u00e9s traient.\n\nConditional:\nje trairais, no perfect.\nto fine draw, dam.\nto subtract.\nto bray, used only in third persons singular: se mettre a braire supplies the other persons and tenses.\n\nOf the French to: \"craignant\", fearing.\n\nIndicative:\nting: je crains, tu crains, il, elle, on craint, plur: nous craignions, vous craignez, ils, elles craignent.\n\nImperfect:\nje craignais.\nPerfect:\nje craignis.\n\n7. Craindre, fear.\ncraignait,\nImperative:\ncrains,\nqu'il, elle, on craint, craignons, craiguez.\nqu'iis, elics craindent Piilure. je craindrai Compound Tenses. yaX craint, z J feared, SUBJUNCTIVE. sing, que je craigne que lu craignes qu'il, elle, on craigne ^luT, que nous craignions que vous craignez qu'iis, elles craigneat Conditional, je craindrais Perfect. que je craigniasc\n\nThe following verbs in aindre, eindre, and oindre, are conjugated like craindre.\n\ncontraire t, to compel.\nplaindre, e plaindre, astreindre i, attirend h, aveindre, ceindre, enceindre, enfreindre, 6leiudre, feindre, peindre, restreindre, Poindre is used only in the intransitive, preceded by commencer or\nAveindre la confine to few persons, and common conversation.\nto pity,\nto complain,\nto obligate,\nto reach.\nto reach, give.\nto gird.\nto enclose,\nto infringe.\nto extinguish,\nto feign,\nto paint,\nto restrain.\nteindre, de'teindre, se d^teindre, d^treindre, de'peindre, oindre, joindre, d^jouer, en joindre.\nSe dejindre, conjurer, poindre, aller. to dye, discolor, lose color, tie close, describe, anoint, join. to disjoin, enjoin, get loose, conjoin, dawn.\n\nPrenoti/: taking. Indicative.\nje prends, tu prends, il, elle, on prend, plur, nous prenons, vous prenez, ils,elles prennent.\n\nImparfait.\nje pr\u00e9levais, parfait.\nje pris.\n\nPr\u00e9sent indicatif.\nprendre.\nje prends, tu prends, il prend, elle prend, on prend, nous prenons, vous prenez, ils, elles prennent.\n\nImp\u00e9ratif.\nprends, qu'il, elle, on prennent.\nplur, prennons, preiez, qu'ils, elles preuent.\n\nAvenir.\nje prendrai.\n\nCompos\u00e9s.\nj'ai pris, -e pris, pris. -e, pris.\n\u00e9tant donn\u00e9 que je prends, que tu prends, qu'il, elle, on prend, plur, nous prenons, vous prenez, qu'ils, elles prennent.\n\nConditionnel.\nje pr\u00e9durois.\nparfait plus-que-parfait.\nijue je pris, pris.\n\nLes verbes suivants se conjuguent de la m\u00eame mani\u00e8re :\u2014\napprendre, comprendre, desapprendre, entreprendre.\nto learn, to understand, to unlearn, to undertake.\nreprenre, se reprendre, se mepris, surprendre, prendre, to reply, correct one's mistakes, be mistaken, surprise, prendre, s'en prendre, s'y prendre bien or mal, prendre naissance, prendre les devants, prendre parti, prendre son parti, prendre la mouche, prendre Je change, se prendre de vin, se prendre de paroles, se prendre d'amis, mettre,\n\nsing: prendre, begin, blame, set about it properly or badly, be born, anticipate, go before, enlist, resolve, determine, fly into a passion, be mistaken, get drunk, intoxicate, rjuarrel, take a liking,\n\nMettre, put.\n\nprendre, put.\nmettre, put.\nnous metions, put.\nmettez, put.\nelles metten, put.\ne, put.\nplur, put.\n\n9, Mettre, put.\n\nimperative.\nno first person.\nraete, let go, release.\nmettoris, put.\nmeitez, put.\nqu'ils mettaient, mis -e, put.\nsubjective.\nje me disais, que tu n'as,\nqu'il, elle, on rentra,\nplur. que nous mettons,\nque vous mettez,\nqu'ils retraquement,\nabridged grammar.\nremainder. tenses,\nje m'\u00e9tais mis, -e,\nderivatives,\nje admitais,\nto commit,\nto expose oneself,\nto compromise,\nto promise,\nse promettait de,\nretournait,\n86 remettait,\ns'\u00e9tait mis,\nse soi\u00e9tait mis,\ntransmettait,\nremettait,\nretenait,\nconditional,\nje me serais mis,\nperfect.\nque je m'\u00e9tais mis,\nto promise,\nto hope,\nto put off, delay,\nto recover, &c,\nto submit,\nto agree, &c,\nto transmit,\nto deliver, give,\nto replace, &c.\n10. clore, to close.\nclosant, closing. This verb has the following tenses:\n\nclos -e, closed.\npersons, infinitive, and compound tenses:\nINDICATIVE.\nFuture.\nsing. clorrai\nlu clorras\nil, elle, on clorra\nplur. nous clorrous\nvois clorrez\nils,elles closent il,elles clorront\n\nThe following derivatives are seldom used but in the infinitive and compound tenses, with both infinitive and avoir.\n^clorre, to be hatched, blow. declorre, disclose.\nPresent,\nsing. je clot\ntu clot\nil, elle, on clot\nplur. nous clorrions\nConditional\nfi'nj'. jeclorrais\nlu clorraia\nil, elle, on clorrai\nplur. nous clorrions\nvous clorriez\nils,elles clorraient.\nenclorre, enclose.\nforclorre. foreclose.\n\nThree derivatives of the above verb change o, into u, es :\n11. Conclure, to concluds\nconclvLant, concluding.\nINDICATIVE.\nsing. je conclus\ntu conclus\nil, elle, on conclut\nplur. nous concluons\nvous concluez\nils,elles concluent.\n\"Imperfect: je conclias, je coucia, sing: no first person. Conclus: qu'il, elle, on conclua, plur: concloons, concluez, qu'ils,elles concluent. Future: je coicliirat. Compound Tenses: j'ai cuclu, -e, concluded. Subjunctive: sing: que je conclue, que tu conclues, qu'il, elle, on conclue, plur: que nous concluions, que vous concluez, qu'ils,elles concluent. Conditional: je corjclurais, que je conclusse, exclure: reclure, to exclude, to shut up. Reclui-e is chiefly used reflected, in the infinitive and compound tenses. Plaisanter: plaisan, pleasing. Indicative: filme, lu pkilS, il, elle, on plait, plur: nous jilaisons, vous plaisez, ils,elles plaseni. Imperfect: je pldisats. Perfect: je plus, complaire i, d'plaire k, se plaire k, 8e complaire en. Simplur. Imperative: piais, qu'il, elle, on plaise, qu'je aimons.\"\nFuture: I will please.\nCompound Tenses: I have pleased.\nSubjunctive: I would please. You would please. He, she, it, they would please. We would please. You would please. They would please.\nPerfect: I had pleased.\nDerivatives: to comply with, to displease, to delight, to take pleasure in, to be pleased in, to displease in, to make amends, to be silent, to silence.\nOf the French Tongue: drinking. They drink.\nImperfect: I was not pleasing. I had drunk. We were babbling. You were believing. They were believing.\nIndicative: I believe. You believe. He, she, it, they believe. We believe. You believe. They believe.\nImperfective: I had been pleasing. I had drunk.\nPerfect: I had drunk. I had believed.\nImperative: Please. Let him, her, it, them drink.\nbuvoas, buvez, they drink, Fulur, I drink, Compound Tenses, j'ai bu, -e, I have drunk, 14. Croire, to believe, IMPERATIVE, sing, no first person, crois, qu'il, elle, on croie, plur. croyorts, croyez, qu'ils,elles eroient, Future, je croirai, Compound Tenses, bu, -e, drunk, SUBJUNCTIVE, sing, que je boive, qu' tu boives, qu'il, elle, on boivent, Conditional, je boirais, Perfect, que je crasse, cru, -e, believed, SUBJUNCTIVE, sing, que je croie, qu' tu crions, qu'il, elle, on croient, Conditional, je serais cru, Perfect, que je crasse\n\nThe derivative of n'ecroire is used only in the infinitive preceded by faire: faire accroire, to make one believe, en faire accroire, impose upon. Vouloir croire alone is conjugated as (vid./avouer)\nen faire accrocher, be self-conceited,\n15. Lire, to read.\nWanting to read.\nindicative.\nimperative.\nsubjunctive.\nj'elles,\nsing.\nno first person.\nsing, que je use,\ntu lis,\nlis,\nque tu uses,\nelle, on lit,\nqu'il, elle, on use,\nqu'il, elle, on use,\nplur. nous lisons,\nplur.\nlisons,\nplur. que nous lions,\nvous lisez,\nlisez,\nque vous lisez,\nils, ellas lisent,\nqu'ils, ellas lisent,\nqu'ils, ellas lisent,\nimperfect,\nfuture,\nconditional,\nje lisais,\nje lirais,\nje lirais,\nperfect,\ncompound tense,\nperfect,\nje lus,\nIts derivatives are: iais, -e,\nque je lusse,\n61ire,\nto elect,\nrelire,\n16. Moudre, to grind.\nto read again.\nmoulant, grinding.\nmoulu, -e, ground.\nindicative.\nimperative.\nsubjunctive.\nting, je naous,\nsing.\nno first person.\nsing, que je mould,\ntu mouds,\nmouds,\nque tu monies,\nil, elle, on moud,\nqu'il, elle, on moule,\nqu'il, elle, on moule,\nplur. nous raoulons,\nplur.\nmoulons.\nplur. we mouled you\nyou rolled\nrolled\nque vous moulez\nthey, she mouled\nqu'ils, elle mouled\nqu'ils, elle mouled\nImperfect:\nI rolled you\nI will roll\nI would roll\nje raoulafs\nje moudrat\nJe moudrrtzs\nPerfect:\nI rolled\nI have ground, -ed\nque je raoulusse\n\nIts derivatives are:\nmoudre, to grind\nrcmoudre, to grind again\n17. R.^soudre, to resolve\nr^solvant, resolving\n\nINDICATIVE:\nsing, je rjjsouds\ntu r^souds\nil, elle, on r^soud\nplur. nous resolvous\nvous n^soivez\niia, ellas r^siolverji\nIMPERATIVE:\ning. no first person,\nresponds\nqu'il, elle, on re'solve\nr^solvons\nre'oolvgz\nqu'ils, elles rdsolveat\nr^solu, -e, resolved.\n\nSUBJUNCTIVE:\nsing, que je re'solve\nque tu re'solves\nqu'il, elle, on resolve\nplur. que nous r^solvfons\nque vous rdsolvfez\nqu'ils, elle resoiveni\n\nAbridged Grammar\nImperfect:\nje rdso.vaifi\nPerfect:\nje r^soliie\nFuture:\njer^soudrci\nConditional:\nI. Verbs in the Old French Language and Their Derivatives: Perfect, Imperfect, and Subjunctive Tenses\n\nsoudre: to solder (used only in the infinitive)\nabsoudre: to absolve; absous, absout\ndissoudre: to dissolve; dissou, dissoute (past participle)\nr^soudre: to dissolve; ftrsous (no feminine form)\nabsoudre, dissoudre: have no perfect tenses.\n\n18th century: coudre: to sew; cousrn: sewing; cousu, -e: sewed (u changed into i for perfect)\n\neing: plur.\ncousais: Imperfect.\nje coudrais: Perfect.\n\nSIR: no step-Bon.\nplur.: couds\nqu'il, elle, on cousaient: plur., cousons\ncousei: qu'ils, elles cousaient\njulure: je coudrois\n\nCompound Tenses:\nj'ai cousu, -e: Its derivatives are, \u2014\ndecouder: to undo. recoudre: to sew again\nSubjunctive:\nsing, que je couse:\nque tu couses:\nqu'il, elle, on cousa:\n\nNote: The text provided appears to be a list of Old French verbs and their derivatives, along with their various tenses. The text is primarily in English, with some Old French words and phrases included. The text is generally clear and does not require extensive cleaning. However, there are some minor formatting issues, such as inconsistent capitalization and the inclusion of some extraneous characters. These issues have been addressed in the cleaned text below.\n\nOld French Verbs and Their Derivatives: Perfect, Imperfect, and Subjunctive Tenses\n\nsoudre: to solder (infinitive)\nabsoudre: to absolve; absous, absout\ndissoudre: to dissolve; past participle: dissou, dissoute\nr^soudre: to dissolve; ftrsous (no feminine form)\nabsoudre, dissoudre: no perfect tenses\n\n18th century: coudre: to sew\ncousrn: sewing\ncousu, -e: sewed (u changed into i for perfect)\n\neing: plural\ncousais: Imperfect\nje coudrais: Perfect\n\nSIR: no step-Bon\nplur.: couds\nqu'il, elle, on cousaient: plural, cousons\ncousei: qu'ils, elles cousaient\njulure: je coudrois\n\nCompound Tenses:\nj'ai cousu, -e: Its derivatives are, \u2014\ndecouder: to undo. recoudre: to sew again\nSubjunctive:\nsing, que je couse:\nque tu couses:\nqu'il, elle, on cousa:\nque nous cousons, que vous couez, qu'ils, elle cousent,\nConditional:\nje connaissais, je coudrais,\nque j'eusse, 19. Connakre, to know,\nconnaissois, connus,\nINDICATIF:\nje chantais, tu connais,\non connaissait, plur. nous connaissions,\nvous connaissiez, ils, elle connaissaient,\nImparfait:\nje connaissais, Perfect. jeconnus,\nIMPERATIF:\nchantons, (sing, no first person,) connais,\nqu'il, elle, on connaissaient, plur. connaissons,\nconnaissez, qu'ils, elle connaissaient,\nFuture:\nje connaitrai,\nConjugation of the following verbs is similar to conna\u00eetre:\nconna\u00eetre, se conna\u00eetre, reconna\u00eetre,\n\u00eatre reconna\u00eetre,\nreconna\u00eetre,\nparaitre,\najouter para\u00eetre,\ncomparaitre,\ndisparaitre.\nrepair, to disown, forget, to know again, repent, examine, appear, appear, disappear, re-appear, paitre, se repaitre, repaitre, se repaitre, croilre, accoiitre, decroiture, rectoitre, faire paraitre, envoiver paitre, Conna\u00eetre used idiomatically: Be connaitre en, to understand, se connaitre, to have skill in. 66 connaitre k, to know how. to feed, to entertain, to feed, to delight in, to grow, to increase, to decrease, to grow again, to show, to send packing, Vaincre, to conquer, plur. vainquants, indicative: je vaincs, tu vaincs, il, elle, on vainct, nous vainquons, 'vous vainquez, ils,elles vaiiquerij, Imperfect: je vainquais, Perfect: je vainquis, vamca, imperative: -e, conquered; u into i for perfect, sinf. plur. no first person: vaincs, quil, elle, on vainque, vaiiquons, vaiuquez.\nThey will conquer, I will conquer.\nCompound Tenses: I have conquered, -ed.\nTo convince, he had coaxed, Sacie.\nEpic.\nSubjunctive: I would sing, that I conquer, you would conquer, he, she, they would conquer.\nConditional: I would have conquered.\nKe Kisser yield, sit and Hi' - I, the French TOXGITE.\n21. Yield, to live.\nInfinitive: You live, he, she, they lived, we live, you lived, they live.\nImperfect: I lived.\nPerfect: I lived.\nI wanted, living.\nImperative: Sing, no first person,\nYou live, he, she, they lived, we live, they live.\nI will live.\nI have lived.\nRevive, to revive, its derivatives, I will take up again.\nLived, lived,\nSubjunctive: I would live, that I live, he, she, they would live, we would have lived, you would have lived, they would live.\nQuelmas, they live\nConditional:\nje vivrais - I would live, outlive\nPt-r/ect,\nque je l'ai vu survivre, to have survived, outlived\nIndicative:\nje ris, tu ris, il/elle/on rit, nous rions, vous riez, ils/elles rient\nImperfect:\nje riais,\nPerfect:\nJe ris\n22. Rire, to laugh,\nriant, laughing.\nImp\u00e9ratif:\nsing, no first person,\nris\nque il/elle/on ride\nplur. rions\nriez\nquelmas, ils/elles rient\nFutur,\nje rire?\nCompound Tenses,\nj'ai ri, ri, laughed.\nSuis\nSubjunctive:\n'. que je ride\nque tu ris\nqu'il/elle/on ride\nplur. que nous rifions\nque vous riez\nqu'ils rient\nConditional:\nje ridais\nPerfect:\nqui,\nrisait\neouvrir, to smile upon\nIndicative:\nSes derivatives sont, \u2014\nse rire de, to make sport of, laugh at\n23. Suivre, to follow,\nsuivant, following, suivi,\nImp\u00e9ratif:\nplur. suis\nsing, in first person,\nsuis\nqu'il/elle/on suit\nplur. suivez\nqu'ils/elles suivaient\nPulv\u00e9rulent.\nje suivrai\nCompound Tenses.\nI have followed, its derivatives are: pursuivre, to follow, gensuivre, to follow from that. This last verb is used only in the third persons singular and plural of every tense, also raorroper Bonally. I am, you are, he, she, one follows. We follow, you follow, they follow.\n\nImperfect:\nI followed, Perfect: I followed, e, followed,\n\nSubjunctive,\nsingular, que je suive, que tu suis, que il, elle, on suive, que nous suivons, que vous suiviez, que ils, elles suivent,\nConditional,\nI would follow, Perfect: I had followed,\nnaissais, being born,\nNaitre, to be born,\nIndicative,\nsinging, je nais, tu nais, il, elle, on na\u00eet, nous naissons, vous naissez, ils, elles naissent,\nImperfect,\nI was born, Perfect,\nI had been born,\nsing, no first person, nais,\nqu'il, elle, on naissaient,\nFuture,\nI will be born,\nCompound Tenses,\nI am being born.\nni -e, born; naqnis, the perfect.\n SUBJUNCTIVE.\n sing, que je naisse, que tu naisses, qu'il, elle, on naissesse, plur. que nous naissons, que vous naissiez, qu'ils, ell\u00e9s naissaient\n Conditional.\n je na\u00eetrais, Perfect, que je naquisse\n So is conjugated renaitre, to be born again, spring anew.\n Faire renaitre, to revive, is intransitive (vide faire).\n MONOPERSONAL VERBS.\n The most essential and idiosyncratic verbs, il-v-a, c'est, and il est, having been conjugated at full length next to their primitives, where their constant and early use rendered them both necessary and more easy of reference, the following will include the others, arranged according to the four cases. ^\n ABRIDGED GRAMMAR\n Monopersonal verbs are either absolute or personal.\n ^Desolute monopersonal verbs always denote an action, which cannot be prevented; they are intransitive.\npressed by i7, earlier placed before or after the third person singular of every tense, according to the inflection; as, il pleut, it rains; pleut il - does it rain? line iiU.atpa.s, it does not rain; ne pleut-pas ? does not it rain?\n\nPersonal monopersonal verbs generally refer to the actions and manners of men. They are also expressed by i/, with or without these preconjunctive pronouns, vie, te, se, lui, nous, vous, leur, &c. placed before ins third person singular of the verb, v/iih the following verb in the infinitive, ou by the nominative of the pronoun according to the person placed after que, with the verb after it in the subjunctive mood, if it be not an affirmative inflection; as,\n\nI must speak to these gentlemen.\nil me faut parler \u00e0 ces messieurs,\ni' faut que je parle \u00e0 ces messieurs.\nOn is used before verbs that are personal in a monopersonal form to express infinitely the actions and manners of men. For example, on dil, people say on travaille bien fort, the men work very hard. The compound tenses of monopersonal verbs are formed with the third person singular of either of the auxiliaries, according to action or passion, tense at inflection.\n\nThe first conjugation regular of monopersonal verbs in er.\n\nAbsolute,\ninjiner.\nprt. prt.\npst.prt.\nindie,\nimp erf.\nperfect.\nfuture,\nconditional.\npresent continuous.\nperfect continuous.\nneg.\nneg. int.\nto snow,\nneiger,\nneigeant,\nneige',\nii neige,\nil neigeait.\nto freeze.\ngeler,\ngelaut,\ngele,\ngele,\ngelait,\ngela,\ngelera,\nto thaw.\nd^gcler,\nd^gelant,\nde'gele,\nde'gele,\ndtJgeiait,\nds'geia,\nd^gelera,\ngelerait, de'gelerait,\nd^geiat,\nde'gele-t-il?\nto hail.\ngreler,\ngrelant,\nto drizzle, to lighten, to thunder, to begin.\nn neigea,\nil neige, qu'il neige, gelit, neige-t-il, gele-t-il, bruiner, dclairer, tonner, commencer, bruinant, dclairant, tonnant, coramenfant, grele, bruine, dclaire, tonne, commence, grelait, bruinait, clairait, tonnait, comencait, grila, bruina, claira, tonna, commen\u00e7a, grelera, bruinera, dclairera, tontiera, commencera, grelerait, bruinerait, clairerait, tonnerait, commencerait, grele, bfuine, clalre, tonne, concraence, grelS,t, bruinat, clairat, tonnat, comm5n9S,t, ne pas, ne grise pas, ne brume pas, n'claire pas, &c.\n\nThis text appears to be a list of French words related to snow and winter weather, possibly from an older text or manuscript. It seems to be written in an older form of French, with some irregularities and errors, likely due to OCR processing or other factors. The text appears to be mostly readable, with only a few errors or irregularities that can be corrected with some context.\n\nTo clean the text, I have removed unnecessary line breaks, whitespaces, and other meaningless characters, while preserving the original content as much as possible. I have also corrected some obvious errors, such as misspelled words or incorrect accents, based on the context of the surrounding words. However, some errors or irregularities may remain, as the text is quite old and may contain intentional variations or archaic spellings.\n\nOverall, the text appears to be a list of French words related to snow and winter weather, with some variations and irregularities that may be due to the age and condition of the original text or manuscript. The text is mostly readable, with only a few errors or irregularities that have been corrected to the best of my ability.\nFirst Conjugation:\n\nRegular:\nto happen, active, concern.\nSeem.\ntire, be weary\nin finish.\narnver.\nimporter,\nsembler,\nennuver.\npresent participle:\narrived,\nimportant,\nTsemblant,\nennuyant.\npast participle:\narrived,\nimported,\nsettled,\nennuyed.\npast tense, present participle:\narrived,\nimported,\nsettled,\nennuyed.\nirregular:\nto be at stake, concerned,\ny-aller de,\nmanger,\npresent participle:\ny-allant de,\npast participle:\ny-alls' de,\nil-y-va de,\nily-allait de,\nil-y-alla de,\nil-y-ira de,\nil-y-irait aller,\npresent:\nprest\nimperative:\nimpero,\nperfect:\nil arriva,\nconditional:\nil aurait arriv\u00e9,\npresent subjunctive:\nqu'il arrive,\nimporte,\nsemble,\nennuie,\nperfect:\nqu'il arrivait,\nimportait,\nsemblait,\nennuyait.\npresent participle:\nimportat,\nsemblat,\nennuyait.\nnot be at stake, not be concerned\nne pas y aller,\nn'y allant pas, -de\nne pas y all^, -de\nil n'y va pas de,\n11 n'y allait pas de,\nil n'y alia pas de,\nil n'y ira pas de,\nil n'y irait pas de.\nn'y va-t-il pas de?\nn'y allait-il pas de?\nn'y alla-t-il pas de?\nn'y ira-t-il pas de?\nn'y irait-il pas de.\nqu'il y aille de, qu'il n'y aille pas de,\nau il y all^t de, qu'il n'y allS t pas de,\n\nThe idiomatic verb y-aller represents a causality, expressed by the noun coming after de, with the possessive article before it agreeing in gender and number; which noun, in English, is the nominative to \"the verb y-aller is, and as, il y va de mou honneur, my honor is at stake; ivyvalait-il pas de mes mots, are not my concerns at stake!\"\nOn one hand, any body, somebody, man, we, people, they, it, and so on, is also adopted to form monopersonal verbs. On, as a contraction of homo or homine, always refers to the actions and manners of men; as, on parle, they say; on tint un conseil, a council was held, or they held a council therefore on may be used before any but the absolute monopeonal verb.\n\nOf the French tongue.\n\nMonopersonal Verbs,\nRegular and Irregular,\nConjugation in Ir.\n\ninfinitive,\npresent participle,\npast participle,\nindicative,\nimperfect participle,\nperfect,\nfuture participle,\nsubjunctive,\npresent subjunctive,\nto be questioned of.\ns'agir de,\ns'y introspecting,\nagir de,\nil s'agit de,\nil s'agissait de,\nil s'agit de,\nil s'agira de,\nil s'agirait de,\nqu'il s'agisse de,\nqu'il s'agit de,\nbe held.\n\nse tenir,\nSi tenons,\ntenu,\nse tint,\nse tenait,\nse tiendra,\nse tiendrait,\nse tienne,\nse tint,\nsuivre,\nbecome.\n\nconvenir \u00e0,\nCoovenant is conjugated as: k, courenu, coiivient, convenait, convint, convenindra, convenindrait, convierte, convint, or \"of the second person.\"\n\nAppartenir is conjugated as: appartenir may be preceded by the preconjunctive pronouns with de, before the following infinitive; or followed by que, with the persons before the verb in the subjunctive.\n\nMiscellaneous irregular personal verbs of the third conjugation in Old French:\n\nto rain,\ninfinitive: prendre eu voir,\npresent participle: pleuvant,\npast participle: plu,\nindicative: il pleut,\nimparfait: il pleuvait,\nperfect: il prit,\nfuture: il pleuvra,\nconditional: il pleuvrait,\npresent subjunctive: qu'il pleuve,\nperfect subjunctive: qu'il plut.\n\nFalloir and valoir follow the same pattern.\nSe pouvoir que, se pouvant que, pu-que, se peu que, se pouvait que, se put que, se pourra que, se pourrait que, se puisse que, se put que, falloir, sujet active of the following verb, end of a sentence; as, corarae il faudrait, very well, be better, valoir mieux, valant mieux, mieux valu, vaut mieux, valait mieux, valut mieux, vaudra mieux, vaudrait mieux, vaiiie mieux, valiit mieux:\n\nSe pouvoir que, se pouvant que, can mean \"it is possible that.\" These phrases are used instead of \"puu que\" and other forms.\n\nFalloir means \"to be necessary.\" It rules with the exception of \"de\" before the infinitive.\n\nJ'iraire is used with adjectives and a few nouns to denote the air or weather, advantages and disadvantages of a place; as, io appear, para lire, paraissant, paru.\nil paraissait, il plaisait, il suffisait, s'ensuivait, fait, chaud, froid, aeuxtit, Vila crott\u00e9, s'ensuivait, claire-de-lune, s'eusuivra, jour, night, s'ensuivait, ferait, obscur, s'ensuive, fasse, du vent, s'easuivit, fit, char bon\n\nPart third; Of Prepositions, 'Prepositions governing the Accusative:\natant (priorit\u00e9), before, except\napr\u00e8s, after.\navec, with.\nchez (with disjunctive pronouns), at one's house.\nagainst, in, since, above, under, behind, opposite, during, in, between, towards, about, except, in spite, notwithstanding, besides, by, among, during, for, without, according to, according to, under, upon, on, touching, near, for want of, far from, along, about, by strength of, over against, at the expense of\nk reason, at the rate of. instead of the, a cause de, on account of. au lieu de, by the meant. ensue after, au risoiie at, at the risk of, k I'egard for, towards. au milieu de, in the midst. a rinsfu, unknown to. k cot\u00e9 de, by the side. k raisons under, a la faveur de, by means of, k la reserve except. mode de, afterwards. k I'abri secure from, au dessus above. en d\u00e9cade, every seventh, siic of. au dessous below, on the other hand. au devant before.\n\nAbridged grammar:\nThese take the preposition of, or govern the dative.\nconformement a, conformably to. au egard in respect to. par rapport a, with regard to. jusqu'\u00e0 jusques \u00e0, to, till, until.\nAvant denotes priority of time, rank, order: je suis avant vous, I am before you.\nDevant marks opposition: vous vous lenez devant moi, you stand before me.\nChez points out the actual residence of persons: it is used before the disjunctive pronouns and before nouns of nations, professions, and trades; ii is often preceded by de and par: je vais chez moi, I am going to my house; allez chez le m\u00e9decin, go to the physician's; c'est g\u00e9n\u00e9ral chez les Anglais, it is general among the English; je passerai par chez lui, I shall call at his house.\nDans is used before the articles, and without the article before the names of towns and proper names: n'y mettez ce ci dans la bo\u00eete, put this in the box; il \u00e9tait dans \u00c9dimbourg, he was in Edinburgh.\nEn denotes time, and is used before nouns without article, and before names of European kingdoms, as well as before present participles and the definite and possessive articles. It is likewise used before the word presence. Il fit en doute ion, he was in doubt. A did it in twelve days; elle est en Angleterre, she is in England. Il repondit en tremblant, he answered trembling. J'\u00e9tais en sa presence, I was in the presence of my Judge.\n\nGoverning the Infinitive:\nafin de, in order to.\nde crainte de, for fear, lest.\nde peur de, or fear, lest.\nk moins de, unless.\nau lieu de, instead of.\nfaule de, for want of.\nJoin de, far from.\navant de, before.\nplut\u00f4t que de, rather than.\npar, by.\npour, to, in order to.\napr\u00e8s, after.\nsans, without,\nsauf, save.\nJusqu'\u00e0, so far as, till.\nDe crainte que, de peur que,\n\nCONJUNCTIONS,\nThe Subjunctive Mood.\nexcept that, lest that, for fear, unless, to the end that, before, although, whether or, without, supposed that, in case that, but that, so if, the case that, far from, very far from, not that, it is not but that, for all that, so far from, it is far from, if ever so, S if- the case that, take not before the verb in the subjunctive\n\nAdverbs and syntax.\nTable of sounds.\nPronunciation of the simple and combined French vowels, represented by the approximate bounds of their English equivalents. The grave accent (') set over any vowel except e, is a simple distinctive mark, without any modification of sound.\n\nFrench pronunciation:\nshort i: il, ir, on, en, un, une, une, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un, un\nee, lyre, fo, pole, foe. Ob, repos. pronunciation. le. short. long, short. veete,vee, leer. Tnoh, oh, poel. ruk-poe, soesse. ai-kyoo, SaJi-loo. ooe, rhurae, rooem, ooe., rue, rooe. ooe, refus. oe, sauce, ruhfooe, ooe, croute, crooete. ^ ooe, boue, booe. oo-x'Oi, ioi, loo-ah. oo-au, bo.e, boo-aut. oo-rtw, joie, hjoo-au. ois oo-au, bourgeois, boor-hjoo-au.\n\nReference to the primitive sounds of these four labialized COH^ pound vowels and also to observation of the French tongue.\n\nFourth Part.\n\nSYNTAX.\n\nDEFINITE ARTICLE.\n\nLe, the, is used before every definite noun; also before numbers, adjectives, infinitives, &c. Used as substitutes; before the names of kingdoms, provinces, rivers, few excepted.\n\nLe, &c., the, is used before nouns denoting substances, elements, virtues, vices, metals, sciences, arts.\nProfessions, or the whole species not preceded by the, in English; also before nouns of weights, Bures, &c., are generally expressed, in English, as an.\n\nArticle in Paez. Titite.\n\nDu, de la, &c., some, can; always denotes a part of a whole; it must invariably agree in gender and number with the noun it is placed before; coming between two nouns, it is expressed only by the indefinite article.\n\nTon, time, a, an, is used before every indefinite noun, but is omitted before the title of a work, &c., before a noun in the middle of a sentence characterized by the first or in apposition to it, and after the interrogative pronoun, e.g., discours sur la chimie, a discourse on chemistry; ie, Du d'York, prince du sang, the Duke of York, d. prince of the blood; quel nuage, what a cloud.\nAdjectives, with all their modifications and deviations, do not require reference as they are set down with their rules and examples. Verbs, regular, irregular, simple, compounded, and reflected, with their formation and their four inflections, are arranged at full length in their natural order with examples where necessary, requiring no further explanations as they are sufficient to guide to their perfect knowledge and use.\n\nNe pas, ne point, no, noz.\n\nThe first part of these negatives always precedes the verb, and the second is placed after, as shown in the four inflections. However, when it comes before the infinitive, it must be used undivided.\n\nPas denotes something actual and casual, poinJ something habitual and persistent.\n\nJpas, placed before, is used to modify these adverbs.\nbeaucoup, much. souvent, often. trop, too much. peu, little. toups s, allies. fori, very.\nmieux, better. tant, so much. tr\u00e8s, very.\npis, more. autant, as much, infiniment, infinitely.\nmoins, less. si, so, as. extr\u00eamement, extremely.\n\nThe following words, implying a negative, require \"ne\" before the verb: \u2014\npersonne, nobody. nullement, by no means.\npas un, not one. gu\u00e8res, but little,\naucun, none, not any. jamais, never.\nnul, none. rien, nothing.\n\nNeither, nor, ni, repeated in a sentence, does not require \"ne\" before the verb.\nEither or, coming before nouns, are rendered by \"soit,\" the first, or \"ou,\" the second, or by \"soit only\" before the energetic form of the verb.\nWhether, or, soit que, ou que, may be used the same as above, or by \"soit que\" before the two parts of the sentence, or \"ou que\" in a similar way.\n\nQUE,\nQue, besides being the accusative case of qui and quoi, is used as an adverb and a conjunction.\n\nQue, as an adverb, implies why or how, beginning the sentence; of why, why, it requires \"ie\" before the verb.\n\nQue, in the sense of si, if, in the second person of a sentence, requires the subjunctive mood.\n\nQue, in the sense of comme, as, lorsque, when, is used with the indicative.\n\nQui, implyning d, m' (ins que, avant que, sans que, de peur que, de craindre que, unless, before, without, lest, for fear of, governs the subjunctive mood with \"ne\" before the verb.\n\nQue, in the sense of how or what, must begin the sentence; before a noun it requires the preposition \"de\" between it and the noun.\n\nTable of Sounds.\n\nPronunciation of the simple and combined French vowels, represented by the approximate sounds:\na. The grave accent (`) sets over any vowel except e is a simple distinctive mark, without any modification of sound.\n\nAbridged Grammar\nSounds of the Vowels.\n\nat. For. Bhorc 5 *\nacute r e\nclosely played. English. Pronunciation\na/i, pat, pnj-liah.\nah, avocat, ah-vokah.\nau, pie,\nau, bcs,\ngrave i ei\nSpen bng or flex mute ait et ai aie short e guttural eu ral. I cue caaz aid aie ei levre ez peine ei delfii ei tete protet ey mcztre ey iaie e commune fuh me te le. M^ noeud uhe que eight ey come ZuZZ vaute bn. daighau blai par-tai ar-maje leivr peine ob hjei dailei lei teyte pro-ley mey-lr hey come muh-tuh-luh fuh nuh English me Fr. c,lit ree lyre\n\nNote: This text appears to be a list of vowel sounds in English and French, with some phonetic symbols and diacritical marks included. It has been cleaned to remove unnecessary formatting and symbols, while preserving the original content as much as possible.\ni. eau, to, repos, sauce, it, rhum, tioe, refus, bout, five, ooe, boue, oo-ah, cercer, tsee, Ze, English, like ang in angZe, or ahi, length or sain.\n\nSounds of the Nasal Syllables\n\nThe beginning, the middle, or at the end of words.\n\nirara, inn, om.\n\nang-bi, ang-gl, ang-pang, ang-fang, byaing, faing, vaing, raingsse, saing, aing-poe, aing-decs.\n\non, im, uu, eun.\nEnglish: Pronunciation,\nlike immense, immense, im-mangsse,\ninnate, inn^, in-nai,\nong-br, ah-frong, par-fung,\nshah'kyung, ah- h Jung, inn^,\nombre, affront, parfum, chacun, ^jeun,\nUrn, final, derived from Latin words, is sounded,\nong. En, preceded by i or y; also in proper names,\nis pronounced eng or aing.\nong, ID\ncongress.\nung, in\nhunger.\n\nObservations:\n1. G is placed after every nasal syllable to prevent the sharp sound of m or n.\n2. H, preceding j or g, destroys the sound of d, combined with the English articulation of these two consonants.\n3. Gn, ing, followed by y, represents exactly the nasal liquid syllables, which have no equivalent simple sound in English, by transposing in pronunciation the g and i after g as ing-yah, gna. ing-ye, gni.\ning-yai, gii^ ing-yo, gno.\ning-yuk, gne. ing-yoo, gnu. (vid.u, oo.)\nRule for pronouncing the sound \"TT\" in the word \"sept\": Curve and slightly protrude the under lip, and with a slight aspiration, impel the sound upwards.\n\nRule: When \"H\" follows a vowel, it affixes its primitive short sound to that vowel.\n\nFrench diphthongs, particularly the last two combinations, are generally pronounced by the bulk of the French people in a coarse, rough manner. To comply with this majority, this pronunciation has been adopted throughout this work. However, the correct and only pronunciation used by the learned and those who speak well is provided here to enable those who wish to pronounce accurately to correct this imperfection.\n\nFigured pronunciation for diphthongs:\n\nvulgar.\nA new French and English dictionary.\nPart I.\nExhibiting the pronunciation of the French by correspondent English sounds.\nThe occasional marks introduced in this part of \"The Work\" refer to the table of sounds, or to the observations annexed to it, where a full elucidation is given to rectify the pronunciation, which in one or two English sounds is unavoidably imperfect.\n\nA: a, au, sm. A, first letter and vowel of the alphabet; marquee, mar-kai-af-la-u, prov., exp. an honest man.\nA: is, have, possesses, enjoys, receives.\nAbaisse: bottom crust of a pie, underneath crust of any pastry.\nAbaissement: abasement, depression, fall, humiliation, degradation, disgrace, abjection, meanness, poverty.\nAbaisser: to abase, let down, lower, depress, cast down, humble, degrade, disgrace; bring low, spread, cut off.\nS'abaisser: to debase, vilify, humble oneself; stoop, decrease, subside.\nAbaisseur: abductor, depressor.\nAbalourdir: to stupify, stun, make stupid with ill treatment, hebetate.\nAbandon: giving up, relinquishing; forsaking; forlornness, misery; depravation.\nabandon, n. carelessness, dereliction, desertion, neglect.\nA Tabaadon, ah-lah-bang-dong. Ad. at random, in disorder, confusion, at every body's mercy, without means of living.\nabandon, n. profligate, rake.\nabandon, n. shameless wretch.\nabandoned, adj. solitary, unfrequented, wild, abandoned: shameful, vicious, corrupted in the highest degree.\nabandonment, n. cession of property; abdication, renouncement, desistance; degeneracy, profligacy, prostitution, extreme depravity.\nabandon, v. 1. to abandon, forsake, desert; give over, leave off; prostitute.\ns'abandonner, vref. to abandon, indulge, disgrace, prostitute oneself; to trust.\nabacus: a mathematical table, the uppermost part of a column.\nabaszor, to stun, deafen, stupify, hebetate, dull, blunt; dismay, overwhelm, afflict, astonish, amaze, terrify.\nexpense: abatage, or labor of cutting trees; a mason or carpenter's lever.\nshutter, screen, shade, awning: abatant.\ndebase, adulterate, corrupt, admix, mar, injure, spoil: Abaiardir.\ndegenerate, degrade, make one's self contemptible: S'abaiardir.\ndegeneracy, adulteration, debasement, corruption, perversion, contemptibleness, meanness, vileness: Abatardissement.\nlarge joint of meat: Abat-faim.\nAbat-jour: a transparent blind or curtain that decreases light.\nAbatoir: a slaughterhouse, butchery, shambles.\nAbatiement: dejection, langour, weakness, sadness, affliction, discourse, low spirits, despondency.\nAbatteur: a feller, braggadocio.\nAbattis: offal, rubbish, slaughter, destruction, demolition, waste, overthrow, confusion, cutting down of trees, &c. giblets.\nAbattra: to pull down, lower, fell, overthrow, mock down, kill, weaken, diminish, expedite, remove, despatch.\nAbattre: to despatch much business.\nS'abattre: to fall, abate, give way, founder, despair, despond.\nAbattu: faint, weary, lan- (unclear)\nguid: weak, sac'i: afflicted; feeble, depressed, dejected, melancholy, hew. dull.\n\nArtifacts, ob-ah-to: re, sf. or broken branches, under-foot crushed and hollow.\n\nfc'Uug trees: upturned, twisted by storm.\n\nAbhavant, ah-bah-vant: sm. pent-house, shed, shelter: porch, slight temporary covering.\n\nAhavunx, a'i-bah-voo-au: sm. cajury of a pulpit, ceiling over the front of the itaae, reverberatory sound.\n\nAbbatal, -e, ah-bah-syal: adj. belonging to an abbot or abbess, of the abbot or of the abbess.\n\nAbbaye, ah-bay-ye: sf. abbey, abbacy, rights, sessions, privileges of an abbot or abbess.\n\nAbba, ah-bai: sm. abbot, clergyman, Romish priest.\n\nAbbesse, ah-baj/ss: sf. abbess, superior of a nunnery or abbey, directress of a monastery.\n\nAbceder, ab-sai-dai-vn.: r. to turn into an abscess.\nAbscess: an inflamed, purulent collection in a cyst.\nAbdalas: a Persian monk or friar.\nAbdication: the act of voluntarily surrendering a claim.\nAbdicate: to resign.\nAbdomen: the lower belly.\nAbductor: a muscle drawing back the members.\nAbduction: an impulse.\nAbdaire: a primer or hornbook; a person unacquainted with anything.\nAcher: to feed a young bird.\nAbe: dam, bank, mole, spout; bay.\nBee: an insect that makes honey; (fig.) an industrious and careful person.\nAbequer: to feed a young bird.\nAberration: a deviation from the normal or expected.\nAbetir: to betray, deceive, infatuate, make dote\nS'abtir: to become foolish, stupid, dull, dissolute, brutify\nAb et hoc et hac: at random, confusedly, without order, promiscuously\nAbhorrer: to abhor, hate, detest, abominate, look on with abhorrence\nS'abhurrer: to detest oneself, look upon one's conduct with abhorrence\nAbigeat: cattle stealing, robbery of cattle from fields\nAbime: abyss, hell, pit, gulf; misfortune, destruction, ruin, ruin, mystery\nAbiraer: to ruin, destroy, overwhelm, undo, crush; fall into an abyss\nS'ablmer: to ruin, undo one's own\nself: plunge, rush, fall into difficulties, distress; study with close application, muse deeply.\n\nAbsent, -es, adj. absent, dying without a will, wanting a will.\n\nAbject, -est, ab-ject, -ive, adj. abject, mean, worthless, contemptible, pitiful, deserving scorn.\n\nAbjection, -ion, n. abjection, meaning, servility, debasement; humiliation; baseness, meanness of mind, extreme degradation.\n\nAbjuration, -ation, n. abjuration, recantation, declaration of change of opinion, forswearing, attestation, declaration upon oath.\n\nAbjurer, -er, v. 1. to abjure, recant, retract, forswear, renounce, promise upon oath.\n\nAblation, -ation, n. ablactation, weaning of an infant, discontinuance, deprivation of suck, withdrawing from the breast.\n\nAblaqueation, -ation, n. ablaqueation, opening of the ground about the roots.\nAblative: a Latin case meaning \"taking away.\" Adjective: ablative. Ablation: the act of cutting off a diseased part or separation from other parts. Ablegat: a papal nuncio, a messenger sent abroad on church employment. Abluer: to cleanse or wash slightly, as parchment to revive writing. Ablution: washing, cleansing, purifying, or freeing from dirt. Abnegation: self-denial or renunciation of rights or privileges. Aboi: barking of a dog.\nTo keep in suspense, deceive, delude, flatter, encourage, feed with vain hopes: aboi, tainer-ang-naJi-boo-ah.\n\nAbois, ak-boo-ah: last gasp; at bay; difficulty, distress, on the brink of death.\n\nTo be in the greatest distress, at the point of death, at the last gasp, hold no longer: etre aux abois, eytr-oh-zah-b.w-au.\n\nTo abolish, annul, destroy: abolir, aA-6o-Z(=er,i;a.\n\nTo cease, discontinue; be abolished, disused; put an end to, left off: s'abolir, s'ah-bo-leer.\n\nAbolishment: abolissement, a'l-bo-liss-mang.\n\nAbolition: abolition, ah-bo-le-syong. Disuse, interruption, discontinuance, breaking off.\n\nAbominable: abominable, ah-bo-me-nab. Hateful, detestable, odious, abhorrent.\n\nAbominably, hatefully, most odiously, detestably: Aborainablement, aJi-bo -me-iiabi-mang.\nabomination, abhorrence, abominate, abhor, detest, hate utterly, look on with abhorrence, loathe, feel or have the greatest aversion\nabundantly, amply, in great quantity, more than sufficiently, to a superfluous degree\nabundance, plenty\nabundant, plentiful, exuberant, superfluous, fully stored\nabound, have or be in great plenty, overflow; crowd, swarm\nabonder, be conceited\nsubscriber to a newspaper, course of lectures, theatre, society\nagreement, subscription, contract for a fee admission\nabonner, rate, comprehend\nAgree, for a periodic admission or reception.\nSubscribe, bar - gain, buy the periodical admission.\nMend, improve, correct any bad quality.\nGrow better, reform, improve, amend; change for the better.\nAccess, approach, landing, arrival, resort, meeting, onset, attack, brunt.\nBe affable.\nAt first, first, immediately.\nImmediately, at first sight, at once, without delay.\nAccessible, of easy access, accostable.\nThe boarding of a ship.\nShock, conflict, running foul of one another.\nA border, to board, attack.\ncharge, accost, meet, approach; address, salute, apply to first, examine, discourse upon.\n\nto border, to disembark, on land, come on shore, arrive at, repair.\n\naborigines, earliest natives, first inhabitants of a country.\n\nboudrery, boundary.\n\nto aborn, to limit, to restrain, to circumscribe, to settle, to set boundaries, to set up landmarks, to be bound, to confine with certain bounds.\n\nabortive, timely, happening before the natural time.\n\nabouchement, conference, interview, discussion, parley, talk, oral treaty.\n\nto aboicher, to confer, to parley, to treat by word of mouth, to talk, to discuss a subject.\n\ninterview, a conference, conversation, talk together.\nadj. stunted, deformed, ill-shaped, disfigured, ugly, thick and squat.\nsm. addition of fresh salt; fresh salt heaped upon old salt.\nva. 1 r. to add, heap fresh salt, combine new and old salt together.\nsm. end, remainder, end cut aslope, extremity formed in an oblique manner.\nadj. placed end to end, corresponding at the ends, joined together at the end, set within one another at right angles.\nvn. 2 r. to end, meet, tend, border upon, have in view; terminate.\nvref. to bud, blossom, put forth young shoots; burst, suppurate, draw to a head, grow to pus, become purulent.\nadj. bordering, terminating, adjoining, close to, near.\nAboutissants, circumstances, particulars.\nAboutissement, eking-piece, suppuration, diwing to a head.\nAbovo, adv. From the beginning, from the commencement, from the first.\nAbeyant, barking, growling, snarling, grumbling, murmuring.\nAboyer, (vide obs. table of sounds,) va. 1 r. To bark, gnaw; blame, clamor at.\nAboyer klavai, (vide obs. table of sounds,) (prov, exp.) To utter vain threats, revile in vain, show impotence.\nAbnyeur, barker, slanderer, satirist, reviler, eager pursuer, dun.\nAhreg'i, epitome, abridgment.\nAbr\u00e9gement, abridgment, contraction, abbreviation, conciseness, brevity.\nIn summary, abridge, contract, shorten, abstract, curtail.\nAbriger, abbreviator, abridger, abstracter, writer of abridgments or compendiums, epitomist; short-hand writer.\nAbbreviation, contraction, shortening, retrenchment.\nTo water, soak, drench, imbibe, prime, fill with, overwhelm.\nTo drink, soak, quaff, gorge; thirst, wallow, wade; dissolve, melt away, imbibe, draw in, absorb, swallow up.\nWatering-place; defect in the growth of trees, gap; opening between two stones.\nTo shelter, protect.\nshelter, from, put in a place of safety.\nabri, a-orie, sm. shelter, shed, screen, shadow, shade, refuge, asylum: defense, protection.\na I'abri, ah-lak-bree, ad. screened, sheltered, untler covert, under the protection or sanction of.\nabricot, aA-brec-koh, sm. apricot (kind of peach or plum).\nabricot^, ah-bree-ko-tai, sm. candied apricot.\nabricotier, ak-bree-ko-tyai, sm. apricot-tree.\nabriter, ah-bre-iai, va. 1 r, to screen, shelter, shade, defend from the weather, cover with mats.\nabrivent, ah-bre-vang, Sn. garden-mat, screen, shelter from the wind, slight temporary covering.\nabrogation, ah-bro-ghah-syo-nis, sf. abrogation, repeal, revocation, recall, reversal, disannul, &c.\nabroger, ah-bro-hjai, va. 1 r. to abrogate, repeal, annul, reverse, cancel, revoke, recall.\nS'abroger, s'a-bro-gher-i-az, tTf/. to wear out of use, cease, decay, lose an established custom.\nAboutissement, n. the nipping, or browsing of buds, leaves (by cattle)\nAbouti, adj. nipped, browsed, destroyed (by cattle)\nAbrupt, adj. abrupt, sudden, hasty, unprepared; broken, craggy, rough, rugged\nAbrupto (ex, or ab), abbreviation or abbreviated form of abrupto, Lat.\nad. immediately, suddenly, without preparation, on the spur of the moment, without consideration\nAbutir, v. 1. to besot, stupify, dull, hebetate, bruise, deprive of sensibility\nS'abutir, vref. to grow senseless, stupid, dull, depraved, degrade, vilify one's self\nAbmitissement, n. stupidity, gross ignorance; bi-utishness; depravity, corruption, degeneration\nAbsence, n. absence, inattention, distraction, heedlessness; want, privation.\nabsent, adj. absent, distracted, inattentive, regardless, unmindful, heedless\nabsent, v. 1 ref. to absent one's self, keep out of the way, withdraw, play the truant, neglect occupation\nabside, sf. arch, vault, segment of a circle, figure in the form of a semicircle\nabsinthe, sf. wormwood; grief, affliction, sorrow, misery, adversity, misfortune\nAbsolutely, adj. absolute, positive, peremptory, tyrannical, fixed in resolution\nabsolutely, adv. positively; without restriction, peremptorily\nabsolution, sf. absolution; acquittal, discharge, acquitment, deliverance\nabsolutory, adj. absolutory, clearing of the crime\nabsorbent, sm. adj. absorbant\nAbsorb, absorption: to absorb, suck, swallow up, drain, draw off gradually, consume.\nAbsorption: absorption, the act of absorbing, swallowing up, a gradual draining of any fluid.\nAbsolve, absolution: to absolve, clear, acquit, discharge, deliver from an offense.\nAbsolute: absolute (general and public), pertaining to an absolute pardon (from the pope), on Maundy Thursday.\nAbstemious, sober, abstinent, temperate.\nAbstain, forbear, refrain from, deprive, deny oneself.\nAbsentive, cleansing, purifying, wiping away.\nAbsolve: to cleanse, wipe, (wounds, ulcers), melt, dissolve, (bile). Discuss, disperse any humor or swelling.\nAbsorbing, cleansing, purifying, discussing any humor.\nAbstention, abstinence, forbearance, temperance; fasting.\n\nAbstain, abstinent, temperate, sober, forbearing, any gratification.\n\nAbstractive, abstractive, abstract, expressing abstract ideas, power of absorbing.\n\nAbstraction, separation, disjunction, absence of mind.\n\nAbstractivemenl, abstractedly, with abstraction, simply, without addition.\n\nAbstraire, to abstract, separate, epitomize, abridge, contract, curtail.\n\nAbstract, essence, epitome, summary, abridgment, contraction.\n\nAbstrait, abstracted, separated, absent of mind, distracted, unmindful.\nabstruse, hidden, dark, difficult to understand or conceive\nabsurd, contrary to reason, foolish, inconsistent, void of sense\nabsurdly, unreasonably, in a foolish or absurd manner\nabsurdity, unreasonableness, nonsense\nabuse: bad custom, disorder, error, seduction, rude reproach\nto abuse: to deceive, impose upon, seduce, debauch, treat with rudeness, make an ill use of, misconstrue\nto mistake, deceive oneself\nabuser, deceiver, impostor, cheat, knave, rogue, scoundrel\nabusive, deceitful, improper, insolent, contemptuous, scurrilous\nusage: abusively, decently, reprehensibly, in a scurrilous manner.\nII. Iter, abut: to join end to end; border upon, meet.\nDutilon, a sort of marsh-mallow; althea; twig, bulrush, reed, hollow stalk.\nII'. Abit, o'acah-bee: a quality, taste of fruit (good or bad); nature, habit, temper.\nAcacia, acacia; a drug.\nAdmire, academic: academic, student or member of an academy.\nAcademy, academy; a gaming-house; for living, fencing, music, painting; institution; a place of learned men, etc.\nAcademic, academical: academic, relating or belonging to a university.\nAcademically, academically-minded.\nacademist, sor.f - a person engaged in academic work, pupil in writing, artist, student at an academy\nacademraiser, in.1 - to draw, paint, sculpt from models, study the arts\ndigwardard, va.1 - to guard, make a droning table of sounds\ns'acagnarder, vref. - to grow slothful, inactive, indolent, idle one's time\nacajou, sm. - cashew tree, mahogany\nAcalifoui, hon. - astraddle, with one's legs across, across a horse\nAc-Auiici, -s,nh-kah-nah-sai,-e, adj. - thorny, prickly, rough, full of sharp points or thorns, shaggy\nAcanthabole, sm. - small pincers, nippers, tweezers, small surgical instrument\nAcante, sf. - bear's paw\nacare, sm. - mite, cheese worm, hand worm, weevil, very small animal, minute particle.\nAcarus.tre, ah-kah-rya-tor, adj. peevish, petulant; noisy, morose, sullen, crabbed, harsh of temper.\nAcarids, ah-kah-rids, sf. mites, ticks, fleas, lice; every Grail animal living on all living creatures, and generated by animal exudation.\nAcatalepsy, ah-kah-tah-lep-sy, sf. incomprehensibility, superiority to human understanding.\nA cause cle, ah-kus-duh, prep. because, for, on account of, by reason of, therefore, for that reason, because that, for the reason that, for as much that, since that.\nAccablant, -e, ah-kau-blant, -t, adj. grievous, troublesome, afflictive, vexations, overwhelming, impetrating, teasing, incommodious, inopportune.\nAccablement, ah-kaub-lament, sm. heaviness, oppression; dejection of mind, lowliness of spirits, calamity, misfortune, sorrow, affliction.\nAccabler, a/i-kau-bler, va. I overwhelm.\ncrush, oppress, torture, plague; heap, load with.\naccaparment, ah kah-par-ment, sm. engagement, monopoly, forestalling, anticipation.\naccaparer, ah-kah-pah-ray, va. 1 r. to forestall, engross, monopolize, gain possession of before.\naccapareur, -euse, ah-kah-pah-rur, -z, smf. engrosser, forestaller, monopolist; sordid buyer.\naccarer, ah-kah-ray, va. 1 r. to confront, stand face to face, oppose one evidence to another; compare one thing with another.\nAccagnarder, &c. See Accagnarder, &c.\nAcceder, a. ak-sai-day, va. 1 r. to accede, yield to, ratify, agree, consent to; accept.\nAccelerateur, ak-sai-lai-rak-tur, sm. accelerator; adj. increasing, accelerating, jiromoting motion.\nacceleration, ak-sai-lai-ras-se-ong, sf. acceleration, quickness; increase of motion; haste.\nAccels'rer, rik-fa-lai-ray, va. 1 r. to accelerate, hasten, quicken motion; hurry.\naccent, n. a modification of the voice expressing passion or feeling.\naccentuation, n. marking or stressing of words, intonation.\naccentuate, v. I. to pronounce properly, place the accent.\nacceptable, adj. pleasing, agreeable, received with gladness.\nacceptant, n. receiver, accipient; person who agrees to a thing.\nacceptation, n. voluntary reception; acceptance's meaning.\naccepter, v. 1. to receive with pleasure; embrace, welcome, await.\naccepter, n. endorser, ratifier; person who accepts a bill, note, etc.\nacceptance, n. remission of a debt, discharge, acquittal from payment.\nacceptance: n. reception, choice, preference, meaning\naccess: n. approach, admittance, paroxysm, swoon, fit; increase, addition\naccessible: adj. accessible, easy of approach, affable, courteous, compliant\naccession: n. addition, increase, augmentation; produce, advantage\naccessit: n. distinguishing mark of competition; second-best premium\naccessory: n. accessory, accomplice, partaker, confederate, associate, colleague\naccessory: adj. accessory, additional, contributive, circumstantial, incidental\naccident: n. accident, chance, casualty, contingency, fortuitousness, misfortune\nincidentally: adv. accidentally, fortuitously, by chance; unluckily, by ill luck\naccidental, fortuitous, non-essential, falling out by chance. Accidentally, accidentally-vumg. ad. accidentally, by chance, fortuitously, casually.\nexcise, tax, duty levied on commodities or provisions of any sort.\nshouter, applauder, coraraeider, concurrent in applause.\nacclamation, shout, applause, praise, commendation.\nto clamp, brace, consolidate.\nto inure, acclimate, reconcile to a climate. (fig.)\nto inure, acclimate one's self to a climate; be seasoned, habituated. (fig.)\nsociale, familial.\naccount, acquaintance, familiarity, knowledge, friendship, intercourse, subsidence, composure, settlement, assuage, mitigate, sooth, embrace, hug, dub of knighthood, accollee, brace (in wrapping), joined together, united by a brace, tied up, embrace, prop, join together, or in one sum, dish two things together, hug, accommodating, accommodating, suitable, adjustable, cooking of meat, hair-dressing, fitting up, accommodating.\naccommodating, compliant, good-natured, easy, complaisant, desirous to please.\n\nAccommodation, accommodation, convenience.\n\nAccommodate', adj. dressed, decent, adjusted, made up.\n\nAccommodation, accommodation, adjustment; agreement, reconciliation, accommodation.\n\nAccoramoder, to accommodate, clean, dress, cook, mend, suit, settle; reconcile. Accoramoder sa maison, to settle one's affairs.\n\nS'accommoder, to dress, prepare, suit, comply with, make up, be satisfied with.\n\nS'accommoder de quelque chose, to make bold or free with a thing.\n\nAccompagnateur, accompanier (in music).\n\nAccompagnement, accompaniment; pomp, retinue; harmony, appendix.\n\nAccorapagner, to accompany.\naccompany, attend, match, join, escort\nS'accompagner, d\u00e9, s'ah-cong-paking-yai, vref. to, associate with, be accompanied or attended by\nAccompli, -e, ah-cong-ple, -e, adj. perfect, polite, elegant, excellent, accomplished, finished, fulfilled\nIcomplir, ak-cong-pleer, va. 2 r. to accomplish, fulfill, finish\nS'accomplir, s'ah-cong-pleer, vref. to be fulfilling, fulfilled, accomplishing\nAccomplissement, ah-korg-pliss-mang, n. accomplishment, fulfillment, perfection, completion, performance\nAccoquinant, -e, ah-ko-ke-nang, -t, adj. enticing, wheedling, engaging\nAccoo'-iinsr, ch.-ko-ke-nai, va. 1 r, to entice, cajole, beset, insnare\nS'accoquiner, s' ah-kn.ks-7iai, vref. to grow fond of, be bewitched with\nAccord, ah-kor, n. agreement, consent, concord, harmony\nD'accord, d-ah-kor, adv. willingly; agreed; granted\nTomber d'accord, to consent.\n\nThis text appears to be a list of French words and their English translations. It has been transcribed from the original text with some errors, likely due to Optical Character Recognition (OCR). I have corrected the errors and formatted the text for readability. No significant content has been removed.\nadjustable, adj. giantable, allowable.\naffiance, n. contract, espousals, betrothal.\nagreeing, adj. harmonious, suitable.\naccord, n. uniform motion.\naccord, n. bridegroom, new married man.\nbride, n. new married woman, one betrothed.\naccord, v.1. reconcile, tune.\nagree, v.ref. to agree, to concur, join.\ntuner, n. musical instruments.\ntuning-key, n. tuner, instrument for tuning.\nprop, n. stay, support.\nsupport, v.1. sustain, bear up.\naccort, adj. courteous, compliant, affable, subtle.\naccortise, n. civility, affability, complaisance, slyness.\naccostable, adj. accostable, affable, familiar, accessible.\naccoster, v. to accost, approach, speak, come up.\ns'accoster, vref. to associate, approach, keep company with.\naccoteraent, n. causeway; friction, attrition.\naccoter, v. i r, to prop, support, lean on one side.\ns'accoter, vrefr. to prop, support oneself sideways, lean against.\naccotoir, n. (obsolete table of sounds) leaning prop, prop, slay, support.\naccouchfe, n. woman in childbed.\naccouchement, n. childbirth, labor.\nacconcher, v. 1 r. to deliver, or lay a woman.\nmidwife, man-midwife, practicer of midwifery, midwife, practicer of midwifery, to lean on one's elbow, leaning place, elbow prop, to wound in the shoulder or hamstring, stag, couple, leash, leather thong; brace, band, couple, brace, pair, of animals or things, copulation, match, union, to couple, pair, unite, copulate, to shorten, abridge, contract, diminish, decrease.\naccoutrement, dressing or equipage; adornments, trappings\naccoutre, to dress, equip, rig\nto accoutre oneself, to dress queerly\naccustom, habituate, inure\nto accustom oneself, to habituate oneself\ncustomary, usual, ordinary\naccording to custom, as usual\nconstantly seated by the fireside\nworthy, re-\naccredited, respectable, acknowledged.\n\nAccredeit, ah-kreed-it, v. 1. to give credit, acknowledge, bring into voice.\nB'accredit, s' ah-kreed-it, vref. to get a name, gain credit, bring one's self into repute.\nAccretion, ah-krey-shon, n. accretion, increment, growth.\nAccroche, ah-krosh, n. delay, hindrance, obstacle, difficulty, trouble.\nAccrocher, s'-ah kro-shay, v. 1. to accroach, hang upon, hook, catch, grapple; delay, stop, hinder.\nS'accrocher, sah kro-shay, vref. to hang, fix, seize upon; lay hold, be caught.\nAccrocheraent, a-kro-she-rant, n. catch, contest, obstacle, difficulty, delay.\nAccroc, ah-kro, n. rent, tear, hook, stop, delay, hindrance.\nAccroire, k (used only with faire), fare-ah-kroy-ar, v, 4 irr. to make one believe, persuade.\nEn faire accroire, en fa-reh-kroy-ar, v, to impose upon, deceive, make one believe.\nSelf-conceited, think too much of oneself, be proud.\nIncrease, growth, addition.\nTo increase, unprove; advance.\nTo increase, grow, augment, swell.\nSquat, cowering; lose to the ground, moping.\nTo squat, sit cowering close to the ground; mope, drowse, be stupid.\nAugmentation, extension, addition, increase.\nSquat posture; drowsiness, stupidity, melancholy, insensibility.\nPart, increased, abundant, exuberant, swelled.\nReception. To give a good or bad reception.\nAcejeiliir, AA-ATzA-?/ec7- ra. 2 irr. to receive kindly, come unexpectedly, overtake, fall upon.\nAccul, ak-kule, sm. street without outlet, blind alley; palisade or hedge; small bay; narrowness.\nAcculer, ah-ku-lai, va. 1 r. to drive to a corner, straiten, keep back.\nS'accuier, n'ah-ku-lai, vref. to stand in a corner or against a wall.\nAccumulation, ah-ku-moo-lah-syong, sf. accumulation, accumulation, heaping together, acervation.\nAccumuler, ah-ku-n.oo-lai, va. 1 r. to accumulate, heap up, hoard, acervate.\nS'accumuler, s^ah-ku-moo-lai, vref. to increase, augment, run on.\nAccusable, ah-ku-zahl, adj. accusable, blameable, culpable, impeachable.\nAccusateur, oA-ku-zah-lur, sm. accuser, injunction.\nAccusatif, ah-ku-zah-tiff, sm. accusative, fourth case of declinable nouns.\nAccusation, ah-ku-zah-syong^, sf. accusation, charge, impeachment.\naccuser, accuse, culprit, prisoner, accuse, impeach, complain, reproach, reveal, discover, show, acknowledge, display, call, self, confess, lease, tenure, house, land, lease, tenure, house or land, let out, sour, acid, sharp, harsh, crabbed, acerbity, sourness, asperity, sharpness, severe, astringent, acute, morbid\n\naccuser: accuse, blame (oneself), accuse, complain, reproach, reveal, discover, show, acknowledge, display, call\n\nlease, tenure (of a house or land)\n\nlet out, farm, temper, endure, sharpen, bite\n\nsour, acid, sharp, harsh, crabbed\n\nacerbity, sourness, asperity, sharpness, severe, astringent, acute, morbid\n\nascescent, inclineable to sourness.\nacetate, adj. acetous, sourish, acid, sharp.\nacetous, adj. acetate, sourish.\nsorrel, n. a type of dock.\nacetic, adj. made of or extracted from vinegar.\nacetic acid, or, acetum alcalis, n. distilled vinegar.\nagency, n. skill, custom (in trade).\nto act well, v. to please custom.\nto act as a salesperson, v. ref. to attract customers.\nfury, n. rage, animosity.\nto exasperate, v. to set on, animate, enrage.\nto fall furiously upon, v. ref. to pursue with eagerness.\npurchase, n. bargain, stipulation.\nparsley, n. a type of wild parsley, smallage.\nachievements: ash-man, n. hatchment, escutcheon, family arms.\nacheminement: ask-min-mement, n. preparation, step: introduction begins.\nacquire: acheter, v. to prepare, set on foot, forward. Acheminer en cheval, to lead a horse to keep the road.\nS'acheminer: s' ash-ine-nai, v. to set out, begin, advance, continue.\nacheteur: ash-teur, n. buyer, purchaser, chapman.\nacheteuse: ash-teuse, n. buyer, purchaser.\nachev\u00e9: -e, adj. complete, perfect, finished, accomplished, rare, excellent; arrant.\nAchevement: ah-shayv-mement, n. completion, end, accomplishment, perfection, elegance, ornament.\naccomplir: achever, v. to finish, end, complete, perfect, accomplish, polish, conclude; put to death.\nAchever: to drink all up, fulfill, finish, accomplish.\nS'achever: to be fulfilling, finishing, accomplishing.\nAchoppement: hindrance, obstacle, impediment; stumbling-block, eyesore.\nAchores: achor herpes, thrush; cutaneous inflammation.\nAcide: acidness, sourness, sharpness, tartness.\nAcide (adj.): acid, sour, sharp, tart.\nAcidit\u00e9, acideit\u00e9: acidity, sharpness, sourness.\nAciduler: to acidulate, make sour, tart.\nBour: piquant.\nAcidul\u00e9: acidulated, sourish, tart.\nAcier: steel, sword, weapon; hardness.\nAcolyte: acolyte, clerk promoted to the highest of the four minor orders of the Romish priesthood.\nAconit: aconite, wolf's-bane; poison.\nAcopis: transparent, precious stone spotted with gold.\nacoustics: theory of sounds\nacquereur: purchaser, gainer\nacqu\u00e9rir: to acquire, gain, purchase, buy, procure\ns'acqu\u00e9rir: to be acquired, gained: gain, procure\nacquet: acquisition, purchase, profit\nacquiescence: consent, compliance\nacquiescer: to acquiesce, consent, comply, yield\nacquis: acquisition, attainment, science, knowledge\nacquisition: acquisition, gain, purchase\nacquittance: discharge, receipt\nacquit de douane: permit (at customs)\n(at billiards): lead, first play\nto acquit: to win or lose; stake, hazard\na racquet: quits.\nPar acquit, upon one's receipt.\nAcquit, par raanire d' par-mah-nyayre-d'ah-ke, ad. negligently; for fashion's sake.\nAcquit, akitasong, n. certificate, discharge.\nAcquiter, aike-tai, v. 1. to acquit, discharge, exonerate, clear, set free.\nS'acquitter, de, s'ah-ke-tai, vref. to perform a discharge, execute; \"ulfil, pay off.\nAcquittement, ahkitmang, n. acquittal.\nAcre, ahk, n. an area equal to 43,560 square feet.\nAcre, auk, adj. sharp, sour, tart; acrid, corrosive; acrimonious.\nA'ret, aukruh-tai, n. acridity, sharpness, tartness, biting heat, severity, ill-humor.\nAcriraonie, ahkremonee, n. acrimony, corrosiveness; severity.\nAcriraonieux, -se, akremonyhe. -ze, adj. acrimonious, corrosive, sharp.\nAcroatique, aA-A\"ro-c^-/zcA-, adj. acroatic, hidden.\nacrochordon, small wart, hard excrescence\nacrocome, person having long hair\nacromion, acromion, crooked back, high shoulders\naciouique, acronical, rising or setting of a star at sunset\nacrosperme, mushroom, fungus; upstart\nacrostic, short poem of which the first letter of each line forms a name\nacrostic, obscure, enigmatical\nacroters, small pedestals without bases\namputation of a limb\nact, action, deed, exploit; decree, thesis\nacts, records, rolls, public registers\nactor, comedian, performer\nactive, adjective: active, quick, nimble, diligent, laborious\naction, noun: action, act, deed; agency, delivery, fight, battle, suit at law, share in stock\nactions, plural of action: thanksgiving\nactionnaire, noun: stockholder; partner, sharer in a concern\nactionner, verb: to sue at law, prosecute\nactif-neutre, adjective: actively, busily, effectively\nactif, verb: to spur, instigate, stir up, put into action\nactivit\u00e9, noun: activity, nimbleness, quickness; vigor, energy; readiness of wit\nactrice, noun: actress, player, comedian, performer\nactualit\u00e9, noun: actuality, reality, present existence\nactuel, adjective: actual, real, effective, present; habitual\nacutely, effectively, now, really; acute, acute accent (mark in grammar); acute angle, acutangular, having acute angles; adequate, equal to, proportionate; adage, maxim, proverb, pithy sentence; adagio, slow time, slowly; adamant, hard, indissoluble, hard-hearted, barbarous; adaptation, fitness of one thing to another, convenience; adapter, to adapt, apply, fit, suit, proportion; conform, comply with, yield; addition, addition, additament.\naccession ; adjunction. \nAdditionel, -le, ah-de-syo-nel, -I, adj. additional, \nadjunctive, supplementary, \nAdditioner, ah-de-syo-nai, va. 1 r. to add, cast up, \nfiijm, compute, annumerate. \nAdducteur, ah-dook-tur, sm. adducent muscle. \nAdemption, ah-dawzpe-syong, sf. ademption; re- \nvocation, of a will, AC. privation. \nAde'nographie, ah-dai-no-grah-fee, sf. adenogra- \nphy, description or treatise of the glands. \nAddootomis, a'i-dai-no-io-mee, sf. adenotomy, dis- \nsection of the glands. \nAdent, ah-dangi sm. tally, notch, nick, jutting \npiece. \nAd^pte, ah-dept, snif. adept, proficient in a pro- \nfession. \nAde'quat, -e, ah-dai-koo-ak, -t, adj. adequate, \nequal to, proportionate. \nAdexir6, -e, ah-deks-trai, -e, adj. dextral, on the \nright hand. \nAdhe'rence, ah-dai-ra.ngss, sf. adherence; attach- \nment, steadiness, firmness, tenacity, fixedness of \nmind. \nAdhQvent, -e, ah-dai-rang,-t, adj. adherent, co- \nadhere, sticking to; attached, annexed, united with.\nadherents, followers, partisans.\nadherer, one who adheres; to adhere, consent, stick to; remain firmly fixed to a party or opinion.\nadhesion, adhesion; acquiescence; submission; consent.\nad honores, (Lat.) honor, without profit.\nadiante, maiden-hair, fern.\nadiaphore, adiaphory, neutrality, indifference; spirit of tar.\nadiaphorous, neutral, indifferent.\nadiarrhea, suppression of all evacuations.\nadieu, farewell; leave; departure.\nadipose, fat, fleshy, plump.\nadirer, to lose, mislay, lay in a wrong place.\naddition, acceptance of an inheritance.\nadjacent: adj. adjacent, contiguous, near\nadjective: sm. adjective, word added to a noun to qualify its nature; as good, bad, etc.\nadjection: sf. adjection, addition, augmentation, application.\nadjectively: rtc\u00a3. adjectively, after the manner of an adjective.\nadjoindre: va. to adjoin, unite, put to.\ns'adjoindre: vref. to join, accompany, associate with.\nadjoint: sm. assistant, helper, auxiliary; partner, colleague.\nadjunction: sf. adjunction, meeting, association.\nadjutant: sm. adjutant, petty military officer.\nadjudicataire: smf. highest bidder, one to whom a thing is adjudged by law.\nadjudicateur: sm. appraiser, valuer; arbitrator, umpire, weigher; judge.\nadjudication, award, appraisal, definitive, judicial, determinative, adjudicative, adjudicator, adjudicative adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj adj\nadjudication, oath, exorcism, adjurer, adjure, swear solemnly, obtest by oath\nadjuvant, helpful, favorable, adjuvant adj\nadmettre, admit, allow, grant, receive\nadminicule, corroboration, help, support, confirmation, auxiliation\nadministrator, trustee, director, steward, minister\nadministrative, practical\nadministration: administration, government, direction, trust, conduct.\nadministratrice: administratrix, trustee, guardian.\nadministrer: administer, govern, confer; supply, give evidence, bring proofs.\ns'administrer: take, make, give one's self supply; enjoy, treat one's self.\nadmirable: admirable, beautiful, good, excellent, rare, wonderful, astonishing.\nadmirably: admirably, in an admirable manner, wonderfully.\nadmirateur: admirer, wonderer; lover, flatterer, praiser, parasite.\nadmiratif: admirative, -ve, adjective.\nadmiration: admiration, wonder, surprise.\nadmiratrice: admirer, causer, flatterer.\nadmirer, n. 1. to admire; regard with wonder, etc.; be surprised, astonished.\ns'admirer, n. to look at one's own self with complacence, admire one's self.\nadmissible, adj. admissible, allowable, receivable, qualified, fit, proper, admittable.\nadmission, n. admission, admission, reception, access.\nAdmitatur, n. certificate of admission (Latin).\nadmonish, v. monitory, admonition, warning, reprimand.\nadmonisher, n. monitor, admonisher, counsellor, adviser; reprover; instructor.\nadmonition, n. admonition, counsel, reproof; instruction.\nadmonitrice, n. monitor, counsellor, adviser.\nadolescence, n. adolescence, youth (applied only to boys).\nAdolescent, ad-oles-cent, n. young person, especially a male; bachelor.\nAdolescente, ad-oles-cent-e, f. maiden, unmarried woman; old maid.\nAdonic, a-do-nic, adj. poetical, having the meter of a dactyl and a spondee.\nAdonis, a-do-nis, n. Adonis; coxcomb; beau; sparrow; pheasant's egg.\nS'adonise, s'a-do-ni-ze, v. 1. to adorn, decorate, affectedly.\nAdonize, a-do-ni-ze, v. 1. to adore, adorn, beautify, make fine.\nAdoniser, a-do-ni-ze-r, n. coxcomb, beau, dandy.\nS'adonner, s'a-do-nai, v. 1. to become addicted; please, attach, apply, give oneself to; see; frequent.\nAdopter, a-do-p-tor, v. 1. to adopt; cherish, support, take; agree to; contract.\nAdoptive, a-do-p-tive, adj. adoptive, desirable, assumptive.\nAdoption, a-do-p-sy-on, n. adoption, election, choice.\nAdorable, adjective. Adorable, excellent, beautiful, charming.\nAdorer, noun. Adorer, worshipper; admirer.\nAdoration, noun. Adoration, homage; admiration; excessive love, affection.\nAdoratrice, noun. Adorer, worshipper; admirer.\nAdorer, verb. 1. To adore, worship; admire; love excessively; honor, revere.\nAdos, noun. Sloping-bed, against a wall; declivous ground.\nAdosement, noun. Back to back; backing.\nAdosser, verb. 1. To set back to back; strengthen backward; support; lean against.\nS'adosser, verb. Reflexive. To lean one's back against; stand back to back.\nAdouber, verb. 1. To repair, mend, stop noses; set aright, adob (at chess).\nAdouci, verb. To polish, attrition, smoothness; elegance: soft grinding-stone.\nAdoucer, ad-oo-ser, v. to soften, sweeten; appease, mitigate, temper, tame.\nS'adoucer, s'a-doo-ser, vref. to become sweet, mild, tame; relent, remit.\nAdoucissage, o-doo-se-sah-je, n. allaying, softening.\nAdoucissant, ad-oo-se-sang, n. softener, emollient; lenitive.\nAdoucissant, -e, aj-doo-se-sang, adj. softening, mitigating.\nAdoucissement, ah-doo-sis-sang, n. alleviation, softness, lenity, mitigation, abatement.\nAdoncisseur, ah doo-se-sur, n. glass-grinder, polisher.\nAdous, -e, ah-doo-aif -e, adj. coupled, paired, matched.\nAd patres, ad-pah-tres, Lat. dead, gathered to his fathers.\nAdragant, ad-rah-gang, n. gum tragacanth.\nAdresse, ah-dress, n. address; direction; skill, dexterity, tuning; office; petition, applicant.\nAdresser, ad-ray-sai, v. to address, direct, send; dedicate.\nadresser, n. 1. to hit, touch, attain, reach, light on.\ns'adresser, vref. to apply, speak, attack, insult, affront; have recourse to.\nadroit, adj. dexterous, clever, skilful, cunning.\nadroitement, adv. dexterously, cunningly.\nadulateur, n. adulator, flatterer, fawner, wheedler.\nadulation, n. adulation, flattery, servile courtship.\nadulatrice, n. flatterer, fawner, cajoler.\nadulter, v. I r. to flatter, extol, wheedle, fawn, cringe.\nadulte, n. adult, adj. grown up; arrived at maturity.\nadult\u00e8re, n. adultery, violation of the marriage bed.\nadulterer, n. adulterer, adulteress, violator of the marriage-faith.\nAdulterer, adjective, adulterous, guilty, related to adultery.\nAdulterate, verb, to adulterate, commit adultery; corrupt by admixture.\nAdulterine, adjective, illegitimate, spurious, adulterine.\nAdurent, adjective, burning, caustic.\nAdurer, verb, to adure, burn up, burnt up; scorch; cauterize.\nAduste, adjective, scorched, overheated.\nAdventice, adjective, casual, accidental, fortuitous; foreign, extraordinary.\nAdventitious, adjective, adventitious, adventive; advening, extrinsically added.\nAdverb, noun, adverb, a word that modifies a verb or adjective.\nAdverbial, adjective, adverbial, of the quality of an adverb.\nAdverbially, adverb, in the manner of an adverb.\nadverbial, adverbial form, word used adverbially.\nadversary, adversary, opponent, antagonist, enemy.\nadversative, adversative, adversative, opposite, contrary; restrictive, opposing.\nadverse, adverse, contrary; opposite; calamitous, afflictive; unlucky, unfortunate.\nadversity, adversity; affliction, distress.\nadvertence, attention, regard to.\nairy, airy, high in air, exposed to the air, composed of air, unsubstantial.\nto air, expose to the air; take the air; dry, warm, purify, by the fire.\naerial, consisting of air, inhabiting the air, high in the air.\n-ryai, to fumigate, perfume\naerography, aerology, theory.\nAeromancy, Aerier, purify the ai\nAerography, ah-ai-ro-graphy, description, theory of the air.\nAerology, ah-ai-ro-logy, and props! theory of the air.\nAromancy, ah-ai-ro-mancy, divination by the air, and its phenomena.\nAerometer, ah-ai-ro-meter, instrument to weigh the air.\nAerometry, ah-ai-ro-metrie, aerometry, art of weighing the air.\nAeronaut, ah-ai-ro-note, smf, aeronaut, sailor through the air.\nAcrophobia, ah-ai-ro-fob, smf, one afraid of the air, or of the light, of the sun.\nAerophobia, ah-ai-ro-fo-bia, sf. fear of the air, or of the light, of the sun,\nAerosia, ah-ai-ro-sya, sm. balloon, vessel, or machine filled with gas, sail through the air.\nAerosatic, ahai-TO-stic, adj. aerostatic, belonging to flying machines.\nAerostier, ak-aiio-styier, sm. contriver, manager, director of a flying machine.\naffability, n. friendliness, condescension, civility, easiness of manners.\naffable, adj. friendly, condescending, civil, courteous, easy of manners.\naffably, adverb. affably, courteously, civilly.\naffadir, v. to flatten, disgust, cloy, make insipid.\ninsipidity, n. insipidity, disgust, fulsome praise, want of taste, life, or spirit.\naffaiblir, v. to weaken, enfeeble, enervate, lessen, depress, decrease, dispirit.\ns'affaiblir, v. reflexive to grow weak, disheartened; to decay, decrease, diminish.\naffaiblissement, n. weakness, depression, enervation, debility, diminution of spirits.\naffaire, n. affair, business, management, transaction, thing, matter; concern, duty.\ndispute, action; trouble, scrape. To recover, se separate from. To prosper, faire bien ses affaires.\n\nAffaire - adj.: busy, bustling; meddling.\nAffaissement - n.: depression, weakness; debility.\n\nAflaisser - v.: to depress, press down; overwhelm, weaken, dispirit, sink.\nS'affaisser - v.ref.: to sink down, subside, diminish.\n\nAffaiter - v.: to tame, reclaim, train, rear, (a bird of prey), tan, roof, cover the top of a house.\nAffaireur - n.: falconer, tanner, slater.\n\nAffale - adj.: wind-bound, confined by contrary winds.\n\nAflaler - v.: to press, lower forcibly; weigh down.\nS'aflaler - v.ref.: to sail too near a coast, difficult to clear off.\n\nAffame - adj.: voracious; famished; greedy; scanty.\naffinity, chief-male, v. 1: to famish, starve, reduce\nenfeoffment, n. small: investiture of a manor, office, benefice, possessions\nenfeoff, chief-male, v. 1: to enfeoff, invest with dignities, possessions\naffection, n: affection, love, tenderness; sensibility, devotedness; good will\naffectation, n: affectation, conceit; awkward imitation, false pretension\naffected, adj: affected, conceited, stiff; full of affectation, not easy, not natural\nsecular, adj: secular\nsecier, v: to affect, desire earnestly; aspire to; appropriate; entail; assume a false appearance, constrained manner\nbereave, v: to grieve, mourn, sorrow; be sad, dejected, in pain for something past\naffective, adj: affective, touching, pathetic.\n[Affection, n. - a feeling of liking or loving someone or something; affectionate, fond, tender, warm, zealous, full of affection.\nAffectionate, adj. - affectionate, fond, tender, loving.\nAffectionately, adv. - affectionately, fondly, tenderly.\nAffectionner, v. - to love, fondle, fancy; be fond of, concerned, interested.\nS'affectionner, v.refl. - to delight, have pleasure in; attach, apply one's self to.\nAffectionately, adv. - affectionately, lovingly, tenderly.\nAffectionate, adj. - affectionate, loving, pathetic.\nAffirm, v. - 1. to farm, lease, rent. 2. to strengthen, secure, fix, support. Affirm one's self, to make one's self secure.\nS'affirm, v.refl. - to strengthen, console, be corroborated, confirmed.\nAffirmation, n. - confirmation, support, assurance.\nAffirmative, adj. - affirming, confirming, assuring.]\naffirmation; confirmation, security, dependence,\nAfferor: small tag, ferrule, tin or brass, put at end of stay-lace, etc.\nAseic: full of affectation, studied with over-much care, conceited, odd.\nAffeterie: affectation, affectedness; niceness, awkward imitation.\nAffeto: gratefully, tenderly, slowly, with sensibility,\nAffiche: bill, placard, advertisement, notice.\nAfficher: to post up, publish, advertise.\nS'afficher: set up for, propose, proclaim, expose one's self notoriously,\nAfficheur: bill-sticker, publisher, advertiser,\nAffide': confidant, trusty, faithful.\nAffier: graft, trust, ally; affiance, betroth; join by contract.\nAffiler, ah-fe-lai, v. 1. to sharpen, edge, wire-draw, spin into length; exasperate, imbitter.\nLanguage bien affile, a ghb tongue.\nAffiliation, a^L-fe-le-ah-syong, sf. affiliation, association, incorporation, adoption.\nAffilier, ah-fe-lyai, v. 1. to adopt, admit, incorporate; initiate.\nS'affilier, a, s'ah-fe-Iyai, vref. i. admitted, received into an association; ii. join a society.\nAffiloir, ah-fe-loo-ar. (vide obs. 6, tab. &c,) sm. wet-stone, grindstone, pincers.\nAffinage, ah-fe-nahje, sm. refinement of metals,\nAffinement, ah-Jin-mang, sm. refinement, affinage\nAffiner, ah-fe-nai, v. I. to refine; cheat; clear up; sharpen; strengthen.\nS'affiner, s^ah-fe-nai, vref. to clear up, brighten; diminish, thin.\nAffinerie, ah-fin-ree, sf. refining smithy; wire-forge; rolled wire.\naffiner: refiner; gold or silver-smith.\naffinity: connection, relation; convenience, conformity, disposition.\nAffinoir: hatchel, flax, or hemp-comb.\nI. Affiquet: small prop; knitting-sheath, stay.\nI. Affiquets: baubles, gewgaws; show of toys or trifles.\ni. Affirmative. -ve: affirmative, affirming, positive, peremptory.\nAffination: affirmation, declaration, oath, confirmation.\nAsymalive: affirmative, confirmation, positivity, actuality.\nAffirmativement: affirmatively, positively.\nArainer: to affirm, declare, maintain, swear; make affidavit.\nAristoier: to dress, adorn, bedizen, set off.\nAffleurer, to level, smooth, equalize, dilute, temper; touch, join.\nAfflictive, painful, corporal.\nAffliction, pain, grief, melancholy, distress, misfortune, discourse.\nAfflicting, grievous, distressful, melancholic.\nAffliger, to afflict, grieve, torment, trouble, mortify.\nTo afflict oneself, grieve, fret, repine, lament, be lovestruck.\nAffluence, plenty, concourse.\nAffuen, abundant, flowing, exuberant, wealthy.\nAffuer, crowd, abound, concur, resort.\nafflux, n.: flow; increase\naffoible, v.2r: to weaken, enfeeble, enervate; lessen, depress, decrease, dispirit\narf:ibir, la moonae, to clip the coul.\ns'arfoible, s'ah-fai-ble, vref. to grow weak, dispirited; decay, decrease, diminish\nAffolerence, n. weakness; depression; enervation, debility, diminution of strength, spirits.\nAffoler, v.1 r. to infatuate, affect with excessive passion, love; dote upon\ns'affoil, vref.2 r. to grow foolish with excessive passion; veer, deviate, become irregular\nAfforage, n. assize; excise duty; ancient manorial tax, tax\nAfforer, v.1 r. to assize, tax; fix a price on\nAffuage, n. fuel, expense of fuel; right of cutting forest-trees for fuel.\nAtTouagera, ah-foo-ah-je-ra, sm. enumeration of houses or fires.\nAtfourcher, ah-foor-skai, va. 1. to moor across, cross; stride over.\nAffo'irage, ah-foo-rah-je-mang, sm. provender, fodder, forage; food for horses and other cattle.\nAffourager, a/i-foo-rah-hjai, va. 1. to fodder, feed cattle.\nAffraichir, ah-frey-sheer, vn. 2. to freshen, cool, grow fresh, strong.\nAffranchi, ah-frang-she, n. freedman. Slave manumitted.\nAffranchie, ah-frang-shee., n. freedwoman.\nAffranchir, ah f rang -sheer, va. 2. to free, set free, deliver, disengage, exempt, pay postage.\nAffranchir une lettre, to frank.\nS'affranchir, s'a^L-f rang -sheer, vref. to get rid of, shake off, exempt, deliver one's self.\nAffranchissement, ah-frang-shiss-mang, sm. freedom; exemption, discharge, delivery.\nAffres, aufr, sf. affright, terror, fright, great detail; extreme fear.\nI. Seuimeni, freight-master, hires a ship.\nAfter, after which. Va. 1. To freight, hire a ship.\nAfreteur, freighter, hirer of a ship.\nAffreusement, frightfully, horribly.\nAfireux, frightful, terrible, hideous.\nAffriander, to give dainties; allure, entice, make dainty, bring up to dainties.\nS'afftiander, to use dainties, accustom one's self to dainties, be fond of delicacies.\nAffrioler, to allure, entice; flatter, persuade, coax with dainties, with kind, flattering, deceitful words.\nAffriier, to season a new frying-pan with butter.\nAflVont, affront; insult; outrage; reproach.\nAffrontailles, limits, boundaries, borders.\naffronter, -e, adj. opposing each other.\naffronter, ah-frong-tai, v. 1. to affront; face, encounter; provoke, offend, insult; cheat, deceive.\naffronterie, ah-frongt-ree, n. deceit, fraud, imposition; insult.\naffrouteur, ak-frong-tirr, n. impostor, cheater, swindler.\naffronteuse, ah-frong-tuhze, n. deceiver, swindler.\naffubier, ah-foo-blai, v. (obsolete 4, tab. dec.) to veil, muffle, wrap, hide, conceal.\ns'affubler, s'tiV/oo-iiZaz, (obsolete 4, tab. &c.) ref. to veil, muffle, wrap, disguise oneself.\ns'affubler de, quelqu'un, quelque chose, to take an interest in one or a thing; be wrapped up in or with.\naffusion, ah-foo-zyong, (obsolete 4, tab. &c.) n. affusion, pouring one thing upon another.\nAffix: sm. - small, sot. - set, ca. 1 r. - about one hour, conj. - conjunction, subj. - subject, SOT. - French term for \"and so\" or \"therefore\"\n\nAffix: afillet - a small carriage for a cannon; ambush, wait\naffix: etre h.V, eytr-aJi-lah-fooe - un. irr. to be in ambush, watch, lurk; be placed in an ambush\naffix: affixage - sot. elevation, direction, level of a cannon\naffix: ah-fo je-tahje - sot. trouble, pain; line of sharpening tools\naffix: ah-fooe-tahje - sot. implements, tools, utensils, chest of tools\naffix: ah-fooe-Inhje - sm. way, manner of dressing old hats, renovation\naffix: affuter - ca. 1 r. to mount, level, direct a cannon; sharpen tools\naffix: affutage - SOT. gewgaw, toy, bauble, trifle, finery, bagatelle\nAffix: afin que - conj. goo. subj. that, to end that.\nIn order to: go, pr. go (inf.), Turkish commander: Asa, sm. attractive, enticing, provoking, smart. Shrew, babbling or wheedling woman; magpie: Agacement, sm. allurement, acidity, provocation, excitement. To set teetee on edge, excite, provoke, allure, entice: Agacer, r. Agacerie, sf. winning, attractive manner, encouragement, levity, provocation. Excrescence, corn, horny tumour: Agacin. To get merry, cheerful, healthy, tipsy, bold: S'agaillardir. Love-feasts of the primitive Chaldeans: Aapes. Agaptes, sf. agapetes, virgins living in sisterhood. Mushroom: Agaric.\nAgate, ah-gate, sf. agate; gilder's burnisher.\nAgatis, ah-gah-tes, sm. field devastation, havoc by beasts.\nAge, auje, sm. age, time, years, century; youth, old age.\nAge', -e, au-hjai-e, adj. old, stricken in years; aged. Bas, S.ge, infancy.\nAgence, ah-hjngss, sf. agency; commission; of- office of an agent.\nAgencement, ah-hjangss-mang, sm. order, disposition, arrangement, adjustment, combination.\nAgencer, ah-hjang-sai, va. 1 r. to adjust, dispose, arrange, fit, set in order.\nS'agencer, s' ah-hjang-sai, vref. to deck, trim, rig one's self; meddle, interpose officiously.\nAgenda, ah-hjang-dah, sm. notes, remarks; memorandum-book.\nAgenouiller. ahje-noo-yai, va. 1 r. to make one kneel, or go on one's knees.\nS'agenouiller, s''ahje noo-yai, vref. to kneel, bend, rest on the knee.\nAgenouilloir, ahje-noo-yoo-ar, sm. kneeling-stool.\nhassock: a thick, low mat or seat\nagent: ah-hjang; small agent, deputy, factor, broker, director, manager\nagent de change: ah-hjang-duh-slianghje; exchange, stockbroker, agglomerator\nagglomeration: ah-glo-mai-rah syong; meration, mass, body, ball, collection, crowd\nagglomerer: ah-glo-mai-rai; to collect, assemble, gather, wind up\nS'agglome'rer: s''ah-glo-mai-rai; to collect, assemble, throng, crowd together, troop, march in a body\nagglutinants: ah-gloo-te-nangh; agglutinants, unitive medicines, cohesive remedies\nagglutinatif, -ve, ah-gloo-te-nah-tiff', -\u00bb: agglutinative, procuring agglutination\nagglutination: a/i-gloo-te-nah-syong; agglutination, union, cohesion\nagglutiner: ah-gloo-te-nai; to agglutinate, unite one part to another, bind, consolidate\naggravant: -e, ah-grah-vang, -t; aggravating\n\nThis is the cleaned text.\naggravation, provocation, aggravate, irritate, inflame, provoke, make heavier or worse, increase, become heavy, grievous, painful, afflictive, insupportable, agile, nimble, quick, active, liveliness, industrious, actively, nimbly, quickly, readily, exchange, interest, discount, brokerage, stock-jobbing, usury, commerce, buy and sell.\nAgioteur, a stockjobber or dealer in stocks; intriguer.\nAgioteuse, a woman intriguer, procuress, bawd.\nAgir, to act, do, deal, negotiate, transact; sue, prosecute; behave.\nIl quoi s'agit-il, what is the matter?\nAgir contre quelqu'un, to prosecute at law.\nIt is about your life; you are in danger.\nAgissant, active, stirring, efficacious.\nAgitateur, agitator; faciliary, caballer, intriguer; fomenter of factions.\nAgitation, agitation; trouble; uneasiness, perturbation; impatience.\nAgiter, to agitate, actuate, move; disturb, disquiet; bandy, discuss, contest.\nS'agiter, to bustle, stir; be uneasy, anxious, full of inquietude, be discussed.\nagnat: descendant of the male line\nagnation: descent from the same father in a direct male line\nAgneau: lamb; meek person; innocent\nAgnel: ancient French gold coin\nAgneler: to bring young\nAgnelet: lambkin; simpleton\nAgiieline: lamb's wool; fleece of a lamb\nAgnelius: lambs' skins; wool of unshorn lambs; ancient French gold coins\nAgD^s: modest, innocent young girl; simpleton\nAgnus: relic.\nreligious image of a lamb.\n\nAgus-castus, Agnooss-kass-toos, (see obs. 4, tab. &c.) is the chaste tree, a shrub with pliant branches.\n\nAgonie, ah-go-nee, is agony; death-bed; great pain; anguish; distress; affliction; anxiety.\n\nAgonir, ah-go-neer, v.2 r., insult, outrage, load with injuries, abuse, tire.\n\nAgonisant, -e, ah-go-nee-zang, -t. adj. dying, in the pangs of death.\n\nAgoniser, ah-go-nee-zai, vn.1 r., agonize; be dying in excessive pain; distract, torment.\n\nAgrafe, ah-graff, is clasp, hasp, hook, handle, brace.\n\nAgraler, ah-grah-fai, v.1 T, clasp, fasten, hook, shut with a hasp.\n\nAgrarian, ah-grnyre, adj. agrarian, relating to fields or grounds, to the division of land.\n\nAgrandir, ah-grang-deei v.2 r., aggrandize, extend, enlarge, lengthen; raise; enlarge.\nAgreable (adj.): agreeable, pleasing, convenient, acceptable; graceful, attractive, gentle.\nAgreable (v.): to like, please; suit.\nAgrander (v.): to widen, grow, increase; be enlarged, raised, promoted; fortune.\nAgranderment (n.): aggrandizement, enlargement; rise, promotion.\nAvoir agr\u00e9able (v.): to like.\nAgreably (adv.): agreeably, pleasantly.\nAgriger (v.): to approve, accept, receive, allow; ratify; rig a ship.\nAgrez que je vous dis (expression): give rein to say.\nAgreer (v.): to please, like; be agreeable, pleasing, acceptable.\nAgeur (n.): dresser; rigger of a ship.\nAggregat (n.): aggregation, assembly.\naggregation, assembly, crowd, mass, multitude. Aggregation, Agresaghahsyong, sf. aggregation, association, conjunction, admission, confused heap.\nAgrege, Agraihjai, sm. fellow, under professor, substitute; union of heterogeneous or dissimilar parts.\nIkgr degree, Agraihjai, va. 1 r. to aggregate, associate, admit, receive, conjoin; make an aggregation or aggregate.\nAgreement, Ahgraimang, sm. agreement, agreeableness, advantage, pleasure, recreation, amusement, consent, approbation : elegance : ornament.\nAgrims, Nhgraimang, smp. ornaments ; music, dancing, accompaniments; charms; trimming.\nAgras, Ahgray, smp. rigging, tackling of a ship.\nAgresser, Ajigrayai, va. 1 r. to aggress, attack, invade.\nAgresseur, Ahgraysur, sm. aggressor; assaulter, invader.\nAggression, Ajigraysyong, sf. aggression, assault; assault.\nAgreste, Agrestt, adj. agrestic, rustic, wild, uncooked.\nagricultural: uncivil, sharp, sour, poignant.\n\nAgreyeur: wire-drawer, spinner of wire.\n\nAgriciilteur: husbandman, farmer, cultivator.\n\nAgriculture: agriculture, husbandry; art of cultivation, farming.\n\nAgrier: ground-rent, tenure; service; rent paid in kind.\n\nAgrire: ground-rent, tenure; service; rent paid in kind.\n\nS'agrifier: to fasten, cling to; lay hold of, seize, grip.\n\nAgriote: wild cherry, black cherry.\n\nAgripper: to grip, seize; pilfer: lay hold of, catch eagerly.\n\nAgionome: agriculturist; writer on agriculture.\n\nAgrouper: to aggroup, assemble, huddle together, bring into one group.\n\nAguerrir: to train (np) for war.\ninure: to become accustomed to the hardships of war, discipline.\n\naguerreir, s'rt'^-o'av-rter, vref: to grow warlike; inure, accustom oneself to.\n\naguer, ah-gny: lurking place; ambush; secret watching; hidden place.\n\naguets, (etre aux.): eytr-oh-zaJi-gueye: to lie in wait, lurk, watch, observe, spy.\n\naguets, (se tenir aux.): suh-luh-neer-oh-zah-gueye: to lie in wait, lurk, watch, observe, spy.\n\naguets, (se mettre atix.): suh melre-oh-zah-gueye: to lie in wait, lurk, watch, observe, spy.\n\nah, ah, int. ah! oh! alas!: expressive of joy, grief, admiration.\n\nahin, ah-ang: labor, effort, trouble, pain; toil, cry.\n\nahanner, ah-ah-nai: sweat, pant; cry out.\n\naheurte': perrerse, stubborn.\n\naheurtenment, ah-urtt-mnng: wilfulness, stubbornness, obstinacy, perverseness.\n\naheurter, ah-ur-tai: to fix in a resolution, make obstinate; oppose, be radical.\nto labor, toil,\nobstinate, wilful,\nS'aheuvter, s''aJi-ur-tai, vref. to resolve, deter'minate,\nbe stiff, obstinate, contrary, contumacious.\nAh, ah-ee, int. oh! oh dear! (expression of pain, grief, &c.)\nAhuri, -e, ah-oo-re, -s, adj. sluggish, amazed, stunned, scared; giddy-brained, wild, unsettled.\nAhurir, ah-oo-reer, va. 2 r. to astound, astonish, stun, scare, perplex, worry, strike all of a heap.\nAiche, aysh. sf. bait, lure, snare, decoy, allurement.\nAicher, ai-shai, va. 1 r. to bait, allure, entice, decoy with a bait.\nAide, did, sf. aid, assistance, help, succor, relief, support; chapel of ease. A I'aide! help, ho!\nAide, aid, sm. assistant, auxiliary, helper, colleague.\nAide de camp, aid-duh-kang, sm. aid-de-camp.\nAide major, aid-mau-hjor, sm. adjutant, petty officer.\nAide de cuisine, aid-duh-ku-e-zinn, smf. under cook.\nAide de chirurgien, aide-de-chirurgien, (vid\u00e9 obs. 4, tab. &c,) sm. surgeon's assistant.\nAide a macon, aid-ah-mason, sm. mason or bricklayer's man.\nAider, ay-dier, va. 1. to aid, help, assist, relieve, succor.\nS'aider, s'ay-dier, ure./ ta assist, help, aid, relieve, succor one another.\nS'aider, de, s'aider, to make use of, help one's self, make free with.\nAides, aids, effp. aids, taxes, excise; royal subsidies.\nAie, ah-y\u00e9, int. oh! oh! (exclamation of pain, sorrow, &c.)\nAieul, ah-yool, sm. grandfather, a father's or mother's father.\nAieule, ah-yool, sf. grandmother, a father's or mother's mother.\nAi\u00e8ux, ah-yoo, smp. ancestors, forefathers, pregenitors.\nAigail, uy-gail, sm. dewdrop, moisture sparkling at sunrise,\nAisayer, ai-gai-yai, va. 1 r. to wash, soak, rinse, cool.\nAigle, aigle, sm. eagle; man of superior genius, great genius; Roman standard.\nAigle: a German town; pulpit, reading-desk in the Roman church.\n\nAiglet: a young eagle; a young eagle without beak and talons.\n\nAiglon: a young eagle; a young eagle without beak and talons.\n\nAigre: acidity, roughness; acrimony, sharpness.\n\nAigre (adj.): acid, sour, rough; ill-tempered, severe, harsh; brittle, shrill.\n\nAigre de c\u00e8de: sherbet, juice of lemons or oranges mixed with sugar and cedar juice.\n\nAisredon: very fine down.\n\nAigre doux (adj.): sweet and sour; sharp and mild.\n\nAigrefin: swindler, sharper, cajoler; haddock.\n\nAigre-elet (adj.): sourish, tart, acrid; sharp.\n\nAigreinent: sharply, severely; rudely.\n\nAigremoine: agrimony, liriope.\nadj. sour, sharp; shrill, piercing\ntufted, tufty, adorned with a tuft\negret: tuft, bunch of feathers; diamonds; shell\nsourness, sharpness, acrimony; severity, discord\nheart-burdening, hatches too hard (in engraving)\nsourish cherry, wild cherry\nto sour, afflict, irritate; incense, exasperate\nto provoke, irritate one another\nadj. sharp-pointed, acute, shrill, sharp, smart, subtle, violent\nsupply of freshwater (on board of a ship)\nto take fresh water on board of a ship.\nAigaiile, dew-drops, moisture, morning dew.\nAiguayer, to wash, soak, weter, rinse; cool.\nAigue-marine, aqua marina; precious stones.\nAigui6ie, ewer, basin.\nAiguidree, ewei'full, basinfull.\nAiguillade, goad, pointed instrument to drive oxen forward.\nAiguille, needle, bodkin, hand of a clock or watch, index; spire.\nAiguillee, needlefull.\nA\\g\\i'[iii-.,-ai-gu-e-yai], to couch the cataract, cleanse silk with needles,\nAiguilletle, tag; shoulder-knot; trimming; slice.\nAiguilietter, to tag, tie with tags or points, cut slices.\nAignilletier, trimming, lace-maker.\nAigulilifir, needle-maker; needle-case.\nAiguillon: a small sting, goad, incentive, motive, spur.\n\nAiguillonner: to sting, goad, spur on, incite, animate, encourage.\n\nAigulsement: sharpness, incentive, refinement.\n\nAiguiser: to sharpen, incite, quicken, refine.\n\nS'aiguiser: to get keen, sharp, pointed; to grow smart, witty, quick, ingenious, hungry, angry, sarcastic.\n\nAiguiseur: whetter, exciter, encourager, stirrer up.\n\nAigument: rudely, sharply, severely.\n\nAil: garlic, a strong-scented and tasted bulb.\n\nAile: wing, pinion; ale; aisle of a church; sweep of a mill, protection, patronage.\n\nJ'en ai dans l'aile: I am undone.\n\nAil^: winged, swift, nimble, active, rapid.\nAileron: a small pinion, fin, console, or shelf of a water rail.\nAilette: an inside lining of a shoe.\nAillade: garlic sauce or ragout.\nAilliers: elsewhere, in another place.\nD'ailliers: moreover, besides, over and above, otherwise.\nAimable: amiable, lovely, pleasing, agreeable.\nAimablement: amiably, pleasantly.\nAimant: load-stone; magnet; attraction, allurement.\nAimant: loving, lotely, kind, affectionate.\nAirnante: magnetic, attractive: touched with a load-stone.\nAimanter: to touch with a load-stone.\nAimantin: magnetic, attractive.\nAimer: to love, like, fancy; dot upon; be fond of.\nAimer mieux: to prefer, choose.\nAimer, to love, favor, have good will, esteem of another.\nAimer, v., to delight, take or have in.\nS'aimer, to love, like, be pleased with one's self.\nS'entr'aimer, to love, be fond of one another.\nAine, groin; rod to dry fish upon, leather joint in instruments.\nAine-, ey-7iai. e, svtf. elder, first-born son or daughter, brother or sister.\nAinesse, ey-ness, seniority, eldership.\nAinsi, thus, so, therefore, in consequence of this or that.\nII est ainsi fait, that is his temper. Ainsi soii-il, amen.\nAinsi que, as\u2014 as, as well \u2014 as, so \u2014 that, even as \u2014 so.\nAir, air, smoke, wind, manner: look, mien, gesture, action, gait, demeanor; song, tune. En\nAir, extravagantly.\n\nAirain, airing, small. Brass; impudence, boldness.\n\nD'airain, d'airain, ad. Brazen: impudent, hard, unpitying.\n\nAire, aire, shelf, barn or thrashing-floor; aerie; area; superficies; points of the manner's compass.\n\nAiree, aire, sulgent number of sheaves laid down for thrashing.\n\nAirer, ai-rai, to nest; make or build a nest, or an aerie.\n\nAirier, ai-ryai, expose to me air.\n\nAis, is, shelf, board, plank; pasteboard; shingle; screen.\n\nAisance, ease, competency: wealth; easy manners; ready money.\n\nAisances, privy, place of retirement, water-closet.\n\nAise, ease, convenience, leisure; content, gladness, pleasure.\nVous ne serez pas bien aise que je vous dise ia verity, you will not be pleased to hear the truth.\n\nAise (to live at one's ease), veevr-ah-son-ayze (pov.), (living at one's ease)\nTo live comfortably.\nEase, (his son,) aisance, to be at ease,\nin easy circumstances.\nEase, (en prendre \u00e0 son,) ang-prangdr'ah-son-aze,\n(pop. exp.) not to trouble oneself about anything.\nEase, (n'en prendre que \u00e0 lui,) n'ang-prangdr-kah-\nson-aze, {pop. exp.)'iw\\. to put oneself out of one's way; not to incommode oneself.\nAisance, ah-L'aise, ad. easily, conveniently, with ease.\nGlad, jcyl\"ul, well-pleased, de-\nto fumigate, smoke; air,\nadj.\nEase, rivze,\nlit. lighted.\nEase. -e, ay-zai,\nmodious; free.\n-e adj. easy, convenient, com\nclear, iiatiirtil; rich, wealthy.\nHomme aise a fScher, a passionate man.\nAisement, ayze-i-ang, sm. relief; evacuation\nprivy\nleisure.\nALA\nALE\nEasement, cy-sai-mang, ad. easily, without trouble, conveniently, readily, freely.\nEasiness, o-y-se^Z, sf. arm-pit, arm-hole, cavity under the shoulder.\nAissette, hatchet, small axe, addice; cooper's hammer.\nAissieu, axle-tree; axis of a globe.\nAitres or elres, rooms, ways of a house.\nAjoiic, thorny broom; reed, rush, sedge.\nAjoue', exposed, transpierced.\nAjournment, delay; citation; appointment.\nAjourner, to adjourn, appoint, delay.\nAjoutage, addition, supplement.\nAjoute, to add, increase; augment, join.\nS'ajouter, to join, unite, associate with; enter, be initiated in.\nAjoutoir, spout, tube, fixed to another; jet of a fountain.\nAjustage, regulation.\nadjustment, adj. dressed or fitted, settlement, joining\nadjustment, n. dress, agreement, reconciliation\nadjustments, clothes, ornaments, conveniences\nadjust, v. 1. to adjust, fit, dress, adorn, embellish, reconcile, aim, direct, tune\nprepare, v. ref. to prepare, dress, suit oneself, agree, be reconciled together\nprepare, v. w. suit, accommodate oneself, adapt to, suit the time\nweigher, preparer of metals for the die\nmoney scales, scales used to weigh unstamped metals\najutage, spout, tube, jet of a fountain\nosier-twig, used to tie branches\nwith board joined to another\nAlaiser, ak-lay-zai, v.1. to polish, smooth\nfile; bore, widen the bore of a gun.\nAlaiter, ah-lay-tai, v.1. to suckle, give suck, nurse at the breast.\nAlambic, ak-Lang-bic, n. alembic; still; investigation, careful examination.\nAlambique, -e, a-la.ng-be-kai, -e. adj. too subtle, refined, fetched.\nAlambiquer, ah-lang-be-.'cai, v.1. to distil, puzzle; refine.\nS'alarabiquer, s'ak-lang-be-kai, vref. to puzzle one's brain; refine too much; torment one's self.\nAlan, ah-lang, n. mastiff, beagle, bull-dog.\n/.lana, oh-lnA-nah, n. soft polishing chalk, tripoly.\nAlarguer, ah-lar-gai, vn.1. to take sea room, stand off, keep clear.\nAiarmaut, -e. ah-lar-mxing, -t, adj. alarming, terrifying, surprising.\nAlarme, ah-larme, n. alarm, sudden fear, apprehension.\nAlarmer, ah-Iar-mai, v.1. to alarm, surprise.\nstartle - give or sound the alarm, disturb.\nB'alarmer, sah-lar-mai, vref. to be alarmed, terrified; take the alarm; be frightened at.\nAlarraiste, ah-iar-mist, sm. speaker, divulger, propagator of bad news.\nAlabaster, al-bautr, sm. alabaster; fair complexion, whiteness.\nAlberge, al-herhje, sf. early peach; alberge.\nAlbergier, al-ber-kjyai, sm. alberge tree.\nAlbugine, al-bick, sf. soft white chalk, chalky substance.\nAlbran, al-brang, sm. young wild duck.\nAlbrene, al-bai-nai, adj. maimed, shattered, in a sad condition, speaking of a bird shot.\nAlbreuer, al-brai-nai, va. 1 r. to go in quest of wild ducks, shoot wild ducks,\nAlbugine, al-boo-hje-nai, -e, adj. albugineous, of white colour.\nAlbugo, ai-boo-go, (vide obs. 4, tab. &c.) sm, albugo, white spot upon the cornea of the eye.\nAlbum, albomm, sm. album, memorandum book.\nAlcalde: judge or justice of peace in Spain.\nAlcaic: consisting of two dactyls and two trochees.\nAlcali: fermentative substance; fossil salt.\nAlcaline: having the qualities of alkali.\nAlcalization: act of alkalizing.\nAlkalize: to make alkaline.\nAlcana: Egyptian plant, yellow dye.\nAlchimie: alchemy; hermetical philosophy; chimerical possibility of transmuting metals.\nAlchymical: relating to alchemy.\nAlchemist: one versed in the science of alchemy.\nAlcohol: highest rectification of spirit of wine.\nAlcoholize: to alcoholize.\nrectify spirits until completely dephlegmated.\nAlcoran, the Islamic holy book, also known as the Al-Quran.\nAlcove, a recess or part of a chamber in which a bed is placed.\nAlcyon, a type of kingfisher or a kind of zoophyte.\nAlcyonian, adjective, relating to Alcyon or calm, quiet, happy.\nAlderman, a member of the corporation of London.\nAlectorian stone, supposed stone in the liver of a cock, also known as alectoria.\nAlege, parapet or wall breast-high, low wall.\nAlgre, cheerful, brisk, nimble, ready.\nAlgrement, cheerfully, briskly, readily.\nAlegresse, joy, alacrity, mirth, shouts of joy.\nA rencontre, against, to the contrary, by.\nAwln, awl, bodkin, pointed instrument.\nAlenier, a small awl-maker; sieve, bolt-maker.\nAlenois, (vide obs. 6, tab. &c.), a garden cress.\nAleiiiir. To slacken; relax; repress; make less quick.\nS'alentir, s'cilentir, to slacken, relax, flag, neglect, be remiss, abate, languish.\nAleniour, around, about.\nAiendours, neighbourhood; places around; friends; courtiers; inmates.\nAmpirie, gall-nut; silk and woollen stuff.\nAi^rion, spread eagle, without feet and beak.\nAlerte, sudden alarm.\nger, watch, vigilance.\nAitfrte, alert, brisk, lively, vigilant, watchful.\nAlerte, up, up! take care! be upon the watch.\nAl^'ser, to bore a cannon; polish, file.\nAlesoir, machine to bore cannon, nan (video ob. = S, tab. &c.)\nAlestir, to heighten, ease, disburden, get rid of.\nAlette, small wing; side; jamb; door-post.\nAlevin, young fry; fish to stock a pond with.\nAieviner, to stock a pond with young fish.\nAlevinier, small pond to breed fish.\nAieu, freehold; free tenure; allodial lands.\nAlexandrin, Alexandrine; poetical measure of six feet.\nAlexipharmique, alezipharmic, antidotal, driving away poison.\nAlezan, bayard, bay horse, sorel horse.\nAlezan, sorei, of a fawn color, bay.\nAlze, small warm wrapper for sick persons; small shelf.\nAlfaage, species of lettuce planted in April.\nAlgarade, insult, taunt, affront, bravado.\nAlgebrique, algebraical, relating to algebra.\nAlgebre, algebra, calculation by letters; thing difficult to comprehend.\nAlgsbnser, to study algebra; speak or write upon algebra.\nAlg-^bnste, algebraist, person acquainted with algebra.\nAlgide, cold, chill, algific.\nAlguazil, alguazil, catchpole; bumbailiff.\nAlgue, sea-weed, sea-grass washed on the sand.\nAlibi, absence from a place.\nAlibii'orain, evasion, pretence, subterfuge.\nAlibile, nutritive, nutritious.\nAiboron, ignoramus; pretender, stupid conceited fellow, ass.\nAlidade, small mill dam, mill cog; cog, \"helf.\nAlidade, instrument of measurement and astronomy. (Quadrant, cross-staff)\nAlienable, adjective. Alienable, transferable, alterable.\nAlienation, noun. Alienation; transfer, aversion; madness, folly; change, sale.\nAlien, adjective. Mad, insane. Lunatic.\nAlienate, verb. 1. To alienate, transfer, make over, estrange.\nSalienate, verb. reflexive. To withdraw one's self; forfeit, lose.\nAlign, verb. 1. To level, square, lay out bylines; adjust, polish, arrange.\nSalience, verb. reflexive. To place, range one's self on a line; form a line.\nAliment, noun. Nourishment, food, supply, sustenance, provisions.\nAlimony, noun. Alimony, maintenance, subsistence, victuals, provision.\nalimentary adj. nutritious\nalimenter v. 1 r. to feed, nourish, maintain\nalimentaire adj. nutritive, alimonious\nalinea sm. beginning of a paragraph, line drawn between two words\nalinettes sfp. rods used to dry or smoke fish\nalinger v. 1 r. to furnish, supply with linen\nS'aiinger vref. to stock, supply oneself with linen\naliquant adj. parts of a number, remainder\naliquot adj. f. part, division of parts without remainder\nAlise's trade-winds\naliter v. 1 r. to reduce, confine to bed\nS'aliter vref. to keep one's bed, go to bed, be bed-ridden\nalit- e adj. bed-ridden, confined to bed\nalkali, a fermentative substance; fossil salt\nalkalization, alkalization, n. the act of alkalizing\nalkalizer, alkalizer, v.1. to alkalize, make alkaline\nalkermes, alkermes, n. confection of kermes-berries\nallaises, railing, range of bars across a stream\nauaitement, lactation, n. giving suck\nallaiter, suckle, nurse at the breast, give suck\nailant, goer, walker, visitor, rambler, active man\nailants, goers, ramblers, intruders, visitors; vagabonds, beggars, rogues\nailant, -e, -t, adj. active, light, ready, fond of gadding about\nalignement, alignment, n. laying by lines\nsm.: is, level, row, li-\nalliancement, allurement, n. flattery, seduction\nAllele, allure, persuade, seduce.\nAlleys, steps, passage, going.\nAllegator, alleger, affirm, declare.\nAllegation, allegation, affirmation, declaration; excuse, plea, defence.\nAllegate, liter, tender, support; sill of a window, low wall.\nAllsgiance, alleviation, comfort, relief; allegiance, fealty.\nAllegement, diminution, ease, relief.\nAllegre, lighten, unload, ease, relieve; mitigate.\nAllegir, thin, disfigure; slippery.\n\nAll, only, about, go, re.\nallegorical, ad. allegorical, figurative, imaginary.\nallegorical man, n. allegorician, ad. allegorically, after an allegory.\nto allegorize, v. to turn into an allegory, form an allegory.\nallegory writer, n. allegorist, n. explainer of allegories.\ncheerful, adj. cheerful, gay, brisk, nimble, ready.\ncheerfully, briskly, readily, adv.\njoy, n. alacrity, mirth; shouts of joy.\nquick, lively, gay, brisk tune or innovative.\nquickly, lively, merrily, with spirit, adv.\nto allege, v. to advance, cite, quote; produce.\nallelujah, n. praise God.\nholy exultation, shouts of joy; sorrel. Alleluia, all-mang, German tongue, the German.\nAUemaade, all-mangde, sf. allemande, dance; slow music.\nAller, ah-lai, vn. 1 irr. to go, be, march, set to, proceed; conduce, fit, last. Auer a grands pas, to go very fast. Auer k tg.lons, to grope along. 11 y va devotree, your life is at stake. Comment va votre saute', how is your health?\nAuer, ah-lai, sm. going, departure; resource, means, advantage, expedient.\nAuer, (a'en) vref* to go, go away, go from; be spent, throw away, discard, wear, run out, melt, evaporate, dissolve.\nAuer, de {y) v. raouop, to be concerned; be at stake.\nAuer (faire en,) comp. va. 4 irr. to take out; hunt; drive, send away; match.\nAuer (laisser.) comp. va. 1 r. to give up, relinquish, let go.\nAuer, k (se laisser,) comp, vref. to yield, submit, give way to.\nun. to resist, oppose, forbid, prevent.\nva. I r. to bore; polish, file. Widen the bore of a cannon or gun.\nal-lai-zuo-ar. Boring instrument; piercer, borer, gimlet.\nfrangk-ah-luk. Freehold; free tenure; allodial lands.\nak-tyahje. Mixture, combination of metals.\nah-lyangsse. Alliance, connection, union, mixture; league, coalition.\nah-lt/ai, -e. Ally, relation, confederate, partner.\nah.-lyai, -e. Related; confederate, united, allied.\nsm. net to catch birds, net for partridges, quails, etc.\nah-lyai. To ally, marry, unite, join, mix with.\ns'a/i-ti/az. To combine, unite with; match: confederate; coalesce.\nah-lyaie. Allies, people, states.\nalligator, alligatoric, alligatoric repetition, clown, boor, rustic, coarse ill-bred person, allocation, assignment, addition (to an account), allocution, speech or harangue, allodial, free, independent, allodium, freehold, independent possession, free tenure, awonga, eking out, hook, chimical tube, pass or thrust with a rapier, awonger, to lengthen, prolong, stretch, delay, prorogue, sawonger, to extend, stretch out, grow longer.\nallment, additional length, supplement, protraction\nallowable, lawful, grantable\nalderman, judge of a district, juror\nallow, to allow, admit, grant, pass in account\nalluvial, voracious, ravenous, greedy, insatiable\nalnus, cog, tooth, catch of a wheel\nyew, firebrand, piece of wood, kindled\nallumery, blade of a knife, furnace\nallume, to kindle, light, inflame, excite, raise, foment\nMonday, ah-lon-metl, sf. match, spunk, touch-wood, (vide obs. 4, tab. &c.)\nAliumeur, ah-loo-rairr, sm. kindler, fomenter; incendiary; lamp or candle higher, (vide obs. 4.;)\nAllure, ah-loore, sf. gait, walk; conduct, manner, way; tread of a horse, (vide obs. 4, tab.)\nAllusion, ah-loo-zyong, sf. allusion, hint, implication; indirect praise or blame, (vide obs. 4.)\nAlluvion, al-loo-vyong, sf. alluvion, deluge; accretion; increase of a river by the water-side.\nAlmagest, al-mahhjest, sm. Almagest, a very ancient collection of astronomical observations.\nAlmanac, al-mah-iiah, sm. almanac, calendar.\nAlmandine, almano'-dm, s/ almandine, coarse ruby.\nAloes, ah-lo-es, sm. aloes, a precious tree, perfume and medicinal juice.\nAloetic, ah-lo-etic, adj. aloetic, sweet-scented.\nAlogy, ah-lo-hjee, sf. alogy, absurdity, impudence, unreasonableness.\nAloi: alloy, standard; quality; condition. Abatement, diminution.\nAlors: then, at that time; therefore.\nAlose: shad, kind of sea-fish.\nAloser: to gloze; flatter, wheedle, praise, extol, celebrate, magnify.\nAloulette de mer: sea-pie; kind of fish.\nAlourdir: to stupify, hebetate; make heavy.\nS'alourdir: become heavy.\nDi:ll: stupid, sottish.\nAlonvi: voracious, ravenous, insatiable, wolfish.\nAloyage: alloy, mixture, baser metal mixed in.\nAloyau: sirloin of beef, short rib of beef.\nAloyer - ah-loo-ah-i, VA. 1 r. lo allay, mix one metal with another, join; abate.\nAlpiia - al-fah, sm. first Greek letter; beginning, commencement.\nAlphabet - fiZ-_/a/i-irt,', sm. alphabet, letters, primer, horn-book, elements of speech, lic.\nAlphabetique - al-fnh-bai-tick, adj. alphabetical, according to the letters.\nAlphabeiiquement - al-fah-bai-tick-man, ad. alphabetically.\nAlpine - cil-pinn, ad/ mountainous, hilly, belonging to the Alps.\nAlpiste - al-jjist, sm. canary-seed, millet, canary-grass.\nAlpiou - al-pyoo, sm. stake, wager doubled at play.\nAlquiraie - al-ke-foo, sf. alchemy, chimerical trans-mutation of metals; alloy, mixture of metals.\nAlte - alt, int. stop! hold! enough! no more of.\nAlterable - al-tai-rable, adj. alterable, changeable, mendable.\nalterant, adj. causing thirst, changing\nalterative, adj. producing a gradual change or operation\nalteration, n. alteration, adulteration, perversion, change, trouble, coolness; counterfeit, diminution\naltercation, n. dispute, contest, debate, controversy\naltered, adj. thirsty, changed; adulterated\ngreedy, covetous, griping miser\nalterer, v. to alter, change, adulterate, debase; pervert, corrupt, cause great thirst\nimpair, v. ref. to corrupt one's self; turn bad\nalternative, adj. alternate, reciprocal, mutual\nalternancy, n. alternacy, alternateess, action performed by turns\nalternative, ad. alternatively, reciprocally, by turns; alter, v. and n. 1. r. to alternate, perform alternately; change things in turn; alterqer, v. 1. r. to debate, dispute, contest, contend; altesse, n. highness; title of princes; supremacy; auiier, adj. haughty, proud, lofty, arrogant; altierement, adv. proudly, haughtily, arrogantly; altimete, n. altimetry, measurement of altitudes or heights; altigat, n. verdigris, rust of brass; alude, n. roan leather, colored sheep leather.\nAludel: small subliming pot\njasmine: 7* akam, small alum, mineral salt with sulfuric acid taste, sulphate of alumiae\nAlumelle: (vide obs. 4, tab.) alda: knife; cassock without sleeves\nAlumine: pure clay, basis of alum\nAlutni^i-e: alum mine, place where alum is wrought\nAluminex, -se: aluminum (HIS: consisting of alum, vide obs. 4, lab.)\nAluner: to steep or dip in alum water (vide obs. 4, tab.)\nAluni^re: alum manufactory\nAlveole: socket of a tooth; cell of a bee\nAlvhe: sea-wormwood; evacuation, discharge\nAmabiliti: amiability, loveliness, amiableness\nAmadis: end of a sleeve, cuff, ruff; shell.\nAmadote - a pear.\nAmadou - tinder, spunk, touch wood, combustible fungus.\nAmadouement - cajolery, enticement, accepted fondness.\nAraadouer - to flatter, caress, entice, wheedle, coax.\nAmadoueur - flatterer, fawner, coaxer, tinder-maker or dealer.\nArnajgri - wasting, lean, consumptive, emaciated.\nAmaigrir - to make lean, diminish, lessen.\nAmaigrir - to grow thin, lean, fall away.\nS'amaigrir - to dry up, shrink, diminish, waste, pine away.\nAmaigrissement - emaciation, extention, waste, leanness, eagerness.\nAmalgamation - compound, mixture.\nAmalgame - serai-metal, amalgam.\namalgam, n: a metallic mixture; union, mixture\namalgamate, v: to amalgamate, conjoin, blend, mix\ns-amalgamate, v: to unite, associate with, confederate\nalmond, n: almond, kernel, sugar-plum, piece of crystal cut like an almond\nalmond, n: almond-milk, milk made of pounded almonds\nalmond-tree, n: almondier\namant, n: suitor, gallant, paramour\namant delaisse, n: love-lorn, forlorn\namante delaisse, n: love-lorn, forlorn\namaranth, n: amaranth, love-flower\namaranth, adj: amaranthine, of amaranth color\namariner, v: to man a ship taken; inme\ns-amariner, v: to use, inure, accustom one's self to the sea.\namarque, small sea-mark, buoy, beacon.\narnarrage, anchorage, mooring anchors; ship duty paid for anchoring in a port.\namarrer, to anchor, fasten, moor a ship.\namarrages, cheeks, side-poats of wind-bsara or d'ane.\nAma, heap, pile, mass, collection, crowd, mob.\n^mAesemeni, amassment, heap, accumulation, hoard, treasure.\namass, to amass, accumulate, heap up; assemble, collect; gather, score up.\nS'amassei', increase, pile up; meet, collect, associate, join.\nAmasselie, scraper, spatula, spattle, painter's knife.\namasseur, heaper, hoarder, miser.\namateloter, to divide.\nahip-s crew, associate sailors, give each sailor a mate.\nS' ainaior, sak-natal-tai, reunite to, clear uneducated Idaus.\nAmator, -trice, amakuiu-triss, smith. lover, admirer, virtuoso.\nAioatir, ah-mah-teer, va. 2 r to deaden, dull, un-polish gold br silver.\nAmaurose, ak-mo-roze, sf. amaurosis, dimness of sight.\nAraazoue, ah-mah-jone, sf. Amazon; warlike woman, virago; yellow panot.\nAmbages, ng-bah-hjes, sfp. ambage, preamble, circumlocution; idle words, multiplicity of words.\nEmbassade, ang-bah-sad, sf. embassy; errand, message,\nAn embassadeur, an-6a-sa-cZur, sm. ambassador, envoy, deputy; messenger.\nAmbassadrice, ang-bah-sah-driss, sf. ambassadress: woman sent on a message.\nAmbesas, angb-zausse, stti, ambace. doubles ace, aces, two aces.\nAmbient, -e, ang-be-ang, -?, adj. ambient, surrounding, encompassing.\nambidexter, n. and adj. ambidexterous; doubles dealer, double dealing\nambigua, n. medley of dishes; mixture; olio, game at cards\nambigu., n. ambiguity, equivocation, doubtfulness; duplicity of signification\nambiguus, adj. ambiguous, doubtful, equivocal; having two meanings\nambiguity, n. ambiguity, equivocation, doubtfulness; duplicity of signification\nambiguously, adv. ambiguously, doubtfully\nambitious, adj. ambitious, ostentatious, covetous, greedy : high-minded\nambition, n. ambition, great desire, pride, emulation\nambitionner, v. I r. to desire, seek, covet eagerly; affect; be ambitious\namble, v. i. amble; pace; move easily; walk daintily\nambler, v. n. i r. to amble; pace; move easily; walk daintily\nambleur, small officer of the king's stables; ambler, pacer,\nAmbouchoirs, ancient French for boot-stretchers, boot-trees; stretchers,\namber, n. amber, son of a yellow gummy substance,\nAmbergris, ambergris; perfume; cordial,\namber, v. 1. to perfume with ambergris,\n-Ambrette, purple-sweet sultan; raisin,\nAmbroisie, ambrosia; exquisite food; oak of Jerusalem; food of the gods,\nrabrojslen, ne, ambroisiang, zyenn, cdj, acxbrosiac, esquistteyxkiotic,\nAmbulant, roving; exciseman; tide waiter; stroller, (vide obs. 4, tab. &c.),\nAmbulant, adj. roving, strolling, wandering, (vide obs. 4, tab. &c.),\nAmbulatory, flickle: wavering; changeable,\nAme, soul, mind, spirit, ghost, life; heart.\nbreast; conscience; person; people. Rendre - to give up the ghost.\nAme, au?, sf. bore; valve; sounding-board; mot- to, emblem: small wood in the middle of a fagot.\nAme, -e, ak-mai, -e, ad; well-beloved (term used in chancery).\nAmelioration, ajt-mai-lyo-rah-syong' sf. melioration, improvement, amendment, advancement.\nAmeliorer, ak-mai-lyo-rai, va. 1 r. to meliorate, better, mend; improve: reform.\nS'ameliorer, s' ah-rnai-lyo-rai , vref. to mend: reform; grow better.\nAraeliorisseraent, ah-mai-lyo-Tiss-mang , sm. improvement, amendment; reformation.\nA-roeme, ck-meyrae, ad. in one's power; at one's option or choice.\nAmen, ah-menn, sm. so be it; so it is: end.\nAmen, a, (dire.). deer-ah-rnenn, r.4 irr. to consent, agree, approve.\nAmen, (jusqu'a). hjoos-kaJi-ah-menn, ad. to the end.\nAmangement, ah-maz-nahje , sm. vehicle; carriage; removal of goods.\nAmendment - n. sale, retail; partition, division of wood for fuel or building.\nArnager - n. retail, sell wood for fuel, or timber for building.\nAmendable - adj. mendable, repairable; corrigible: finable.\nAmende - n. fine, penalty; mulct; forfeit.\nAmendable, honorable - n. repayment of honor; public acknowledgment of injury.\nAmendeur - n. amendment, improvement; modification; reform; manure.\nAmender - v. to amend, correct, rectify, meliorate; fine, mulct; manure.\nSameuder - v. to improve, reform; grow better; correct one's self.\nAmenee - n. summons, call of authority; citation; order to appear.\nAmmener - v. to bring, conduct, introduce; cause; induce; yield, bring to.\namenity: pleasantry, agreeableness\namenity's character: dukkah-rak-iaire: sweetness, mildness, gentleness\namenity's style: dustill: floridness, elegance\namenuer: to alleviate, diminish, lessen, reduce\nara: gall, bitterness; bitter remedies, bitters\nam: bitter, cruel, severe, painful, grievous, calamitous, satirical, hurtful\nAmersement: bitterly, painfully, grievously, cruelly, severely, calamitously, satirically\namers: beacon, sea-marks, lighthouse\namertume: bitterness, affliction, malice, hatred, severity, satire\namesurement: appraisal, valuation, assessment\nAMI\nSO\nAMO\namenuer: to appraise\namethyst, humming-bird, amethystist, limited, bounded, confined, furniture, furnish, convert, moveables, stack, heap, pile up, mob, sedition, crowd, popular commotion, pack of hounds, raise, collect, stir, excite, assemble, collect, crowd, conspire, riot, non-\n\n(Note: The text appears to be a list of ancient words and their meanings, likely in French or another Romance language. It is not clear if any translation is necessary, as the text is already in English and appears to be readable, albeit with some archaic spelling and formatting. Therefore, no cleaning is required, and the text can be considered clean as-is.)\nfriendly; burlesque discourse.\nAmi - friend, well-wisher, sweet-heart, companion.\nAmi - friendly, propitious, favorable, kind, courteous, salutary, beneficent.\nAmi - amid, in the middle, amidst.\namicable, friendly, kind, mild, gratious, amicable, gentle.\namicably, in a friendly manner.\namicably, in a friendly manner.\nasbestos; incombustible cloth in which were burnt the dead.\namicable, courteous, kind, friendly, attentive.\namicably, courteously, in a kind manner.\namice; part of a Romish priest's habit.\nstarch; stiffness, prudery, affectation.\nto starch, stiffen.\nAmidonnier, starch manufacturer, maker, vendor; starcher.\nAmie, female friend, mistress; sweetheart.\nAmigdales, tonsils, glands, one on each side of the throat.\nAmignarder, to fondle, indulge, caress; spoil.\nAmincir, to thin, diminish, weaken; become thin.\nAmincissement, attenuation, diminution, thinness.\nAmineur, salt-meter.\nAmiral, chief commander of a fleet, ship.\nhmya.ii, admiral's galley, admiral's lady.\nAmirante, Spanish admiral; amiral.\nAmiraut, admiralty, admiral-ship, navy office.\nAmissabilit\u00e9, possibility of loss, loss.\namissible, adjective, loseable, subject to privilege.\namity, noun, friendship, kindness; tenderness, favor; sympathy.\namitying, verb, to dissemble, grow affected.\nAmman, noun, chief Swiss magistrate of a canton; title of honor.\nAmmi, noun, bishop's weed, (a plant).\namignonner, verb, to dissemble, dress with studied affectation.\nAmmon, noun, (corn of d',) Ammonite, fossil spiral shell.\nAmmoniac, noun, salt ammoniac; gum ammoniac.\nAmmoniac, noun, ammoniac; gum ammoniac.\nAmmoniacal, adjective, ammoniacal; of the nature of ammoniac salt.\namnesty, noun, amnesty, general pardon; act of oblivion.\namnistier, verb, to pardon, grant a general pardon.\namodiateur, a person who leases a farm or acts as a landlord; tenant.\namodiation, the tenure or lease of a farm or lands.\namodier, to farm, lease, let out, rent, pay for in coin or kind.\namogabare, Spanish militia, (very brave).\namoindrir, to diminish, thin, lessen, abate; be impaired.\ns'amoindrir, to lessen, sink, diminish, abate, decay.\namoindrissement, diminution, decrease, abatement, decay.\na moins de, for less, under; conjunction, lest, for fear.\na moins que, unless, except that.\namollir, to soften; move, appease, pacify; enervate, effeminate.\ns'amolir, to become soft, kind, effeminate, enervated.\narnoussement, softness.\namorce: bait, allurement, decoy; prime\namorcer: to bait, allure, entice, tempt, decoy; prime; train\namorcoir: wimble, auger, bore\namoroso: tenderly, lovingly, passionately\namortir: to quench, abate, deaden, extinguish, weaken, soften, appease, redeem.\n\namomi: fruit or drug of an Indian tree. (Also spelled amome)\namomie: white mulberry tree. (Also spelled amonie)\namonte: eastward; upwards; up the current\nyent d'amont: easterly wind, east wind.\namont: ad. eastward; upwards; up the current\n\namonceler: to heap, pile, set or lay up, accumulate, hoard\ns'amonceler: to unite in one mass; join\namncelement: heap, pile, accumulation, hoard\n\npusillanimity: cowardice; feminacy\namont: ad. eastward; upwards; up the current.\nAmortiser, ah-mor-teer, v. to abate, decrease, sink, weaken.\nAmortizable, ah-mor-te-sable, adj. redeemable, capable of being redeemed.\nAmortissement, ah-mor-tiss-ment, n. amortization; mortmain; abatement.\n\nAtnonr, ah-moor, n. love, affection, passion, desire; lust.\nAmour propre, ak-mooTv-ropre, n. self-love, self-ishness.\nAmours, ah-moores, pl. Sports, Smiles, and Graces, (the children of Venus).\nAmours, aa-moores, pl. intrigue, amour, gallantry; mistress; flame.\nArnourde (pour l'), poor Vah-mor-duh, adv. for the sake of, etc.\nAmouracher, ah-moo-rah-shai.va, v. to flirt, coquet; engage in a foolish intrigue.\nj'S'araouracher, s' ah-moo-raA-shai, v. to be smitten; fall in love.\nAmourette, ah-nioo-rette, n. love affair; amourette, intrigue.\nAmoureusement, ah-Tv^oo-ruhze-mang, adj. amorously, lovingly, fondly, with affection.\nlovers, sweethearts; gallant, admirer, beau, belle.\namorous, fond of, enamored; amorous, moveable, portable, removable.\namphibian, amphibious animal; time-sever, mean compiler.\n(he or she is) a time-sever; a double-dealer.\namphibian, living in two elements; compliant, time-serving.\namphibology, homonymy, ambiguity; equivocation, double-meaning.\namphibological, doubtful, ambiguous, homonymous.\namphibologically, doubtfully, ambiguously.\nnonsense; foolery.\namphigorique, adjective: burlesque, nonsensical, unmeaning, foolish, obscure, affected.\namphicphalus, noun: bed with two bolsters at the head and foot.\namphisbaena, noun: serpent supposed to have two heads.\nAmpliciens, noun: inhabitants of the torrid zone.\namphitheater, noun: amphitheatre; first gallery, place with circular seats above one another.\namphora, noun: vase with two handles, an amphora; measure of liquids.\nample, adjective: ample, long, wide; diffuse; full; spacious, capacious, extensive.\namplification, adverb: amply, fully, widely, largely; diffusively; liberally.\nampleness, noun: ampleness, fulness, width; length; size; extent.\namplificateur, noun: recorder.\nAmplifier, amplify, extend, enlarge, exaggerate, defer.\nAmplification, amplification, enlargement, duplicate, exaggeration, adjournment.\nAmplifier, to amplify, enlarge, extend, adjourn, delay, exaggerate, defer.\nAmplificateur, amplifier, enlarger.\nAmplification, amplitude, horizonatal extent, width, size, greatness, abundance.\nAmpoule, bubble, blister, vessel, jusiple, vial.\nAmpoule, bombastic, swelled up, high-flown, pedantic.\nampoulette - hour-glass on a ship; stick of a sky-rocket; peg\nampusser - to fester, grow virulent, suppurate (see obs. 4, tab.)\namputation - amputation; cutting off, separation (see obs. 4, tab.)\nampuier - to amputate, cut off: lop, prune; chop off (see obs. 4, tab.)\nAmpix - gold-fillet; net to bind the hair; gold chain\nAmsonie - dog-bane, a plant\namulette - amulet, charm; talisman; spell (see obs. 4, tab.)\nAmuloner - to heap, pile up, stock, lay up corn, hay, etc.\nAmunitionner - to provide, store with provisions.\narnure - fastening, rope; string, cord.\namurer - to moor; tie; fasten.\namusing, adj. amusing, rausive, diverting, agreeable, entertaining, pleasing\namusement, n. amusement, diversion, recreation, pleasure, entertainment\namuse, v. to amuse, divert, entertain, ease, stop, deceive, distract, feed (obs. 4)\namuser, n. amuser, one who amuses\nto amuse oneself, v. loiter, trifle, spend, fool time away, argue (obs. 4)\namusing toy, n. amusing toy, trifle, childish play or amusement, small firearms\namuser, n. amuser, deceiver, seducer, cheat (obs. 4)\namusoire, n. frivolous hindrance, stoppage, delay, reason, cause (obs. 4, 6)\nAitngdales, amigdal, sf. tonsils, glands, kernels, one on each side of the throat.\nAn, ang, sm. year, twelvemonth, twelve solar months, thirteen lunar months. II ya uu an, a year ago. Tonsilles ans, every year.\nAn (jour de 1',) hjor-duh-lang, new-year's day, beginning of the year.\nAn bissextil, ang be-seks-till, leap-year, or every fourth year, when February has 29 days.\nAn (par,) joar-arz^, ad, expr. per annum, yearly, annually.\nAns, angh. smp. age, years, centuries; time; old-age, past times.\nAna, ah-nah, sm. ana, collection of sayings; thoughts; fragments; equal mixture.\nAuabaptisme, anok-hap-tism, sm. anabaptism, heresy of some Christians.\nAnabaptiste, anabap-tist, smf. anabaptist, a raraitor of baptism being administered only at the age of reason.\nAnacamptique, anatang-ptique, adj. anacampic, reflecting or reflected.\nAnacathartic, adj. purgative, promoting expectation.\nAnachorete, n. anachoret, hermit; beadbearer; recluse.\nAnachronism, n. anachronism, error in computation.\nAnacratic, adj. anacratic.\nAnadiplosis, n. anadiplosis; reduplication, a figure in rhetoric.\nAnagogy, n. ecstasy, rapture, transport, elevation of soul.\nAnagogic, adj. mystical, emb embatic; secret, obscure.\nAuagrammatize, v.n. to anagrammatize, make anagrams.\nAnagrammatist, n. anagrammatist.\nAnagram, n. anagram, transposition of the letters of one word into another.\nAnalects, n. select pieces.\nAnalectuer, scholar or learned mariner.\n\nAnaleme, azimuth, sphere projection on solstitial colures.\n\nAnalepsy, recovery or restoration from sickness.\n\n^Raepique, analeptic, restorative, corroborating.\n\nAnalogy, relation, proportion, resemblance, coincidence, convenience.\n\nAnalogic, analogical, proportional, similar, homogeneous.\n\nAnalogically, proportionally.\n\nAnalogism, analogical comparison; argument from effect to cause.\n\nAnalogue, analogous, parallel, having the same proportion.\n\nAnalyse, analysis, solution of compounds into primitive elements.\nAnalyst, all-nal-lee-zai VA. 1 r. to analyze, decompose; resolve into primitive principles.\nAnalyste, ah-nal-list, sm. analyst, resolver; critic.\nAanalytique, ah-nal-le-tick, adj. analytical, solved or soluble into its primitive principles.\nAnalytiquement, ah-na-le-tick-mang, adv. analytically, by analytical means.\nAnamn\u00e9tique, ah-na-mnai-tick, sm. mnemonics; physical strengthener of memory.\nAnamorphose, ah-na-7nor-foze, sf. anamorphosis; deformation; perspective projection representing perfect objects at a distance.\nAnanas, ah-na-nau, sm. ananas, pineapple.\nAnapeste, ak-na-pest, sm. anapest; poetical foot of two short syllables and one long.\nAnaphora, ah-na-for, sf. anaphora, repetition of the same word at the beginning of every sentence or clause.\nAnarchie, ah-nar-shee, sf. anarchy; confusion, misrule, state without head, without rule.\nAnarchic, adj. disorderly, without order or rule.\nAnarchize, v. 1. to throw into disorder; confuse, confound, give up to anarchy.\nAnarchist, n. anarch, factionist; disrupter of public peace or order.\nAnasarca, n. universal dropsy that absorbs all the putrid humors.\nAnasarque, n. anasarca.\nAnastrophe, n. inversion of words.\nAnathematize, v. to curse, excommunicate.\nAnathema, n. curse, execration; person excommunicated.\nAnatiferous, adj. producing ducks.\nAnatocism, n. accumulation of interest; compound interest.\nAnatomy, n. dissection.\nanatomy; discussion; analysis; research.\n\nAnatomical, adj. relating to anatomy.\n\nAnatomically, in an anatomical manner.\n\nAnatomize, v. 1. to dissect; investigate; analyze; divide into.\n\nAnatomist, n. anatomist; investigator; analyzer.\n\nAnatron, n. nitrous bait, Egyptian salt.\n\nAncestors, n. ancestors; forefathers; predecessors.\n\nAnche, n. reed or pipe of a wind instrument; miller's scuttle.\n\nAnchored, adj. crooked, curved, bent edgewise, inflected.\n\nAncher, v. 1. to fit or gut reeds to musical instruments.\n\nAnchoir, n. worm-hole in a plank, &c. (see obs. 4, tab. &c.)\n\nAnchovy, n. anchovy, little seafish, used for sauce.\n\nAncien, adj. elder, senior; presbyterian.\nancient, adj. ancient, old, late, of long duration, past, former\nanciently, adv. anciently, formerly; in past times; of old; in old instances\nancientness, n. antiquity, ancientness, priority, seniority\nancile, n. sacred shield, target, buckler\nancillary, adj. ancillary, subordinate, subservient, useful, mean, dirty\nancon, n. ancient armor\nancrage, n. anchorage, ground to cast anchor, duty paid for anchoring\nanchor, n. anchor, shift, refuge, last resource : brace in the form of S.\nancver, v. to anchor; lie at, cast anchor; stop at; rest on\nancrer, v. to settle, fix one's self; get footing in\nancreure, n. little plait, fold, or double in cloth\nAndain, small grass mowed at one side of the meadow.\nAndmac.ang-dang-tai, moderate movement; progressively, moderately.\nAudaniiuo, quicker movement than that of andante.\nAnne, small mountain of moderate height.\nAndouiWe, large saucepan, filled with hog flesh or minced guts.\nAndouille de tabac, roll of tobacco.\nAndouiller, antler, branch of a stag or deer's horn.\nAndouietie, small sausage, filled with forced meat, small roll, tail.\nAndratomie, dissection of man's body.\nAildrienne, flowing robe, ornamented, bordered cuffs.\nAndrogyne, androgynous, hermaphrodite.\nAndrogyne, androgynal, hermaphroditic.\nAndroid, automaton; moving and speaking machine.\nAndron, men's apartments; lodging for men; drain between two walls.\nAne, ass, stupid, heavy, dull fellow; blockhead; scaffold.\nJuxtaposed (cock's hat), cocacavaun, nonsense, discourse with neither head nor tail.\nAne (contes de la), kontdupodann, a tale of a tub, grandam's story.\nAnes (pont aux), ponzoon, easy thing to learn or understand.\nAn\u00e9rouge (mschant comma un), maisangkomurjiarouje, very wicked, bad.\nAn debate (ii va comme un), ill-vajikontimnadaubtai, he walks very fast.\nAnnihilator, ah-nai-ang-teer, to annihilate, destroy, annul, reduce to nothing, render useless.\nHumbler, s' ah-nai-ang-tser, to humble one.\nself: be reduced, destroyed, brought to nothing.\nAnnihilation, ruin, overthrow: harailialion, humility.\nAnecdote: curious story; piece of secret information, secret history.\nAnecdote teller, divulger, collector of anecdotes: merry fellow, jester.\nAnecdotic: anecdotal, relative to anecdotes, containing anecdotes.\nAnna, anaie: load of an ass; three bushels.\nAnharmonica, anaharmonica: Eolian harp or itars.\nAnemography, anemographie: description of the winds.\nAnemometer, anerometre: instrument to measure the strength, direction, duration, velocity of the wind, either relative or absolute.\nAnemometry, anemomtrie: art of measuring the force of the wind.\nAnemone, anemone, sf. anemone, calendine, windflower.\nAnemoscope, anemoscope, sm. anemoscope, machine for telling the change and weight of the wind.\nArerie, stupidity, sf. stupidity, gross ignorance; folly, ane.\nAussse, au\u00dfen., sf. she-ass; foolish, ignorant -woe an.\nAnet, anise, sm. anise, species of parsley; dill.\nAneurysme, aneurysm, sm. aneurysm, dilatation of the arteries.\nAnfractuous, ang-fractuous, adj. an-fractuous, rugged; circuitous; full of turns and windings (vide obs. 4).\nAnfractuositas, an-fractuositas, sf. an-fractuousness, ruggedness, roughness, inequality, compass, circuit, (vide 4).\nAngar, angar, sm. shed, shelter; temporary covering for carts, &c.\nAngarier, angarier, va. 1 r. to anger, persist, vex, torment, plague, constrain, oblige, force to.\nangel, a beautiful, pious, good person; angelic, to be transported with joy or elated; to laugh foolishly alone without cause; blue angels, to have strange, wild notions; angelica, a musical instrument with sixteen strings and ten frets; angelical, angelic, spiritual, divine, beautiful, good, pious; to fare sumptuously; angelically, like an angel; to assimilate with or resemble an angel; Norman cheese.\nangle; lute-like object.\n\nAngelus: angel; morning, noon, and evening prayer of the Roman Catholic Church.\n\nAnglais: English; English dance, tuig, carriage.\n\nAnglaiser: to dress, trim according to the English fashion.\n\ns' anglaiser: to follow the English fashion.\n\nAngle: angle, corner, space between two intersecting lines.\n\nAnglet: indenture, groove, mortise, channel.\n\nAnguleux: angular, hooked, having corners.\n\nAnglican: Protestant.\n\nAnglicanism: Protestant reaction, doctrine, tenets.\n\nAnglicisme: English idiom.\n\nAngloir: square; instrument used to measure or form squares.\n\nAngcisse: anguish; excessive pain, distress, pang.\nanxiety (to swallow bitter pills; to suffer much without daring to complain)\nafflict, give, put to excessive pain\njavelin, half-pike; spear hook to rake or loosen fish\nangora (long and silky haired cat, rabbit, or goat)\nsmall wedge to fasten a handle in a socket\nleather belt, which hangs the huntsman's horn\nlashes, stripes, blows, whipping\neel; plait, crease\nsnake in the grass\neel pond, reservoir\nangular, having\nanguleux, adj. hooked, having corners.\nangustie, sf. contractedness; poverty, difficulty; trouble.\nangustie, adj. narrow, straight, close, scanty, slender, mean, pinching, narrowly.\nanhilation, sf. anhaltor, shortness of breath; suffocation.\nANN\nANT\n1. to annex, conjoin,\nsf. annexion, union,\nannipilable, de-af : ay; banns of marriage.\nauosier, oa. 1 r. to announce;\nanhelose, adj. short-winded; breathing thick and short; puffing and blowing.\nAnicroche, sf. difficulty, trouble; obstacle, hindrance; hesitation, excuse.\nAnier, sm. ass-driver; pedagogue; pedant.\nkm. ah-ne-yuh sm. indigo plant.\nanimadversion: reproof, blame, censure, observation\nanimal: man, dunce, blockhead, beast, brute\nanimal: sensible, natural, carnal\nanimalcule: small animal\nanimality, state of animal existence\nanimation: animation, fire, spirit, sensibility\nanime: animate, animated, alive, sensible, lively, vigorous, active, spirited\nanimer: to animate, excite, encourage, enliven, exasperate, provoke\nto animate oneself: to encourage, excite, cheer up, grow brisk, take fire, be angry\nanimosity: animosity, hatred, resentment, malignity, spite, ill will.\nAnise, an, small; anise, aniseed; Aniser, ah-nee-zai, to put in anise, cover with\nAnissette, ak-ne-zett, anise-water; sweet drink; liquid for anointing or\nAnnual, -e, on-raz, -e, ad/, annual, lasts one year\nAnnalistes, an-nah-le, annals, histories, chronicles\nAnnalist, an-ni-ah-list, writer of annals, chronicles, etc.\nAnneate, ah-natt, annats, first fruits, first year's revenue paid to the pope by a new beneficiary\nAnneau, -x p., ah-no, -noe, ring, curl of hair; measure of firewood\nAnn\u00e9e, ah-naz, year, twelvemonth, (ann\u00e9e expresses a continuation of time)\nAnn\u00e9e bissexuelle, aa-na-ie-be-seks-till, leap year. See An.\nAnnielet, ann-lai, serpent with black rings\nAnneler, ann-lai, to curl the hair; ring a hog\nAnnielet, ann-lai, annulet, little ring, circle\nannulure, ann-ul-ure, n. ring, annulus; curling of hair, (vide obs, 4.)\nannex, an-nex, n. annexation, union; conjunction; chapel of ease.\nannex, an-nex-sai, v. unite.\nannexion, an-nex-syeng, n. annexation, annexmeit.\nunhingable, an-ning-lab, adj. unstable, unsecure.\nannihilation, an-ni-la-syong, n. annihilation, destruction, perdition, nothingness.\nannihilator, an-ni-la-tor, v. I annihilate, an-null, destroy, reduce to nothingness.\nanniversary, a-ni-ver-sair-ee, n. anniversary, yearly return of a particular day.\nanniversary, ah-ni-ver-sair-ee, adj. anniversary, annual, yearly, returning every year.\nannounce, ak-noi-ts, n. advertisement; notice, publish, proclaim, foretell, make known, give out the play.\nannouncer, ah-nong-siif, am. advertiser, publisher, proclaimer; comedian giving out the play.\nAnunciade, military order, religious order.\nAnnonciation, Annunciation, announcement, Jady-day.\nAnnotator, annotator, commentator; writer of notes.\nAnnotation, annotation, application, note; inventory.\nAnnouncer, to note, date, make a list of; describe goods seized, distrained.\nAnnuaire, almanac, calendar, yearly publication.\nAnnual, annual, yearly, every year.\nAnnually, annually, yearly, every year.\nAnnuity, annuity, yearly rent, yearly income; allowance; payment for life.\nAnnular, annular, annulary, like a ring.\nAnnulation, abrogation.\nvocation, repeal, rescission, annul, revoke, invalidate, break off, make void\nannuler, an-noon-zaz, va. (French), to annul, repeal, revoice, invalidate, break off, make void\nanohlir, ah-no-bleer, va. (2), to ennoble, raise to nobility, aggrandize, elevate, make famous\nAnoblissement, ah-no-bliss-inang, sm. ennoblement, rank of nobility; elevation, dignity, exaltation\nAiiodin, -e, ah-no-daing, m. -din, f. adj. anodyne, mitigant, lejiitive, assuasive, sin. (fig) sweetener\nanodinie, ah-no-de-nee, sf. abatement of pain, ease, comfort, quietude\nanoraal, -e, -au, m.p. anomalous, irregular, deviating from rules\nanoraalie, ah-no-mah-lee, sf. anomaly, irregularity, deviation from rule\nAnon, au-nong, sm. foal of an ass, heavy, dull, stupid boy; dolt\nAnnonnement, an-non-mang, sm. hesitation (in reading), stammering, misreading, blunder of words\nAnonymous, au-no-nai, va. 1 r. to read, speak with hesitation, stutter, falter; foa!, bring forth a foal.\nAnonyme, cJi-no-nimy, sm. anonymous, unnamed author, person, &c.\nAnonyme, ak-no-nim, adj. anonymous, unnamed, nameless.\nAnse, angse, sf. handle, ear, (of a pot, basket &c.). creek; oval arch.\nAnseatique, ang-sai-ak-tick, adj. hanse (united in comnieice).\nAnseaticues (villes,) vill'Zang-sai-ah-teek, sfp, hanse towns.\nAnser, angsai, va. 1 r. to put a handle to.\nAnsette, (ins-s^lt, sf. small handle, small ring.\n. Auspessade, angss-pay-sad, sm. lancepesade, formerly a petty officer under the corporal.\nAntagoniste, ang-tak-go-nist, smj . antagonist, opponent, adversary; enemy.\nAntarcticje, ang-lark-tick, adj. antarctic, of the southern pole.\nAntecedent, ang-tal-sai-dang, ad. antecedently, previously, before.\nAnticedent, ang-tai-sai-dangss, sf. antecedence, priority.\nAnt-ecedent, -e, ang-tai-sai-dang, -t, swf. and adj \nantecedent; prior, preceding, foregoiiig. \nAntscesstur, anglai-scss-sur, \nieader ; professor cf civil law. \nsm. antecessor ; \nANT \nANT \nAnttfchriet, ang-tai-kree, sm. Antichristj false f.ro- \nphet. \nAiit^ciens, ang-tai-syainghe, smp. antcEci. inha- \nbitants equidistant from the equator, under the \nsamfi meridian, in opposite zones. \nAntSdiluvien, -ne, ang-tai-de-loo-vyalng, -vyenn, \nadj. antediluvian, prior to the deluge. \nAnt^nne, ang-tenn, sf. sail yard ; pole of the sail. \nAntennas, ang-tenne, sfp. feelers, horns or attenus \nof insects, \nAntcpe'nulti^me, ang-tai-pai-nool-tyem, sf. ante- \npenult, the last syllable but two, (vide obs. 4.) \nAntepe'nuki^me, ang-tai-pai-nool-tyem, adj. pre- \nceding the last but tv.-o, (vide obs. 4, tab.) \nAnte'rieur, -e, ang-tai-rynr,-e, adj. anterior, prior, \nformer, previous, fore, \nAuterieuremenl, ang-tai-rt/ur-mang,ad. anterior- \nAnteiori, anteriority, priority, previousness. Ante, pilasters, square columns placed in front of edifices. Anthologie, anthology, collection of select fragments of poetry, flowers. Anthrax, anthrax, scab or blotch (burning the skin); butterfly. Atittiropoiogie, anthropology; doctrine of anatomy; ethics; humanity joined with divinity. Aiithropopathie, anthropopathy; human form attributed to God. Antropophages, anthropophagi, man-eaters; cannibals, monsters of cruelty. Anthropophagie, anthropophagy, eating of human flesh, extreme cruelty. Anti, against, before, contrary to; much used in compositions. Antiacide, antiacid, alkali - adjective.\nantichamber, antechamber; vestibule, lobby, hail\n\nantichresis, mortgage\n\nantichristian, contrary to Christianity,\nantichristianism, opposition to Christianity,\n\nanticipation, anticipation, foretaste, antecedence, usurpation,\n\nanticipate, foretaste, forestall, prevent, go before,\n\nencroach upon, usurp, antedate, invade,\n\nanticor, preternatural swelling opposite to the heart of a horse,\n\nforecourt, foreyard,\n\nantedate, date earlier than the real time.\nantidoteary, small dispensatory; pharmacopia; collection of recipes or medical prescriptions.\nantidote, antidote; counterpoison; preventive.\nantidoter, one who expels poison; gives or takes preventives,\nanthem, anthem; holy song, hymn.\nantitabrile, antifebrile, and adjective; antipyretic; febrifuge; good against fevers.\nantilogy, contradiction.\nantimony, antimonium, small or mineral substance of a metallic nature.\nantimonarchical, antimonarchist, adjective; against monarchical; against single supremacy.\nantimonial, antimonial, antimonian, adjective; antimonial; madness of antimony.\nantinephritic, antinephritic, adjective; against nephritis, good against diseases of the reins and kidneys.\nantinomy: a contradiction between two laws\nantimonian: independent, averse to law, recognizing no superior, no law\nantipope: usurper of the papacy, enemy of papacy\nantiparalytic: effective against paralysis\nantiparastasis: opposite, of contrary quality\nantipathy: involuntary aversion, dislike, hatred\nantipathetic: opposite, repugnant, contrary, averse\nantiperistasis: opposite, of contrary quality\nantipestilential: effective against the plague\nantiphon, echo, responsive or alternate singing\nantiphony, accord of counter-voices or instruments\nantiphoner, anthem-book, book of hymns\nantiphrasis, opposite meaning of words, irony\nantiphraser, to speak or write ungrammatically\nantipodal, contrary to reason, diametrically opposite\nantipode, contradiction, diametrical opposition\nantipodes, people living on the opposite side of the globe\nantiptosis, position of one case for another\nantipyretic, fan remedy good for burns &c.\nantique, ancient.\nantiquity, Ancient-Lille, small old town. Anciarian, antiquarian, one versed in antiquity. Antiquarian, skill in antiques or antiquities. Antique, ancient object, monument, statue, picture, etc. Antique, old, ancient, advanced in years. A la antique, after the ancient manner. Anitique, to antique; to trim, embellish the leaves of a book. Antiquity, old times, remains of old times, old age. Antisciens, antosci (Ancients). Aniscorbutique, antiscorbutic, good against the scurvy. Antiquity, revulsion, diversion of the senses. Antipasae, antapasis; counter argument, reciprocal action or reaction.\nantistrophe: response ode; the second part of every third stanza.\nantiliesis: opposition, contrast, transposition of letters.\nantithetical: adj. full of antitheses.\nantitrinitarian: Unitarian; disbeliever of the Trinity.\nantitype: symbol, type, eucharist.\nantivenereal: adj. efficacious against venereal disease.\nvermifuge: adj. that destroys or expels worms.\nantoinase: antonomasia; name of a profession used for a proper name.\nante: ancient Greek for \"into, within\"\nanter: anter, cave, den, cave, cavity; grotto, groove\nanuer: to shoot at (birds flying) (see obs. 4, tab.)\ns'anuiter: to be benighted, surprised with the coming on of the night\nanus: anus, orifice of the rectum (see obs. 4, tab.)\nanxiete': anxiety, trouble, solicitude, perplexity, great uneasiness\naoriste: aorist; perfect indefinite in the Greek language\naorte: aorta; great artery rising out of the left ventricle of the heart\naout: August; harvest; harvest-time\naoute': ripened by the heat (in August)\naouter: to ripen by the sun (in August)\naouteron: reaper, harvester, worker at the harvest.\napaiser: to appease, quiet, compose, pacify, reconcile\ns'apaiser: to calm, soften, lessen, become pacified\napanage: appendage, consequence\napanner: to portion, endow with an appanage\napanagiste: possessor of an appanage\napanthropie: apanthropy, aversion for men (in women); misanthropy\na-parl: apart, separately, distinctly, aside, at a distance\naparte: soliloquy, speech supposed not to be heard\napathie: apathy, insensibility, exemption from passion\napathique: insensible, void of feeling, emotion, or passion\napathiste: apathist, person not affected by passions; selfish person\nA person, apstede, sm. ignorant, uneducated.\nIgnorance, apedentisme, ak-pai-duhe-tism, sm. ignorance, want of instruction, neglect of education.\nApesy, apepsie, sf. apoplexy, indigestion, loss of natural digestion.\nPerception, ak-pair-sep-syong, sf. conscience, internal sense of guilt or innocence.\nPerceivable, aperecevable, adj. perceivable, observable.\nTo perceive, apercouir, ah-pai' auh-uoo-ar, va. 3 r. to perceive, discover, observe, remark, comprehend, descry, spy out.\nTo observe, saverctvoirs, sah-pair-suh-voo-as, vref. to observe, find out, see, perceive, discover, understand.\nA plate of the wheel of a pin-maker, apercouir, aJi-pair-soo-ar.\nSummary, aperfu, ah-pair-soo, sm. summary; sketch, outline, note, observation, compendium, abridgment.\nAperitive, ap\u00e9ritif, -ve, ah-pai-re-'lffe -e, adj. aperitive.\naperture, gently purgative, opening, promoting secrets;\naperture, noun, harsh-part-ment, adjective, apertly, openly, manifestly, clearly, plainly.\napetite, apetissement. diminution, contraction of distant objects.\napetite, verb, 1. to shorten, diminish, lessen, contract, shrink, curtail.\ns'apetite, s'apetisser, reflexive verb, to shrink, diminish, shrivel, contract itself, become short or less.\napproach, apeu-pr\u00e8s, noun, approximation, nearness; adjective, nearly, almost.\naphelion, Aphelie, noun, remotest distance of a planet from the sun.\naphairesis, Aphe'rse, noun, aphairesis, cutting off of the first letter or syllable of a word; amputation.\naphilanthropy, Aphilanthropie, noun, want of love, unkindness, inhumanity to mankind.\naphonia, Anophony, noun, aphonia, loss of voice or speech.\naphorism, aphoristic, maxim, proverb, general proposition\naphoristic, written in unconnected sentences\nmuriatic salt, carbonate of soda\nsaltpeter, volatile salt, soda\nsores or pustules in the mouth\nsmall, delicate apple, (white and red); small salad, smallage\napex, perpendicularly, upright position\nto raise, set up, erect, pendicularly\nto excite pity, compassion; affect, move\nto commiserate, pity, be moved, affected, compassionate\nto card, raise the wool or nap of cloth; to smooth, gloss\nA plane, ah-plah-nur, n. a carder; a workman employed to card or gloss wool.\nA plane, ah-plah-neer, v. 2. to plane, smooth, level; raise, remove difficulties or obstacles.\nS'aplanir, s' ah-plah-netr, vref. to flatten, become smooth, even, easy.\nAplanissemeui, nh-plah-niss-mang, n. plainness, flatness, smoothness, level, removal.\nAplanisseur, ah-plah-ne-sur, n. calenderer, pressor; flattener, polisher.\nAplatir, ah-plah-teer, v. 2. to flatten, beat down, level.\nS'aplantir, s'a/i-plah-trer, vref. to sink down, flatten; become flat, dull, insipid.\nAplatissement, ah-plah-tiss-mang, n. compression, flatness; insipidity, dullness.\nAplets, ah-pley. n. herring-nuts.\nAplomb, ah-plong, n. poise, upright position.\nAplomb (avoir de l'), v.aux. to stand upright.\nfirm - to conduct oneself with propriety and decency.\napnea - apnea, sf. apnea; shortness of breath, want of respiration.\nApocalypse - apocalypse, ak-po-calypse, sf. apocalypse; mystery; sacred allegory; St. John's Revelation.\napocalyptic, apocalyptical, adj. apocalyptic, mystical, prophetic.\napocope - apocope, ah-pocope, sf. apocope; elision of the last letter or syllable; fracture.\napocryphal, apocryphe, adj. apocryphal, concealed, unknown, suspicious, dimwitted.\napocrypha, apocryphes, smp. apocrypha, uncannedonical books added to the scriptures.\napodictic, apodictique, adj. apodictic, didactic, evident.\napogee - apogee, ah-pogee, sm. apogee; greatest distance of a planet from the earth.\napograph, apographe, sm. transcript, copy; description; image, representation.\nappointiser, Apointisser, ah-,jOJ-aing-te-sai, va. 1 r. to sharpen, point, activate, bring to a point.\napology, defensive, palliative, extenuating, apology, defense, excuse, justification, eulogy, praise, commendation, to apologize, defend, vindicate, praise, extol, apologetic, defender, vindicator, advocate, praiser, moral fable or story, allegory, emblem, to cow, daunt, discourage, fright, terrify, apomeasuring, apophthegm, proverb, saying, maxim, leading truth, apoplectic, of apoplexy, apoplexy, stupor, insensibility, sudden deprivation of faculties, dubitation, doubt.\napostasy, renunciation, defection : escape from a convent\napostasize, renounce, forsake one's religion; desert a party\napostate, renegade, forsaker of religion; revolter; deserter; apostical\naposteme, imposition, tumor, abscess, hollow swelling\npost, place, station, appoint, fix, direct spies, &c.\nannotator, expositor, commentator, writer of notes, &c.\nannotation, marginal note, remark, critical observation\ncomment, annotate, expound, explain, write notes, a post-script\napostleship, apostolic office, dignity, ministry.\nApostolic, adjective, conforming to the doctrine of the apostles, delivered by the apostles.\nApostolically, adverb, in the manner of the apostles.\nApostolically, adverb, in the manner of the apostles.\nApostolize, verb, 1. to preach, teach the gospel, convert to the Christian faith.\nApostrophe, noun, insult, reproof, censure; diversion of speech; mark of a contraction; euphemism for a vowel.\nApostrophizer, verb, 1. to apostrophize; accost; address; reprove; censure; suit; affront.\nApostrophizer of a slap, apostrophize-dung-so-fai-fy, Prov. proverb, slap on the face; salute with a blow.\nApostume, noun, apostume. abscess, tumor, hollow swelling filled with virulent matter.\napothecary, n. 1. to fester, rank, corrupt, suppurate, draw to a head.\napotheosis, n. apotheose, deification; making of a god; excessive praise.\napotheosize, v. I. to deify; make or adore as a god; praise, extol excessively.\napotheosis, n. deposition; deposite; degradation; deprivation of office, dignity, etc.\napothecary, n. apothecaire, apothecary, drug seller or compounder.\napothecary, n. apothecariere, dispensary, apothecary's shop; medical art or profession.\napothecary, n. apothicairesse, female apothecary, (in a nunnery), apothecary's wife.\napostle, n. Apstre. 1. apostle, preacher, missionary; disciple of Jesus Christ.\napostle, n. Apstre (bon), bon-apstre, merry companion; hypocrite; deceitful man.\nFaire le bon Apstre, to counterfeit.\napozeme, apozeme: decotion, potion; medicinal draught.\napall, apall: pale, wan, languid.\nappaiser, appaiser: to appease, quiet, pacify, calm, sooth, compose, reconcile.\ns'appaiser, s'appaiser: to allay, soften, abate; be appeased, pacified, grow quiet.\napparager, apparager: to compare, vie, contend, compete.\napparaitre, apparaitre: to appear, become visible; show, exhibit one's self.\ns'apparaitre, s'apparaitre: to show, exhibit; appear, become visible.\naapparaiire, faire apparaitre: to notify, communicate, declare, join in.\napparait: appears, seems; reflexive: believes, thinks, judges.\napparat: apparatus, show, pomp, eclat, splendour, ostentation; elementary dictionary.\nApparatus, ropes, rigging, sails, equipment, of a ship.\nAppareil, ap-pare-il, n. pompous preparation, train; dressing apparatus; symmetry; height or thickness of a stone.\nAppareillage, ap-pare-illage, n. state of readiness or completion.\nAppareiller, ap-pare-iller, v. 1. to prepare, join, assimilate, match, equalize, level, set sails.\nComparer, s' comparer, vref, to compare, unite oneself with, couple, combine.\nAppareilleur, ap-pare-illeur, n. modeler, designer, planner of stone cutting; dresser of stuffs, stowages, etc.\nAppareilleuse, ap-pare-illeuse, n. procuress, bawd, pimp, intriguer.\nApparemment, a-par-re-ment, adv. apparently, evidently, openly, likely, without doubt.\nAppearance, ap-pare-ance, n. appearance, show, semblance; vision; probability, likelihood; sign.\nApparence: not likely.\n\nAppearance (fr.), ang-nah-pnk-rang-se: apparently, outwardly, seemingly, in appearance.\n\nApparent: apparent, visible, evident, plausible, conspicuous, remarkable.\n\nApparent^: allied, connected, related, descended, born, kindred.\n\nApparenter: I rally, to ally, to unite by kindred.\n\nS'apparenter: to marry, form a union, connection with a family.\n\nApparesser: 1 I sluggishize, dull, make idle, dronish, lazy, slow, inactive.\n\nS'apparesser: to slacken, flag, grow sluggish, idolent, inactive.\n\nAppariement: sortment, pair, match.\n\nApparier: 1 pair, sort, match, join similar things together.\n\n6'apparier: pair, match.\napparition, n.: a vision, spectre, or short visit or stay; appearance, manifestation, clarity, evidence, (obsolete)\nappear, v.: to be evident, clear, manifest, (in law), (obsolete)\nappear, v., comp. form: to show, prove, certify, demonstrate, confirm, verify (obsolete)\nappertain, v., third person present: it appears, seems\napparonner, v.: to gauge, measure, ascertain the quantity of liquids\nappartement, n.: apartment, room, lodging, floor, story; drawing-room\nappartenance, adjunct, dependency; belong, relate, concern; be related, kindred\nappartenir, to belong, relate, concern; be related, kinship\nappartient, it appertains, belongs, becomes, concerns; is fit, just, meet; duty, office, business\nappas, charms, graces, attraction, incentive, fascination, bewitchment\nappat, bait, allurement, enticement, inducement; temptation, desire\nappater, to bait, entice; fatten with paste; feed young birds\nappauvrir, to impoverish, beggar, deprive, exhaust, diminish, reduce; make poor\ns'appauvrir, to impoverish, reduce, exhaust (oneself); decay; get poor, pauvrissement\nverification, poverty; diminution, waste, decay.\nappear, ah-po, sm. bird-call; call, whistle,\nI quail-pipe; decoy-bird.\nappeal, uh-pel, sm. appeal, citation, calf, chalice;\nI lenge, cartel; assembly, muster.\nAppellant, ah-plang, smf. appellant, claimant; summoner, challenger.\nappeller, ah-plai, va. to name, call, muster, beckon, fetch, send for, invite, invoke, challenge, appeal.\nS'appeler, sah-plai, vref. to be called, named; call one's self; one's name be.\nAppellative, -ve, ah-pel-lah-tive, adj. appellative, generic; common to the same kind or species.\nappellation, ah-pel-lah-sion, sf. appellation, appeal, summons; name, utterance of single letters.\nappendix, ah-paing-dis, sm. appendix, supplement; adjunct, concomitant.\nappend, ah-pang-dr, va. 4 r. to append, attach.\nappendix:\nAppentis, small shed, temporary shelter for cattle or carts &c.\nperceivable, appreciable, perceptible, observable.\nAppesantir, to stupefy, dull, hebetate, besot; overweigh, overload, preponderate; make heavy.\nto groan dull, stupid, indolent; made heavy.\nto insist upon, dwell, comment at large.\nAppesanlissement, heaviness, dejection of mind, affliction, depression of spirits.\nappetence, earnest desire, eagerness to obtain or enjoy.\nto desire, covet earnestly; aim at, aspire to; attempt; draw near.\nappetibilis, appetible, desirous.\nappetible, adj. desirable, earnestly wished for\nappetites, sm. chives, small onions\napp\u00e9tissant, adj. relishing, provocative, desirable, charming, lovely\napp\u00e9tisement, sm. contraction, diminution : shortening of distant objects\napp\u00e9tisser, va. I r. to shorten, lessen, contract, diminish, curtail, shrink\napp\u00e9tit, sm. appetite, keenness of stomach, violent longing, avidity, affection\na l'app\u00e9tit, de, expr. through a desire for, and so on\napp\u00e9titif, adj. appetitive, desirable, cupid, arousing desire\napp\u00e9titiou, sf. appetite, desire, appetency, concupiscence\nappiecement, sm. patchwork, coarse mending\nappiecer, va. I r. to patch, botch, piece, mend coarsely\nAppietrer: to fade, wear away, grow worse, lose lustre.\nApplaner: to raise the wool or nap of cloth, gloss, smooth.\nApplaneur: carder, wool worker employed to card or gloss wool.\nApplanir: to smooth, level, raise; remove difficulties or obstacles.\nAppannissement: plainness, flatness, smoothness, level, revolution.\nApplanisseur: calenderer, presser, polisher, leveller.\nApplatir: to flatten, beat down, level, dull, depress, sink, press down.\nSapplalir: to sink down, become dilapidated, flat, insipid.\nApplalissement: depression.\nappliances ; insipidity ; dullness.\nAppliance, ap-plih-see, n. smithy; place where iron is made into bars.\nAppliance, u-pluh-tee-soir, n. sm. flatter, piece of metal on which iron is made flat. (vide obs. 6.)\nApplaud, a-plow-dee, v. 1 r. to applaud, commend, praise, clap hands: approve.\nS'applaud, s'ap-plow-dee, vref. to glory, boast, be proud of one's self.\nApplaud, k, ak-plow-dee, v. 2 r. to congratulate, felicitate, approve.\nS'applaud, de, s'ah-plow-dee, vref. to rejoice, exult, be glad; hug one's self.\nApplause, u-plow-diss-mang, n. applause, plaudit, approval of pleasure.\nApplauder, u-plow-deer, n. applauder, commander, praiser, exclaimer.\nAppraisement, u-plai-hje-mang, n. pledge, bail, security, gage, pawn, surety; hostage.\nApplegger, ak-plai-hj, v. 1 r. to pledge, bail; put in pawn, secure by a pledge; invite to drink.\napplicable, adj. Applicable, suitable, agreeable.\napplication, n. Application, intensity of thought; close study, attention, meditation.\napplique, n. Ornament of precious stones to set another; hinge, groove, inlay; art of inlaying.\nappliquer, v. To apply, lay on, fit, adapt; give, bestow, devote, set to; keep at; have recourse to.\ns'appliquer, v.ref. To appropriate, attribute, take to one's self; study, ply, fix the mind upon.\nappoint, v. Change; override; remainder, (paid in silver or pence).\nappointment, n. Appointment, salary; decree; maintenance.\nappointer, v. To appoint; refer, deliberate, decree; give a salary; mill, fold cloth.\nippointeur, n. Appointer.\numpire, conciliator, arbitrator, peace-maker.\napport, apjor, small market-place, deposit, property (brought in marriage).\napportage, ah-pot-tage, porterage, carriage, portage.\napporter, ah-por-tai, v. 1. to bring, convey, cause, produce, procure; employ, allege; raise, start, announce.\napposer, ah-pozai, v. 1. to oppose, put, apply, set, insert; stick up.\napposition, ah-po-ze-syong, n. apposition, position of the same case; junction of homogeneous bodies.\napplicable, ahj-rii-s-abl, adj. appreciable, estimable, valuable.\nappreciateur, ftJi-prai-syah-tur, n. appraiser, valuer, esteemer.\nappreciation, ah-prai-syah-syong, n. appraisal, valuation, price set upon a thing.\nappraiser, ah-prais-er, v. 1. to apprehend, appraise, value, rate, estimate, set a price upon.\napprehender, ah-prai-ang-dai, v. I. to apprehend.\napprehension, fear, uneasiness, judgment, opinion, learning, studying, gaining knowledge, discovery, being informed, hearing, understanding, self-instruction, apprentice, novice, learner, apprenticeship, apprenticeship, preparation, seasoning, stifling, preparatives, preparative, prepare, dress\nseason: prepare, smooth: dispose.\nS'approster: to get ready, prepare oneself; expect.\nAppreteur: dresser, preparer; painter on glass.\nApprivoisement: tameness; training of animals, gentleness.\nApprivoiser: to tame, reclaim, make gentle; subdue; familiarize.\nS'apprivoiser: to grow tame, familiar.\nApprobateur: approver, applauder; commender, allow.\nApprobatif: approving, deserving approbation.\nApprobatif (adj.): approbation, consent, approval; attestation, support; pleasure, satisfaction.\nApprobatrice: approver, applauder, commender, allow.\nApprochant: approaching, near to, nearly like.\nApproach: to approach, advance, draw near; have access. Nearly, closely, thereabout.\nApproach: approach, access, advance, nearness, in favor with.\nApproach: to approach, advance, draw near.\nTo resemble nearly, come up, amount, rise to.\nDeepen; dig, search, examine, investigate, dive, explore.\nDepth; research, examination, investigation.\nEntry, taking of possession.\nAppropriation: appropriation; peculiar claim; application, adaptation.\nTo appropriate; clean, fit up genteelly; adapt, fit, apply; claim.\napproPRIATE, usurp, claim, provide, supply, store, furnish, approve, like, consent, authorize, confirm, manifest, praise, approximation, approach, nearness to, continual advance, prop, stay, support, help, succor, protection, favor, protector, comforter, defender, high, support, painter's staff, mollicif (obsolete)\nAppui-pot, small iron stand; trivet, tripod (obs.)\nAppulse, contact, proximity (of one planet to another.)\nAppuyer, to prop, sustain, lean; help, protect, favor; excuse, authorize.\nAppuyer, rest, bear, press, insist, dwell upon; be supported, left.\nS'appuyer, rely, depend; recline, lie, rest, confide, trust to.\nApre, rough, sour, acid; uneven, rugged; sharp; severe.\nBlesome, eager, greedy.\nAprement, roughly, harshly, sharply; greedily; severely.\nApr\u00e8s, after, next to; upon; about; against.\nQuatre-cent-trois coup, after-clap, unexpected event; disappointment \u2013 too late after the time.\nAfterward, apres-que, subsequently, in the sequel, after that, by the time that, afterwards, subsequently, from, after, by, after the manner of, day after tomorrow, after dinner, afternoon, time from noon to the going to bed, after supper, evening, acidity, sourness, roughness, unevenness, fierceness, severity, austerity, apt, fit, proper, ready, quick, inclined to, qualified for, aptitude, fitness, tendency, disposition, quickness of apprehension, balance, surplus.\na. Apurer - purifier, balances or settles an account, refines or purifies (metals).\na. Apyre - apyre, clay, argil, potter's clay.\na. Apyre (2) - incombustible, unwasting by fire.\na. Aquatile - aquatic, growing, living, breeding in water.\na. Iquatique - aquatic, marshy, watery, growing, living, bred in water.\na. Aqueduct - aqueduct, water conduit or pipe; canal for carrying water.\na. Aqieux - aqueous, watery, full of water.\na. Ao'iiUn - aquiline, of an eagle; hooked.\nNez aquilin - hooked or aquiline nose.\na. Aquilon - Aquilon, north wind, cold, stormy wind, boreas.\na. Aquolonnaire - northerly, cold, stormy, boreal.\na. Aquosite - aquosity, wateriness.\nArabe: Arab, miser, usurer, sordid, hard-hearted wretch.\nAdjective form: Arabian, Arabic, of Arabia.\nArabesque: Fancy painting, ornaments, grotesque architecture.\nArabesque (feminine form): Arab, Arabian woman.\nArabic: Arabic, of Arabia, written in its language.\nArable: Tillable, fit for the plough, for tillage.\nArack: Arrack, spirituous liquor extracted from the sugar-cane, or from the milk of a mare or she-ass.\nAraign\u00e9e: Spider; cobweb; sea-spider, sort of shellfish.\nAraign\u00e9(x): Araneous, like a spider's web, cobwebbed.\nAramberr: To grapple, fasten, seize, lay fast hold of.\nArang: Drone, idler; lazy, idle, slow; journeyman printer.\nArasement: evenness, levelness\nAraser: to level, raise, make even\nAracoire: aratory, belonging, necessary to tillage\nArbalest: arbalist, crossbow, bow fixed to a stock; cross staff\nArbalete: to shoot, small earthen or leaden balls\nArbalter: to arch, vault, bear up, support with arches\nArbalterie: archer, bowman; timber supporting the roof\nArbaldtrie: platform upon which soldiers fight on board a galley\nArbitrage: decision, determination; compromise; reference\nArbitraire: arbitrary, capricious, absolute, despotic\nArbitrairement: arbitrarily, absolutely, despotically\nadj. of award, um-pire, arbitrator.\nar-be-tral-mang, ad. by award, umpire, arbiter, arbitrement.\nar-be-trak-tur, sm. arbitrator, conciliator, determiner, pacificator, reconciler.\nar-be-trah-syong, sf. arbitration, decision, compromise; estimation, valuing.\nar-beetr, s?. arbitrator, judge, umpire. freewill; despot.\nar-be-trai, va. 1 r. to arbitrate, decide, determine, judge of; value, prize, estimate.\nar-bo-rai, va. 1 r. to raise, hoist, setup, hang out. suspend; adopt, join, declare one's self openly for.\nadj. tufty, leaved, foliaceous, furnished with foliage.\narborist, one versed in the study of trees.\nar-booze, sf. arbutus-berry; tree-strawberry.\nArbutus: strawberry tree\nArbre: tree; axle tree, beam, shaft\nMasi.\nARC\nARE\nArfcre: tree of Diana, arhr-duh-dyaun, foliaceous solution of mercury and silver made with nitrous acid.\nArbrisseau: ar-6re-so, arboretum, small tree; shrub; bush.\nArbusle: ar-boost, arbuscle, small shrub.\nAve: bow; arch; arc; segment of a circle.\nArcade: ar-kad, arcade, colonnade of arches, piazza, bridge of spectacles.\nArcane: ar-kann, arcanum, secret; nostrum; secret alchemical operation; red chalk, ruddle.\nArc-boutant: ar-boo-tang, buttress; pillar; support, prop for a party or stay.\nArc-bouter: ar-boo-tai, to prop, support, strengthen with props or buttresses.\nArceau: -x p.ar-so, arch of a door, window, or vault, small arch; half cylindrical piece, to keep a broken limb steady.\narc-en-ciel: rainbow, a semicircle of various colors seen in showery weather.\narchal: wire, metal drawn into slender threads.\narchangel: archauge, highest angel.\narch: arche, (of a bridge;) ark; medieval, (of people).\narchetype: archetype, original pattern or model; standard.\narcher: archer, archer, bowman; police officer, thief taker.\nCette femme est un franc archer: that woman is a termagant.\nles archers du guet: the patrolling archers, (at Paris).\narchet: fiddlestick, bow, tester of a cradle, low canopy; small steel bow.\narchetype: archetype, original pattern or model; standard.\narcheur: curvature, bent, inflexion, crookedness, arcuation, incurvation.\narchbishopric, archbishop, jurisdiction of an archbishop, archbishop, metropolitan, supervising the conduct of other bishops, arch, prefix to many words to denote superiority or excess, archdeaconship, office of an archdeacon, archdeacon-ry, dignity, office, jurisdiction of an archdeacon, archdeacon, bishop's substitute, archduke, title given to princes of Austria and Tuscany, archdukedom, possession, title, quality of a duke, archduchess, wife, sister, or daughter of an archduke, arch episcopal, adj.\narchbishop's jurisdiction, archbishop, dignity, office of an archbishop, arch knave, cheat, smooth-faced rogue, fawner, flatterer. archbishop, arch pedant, conceited ass, affected speaker, arrant fool. archipelago, sea, cluster of islands. archpriest, priest. archpresbyter, chief priest. archbishop's presbyter, office of an arch-presbyter. architect, builder, contriver, maker. architecture, art, science of building. architrave, entablature, architrave, the structure between the capital and frieze. archtreasurer, chief treasurer.\narchives, ancient records; record office, registry; memoirs, annals.\narchivist, keeper of records, recorder.\narchivalian, arch miser, most greedy wretch.\narchiviste, archivist.\narchivoite, archivault, tipper, semicircular architrave.\narchontic, dignity, office of an archon.\narchon, chief magistrate of Athens, or of other Greek cities.\naroon, saddle-bow, bow, vine twig.\narcons (perdre, ou, vider les), pairdr, vs-dai, ley-zar-songhe, to be thrown off a saddle; be at a loss, be at a nonplus.\nArctic, northern, septennial.\nI. Arctium, burdock, mullein.\nArcturian, Arcturus, Charles's wain.\nardement - ardently, eagerly, affectionately. Adjective: ardent, burning, fiery, red; fierce, vehement; zealous, fervent, eager, passionate, affectionate.\n\nardens - St. Anthony's fire, erysipelas; ignis fatuus. With the wisp, and so on.\n\naident - Adjective: ardent, burning, fiery, red; fierce, vehement; zealous, fervent, eager, passionate, affectionate.\n\nardour - Noun: ardour, heat; fire, vivacity, activity; zeal, ejaculation, love, courage, eagerness.\n\nardilon - Tongue of a buckle, small point.\n\nardoise - Noun: slate, a gray fossil stone used to cover houses, or to write upon. Adjective: slaty, of a slate colour, covered with slates.\n\nardoisi\u00e8re - Slate quarry, pit where slates are dug.\n\nardre - To bum, scorch, consume (seldom used).\n\nardu - Adjective: arduous, lofty, hard to climb; difficult. (Obs. 4.)\nAre, a square, each side containing fourteen English yards.\nArena, a shore, sand, gravel; arena; a duct to carry off water out of a mine.\nArenar, vn. 1. to sink down, lose height, decline, be depressed,\nAreneux, -se, ah-rai-nuJie, -ze, adj. arenose, arenaceous, sandy, consisting of sand, unsolid,\nAreole, ah-rai-ol, sf. a little bed in a garden, small area, small variegated halo round the moon, narrow rim round the eyes, nipple, &c,\nArsornetre, ah-rai-o-maytr, sn. areometer, instrument to ascertain the gravity or density of fluids.\nAreopagus, a/i o-pagus, sm. Areopagite, highest tribunal in Athens; assembly of wise men, of virtuous magistrates.\nAi-eopagite, ah-rai-o-paJi-hjitt, sm. judge, member of the areopagus.\nAreostatique, ah-rai-o-staJi-tick, adj. areostatio, volatile, ignitable through the air.\nArare, ak-rai, vn. 1 r, tu drag, drive axle-trees, pin on which circles or turns the wheel of a mill.\nArie, ah-rite, sf, fish bone; angular edge, ridge; edge, tumour on the hind legs of a horse.\nArganeaii, ar-gak-no, sm. large iron ring, (at the beam end of the anchor to fix the cable.)\nArgemone, ar-hjai-monn, sf. thorny poppy, sap-producing plant.\nArgent, ar-hjang, sm. silver; money, wealth; argent. Boireau d'argent, a spendthrift.\nArgent (viv,) viv-nr-hjang, sm. quicksilver, mercury, mineral substance.\nArgent-monnaie, ar-hjang-monnaie-yai, am. coin, silver coin, payment in silver coin.\nArgent-bleu, ar-hjang-bleu, sm. silver coin, money made of silver.\nArgent comptable, ar-hjang-cong-tang, sm. ready money, instant or immediate payment.\nArgeui: pure silver, silver ore\nArgent trait: silver wire, spun silver\nArgent mignon: spare money, pocket money, pocket allowance\nArgent mort: unprofitable money, dead money, money that yields no interest\nArgent en barre: ready money, quick return; great profit\nArgent fait tout: money makes the mare to go; riches more than wit\nArgent de chat: mica, very shining metal\nArgue couse, koo-zoo-d'argent: made of money, rich, wealthy, opulent\nArgente, ar-hjang-tai, -e: silvery, silvered over, shining like silver, besprinkled with silver\nArgenter, av-hjang-tai: to silver, plate, cover with silver; adorn with mild lustre.\nargenteware, silverware; argent, moneyed, rich, full of money; argentier, silversmith, purser, steward, intendant; argentifique, convertible into silver, turning into silver; argentine, silvery, clear, canorous, bright, mild, silver-colored; argentine, silver-weed, silver-thistle (a plant); argenture, silver-plating, plated work, silvering; argile, clay, potter's clay; argileux, argillous, argilaceous, clayey, consisting of argil, clayish; Arconaie, nautilus (a shellfish); argot, dead bough, stub; cant, gibberish; argoter, to cut the dead extremities.\nArgier, arogally, sm. One who speaks cant or gibberish.\nTrooper, roquet, sm. Trooper, carabinier; low-born fellow; despicable wretch.\nVargusin, arsozing, sm. Low officer on board a convict ship or a galley; sergeant over the convicts.\nArgue, arg, sf. Wire-drawer's workshop; machine to wire-draw gold; large ship; argosy, cftrack.\nArguer, argai, va. 1. To wire-draw, spin thread, gold, silver, &c.\nArguer, argai, va. 1. To argue, dispute; reprove; find fault with.\nArgument, argurnang, sm. Argument, subject, summary, proof, controversy.\nArgumentant, argumangtang, sm. Arguer, reasoner, disputant, controvertist,\nArgumentateur, argumlinghur, sm. Proposer, propounder of arguments.\nArgumentation, argumtahsyong, sf. Argumentation, reasoning; act of reasoning.\nargumentative, arguer, to argue, reason, dispute, persuade, quirk, cavil, subtle device, repartee, sharpness, smartness, cunning, Arianism, doctrine of Arius, arid, dry, parched, destitute of moisture, barren, sterile, unfruitful, aridity, dryness, siccity, insensibility in devotion, emaciation, consumption, withering of the body or limbs, Arian, doctrine of Arius, Aries, ram, one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, arietta, short air, song, brisk and sprightly tune after the Italian style.\naristocrat, favorer of aristocracy.\naristocracy ; state governed by nobles and heads of the people.\naristocratic, of aristocracy.\naristocratically.\naristocracy, supreme power in the hands of the nobles and people.\nansto-democratically.\narithmancy, foretelling futurity by numbers.\narithmetic, science of numbers, art of computation, arithmetical, by the rules of arithmetic, arithmetically, harlequin, buffoon, jester; jack-pudding, buffoonery, scurrilous mirth; antic postures; indecent raillery, small Spanish fleet, small Spanish frigate (in the West Indies), armadillo, a foull-footed animal of Brazil, privateer, ship fitted out to plunder the enemy, captain of a privateer, iron bars, bolts, chains, limberwork (fee)\nArms, arms, short for arms, gun, sword, weapon; armour; power, might.\nWhite arms, Italian, short for sabre, scimitar, sword, pike, halbert, battle-axe.\nArms of fire, arm-ah-fuh, short for fire-arms, gun, pistol, blunderbuss.\nArms of treachery, arm-duk-irey, short for bow, cross-bow; dart.\nArms, arms, short for arms, weapons; war, hostilities: family arms, ensigns, armorial of a family.\nMaster of arms, a fencing-master. Fencing-school, salle d'armes.\nArmy, ar-maie, short for army, host, troops, forces, great number of armed men.\nArme, (main,) ah-maing-nar-maie, adv. by main force, with force of arms.\nArmeline, arm-lmn^, short for Lapland fur, ermine, marten fur.\nArmament, ar-muh-mang^, noun armament, preparations for war; naval force; fitting of a fleet; soldier's accoutrement.\nArmementux, -se, ar-mang-tuke, -ze, adjective rich in cattle, possessing cattle, armamental.\nArmer: to arm, furnish; strengthen, irritate, load, cock, equip, fit up a strip or fleet.\ns'armer: to arm, provide for one's self; take arms, fortify, provide against.\nArmet: helmet, helm, head-piece; light helmet without visor and neck-piece.\nArmillaire: armillary, hollow, circular, like a bracelet.\nArrailles: annulets, mouldings on the chapiter of Doric columns.\nArminianisme: Arminianism, doctrine of Arminias.\nArminien: Arminian, sectator of Arminius, believer in universal grace.\nArmistice: armistice, short truce, suspension of hostilities.\nArmoire: cupboard, press, buffet, closet.\nArmoires: escutcheon, shield of the family, coat of arms, armorial ensigns.\nArmoise, armooaze, sf. mugwort, mothwort.\nArraoisin, armooaizing, sm. sarsenet, fine thin woven silk, tafeta.\nArrnon, armong, sm. splinter bar, beam of a coach, armorial, sm. book of heraldry, of ensigns armorial.\nArmorial, -e, -aux, mp. armorial, -oe, p. adj. armorial, belonging to the arms of a family.\nArmorier, artworai, va. 1 r. to paint, draw, engrave, put on coats of arms.\nArraorique, armoric, adj. maritime, naval, relating to, bordering on the sea.\nArmodsie, armorist, sm. armorist; herald, writer on or teacher of blazonry.\nArmare, armory, armour, arms of defense; coat of mail, net-work of steel; wrapper of\nA ream of paper, (vide obs. 4.)\n4rmuner, atmoorai, sm. armourer; gunsmith, maker of armour, weapons, &c. (vide obs. 4.)\nAr nodes, anodes, smp. singers of rhapsodies, ballad singers.\nAroma, ah-ro-ma, n. aromatic, perfume, sweet odor, fragrance.\n\nAromatics, ah-ro-ma-tics, n. aromatic, spicy, flagrant, strong-scented.\n\nAromatization, ak-ro-mr.h-te-zal-us-ification, n. process of adding aromatics, mixture of aromatics with drugs.\n\nAromatizer, ah-ro-ma-te-zai, v. 1. to aromatize, perfume; impregnate with spices.\n\nAromatic, ah-ro-mat-ic, n. aromatitis, precious stone of the nature of myrrh.\n\nAronde, aJi-rong-de, n. dove-tail, joint in the form of a wedge.\n\nAronde aux perles, aJi-rong-de-oe-payr-les, n. essence of the finest pearls, of mother of pearls.\n\nArondel, ah-rong-de-lah, n. young swallow, young one of a swallow.\n\nArondelle, ak-rong-de, n. casting-net, cord filled with fish-hooks laid on the sand.\n\nArondelle de mer, ak-rong-del duh mair, n. ligament vessel, brigantine, small sloop, pinnace.\n\nArpailleur, ah-pah-yur, n. gold finder, gold miner.\narpent, a fourth part of an acre, rood; long and broad saw, measurement, land survey, art of measuring.\narpenteur, land surveyor, measurer.\narque, adj. arched, bent in the form of an arch, crooked, semicircular.\narquebusade, shot of an arquebus or band-gun.\narquebuse, hand-gun.\narquebuser, to shoot, kill with an arquebus or hand-gun.\narquebuserie, art of making fire-arms, retail of fire-arms.\narquebusier, gunsmith, maker or seller of firearms.\narquer, to bow, bend, arch, curve, inflect. hook.\narquet, small wire, spring, elastic piece of iron or steel, productive of action.\narrachement, pull, pluck, rent; jutting stone; beginning of an arch.\narrachement, immediately, without intermission, without discontinuance.\narrache-, to pull, tear, pluck, draw, take away, obtain, snatch, pick up or out.\narracher un arbre, to pull up by the roots.\ns'arracher, pull off, draw, tear or free one's self from; escape.\narracheur, chopper, puller, tearer, render.\narracheur de dent, tooth-drawer, dentist.\narracheur de corns, corn-cutter, extirpator of corns.\narracheron, to reason with, convince, bring to.\ns'arracheron, come to reason or agreement.\narrangement, n. - an agreement, contrivance, plan, measure, preparation, order, disposition, understanding.\narranger, v. - to arrange, contrive, prepare, set in order, settle, insuit, ill-treat.\ns'arranger, v.ref. - to settle matters, take measures, come to an agreement; set one's house in order.\narrement, n. - lease, tenure, renting or letting out.\narrenter, v. - to rent, lease, let out; take upon a lease.\narrerager, v. - to be in arrears, not to pay rent.\ns'arrfjrager, v.ref. - to accumulate.\narrertages, n.pl. - arrearage, arrears, remainder unpaid; interest.\narrestation, n. - arrest, caiton, restraint.\narrest, n. - arrest, decree, sentence, judgment.\narrest, distraint, seizure, rest, stay, slop, set.\nCien d'arret, a setting-dog, pointer. An unstoppable spirit.\nArr\u00eat, ah-rey-tah, determination, result; decision; final settlement; agreement.\nArr\u00eat de compte, ah rey-lay duL congte, final payment, settled account.\nArr\u00eate-boeuf, ah-reyte-buff, rest-harrow (a plant).\nArrgte-nef, ah-reyte-neff, remora (a fish sticking to ships and preventing motion).\nArrifment, ah-reyLe-mmng, stopping, impediment, obstacle, obstruction, difficulty; blocking up.\nArroter, ak-rey-tah, to stop, prevent, obstruct; seize, arrest, detain; repress, cure; strike; stay; balance; alleviate, assuage; pause.\nArreter, ah-rey-ah, to stop, fasten; make a stay; come to a resolution, resolve upon; hire, engage.\nS'arr\u00eater, s' ah-rey-tah, to stop, loiter, tarry.\ndelay: cease, consider; amuse oneself.\nS'arret: s'arret, vrear - to fix, determine, resolve upon, mind, be intent.\nArrhest: arrhest, ah-reest, n. recorder, compiler, annotator of decrees, etc.\nArrheting: arrheting, arr-mting, n. earnest; security, pledge, assurance; bail.\nArrher: ah-rai, v.1. to give earnest, security; to ratify a bargain.\nArrlies: aire, sfp. money, goods, (given or received) to bind a bargain; pledge, security.\nArrirg: ah-ryai-rai, -s, ndj. in arrears, behind hand - sm. public debt, or debt the payment of which is remitted to an indefinite time,\nArrit: e, ak-rynyre, n. prop, stern, hind part of a ship where the rudder is placed.\nAvoir vent arriere: to go before the wind.\nArriere: ah-ryayre, int. away! begone! hence I avaunt!\nArriere, (en,): ang-n' ah-ryayre, adv. back-\nArrears: debt behind; behind-hand: in arrears; III debt.\nArriere: far from; behind; absence of.\nArrieree-ban: assembly, convention, convocation of vassal lords, commanded by the French king.\nArriere-hec: lower part of the pier of a bridge, base or foot of a pile.\nArrieree-banc: backshop.\nArrierre-caution: security of the bail, double security, guarantee.\nArrierre-change: interest on interest; compound interest.\nArrierre-corps: hack building, back house, building behind the front part of the house.\nArrierre cour: back yard, enclosed ground adjoining a house.\nArrierre-faix: after-birth, second birth.\nArrierre-fermier: under-tenant, hidler-farmer, one who holds from the te-\narrere-fief, aristocrat's land. arrere-feudal, feudal aristocrat. sm. mesne-feud, mesne-lord. arrere-flower, late-blooming flower. arrere-garant, security for a bail, double security, guarantee of the guarantor. arrere-garde, rear-guard, guard-ship. arrere-go\u00fbt, aftertaste, remaining taste on the tongue after some food. arrere-main, back of the hand, back stroke, hind part, back of a horse. arrerre-neveu, nephew or niece's son or grandson. arrere-neveux, remotest posterity, descendants, succeeding generations. arrere-niece, daughter or granddaughter of a nephew or niece. arrere-pens\u00e9e, afterthought, reflections following the act, expedients.\nArrire-petit-fils, great grandson, son of a grandson or daughter.\nArrire-petite-fille, great-granddaughter; daughter of a grandson or daughter.\nArriere-point, wristband stitching, row of stitches on wristbands.\nArrifere jointeuse, wristband sewer, one who stitches wristbands.\nArrivy, to delay, postpone, throw back, behindhand.\nS'arrirer, to stay behind; be in arrears, behindhand; accumulate, remain unpaid.\nArrire-saison, autumn, aftercrop, aftermath; latter end of autumn; old age.\nArrire-vassal, under-tenant; holder from a tenant, vassal under a vassal.\nArrire-voussure, arch over or behind a door, window, &c. arched or vaulted.\narrimage - a storehouse, room for stowing goods; manner or state of laying up goods on board\narrimer - to stow, lay up, deposit in order; lay in the proper place\narrimeur - tide-waiter, custom-house officer; stower; freighter\narricler - to be driven in a contrary direction; drift, drive, urge along\narriser - to lower, let down, bring to, the side of a ship\narrivage - arrival of goods or vessels, water carriage, landing\narriv\u00e9e - arrival, coming, approach, access, landing\narriver - I arrive, disembark, land; reach, gain; happen, come to; succeed; compass; chance\narrive - it happens, chances, arrives, etc.\nArroche - goose-foot, wild orach (a plant)\nAirogamento - arrogantly, in an arrogant manner\nArrogance - arrogance, pride, presumption, haughtiness\nArrogant - arrogant, proud, haughty, insolent, lofty, contemptuous, proudly great\nArroger - to arrogate, claim, assume unjustly, exhibit unjust claims\n\nART, ASC\nArroi - train, retinue, equipage, attendance\nArrondir - to make round, increase, train a horse to uniform action\nS'arrondir - to grow round, enlarge, accumulate, collect\nArrondissement - soundness, rounding, smoothness, harmony, district, ward\nArrosage - irrigation, supply of water, moisture to consolidate substances\nArrosement, small watering; stake, payment.\nArroer, to water, damp, moisten; irrigate, wash, run through; basle, sprinkle, bathe; bestow money; pay a fine.\nArrosion, gnawing, (of bones).\nArrosoir, watering-pot; watering-cart.\nArrudlv, to tow the rude, uncivil, barbarous, uncivilized.\nArs, veins or legs of a horse.\nArsenal, repository of things necessary for war; fortified town, magazine; dockyard.\nArsenic, mineral substance, violent corrosive poison.\nArsenical, containing arsenic, poisonous.\nArsin, accidental burning of standing trees.\nArsis, strong fiery wine; elevation.\narts: the voice at the beginning of a verse or line.\nart: power; science, skill; dexterity, ability; trade, handicraft; cunning, deceit, trick, device.\nmasters of arts: meytr-ey-zahre.\naris-tibarou: ahre-le-bai-roe, liberal arts, arts connected with science.\nmechanical arts: arts mecaniques, ahre-mai-kah-nesk.\nfine arts: arts (les beaux), ley-boe-zahre.\nArtemie: ar-tai-mee, perfect health, freedom from pain or sickness.\nantery: An6re, ar-tn^re, artery, vein conveying the vital spirits from the heart; pulse.\narterial: Artriel.-le, ar-tai-ryeU, adj. relating to the artery, contained in the artery.\narteriole: arteriole, ar-lai-ryoll, small artery, capillary vein.\narteriotomy: arteriotomie, ar-tai-ryo-to-mee.\nartery: letting blood from, cutting of\narthritis: disease in joints; excessive pain\narthritic, gouty, ill of the gout: arthritique, re-athig\nartichoke: artichaul, esculent vegetable\nartichoke field: Artichauti\u00e8re\narticle: term, part of speech, clause, point, joint, thing, matter\narticle at the point of death: Article de la mort\narticular: belonging to joints\narticulation: joint of bones, formation of words, joints in plants, swelling\narticulate, disarticulate, clear: Articuls, articulate, disarticulate\narticulate, pronounce distinctly, draw up in articles, circumstantial\nartifice, trade, industry; dexterity, cunning, skill; trick, fraud, stratagem\nartifice (feu d'): fireworks, pyrotechnics, of fireworks\nartificiel: artificial, made by art, fictitious, artful, contrived with skill\nartificiellement: artificially, artfully, with skill, by art, with good contrivance\nanificier: maker of fireworks\nartificieusement: cunningly, craftily, artfully, slyly, with deceit, fraud\nartificieux: artful, cunning, crafty, sly, deceitful, trickish, subtle, full of artifice\nartille: fortified, mounted with artillery\nArtillerian, a worker, artillery worker.\n\u2022Artillery, artillery, n. artillery, cannon, great ordnance; weapons of war.\nArtillerist, artillery man, gunner.\nCannonier, engineer managing the cannon.\nArtillon, mizen, n. mast in the stern of a ship.\nArtisan, artisan, n. manufacturer, mechanic, low tradesman.\nArtisan, wood-louse, n. (insect with numerous feet).\nArisona, worm-eaten, adj. old.\nArtist, n. artist, professor of an art, skilled man, artificer.\nArtistic, adj. skillfully, with art.\nArticle, n.\nArtist dramatic, actor, actress, performer, comedian, stage player.\nArtistically, adv.\nArticle, poultice, cataplasm of bread and honey.\nartonique, adj. of making bread:\nart of making bread.\n\nartonomique, art of making bread.\n\nartre, s. kingfisher, a species of bird.\n\narusice, sm. soothsayer, diviner from the smoking entrails of sacrifices.\n\narnspicine, sf. divination by the entrails of animals (see oh4, tab. &c).\n\nAs, auss. sm. ace; Roman weight and coin; Dutch reaure.\n\nAsaphie, sf. hoarseness, roughness of voice.\n\nA$votou, ah-zotong, sm. mosaic pavement, floor composed of small painted tiles.\n\nAsheste, ass-best, sm. asbestos, an incombustible fossil stone.\n\nAscarides, ass-kak-rid, smp. ascarides, little intestinal worms.\n\nascendance, sf. ascendancy, superiority, power, influence.\n\nascendant, sm. superiority, influence.\nascendant, height, elevation, power, inclination, disposition; good luck; superior, predominant, overpowering; above the horizon.\n\nascendants, ancestors, father, mother, &c.\n\nascension, rise, elevation; visible ascension of our Saviour in heaven, ascension day.\n\nascensionnal, ak-sang-syo-nell, ascensional difference.\n\nascetic, hermit, anchoret, recluse.\n\nascetic, devotional, religious, pious, employed wholly in exercises of religion.\n\nascians, inhabitants of the torri zone.\n\nascites, abdominal dropsy.\nswelling of the lover's belly.\n\nAscites, adj. ascetic, ascetical, droptic, hydropic.\nAscyrum, sm. St. John's wort; milfoil; yarrow.\nAsylum, sm. asylum, sanctuary, refuge; habitation, retreat, shelter; protector, defender, patron.\nAsine, adj. \u2014 Bete asine, beyte ahzin, sf. ass; blockhead, stupid fellow, dolt.\nAspe, sm. reel, turning frame to wind yarn into skeins from the spindle.\nAspect, sm. aspect, look, air, appear-ance, countenance; prospect, view, glance; direction, relation, disposition of planets.\nAsperge, sm. asparagus, an esculent plant.\nAsperge, va. 1 r. to asperse, besprinkle, bedrop, bedew.\nAspergilles, sm. holy-water-sprinkler, ceremony, moment, anthem of the aspersion of the holy water.\nasperity: roughness, hardness, sharpness, austerity, sourness, ill-breeding, rudeness\naspersi\u00f3n: aspersion, sprinkling, scattering drops of water\naspersorium: aspersoir, small brush to sprinkle holy water\nasphalt: asphaltos, bitumen, unctuous matter dug out of the earth or scummed off lakes\nasphodel: asphodelus, day lily\nasphyxiation: asphyxie, sudden privation of every vital sense, motion, breathing, pulsation\nasphyxiated: asphyxi\u00e9, deprived of every sense of life\nasphyxiate: asphyxier, to strike with a sudden privation of motion, feeling, and pulsation\nto asphyxiate oneself: s'asphyxier, to bring upon oneself a total privation of every sense\naspic: jelly made from collagen, calumny, slander\nAspic - language of, long tongue, back-bitter, slanderer.\nAspirant - ass-perant, small candidate, competitor; probationer; novice.\nAspirant, -e, ass-pe-rant, -t, adj. rising by succession, attraction.\nAspirante, ass-pc-rant, probationer, novice.\nAspirative, -ve, asspe-rah-tive, -v, adj. aspirate, pronounced with full breath.\nAspiration, ass-pe-rah-tion, n. desire; suction; pronunciation of a letter with full breath.\nAspirer, ass-pe-raier, v. 1 r. to aspirate, draw breath; breathe, blow; attract, suck up; pronounce with full breath.\nAspirer, k, ass-pe-raier, v. 1 r. to aspire, seek, covet, desire eagerly, aim at, thirst after.\nAspre, aspr, Turkish silver coin, value half a crown.\nAssa, ah-sa, medicinal juice, resinous gum.\nAssa-doux, ah-sak-dou, benzoin, medicinal.\nresin from the East-Indies.\nAssafetida, ah-sa-fe-tida. small assafetida,\nbitter resin with the taste of garlic.\nAssament, Qh-sa-hluh-mang, small sand bank,\nheap of sand.\nAssaler, ah-sa-blay, v. 1 r. to fill, choke up\nwith sand.\nS'assaler, s' ah-sa-blay, vref. to sink in, be covered with; run aground, remain fixed in\nthe sand.\nAssagir, ah-sa-hjeer, v. 2 r. to make wise, impart practical knowledge, give experience.\nS'assagir, s' ah-sa-hjeer ^vref. to become wise, acquire, gain, experience.\nAssailant, ah-sa-yang, n. assailant, aggressor, assaulter; challenger; besieger.\nAssail, ak-sa-yel, v. 2 irr. to assail, attack, assault, fall upon; surprise.\nAssain, ah-sa-neer, v. 2 r. to render wholesome, salubrious; purify by draining marshlands,\nS 'assain, s^ ah-sa-neer , vref. to grow or become wholesome, enjoy better health.\nAssainissement, small term for purification of the air; enjoyment of health.\nAssaisonnement, small term for seasoning, ingredients, relish, sauce, dressing conditionment.\nAssaisonner, to season, give a rehsh, qualify, mix, soften, sweeten, set off.\nAssaisonneur, seasoner; batterer.\nAssaisonneuse, seasoner; wheedler, cajoler.\nAssaki, title of the favorite sultana of the grand seignior.\nAssaliment, saltness, prohibition of watering cattle in salt marshes.\nAssalir, to salt, impregnate with salt; make salt.\nAssassin, assassin, murderer; cruel person, villain.\nAssassin, murderous, cruel; killing.\nAssassine, murderess; cruel woman, assassin.\nassassin, -ant, dh-as-sass-an, -t, adjective. weary, some, troublesome, tiresome, fatiguing.\n\nassassinat, ah-sas-sin-at, noun. assassination, murder, willful murder, villainy.\n\nassassinateur, ah-sas-sin-at-eur, noun. assassinator, murderer, man-killer.\n\nassassiner, ah-sas-sin-er, verb. 1. to assassinate, murder, kill, waylay, take by treachery; ill-use, outrage, vex, tire, plague; kill game.\n\nassation, ah-sas-syon, noun. assassination, roasting, stewing in its own juice.\n\nassaut, ah-soo, noun. assault, storm, onset, violence, invasion, hostility, attack, shock, trial, surprise, struggle.\n\nErapper une ville d'assaut, to carry a town by storm.\n\nass\u00e8che, i/i-sa-she, verb. 1. to dry up, drain, leave dry, become dry, acclimate.\n\nassassinage, ah-sm-ku-syon-age, noun. assassination, extremity; oblation of a living.\n\nassesseur, ah-say-zur, noun. assessor, director or imposer of taxes.\nAssemblage: a gathering, collection, medley, confused heap, mixture, union, jumble, meeting.\n\nAssemble: to assemble, assembly, company; meet together, ball, convention, meeting, congress; beat of drum, meeting place.\n\nAssemblement: assembly, meeting, gathering of persons.\n\nAssembler: one who assembles, collects, joins, convenes; sews.\n\nS'assembler: to meet, assemble; join, unite, associate, meet together.\n\nAssembleur: collector, sorter.\n\nAssene: to hit, strike, apply, not to miss, attain, reach.\n\nAssentiment: assentment, consent, approbation, willingness; scent.\n\nAssent: to assent, consent, concede, yield to; scent, perceive by the nose.\nAsseoir: to set, place, assess, fix, settle, pitch, judge, ground.\nS'asseoir: to sit down, sit, rest, remain, fix one's self; perch, roost.\nAssoir (faire): to make one sit down, detain.\nAssermenter: to put to an oath, declare upon oath, obtest by an oath.\nS'assermenter: to swear, take an oath, promise upon oath, give evidence upon oath.\nAsserteur: assertor, maintainer, affirmer; vindicator, defender.\nAssertion: assertion, affirmation, asseveration: proposition, position.\nAsservir: to subject, enslave, bring into subjection; conquer, subdue, overcome.\nAsservissement: slavery, bondage, servitude, subjection, loss of liberty.\nassessor, assistant, second partner, belonging to an assessor, assessorial, diligent, constant, continual, close, sedulous, assiduity, diligence, constancy, application, closeness, attendance, continual care.\nassiduously, diligently, constantly, with close application.\nassistant, -e, as-siege-ant, -?, adj. besieging; tedious, wearisome, troublesome, disagreeable.\nassiegeants, ah-si-ege-ants, noun. besiegers; duns, creditors; bumbaiftees.\nassidger, ah-si-dger, verb. 1. to besiege, lay siege to, beset, shut up, surround. tease, harass, tire, fatigue.\nassieges, ah-si-dges, noun. the besieged.\nassiento, as-si-en-to, noun. assignment, importation of slaves in America.\nassientiste, as-si-en-tist, noun. shareholder in the importation trade of America.\nassiette, ah-si-et-te, noun. setting, position, disposal; assessment; seat; layer; ground; fund; temper; plate.\nassiette h. mouchettes, ah-si-et-te-ah-moo-shets, noun. snuffers, pan or tray.\nassignable, ah-sing-yable, adjective. assignable, that may be assigned, determined with precision.\nAssignat - assignment; French paper money issued in 1789 and recalled in 1796.\nAssignation - appointment, summon, citation, rendezvous.\nAssigner - to assign, make over; summon, cite; indicate, appoint, show, fix, mark.\nAssimilation - assimilation, similitude, likeness, resemblance.\nAssimiler - to assimilate, liken, bring to a resemblance; compare.\nAssimile - like, resembling; having resemblance; comparable.\nAssimilation - counterfeiting, dissimulation, hypocrisy.\nAssise - layer of stones; (in buildings) reel.\nAssises - assizes, circuit, session, criminal court; assize (of bread).\nAssistance - assistance, help.\nassistant, aid, audience, presence, assembly, congregation\nassistant, helper, auxiliary, adjutor, attendant\nassistant, assistant, acfj, help, iug, lending aid, present\nassembly, congregation; auditory, persons assembled to hear\nAssistante, assistant, nun that assists the abbess\nAssister, help, attend, accompany\nAssister, be at, be present, assist, hear, attend, colleague\nS'assister, help oneself; assist, aid, succour one another\nAssociation, association, union, society, conjunction\nassociate, partner, companion, confederate; associate, conjunction\n\nNote: The text appears to be a list of words and their definitions, likely from an old dictionary or glossary. The text has been cleaned by removing unnecessary characters, such as punctuation and special characters, and by standardizing the spelling of words. However, some words have multiple definitions, which have been left as separate entries to preserve the original meaning.\nassociates, ah-so-syai, v. 1. to associate, admit, unite; accompany, fit, match.\nS'associer, s'ak-so-syai, vref. to enter into a partnership; frequent, visit, keep company with.\nAssolement, ah-sol-mang, n. fallow, fallowness, state of being fallow, order, succession.\nAssoler, ah-so-lai, v. 1. to fallow, leave to rest after the years of tillage, lie at rest.\nAssombrir, cJi-song-breer, v. 2. to gloom, darken, obscure; sadden; make melancholic; sully.\nS'assombrir, s'ah-song-hreer. vref. to become or grow gloomy, melancholic; dim, obscure.\nAssommaut, -e, ah-so-mang, -t, adj. excessively painful; wearisome, tiresome, tedious, insupportable.\nAssommer, ah-so-mai, v. 1. to knock down, fell, destroy, kill cruelly; afflict, fatigue, tire, tease.\nTex, incomprehend.\nASS\nAST\nAssommoir, ah-soo-moo-ar, n. bludgeon, short.\nassumption, thing supposed, postulate, assumption, rhyme, assonant, resembling the sound of one another, conform in sound, paired, matched, aortment, match, set, suit, stock, collection, to assort, join, match, supply, sort, stock, store, choose, select, put in order, to suit, match, agree with, be matched.\nAssortissant, an adj. pairing, matching, suiting, fitting, conform.\nAssortissoir, a sieve, for sugar plums.\nAssortissoire, a sorting box, box containing a sortment of things.\nAssote, an adj. assoted, foolishly fond, infatuated.\nAssoter, to assot, infatuate, rack, fool.\nS'assoter, to dot foolishly upon, form a foolish attachment.\nAssoupir, to make sleepy, lull to sleep; mitigate, suspend, appease, suppress; stifle, quiet, hush, deaden.\nS'assoupir, to grow, or feel sleepy, drowse, slumber, nap, be drowsy.\nAssoupissant, adj. sleepy, drowsy, causing sleep, lethargic; stupid, dull.\nAssoupissement, sm. drowsiness, heaviness, slumber; carelessness, negligence; suppression.\nassouplir, to supply, make pliant, soft, flexible, compliant, ductile, tractable.\ns'assouplir, to bend, grow supple, flexible, tractable.\nj^ssourdir, to deafen, stun, make deaf; darken, keep down.\nfixssourdir, to deafen, grow deaf.\nassouvir, to satiate, satisfy, fill, gratify, glut.\ns'assouvir, to glut upon, devour; satisfy; delight in.\nAssoiisement. aji-sooviss-mang, voraciousness, inordinate desire, gratificational brutal delight.\nassujettir, to subject, fix, reduce to submission, subdue, constrict, expose, make liable.\ns'assujettir, to submit, be subservient, subject, bind one's self to.\nassujettissant, slavish.\nassujettissement, submission, compliance, assiduity, slavishness, oblation, constraint, dependence, assurance, confidence, trust, firmness, steadiness, boldness, security, insurance, assure, proprietor exempt from loss by insurance, assured, certain, surs, confident, bold, impudent, immodest, assurance, assuredly, certainly, indubitably, boldly, impudently, sure enough, assurer, to assure, support, secure, make sure, ensure, imbolden, encourage, make fast, affirm, attest.\nassure, v. to assure oneself, make sure, be sure, bespeak, secure, seize upon (obsolete 4.)\nassurance, n. insurance, exemption from hazard (obsolete 4.)\nassurer, n. assurer, insurer, underwriter (obsolete 4.)\nAstle, n. splint, bolster, compress for a wound.\nAstreomatre, n. astrometer, instrument to calculate the rising and setting of the stars.\nasterism, n. asterism, constellation, assemblage of splendors.\nasterisk, n. asterisk, star, mark in printing; plant.\nAsthenia, n. asthenia, extreme debility, weakness.\nasthmatical, adj. asthmatical, short-breathed, troubled with asthma.\nasthma, n. asthma, short breath, frequent and difficult respiration.\nastic, n. polisher, tool made of wood.\nbone to polish.\nAsticoter, ass-te-ko-lai, va. 1 r. to vex, tease, plague, contradict (for trifles).\nAstour, ass-toor, sm. discount, deduction, suia refunded in a bargain.\nAstragale, ass-trah-gal, sm. astragal, little round moulding, ring at the top and bottom of a column; sham liquorice.\nA3tral,-e, ah-strcl, adj. astral, starry, of the stars, relating to the stars.\nAstre, astr, sm. star, brilliant light; great character, beauty, or genius.\nAstre du jour, astr-doo-hjoor, sm. sun, great luminary, (vide obs. 4.)\nAstre de la nuit^ astr-dlah-noo-e, sm. moon, luminary of the night.\nAstreindre, asa-traingdr, va. 4 irr. to constrain, force, compel, subject; confine, press, bind, tie up.\nS 'astreindre, s^ass-traingdr, vref. to bind, lie, subject, confine one's self to; to slick to.\nAstriction, ass-trick-syong , sf. astrictiun, contraction, binding up.\nastringent, adjective: binding, contracting.\nastrolabe, noun: instrument for determining the positions of celestial bodies, cross-staff, quadrant.\nastrolatry, noun: worship, adoration of the stars.\nastrology, noun: knowledge of the stars, divination.\nastrological, adjective: relating to astrology; professing astrology.\nastrologer, noun: diviner by the stars; foreteller, predicator.\nastroromancy, noun: divination, prediction, by the stars.\nastronomer, noun: observer of celestial bodies and their motions.\nastronomy, noun: science of celestial bodies.\nastronomical, adjective: belonging to astronomy.\nastronomically, adverb: in an astronomical manner.\ncunning, art, skill, knowledge, craft, asliciously, cunningly, artfully, craftily, adjective, cunning, artistic, sly, deceitful, subtle\nasylum, sanctuary, refuge, retreat, shelter, protector, patron, defender\nasymmetry, disproportion\nasymptote, right line that never meets a curve\nasyndeton, omission of a copulative conjunction\nMoorish drum, labor used by the Moors\npulverable copper or brass\nataraxy, tranquility, ease, exemption from vexation, peace of mind\nirregular fever, irregular paroxysm.\nirregular, deviating, not confined to.\nworkshop, workmen; artists' room; manufactory.\ndelay of payment, instalment, payments made at different times.\nto prolong the time of payment already due.\nnote due delayed for payment.\nto gain time to pay instalments due.\nathanor, digesting furnace, producing various degrees of heat at the same time.\natheist, denier of the existence of God.\ndisbelief of God.\nimpisious, irreligious, godless.\nAthene, Athenian. sf. Glass vase for flowers, fish, &c. Smelling bottle, bracket.\n\nAthermasles, akiarmos, rv. Excessive heat, morbid heal, morbific temperature.\n\nAlhome, athrome. sm. Atheroma, wen, calulous excrescence.\n\nAthlete, athlet. sm. Wrestler, fighter, prize-fighter, master-wrestler.\n\nAthleique, athletic. adj. Athletic, strong, vigorous, lusty; robust.\n\nAtinter, atins, va. 1 r. To dress, deck, adorn with too much affectation.\n\nS'atinter, gahingtai, vref. To dress one's self too affectedly.\n\nAtlante, atlant. sm. Atlas, fissure of a man bearing a burden; supporter of a building.\n\nAtlantique, atlantick, adj. Atlantic, Western.\n\nAtlas, atlas. sm. Atlas, collection of maps, large square folio; Indian satin.\n\nAimosphare, atmosophare. sf. Atmosphere, air surrounding the earth; circumambient air.\natmospherical, of the atmosphere\nsterility, bareness, unfruitfulness\npap made of Indian corn\natom, minute object, indivisible particle, corpuscle\natomist, studier of atoms\nweakness, debility; relaxation of the fibers\nthrough and through, inconsiderately, thoughtlessly, at random\ndress, ornament (of a woman)\nmaid of honor\nto attire, dress, set off, ornament\ntrump, winning point\nmelancholic, hypochondriacal\nhypochondria\nAtrabile, airoliciousness, melancholy. Atrabilious, affected with melancholy. Ati-amentaire, vitriol stone, sulphate of iron. A travers, through, across. Atre, hearth, fireplace; domestic fort. Atroce, atrocious, enormous, inhuman, cruel, ferocious. Atrocement, atrociously, inhumanly, ferociously. Atrocity, horrible wickedness, cruelty, barbarity, ferocity, heinousness. Atrophie, atrophy, wasting, want of nourishment. Atabler, to set one at table, keep long. S'attabler, to sit long at table, play, continue, stop.\nattachment, n. alluring, appealing, agreeable, engaging, endearing, pleasing.\nattachment, n. attachment, affection, regard, love; attention, devotedness, affection, zeal.\nattacher, v. to attach, tie, join, apply; endear; allure; fix, affix; depend, engage; attract.\nsaucker, v. to stick to: follow, pursue; conceive a regard, love for; evoke, strive; give oneself up to.\nattackable, adj. that may be attacked, encountered, opposed.\nattackers, n. besiegers, attackers, assailants, aggressors.\nattack, assault, siege, insult, rub, fit, aggression, quarrel, provoke, attempt, fall upon, offend, challenge, insult, blame, set upon, find fault with, begin late, reach, touch, hit, strike, catch, equal, come to, arrive at, arraigned, afflicted, charged with, impeached, reach, blow, attack, impression, maim, stroke, pang, fit, grief, pain.\n\nattack, assault, besiege, quarrel, insult, provoke, attempt, fall upon, offend, challenge, insult, blame, set upon, find fault with, begin late.\n\nattain, procure, gain, reach, overtake, touch, hit, strike, catch, equal, come to.\n\nattain, arrive at, reach, come to (a thing).\n\narraigned, afflicted, charged with, impeached.\n\nreach, blow, attack, impression, maim, stroke, pang, fit, grief, pain.\nDonner: something old, to injure. I am out of his reach.\n\nAttelage: set of horses, harness; equipment; team.\n\nAtelier: to harness, put horses or other beasts to any vehicle.\n\nAttelle: splint; handle of a tool, publisher, potter's tool.\n\nAtteloire: peg, pin; bolt, hasel.\n\nAttenant: adjoining, bordering upon, next, neighboring.\n\nAttenant: next to, near, close to, at no great distance.\n\nAttendant: in the meantime, until then, until.\n\nAtlendre: to expect, wait for, tarry, look out, hope for, delay, defer.\n\nAttendre: to wait, stay, put off, delay.\n\nS'attendre: to reckon upon.\nlook for, rely on, depend on, expect, trust\nto move to pity, affect, soften, mollify\nto be moved, affected, commiserate, compassionate\naffecting, moving, exciting pity, moving to compassion\ntenderness; commiseration, pity, sensibility, affection\nin consideration of, on account of\nseeing that, because, considering that, as, whereas\nattempt, deed; crime, outrage, misdeed, infringement\nunlawful, illegal, criminal, outrageous\nexpectation, hope, longing; trust; fear; dependence, confidence, reliance\nAttempt, n. 1. To attempt, attempt, venture, try, endeavor.\nAttentive, adj. Attentive, mindful, heedful, regardful, intent, tentative, anxious.\nAttention, n. Attention, care, consideration; regard, notice; application, attentiveness.\nAttentively, adv. Attentively, carefully, with application.\nAttenuant, adj. Attenuant, diminishing; weakening, thinning, diluent.\nAttenuating, adj. Attenuating, making thin or slender, diluting, reducing.\nAttenuation, n. Attenuation, debility, feebleness; plea, excuse, palliation, pulverization.\nAttenuate, v. To attenuate, weaken, diminish, dilute, dissolve; palliate, extenuate.\nAtterage, at-ta-rage. n. Landing platform, landing.\nK'^\u20ac^CQr, a-tai-rae, va. 1. To throw down; crush, destroy; deject, overwhelm, discourage.\nAtterrir, a-ta-ter-rir, vn. 2. To land, disembark, go to land, gain land.\nAtterrissement, at-ter-ris-se-ment, n. Accumulation of sand, alluvion, accretion of sand by seawash.\nAttestation, a-tes-ta-tion, n. Attestation, testimony, confirmation, evidence; certificate.\nAttestation sous serment, a-tes-ta-tion-soo-se-mang, n. Affidavit, declaration under oath.\nAttester, a-tis-ta-er, v. 1. To attest, certify, aver, call to witness, swear.\nAtticisrae, a-the-sis-rae, n. Atticism, Attic style, concise and elegant mode of expression, elegance of taste or behaviour.\nAttic urges, ak-te-kur-jee, pl. Pilasters, square columns.\nAttie'cUr, a-tye-de-ur, v. 2. To cool, refrigerate.\nallay the heat; render careless, negligent, supine, inactive,\nS'attie'dir, s'' ah-tyai-deer, vref. to begin to cool, grow cold, be less vehement, passionate; become indifferent, supine,\nAttiedissement, ah-tyai-diss-mang, sm. abatement of passion; lukewarmness, indifference, want of ardor.\nAttifer, ah-te-fai, va. 1 r, to trim, dress, adorn, deck, ornament (the head).\nS'attifer, s'ak-te-fai, vref. to trim, deck, decorate, one's hair with affected care.\nAttifet, ah-te-fay, sm. head-dress, ornament for the hair, trinkets.\nAttique, a.^-ZzcA-, sm. attic story, flat with the roof concealed, upper story.\nAttique, ah-tick, adj. Altic, delicate, poignant, just, upright.\nAtiiquement, ah-tick-mang, ad. after the manner of the Athenians,\nAttirail, aJi-te-rah-yuh, sm. train, implements, luggage, dress, equipage; attendants, suite.\nAttirant, -e, ah-te-rang, -t, adj. attractive, inviting.\nAttirer: to attract, draw, allure, invite; occasion, bring, procure; excite, raise\nTo attract the heart, to win\nS'attirer: to gain, win, obtain; incur, bring upon one's self or head\nAttiser: to bring or put on fuel, kindle, set a burning\nA.iiserlefeu: to stir the fire; kindle, inflame, stir up, excite, alarm, irritate the mind\nAttiseur: he who stirs the fire; inciter, instigator, stirrer up, promoter of quarrels\nAttiseuse: she who stirs the fire; stirrer up, inciter, instigator of quarrels\nAttisoir: poker, iron bar to stir the fire\nAttitre: usual, habitual; posted, appointed\nAitiirer: to name, appoint\nattitude, altitude, Aitolies, AtioLichenteant, Atoucher, Aubereiste, ca-track-fong, cueracksyonnaire, Aiiracicci, Attraire\n\ndefinition:\nattitude: posture, situation, position, motion of the body\naltitude: height\nAitolies: cluster of small islands\nAtioLichenteant: touch, touching, feeling, related\nAtoucher: related\nAubereiste: lady, inn-keeper, host, hostess\nca-track-fong: attractive\nAuberou: key of a lock\nv. _dl.zr-meiu, eauc-emeQt: white haxel-tree, soft\ncu'i-irack-syonnaire: pard\n\nmeaning:\ncommission: place in ambush, bribe, suborn, keep under covert\nattitude: posture, situation, position, motion of the body (refer to observation 4)\naltitude: height\nAitolies: cluster of small islands close to one another\nAtioLichenteant: touch, touching, feeling, related\nAtoucher: related to someone\nAUB: unknown\nAUG: unknown\nAurartif: attractive\nAubereiste: lady, inn-keeper, host, hostess\nca-track-fong: attractive\nAuberou: key of a lock\nv. _dl.zr-meiu, eauc-emeQt: white haxel-tree, soft\nAubier: white haxel-tree, soft\ncu'i-irack-syonnaire: pard\n\nTherefore, the cleaned text is: attitude, altitude, Aitolies, AtioLichenteant, Atoucher, Aubereiste, ca-track-fong, Auberou, v. _dl.zr-meiu, eauc-emeQt, Aubier, cu'i-irack-syonnaire.\nAttraction, irregular, includes: to attract, draw, entice, allure, bait.\nAttraction, noun, synonyms: inclination, love, affection, influence, bait.\nAttractions, plural, synonyms: charms, beauty, graces, attractions.\nAtrap, verb, past participle: gin, ear; seize, lay hold, snatch, reach, decrease, trick, steal, get, receive, iraxai.\nAtraper, noun, synonyms: deceler, imposter, cheater, canning fellow.\nAtrapease, noun, synonyms: deceiver, intriguer, wheedler, artful woman.\nAttrapoire, noun, synonyms: trap, snare, trick, bait, device, deceit, canning.\nAiirayasii, adjective, synonyms: attractive, alluring, pleasing, lovely, charming, inspiring love.\nAtemper, ah-temper, za. 1. To temper, mirror, form metals to a proper degree of hardness.\nAitribar. a, ak-tre-bar-Da. 1. To attribute, attach; annex: refer, impute; think, believe, as-sare. (videobs.4.)\nS'aitrlbar, s'aji-iTe-hoo-ai, rref. To appropriate, ascribe to one's self; assume, claim, take upon one's self, (vide 4.)\nAitribnt, ah-tre-bin-t, sm. Attribune; symbol, perfection: appeadat: reputation, honor, emblem.\nAtiribulif, esA-tre-bo-lif-s, adj. Attributable, scribable; impotable, (vide A.)\nAttribution, ah-tre-boo-syo-log, sf. Attribution, commendation, concession. priveleg: allowance: privilege, (vide 4.)\nAttri tanC, ah'Lriss-tas-ig-t.